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title: "Comparison of content-control software and providers"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_content-control_software_and_providers"
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This is a list of content-control software and services. The software is designed to control what content may or may not be viewed by a reader, especially when used to restrict material delivered over the Internet via the Web, e-mail, or other means. Restrictions can be applied at various levels: a government can apply them nationwide, an ISP can apply them to its clients, an employer to its personnel, a school to its teachers or students, a library to its patrons or staff, a parent to a child's computer or computer account or an individual to his or her own computer.
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== Programs and services ==
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== Providers ==
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== See also ==
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Accountability software
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Ad filtering
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Computer surveillance
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Deep packet inspection
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Deep content inspection
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Internet censorship
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Internet safety
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Parental controls
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Wordfilter
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== References ==
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title: "Computer humour"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_humour"
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Computer humour, also known as hacker humour, is humour on the subject of computers or their users.
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== Examples ==
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Examples of computer humour include:
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"Any key", taken to mean pressing the (non-existent) "Any" key rather than any key
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April Fools' Day Request for Comments
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Bastard Operator From Hell, a fictional rogue computer operator
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Blinkenlights, a neologism for diagnostic lights
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Bogosort, a portmanteau of the words bogus and sort
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COMEFROM, an obscure programming language control flow structure, originally as a joke
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"The Complexity of Songs", a journal article published by computer scientist Donald Knuth in 1977 as an in-joke about computational complexity theory
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The Computer Contradictionary, a non-fiction book by Stan Kelly-Bootle that compiles a satirical list of definitions of computer industry terms
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The Daily WTF, a humorous blog dedicated to "Curious Perversions in Information Technology"
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Dilbert, an American comic strip
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Easter egg, an intentional inside joke, hidden message or image, or secret feature of a work
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List of Google Easter eggs
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List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products
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The Book of Mozilla
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Elephant in Cairo, in computer programming, a piece of data inserted at the end of a search space, which matches the search criteria, in order to make sure the search algorithm terminates; it is a humorous example of a sentinel value
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Epigrams on Programming, a humorous article by Alan Perlis in 1982.
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Evil bit, a fictional IPv4 packet header field
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Eyeball search, humorous terminology
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FINO (first in, never out) (sometimes seen as "FISH", for first in, still here), a humorous scheduling algorithm, as opposed to traditional first in, first out (FIFO) and last in, first out (LIFO)
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Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO), the concept that flawed, or nonsense input data produces nonsense output
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J. Random Hacker, an arbitrary programmer (hacker)
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Halt and Catch Fire (HCF), an idiom referring to a computer machine code instruction that causes the computer's CPU to cease meaningful operation
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Hex, a fictional computer featured in the Discworld novels by Terry Pratchett
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Hexspeak, like leetspeak, a novelty form of spelling using the hexadecimal digits
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Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol (HTCPCP), a facetious communication protocol for controlling, monitoring, and diagnosing coffee pots
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Interactive EasyFlow, a diagramming and flow charting software package that included a humorous software licence This is where the bloodthirsty licensing agreement is supposed to go...
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Internet Oracle, an effort at collective humor in a pseudo-Socratic question-and-answer format
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IP over Avian Carriers, a joke proposal to carry IP traffic by birds such as homing pigeons
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It's Geek 2 Me, a tech cartoon
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Jargon File, a glossary and usage dictionary of slang used by computer programmers
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The Joy of Tech, a webcomic
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Kitchen Table International, a fictitious computer company
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Kremvax, originally a fictitious Usenet site at the Kremlin, named like the then large number of Usenet VAXen with names of the form "foovax"
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lp0 on fire (also known as Printer on Fire), is an outdated error message generated on some Unix and Unix-like computer operating systems in response to certain types of printer errors
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Magic smoke (also factory smoke, blue smoke, angry pixies, or the genie), a humorous name for the caustic smoke produced by burning out electronic circuits or components
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Ninety–ninety rule: "the first 90% of the code accounts for the first 90% of the development time. The remaining 10% of the code accounts for the other 90% of the development time"
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Null device, in programmer jargon, the bit bucket or black hole
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PC LOAD LETTER or PC LOAD A4, a printer error message that has entered popular culture as a technology meme referring to a confusing or inappropriate error message
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Slowsort, a humorous, not useful, sorting algorithm
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The Tao of Programming, a 1987 book by Geoffrey James
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TPS report, Testing Procedure Specification, has come to mean pointless, mindless paperwork
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User error, an error made by the human user of a complex system. Related slang terms include PMAC ("problem exists between monitor and chair"), identity error or ID-10T/1D-10T error ("idiot error"), PICNIC ("problem in chair, not in computer"), IBM error ("idiot behind machine error")
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User Friendly, a former daily webcomic
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Working Daze, a comic strip
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Write-only memory (joke)
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xkcd, a webcomic
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Zaltair, a fictional computer created by Steve Wozniak
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== See also ==
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Computational humor, a branch of computational linguistics and artificial intelligence which uses computers in humor research
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Humor on the internet
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Mathematical joke
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Geek
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Esoteric programming language
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List of humorous units of measurement
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-0.md
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title: "Equine coat color"
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Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings. A specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them.
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While most horses remain the same coat color throughout life, some undergo gradual color changes as they age. Most white markings are present at birth, and the underlying skin color of a healthy horse does not change. Certain coat colors are also associated with specific breeds, such as the Friesian, which is almost exclusively black.
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The basic outline of equine coat color genetics has largely been resolved, and DNA tests to determine the likelihood that a horse will have offspring of a given color have been developed for some colors. Discussion, research, and even controversy continue about some of the details, particularly those surrounding spotting patterns, color sub-shades such as "sooty" or "flaxen", and markings.
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== Basic coat colors ==
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The two basic pigment colors of horse hairs are pheomelanin ("red"), which produces a reddish brown color, and eumelanin, which produces black. These two hair pigment genes create two base colors: chestnut, which is fully red, and black, which is fully black.
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All other coat colors are created by additional genes that modify these two base colors. The most common modifier creates point coloration of both red and black hairs, known as bay, which is classified as a base color as well. The vast range of all other coat colors are created by additional genes' action upon one of these three base colors.
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Chestnut/Sorrel: A red coat with no black. The mane and tail are the same shade of chestnut or lighter chestnut than the body coat. The main color variations are:
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Liver Chestnut: very dark red chestnut coat. Sometimes a liver chestnut is also simply called "brown".
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Light Chestnut: seldom-used term for a pale chestnut coat, mane, and tail
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Flaxen Chestnut: Any shade of chestnut, with a significantly lighter mane and tail
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Black: Black is relatively uncommon, though it is not "rare". There may be two types of black: fading black and non-fading black. Many, though not all, black horses will fade to a brownish color if the horse is exposed to sunlight regularly. This may be due to nutrition or genetics. Some horses appear to have a non-fading black coat that does not fade in the sun. Most black foals are usually born a mousy grey color resembling grullo. As their foal coat begins to shed out, their black color will show through. For a horse to be considered black, it must be completely black except for white markings. A sun-bleached black horse is still called a black horse, even though it may appear to be a dark bay or brown. A visible difference between a black and a dark chestnut or bay is seen in the fine hairs around the eyes and muzzle. On a black these hairs are black, even if the horse is sun-bleached; on other colors, they will be lighter. The hairs around the coronet band of the hoof will be black on a black horse, but on a chestnut (no matter the shade) they will always be red.
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Bay: Body color ranges from a light reddish-brown to rich chocolate brown with black points: the mane, tail, lower legs, and tips of the ears. The terminology for various color variations are:
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Dark Bay: a dark brown or dark reddish-brown coat with black points, difficult to distinguish from seal brown. Sometimes also called "black bay" or "mahogany bay."
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Blood Bay/Red Bay: a bright red chestnut coat with black points
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Brown: The word "brown" is used by some breed registries to describe dark bays. Informally, "brown" is applied to many distinct coat colors. Most often, horses described by casual observers as "brown" are actually bay or chestnut.
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In the absence of DNA testing, chestnut and bay can be distinguished from each other by looking at the mane, tail and legs for the presence of black points. There is a proposed allele that darkens a bay coat to seal brown, and the sooty gene is linked to other forms of dark bay.
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Genetically, a chestnut horse is a horse without the ability to produce black pigment, while a black horse does not have dominant agouti to restrict their black pigment to points. The MC1R (extension) either binds alpha-MSH and signals for black and red pigment to be produced ('E' at extension), or it only signals for red ('e' at extension). ASIP (agouti) either blocks MC1R from binding to alpha-MSH and signaling for black ('A' at agouti), or it does not ('a' at agouti). The extension gene determines whether the cells can decide to produce black and red, and can be either E (able to produce black and red) or e (only able to produce red, as in chestnut). To be chestnut, a horse must have two copies of e, so the genotype is e/e. A horse with a genotype of E/E or E/e can still make black and red pigments and will be bay or black. Meanwhile, the agouti gene determines whether the cells can stop producing black. The A version of agouti means that it can, so as long as has E at extension the base color will be bay. The a version of agouti means the cells cannot stop producing black, so a horse with two copies of a (genotype a/a) and E at extension will be black rather than bay.
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== Points ==
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The word "points" is given to the mane, tail, lower legs, and ear rims with respect to horse coloration. The overall name given to a horse's coat color depends on the color of both the points and the body. For example, bay horses have a reddish-brown body with black points.
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Point coloration is most often produced by the action of the agouti gene. It acts on the extension gene, when present, to suppress black color to all but the extremities of the horse; the legs, mane, tail and tips of the ears. If the extension gene is not present, the effect of agouti is not visible, as there is no black color present to suppress.
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Other genes, such as those for white markings, may affect a horse's coat color in addition to agouti, and if present, can further alter or suppress black hair color and may mask any point coloration. In particular, Gray horses are born dark and lighten with age; if born bay, they will eventually lose point coloration as the body hair silvers with age, though often the points are the slowest areas of the body to go gray.
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Point coloration may also be visible on horses with other dilution genes that act upon a bay base coat. These include:
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The cream gene, an incomplete dominant, that when heterozygous produces Buckskin. When homozygous, even point coloration is mostly suppressed, the color is called perlino, and some individuals may have slightly redder hair at the traditional point coloration locations.
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The Champagne gene, which on a bay base produces Amber Champagne.
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A dilution gene that produces what looks like point coloration, but from a completely different genetic mechanism is the dominant Dun gene, which dilutes the color of the body coat but not the points, including primitive markings—a dorsal stripe down the back and, less often, horizontal striping on the upper legs. On a bay base coat, the dun gene leaves black points, producing a Bay Dun or "Zebra" Dun. But the gene also leaves the points dark when it appears with other base colors. These include the “blue dun” or grullo, which has a black base coat, and the red dun, which has a chestnut base coat.
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Similarly, darker coloration at the points is also preserved in horses with the roan gene, a patterning gene, producing a body coat of mingled white and dark hairs, but leaving the points the darker base color in all horses, not just those carrying agouti.
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Most other genes that produce spotting patterns or white markings allow point coloration produced by agouti to show except where masked by white depigmentation. There are not always separate names for a pattern over a bay base coat, but one exception is the Bay pinto, sometimes called "tricolored".
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== Gray ==
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A gray horse can be born any color, but as it gets older, some hairs turn white. Most will eventually develop a complete white or a "fleabitten" coat, which retains speckles of the horse's original color. Grays are sometimes confused with certain roan, dun, or white coat colors. In particular, most "white" horses are actually grays with a fully white hair coat. A gray horse is usually distinguishable from a dominant white or a cremello horse by dark skin, particularly noticeable around the eyes, muzzle, flanks, and other areas of thin or no hair. A roan has intermixed light and dark hairs similar to a young gray horse, but unlike a gray does not lighten to white. Dun horses have a solid-colored hair coat that also does not lighten with age. Gray horses are prone to equine melanoma.
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Variations of gray that a horse may exhibit over its lifetime include:
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Steel Grey/Iron Grey: A grey horse with intermingled black and white hairs. This color occurs in a horse born black, or in some cases, dark bay, and slowly lightens as the horse ages.
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Rose Grey: A grey horse with a reddish or pinkish tinge to its coat. This color occurs in a horse born bay or chestnut and slowly lightens as the horse ages.
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Dapple Grey: Grey coat with lighter rings of grey hairs, called dapples, scattered throughout. Will eventually fade to a pure white or fleabitten coat.
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Fleabitten Grey: an otherwise fully white-haired horse with red or dark grey dots flecked throughout the coat, sometimes extensively.
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== Diluted colors ==
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Several different genetic allelic families produce colors that are lighter versions of the base colors, caused by dilution genes.
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=== Cream family ===
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Cream dilution is an incomplete dominant gene that produces a lightened or "partial dilute" coat color when one copy of the allele is present and a fully dilute (or "double dilute") with two copies. The double cream dilute phenotypes overlap regardless of base coat color and often cannot be distinguished visually. Sometimes the creme allele is combined with an unrelated dilution gene from another family, which creates a cremello-like coat. Such coloration is called a "pseudo-double dilute." These distinctions usually require DNA testing to verify which alleles are present.
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Cremello: A horse with a chestnut base coat and two cream genes that wash out almost all color until the horse is a pale cream or light tan color. Often called "white", they are not truly white horses, and they do not carry the white (W) gene. A cremello usually has blue eyes.
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Buckskin: A bay horse with one copy of the cream gene, a dilution gene that "dilutes" or fades the coat color to a yellow, cream, or gold while keeping the black points (mane, tail, legs).
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Palomino: chestnut horse that has one cream dilution gene that turns the horse to a golden, yellow, or tan shade with a flaxen or white mane and tail. Often cited as being a color "of twenty-two carat gold", palominos range in shades from extremely light, almost cremello, to deep chocolate, but always with a white or flaxen mane and tail.
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Perlino: similar to a cremello, but is genetically a bay base coat with two dilute genes. Eyes are usually blue. Mane, tail and points are not black, but can sometimes be darker than the body coat, generally a reddish or rust color, though not to be confused with a red dun.
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Smoky black: A horse which visually appears to be only black, but actually has a black base coat and one copy of the cream gene.
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Smoky Cream: Virtually indistinguishable from a cremello or perlino without DNA testing, a horse with a black base coat and two copies of the cream gene.
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=== Dun ===
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Dun is Yellowish or tan coat with primitive markings, sometimes called "dun factors": a darker-colored mane and tail, a dorsal stripe along the back and occasionally faint horizontal zebralike stripings on the upper legs and a possible transverse stripe across the withers. There are several variations:
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Grulla, or Blue Dun: A horse with a black base color and the dun gene. Coat is a solid "mouse-colored" gray or silver (can also be almost brownish-gray) with black or dark gray primitive markings.
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Red Dun: A chestnut base coat with dun factors. Coat is usually pale yellow or tan with chestnut (red) primitive markings.
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"Bay Dun" or "Zebra dun" are terms sometimes used to describe the classic dun color of yellow or tan with black primitive markings, used when necessary to distinguish it from red duns or grullos.
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"Buckskin dun" or "Dunskin" describes a bay dun that also carries the cream gene dilution and has a coat of pale gold with a black mane, tail, legs and primitive markings.
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Mixtures of dilution genes produce colors such as "dunalino" — a red dun that also carries a single cream gene and thus has a pale gold coat, white mane and tail, and very faint primitive markings.
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=== Other dilution genes ===
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Champagne: Produced by a different dilution gene than the cream gene. It lightens both skin and hair, but creates a metallic gold coat color with mottled skin and light-colored eyes. Champagne horses are often confused with palomino, cremello, dun, or buckskins.
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Mushroom dilutes red-based horses to a pale tan color, so far found only in Shetland ponies or ponies with Shetland influence.
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Pearl: Also called the "barlink factor", A dilution gene that when homozygous, lightens red coats to a uniform apricot color, often also resulting in horses with blue eyes. When combined with cream dilution, it may produce horses that appear to be cremello or perlino.
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Silver or silver dapple: Caused by a dilution gene that only acts upon black hair pigment, it lightens black body hair to a chocolate brown and the mane and tail to silver in most cases. The gene may be carried but will not be visible on horses with a red base coat. Silver horses have informally been called Chocolate, Flaxen, or Taffy.
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== White spotting patterns ==
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These patterns all have white hairs and often pink skin, varying from a fully white horse through the pinto patterns and smaller white markings to roan which only adds a few white hairs spread throughout the coat. These patterns can occur on top of any other color. The base color determines the color of the colored hairs, while the white patterns determine where and how many white hairs are present. Biologically, the white comes from a lack of pigment cells. Many different genetic alleles create these patterns.
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=== Leopard complex ===
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There are a group of coat patterns caused by the leopard gene complex. Not every horse with leopard genetics will exhibit hair coat spotting. However, even solid individuals will exhibit secondary characteristics such as vertically striped hooves and mottled skin around the eyes, lips, and genitalia, plus a white sclera of the eye. Several breeds of horse can boast leopard-spotted (a term used collectively for all patterns) individuals including the Knabstrupper, Noriker, and the Appaloosa. There are several distinct leopard patterns:
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blanket: white over the hip that may extend from the tail to the base of the neck. The spots inside the blanket (if present) are the same color as the horse's base coat.
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varnish roan: a mix of body and white hairs that extends over the entire body—no relation to genetic roan.
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snowflake: white spots on a dark body. Typically the white spots increase in number and size as the horse ages.
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leopard: dark spots of varying sizes over a white body.
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few spot leopard: a nearly white horse from birth that retains color just above the hooves, the knees, "armpits", mane and tail, wind pipe, and face.
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frost: similar to varnish but the white hairs are limited to the back, loins, and neck.
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=== Pinto ===
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A pinto has large patches of white over any other underlying coat color. Sometimes called "Paint" in the western United States, a word that which technically refers to the American Paint Horse, a specific breed of mostly pinto horses with known Quarter Horse and/or Thoroughbred bloodlines. Other regional terms for certain pinto spotting patterns include "blagdon" in the UK. Pinto spotting is produced by a large number of genetic mechanisms, with dozens now mapped and identifiable through DNA testing.
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Variations of pinto based on the observable color include:
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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Piebald: a black-and-white (term more commonly used in the UK than the US). This is pinto spotting on top of black.
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Skewbald: a spotting pattern of white over chestnut or any other color other than black (term more commonly used in the UK than the US).
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Tricolored: A variation of Skewbald, specifically referring to pinto spotting over a bay base coat or other coat color that features black points.
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Terminology variations based on the observable shape of the white patterns include:
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Overo: Describes a group of spotting patterns genetically distinct from one another, characterized by sharp, irregular markings with a horizontal orientation, usually more dark than white. In some cases, the face is usually white, often with blue eyes. The white rarely crosses the back, and the lower legs are normally dark. Variations include "frame overo" and "splashed white".
|
||||
Sabino: Describes a range of spotting patterns characterized by high white on legs, belly spots, white markings on the face extending past the eyes and/or patches of roaning patterns standing alone, or on the edges of white markings. Usually produced by certain dominant white or "white spotting" alleles, though not all sabino patterns have been genetically mapped. Sometimes grouped with the overo color pattern group by breed registries that record spotting patterns even though created by different genetics from frame or splash.
|
||||
Tobiano: Spotting pattern characterized by rounded markings with white legs and white across the back between the withers and the dock of the tail, usually arranged in a roughly vertical pattern and more white than dark, with the head usually dark and with markings like that of a normal horse. i.e. star, snip, strip, or blaze. Produced by the Tobiano (TO) gene.
|
||||
Tovero: spotting pattern that is a mix of tobiano and overo coloration, such as blue eyes on a dark head, usually results from the presence of more than one spotting pattern gene.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Roaning ===
|
||||
|
||||
Roaning adds white hairs to any of the other colors and, unlike gray, the color does not steadily lighten over the horse's lifetime, though there may be some minor color variation from year to year or especially between summer and winter coats.
|
||||
|
||||
Classic Roan: a color pattern that causes white hairs to be evenly intermixed within the horse's body color. Roans are distinguishable from greys because roans typically do not change color in their lifetimes, unlike gray, which gradually gets lighter as a horse ages. Roans also have heads that are either solid-colored or much darker than their body hair, and do not lighten. Variations of roan include:
|
||||
Red Roan: A chestnut base coat with a roaning pattern, with the mane and tail being the same red as the body. Red roan is sometimes called Strawberry Roan, and the term Red Roan is occasionally used to describe a Bay Roan.
|
||||
Bay Roan: A Bay base coat with a roaning pattern (the mane and tail of the Bay Roan will be Black). Bay roans are sometimes also called Red Roans.
|
||||
Blue Roan: A black with a roaning pattern, not to be confused with a gray or a blue dun/grullo. A roan tends to have a darker head, while grays not only lighten with age, but their heads tend to lighten before the rest of their bodies. A blue roan has mixed-color hairs, a blue dun will usually be a solid color and have dun striping.
|
||||
Rabicano: A roan-style effect that is caused by a yet-to-be-mapped genetic modifier that creates a mealy, splotchy, or roaning pattern on only part of the body, usually limited to the underside, flanks, legs, tail and head areas. Unlike a true roan, much of the body will not have white hairs intermingled with solid ones, nor are the legs or head significantly darker than the rest of the horse.
|
||||
|
||||
=== White ===
|
||||
|
||||
One of the rarest colors, a true genetic white horse has white hair and fully or largely unpigmented (pink) skin. These horses are born white or mostly white and remain white for life. The vast majority of so-called "white" horses are actually grays with a fully white hair coat. A truly white horse occurs one of two ways: either by inheriting one copy of a dominant white ("W") allele that produces white when heterozygous but may be a genetic lethal if homozygous, or by inheriting two copies of a non-lethal dominant white ("W") allele that produces a white coat when homozygous. There are also some genetic lethal genes unrelated to the W allelic series: a foal homozygous for the frame overo gene will have a condition known as lethal white syndrome dies shortly after birth.
|
||||
There are no "albinos" in the horse world. Albinos, defined as animals with a white coat with pink skin and reddish eyes, are created by genetic mechanisms that do not exist in horses. In some cases, homozygous dominant white (W) is thought to be an embryonic lethal, though this does not occur with all W alleles.
|
||||
|
||||
=== White markings ===
|
||||
|
||||
White markings are present at birth and unique to each horse, making them useful in identifying individual animals. Markings usually have pink skin underneath them, though some faint markings may not, and white hairs may extend past the area of underlying pink skin. Though markings that overlie dark skin may appear to change, the underlying skin color and hair growing from pink skin will not. The distinction when white markings confined to the face and legs or a few small body spots become extensive enough to constitute a white spotting pattern is usually determined by breed standards set by registries. White markings generally are now hypothesized to be a minimal expression of certain genes in the dominant white (W) allelic series.
|
||||
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-4.md
Normal file
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-4.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Equine coat color"
|
||||
chunk: 5/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Other colors and modifiers ==
|
||||
Brindle: One of the rarest colors in horses, characteristics are any base coat color with "zebralike" stripes, but the most common is a brown horse with faint yellowish markings. Usually linked to chimerism, but one heritable brindle pattern that affects coat texture and color in a family of American Quarter Horses has been named Brindle1 was announced in 2016.
|
||||
Sooty is a proposed genetic modifier not yet mapped that causes dark hairs to be dispersed within the coat, darkening the whole coat with age.
|
||||
Pangaré is a modifier that is the opposite of sooty, it causes individual hairs to lighten, causing lightened areas on the muzzle, flank and belly of a horse.
|
||||
"Flaxen" is used only to describe the lightened mane and tail of a chestnut, and has been proposed as a genetic modifier, particularly when it appears to be a trait of certain breeds. However, the genetic mechanism of this process has yet to be identified.
|
||||
Primitive marking variants sometimes called "bider markings" have been seen in Przewalski's horses and Mongolian horses.
|
||||
|
||||
== Eye and hoof color ==
|
||||
Most horses have brown eyes with minor shade variations. Blue eyes are linked to the splashed white spotting allele, and cream dilution may produce a bluish-green eye color. The champagne and pearl genes also produce lightened eye colors in the blue or green shades. The leopard complex produces a white sclera around an otherwise dark eye.
|
||||
The yellow or amber Tiger eye gene has been found only in the Puerto Rican Paso Fino and has two variants, Tiger-eye 1 (TE1) and Tiger-eye 2 (TE2), which are both recessive. There is no obvious link between eye shade and coat color, making this the first studied gene in horses to affect eye color but not coat color.
|
||||
Exterior hoof wall color is usually linked to coat color. Most horses have a dark grayish hoof wall unless they have white leg markings, in which case they will have pale-colored hooves. The leopard complex gene will create a light and dark striped hoof, and many chestnut horses have brownish hooves that are somewhat lighter than the usual dark gray.
|
||||
|
||||
== Color breeds ==
|
||||
|
||||
Registries have opened that accept horses (and sometimes ponies and mules) of almost any breed or type, with color either the only requirement for registration or the primary criterion. These are called "color breeds". Unlike "true" horse breeds, there are few, if any, unique physical characteristics required, nor is the stud book limited to only certain breeds or offspring of previously registered horses. As a general rule, offspring without the stated color are usually not eligible for recording with the color breed registry, although there are exceptions. The best-known color breed registries are for buckskins, palominos, and pintos.
|
||||
Some horse breeds may have a desired coat color that usually breeds on as a characteristic that is part of the breed standard, in addition to distinctive physical characteristics and a limited stud book. They are not color breeds, and include the Friesian horse (must be uniformly black for mainstream registration), the Appaloosa (with Leopard complex patterns) and the American Paint Horse. In some of these breeds, though not all, offspring of animals registered in these stud books may be registered even if they do not have the desired color, sometimes with restrictions.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
"Equine Coat Color Tests". Veterinary Genetics Lab, University of California, Davis. Retrieved August 25, 2012.
|
||||
"Introduction to Coat Color Genetics". Veterinary Genetics Lab, University of California, Davis. Retrieved August 25, 2012.
|
||||
"Equine Services". Animal Genetics Inc. Retrieved August 25, 2012. Performs new gray gene testing for horses.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer–Saller_scale-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer–Saller_scale-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Fischer–Saller scale"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer–Saller_scale"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:35.604326+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Fischer–Saller Scale, named for eugenicist Eugen Fischer and German anthropologist Karl Saller, is used in physical anthropology and medicine to determine the shades of hair color. The scale uses the following designations:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Earlier scale ==
|
||||
An earlier version of the scale created by Eugen Fischer, known as the Fischer Scale, used a different range of designations:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Human hair color
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative-0.md
Normal file
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "India Climate Collaborative"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:08.099902+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
India Climate Collaborative (ICC) is an initiative undertaken by philanthropists from India to understand the challenges posed by climate change and find solutions for climate crisis. Planning began in 2018, and the initiative was launched in January 2020.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Context ==
|
||||
The primary objective of the collective is to establish an India-only climate narrative and identify solutions for the harsh effects of climate change. It will be a platform for "diverse voices, innovative solutions, and collective investments." In 2018, India ranked 5th among 181 countries as a nation with the highest number of deaths triggered by climate change.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Participants ==
|
||||
Individual philanthropists include Ratan Tata, Rohini Nilekani, Nadir Godrej, Anand Mahindra, Aditi Premji, Rishad Premji, Vidya Shah, and Hemendra Kothari.
|
||||
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Centre for Science & Environment, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology & the Environment, Centre for Policy Research, Indian School of Business, World Resources Institute, Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundations, People's Archive for Rural India (PARI), Swades Foundation, Indian Development Review (IDR), SELCO, and Oxford University are some of the academic and research organisations associated with the collective.
|
||||
Shloka Nath of Tata Trusts is the Executive Director.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of 3D graphics libraries"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_3D_graphics_libraries"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:48.643828+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
3D graphics have become so popular, particularly in video games, that specialized APIs (application programming interfaces) have been created to ease the processes in all stages of computer graphics generation. These APIs have also proved vital to computer graphics hardware manufacturers, as they provide a way for programmers to access the hardware in an abstract way, while still taking advantage of the special hardware of any specific graphics card.
|
||||
The first 3D graphics framework was probably Core, published by the ACM in 1977.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Low-level 3D API ==
|
||||
These APIs for 3D computer graphics are particularly popular:
|
||||
|
||||
ANGLE, web browsers graphics engine, a cross-platform translator of OpenGL ES calls to DirectX, OpenGL, or Vulkan API calls.
|
||||
Direct3D (a subset of DirectX)
|
||||
Mesa
|
||||
Metal developed by Apple.
|
||||
OpenGL and the OpenGL Shading Language
|
||||
OpenGL ES 3D API for embedded devices.
|
||||
OptiX developed by NVIDIA.
|
||||
Vulkan developed by Khronos Group
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Web-based API ==
|
||||
WebGL is a JavaScript interface for OpenGL ES API, promoted by Khronos.
|
||||
WebGPU is a newer and more efficient API for JavaScript, Rust, C++ and C. It is not yet fully supported by all browsers (see Implementation Status).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== High-level 3D API ==
|
||||
There are also higher-level 3D scene-graph APIs which provide additional functionality on top of the lower-level rendering API. Such libraries under active development include:
|
||||
|
||||
Ab4d.SharpEngine
|
||||
ArkGraphics 3D
|
||||
BGFX
|
||||
ClanLib
|
||||
HOOPS 3D Graphics System
|
||||
Horde3D
|
||||
Java FX
|
||||
JMonkey Engine
|
||||
JT Open from Siemens Digital Industries Software
|
||||
LibGDX
|
||||
magnum
|
||||
OGRE
|
||||
OpenGL Performer
|
||||
RAMSES
|
||||
Panda3D
|
||||
UNIGINE
|
||||
VTK
|
||||
WPF 3D (part of Windows Presentation Foundation)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== JavaScript-based engines ===
|
||||
There is more interest in web browser based high-level API for 3D graphics engines. Some are:
|
||||
|
||||
A-Frame
|
||||
Babylon.js
|
||||
Three.js
|
||||
Verge3D
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Graphics library
|
||||
Game engine
|
||||
3D computer graphics software
|
||||
101
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CAx_companies-0.md
Normal file
101
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CAx_companies-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of CAx companies"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CAx_companies"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:04.006540+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of notable computer-aided technologies (CAx) companies, for which Wikipedia articles exist, and their software products. Software that supports CAx technologies has been produced since the 1970s, for a variety of computer platforms. CAx applications incliude computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In addition, industrial-range CAx applications are supported by dedicated product data management (PDM), enterprise resource planning (ERP), and other software layers. General-purpose PDM and ERP software is not listed here.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== CAx software companies ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Past CAD Brands ==
|
||||
Acquired, orphaned, failed or rebranded.
|
||||
|
||||
Alias
|
||||
Acquired by Autodesk
|
||||
Applicon
|
||||
Acquired by UGS Corporation
|
||||
CADAM
|
||||
Acquired by Dassault Systèmes
|
||||
CADCentre
|
||||
Rebranded as Aveva
|
||||
Baystate Technologies
|
||||
Acquired by Kubotek Corporation
|
||||
BARCO NV
|
||||
Now called Ucamco for printed circuit board applications
|
||||
Camsco
|
||||
Acquired by Gerber
|
||||
CIS (Cambridge Interactive Systems)
|
||||
Acquired by Computervision
|
||||
CADKEY
|
||||
Acquired by Baystate Technologies
|
||||
Calma
|
||||
Acquired by Computervision
|
||||
Claris
|
||||
Published "ClarisCAD", abandoned in transition of company to FileMaker
|
||||
Computervision
|
||||
Acquired by Parametric Technology Corporation
|
||||
Diehl Graphsoft
|
||||
Acquired by Nemetschek
|
||||
Investronica
|
||||
Acquired by Lectra
|
||||
Matra DataVision
|
||||
Acquired by Dassault Systèmes
|
||||
Microdynamics
|
||||
Acquired by Gerber
|
||||
Micro Engineering Solutions
|
||||
Published "Solution 3000" and "ADX", acquired by Autodesk
|
||||
NC Graphics
|
||||
Acquired by Parametric Technology Corporation
|
||||
Revit Technology Corporation
|
||||
Acquired by Autodesk
|
||||
Shape Data
|
||||
Acquired by Siemens
|
||||
Spatial Corp.
|
||||
Acquired by Dassault Systèmes
|
||||
SDRC
|
||||
Acquired by UGS Corporation
|
||||
SRAC
|
||||
(Structural Research and Analysis Corporation) acquired by SolidWorks Corporation
|
||||
SolidWorks Corporation
|
||||
Acquired by Dassault Systèmes
|
||||
SDRC-IDEAS
|
||||
Acquired by Unigraphics Solutions
|
||||
Unigraphics Solutions a.k.a. UGS Corporation
|
||||
Acquired by Siemens
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Open source CAD software projects ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 2D ===
|
||||
RibbonSoft QCAD
|
||||
Archimedes – Architectural CAD program.
|
||||
LibreCAD Open source 2D CAD Program.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 3D ===
|
||||
Blender is a free and open-source 3D computer graphics software toolset for creating animated films, visual effects, art, 3D printed models, interactive 3D applications and video games.
|
||||
BRL-CAD
|
||||
FreeCAD – an open source CAD/CAE, based on Open CASCADE, Qt and Python.
|
||||
OpenSCAD
|
||||
Open Cascade Technology (OCCT, formerly known as CAS.CADE) – an SDK from Open Cascade for 3D CAD, CAM, and CAE.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Comparison of CAD software
|
||||
CAD data exchange
|
||||
CAD/CAM in the footwear industry
|
||||
List of 3D modeling software
|
||||
List of BIM software
|
||||
List of computer-aided engineering software
|
||||
List of computer-aided manufacturing software
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of CD and DVD copy protection schemes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CD_and_DVD_copy_protection_schemes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:05.276010+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of notable CD and DVD copy protection schemes.
|
||||
|
||||
For other medias, see List of Copy Protection Schemes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Commercial CD protection schemes ==
|
||||
CD-Cops
|
||||
Requires the user to enter CD-code (or reads embedded CD-code) that describes geometry of CD to correctly locate data on the disc.
|
||||
SafeDisc (versions 1–4)
|
||||
Adds unique digital signature at the time of manufacturing which is designed to be difficult to copy or transfer so that software is able to detect copied media.
|
||||
SafeCast
|
||||
The encryption key will expire after pre-determined date so the media can be used only temporarily. Also used to implement trial editions of programs.
|
||||
Secure Digital Music Initiative
|
||||
Industry led attempt to add watermarking to CDs. The group challenged researchers to break the DRM and then threatened a lawsuit when the researchers were successful.
|
||||
SecuROM
|
||||
Limits the number of PCs activated at the same time from the same key.
|
||||
StarForce
|
||||
Asks for Serial ID at install or startup to verify the license.
|
||||
TAGES
|
||||
Verifies authentic copy by checking existence of "twin sectors" which are sectors with same logical address but different data. However, twin sectors may be hard to read in order to copy but are easy to write.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Commercial DVD protection schemes ==
|
||||
Analog Protection System
|
||||
Adds pulses to analog video signals to negatively impact the AGC circuit of a recording device so the images on copied DVDs become garbled.
|
||||
Sony ARccOS Protection
|
||||
Inserting corrupted sectors in areas where normal players will not access but ripping software does to trigger errors during replication.
|
||||
Burst Cutting Area
|
||||
Writing barcode in circular area near the center of the disc (referred to as burst cutting area) which cannot be written without using special equipment.
|
||||
Content Scramble System
|
||||
An encryption system to prevent copying.
|
||||
DVD-Cops
|
||||
See CD-Cops in previous section.
|
||||
DVD region code
|
||||
Restricts region where media can be played by matching region number with configuration flag in DVD players.
|
||||
LaserLock
|
||||
Includes hidden directory on the CD containing corrupted data which will cause errors while being copied.
|
||||
SafeDisc (version 1-4)
|
||||
See SafeDisc (versions 1-4) in previous section.
|
||||
SecuROM
|
||||
See previous section.
|
||||
StarForce
|
||||
See previous section.
|
||||
TAGES
|
||||
See previous section.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Commercial Audio CD/DVD protection schemes ==
|
||||
Cactus Data Shield
|
||||
Works by intentionally violating Red Book CD Digital Audio standards, such as erroneous disc navigation and corrupted data, preventing successful ripping of the data. However, the original disc itself does not play correctly in some CD/DVD players.
|
||||
Wavy data track
|
||||
Discs' data track is wavy instead of straight, so only discs with the same wavy-shaped data track will be playable.
|
||||
Extended Copy Protection (XCP)
|
||||
Installs software on the computer after agreement to EULA at the first time the media is inserted, and the software will watch for any ripper software trying to access the CD-drive. This copy protection can be defeated simply by using a computer that is not running Microsoft Windows, not using an account with administrative privileges, or preventing the installer from running, and has long since been discontinued due to a public relations disaster caused by the software behaving identically to a rootkit.
|
||||
Key2Audio
|
||||
Another deliberate violation of the Red Book standard intended to make the CD play only on CD players and not on computers by applying bogus data track onto the disc during manufacturing, which CD players will ignore as non-audio tracks. The system could be disabled by tracing the outer edge of a CD with a felt-tip marker.
|
||||
MediaMax CD3
|
||||
Installs software on the computer that tries to play the media so other software cannot read data directly from audio discs in the CD-ROM drive. Silently installing software on a computer created a controversy about modifying a computer's behaviour without a user's consent.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Console CD/DVD protection schemes ==
|
||||
Dreamcast (GD-ROM)
|
||||
Multiple table of contents (TOC) made normal CD players unable read beyond the first track. However, one could read GD-ROM on CD reader by swapping the disc after reading fake TOC.
|
||||
FADE
|
||||
Creates fake scratches on the disk image which copying programs will automatically try to fix. Instead of alerting the user that the copied disc is detected, the program will play the game in a buggy manner.
|
||||
PlayStation (CD-ROM)
|
||||
The authority pattern pressed on internal circumference of the media, which could not be copied, is used to detect authorized copies. Some titles also use the Libcrypt mechanism to validate the disc by using checksum as magic number to subroutines.
|
||||
PlayStation 2 (CD-ROM, DVD-ROM)
|
||||
A map file that contains all of the exact positions and file size info of the disc is stored at a position that is beyond the file limit. The game calls this place directly so that burned copy with no data beyond file limit cannot be played.
|
||||
PSP (Universal Media Disc)
|
||||
Since no blank media or writer exists, the media itself cannot be copied, but one could make ISO image (a file version of the UMD) on a memory card. The unique format also made the media expensive and difficult to adapt.
|
||||
Xbox (CD-ROM, DVD-ROM)
|
||||
Two sets of media descriptors are used. Initially, and on typical DVD-ROM drives, only a short partition containing a brief DVD Video can be seen. The lead-out section of the disk stores a second set of media descriptors describing the bounds of the main partition. It also contains a partially-encrypted "security sector" used for further authentication. The lead-out area is not typically directly accessible with consumer DVD-ROM hardware. Furthermore, the key for the security sector is located in the sector's raw header. This header information, unlike the raw headers of CD-ROM disks, is not accessible by default on nearly all DVD-ROM drives. Additional "challenges" are implemented in the security sector through a table, with more challenge types added over the lifespan of Xbox and Xbox 360. These include, as an example from their earliest form, checks for unreadable sectors in predetermined ranges.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of copy protection schemes
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Computer Chronicles episodes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Computer_Chronicles_episodes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:08.940662+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Computer Chronicles is an American half-hour television series, which was broadcast from 1983 to 2002 on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) public television. Presented by Gary Kildall, Stewart Cheifet, and George Morrow, the series documented various issues from the rise of the personal computer from its infancy to the global market at the turn of the 21st century.
|
||||
Computer Chronicles was created in 1983 by Stewart Cheifet (later the show's co-host), who was then the station manager of the College of San Mateo's KCSM-TV. The series was initially broadcast as a local weekly series, co-produced by WITF-TV in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. It became a national series on PBS from 1983 to 2002, with Cheifet co-hosting most of the later seasons. Kildall served as co-host from 1983 to 1990, providing insights and commentary on products, as well as discussions on the future of the ever-expanding personal computer sphere.
|
||||
A total of 488 episodes of Computer Chronicles were produced from 1983 to 2002. New episodes broadcast on Sundays with a duration of 30 minutes, four episodes a month, 48 episodes per year. All episodes were digitized and provided to the Internet Archive for free streaming and download.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Episodes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Overview ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 1 (1984) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 2 (1985) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 3 (1985-86) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 4 (1986–87) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 5 (1987–88) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 6 (1988–89) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 7 (1989–90) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 8 (1990–91) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 9 (1991–92) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 10 (1992–93) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 11 (1993–94) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 12 (1994–95) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 13 (1995–96) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 14 (1996–97) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 15 (1997–98) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 16 (1998–99) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 17 (1999–2000) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 18 (2000–01) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Season 19 (2001–02) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
General references
|
||||
"Computer Chronicles Archiving Project". Thomas Novotny. Retrieved July 26, 2024.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The Computer Chronicle collection at the Internet Archive
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Crayola crayon colors"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:28.784961+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than 200 colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The table below represents all of the colors found in regular Crayola assortments from 1903 to the present. Since the introduction of fluorescent crayons in the 1970s, the standard colors have been complemented by a number of specialty crayon assortments, represented in subsequent tables.
|
||||
|
||||
== Standard colors ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Specialty crayons ==
|
||||
Along with the regular packs of crayons, there have been many specialty sets, including Silver Swirls, Gem Tones, Pearl Brite Crayons, Metallic FX Crayons, Magic Scent Crayons, Silly Scents, and more.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fluorescent crayons ===
|
||||
In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight Crayola fluorescent crayons, designed to fluoresce under black light. The following year, they were added to the 72-count box, which had previously contained two of the eight most-used colors, in place of the duplicate crayons. These crayons remained steady until 1990, when all eight were renamed, and eight more were added, for a total of 16 fluorescent crayons. One of the new colors, Hot Magenta, shared a name with one of the original colors, now Razzle Dazzle Rose. For some reason, two of the original eight fluorescent crayons have the same color as two of the newer crayons. In 1992, the fluorescent colors were added to the new No. 96 box, becoming part of the standard lineup. When four new crayons were added to the No. 96 assortment in 2003, four existing colors were discontinued, including two of the fluorescents. Also beginning in 1993, packs of fluorescent crayons were regularly labeled "neon" or "neons".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fabric Crayons ===
|
||||
In 1976, Crayola released a pack of eight Fabric Crayons. Each crayon was named after a standard color. In 1980, "Light Blue" was discontinued and replaced with Black. In 1981, "Magenta" was renamed to "Red". The colors' hexadecimal values are currently unknown. The names of the colors are listed below:
|
||||
|
||||
=== Metallic Crayons (Canada) ===
|
||||
In 1987, Crayola released a pack of 16 Metallic Crayons in Canada. Four of the colors are named after four of the standard colors. Also, one of the colors is named before a Metallic FX color. The colors' hexadecimal values are currently unknown. The names of the colors are listed below:
|
||||
|
||||
Aged Copper
|
||||
Aztec Gold
|
||||
Bluetonium
|
||||
Brass
|
||||
Bronze
|
||||
Cadmium Red
|
||||
Cast Iron
|
||||
Cobalt Blue
|
||||
Copper
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
Kryptonite
|
||||
Rust
|
||||
Silver
|
||||
Steel Blue
|
||||
Tarnished Gold
|
||||
Titanium
|
||||
|
||||
=== Silver Swirls ===
|
||||
|
||||
In 1990, Crayola released Silver Swirls, a pack of 24 silvery colors. The colors' hexadecimal values are approximated below.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Multicultural Crayons ===
|
||||
In 1992, Crayola released a set of eight Multicultural Crayons which "come in an assortment of skin hues that give a child a realistic palette for coloring their world." The eight colors used came from their standard list of colors (none of these colors are exclusive to this set), and the set was, for the most part, well received, though there has also been some criticism.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Magic Scent Crayons ===
|
||||
|
||||
In 1994, Crayola produced a 16-pack of crayons that released fragrances when used. In 1995, Crayola changed some of the scents because of complaints received from parents that some of the crayons smelled good enough to eat, like the Cherry, Chocolate, and Blueberry scented crayons. Crayons with food scents were retired in favor of non-food scents. The 30 crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gem Tones ===
|
||||
|
||||
In 1994, Crayola released Gem Tones, a pack of 16 crayons modeled after the colors of gemstones. The colors' hexadecimal values are approximated below:
|
||||
|
||||
=== Glow in the Dark Crayons ===
|
||||
In 1994, Crayola released Glow in the Dark Crayons, a pack of eight crayons. However, it did not contain any color names in North America. Only four of the colors were available in the U.K.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Crayola Changeables ===
|
||||
|
||||
The Crayola Changeables crayons were introduced in 1995. The chart includes the color changer, an off-white crayon that goes on clear and initiates the color changes in the other crayons from the "From color" to the "To color".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Color 'n Smell Crayons ===
|
||||
Following previous issues with scented crayons in 1994 and 1995, Binney & Smith released a new line, known as "Magic Scent" crayons in 1997. None of the crayons were named after or given the scent of foods. The 16 crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Star Brite Crayons ===
|
||||
In 1997, Crayola released a 16-pack of Star Brite Crayons. However, it did not contain any color names. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Color Mix-Up Crayons ===
|
||||
In 1997, Crayola released a 16-pack of Color Mix-Up Crayons, each of which contains a solid color with flecks of two other colors in it. Colors in the chart below are approximated. The hex RGB values are in the order of the predominant color and then the flecks. Colors for crayons other than Mixed Veggies and Star Spangled Banner come from information on the crayon wrapper.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pearl Brite Crayons ===
|
||||
|
||||
In 1997, Crayola released a 16-pack of Pearl Brite Crayons. These were designed to give soft pearlescent colors. These had a new wrapper design, black with a white oval Crayola logo and white text.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Crayons with Glitter ===
|
||||
In 1997, Crayola released Crayons with Glitter as part of a Special Effects crayons package. Starting as late as 1999, their crayon names do not appear on the crayon wrappers.
|
||||
|
||||
In 2019, Crayola released an updated version of Crayons with Glitter in a 24-count pack featuring new names:
|
||||
|
||||
=== Construction Paper Crayons ===
|
||||
In 1998, Crayola introduced Construction Paper Crayons. The specialty line remained one of the longest running specialty lines they ever put out. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Metallic FX Crayons ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Crayola crayon colors"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:28.784961+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In 2001, Crayola produced Metallic FX Crayons, a set of 16 metallic crayons whose names were chosen through a contest open to residents of the U.S. and Canada. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. In 2019, an updated version was released under its original name of Metallic Crayons, adding eight more metallic colors for a total of 24. The original 16 colors are included in the special 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection pack alongside 120 standard and 16 Crayons with Glitter. Four of the colors are included in the regular 96-count crayon box.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gel FX Crayons ===
|
||||
In 2001, Crayola produced Gel FX Crayons. However, it did not contain any color names. Four of the colors are included in the 96-count crayon box alongside four Metallic FX colors and are not included in the 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection set. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pearl Crayons ===
|
||||
In 2019, a 24-count box of Pearl Crayons was released alongside the updated versions of the Metallic Crayons, Neon Crayons, and Crayons with Glitter.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Neon Crayons ===
|
||||
In 2019, a new 24 count of Neon Crayons was released. It includes eight fluorescent colors, eight pearl versions of the same colors, and the same eight colors with silver glitter.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Colors of the World Crayons ===
|
||||
On May 21, 2020, the Colors of the World Crayons were announced. They were released in 32 and 24-count boxes in July 2020. The additional eight colors are standard colors with new names to fit the theme.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Silly Scents Crayons ===
|
||||
|
||||
The Silly Scents Crayons are produced by Crayola in a 16-pack. The 16 crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Heads 'n Tails Crayons ===
|
||||
|
||||
The eight Heads 'n Tails Crayons are double-sided and encased in plastic tubes that function much like the ones on Crayola Twistables. Each crayon has two shades of color, for a total of 16 colors, which are approximated by the background colors and hex RGB values below.
|
||||
|
||||
=== The 100,000,000,000th Crayon ===
|
||||
In 1996, Crayola celebrated the creation of their 100 billionth crayon by publishing a Crayon called Blue Ribbon. This crayon was only present in certain crayon 96-packs.
|
||||
|
||||
== Twistables ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== 24-pack Mini Twistables ===
|
||||
In 2004, Crayola released a set of 24 Mini Twistables crayons. They are nearly half the size of large twistable crayons. The colors' hexadecimal values are shown below. The colors are from the standard list of crayon colors.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fun Effects Mini Twistables ===
|
||||
In 2004, Crayola released a 24 pack of Fun Effects Mini Twistables crayons. It contains eight eXtreme colors, eight metallic colors, and eight rainbow colors.
|
||||
|
||||
=== True to Life Crayons ===
|
||||
|
||||
In 2007, Crayola released a set of eight True to Life Crayons. Each crayon is extra-long and contained within a plastic casing similar to that of Crayola Twistables crayons. In the table, the background approximates the primary color and the text is in the two supporting colors. The approximate RGB hex values for each are given as well.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Confetti Crayon ===
|
||||
Crayola released a set of 24 Confetti Crayons in 2020. They each contain three colors: one main color, which is displayed outwardly, and two other colors, which are speckled in small bubbles throughout the crayon.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
History of Crayola crayons
|
||||
Timeline of Crayola
|
||||
Lists of colors
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
64
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_RAL_colours-0.md
Normal file
64
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_RAL_colours-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of RAL colours"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_RAL_colours"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:40.585004+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of RAL Classic colours from the European RAL colour standard. The visual samples are approximate and informative only.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== RAL Classic ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Yellow and beige ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Orange ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Violet ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Green ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Brown ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== White and black ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Overview ===
|
||||
Below is a list of RAL Classic colours from the RAL colour standard. Alongside every colour, the corresponding values are given for:
|
||||
|
||||
hexadecimal triplet for the sRGB colour space, approximating the given RAL colour
|
||||
sRGB value
|
||||
Grey value calculated from (0.2126 × red) + (0.7152 × green) + (0.0722 × blue)
|
||||
CIE L*a*b* values
|
||||
sRGB value expressed as hue, saturation and lightness (HSL)
|
||||
device-independent CMYK value: cyan, magenta, yellow, black or key
|
||||
LRV, but a consistent light reflectance value is not obtainable from pearlescent or metallic colours
|
||||
The visual samples displayed on the screen are not binding because brightness and contrast may vary from screen to screen – and neither are the colours on a printout from a printer. For binding colour samples, always obtain an official RAL Colour fan deck.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== RAL Effect ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== RAL Design System+ ==
|
||||
In the RAL Design System Plus, there are groups of colours every 10° of hue and additionally at 75°, 85° and 95°. Possible lightness values are 15% through 90% in steps of 5% for monochromatic shades of grey (i.e. C = 0%) and 20% through 90% in steps of 10% and additionally 85% and 93%. Chroma values are also mostly confined to steps of 10% or 5%, but with some exceptions, and the maximum value varies.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
243
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_colors-0.md
Normal file
243
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_colors-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of U.S. state colors"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_colors"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:44.548165+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is the official list of each state's colors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Arizona ==
|
||||
|
||||
Arizona's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Blue ("the same shade as that of the flag of the United States")
|
||||
Old gold
|
||||
They were adopted in 1915.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== California ==
|
||||
|
||||
California's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
First used by the University of California, Berkeley in 1875, and officially adopted by the state in 1951, blue represents the sky and gold represents the California Gold Rush.
|
||||
The colors are defined by several different standards in law:
|
||||
|
||||
International Commission on Illumination:
|
||||
Blue: Y 0.063 x 0.204 y 0.165
|
||||
Gold: Y 0.449 x 0.474 y 0.458
|
||||
Munsell Renotation:
|
||||
Blue: H V/C 7.3 PB 2.9/8.8
|
||||
Gold: H V/C 2.0 Y 7.1/11.3
|
||||
Munsell Book Notation:
|
||||
Blue: H V/C 7.2 PB 2.9/9.1
|
||||
Gold: H V/C 1 Y 7.3/11
|
||||
References:
|
||||
|
||||
Color Association of the United States (Formerly Textile Color Card Association of New York, Inc.):
|
||||
Blue: Yale Blue, cable number 70086, Standard Color Card of America, 9th edition.
|
||||
Gold: Golden Yellow, cable number 65001, United States Army Card of Official Colors for Arms and Services.
|
||||
ISCC–NBS system:
|
||||
Yale Blue: Deep purplish blue.
|
||||
Golden Yellow: Vivid yellow.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Delaware ==
|
||||
Delaware's official colors are:
|
||||
Colonial blue
|
||||
Buff
|
||||
Further, "colonial blue and buff, are designated by the Textile Color Card Association of the United States, Inc., New York, as 'arno blue' Cable No. 10663, and 'golden beige' Cable No. 10781 respectively; the color shades having been determined by Colorimetric Specifications of the National Bureau of Standards, United States Department of Commerce, in Test No. 2, 1/140565, dated November 18, 1954, which is on file with the Delaware Public Archives, Dover, Delaware."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hawaii ==
|
||||
|
||||
Hawaii does not have known official colors for the entire state. However, Hawaii has legislated an official color for each of its eight main islands:
|
||||
|
||||
Red (Hawaiʻi)
|
||||
Pink (Maui)
|
||||
Golden yellow (Oʻahu)
|
||||
Purple (Kauaʻi)
|
||||
Green (Molokaʻi)
|
||||
Orange (Lānaʻi)
|
||||
White (Niʻihau)
|
||||
Gray (Kahoʻolawe)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Indiana ==
|
||||
|
||||
Indiana's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Louisiana ==
|
||||
|
||||
Louisiana's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
White
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
They were adopted in 1972.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Maryland ==
|
||||
|
||||
Maryland does not have known official state colors. Maryland's widely used unofficial colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Red
|
||||
White
|
||||
Black
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
The colors come from the state flag, which in turn uses the Baltimore and Crossland crests of the Calvert family. Maryland flag imagery (and in turn, the four colors of the flag, in varying shades) are used extensively in official government branding.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Massachusetts ==
|
||||
|
||||
Massachusetts's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
Green
|
||||
Cranberry
|
||||
They were adopted in 2005. The colors represent Cape Cod Bay that the Pilgrims sailed over (blue), the Connecticut River Valley and the Berkshire mountains (green), and the state's cranberry industry which once produced 70 percent of the world's crop (cranberry)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Minnesota ==
|
||||
|
||||
Minnesota does not have known official state colors.
|
||||
Minnesota proposed in 2016 to make its official color
|
||||
|
||||
Purple
|
||||
in honor of the musician Prince; however, the motion did not succeed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nevada ==
|
||||
|
||||
Nevada's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Silver
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
Blue stands for Lake Tahoe and the mountain bluebird, while silver stands for the granite of the Sierra Nevada and the silver country of northern Nevada.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== New Hampshire ==
|
||||
|
||||
New Hampshire does not have known official state colors.
|
||||
New Hampshire proposed in 2013 to make the colors
|
||||
|
||||
Orange
|
||||
Red
|
||||
Yellow
|
||||
its official state colors; however, the motion did not succeed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== New Jersey ==
|
||||
|
||||
New Jersey's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Jersey Blue
|
||||
Buff
|
||||
Using the Cable color system developed by the Color Association of the United States, Jersey Blue was defined as Cable No. 70087; Buff was defined as Cable No. 65015. The Office of the Secretary of State of New Jersey gives the blue and buff color hexadecimal equivalents as #2484C6 and #E1B584, respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== New York ==
|
||||
|
||||
New York does not have known official state colors in law, but does define specific color shades in their official branding guide:
|
||||
|
||||
Dark Blue
|
||||
Light Blue
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== North Carolina ==
|
||||
|
||||
North Carolina's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Red
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
Specifically, the same shades "appearing in the North Carolina State flag and the American flag."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Ohio ==
|
||||
|
||||
Ohio does not have known official state colors in law, but does define specific color shades in their official branding guide, inspired by the Flag of Ohio:
|
||||
|
||||
Buckeye Blue
|
||||
Cardinal Red
|
||||
White
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Oklahoma ==
|
||||
|
||||
Oklahoma's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Green
|
||||
White
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Oregon ==
|
||||
|
||||
Oregon's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Navy blue
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
They were adopted in 1959.
|
||||
|
||||
Pennsylvania does not have known official state colors.
|
||||
No official state colors are listed on the Commonwealth's State Symbols webpage, and no resolution or legislation designating state colors is known to exist.
|
||||
Some sources erroneously cite blue and gold due to their prominence on the state license plate and the state flag, but these colors are coincidentally predominant on many current and historical US state license plates and on most blue "seal on a bedsheet" US state flags, including Pennsylvania's and at least 19 others.)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== South Carolina ==
|
||||
|
||||
South Carolina's official color is:
|
||||
|
||||
Indigo blue
|
||||
It was adopted in 2008.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Vermont ==
|
||||
|
||||
Vermont does not have known official state colors.
|
||||
Vermont proposed in 2007 to make the colors
|
||||
|
||||
Green
|
||||
Gold
|
||||
its official state colors; however, the motion did not succeed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Washington ==
|
||||
|
||||
Washington does not have known official state colors.
|
||||
No official state colors are listed the state legislature's State Symbols webpage nor in Chapter 1.20 of the Revised Code of Washington (where other official symbols are designated). Some sources list dark green and gold/yellow, the two colors specified for the flag by law since 1925.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== West Virginia ==
|
||||
|
||||
West Virginia's official colors are:
|
||||
|
||||
Old gold
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
They were adopted in 1963.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Wyoming ==
|
||||
|
||||
Wyoming does not have known official state colors.
|
||||
Wyoming proposed in 2003 to make the colors
|
||||
|
||||
Brown
|
||||
Yellow
|
||||
its official state colors in honor of the University of Wyoming Cowboys 1980 football uniforms; however, the motion did not succeed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:17.259708+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions for energy use, as well as per capita and by area.
|
||||
The state with the highest total carbon dioxide emissions is Texas and the lowest is Vermont. The state with the highest per capita carbon dioxide emissions is Wyoming and the lowest is New York.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Table ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
|
||||
Top contributors to greenhouse gas emissions
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by State, 2000-2015
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of alternative shells for Windows"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alternative_shells_for_Windows"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:51.354618+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of software that provides an alternative graphical user interface for Microsoft Windows operating systems. The technical term for this interface is a shell. Windows' standard user interface is the Windows shell; Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1 have a different shell, called Program Manager. The programs in this list do not restyle the Windows shell, but replace it; therefore, they look and function differently, and have different configuration options.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Comparison of Start menu replacements for Windows 8
|
||||
Comparison of X Window System desktop environments
|
||||
Desktop environment
|
||||
History of the graphical user interface
|
||||
Microsoft Bob
|
||||
Removal of Internet Explorer
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Liming, Sean (August 2003). "Windows XP Embedded – Different Shells for Different Users". Microsoft Developer Network. Microsoft. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of artificial intelligence artists"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_artists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:52.529607+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Many notable artificial intelligence artists have created a wide variety of artificial intelligence art from the 1960s to today. These include:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 20th century ==
|
||||
Harold Cohen, active from 1960s to 2010s. Cohen's work is primarily with AARON, a series of computer programs that autonomously create original images.
|
||||
Eric Millikin, active from 1980s to present. Millikin's work includes AI-generated virtual reality, video art, poetry, music, and performance art, on topics such as animal rights, climate change, anti-racism, witchcraft, and the occult.
|
||||
Karl Sims, active from 1980s to present. Sims is best known for using particle systems and artificial life in computer animation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 21st century ==
|
||||
Refik Anadol, active from 2010s to present. Anadol's work includes video installations based on generative algorithms with artificial intelligence.
|
||||
Sougwen Chung, active from 2010s to present. Chung's work includes performances with a robotic arm that uses AI to attempt to draw in a manner similar to Chung.
|
||||
Stephanie Dinkins, active from 2010s to present. Dinkins' work includes recordings of conversations with an artificially intelligent robot that resembles a black woman, discussing topics such as race and the nature of being.
|
||||
Jake Elwes, active from 2010s to present. Their practice is the exploration of artificial intelligence, queer theory and technical biases.
|
||||
Libby Heaney, active from 2010s to present. Heaney's practice includes work with chatbots.
|
||||
Mario Klingemann, active from 2010s to present. Klingemann's works examine creativity, culture, and perception through machine learning and artificial intelligence.
|
||||
Mauro Martino, active from 2010s to present. Martino's work includes design, data visualization and infographics.
|
||||
Trevor Paglen, active from 2000s to present. Paglen's practice includes work in photography and geography, on topics like mass surveillance and data collection.
|
||||
Anna Ridler, active from 2010s to present. Ridler works with collections of information, including self-generated data sets, often working with floral photography.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of artificial intelligence projects"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:53.775795+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of current and past, non-classified notable artificial intelligence projects.
|
||||
|
||||
== Specialized projects ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Brain-inspired ===
|
||||
Blue Brain Project, an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.
|
||||
Google Brain, a deep learning project part of Google X attempting to have intelligence similar or equal to human-level.
|
||||
Human Brain Project, ten-year scientific research project, based on exascale supercomputers.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cognitive architectures ===
|
||||
|
||||
4CAPS, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under Marcel A. Just
|
||||
ACT-R, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under John R. Anderson.
|
||||
AIXI, Universal Artificial Intelligence developed by Marcus Hutter at IDSIA and ANU.
|
||||
CALO, a DARPA-funded, 25-institution effort to integrate many artificial intelligence approaches (natural language processing, speech recognition, machine vision, probabilistic logic, planning, reasoning, many forms of machine learning) into an AI assistant that learns to help manage your office environment.
|
||||
CHREST, developed under Fernand Gobet at Brunel University and Peter C. Lane at the University of Hertfordshire.
|
||||
CLARION, developed under Ron Sun at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and University of Missouri.
|
||||
CoJACK, an ACT-R inspired extension to the JACK multi-agent system that adds a cognitive architecture to the agents for eliciting more realistic (human-like) behaviors in virtual environments.
|
||||
Copycat, by Douglas Hofstadter and Melanie Mitchell at the Indiana University.
|
||||
DUAL, developed at the New Bulgarian University under Boicho Kokinov.
|
||||
FORR developed by Susan L. Epstein at The City University of New York.
|
||||
IDA and LIDA, implementing Global Workspace Theory, developed under Stan Franklin at the University of Memphis.
|
||||
OpenCog Prime, developed using the OpenCog Framework.
|
||||
Procedural Reasoning System (PRS), developed by Michael Georgeff and Amy L. Lansky at SRI International.
|
||||
Psi-Theory developed under Dietrich Dörner at the Otto-Friedrich University in Bamberg, Germany.
|
||||
Soar, developed under Allen Newell and John Laird at Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Michigan.
|
||||
Society of Mind and its successor The Emotion Machine proposed by Marvin Minsky.
|
||||
Subsumption architectures, developed e.g. by Rodney Brooks (though it could be argued whether they are cognitive).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Games ===
|
||||
AlphaGo, software developed by Google that plays the Chinese board game Go.
|
||||
Chinook, a computer program that plays English draughts; the first to win the world champion title in the competition against humans.
|
||||
Deep Blue, a chess-playing computer developed by IBM which beat Garry Kasparov in 1997.
|
||||
Halite, an artificial intelligence programming competition created by Two Sigma in 2016.
|
||||
Libratus, a poker AI that beat world-class poker players in 2017, intended to be generalisable to other applications.
|
||||
The Matchbox Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine (sometimes called the Machine Educable Noughts and Crosses Engine or MENACE) was a mechanical computer made from 304 matchboxes designed and built by artificial intelligence researcher Donald Michie in 1961.
|
||||
Quick, Draw!, an online game developed by Google that challenges players to draw a picture of an object or idea and then uses a neural network to guess what the drawing is.
|
||||
The Samuel Checkers-playing Program (1959) was among the world's first successful self-learning programs, and as such a very early demonstration of the fundamental concept of artificial intelligence (AI).
|
||||
Stockfish AI, an open source chess engine currently ranked the highest in many computer chess rankings.
|
||||
TD-Gammon, a program that learned to play world-class backgammon partly by playing against itself (temporal difference learning with neural networks).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Internet activism ===
|
||||
Serenata de Amor, project for the analysis of public expenditures and detect discrepancies.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Knowledge and reasoning ===
|
||||
Alice (Microsoft), a project from Microsoft Research Lab aimed at improving decision-making in Economics
|
||||
Braina, an intelligent personal assistant application with a voice interface for Windows OS.
|
||||
Cyc, an attempt to assemble an ontology and database of everyday knowledge, enabling human-like reasoning.
|
||||
Eurisko, a language by Douglas Lenat for solving problems which consists of heuristics, including some for how to use and change its heuristics.
|
||||
Google Now, an intelligent personal assistant with a voice interface in Google's Android and Apple Inc.'s iOS, as well as Google Chrome web browser on personal computers.
|
||||
Holmes a new AI created by Wipro.
|
||||
Microsoft Cortana, an intelligent personal assistant with a voice interface in Microsoft's various Windows 10 editions.
|
||||
MindsDB, is an AI automation platform for building AI/ML powered features and applications.
|
||||
Mycin, an early medical expert system.
|
||||
Open Mind Common Sense, a project based at the MIT Media Lab to build a large common sense knowledge base from online contributions.
|
||||
Siri, an intelligent personal assistant and knowledge navigator with a voice-interface in Apple Inc.'s iOS and macOS.
|
||||
SNePS, simultaneously a logic-based, frame-based, and network-based knowledge representation, reasoning, and acting system.
|
||||
Viv (software), a new AI by the creators of Siri.
|
||||
Wolfram Alpha, an online service that answers queries by computing the answer from structured data.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Motion and manipulation ===
|
||||
AIBO, the robot pet for the home, grew out of Sony's Computer Science Laboratory (CSL).
|
||||
Cog, a robot developed by MIT to study theories of cognitive science and artificial intelligence, now discontinued.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Music ===
|
||||
Melomics, a bioinspired technology for music composition and synthesization of music, where computers develop their own style, rather than mimic musicians.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of artificial intelligence projects"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:53.775795+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Natural language processing ===
|
||||
AIML, an XML dialect for creating natural language software agents.
|
||||
Apache Lucene, a high-performance, full-featured text search engine library written entirely in Java.
|
||||
Apache OpenNLP, a machine learning based toolkit for the processing of natural language text. It supports the most common NLP tasks, such as tokenization, sentence segmentation, part-of-speech tagging, named entity extraction, chunking and parsing.
|
||||
Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.), a natural language processing chatterbot.
|
||||
ChatGPT, a chatbot built on top of OpenAI's GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 family of large language models.
|
||||
Claude, a family of large language models developed by Anthropic and launched in 2023. Claude LLMs achieved high coding scores in several recognized LLM benchmarks.
|
||||
Cleverbot, successor to Jabberwacky, now with 170m lines of conversation, Deep Context, fuzziness and parallel processing. Cleverbot learns from around 2 million user interactions per month.
|
||||
DeepSeek: Chinese chatbot funded by hedge fund High-Flyer.
|
||||
DBRX, 136 billion parameter open sourced large language model developed by Mosaic ML and Databricks.
|
||||
ELIZA, a famous 1966 computer program by Joseph Weizenbaum, which parodied person-centered therapy.
|
||||
FreeHAL, a self-learning conversation simulator (chatterbot) which uses semantic nets to organize its knowledge to imitate a very close human behavior within conversations.
|
||||
Gemini, a family of multimodal large language model developed by Google's DeepMind. Drives the Gemini chatbot, formerly known as Bard.
|
||||
GigaChat, a chatbot by Russian Sberbank.
|
||||
GPT-3, a 2020 language model developed by OpenAI that can produce text difficult to distinguish from that written by a human.
|
||||
Jabberwacky, a chatbot by Rollo Carpenter, aiming to simulate natural human chat.
|
||||
LaMDA, a family of conversational neural language models developed by Google.
|
||||
LLaMA, a 2023 language model family developed by Meta that includes 7, 13, 33 and 65 billion parameter models.[1]
|
||||
Mycroft, a free and open-source intelligent personal assistant that uses a natural language user interface.
|
||||
PARRY, another early chatterbot, written in 1972 by Kenneth Colby, attempting to simulate a paranoid schizophrenic.
|
||||
SHRDLU, an early natural language processing computer program developed by Terry Winograd at MIT from 1968 to 1970.
|
||||
SYSTRAN, a machine translation technology by the company of the same name, used by Yahoo!, AltaVista and Google, among others.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Speech recognition ===
|
||||
|
||||
CMU Sphinx, a group of speech recognition systems developed at Carnegie Mellon University.
|
||||
DeepSpeech, an open-source Speech-To-Text engine based on Baidu's deep speech research paper.
|
||||
Whisper, an open-source speech recognition system developed at OpenAI.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Speech synthesis ===
|
||||
|
||||
15.ai, a real-time artificial intelligence text-to-speech tool developed by an anonymous researcher from MIT.
|
||||
Amazon Polly, a speech synthesis software by Amazon.
|
||||
Festival Speech Synthesis System, a general multi-lingual speech synthesis system developed at the Centre for Speech Technology Research (CSTR) at the University of Edinburgh.
|
||||
WaveNet, a deep neural network for generating raw audio.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Video ===
|
||||
CapCut is a video editor tool, developed by ByteDance for short video content on TikTok, YouTube, Instagram, and other social media platforms.
|
||||
HeyGen is a video creation platform that generates digital avatars that recite and translate text inputs into varying languages.
|
||||
Synthesia is a video creation and editing platform, with AI-generated avatars that resemble real human beings.
|
||||
VEO is a text to video model developed by Google DeepMind, VEO 3, the model released in May 2025 can also generate the video's audio
|
||||
Sora is also a text to video model made by OpenAI, the model generated short video clips based on prompts given by the user. Discontinued on september 30th 2026 due to the project not being profitable.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other ===
|
||||
1 the Road, the first novel marketed by an AI.
|
||||
AlphaFold is a deep learning based system developed by DeepMind for prediction of protein structure.
|
||||
Otter.ai is a speech-to-text synthesis and summary platform, which allows users to record online meetings as text. It additionally creates live captions during meetings.
|
||||
Cluely is an AI assistant for virtual interviews.
|
||||
Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulations (SEAS), a model of the real world used by Homeland security and the United States Department of Defense that uses simulation and AI to predict and evaluate future events and courses of action.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Code generation ===
|
||||
Amazon Q Developer — AI coding assistant by Amazon Web Services.
|
||||
Claude Code — AI coding tool by Anthropic.
|
||||
Codex — AI coding agent by OpenAI.
|
||||
Cursor — AI-assisted code editor by Anysphere.
|
||||
Devin AI — AI software development agent by Cognition AI.
|
||||
GitHub Copilot — AI coding assistant by GitHub.
|
||||
Google Antigravity — AI coding environment by Google.
|
||||
Replit Agent — AI app-building agent by Replit.
|
||||
Tabnine — AI code completion tool.
|
||||
|
||||
== Multipurpose projects ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Software libraries ===
|
||||
Apache Mahout, a library of scalable machine learning algorithms.
|
||||
Deeplearning4j, an open-source, distributed deep learning framework written for the JVM.
|
||||
Keras, a high level open-source software library for machine learning (works on top of other libraries).
|
||||
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit (previously known as CNTK), an open source toolkit for building artificial neural networks.
|
||||
OpenNN, a comprehensive C++ library implementing neural networks.
|
||||
PyTorch, an open-source Tensor and Dynamic neural network in Python.
|
||||
TensorFlow, an open-source software library for machine learning.
|
||||
Theano, a Python library and optimizing compiler for manipulating and evaluating mathematical expressions, especially matrix-valued ones.
|
||||
|
||||
=== GUI frameworks ===
|
||||
Neural Designer, a commercial deep learning tool for predictive analytics.
|
||||
Neuroph, a Java neural network framework.
|
||||
OpenCog, a GPL-licensed framework for artificial intelligence written in C++, Python and Scheme.
|
||||
PolyAnalyst: A commercial tool for data mining, text mining, and knowledge management.
|
||||
RapidMiner, an environment for machine learning and data mining, now developed commercially.
|
||||
Weka, a free implementation of many machine learning algorithms in Java.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cloud services ===
|
||||
Data Applied, a web based data mining environment.
|
||||
Watson, a pilot service by IBM to uncover and share data-driven insights, and to spur cognitive applications.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Comparison of cognitive architectures
|
||||
Comparison of deep-learning software
|
||||
Comparison of machine learning software
|
||||
List of artificial intelligence journals
|
||||
List of artificial intelligence algorithms
|
||||
Lists of open-source artificial intelligence software
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
AI projects on GitHub
|
||||
AI projects on SourceForge
|
||||
92
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_binary_codes-0.md
Normal file
92
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_binary_codes-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of binary codes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_binary_codes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:56.277404+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of some binary codes that are (or have been) used to represent text as a sequence of binary digits "0" and "1". Fixed-width binary codes use a set number of bits to represent each character in the text, while in variable-width binary codes, the number of bits may vary from character to character.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Five-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
Several different five-bit codes were used for early punched tape systems.
|
||||
Five bits per character only allows for 32 different characters, so many of the five-bit codes used two sets of characters per value referred to as FIGS (figures) and LTRS (letters), and reserved two characters to switch between these sets. This effectively allowed the use of 60 characters.
|
||||
Standard five-bit standard codes are:
|
||||
|
||||
International Telegraph Alphabet No. 1 (ITA1) – Also commonly referred to as Baudot code
|
||||
International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) – Also commonly referred to as Murray code
|
||||
American Teletypewriter code (USTTY) – A variant of ITA2 used in the USA
|
||||
DIN 66006 – Developed for the presentation of ALGOL/ALCOR programs on paper tape and punch cards
|
||||
The following early computer systems each used its own five-bit code:
|
||||
|
||||
J. Lyons and Co. LEO (Lyon's Electronic Office)
|
||||
English Electric DEUCE
|
||||
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ILLIAC
|
||||
ZEBRA
|
||||
EMI 1100
|
||||
Ferranti Mercury, Pegasus, and Orion systems
|
||||
The steganographic code, commonly known as Bacon's cipher uses groups of 5 binary-valued elements to represent letters of the alphabet.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Six-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
Six bits per character allows 64 distinct characters to be represented.
|
||||
Examples of six-bit binary codes are:
|
||||
|
||||
International Telegraph Alphabet No. 4 (ITA4)
|
||||
Six-bit BCD (Binary Coded Decimal), used by early mainframe computers.
|
||||
Six-bit ASCII subset of the primitive seven-bit ASCII
|
||||
Braille – Braille characters are represented using six dot positions, arranged in a rectangle. Each position may contain a raised dot or not, so Braille can be considered to be a six-bit binary code.
|
||||
See also: Six-bit character codes
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Seven-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
Examples of seven-bit binary codes are:
|
||||
|
||||
International Telegraph Alphabet No. 3 (ITA3) – derived from the Moore ARQ code, and also known as the RCA
|
||||
ASCII – The ubiquitous ASCII code was originally defined as a seven-bit character set. The ASCII article provides a detailed set of equivalent standards and variants. In addition, there are various extensions of ASCII to eight bits (see Eight-bit binary codes)
|
||||
CCIR 476 – Extends ITA2 from 5 to 7 bits, using the extra 2 bits as check digits
|
||||
International Telegraph Alphabet No. 4 (ITA4)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Eight-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
Extended ASCII – A number of standards extend ASCII to eight bits by adding a further 128 characters, such as:
|
||||
HP Roman
|
||||
ISO/IEC 8859
|
||||
Mac OS Roman
|
||||
Windows-1252
|
||||
EBCDIC – Used in early IBM computers and current IBM i and System z systems.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 10-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
AUTOSPEC – Also known as Bauer code. AUTOSPEC repeats a five-bit character twice, but if the character has odd parity, the repetition is inverted.
|
||||
Decabit – A datagram of electronic pulses which are transmitted commonly through power lines. Decabit is mainly used in Germany and other European countries.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 16-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
UCS-2 – An obsolete encoding capable of representing the basic multilingual plane of Unicode
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 32-bit binary codes ==
|
||||
UTF-32/UCS-4 – A four-bytes-per-character representation of Unicode.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Variable-length binary codes ==
|
||||
UTF-8 – Encodes characters in a way that is mostly compatible with ASCII but can also encode the full repertoire of Unicode characters with sequences of up to four 8-bit bytes.
|
||||
UTF-16 – Extends UCS-2 to cover the whole of Unicode with sequences of one or two 16-bit elements
|
||||
GB 18030 – A full-Unicode variable-length code designed for compatibility with older Chinese multibyte encodings
|
||||
Huffman coding – A technique for expressing more common characters using shorter bit strings than are used for less common characters
|
||||
Data compression systems such as Lempel–Ziv–Welch can compress arbitrary binary data. They are therefore not binary codes themselves but may be applied to binary codes to reduce storage needs.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other ==
|
||||
Morse code is a variable-length telegraphy code, which traditionally uses a series of long and short pulses to encode characters. It relies on gaps between the pulses to provide separation between letters and words, as the letter codes do not have the "prefix property". This means that Morse code is not necessarily a binary system, but in a sense may be a ternary system, with a 10 for a "dit" or a "dot", a 1110 for a dash, and a 00 for a single unit of separation. Morse code can be represented as a binary stream by allowing each bit to represent one unit of time. Thus a "dit" or "dot" is represented as a 1 bit, while a "dah" or "dash" is represented as three consecutive 1 bits. Spaces between symbols, letters, and words are represented as one, three, or seven consecutive 0 bits. For example, "NO U" in Morse code is "— . — — — . . —", which could be represented in binary as "1110100011101110111000000010101110". If, however, Morse code is represented as a ternary system, "NO U" would be represented as "1110|10|00|1110|1110|1110|00|00|00|10|10|1110".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of computer character sets
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
83
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bitcoin_forks-0.md
Normal file
83
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bitcoin_forks-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of bitcoin forks"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bitcoin_forks"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:59.004526+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Bitcoin forks are defined variantly as changes in the protocol of the Bitcoin network or as the situations that occur "when two or more blocks have the same block height". A fork influences the validity of the rules. Forks are typically conducted in order to add new features to a blockchain, to reverse the effects of hacking or catastrophic bugs. Forks require consensus to be resolved or else a permanent split emerges.
|
||||
According to BIP-123 specifications, there are 3 main categories of Bitcoin forks:
|
||||
|
||||
Soft Forks within Bitcoin: These don't split the network. These are consensus rule changes where some previously-valid blocks are now invalid.
|
||||
Hard Forks within Bitcoin: These cause a permanent chain split between the 2 versions. These are consensus rule changes where some previously-invalid blocks are now valid.
|
||||
Hard Forks that created alternative blockchains and cryptocurrencies.
|
||||
There is also another subcategory of consensus rule changes that had a chance to cause a hard fork and chain split. However, because they were never exploited, they technically never resulted in a hard fork.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Soft Forks within Bitcoin ==
|
||||
These are consensus rule changes that did not cause a split in the network. These are the result of consensus rule changes where previously-valid blocks are now invalid in newer clients. Client nodes both with and without the update can still build on the same chain. Two of the most well-known Bitcoin soft forks are Segwit and Taproot.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Segwit ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Taproot ===
|
||||
Taproot is an agreed soft fork in the transaction format. The fork adds support for Schnorr signatures, and improves functionality of smart contracts and the Lightning Network. The fork was installed in November 2021. The upgrade adds privacy features. Taproot includes Bitcoin Improvement Proposal numbers BIP340, BIP341, BIP342.
|
||||
Advantages:
|
||||
|
||||
Complex transactions, such as those requiring multiple signatures or those with delayed release, are indistinguishable from simple transactions in terms of on-chain data.
|
||||
Reduced transaction costs: The data size of complex Bitcoin transactions is reduced, which leads to lower transaction fees.
|
||||
Support for more complicated conditions for a transaction via Schnorr signatures.
|
||||
Benefits for the Lightning Network: More flexibility, privacy enhancement, lower costs.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hard Forks within Bitcoin ==
|
||||
These are Hard Forks within Bitcoin that caused a chain split but did not create an alternative network or cryptocurrency. These are consensus rule changes where some previously-invalid blocks are now valid in newer clients.
|
||||
|
||||
v0.3.6: The addition of OP_NOP functions eventually caused a chain split. Clients prior to 0.3.6 can no longer sync with the current Bitcoin blockchain after block 163,685.
|
||||
March 2013 Chain Fork. The migration from BerkeleyDB to LevelDB in v0.8 caused a chain split. Miners reorged 24-blocks by switching back to v0.7.2. At least one double-spend occurred during this event. This bug was later fixed in v0.8.1.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hard Forks that created alternative blockchains and cryptocurrencies ==
|
||||
These are Hard Forks created via consensus rule changes that created an alternative blockchain and cryptocurrency. They share a transaction history with Bitcoin up to a certain time and date. The first hard fork splitting bitcoin happened on 1 August 2017, resulting in the creation of Bitcoin Cash.
|
||||
The following is a list of notable hard forks splitting bitcoin by date and/or block:
|
||||
|
||||
Bitcoin Cash: Forked at block 478558, 1 August 2017, for each bitcoin (BTC), an owner got 1 Bitcoin Cash (BCH)
|
||||
Bitcoin Satoshi Vision: Forked at block 556766, 15 November 2018, for each Bitcoin Cash (BCH), an owner got 1 Bitcoin SV (BSV).
|
||||
eCash: Forked at block 661648, 15 November 2020, for each Bitcoin Cash (BCH), an owner got 1,000,000 eCash (XEC).
|
||||
Bitcoin Gold: Forked at block 491407, 24 October 2017, for each bitcoin (BTC), an owner got 1 Bitcoin Gold (BTG)
|
||||
Bitcoin Classic
|
||||
In its first 8 months, Bitcoin Classic promoted a single increase of the maximum block size from one megabyte to two megabytes. In November 2016 this changed and the project moved to a solution that moved the limit out of the software rules into the hands of the miners and nodes.
|
||||
Bitcoin Unlimited
|
||||
All three software clients attempt to increase transaction capacity of the network. None achieved a majority of the hash power.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Software forks of Bitcoin Core without a blockchain ==
|
||||
The following are proposed software forks of the Bitcoin Core software client that did not successfully launch a blockchain:
|
||||
|
||||
Bitcoin XT
|
||||
A fork initiated by Mike Hearn. The current reference implementation for bitcoin contains a computational bottleneck. The actual fork was preceded by Mike Hearn publishing a Bitcoin Improvement Proposal (BIP 64) on June 10, 2014, calling for the addition of "a small P2P protocol extension that performs UTXO lookups given a set of outpoints." On December 27, 2014 Hearn released version 0.10 of the forked client XT, with the BIP 64 changes. It achieved significant attention within the bitcoin community in mid-2015 amid a contentious debate among core developers over increasing the block size cap.
|
||||
On June 22, 2015, Gavin Andresen published BIP 101 calling for an increase in the maximum block size. The changes would activate a fork allowing eight MB blocks (doubling in size every two years) once 75% of a stretch of 1,000 mined blocks is achieved after the beginning of 2016. The new maximum transaction rate under XT would have been 24 transactions per second.
|
||||
On August 6, 2015 Andresen's BIP101 proposal was merged into the XT codebase. Bip 101 was reverted and the 2-MB block size bump of Bitcoin Classic was applied instead.
|
||||
The August 2015 release of XT received widespread media coverage. The Guardian wrote that "bitcoin is facing civil war".
|
||||
Wired wrote that "Bitcoin XT exposes the extremely social—extremely democratic—underpinnings of the open source idea, an approach that makes open source so much more powerful than technology controlled by any one person or organization." Developer Adam Back was critical of the 75% activation threshold being too low and that some of the changes were insecure.
|
||||
On August 25, 2017, Bitcoin XT published Release G, which was a Bitcoin Cash client by default. Subsequently, Release H was published, which supported the November 2017 Bitcoin Cash protocol upgrade, followed by Release I, which supported the May 2018 Bitcoin Cash protocol upgrade.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Potential hard forks that were never exploited ==
|
||||
These are client consensus updates that could have potentially caused a hard fork. They were either never exploited before being patched, or were reverted by a reorg before they were patched.
|
||||
|
||||
CVE-2010-5139: There was a value overflow bug that was exploited when a transaction minted 184B bitcoins. Miners reorged the blockchain to remove the minting transaction, causing a chain split. Because the reorg occurred before wxBitcoin v0.3.11 was released to fix the bug, it technically was not a hard fork.
|
||||
CVE-2018-17144: Bitcoin 0.15 had a critical inflation bug that allowed double spending certain inputs in the same block. This was not exploited before being patched.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Source code ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other references ===
|
||||
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_blockchains-0.md
Normal file
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_blockchains-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of blockchains"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_blockchains"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:00.224488+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of blockchains - decentralized, cryptographic databases - and other distributed ledgers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Category:Blockchains
|
||||
List of cryptocurrencies
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== General refs ===
|
||||
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1708.05665.pdf
|
||||
45
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours-0.md
Normal file
45
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chicken colours"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:27.382045+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Breeders and fanciers of chickens accurately describe the colours and patterns of the feathers of chicken breeds and varieties. This is a list of the terms used in this context.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Self ==
|
||||
Self-coloured chickens are those which display one solid colour without patterning of any kind.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Barred and cuckoo ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Columbian, belted ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Duckwing ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Laced ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pencilled ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mottled, spangled, mille fleur ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Black-tailed ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Black-breasted ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Others ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate change initiatives"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_initiatives"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:09.486632+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of climate change initiatives of international, national, regional, and local political initiatives to take action on climate change (global warming).
|
||||
A Climate Action Plan (CAP) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== International initiatives ==
|
||||
Climate target#Global climate targets
|
||||
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
|
||||
Kyoto Protocol
|
||||
International Carbon Action Partnership
|
||||
Global Environment Facility
|
||||
Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change
|
||||
Paris Agreement
|
||||
Plant-based action plan
|
||||
Conference of Parties
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== National initiatives ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Local initiatives ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== United Kingdom ===
|
||||
Of the 397 councils in the United Kingdom, 337 have a climate action plan.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== United States ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Detroit ====
|
||||
One of the more recent climate action plans is the 2019 Sustainability Action Agenda is a climate strategy plan created by the city of Detroit that emerged from gradual 12-year planning process of multiple efforts moving towards a more sustainable city. The action plan focuses on 4 main categories: Transitioning to clean energy through a 3-year target to reach 50% solar power to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Icreasing sustainable mobility geared towards improving public transportation, transition to electric vehicles, and creating more pedestrian and cyclist pathways. Accelerating energy efficiency and reducing waste by benchmarking emissions, electrification programs, and reducing food waste. And lastly, prioritizing vulnerable residents from floods, heat, and bad air quality through resilience hubs, recovery guides, and new prevention infrastructure that will reduce the impact of climate change and natural disasters.
|
||||
Detroit's sustainability plan talks extensively about economic growth and sustainability. The proposition has the main objective of decreasing waste and air pollution to help vulnerable and marginalized communities adapt better to the negative implications of climate change. Actions associated with this initiative include lowering utility billing, establishing cleaner indoor air – which will be done by upgrading and repairing homes and appliances – and increasing inclusivity and access to sustainable wages. In doing all of this, the city hopes to improve the overall welfare of Detroit residents; they are the primary focus of this plan. Subsequently, for these policy goals to be achieved the city of Detroit has the intention to increase job opportunity access as well as reduce operation cost – because 63% of Detroit's greenhouse gas emissions comes from buildings – to increase economy mobility and savings.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Canada ===
|
||||
On the municipal and regional level, many cities have created climate action plans. The Federation of Canadian Municipalities coordinates local climate action through a program called Partners for Climate Protection.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Provincial plans ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Regional or municipal plans ====
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Climate target
|
||||
List of environmental agreements
|
||||
Nationally determined contributions (NDC)
|
||||
Regional climate change initiatives in the United States
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Terry Townshend; Sam Fankhauser; Adam Matthews; Clément Feger; Jin Liu; Thais Narciso. "Legislating Climate Change on a National Level". environmentmagazine.org. Environment. Retrieved October 8, 2016. SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
|
||||
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
|
||||
US Clean Energy States - an alliance of US states working together to promote renewable energy
|
||||
Cities for Climate Protection - reductions in local greenhouse gas emissions, improvements in air quality, and enhanced urban livability
|
||||
Official list of local Climate Action Plans in California for 2019
|
||||
Kirsten Engel and Barak Orbach, Micro-Motives for State and Local Climate Change Initiatives Harvard Law & Policy Review, Vol. 2, pp. 119–137, 2008
|
||||
Nigeria climate action plan
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate engineering topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_engineering_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:01.290388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Climate engineering geoengineering topics related to greenhouse gas remediation include:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Solar radiation management ==
|
||||
Solar radiation management
|
||||
Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering)
|
||||
Marine cloud brightening
|
||||
Cool roof
|
||||
Space sunshade
|
||||
Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Carbon dioxide removal ==
|
||||
Carbon dioxide removal
|
||||
Biochar
|
||||
Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage
|
||||
Direct air capture
|
||||
Ocean fertilization
|
||||
Enhanced weathering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other greenhouse gas remediation ===
|
||||
Greenhouse gas removal
|
||||
CFC laser photochemistry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other projects ==
|
||||
Arctic geoengineering
|
||||
Cirrus Cloud Thinning
|
||||
Sea ice refreezing
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
An interactive Geoengineering Map prepared by ETC Group and the Heinrich Boell Foundation
|
||||
103
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-0.md
Normal file
103
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate scientists"
|
||||
chunk: 1/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science. The list is compiled manually, so will not be complete, up to date, or comprehensive. The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Waleed Abdalati, American, director of Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Studies, former chief scientist of NASA
|
||||
Nerilie Abram (1977–), Australian paleoclimatologist, at Australian National University
|
||||
Ernest Afiesimama, Nigerian weatherman, former senior associate of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics
|
||||
Myles Allen, head of the Climate Dynamics group at University of Oxford's Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department. Lead author, IPCC Third Assessment Report. Review editor, Fourth Assessment Report.
|
||||
Richard Alley (1957–), Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Science, American, Earth's cryosphere and global climate change.
|
||||
Kevin Anderson, Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research and is an adviser to the British Government on climate change.
|
||||
James Annan, British climatologist with Blue Skies Research, UK
|
||||
Julie Arblaster, Australian climatologist at The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research in CSIRO
|
||||
David Archer, American professor of oceanography at University of Chicago
|
||||
Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), Swedish, greenhouse effect
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Sallie Baliunas, American, astrophysicist, solar variation
|
||||
Elizabeth A. Barnes, American climate scientist working on earth science statistics
|
||||
Eric J. Barron (1944–), American geophysicist, President of Pennsylvania State University
|
||||
Roger G. Barry, (1935–2018), British-American, polar climatologist, first director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center
|
||||
Robin Bell, American, polar geophysicist, President-elect of the American Geophysical Union
|
||||
Martin Beniston (1953–), Swiss climate scientist.
|
||||
Lennart Bengtsson (1935–), Swedish meteorologist and climate scientist
|
||||
André Berger, (1942–), Belgian, modeling climatic changes at the geological and at the century time scales
|
||||
Richard A. Betts, Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre
|
||||
John W. Birks, American atmospheric chemist and co-developer of the nuclear winter theory
|
||||
Jacob Bjerknes (1897–1975), Norwegian-American meteorologist
|
||||
Vilhelm Bjerknes (1862–1951), Norwegian, forecasting, numerical models
|
||||
Bert Bolin (1925–2007), Swedish meteorologist, first chair of the IPCC
|
||||
Gerard C. Bond (1940–2005), American geologist and paleoclimate researcher
|
||||
Jason Box, American professor of glaciology at Ohio State University
|
||||
Raymond S. Bradley, American, historical temperatures, paleoclimatology, and climate variability.
|
||||
Keith Briffa (1952–2017), United Kingdom, dendrochronology, temperature history.
|
||||
Wallace Smith Broecker (1931–2019), American, Pleistocene geochronology, radiocarbon dating, and chemical oceanography
|
||||
Harold E. Brooks (1959–), American meteorologist, severe convective storm and tornado climatology as well as conducive atmospheric environments
|
||||
Keith Browning, British meteorologist; mesoscale meteorology, sparkles
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Robert Cahalan, American, climate physics, energy balance, radiative transfer, remote sensing, solar radiation
|
||||
Ken Caldeira, American, climate engineering, ocean acidification, atmospheric chemistry
|
||||
Guy Stewart Callendar (February 1898-October 1964), English steam engineer and inventor who proposed what eventually became known as the Callendar effect, the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature
|
||||
Mark Cane, American, modeling and prediction of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation
|
||||
Anny Cazenave, French oceanographer specializing in satellite altimetry
|
||||
Robert D. Cess, American atmospheric scientist, emeritus professor at Stony Brook University
|
||||
Jule G. Charney (1917–1981), American meteorologist, pioneer in numerical weather modeling
|
||||
John Christy, director of the Earth System Science Center at The University of Alabama in Huntsville. Best known (with Roy Spencer) for developing the first version of the satellite temperature record.
|
||||
John A. Church (1951–), Australian oceanographer, chair of the World Climate Research Programme
|
||||
Ralph J. Cicerone (1943–2016), American atmospheric chemist, President of U.S. National Academy of Sciences
|
||||
Danielle Claar, American marine scientist studying effect of climate on coral symbionts and parasites
|
||||
Allison Crimmins, American, head of the National Climate Assessment
|
||||
Harmon Craig (1926–2003), pioneering American geochemist
|
||||
Paul J. Crutzen (1933–2021), Dutch, stratospheric and tropospheric chemistry, and their role in the biogeochemical cycles and climate
|
||||
Heidi Cullen, American meteorologist, chief scientist for Climate Central
|
||||
Balfour Currie OC (1902–1981), Canadian climatologist at University of Saskatchewan
|
||||
Judith Curry American climatologist and former chair of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Willi Dansgaard (1922–2011), Danish climatologist
|
||||
Scott Denning, American atmospheric scientist and professor at Colorado State University
|
||||
Andrew Dessler, American atmospheric scientist and professor at Texas A&M University
|
||||
P. C. S. Devara, Indian climatologist and professor at Amity University, Gurgaon
|
||||
Robert E. Dickinson, American climatologist, professor at University of Texas at Austin
|
||||
Mark Dyurgerov (died 2009), Russian-American glaciologist
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Sylvia Earle (1935–), American marine biologist
|
||||
Don Easterbrook (1935–), American, professor emeritus of Geology at Western Washington University
|
||||
Tamsin Edwards, British climate scientist at King's College London
|
||||
Arnt Eliassen, dynamic meteorologist
|
||||
Kerry Emanuel (1955–), American, atmospheric dynamics specializing in hurricanes
|
||||
Matthew England (1966–), Australian, physical oceanographer and climate dynamicist
|
||||
Ian G. Enting, Australian mathematical physicist at University of Melbourne
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Joe Farman, British, ozone hole above Antarctica
|
||||
Christopher Field, American climate scientist with the Carnegie Institution for Science
|
||||
Eunice Newton Foote (1819–1888), American scientist, first to demonstrate that increased atmospheric levels of CO2 would result in heating of the atmosphere
|
||||
Piers Forster, British professor of Physical Climate Change at University of Leeds
|
||||
Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), French, greenhouse effect
|
||||
Jennifer Francis, climate change in the Arctic
|
||||
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), first mapped the course of the Gulf Stream for use in sending mail from the United States to Europe
|
||||
Chris Freeman, Welsh professor of biogeochemistry
|
||||
Eigil Friis-Christensen (1944–2018), Danish geophysicist
|
||||
Inez Fung, American, climate modeling, biogeochemical cycles, and climate change
|
||||
Yevgraf Yevgrafovich Fyodorov (1880–1965), Russian climatologist
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Francis Galton (1822–1911), coined the term anticyclone
|
||||
Filippo Giorgi (1959–), Italian atmospheric physicist, International Centre for Theoretical Physics
|
||||
Peter Gleick (1956–), American, hydroclimatologist, hydrologic impacts of climate change, snowfall/snowmelt responses, water adaptation strategies, consequences of sea level rise
|
||||
Kenneth M. Golden, American applied mathematician, percolation theory and diffusion process models of sea ice, professor at University of Utah
|
||||
Natalya Gomez, climate-ice sheet-solid earth modeler, Canadian, professor at McGill University
|
||||
Jonathan M. Gregory, climate modeler, British, professor at University of Reading
|
||||
Jean Grove (1927–2001), British, glaciologist; the Little Ice Age
|
||||
81
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-1.md
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81
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate scientists"
|
||||
chunk: 2/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Joanna Haigh, (1954–), British, co-director of Grantham Institute at Imperial College London, solar variability
|
||||
Edmund Halley, published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the southern hemisphere
|
||||
Gordon Hamilton, (1966–2016), Scottish, Associate Research Professor, Climatology Group, of the University of Maine
|
||||
James E. Hansen (1941–), American, planetary atmospheres, remote sensing, numerical models, and global warming
|
||||
Kenneth Hare OC FRSC (1919–2002), Canadian climatologist
|
||||
Klaus Hasselmann, German oceanographer and climate modeller, founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology
|
||||
Ed Hawkins MBE, British climate scientist at University of Reading, and designer of data visualization graphics
|
||||
Katharine Hayhoe, Canadian, Atmospheric science, global climate models.
|
||||
Gabriele C. Hegerl (1963–), Professor of Climate System Science at the University of Edinburgh School of GeoSciences.
|
||||
Isaac Held, German-American atmospheric physicist, researcher at GFDL
|
||||
Ann Henderson-Sellers (1952–), Australian, climate change risk evaluation
|
||||
Ellie Highwood, Professor of Climate Physics at the University of Reading
|
||||
David A. Hodell, (1958–), British paleoclimatologist, professor at Cambridge University
|
||||
Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Australian oceanographer at University of Queensland
|
||||
Greg Holland, Australian meteorology researcher at NCAR
|
||||
Brian Hoskins, British climatologist and professor at University of Reading
|
||||
John T. Houghton (1931–2020), British, atmospheric physics, remote sensing
|
||||
Malcolm K. Hughes, British meso-climatologist, professor at University of Arizona
|
||||
Mike Hulme (1960–), British, climate impacts, climate modelling, climate and culture.
|
||||
Thomas Sterry Hunt (1826–1892), American, first scientist to connect carbon dioxide to climate change
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Sherwood Idso (1942–), American, former research physicist with US Department of Agriculture
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Eystein Jansen (1953–), Norwegian professor of paleoceanography at University of Bergen and former director of Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research
|
||||
Phil Jones (1952–), British, instrumental climate change, palaeoclimatology, detection of climate change
|
||||
Jean Jouzel, French glaciologist and climatologist specializing in major climatic shifts
|
||||
Jonathan H. Jiang, American scientist, climatologist, satellite remote sensing and climate modeling.
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Peter Kalmus, American data scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Associate Project Scientist at University of California, Los Angeles’ Joint Institute for Regional Earth System Science & Engineering
|
||||
Daniel Kammen, American professor of Energy at University of California, Berkeley
|
||||
Thomas R. Karl (1951–), American, climate extremes and variability
|
||||
David Karoly, Australian professor of meteorology at University of Melbourne
|
||||
Charles David Keeling (1928–2005), American, atmospheric carbon dioxide measurements, Keeling Curve
|
||||
Ralph Keeling (1959–), American professor of Atmospheric Chemistry at Scripps Institution of Oceanography
|
||||
David W. Keith, Canadian, Geoengineering and CO2 capture and storage research, University Professor at SEAS and Harvard Kennedy School
|
||||
Wilfrid George Kendrew, (1884–1962), Scottish climatologist and meteorologist
|
||||
Gretchen Keppel-Aleks, American climate scientist
|
||||
Joseph B. Klemp, American atmospheric scientist at NCAR
|
||||
Thomas Knutson, American climate modeller, researcher at GFDL
|
||||
Reto Knutti, Swiss climate scientist, professor at ETH Zurich
|
||||
Roxy Mathew Koll, Indian climate scientist at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM)
|
||||
Kirill Y. Kondratyev (1920–2006), Russian atmospheric physicist
|
||||
Bronwen Konecky, paleoclimatologist and climatologist
|
||||
Wladimir Köppen, Russian/German meteorologist and climatologist, Köppen climate classification
|
||||
Pancheti Koteswaram, Indian meteorologist and former vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization
|
||||
Shen Kuo (1031–1095), Chinese scientist who inferred that climates naturally shifted over an enormous span of time
|
||||
M. Levent Kurnaz, Turkish climate scientist at Boğaziçi University, director of the Center for Climate Change and Policy Studies (iklimBU)
|
||||
John E. Kutzbach (1937–2021), American climatologist at University of Wisconsin–Madison
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Dmitry Lachinov (1842–1902), Russian climatologist and engineer
|
||||
Hubert Lamb (1913–1997), British climatologist, founder of the Climatic Research Unit at University of East Anglia
|
||||
Kurt Lambeck, Australian, cryosphere-hydrosphere-lithosphere interactions, and sea level rise and its impact on human populations
|
||||
Helmut Landsberg (1906–1985), German-American, fostered the use of statistical analysis in climatology, which led to its evolution into a physical science
|
||||
Christopher Landsea (1965–), American meteorologist, Science and Operations Officer at the National Hurricane Center
|
||||
Mojib Latif (1954–), German, meteorology and oceanography, climate modelling
|
||||
Corinne Le Quéré, France/Canadian/UK, Royal Society research professor, University of East Anglia
|
||||
Anders Levermann, German professor of climate dynamics at University of Potsdam
|
||||
Richard Lindzen (1940–), American, dynamic meteorology, especially planetary waves
|
||||
Diana Liverman (1954–), American/British, climate impacts, vulnerability and policy
|
||||
Michael Lockwood, British professor of physics at Reading University
|
||||
Michael S. Longuet-Higgins FRS (Oceanographer) (1925–2016), British, mathematician and oceanographer DAMTP at Cambridge University and Scripps Institution UCSD, ocean waves and fluid dynamics
|
||||
Edward Norton Lorenz (1917–2008), American, discovery of the strange attractor notion and coined the term butterfly effect
|
||||
Claude Lorius, French glaciologist, director emeritus of CNRS
|
||||
James Lovelock (1919–2022), British, Gaia hypothesis and biotic feedbacks.
|
||||
Amanda Lynch, Australian, Professor of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University and the founding director of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society.
|
||||
Peter Lynch, Irish meteorologist and mathematician
|
||||
91
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-2.md
Normal file
91
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate scientists"
|
||||
chunk: 3/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Michael MacCracken (1942–), American, chief scientist at the Climate Institute in Washington, DC
|
||||
Gordon J. F. MacDonald (1929–2002), American physicist who developed one of the first computational models of climate change, and was an early advocate for governmental action
|
||||
Jerry D. Mahlman (1940–2012), American meteorologist and climatologist and a pioneer in the use of computational models of the atmosphere to examine the interactions between atmospheric chemistry and physics
|
||||
László Makra (1952–), Hungarian climatologist. Full professor. His main research area is pollen climatology and, within this, analysis of climatological relationships of ragweed pollen, as well as relationship between ragweed pollen concentration and respiratory diseases.
|
||||
Syukuro Manabe (1931–), American, professor Princeton University, pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations
|
||||
Gordon Manley (1902–1980), English, Central England temperature (CET) series
|
||||
Michael E. Mann (1965–), American, professor of meteorology and director, Earth System Science Center, Penn State U.
|
||||
David Marshall, British physical oceanographer at the University of Oxford.
|
||||
Valerie Masson-Delmotte, French climate scientist with a focus on paleoclimatology at the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory (LSCE)
|
||||
Gordon McBean, Canadian, boundary layer research, hydrometeorology and environmental impact research, and weather forecasting
|
||||
James J. McCarthy, American professor of Biological Oceanography at Harvard University
|
||||
Rachel E, McCarthy(1984-) British Climatologist, joint theorist whose work led to the solving of the 'missing heat' phenomenon. Expert in Disaster Risk and Reduction. European Commission
|
||||
Helen McGregor, Australian geologist and climate change researcher, a Fellow with the Research School of Earth Sciences at the Australian National University
|
||||
Christopher McKay, American planetary scientist at NASA Ames Research Center
|
||||
Marcia McNutt, American geophysicist, president of the National Academy of Sciences
|
||||
Linda Mearns, American climate scientist, senior scientist at NCAR
|
||||
Carl Mears, American, senior scientist at Remote Sensing Systems
|
||||
Gerald A. Meehl (1951–), American climatologist at NCAR
|
||||
Katrin Meissner, German and Australian physical oceanographer and climate scientist, director of the Climate Change Research Centre at University of New South Wales
|
||||
Sebastian H. Mernild (1972–), Danish glaciologist and hydrologist, former director of the Nansen Environmental Research Center (NERSC), Bergen, Norway and research director of the Climate Change and Glaciology Laboratory (at CECs), Valdivia, Chile. Former Vice President of the International Commission on Snow and Ice Hydrology (under IAHS).
|
||||
Milutin Milanković (1879–1958), Serbian, Milankovitch cycles
|
||||
John F. B. Mitchell, British, climate modelling and detection and attribution of climate change
|
||||
Fritz Möller (1906–1983), German, early modeling of CO2 greenhouse effect
|
||||
Mario J. Molina (1943–2020), Mexican, atmospheric chemistry and ozone depletion
|
||||
Nils-Axel Mörner (1938–2020), Swedish oceanographer and climate scientist
|
||||
Richard H. Moss, chairman, Advisory Committee for the Sustained National Climate Assessment
|
||||
Antonio Divino Moura, Brazilian meteorologist and formerly a vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization
|
||||
Richard A. Muller (1944–), American physicist, head of the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project, formerly an outspoken critic of current climate change science
|
||||
R. E. Munn FRSC (1919–2013), Canadian climatologist
|
||||
Helene Muri (1979–), Norwegian climate scientist
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Gerald North (1938–), American atmospheric scientist at Texas A&M and author of the North Report
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Hans Oeschger (1927–1998), Swiss palaeoclimatologist and isotope chemist
|
||||
Atsumu Ohmura (1942–), Japanese climatologist, professor emeritus at ETH Zurich
|
||||
Cliff Ollier (1931–), British-Australian geologist and climate scientist
|
||||
Abraham H. Oort, Dutch-American climatologist
|
||||
Michael Oppenheimer, American professor of geosciences at Princeton University
|
||||
Timothy Osborn, British professor of Climate Science at University of East Anglia
|
||||
Friederike Otto (1982–), German climatologist, associate director of the Environmental Change Institute
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Tim Palmer CBE FRS (1952–), British mathematical physicist, climate modeler at Oxford University
|
||||
Garth Paltridge (1940–), Australian atmospheric physicist
|
||||
David E. Parker, British, surface temperature trend
|
||||
Fyodor Panayev (1856–1933), Russian climatologist
|
||||
Graeme Pearman OA FAAS (1941–), Australian climatologist
|
||||
William Richard Peltier (1943–), Canadian, global geodynamic modeling and ice sheet reconstructions; atmospheric and oceanic waves and turbulence
|
||||
Jean Robert Petit, French palaeoclimatologist, emeritus director of research at Centre national de la recherche scientifique
|
||||
David Phillips OC (1944–), Canadian climatologist and meteorologist
|
||||
Roger A. Pielke, Sr. (1946–), American, climate change, environmental vulnerability, numerical modeling, and atmospheric dynamics
|
||||
Raymond Pierrehumbert, idealized climate modeling, Faint young sun paradox
|
||||
Andrew Pitman (1964–), British, terrestrial processes in global and regional climate modelling, model evaluation and earth systems approaches to understanding climate change
|
||||
Gilbert Plass (1920–2004), Canadian, CO2 greenhouse effect and AGW
|
||||
Henry Pollack, American emeritus professor of geophysics at University of Michigan
|
||||
Vicky Pope, British, Head of the Climate Prediction Programme at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Detlef Quadfasel, German professor of geophysics at Niels Bohr Institute
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Stefan Rahmstorf (1960–), German, the role of ocean currents in climate change
|
||||
Veerabhadran Ramanathan, Indian, general circulation models, atmospheric chemistry, and radiative transfer
|
||||
Michael Raupach (1950–2015), Australian climatologist, formerly of CSIRO and was director of the Climate Change program at Australian National University
|
||||
Maureen Raymo, American paleoclimatologist
|
||||
David Reay, Professor of Carbon Management at the University of Edinburgh
|
||||
Martine Rebetez (1961–), Swiss climatologist, professor at the University of Neuchâtel and senior scientist at Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL.
|
||||
Roger Revelle (1909–1991), American, global warming and chemical oceanography
|
||||
Lewis Fry Richardson (1881–1953), English mathematician and meteorologist
|
||||
Eric Rignot, American professor of Earth System Science at University of California, Irvine
|
||||
Alan Robock (1941–), American climatologist, professor at Rutgers University
|
||||
Joeri Rogelj (1980–), Belgian climate scientist and IPCC author
|
||||
Joseph J. Romm (1960–), American author, blogger, physicist
|
||||
Carl-Gustaf Rossby (1898–1957), Swedish-American climatologist
|
||||
Frank Sherwood Rowland (1927–2012), American atmospheric chemist at University of California, Irvine
|
||||
Cynthia E. Rosenzweig (c. 1958–), American climatologist, pioneered the study of climate change and agriculture
|
||||
William Ruddiman, American palaeoclimatologist, Early Anthropogenic Hypothesis
|
||||
Steve Running, American global ecologist at University of Montana
|
||||
105
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-3.md
Normal file
105
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate scientists"
|
||||
chunk: 4/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Murry Salby, American atmospheric and climate scientist
|
||||
Jim Salinger, New Zealand climatologist
|
||||
Dork Sahagian, Armenian-American, Lehigh University
|
||||
Marie Sanderson (1921–2010), Canadian geographer and climatologist
|
||||
Ben Santer (1955–), climatologist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
|
||||
Nicola Scafetta (1975–), Italian astronomer and climate scientist
|
||||
Hans Joachim Schellnhuber (1950–), German climatologist, was an author for the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
|
||||
David Schindler, Canadian-American environmental chemist, professor of ecology at University of Alberta
|
||||
Michael Schlesinger, American professor of Atmospheric Sciences at UIUC
|
||||
William H. Schlesinger (1950–), American biogeochemist, former Dean of the Nicholas School at Duke University
|
||||
Gavin A. Schmidt, American climatologist and climate modeler at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS)
|
||||
Stephen H. Schneider (1945–2010), American, Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University
|
||||
Daniel P. Schrag (1966–), American, Professor of Geology at Harvard University and Director of the Harvard University Center for the Environment
|
||||
Stephen E. Schwartz (1941–), American, chemistry of air pollutants, radiative forcing of aerosols on climate
|
||||
Tom Segalstad (1949–), Norwegian geochemist
|
||||
Wolfgang Seiler (1940–), German climatologist at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
|
||||
John H. Seinfeld, American atmospheric chemist at California Institute of Technology
|
||||
Mark Serreze (1960–), American geographer/climatologist, director of the National Snow and Ice Data Center
|
||||
Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006), British palaeoclimatologist at Cambridge University
|
||||
Nir Shaviv (1972–), Israeli‐American astrophysicist and climate scientist
|
||||
J. Marshall Shepherd, American professor of meteorology at University of Georgia
|
||||
Drew Shindell, American atmospheric chemist, professor of Climate Sciences at Duke University
|
||||
Keith Shine, Regius Professor of Meteorology and Climate Science at the University of Reading
|
||||
Jagdish Shukla (1944–), Indian-American climatologist at George Mason University
|
||||
Joanne Simpson (1923–2010), American meteorologist
|
||||
Fred Singer (1924–2020), atmospheric physicist, president of the Science & Environmental Policy Project, a climate change denialist group
|
||||
Julia Slingo (1950–), chief scientist at the Met Office since 2009
|
||||
Joseph Smagorinsky (1924–2005), American meteorologist; first head of NOAA GFDL
|
||||
Robert H. Socolow, Princeton University professor who collaborated on the Climate stabilization wedge
|
||||
Susan Solomon (1956–), American, research in chlorofluorocarbons and ozone depletion
|
||||
Richard C. J. Somerville (1941–), American climatologist Scripps Institution of Oceanography
|
||||
Kozma Spassky-Avtonomov (1807–1890), Russian climatologist
|
||||
Roy Spencer, climatologist, research scientist at the University of Alabama
|
||||
Konrad Steffen (1952–2020), Swiss-American glaciologist at University of Colorado Boulder
|
||||
Will Steffen (1947–2023), Australian climatologist, science advisor to Australian government
|
||||
David Stephenson (1963–), British, climate scientist and statistician at the University of Exeter.
|
||||
Thomas Stocker, Swiss, climate dynamics and paleoclimate modeling and reconstruction
|
||||
Hans von Storch (1949–), German, meteorologist of Geesthacht, Germany
|
||||
Peter A. Stott, British, climate scientist.
|
||||
Hans E. Suess (1909–1993), Austrian, radiocarbon dating
|
||||
Henrik Svensmark, Professor in the Division of Solar System Physics at the Danish National Space Institute
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Kevin Russel Tate (1943–2018), New Zealand soil chemist, studied carbon cycling and sequestration in soils
|
||||
Simon Tett, British, detection and attribution of climate change, model initialization, and validation
|
||||
Peter Thejll (1956–), Danish, Northern Hemisphere land air temperature, solar variation and greenhouse effect
|
||||
Peter Thorne, British climatologist with the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre, Bergen, Norway
|
||||
C. W. Thornthwaite (1899–1963), American geographer and climatologist responsible for the Thornthwaite climate classification
|
||||
Liz Thomas, British palaeoclimatologist, ice cores, British Antarctic Survey
|
||||
Lonnie Thompson (1948–), American, Professor of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University paleoclimatology, ice cores
|
||||
Axel Timmermann, German climate physicist and oceanographer, director of IBS Center for Climate Physics
|
||||
Micha Tomkiewicz (1939–), American climate change professor at Brooklyn College
|
||||
Owen Toon, American professor of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences at University of Colorado Boulder
|
||||
Kevin E. Trenberth, decadal variability, El Niño-Southern Oscillation
|
||||
Susan Trumbore, earth systems scientist focusing on the carbon cycle and its effects on climate, director at the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry and a professor of Earth System Science at University of California, Irvine
|
||||
John Tyndall (1820–1893), British, measured radiative effect of greenhouse gases, postulated greenhouse effect hypothesis of climate change
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Jean-Pascal van Ypersele (1957–), Belgian climatologist, Vice-chair of IPCC (2008–2015)
|
||||
David Vaughan, ice sheets, British Antarctic Survey
|
||||
Jan Veizer (1941–), Slovakian, Distinguished University Professor emeritus of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa
|
||||
Pier Vellinga (1950–), Dutch climatologist, professor at Wageningen University
|
||||
Ricardo Villalba, Argentine paleoclimatologist
|
||||
Françoise Vimeux, French climatologist, research director at the Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), works at the Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement (LSCE) and the Laboratoire HydroSciences Montpellier (HSM)
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Peter Wadhams ScD (1948–), professor of Ocean Physics, and Head of the Polar Ocean Physics Group in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge. He is best known for his work on sea ice.
|
||||
Warren M. Washington (1936–2024), American, climate modelling
|
||||
John Michael Wallace, North Atlantic oscillation, Arctic oscillation, El Niño-Southern Oscillation
|
||||
Andrew Watson (1952–), British, marine and atmospheric sciences
|
||||
Sir Robert Watson, British scientist and chief scientist for the World Bank
|
||||
Betsy Weatherhead, American, former head of the National Climate Assessment
|
||||
Andrew J. Weaver, Canadian, climate modeling and analysis.
|
||||
Harry Wexler (1911–1962), American meteorologist
|
||||
Penny Whetton, Australian, regional climate change projections for Australia. A lead author of the IPCC Third and fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change.
|
||||
Tom Wigley, Australian climatologist at University of Adelaide
|
||||
Josh Willis, American oceanographer at NASA's JPL
|
||||
David Wratt, New Zealander, chief scientist at NIWA
|
||||
Donald Wuebbles, American atmospheric scientist and professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
|
||||
Carl Wunsch (1941–), physical oceanography and ocean acoustic tomography
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Shang-Ping Xie (1963–), climatologist and oceanographer of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Laure Zanna, Professor in Mathematics & Atmosphere/Ocean Science at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences
|
||||
Olga Zolina (1975–), Russian climatologist
|
||||
Eduardo Zorita (1961–), Spanish palaeoclimatologist, senior scientist at GKSS
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of women climate scientists and activists
|
||||
Women in climate change
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
87
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|
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title: "List of color palettes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_palettes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:38.010623+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list that contains color palettes for notable computer graphics, terminals and video game consoles.
|
||||
Only a simulated image using a palette and its name are given. Main articles are linked from the name of each palette, test charts, sample colours, simulated images, and further technical details (including references).
|
||||
During older eras of computing, manufacturers developed many different display systems often in a competitive, non-collaborative basis (with a few exceptions in the VESA consortium), creating many proprietary, non-standard different instances of display hardware. Often, as with early personal and home computers, a given machine employed its unique display subsystem, also with its unique color palette. Furthermore, software developers had made use of the color abilities of distinct display systems in many different ways. The result is that there is no single common standard nomenclature or classification taxonomy which can encompass every computer color palette.
|
||||
In order to organize the material, color palettes have been grouped following certain criteria. First, generic monochrome and full RGB repertories common to various computer display systems are listed. Then, usual color repertories used for display systems that employ indexed color techniques. And finally, specific manufacturers' color palettes implemented in many representative early personal computers and video game consoles of various brands.
|
||||
The list for personal computer palettes is split into two categories: 8-bit and 16-bit machines. This is not intended as a true strict categorization of such machines, because mixed architectures also exist (16-bit processors with an 8-bit data bus or 32-bit processors with a 16-bit data bus, among others). The distinction is based more on broad 8-bit and 16-bit computer ages or generations (around 1975–1985 and 1985–1995, respectively) and their associated state of the art in color display capabilities.
|
||||
The following is the common color test chart and sample image used to render each palette in this list:
|
||||
|
||||
See further details in the summary paragraph of the corresponding article.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of monochrome and RGB palettes ==
|
||||
|
||||
In this article, the term monochrome palette means a set of intensities for a monochrome display, and the term RGB palette is defined as the complete set of combinations a given RGB display can offer by mixing all the possible intensities of the red, green, and blue primaries available in its hardware.
|
||||
These are generic complete repertories of colors to produce black and white and RGB color pictures by the display hardware, not necessarily the total number of such colors that can be simultaneously displayed in a given text or graphic mode of any machine. RGB is the most common method to produce colors for displays; so these complete RGB color repertories have every possible combination of R-G-B triplets within any given maximum number of levels per component.
|
||||
For specific hardware and different methods to produce colors than RGB, see the List of computer hardware palettes and the List of video game consoles sections.
|
||||
For various software arrangements and sorts of colors, including other possible full RGB arrangements within 8-bit depth displays, see the List of software palettes section.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Monochrome palettes ===
|
||||
These palettes only have shades of gray.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dichrome palettes ===
|
||||
|
||||
Each permuted pair of red, green, and blue (16-bit color palette, with 65,536 colors). For example, "additive red green" has zero blue and "subtractive red green" has full blue.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Regular RGB palettes ===
|
||||
These full RGB palettes employ the same number of bits to store the relative intensity for the red, green and blue components of every image's pixel color. Thus, they have the same number of levels per channel and the total number of possible colors is always the cube of a power of two. It should be understood that 'when developed' many of these formats were directly related to the size of some host computers 'natural word length' in bytes—the amount of memory in bits held by a single memory address such that the CPU can grab or put it in one operation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Non-regular RGB palettes ===
|
||||
These are also RGB palettes, in the sense defined above (except for 4-bit RGBI, which has an intensity bit that affects all channels at once), but either they do not have the same number of levels for each primary channel, or the numbers are not powers of two, so are not represented as separate bit fields. All of these have been used in popular personal computers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of software palettes ==
|
||||
|
||||
Systems that use a 4-bit or 8-bit pixel depth can display up to 16 or 256 colors simultaneously. Many personal computers in the later 1980s and early 1990s displayed at most 256 different colors, freely selected by software (either by the user or by a program) from their wider hardware's color palette.
|
||||
Usual selections of colors in limited subsets (generally 16 or 256) of the full palette includes some RGB level arrangements commonly used with the 8 bpp palettes as master palettes or universal palettes (i.e., palettes for multipurpose uses).
|
||||
These are some representative software palettes, but any selection can be made in such types of systems.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== System specific palettes ===
|
||||
These are selections of colors officially employed as system palettes in some popular operating systems for personal computers that feature 8-bit displays.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== RGB arrangements ===
|
||||
These are selections of colors based on evenly ordered RGB levels, mainly used as master palettes to display any kind of image within the limitations of the 8-bit pixel depth.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other common uses of software palettes ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of computer hardware palettes ==
|
||||
In old personal computers and terminals that offered color displays, some color palettes were chosen algorithmically to provide the most diverse set of colors for a given palette size, and others were chosen to assure the availability of certain colors. In many early home computers, especially when the palette choices were determined at the hardware level by resistor combinations, the palette was determined by the manufacturer.
|
||||
Many early models output composite video colors. When seen on TV devices, the perception of the colors may not correspond with the value levels for the color values employed (most noticeable with NTSC TV color system).
|
||||
For current RGB display systems for PCs (Super VGA, etc.), see the 16-bit RGB and 24-bit RGB for High Color (thousands) and True Color (millions of colors) modes.
|
||||
For video game consoles, see the List of video game consoles section.
|
||||
For every model, their main different graphical color modes are listed based exclusively in the way they handle colors on screen, not all their different screen modes.
|
||||
The list is organized roughly historically by video hardware, not by branch. They are listed according to the original model of each system, which means that extended versions, clones, and compatibles also support the original palette.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Terminals and 8-bit machines ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 16-bit machines ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Video game console palettes ===
|
||||
|
||||
Color palettes of some of the most popular video game consoles. The criteria are the same as those of the List of computer hardware palettes section.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of color spaces and their uses"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses"
|
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category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:36.835670+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of color spaces, grouped by the color model that is used for part of their specification.
|
||||
|
||||
== Models ==
|
||||
Color models can be based on physics or human perception. Physical descriptions of color can be additive (describes mixing of light, RGB) or subtractive (describes mixing of pigment or removal of light, CMYK). Descriptions based on human perception are based on some experimental results on humans. Some models and their variants are employed in parts of the color spaces listed below.
|
||||
|
||||
== Human perception ==
|
||||
Instead of being based on color mixture, they are based on human experience or phenomenology.
|
||||
|
||||
=== CIE 1931 XYZ ===
|
||||
|
||||
CIE 1931 XYZ was the first attempt to produce a color space based on measurements of human color perception and the basis for almost all other color spaces.
|
||||
|
||||
=== CIEUVW ===
|
||||
|
||||
Measurements over a larger field of view than the "CIE 1931 XYZ" color space which produces slightly different results.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Uniform color spaces ===
|
||||
Uniform color spaces (UCSs) are built such that the same geometrical distance anywhere in the color space reflects the same amount of perceived color difference. There have been many attempts at building such a color space.
|
||||
As human vision has three components, the space is necessarily 3D; it is generally assigned such that one is the lightness and the other two the chroma. A uniform color space is useful for a wide range of tasks. It can be used to calculate color difference or to pick colors in a visually harmonious way, for example.
|
||||
|
||||
==== CIELUV ====
|
||||
|
||||
A modification of "CIE 1931 XYZ" to display color differences more conveniently. The CIELUV space is useful for additive mixtures of lights, due to its linear addition properties (human hue perception does not respect light addition, however).
|
||||
|
||||
==== CIELAB ====
|
||||
|
||||
CIELAB produces a color space that is more perceptually linear than other color spaces. Perceptually linear means that a change of the same amount in a color value should produce a change of about the same visual importance. CIELAB has almost entirely replaced the earlier alternative Lab color space called “Hunter Lab”. This space is commonly used for surface colors, but not for mixtures of (transmitted) light.
|
||||
|
||||
==== HSLuv ====
|
||||
|
||||
HSLuv preserves the lightness and hue components of CIELUV LCh and stretches its chroma so that every color has the same range, defined as a percentage.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Newer models ====
|
||||
CIELAB and CIELUV are soon recognized to be insufficient to explain the entire range of color phenomena. A range of increasingly complex color appearance models appeared to model the behavior of human vision under different viewing conditions, but ended up less used due to the added inputs required and overall algorithmic complexity.
|
||||
In addition, the performance of the 1976 color spaces under different viewing conditions is not their only problem. Even under the default reference viewing condition, CIELAB is known to poorly work in blue hues. For a standard dynamic range and a fixed viewing condition, it turns out that CIELAB's simple structure suffices as long as better coefficients are used.
|
||||
The IPT color space of 1998 uses new data about hue to greatly improve on CIELAB's non-constant lines of hue, although it still leaves much to be desired in its prediction of colorfulness and lightness. Oklab uses IPT data for hue and a modern CAM (CAM16) to generate lightness and colorfulness data, resulting in an improved fit over human perception under the same structure.
|
||||
|
||||
== RGB primaries ==
|
||||
|
||||
RGB (red, green, blue) describes the chromaticity component of a given color, when excluding luminance. RGB itself is not a color space, it is a color model. There are many different color spaces that employ this color model to describe their chromaticities because the R/G/B chromaticities are one facet for reproducing color in CRT & LED displays.
|
||||
|
||||
=== sRGB ===
|
||||
|
||||
The sRGB color space (standard red, green, blue) was created jointly by Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft for use on the Internet. It has been endorsed by the W3C, Exif, Intel, Pantone, Corel, and many other industry players. It is also well accepted by open-source software such as the GIMP, and is used in proprietary and open graphics file formats such as SVG.
|
||||
sRGB is intended as a common color space for the creation of images for viewing on the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW). The resultant color space closely approximates a Gamma correction of 2.2, the average response of a CRT display to linear voltage levels.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Adobe RGB ===
|
||||
|
||||
The Adobe RGB color space was developed by Adobe Systems in 1998. It was designed to encompass most of the colors achievable on CMYK color printers, but by using RGB primary chromaticities on a device such as the computer display. The Adobe RGB color space encompasses roughly 50% of the visible colors specified by the Lab color space, improving upon the gamut of the sRGB color space primarily in cyan-greens.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Adobe Wide Gamut RGB ===
|
||||
|
||||
The Adobe Wide Gamut RGB color space was developed by Adobe Systems as an alternative to the standard sRGB color space. It is able to store a wider range of color values than sRGB. The Wide Gamut color space is an expanded version of the Adobe RGB color space, developed in 1998. As a comparison, the Adobe Wide Gamut RGB color space encompasses 77.6% of the visible colors specified by the Lab color space, whilst the standard Adobe RGB color space covers just 50.6%.
|
||||
One of the downsides to this color space is that approximately 8% of the colors representable are imaginary colors that do not exist and are not representable in any medium. This means that potential color accuracy is wasted by reserving these unnecessary colors.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Rec. 2100 ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of color spaces and their uses"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:36.835670+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Rec. 2100 is a color space standardized by ITU and used for HDR-TV. It has a peak luminance of at least 1,000 cd/m2 (higher than the 100 cd/m2 limit of SDR and color spaces such as Rec. 709 and Rec. 2020). It uses a non-gamma transfer function (PQ or HLG) and system colorimetry (chromaticity of color primaries and white point) identical to Rec. 2020 system colorimetry.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Others with RGB primaries ===
|
||||
ProPhoto RGB color space
|
||||
scRGB
|
||||
DCI-P3, used primarily for digital movie projection
|
||||
SMPTE 240M / SMPTE "C", used in NTSC and MUSE analog television systems
|
||||
Rec. 601, used for SDTV
|
||||
Rec. 709, used for HDTV
|
||||
Rec. 2020, used for UHDTV
|
||||
Academy Color Encoding System (ACES)
|
||||
|
||||
== YCbCr and YUV ==
|
||||
The analogue YUV and digital YCbCr refer to a variety of linear methods to try to separate lightness from chroma signals in an RGB input using linear combination. As the input RGB values are gamma-corrected, such a separation does not truly produce lightness and two chroma signals, but a "luma" signal and two "chrominance" signals instead.
|
||||
YUV: as human eyes have lower resolution in their color perception, it is more economic to put more of the bandwidth in encoding Luma. The same principle is used in YCC. In YCC, separating also has the added benefit of removing most of the correlation between the input channels, therefore providing better compression.
|
||||
YCoCg is a version of YCbCr with extremely simple coefficients. It results in faster computation, lossless conversion, and apparently better decorrelation.
|
||||
ICtCp is used similarly to YCC in video compression, but is more appropriately described as a high dynamic range uniform color space.
|
||||
Other similar color spaces:
|
||||
|
||||
YPbPr
|
||||
YDbDr
|
||||
YIQ
|
||||
xvYCC
|
||||
sYCC
|
||||
|
||||
== Cylindrical transformations ==
|
||||
|
||||
Cylindrical transformations seek to turn a color model into three components: the lightness, the colorfulness, and the hue.
|
||||
|
||||
=== HSV and HSL ===
|
||||
|
||||
HSV and HSL are transformations of Cartesian RGB primaries (usually sRGB), and their components and colorimetry are relative to the colorspace from which they are derived. HSV (hue, saturation, value), also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), is often used by artists because it is often more natural to think about a color in terms of hue and saturation than in terms of additive or subtractive color components. HSL (hue, saturation, lightness or luminance), also known as HSI (hue, saturation, intensity) or HSD (hue, saturation, darkness), is quite similar to HSV, with "lightness" replacing "brightness". The difference is that a perfectly light color in HSL is pure white; but a perfectly bright color in HSV is analogous to shining a white light on a colored object. I.e. shining a bright white light on a red object causes the object to still appear red, just brighter and more intense. Shining a dim light on a red object causes the object to appear darker and less bright.
|
||||
The issue with both HSV and HSL is that these approaches do not effectively separate colour into their three value components according to human perception of color. This can be seen when the saturation settings are altered — it is quite easy to notice the difference in perceptual lightness despite the "V" or "L" setting being fixed.
|
||||
|
||||
=== LCh: uniform color space ===
|
||||
For uniform color spaces that already have a lightness component, the transformation only involves rearranging the two chroma values into colorfulness (C) and hue (h).
|
||||
CIELChab and CIELChuv are cylindrical transformations of the CIELAB and CIELUV color spaces, respectively. The cylindrical coordinates C* (chroma, relative saturation) and h° (hue angle, angle of the hue in the color wheel) are specified. The CIELAB and CIELUV coordinate L* (lightness) remains unchanged.
|
||||
The newer UCS systems can also be applied to a similar transform. In fact, both IPT and Oklab/Oklch are designed for hue uniformity, a feature that is only explicitly shown after a cylindrical transformation.
|
||||
|
||||
== Subtractive ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== CMYK and CMY ===
|
||||
|
||||
CMYK is used in the printing process, because it describes what kinds of inks are needed to be applied so the light reflected from the substrate and through the inks produces a given color. One starts with a white substrate (canvas, page, etc.), and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image. CMYK stores ink values for cyan, magenta, yellow and black. There are many CMYK colorspaces for different sets of inks, substrates, and press characteristics (which change the dot gain or transfer function for each ink and thus change the appearance).
|
||||
|
||||
== Commercial color spaces ==
|
||||
Munsell color system – early perceptually-uniform color space
|
||||
Natural Color System (NCS) – perceptual
|
||||
Pantone Matching System (PMS) – standardized color reproduction (and color list)
|
||||
Spot Matching System (SMS) - 3C (Cross-media, Colour Consistent) Colour Palettes for CMYK and Extended gamut printing, web design and television graphics.
|
||||
RAL – standardized color matching (and color list)
|
||||
Aerospace Material Specification – Standard 595A (Supersedes (US) Federal Standard 595C)
|
||||
(US) Federal Standard 595C
|
||||
British Standard Colour (BS)
|
||||
HKS – standardized color reproduction (and color list)
|
||||
HLC Colour Atlas – a free and open-source color space (and color list) based on CIELab
|
||||
|
||||
== Special-purpose color spaces ==
|
||||
The rg chromaticity space is used in computer vision applications, and shows the color of light (red, yellow, green, etc.), but not its intensity (dark, bright).
|
||||
LMS color space (long, medium, short), a perceptual color space based on the response functions of the cones in the retina of the eye. It is mostly used in psychophysical research.
|
||||
TSL color space is used in face and skin detection.
|
||||
|
||||
== Obsolete color spaces ==
|
||||
Early color spaces had two components. They largely ignored blue light because the added complexity of a three-component process provided only a marginal increase in fidelity when compared to the jump from monochrome to two-component color.
|
||||
|
||||
RG for early Technicolor film
|
||||
RGK for early color printing
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Precise Color Communication—Konica Minolta Sensing
|
||||
0
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Normal file
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Normal file
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|
||||
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|
||||
title: "List of colors (alphabetical)"
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:21.620540+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following list shows a compact version of the colors in the list of colors A–F, G–M, and N–Z articles. The list shows the color swatch and its name. Hovering over the color box shows the HSV, RGB, and #hex values for the color in the tool tip. All values and conversions are in the sRGB color space, which is an inappropriate assumption for some entries.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== RGB color list ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of colors ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== A ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== B ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== C ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== D ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== F ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== G ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== H ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== I ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== J ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== K ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== L ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== M ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== N ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== O ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== P ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Q ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== R ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== S ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== T ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== U ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== V ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== W ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== X ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Y ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Z ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of colors by shade
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
90
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade-0.md
Normal file
90
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of colors by shade"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:41.896885+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of colors sorted by shade.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Colors with shades and tints of that hue ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red ===
|
||||
|
||||
Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light, consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 625–750 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Orange ===
|
||||
|
||||
Orange is the color in the visible spectrum between red and yellow with a wavelength around 585 – 620 nm. In the HSV color space, it has a hue of around 30°.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Yellow ===
|
||||
|
||||
Yellow is the color of light with wavelengths predominantly in the range of roughly 570–580 nm. In the HSV color space, it has a hue of around 60°. It is considered one of the subtractive primary colors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cyan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Cyan is any of the colors in the blue-green range of the visible spectrum, i.e., between approximately 490 and 520 nm. It is considered one of the main subtractive primary colors. Cyan is sometimes considered green or blue because of the way it appears.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Blue is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 440–490 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Indigo ===
|
||||
|
||||
Indigo is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 420-450 nm.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Violet and purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Violet refers to any color perceptually evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 380–450 nm. Tones of violet tending towards the blue are called indigo. Purple colors are colors that are various blends of violet or blue light with red light.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Magenta ===
|
||||
|
||||
Magenta is variously defined as a purplish-red, reddish-purple, or a mauvish–crimson color. On color wheels of the RGB and CMY color models, it is located midway between red and blue, opposite green. Complements of magenta are evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 500–530 nm. It is considered one of the subtractive primary colors.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Pink is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light, consisting predominantly of a combination of both the longest and shortest wavelengths discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength ranges of roughly 625–750 nm and 380-490 nm.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Brown ===
|
||||
|
||||
Brown colors are dark or muted shades of reds, oranges, and yellows. Browns are sometimes by mixing two complementary colors from the RYB model (combining all three primary colors). In theory, such combinations should produce black, but in practice (because of non-ideal pigments), they do not. The color brown can also be made if multiple paint colors are added to each other.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== White ===
|
||||
|
||||
White is the lightest color and a balanced additive combination of all the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum, or of a pair of complementary colors, or of three or more colors, such as additive primary colors. It is a neutral or achromatic color (without chroma), like black and gray.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gray ===
|
||||
|
||||
Achromatic grays are colors between black and white (without chroma). Chromatic grays can be thought as achromatic grays mixed with warm hues such as yellow (warm grays) or cool hues such as azure (cool grays). This gray color template includes both achromatic and chromatic grays.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black ===
|
||||
|
||||
Black is the darkest color, and the result of the absence or complete absorption of light. Like white and gray, it is an achromatic color (a color without chroma).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
156
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-0.md
Normal file
156
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computer books"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:02.793416+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
List of computer-related books which have articles on Wikipedia for themselves or their writers.
|
||||
|
||||
== Programming ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ada ===
|
||||
John Barnes – Programming in Ada 2012
|
||||
|
||||
=== C ===
|
||||
Andrew Koenig – C Traps and Pitfalls
|
||||
Brian W. Kernighan – The C Programming Language
|
||||
Guy L. Steele Jr. – C: A Reference Manual
|
||||
Herbert Schildt – C, The Complete Reference
|
||||
Peter van der Linden – Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets
|
||||
|
||||
=== C++ ===
|
||||
Andrei Alexandrescu – Modern C++ Design
|
||||
Bjarne Stroustrup – The C++ Programming Language, A Tour of C++, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual
|
||||
Herb Sutter – Exceptional C++, More Exceptional C++, Exceptional C++ Style, C++ Coding Standards
|
||||
Scott Meyers – Effective C++, More Effective C++, Effective Modern C++
|
||||
Stanley B. Lippman – Inside the C++ Object Model, C++ Gems: Programming Pearls from The C++ Report
|
||||
|
||||
=== C# ===
|
||||
Andrew Troelsen – Pro C# 10 with .NET 6: Foundational Principles and Practices in Programming
|
||||
Bill Wagner – Effective C#
|
||||
Jeff Prosise – Programming Microsoft .NET
|
||||
Herbert Schildt – C#: A Beginner's Guide and C# 4.0: The Complete Reference
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fortran ===
|
||||
Daniel D. McCracken – A Guide to Fortran Programming
|
||||
Elliot Koffman – Problem Solving and Program Design in Fortran
|
||||
Jeanne Clare Adams – Fortran 90 Handbook and Programmer's Guide to Fortran 90
|
||||
William H. Press – Numerical Recipes
|
||||
|
||||
=== Go ===
|
||||
Brian W. Kernighan – The Go Programming Language
|
||||
|
||||
=== Java ===
|
||||
Bruce Eckel – Thinking in Java
|
||||
James Gosling – The Java Programming Language
|
||||
Joshua Bloch – Effective Java
|
||||
Kathy Sierra – Head First Java
|
||||
Herbert Schildt – Java: The Complete Reference, Java: A Beginner's Guide, Java 2 Programmer's Reference
|
||||
|
||||
=== JavaScript ===
|
||||
Douglas Crockford – JavaScript: The Good Parts and How JavaScript Works
|
||||
John Resig – Pro JavaScript Techniques and Secrets of the JavaScript Ninja
|
||||
Jeremy Keith – DOM Scripting
|
||||
Danny Goodman – JavaScript Bible
|
||||
John Smiley – Learn to Program with JavaScript
|
||||
Laura Lemay – Laura Lemay's Web Workshop: JavaScript
|
||||
|
||||
=== Lisp ===
|
||||
Guy L. Steele Jr. – Common Lisp the Language
|
||||
Patrick Henry Winston – Lisp (book)
|
||||
Paul Graham – On Lisp and ANSI Common Lisp
|
||||
Peter Norvig – Paradigms of AI Programming
|
||||
Peter Seibel – Practical Common Lisp
|
||||
Richard P. Gabriel – Performance and Evaluation of Lisp Systems
|
||||
Sonya Keene – Object-Oriented Programming in Common Lisp
|
||||
|
||||
=== Perl ===
|
||||
brian d foy – Mastering Perl
|
||||
chromatic – Perl Best Practices, Perl Hacks, Perl Testing: A Developer's Notebook
|
||||
Damian Conway – Object Oriented Perl
|
||||
GNU Savannah – Perl Design Patterns Book
|
||||
Jon Bentley – Programming Pearls
|
||||
Joseph N. Hall – Effective Perl Programming
|
||||
Larry Wall – Programming Perl
|
||||
Mark Jason Dominus – Higher-Order Perl
|
||||
Randal L. Schwartz – Intermediate Perl and Learning Perl
|
||||
Sriram Srinivasan – Advanced Perl Programming
|
||||
Tom Christiansen – Perl Cookbook and Programming Perl 2nd and 3rd editions
|
||||
|
||||
=== PHP ===
|
||||
Rasmus Lerdorf – Programming PHP
|
||||
Zak Greant – PHP Functions Essential Reference
|
||||
David Mercer – Beginning PHP5
|
||||
|
||||
=== Python ===
|
||||
Alex Martelli — Python in a Nutshell and Python Cookbook
|
||||
Mark Pilgrim – Dive into Python
|
||||
Naomi Ceder — The Quick Python Book
|
||||
Wes McKinney — Python for Data Analysis
|
||||
Zed Shaw – Learn Python the Hard Way
|
||||
|
||||
=== R ===
|
||||
David G. Robinson — Text Mining with R
|
||||
Hadley Wickham – Advanced R
|
||||
Roger Bivand – Applied Spatial Data Analysis with R
|
||||
Yihui Xie – Dynamic Documents with R and knitr
|
||||
Dirk Eddelbuettel – Seamless R and C++ Integration with Rcpp
|
||||
John Fox – Using the R Commander: A Point-and-Click Interface for R
|
||||
John Chambers – Software for data analysis programming with R
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ruby ===
|
||||
Andy Hunt and Dave Thomas – Programming Ruby
|
||||
Sandi Metz — Practical Object-Oriented Design in Ruby
|
||||
Sam Ruby, Dave Thomas, David Heinemeier Hansson – Agile Web Development with Rails
|
||||
why the lucky stiff – why's (poignant) Guide to Ruby
|
||||
Yukihiro Matsumoto — Ruby, Ruby in a Nutshell, and The Ruby Programming Language
|
||||
Zed Shaw — Learn Ruby the Hard Way
|
||||
|
||||
=== SQL ===
|
||||
C. J. Date – An Introduction to Database Systems
|
||||
Hugh Darwen – Databases, Types and The Relational Model: the Third Manifesto
|
||||
Ben Forta – SQL in 10 Minutes, Sams Teach Yourself
|
||||
Joe Celko – Joe Celko's SQL for Smarties
|
||||
|
||||
=== Visual Basic ===
|
||||
John Smiley – Learn to Program with Visual Basic 6
|
||||
Michael Halvorson – Microsoft Visual Basic 4 Step by Step
|
||||
Dan Rahmel – Visual Basic .NET Reference Book
|
||||
Clayton Walnum – The Complete Idiot's Guide to Visual Basic 6
|
||||
Mitchell Waite – Visual Basic How To
|
||||
|
||||
=== Algorithms ===
|
||||
Donald Knuth – The Art of Computer Programming
|
||||
Ellis Horowitz – Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms
|
||||
Henry S. Warren, Jr. – Hacker's Delight
|
||||
Niklaus Wirth – Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs and Systematic Programming
|
||||
Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill – The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer
|
||||
Maxime Crochemore and Wojciech Rytter – Jewels of Stringology
|
||||
Nachum Dershowitz and Edward Reingold – Calendrical Calculations
|
||||
Pedro Domingos – The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World
|
||||
Thomas H. Cormen – Algorithms Unlocked
|
||||
William H. Press, Saul A. Teukolsky, and Brian P. Flannery – Numerical Recipes
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cryptocurrencies ===
|
||||
Alex Tapscott – Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business, and the World
|
||||
Andreas Antonopoulos – Mastering Bitcoin, Mastering Ethereum, and The Internet of Money
|
||||
Ben Mezrich – Bitcoin Billionaires
|
||||
David Gerard – Attack of the 50-foot Blockchain
|
||||
Nathaniel Popper – Digital Gold: Bitcoin and the Inside Story of the Misfits and Millionaires Trying to Reinvent Money
|
||||
Saifedean Ammous – The Bitcoin Standard
|
||||
Vitalik Buterin – Proof of Stake: The Making of Ethereum and the Philosophy of Blockchains
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cryptography ===
|
||||
|
||||
Craig P. Bauer – Unsolved!
|
||||
David Kahn (writer) – The Codebreakers
|
||||
John Falconer – Cryptomenysis Patefacta
|
||||
Leo Marks – Between Silk and Cyanide
|
||||
Matt Curtin – Brute Force: Cracking the Data Encryption Standard
|
||||
Simon Singh – The Code Book
|
||||
Steven Levy – Crypto
|
||||
William F. Friedman – Military Cryptanalytics
|
||||
116
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-1.md
Normal file
116
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computer books"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:02.793416+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Unix ===
|
||||
Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike – The Unix Programming Environment
|
||||
Eric Raymond – The Art of Unix Programming
|
||||
John Lions – A Commentary on the UNIX Operating System
|
||||
Stephen R. Bourne – The Unix System
|
||||
W. Richard Stevens – Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment
|
||||
|
||||
=== Linux ===
|
||||
Bruce Perens – Bruce Perens' Open Source Series
|
||||
Eric S. Raymond – The Cathedral and the Bazaar
|
||||
Gerard Beekmans – Linux from Scratch
|
||||
Glyn Moody – Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution
|
||||
Jonathan Oxer – Ubuntu Hacks
|
||||
Kenneth Brown – Samizdat: And Other Issues Regarding the 'Source' of Open Source Code
|
||||
Michael Kerrisk – The Linux Programming Interface
|
||||
Michael W. Lucas – Absolute OpenBSD
|
||||
Olaf Kirch & Terry Dawson – Linux Network Administrator's Guide
|
||||
|
||||
=== Artificial intelligence ===
|
||||
Allen Newell – Unified Theories of Cognition
|
||||
Brian Christian – The Alignment Problem
|
||||
James Barrat – Our Final Invention
|
||||
James Lovelock – Novacene: The Coming Age of Hyperintelligence
|
||||
Janelle Shane – You Look Like a Thing and I Love You: How AI Works and Why It's Making the World a Weirder Place
|
||||
Jeff Hawkins – On Intelligence: How a New Understanding of the Brain will Lead to the Creation of Truly Intelligent Machines
|
||||
Jonathan Birch – The Edge of Sentience: Risk and Precaution in Humans, Other Animals, and AI
|
||||
John Brockman – Possible Minds: Twenty-five Ways of Looking at AI
|
||||
Kai-Fu Lee – AI Superpowers
|
||||
Kate Crawford – Atlas of AI: Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence
|
||||
Max Tegmark – Life 3.0
|
||||
Marvin Minsky – The Emotion Machine and Society of Mind
|
||||
Melanie Mitchell – Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans
|
||||
Meredith Broussard – Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World
|
||||
Ray Kurzweil – The Age of Intelligent Machines, The Age of Spiritual Machines, The Singularity Is Nearer, How to Create a Mind
|
||||
Richard Dooling – Rapture for the Geeks: When AI Outsmarts IQ
|
||||
Roger Penrose – The Emperor's New Mind and Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness
|
||||
Stan Franklin – Artificial Minds
|
||||
Stuart J. Russell – Human Compatible
|
||||
|
||||
==== Machine learning and deep learning ====
|
||||
Christopher Bishop – Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning
|
||||
Ian Goodfellow and Yoshua Bengio – Deep Learning
|
||||
Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert – Perceptrons
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other / General Programming ===
|
||||
Andrew S. Tanenbaum – Modern Operating Systems and Operating Systems: Design and Implementation
|
||||
Andy Hunt and Dave Thomas – The Pragmatic Programmer
|
||||
Benjamin C. Pierce – Types and Programming Languages
|
||||
Bertrand Meyer – Object-Oriented Software Construction
|
||||
Bryan O'Sullivan, Don Stewart, and John Goerzen – Real World Haskell
|
||||
Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike – The Practice of Programming
|
||||
Brian W. Kernighan – The AWK Programming Language and The Elements of Programming Style
|
||||
Tony Hoare and He Jifeng – Unifying Theories of Programming
|
||||
Charles Petzold – Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software
|
||||
Chris DiBona – Open Sources and Open Sources 2.0
|
||||
Chris Wiggins and Matthew L. Jones – How Data Happened
|
||||
Claude Shannon – A Mathematical Theory of Communication
|
||||
Diomidis Spinellis – Code Reading
|
||||
Danny Hillis – The Pattern on the Stone
|
||||
Edward Yourdon – Rise and Resurrection of the American Programmer and other publications
|
||||
Ellen Ullman – Close to the Machine
|
||||
Fred Brooks – The Mythical Man-Month
|
||||
Gang of Four – Design Patterns
|
||||
Geoffrey James – The Tao of Programming
|
||||
Gerald M. Weinberg – The Psychology of Computer Programming
|
||||
Gregor Hohpe and Bobby Woolf – Enterprise Integration Patterns
|
||||
Ivo D. Dinov – Data Science and Predictive Analytics
|
||||
Jack Copeland, Jonathan Bowen, Robin Wilson – The Turing Guide
|
||||
Jean E. Sammet – Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals
|
||||
Jean-Raymond Abrial – The B-Book
|
||||
Joel Spolsky – The Best Software Writing I
|
||||
Joshua Pearce – Open-Source Lab
|
||||
Keith Curtis – After the Software Wars
|
||||
Martin Fowler – Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code and Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture
|
||||
Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert – Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry
|
||||
Michael Garey and David S. Johnson – Computers and Intractability
|
||||
Michael Halvorson – Learn BASIC Now
|
||||
Michael Nielsen — Neural Networks and Deep Learning and Quantum Computation and Quantum Information
|
||||
Michael Sipser – Introduction to the Theory of Computation
|
||||
Myron W. Krueger – Artificial Reality
|
||||
Narendra M. Thumbhekodige – The Oracle J2EE Companion
|
||||
Neal Stephenson – In the Beginning... Was the Command Line
|
||||
Nicole Forsgren – Accelerate: The Science of Lean Software and DevOps
|
||||
Pekka Himanen and Linus Torvalds (epilogue) – The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age
|
||||
Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture
|
||||
Paul Graham – Hackers & Painters
|
||||
Peter Norvig – Paradigms of AI Programming
|
||||
Peter Seibel – Coders at Work
|
||||
Randi J. Rost — OpenGL Shading Language and X and MOTIF Quick Reference Guide
|
||||
Richard M. Stallman – Free Software, Free Society
|
||||
Richard P. Gabriel – Patterns of Software and Innovation Happens Elsewhere
|
||||
Robert C. Martin – Clean Code
|
||||
Rodnay Zaks – Programming the Z80
|
||||
Sam Williams – Free as in Freedom
|
||||
Scott Rosenberg – Dreaming in Code
|
||||
Seth Lloyd – Programming the Universe
|
||||
Steve McConnell – Code Complete
|
||||
Stephen Wolfram – A New Kind of Science
|
||||
Tom DeMarco and Tim Lister – Peopleware: Productive Projects and Teams
|
||||
William Brown – AntiPatterns: Refactoring Software, Architectures, and Projects in Crisis
|
||||
William Wulf – The Design of an Optimizing Compiler
|
||||
|
||||
== Internet ==
|
||||
Douglas Rushkoff — Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Hyperspace
|
||||
Jack Goldsmith, Tim Wu — Who Controls the Internet? Illusions of Borderless World
|
||||
Tim Berners-Lee — Weaving the Web
|
||||
93
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-2.md
Normal file
93
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computer books"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:02.793416+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Hackers and hacker culture ==
|
||||
Bill Blunden – The Rootkit Arsenal
|
||||
Bill Landreth and Howard Rheingold – Out of the Inner Circle
|
||||
Bruce Sterling – The Hacker Crackdown
|
||||
Clifford Stoll – The Cuckoo's Egg
|
||||
Cory Doctorow – Little Brother
|
||||
Douglas Thomas – Hacker Culture
|
||||
Daniel Golden and Renee Dudley – The Ransomware Hunting Team
|
||||
Eric S. Raymond – The New Hacker's Dictionary and Revenge of the Hackers
|
||||
Glyn Moody – Rebel Code
|
||||
Harold Abelson, Gerald Jay Sussman, and Julie Sussman – Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
|
||||
Hugo Cornwall – The Hacker's Handbook
|
||||
Jon "Smibbs" Erickson – Hacking: The Art of Exploitation
|
||||
Joseph Menn – Fatal System Error
|
||||
Julian Assange – Cypherpunks: Freedom and the Future of the Internet
|
||||
Kevin Mitnick – Ghost in the Wires and The Art of Intrusion
|
||||
Kevin Poulsen – Kingpin: How One Hacker Took Over the Billion-Dollar Cybercrime Underground
|
||||
Linus Torvalds and David Diamond – Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary
|
||||
Malcolm Nance – The Plot to Hack America
|
||||
Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution
|
||||
Sam Williams – Free as in Freedom
|
||||
Scott J. Shapiro – Fancy Bear Goes Phishing
|
||||
Sean Bodmer, Max Kilger, Gregory Carpenter, and Jade Jones – Reverse Deception
|
||||
Steven Levy – Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution
|
||||
Suelette Dreyfus – Underground: Tales of Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier
|
||||
William Cheswick and Steven M. Bellovin – Firewalls and Internet Security
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
American Graphics Institute - Educational content
|
||||
Category:Computer books
|
||||
Head First (book series)
|
||||
Linux Documentation Project
|
||||
List of computer magazines
|
||||
List of programmers
|
||||
List of computer science journals
|
||||
List of mathematics books
|
||||
List of software programming journals
|
||||
List of artificial intelligence journals
|
||||
List of books in computational geometry
|
||||
Norton Guides
|
||||
Programming education
|
||||
Prentice Hall International Series in Computer Science
|
||||
Wikibooks computer programming resources
|
||||
|
||||
=== Textbooks ===
|
||||
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach
|
||||
Artificial Intelligence (textbook)
|
||||
Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools
|
||||
Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice
|
||||
Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming - MIT Press
|
||||
Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science
|
||||
Core Python Programming
|
||||
Essentials of Programming Languages
|
||||
How to Design Programs
|
||||
How to Solve it by Computer
|
||||
Introduction to Algorithms
|
||||
Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation
|
||||
Lisp (textbook)
|
||||
Operating System Concepts
|
||||
Principles of Compiler Design
|
||||
Principles of Model Checking
|
||||
Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation
|
||||
Quantum Computation and Quantum Information
|
||||
Reversing: Secrets of Reverse Engineering
|
||||
The Visualization Handbook
|
||||
Walls and Mirrors
|
||||
|
||||
=== Essays / other ===
|
||||
Satoshi Nakamoto — The Bitcoin Whitepaper
|
||||
Electronic Workshops in Computing
|
||||
Handbook of Automated Reasoning — survey articles on automated reasoning by MIT Press
|
||||
Lecture Notes in Computer Science
|
||||
Chris Lattner — LLVM: A Compilation Framework for Lifelong Program Analysis & Transformation
|
||||
No Silver Bullet
|
||||
The Hacker Manifesto
|
||||
Bill Gates — "The Internet Tidal Wave"
|
||||
The Magic Cauldron
|
||||
David Heinemeier Hansson (DHH) — The Rails Doctrine
|
||||
The Zen of Python
|
||||
Techno-Optimist Manifesto
|
||||
Turtle Geometry
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,449 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_graphics_and_descriptive_geometry_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:11.478324+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics, by article name.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== !-9 ==
|
||||
2D computer graphics
|
||||
2D geometric model
|
||||
3D computer graphics
|
||||
3D modeling
|
||||
3D projection
|
||||
3D rendering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
A-buffer
|
||||
Algorithmic art
|
||||
Aliasing
|
||||
Alpha compositing
|
||||
Alpha mapping
|
||||
Alpha to coverage
|
||||
Ambient occlusion
|
||||
Anamorphosis
|
||||
Anisotropic filtering
|
||||
Anti-aliasing
|
||||
Asymptotic decider
|
||||
Augmented reality
|
||||
Axis-aligned bounding box
|
||||
Axonometric projection
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
B-spline
|
||||
Back-face culling
|
||||
Barycentric coordinate system
|
||||
Beam tracing
|
||||
Bézier curve
|
||||
Bézier surface
|
||||
Bicubic interpolation
|
||||
Bidirectional reflectance distribution function
|
||||
Bidirectional scattering distribution function
|
||||
Bidirectional texture function
|
||||
Bilateral filter
|
||||
Bilinear interpolation
|
||||
Bin (computational geometry)
|
||||
Binary space partitioning
|
||||
Bit blit
|
||||
Bit plane
|
||||
Bitmap
|
||||
Bitmap textures
|
||||
Blend modes
|
||||
Blinn–Phong reflection model
|
||||
Bloom (shader effect)
|
||||
Bounding interval hierarchy
|
||||
Bounding sphere
|
||||
Bounding volume
|
||||
Bounding volume hierarchy
|
||||
Bresenham's line algorithm
|
||||
Bump mapping
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Calligraphic projection
|
||||
Cel shading
|
||||
Channel (digital image)
|
||||
Checkerboard rendering
|
||||
Circular thresholding
|
||||
Clip coordinates
|
||||
Clipmap
|
||||
Clipping (computer graphics)
|
||||
Clipping path
|
||||
Collision detection
|
||||
Color depth
|
||||
Color gradient
|
||||
Color space
|
||||
Colour banding
|
||||
Color bleeding (computer graphics)
|
||||
Color cycling
|
||||
Composite Bézier curve
|
||||
Compositing
|
||||
Computational geometry
|
||||
Compute kernel
|
||||
Computer animation
|
||||
Computer art
|
||||
Computer graphics
|
||||
Computer graphics (computer science)
|
||||
Computer graphics lighting
|
||||
Computer-generated imagery
|
||||
Cone tracing
|
||||
Constructive solid geometry
|
||||
Control point (mathematics)
|
||||
Convex hull
|
||||
Cross section (geometry)
|
||||
Cube mapping
|
||||
Curvilinear perspective
|
||||
Cutaway drawing
|
||||
Cylindrical perspective
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Data compression
|
||||
Deferred shading
|
||||
Delaunay triangulation
|
||||
Demo effect
|
||||
Depth map
|
||||
Depth peeling
|
||||
Device-independent pixel
|
||||
Diffuse reflection
|
||||
Digital art
|
||||
Digital compositing
|
||||
Digital differential analyzer (graphics algorithm)
|
||||
Digital image processing
|
||||
Digital painting
|
||||
Digital raster graphic
|
||||
Digital sculpting
|
||||
Displacement mapping
|
||||
Display list
|
||||
Display resolution
|
||||
Distance fog
|
||||
Distributed ray tracing
|
||||
Dither
|
||||
Dots per inch
|
||||
Draw distance
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Edge detection
|
||||
Elevation
|
||||
Engineering drawing
|
||||
Environment artist
|
||||
Exploded-view drawing
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
False radiosity
|
||||
Fast approximate anti-aliasing
|
||||
Fillrate
|
||||
Flood fill
|
||||
Font rasterization
|
||||
Fractal
|
||||
Fractal landscape
|
||||
Fragment (computer graphics)
|
||||
Frame rate
|
||||
Framebuffer
|
||||
Free-form deformation
|
||||
Fresnel equations
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gaussian splatting
|
||||
Geometric modeling
|
||||
Geometric primitive
|
||||
Geometrical optics
|
||||
Geometry processing
|
||||
Global illumination
|
||||
Gouraud shading
|
||||
GPU
|
||||
Graph drawing
|
||||
Graphics library
|
||||
Graphics pipeline
|
||||
Graphics software
|
||||
Graphics suite
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Heightmap
|
||||
Hemicube (computer graphics)
|
||||
Hidden-line removal
|
||||
Hidden-surface determination
|
||||
High dynamic range
|
||||
High-dynamic-range rendering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Image and object order rendering
|
||||
Image-based lighting
|
||||
Image-based modeling and rendering
|
||||
Image compression
|
||||
Image file format
|
||||
Image plane
|
||||
Image resolution
|
||||
Image scaling
|
||||
Immediate mode (computer graphics)
|
||||
Implicit surface
|
||||
Importance sampling
|
||||
Impossible object
|
||||
Inbetweening
|
||||
Irregular Z-buffer
|
||||
Isometric projection
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Jaggies
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
k-d tree
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Lambertian reflectance
|
||||
Lathe (graphics)
|
||||
Level of detail (computer graphics)
|
||||
Light field
|
||||
Light transport theory
|
||||
Lightmap
|
||||
Line clipping
|
||||
Line drawing algorithm
|
||||
Local coordinates
|
||||
Low-discrepancy sequence
|
||||
Low poly
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Marching cubes
|
||||
Marching squares
|
||||
Marching tetrahedra
|
||||
Mask (computing)
|
||||
Mesh generation
|
||||
Metropolis light transport
|
||||
Micropolygon
|
||||
Minimum bounding box
|
||||
Minimum bounding rectangle
|
||||
Mipmap
|
||||
Monte Carlo integration
|
||||
Morph target animation
|
||||
Morphing
|
||||
Morphological antialiasing
|
||||
Motion blur
|
||||
Multiple buffering
|
||||
Multisample anti-aliasing
|
||||
Multiview orthographic projection
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Nearest-neighbor interpolation
|
||||
Neural radiance field
|
||||
Non-photorealistic rendering
|
||||
Non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS)
|
||||
Normal mapping
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Oblique projection
|
||||
Octree
|
||||
On-set virtual production
|
||||
Order-independent transparency
|
||||
Ordered dithering
|
||||
Oren–Nayar reflectance model
|
||||
Orthographic projection
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Painter's algorithm
|
||||
Palette (computing)
|
||||
Parallax mapping
|
||||
Parallax occlusion mapping
|
||||
Parallax scrolling
|
||||
Parallel projection
|
||||
Particle system
|
||||
Path tracing
|
||||
Per-pixel lighting
|
||||
Perlin noise
|
||||
Perspective (graphical)
|
||||
Perspective control
|
||||
Perspective distortion
|
||||
Phong reflection model
|
||||
Phong shading
|
||||
Photogrammetry
|
||||
Photon mapping
|
||||
Physically based rendering
|
||||
Physics engine
|
||||
Picture plane
|
||||
Pixel
|
||||
Pixel art
|
||||
Pixel-art scaling algorithms
|
||||
Pixel density
|
||||
Pixel geometry
|
||||
Point cloud
|
||||
Polygon (computer graphics)
|
||||
Polygon mesh
|
||||
Polygonal modeling
|
||||
Popping (computer graphics)
|
||||
Portal rendering
|
||||
Posterization
|
||||
Potentially visible set
|
||||
Pre-rendering
|
||||
Precomputed Radiance Transfer
|
||||
Procedural generation
|
||||
Procedural surface
|
||||
Procedural texture
|
||||
Progressive meshes
|
||||
Projection mapping
|
||||
Projection plane
|
||||
Projective geometry (for graphical projection see 3D projection)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Quadtree
|
||||
Quasi-Monte Carlo method
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Radiosity
|
||||
Raster graphics
|
||||
Raster graphics editor
|
||||
Raster image processor
|
||||
Rasterisation
|
||||
Ray casting
|
||||
Ray marching
|
||||
Ray-traced ambient occlusion
|
||||
Ray tracing
|
||||
Ray-tracing hardware
|
||||
Real-time computer graphics
|
||||
Reflection (computer graphics)
|
||||
Reflection mapping
|
||||
Relief mapping (computer graphics)
|
||||
Render farm
|
||||
Render output unit
|
||||
Rendering (computer graphics)
|
||||
Rendering equation
|
||||
Resel
|
||||
Resolution independence
|
||||
Retained mode
|
||||
Reverse perspective
|
||||
Reyes rendering
|
||||
RGB color model
|
||||
Run-length encoding
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Scanline rendering
|
||||
Scene graph
|
||||
Scientific visualization
|
||||
Screen space ambient occlusion
|
||||
Screen space directional occlusion
|
||||
Scrolling
|
||||
Self-shadowing
|
||||
Shader
|
||||
Shading
|
||||
Shading language
|
||||
Shadow mapping
|
||||
Shadow volume
|
||||
Signed distance function
|
||||
Simplex noise
|
||||
Simulation noise
|
||||
Skeletal animation
|
||||
Slab method
|
||||
Soft-body dynamics
|
||||
Software rendering
|
||||
Space partitioning
|
||||
Sparse voxel octree
|
||||
Spatial anti-aliasing
|
||||
Spatial resolution
|
||||
Spatiotemporal reservoir resampling (ReSTIR)
|
||||
Specular highlight
|
||||
Specularity
|
||||
Spherical harmonic lighting
|
||||
Spline (mathematics)
|
||||
Sprite (computer graphics)
|
||||
Stencil buffer
|
||||
Stereotomy (descriptive geometry)
|
||||
Stratified sampling
|
||||
Subdivision surface
|
||||
Subpixel rendering
|
||||
Subsurface scattering
|
||||
Supersampling
|
||||
Swizzling (computer graphics)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
T-spline
|
||||
Technical drawing
|
||||
Temporal anti-aliasing
|
||||
Tessellation (computer graphics)
|
||||
Texel (graphics)
|
||||
Texture atlas
|
||||
Texture compression
|
||||
Texture filtering
|
||||
Texture mapping
|
||||
Texture mapping unit
|
||||
Thin lens
|
||||
Tiled rendering
|
||||
Tone mapping
|
||||
Transform, clipping, and lighting
|
||||
Triangle mesh
|
||||
Triangle strip
|
||||
Trilinear filtering
|
||||
True length
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Unbiased rendering
|
||||
Uncanny valley
|
||||
Unified shader model
|
||||
UV mapping
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Value noise
|
||||
Vanishing point
|
||||
Vector graphics
|
||||
Vector graphics editor
|
||||
Vertex (computer graphics)
|
||||
View factor
|
||||
Viewing frustum
|
||||
Viewport
|
||||
Virtual reality
|
||||
Visual computing
|
||||
Visual effects
|
||||
Volume rendering
|
||||
Volumetric path tracing
|
||||
Voronoi diagram
|
||||
Voxel
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Warnock algorithm
|
||||
Wire-frame model
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Z-buffering
|
||||
Z-fighting
|
||||
Z-order
|
||||
Z-order curve
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of combinatorial computational geometry topics
|
||||
List of geometry topics
|
||||
List of graphical methods
|
||||
List of numerical computational geometry topics
|
||||
Glossary of computer graphics
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,206 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computer hardware manufacturers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:12.772192+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Current notable computer hardware manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cases ==
|
||||
List of computer case manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Rack-mount computer cases ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Laptop computer cases ==
|
||||
Clevo
|
||||
MSI
|
||||
XPG (Xtreme Performance Gear, a gaming brand of ADATA)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Motherboards ==
|
||||
|
||||
Top motherboard manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
List of motherboard manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
Defunct:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Chipsets for motherboards ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Central processing units (CPUs) ==
|
||||
Note: most of these companies only make designs, and do not manufacture their own designs.
|
||||
Top x86 CPU manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
List of CPU manufacturers (most of the companies sell ARM-based CPUs, assumed if nothing else stated):
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hard disk drives (HDDs) ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Internal ===
|
||||
List of current hard disk drive manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
Seagate Technology
|
||||
Toshiba
|
||||
Western Digital
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== External ===
|
||||
Note: the HDDs internal to these devices are manufactured only by the internal HDD manufacturers listed above.
|
||||
List of external hard disk drive manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Drive controller and RAID cards ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Solid-state drives (SSDs) ==
|
||||
|
||||
Many companies manufacture SSDs but there are only a few major manufactures of NAND flash devices that are the storage element in most SSDs. The five major NAND flash manufacturers are:
|
||||
|
||||
Samsung
|
||||
SK Group
|
||||
Sandisk and Kioxia thru Flash Forward
|
||||
Micron
|
||||
YMTC
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Optical disc drives (ODDs) ==
|
||||
List of optical disc drive manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fans ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fan controllers ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Computer cooling systems ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of computer cooling system manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Non-refillable liquid cooling (AiO) ===
|
||||
List of non-refillable liquid cooling manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Refillable liquid cooling kits ===
|
||||
List of refillable liquid cooling kits manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Water block ===
|
||||
List of water block manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Video-card cooling ===
|
||||
List of graphics card cooling manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Computer monitors ==
|
||||
List of companies that are actively manufacturing and selling computer monitors:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Smartglasses ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Virtual reality headsets ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Video cards (graphics cards) ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of video card manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Graphics processing units (GPUs) ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Keyboards ==
|
||||
List of keyboard manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mouse ==
|
||||
List of mouse manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Joysticks ==
|
||||
List of Joystick manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Speakers ==
|
||||
List of computer speaker manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Modems ==
|
||||
List of modem manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Network interface cards (NICs) ==
|
||||
List of network card manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Chipsets for network cards ==
|
||||
|
||||
There are a number of other companies (AMD, Microchip, Altera, etc.) making specialized chipsets as part of other ICs, and they are not often found in PC hardware (laptop, desktop or server). There are also a number of now defunct companies (like 3com, DEC, SGI) that produced network related chipsets for us in general computers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Power supply units (PSUs) ==
|
||||
List of power supply unit (PSU) designers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Random-access memory (RAM) modules ==
|
||||
Note that the actual memory chips are manufactured by a small number of DRAM manufacturers. List of memory module manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Random-access memory (RAM) chips ==
|
||||
List of current DRAM manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
List of former or defunct DRAM manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
List of fabless DRAM companies:
|
||||
|
||||
In addition, other semiconductor manufacturers include SRAM or eDRAM embedded in larger chips.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Headphones ==
|
||||
List of headphone manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Image scanners ==
|
||||
List of image scanner manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sound cards ==
|
||||
List of sound card manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== TV tuner cards ==
|
||||
List of TV tuner card manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== USB flash drives ==
|
||||
List of USB flash drive manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Webcams ==
|
||||
List of webcam manufacturers:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of computer system manufacturers
|
||||
List of laptop brands and manufacturers
|
||||
List of flash memory controller manufacturers
|
||||
List of printer companies
|
||||
List of solid-state drive manufacturers
|
||||
Market share of personal computer vendors
|
||||
List of computer hardware manufacturers in the Soviet Union
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:02.419261+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by per capita carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the annual per capita CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000.
|
||||
The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports.
|
||||
Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North America.
|
||||
According to the review of the scientific literature conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas by warming contribution. The other major anthropogenic greenhouse gases) are not included in the following list, nor are humans emissions of water vapor (H2O), the most important greenhouse gases, as they are negligible compared to naturally occurring quantities.
|
||||
According to Science for Policy report in 2024 by the Joint Research Centre (JRC – the European Commission's science and knowledge service) and International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2023, global GHG emissions primarily consisted of CO2, resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels (73.7%).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Per capita CO2 emissions by country/territory ==
|
||||
|
||||
The data in the following table is extracted from EDGAR - Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== CO2 emissions per capita embedded in global trade ==
|
||||
CO2 emissions are typically measured on the basis of ‘production’. This accounting method – which is sometimes referred to as ‘territorial’ emissions – is used when countries report their emissions, and set targets domestically and internationally. In addition to the commonly reported production-based emissions statisticians also calculate ‘consumption-based’ emissions. These emissions are adjusted for trade. To calculate consumption-based emissions, traded goods are tracked across the world, and whenever a good was imported all CO2 emissions that were emitted in the production of that good are also imported, and vice versa to subtract all CO2 emissions that were emitted in the production of goods that were exported.
|
||||
Consumption-based emissions reflect the consumption and lifestyle choices of a country's citizens. They are national or regional emissions that have been adjusted for trade, calculated as domestic (or ‘production-based’) emissions minus the emissions generated in the production of goods and services that are exported to other countries or regions, plus emissions from the production of goods and services that are imported.
|
||||
|
||||
Consumption-based emissions = Production-based – Exported + Imported emissions
|
||||
This is measured as the net import-export balance in tons of CO2 per year. Positive values represent netimporters of CO2. Negative values represent net exporters of CO2.
|
||||
The data in the following table is extracted from Our World in Data database. Sorting is alphabetical by country code, according to ISO 3166-1 alpha-3.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
|
||||
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions
|
||||
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
|
||||
Climate change
|
||||
Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF)
|
||||
List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
|
||||
List of countries by renewable electricity production
|
||||
United Nations | Sustainable Development Goal 13 – Climate action
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs
|
||||
GHG data from UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions data
|
||||
Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt of CO2 equivalent) – World Bank
|
||||
CO2 emissions in metric tons per capita – Google Public Data Explorer
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of countries by carbon intensity"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:58.513210+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following list of countries by carbon intensity of GDP sorts countries by their emission intensity. Carbon intensity or emission intensity of GDP is a measure that evaluates the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced per unit of GDP. It provides an indication of how efficiently an economy uses carbon-based resources to generate economic output. A lower carbon intensity indicates that less CO2 is emitted to produce a given level of economic output, indicating a more carbon-efficient economy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Countries ===
|
||||
Countries by carbon intensity of GDP. Carbon intensity is measured by CO2 emissions in kilograms per International dollar (US dollar adjusted for purchasing power parity) of economic output. Data are for the year 2022.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== World regions and income groups ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Historical development ==
|
||||
Development of CO2 emissions in kilograms per international dollar of economic output in major countries over time.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:04.175224+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by greenhouse gas emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the 1970, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023 annual GHG emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 equivalent per year) along with a list of calculated emissions per capita (in metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year). The data include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide from all sources, including agriculture and land use change. They are measured in carbon dioxide-equivalents over a 100-year timescale.
|
||||
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the "Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)" sector on average, accounted for 13–21% of global total anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010–2019. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO2 emission fluxes, with deforestation being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds. The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential while providing food, wood and other renewable resources as well as biodiversity conservation. Mitigation measures in forests and other natural ecosystems provide the largest share of the LULUCF mitigation potential between 2020 and 2050. Among various LULUCF activities, reducing deforestation has the largest potential to reduce anthropogenic GHG emissions, followed by carbon sequestration in agriculture and ecosystem restoration including afforestation and reforestation. Land use change emissions can be negative.
|
||||
In 2023, global GHG emissions reached 53.0 GtCO2eq (without Land Use, land Use Change and Forestry). The 2023 data represent the highest level recorded and experienced an increase of 1.9% or 994 MtCO2eq compared to the levels in 2022. The majority of GHG emissions consisted of fossil CO2 accounting for 73.7% of total emissions.
|
||||
China, the United States, India, the EU27, Russia and Brazil were the world’s largest GHG emitters in 2023. Together they account for 49.8% of global population, 63.2% of global gross domestic product, 64.2% of global fossil fuel consumption and 62.7% of global GHG emissions. Among these top emitters, in 2023 China, India, Russia and Brazil increased their emissions compared to 2022, with India having the largest increase in relative terms (+ 6.1%) and China the largest absolute increase by 784 MtCO2eq.
|
||||
GHG emissions from the top 10 countries with the highest emissions accounted for almost two thirds of the global total. Since 2006, China has been emitting more CO2 than any other country.
|
||||
However, the main disadvantage of measuring total national emissions is that it does not take population size into account. China has the largest CO2 and GHG emissions in the world, but also the second largest population. Some argue that for a fair comparison, emissions should be analyzed in terms of the amount of CO2 and GHG per capita.
|
||||
Considering GHG per capita emissions in 2023, China's levels (11.11) are 53% higher than those of the European Union (7.26), are almost two-thirds those of the United States (17.61) and less than a sixth of those of Palau (65,29) – the country with the highest emissions of GHG per capita in 2023.
|
||||
Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North America.
|
||||
According to the review of the scientific literature conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas by warming contribution. Greenhouse gases (GHG) – primarily carbon dioxide but also others, including methane and chlorofluorocarbons – trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Higher temperatures then act on the climate, with varying effects. For example, dry regions might become drier while, at the poles, the ice caps are melting, causing higher sea levels. In 2016, the global average temperature was already 1.1 °C above pre-industrial levels.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Per capita GHG emissions ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== GHG emissions by country/territory ==
|
||||
The data in the following table is extracted from EDGAR - Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== GHG emissions 2023 vs. GHG emissions per capita 2023 ==
|
||||
Sorting is in descending order, by GHG emissions in 2023, starting with the maximum value — China (15943986.55 ktCO2eq = 100%). Percentages for GHG emissions per capita 2023 are also related to the maximum value — Palau (65.29 tCO2eq = 100%).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cumulative GHG emissions 1970-2023 vs. GHG emissions 2023 ==
|
||||
Sorting is in descending order, by total GHG emissions 1970-2023, starting with the maximum value — China (370328794.88 ktCO2eq = 100%). Percentages for GHG emissions 2023 are also related to the maximum value — China (15943986.55 ktCO2eq = 100%).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
|
||||
List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
|
||||
List of countries by renewable electricity production
|
||||
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
|
||||
List of locations and entities by greenhouse gas emissions
|
||||
United Nations | Sustainable Development Goal 13 – Climate action
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs
|
||||
GHG data from UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions data
|
||||
Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt of CO2 equivalent) – World Bank
|
||||
CO2 emissions in metric tons per capita – Google Public Data Explorer
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:05.691490+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by per capita greenhouse gas emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the 1970, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023 annual per capita GHG emissions estimates (in metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year). The data include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from all sources, including agriculture and land use change. They are measured in carbon dioxide-equivalents over a 100-year timescale.
|
||||
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the "Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)" sector on average, accounted for 13–21% of global total anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010–2019. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO2 emission fluxes, with deforestation being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds. The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential while providing food, wood and other renewable resources as well as biodiversity conservation. Mitigation measures in forests and other natural ecosystems provide the largest share of the LULUCF mitigation potential between 2020 and 2050. Among various LULUCF activities, reducing deforestation has the largest potential to reduce anthropogenic GHG emissions, followed by carbon sequestration in agriculture and ecosystem restoration including afforestation and reforestation. Land use change emissions can be negative.
|
||||
According to Science for Policy report in 2024 by the Joint Research Centre (JRC – the European Commission’s science and knowledge service) and International Energy Agency (IEA), global per-capita GHG emissions in 2023 increased by 0.9% to reach 6.59 tCO2eq/cap, a value still 0.9% lower than in 2019 (6.65 tCO2eq/cap), but have increased by about 7.3% from 6.14 tCO2eq/cap to 6.59 tCO2eq/cap between 1990 and 2023.
|
||||
However, the main disadvantage of measuring total national emissions is that it does not take population size into account. China has the largest CO2 and GHG emissions in the world, but also the second largest population. Some argue that for a fair comparison, emissions should be analyzed in terms of the amount of CO2 and GHG per capita.
|
||||
Considering GHG per capita emissions in 2023, China's levels (11.11) are almost two-thirds those of the United States (17.61) and almost a sixth of those of Palau (65,29) – the country with the highest emissions of GHG per capita in 2023.
|
||||
Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North America.
|
||||
According to the review of the scientific literature conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas by warming contribution. The European Union is at the forefront of international efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus safeguard the planet's climate. Greenhouse gases (GHG) – primarily carbon dioxide but also others, including methane and chlorofluorocarbons – trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Higher temperatures then act on the climate, with varying effects. For example, dry regions might become drier while, at the poles, the ice caps are melting, causing higher sea levels. In 2016, the global average temperature was already 1.1 °C above pre-industrial levels.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== GHG emissions ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Per capita GHG emissions by country/territory ==
|
||||
The data in the following table is extracted from EDGAR – Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research. Sorting is alphabetical by country code, according to ISO 3166-1 alpha-3.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
|
||||
List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
|
||||
List of countries by renewable electricity production
|
||||
United Nations | Sustainable Development Goal 13 – Climate action
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs
|
||||
GHG data from UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions data
|
||||
Total greenhouse gas emissions (kt of CO2 equivalent) – World Bank
|
||||
CO2 emissions in metric tons per capita – Google Public Data Explorer
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 1/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of flags of states, territories, former, religious and other geographic entities (plus a few non-geographic flags) sorted by their combinations of dominant colors. Flags emblazoned with seals, coats of arms, and other multicolored emblems are sorted only by their color fields. The color of text is almost entirely ignored.
|
||||
Colors white and gold, related to the two metals of European heraldry (argent and or) are sorted first. The five major colors of European heraldry (black, red, green, blue, and purple) are sorted next. Miscellaneous colors (murrey, tan, grey, and pink) are sorted last.
|
||||
Similar colors are grouped together to make navigation of this list practical. As such, the dark greens prevalent in the Middle East are sorted together with the brighter greens prevalent in Western Europe. Significantly, yellows, golds, and oranges are grouped together as "gold" due to the lack of discrete divisions within this spectrum and the differing standards of interpretation of "gold", which appears in the legally codified specifications of many flags. Some flags, including a number from South Asia, include both a distinct yellow and a distinct orange; these have been noted accordingly. Magenta is included with red.
|
||||
|
||||
== White ==
|
||||
|
||||
White flag, internationally recognised as a sign of truce, ceasefire, and surrender. The flag of the Kingdom of France in 1814–1830, during the Bourbon Restoration.
|
||||
Arkhangelsk, Russia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Afghanistan (with black text)
|
||||
Afghanistan (with Pashto subtext)
|
||||
Ahrar al-Sham, flag used since early 2016 (with green and black text)
|
||||
Buenos Aires, Argentina (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Ciudad del Este, Paraguay (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Gniezno, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms), as well as its gmina
|
||||
Illinois, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Jabhat Fatah al-Sham (with black text)
|
||||
Jakarta, Indonesia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Jujuy Province, Argentina (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Lambaré, Paraguay (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Mariano Roque Alonso, Paraguay (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Massachusetts, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Mombasa, Kenya (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Poznań, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Prussia, Germany (1803–1892) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
Queretaro, Mexico (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Quintana Roo, Mexico (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Saint Barthélemy, French overseas collectivity, unofficial (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
San Luis, Argentina (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Siberian Federal District (multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States (with multicolored emblems), flag used from 1973 to 2018
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold ===
|
||||
|
||||
Banten Sultanate (1527–1813)
|
||||
Bhutan (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
Hanover (1837–1866)
|
||||
Hindu flag (with distinct orange)
|
||||
Jacksonville, Florida, United States (with a distinct gold and orange and a brown emblem)
|
||||
Jalalyan Dynasty of Armenia
|
||||
Jerusalem cross – flag used by several Crusader states
|
||||
Kędzierzyn-Koźle, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)
|
||||
Nagano Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Quiché, Guatemala
|
||||
San Francisco, California, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Silesia and Lower Silesia
|
||||
Sulawesi, Indonesia
|
||||
Vatican City (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black ===
|
||||
|
||||
Baltimore, Maryland, United States
|
||||
Brunei (1906–1959)
|
||||
Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Loyalty Islands Province, New Caledonia
|
||||
Norfolk, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Perak, Malaysia
|
||||
Russian Empire (1858–1896)
|
||||
Sutherland, Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
Tarnowskie Góry, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, red ===
|
||||
|
||||
Brunei
|
||||
Buckinghamshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Egypt
|
||||
Flemish Brabant, Belgium
|
||||
Glarus, Switzerland
|
||||
Kanta-Häme, Finland
|
||||
Maryland, United States
|
||||
Miranda State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Papua New Guinea
|
||||
Patani United Liberation Organisation (original)
|
||||
Patani United Liberation Organisation (1989 - 2005)
|
||||
Pattani United Liberation Organisation (2005–present)
|
||||
Shaiva flag (with distinct gold and red)
|
||||
's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands
|
||||
Skała, Poland
|
||||
Syria (1972–1980)
|
||||
Tamil Eelam
|
||||
Timor-Leste
|
||||
Uganda (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
United States Marine Corps
|
||||
Wejherowo County, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, red, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Ain, France
|
||||
Antigua and Barbuda
|
||||
Bedfordshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Bonaire, Caribbean Netherlands
|
||||
Charente-Maritime, France
|
||||
Republic of China (1912–1949)
|
||||
Reformed Government of the Republic of China (1938–1940)
|
||||
Reorganized National Government of China (1940–1943)
|
||||
East Anglia, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Eswatini
|
||||
Graubünden, Switzerland
|
||||
Herm, one of the British Channel Islands
|
||||
Lot, France
|
||||
Manchukuo (1932–1945)
|
||||
Moselle, France
|
||||
Nunavut, Canada
|
||||
Podkarpackie Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Rhône, France
|
||||
São Paulo, Brazil
|
||||
Western Australia, Australia
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, red, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Choiseul, province of Solomon Islands
|
||||
Disability Pride Flag
|
||||
East African Community
|
||||
Karlino, Poland
|
||||
Knurów, Poland
|
||||
Saint Pierre and Miquelon, French overseas collectivity, unofficial
|
||||
Sanma, province of Vanuatu
|
||||
Shefa, province of Vanuatu
|
||||
South Africa
|
||||
Mapuche
|
||||
South Sudan
|
||||
Torba, province of Vanuatu
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, red, green, blue, purple, brown, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Progress pride flag – with distinct yellow and orange, and two shades of blue
|
||||
World Peace Flag (1913)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Dominica (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Guyana
|
||||
Jain flag (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
Mozambique
|
||||
Pattani (with white symbol and no yellow)
|
||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis
|
||||
Santander, Colombia
|
||||
Táchira State, Venezuela
|
||||
Zimbabwe
|
||||
Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, red, green, brown ===
|
||||
|
||||
Osun State, Nigeria
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Afghanistan (1992–1996)
|
||||
Amazonas, Colombia
|
||||
Chorzele, Poland
|
||||
Guadalcanal, province of Solomon Islands (with two shades of green)
|
||||
Orellana Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Schijndel, Netherlands
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Central, province of Solomon Islands (with two shades of green)
|
||||
Monagas State, Venezuela
|
||||
Penama, province of Vanuatu
|
||||
Cagayan, Philippines
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, green, blue, brown ===
|
||||
|
||||
Delta Amacuro State, Venezuela
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, green, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
North Central Province, Sri Lanka – with other color symbol
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
James W. Cadle's Flag of Earth
|
||||
Finistère, France
|
||||
Myszków, Poland
|
||||
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
|
||||
Republic of Maryland (1854–1857)
|
||||
Saint Lucia
|
||||
Zulia State, Venezuela
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, blue, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Salta, Argentina
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, black, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Non-binary pride flag
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 2/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Alsace, France
|
||||
Apeldoorn, Netherlands
|
||||
Aude, France
|
||||
Barcelona, Spain
|
||||
Białystok, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Bielsko-Biała, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Carinthia, Austria
|
||||
Columbus, Ohio, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Free City of Danzig (1920–1939)
|
||||
Dorset, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Elba, 1814–1815, used during Napoleon Bonaparte's imprisonment
|
||||
Essex, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919)
|
||||
Gard, France
|
||||
Gdańsk, Poland
|
||||
Greater Poland Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Grudziądz, Poland
|
||||
Guernsey (British crown dependency)
|
||||
Haarlem, Netherlands
|
||||
Haute-Garonne, France
|
||||
Hérault, France
|
||||
Inowrocław, Poland
|
||||
Isle of Man (British crown dependency)
|
||||
Jelenia Góra, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Jersey (British crown dependency)
|
||||
Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Limburg, Belgium
|
||||
Lincoln, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Lorraine, former administrative region of France
|
||||
Lot-et-Garonne, France
|
||||
Lublin Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Masovian Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Middlesex, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
North Ossetia-Alania, Russia
|
||||
Odesa, Ukraine
|
||||
Proszowice, Poland
|
||||
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, a French region
|
||||
Saint Petersburg, Russia
|
||||
San Diego, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Santa Barbara, California, United States
|
||||
Sark, one of the British Channel Islands
|
||||
Seine-Maritime, France (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Selangor, Malaysia
|
||||
Sikkim (1967–1975)
|
||||
South Ossetia (de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Świebodzin, Poland
|
||||
Sułkowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Westmorland, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Wolin, Poland
|
||||
York, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Alderney, one of the British Channel Islands
|
||||
Barretos, São Paulo, Brazil
|
||||
Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1951–1991)
|
||||
Chechnya, Russia
|
||||
East Indonesia (1946–1950)
|
||||
Kurdistan, Iraq
|
||||
Lara State, Venezuela
|
||||
Liège Province, Belgium
|
||||
Lithuanian SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1988)
|
||||
Lubusz Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Myanmar
|
||||
New Granada (1811–1814)
|
||||
Prince Edward Island, Canada
|
||||
La Rioja, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Shan State, Myanmar
|
||||
Suriname
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1992)
|
||||
Tajikistan
|
||||
Thurgau, Switzerland
|
||||
Togo
|
||||
Turkmenistan
|
||||
Vosges, France
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Empire of Brazil (1821–1889), House of Braganza
|
||||
Cantal, France
|
||||
Central African Republic
|
||||
Comoros
|
||||
Green Ensign
|
||||
Jabal ad-Druze, French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1921–1936)
|
||||
Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia
|
||||
Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan
|
||||
Khakassia, Russia
|
||||
Misiones Department, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Namibia
|
||||
Northern Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
Ontario, Canada
|
||||
Pembrokeshire, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Pernambuco, Brazil
|
||||
Qing Dynasty
|
||||
Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
|
||||
Roraima, Brazil
|
||||
Seychelles
|
||||
Sikkim (1877–1914 and 1962–1967)
|
||||
Sikkim (1914–1962)
|
||||
Sint Eustatius, Caribbean Netherlands
|
||||
South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
Tampa, Florida, United States
|
||||
Vaucluse, France
|
||||
United States Virgin Islands (US insular area)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, green, blue, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russian Far East, Russia (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
Whipala (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, green, blue, brown ===
|
||||
|
||||
British Hong Kong (1841–1997)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Acadia, Ethno-Linguistic region of the Northeastern United States and Southeastern Canada.
|
||||
Acadiana, Louisiana, United States
|
||||
Alawite State, French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1920–1936)
|
||||
Almere, Netherlands (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France
|
||||
Anglican Communion
|
||||
Antwerp Province, Belgium
|
||||
Ardennes, France
|
||||
Ariège, France
|
||||
Republic of Artsakh (1992–2023, de facto separatist state, not recognized by UN)
|
||||
Aruba, Kingdom of the Netherlands
|
||||
ASEAN, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
|
||||
Bitola, North Macedonia
|
||||
British Columbia, Canada
|
||||
Bruges, Belgium
|
||||
Buddhist flag (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
Cape Verde
|
||||
Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
|
||||
Catamarca Province, Argentina (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Charente, France
|
||||
Cher, France
|
||||
Córdoba Province, Argentina
|
||||
Colorado, United States (1911–1964)
|
||||
Colorado, United States
|
||||
Côte-d'Or, France
|
||||
Creuse, France
|
||||
Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (unrecognised, 1991–1996)
|
||||
Denver, Colorado, United States
|
||||
Detroit, Michigan, United States
|
||||
Drôme, France
|
||||
Encarnación, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Estelada, flag of the Catalan independence movement
|
||||
Estonian SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1990)
|
||||
Eure, France
|
||||
Eure-et-Loir, France
|
||||
Falcón State, Venezuela
|
||||
Gagauzia, Moldova
|
||||
Georgia, United States
|
||||
Gironde, France
|
||||
La Guaira State, Venezuela
|
||||
Haute-Loire, France
|
||||
Hertfordshire, England, United Kingdom (a brownish red)
|
||||
Indre, France
|
||||
Indre-et-Loire, France
|
||||
Jura, France
|
||||
Kirghiz SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1992)
|
||||
Kiribati
|
||||
Krosno, Poland
|
||||
Lafayette, Indiana, United States
|
||||
Latvian SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1990)
|
||||
Leeuwarden, Netherlands
|
||||
Limburg, Netherlands
|
||||
Loja, Ecuador
|
||||
Lyon, France
|
||||
Madeira (Portuguese autonomous region)
|
||||
Malaya (1948–1963)
|
||||
Malaysia
|
||||
Mayotte, French overseas department, unofficial
|
||||
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
|
||||
Melaka, Malaysia
|
||||
Mengjiang (1939–1945)
|
||||
Mississippi, United States
|
||||
Napo, Ecuador
|
||||
Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
|
||||
New South Wales, Australia
|
||||
Niue
|
||||
North Carolina, United States
|
||||
North Karelia, Finland
|
||||
Nova Scotia, Canada
|
||||
Orange Free State (1857–1902)
|
||||
Orne, France (with black outlines)
|
||||
Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Philippines
|
||||
Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Radzionków, Poland
|
||||
Rostov Oblast, Russia
|
||||
Saba, Caribbean Netherlands
|
||||
St. Louis, Missouri, United States
|
||||
Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina
|
||||
Saône-et-Loire, France
|
||||
Sarthe, France
|
||||
Seine-Saint-Denis, France
|
||||
Serock, Poland
|
||||
Sioux Falls, South Dakota, United States
|
||||
South Bend, Indiana, United States
|
||||
Union Jack of Sweden and Norway, used by Swedish and Norwegian warships, 1844–1905
|
||||
Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
|
||||
Tarn-et-Garonne, France (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Tibet, China – with other color symbol
|
||||
Tuvalu – two different shades of blue
|
||||
Royal Standard of the United Kingdom
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1991)
|
||||
Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug, Russia (1997–2007)
|
||||
Venezuela
|
||||
Vojvodina, Serbia
|
||||
Yaracuy State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Yonne, France
|
||||
Zeeland, Netherlands (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Żory, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, blue, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Polyamory pride flag (version created in 2022 by Red Howell)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, red, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Balearic Islands, Spain
|
||||
Castile and León, Spain
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
African Union
|
||||
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
|
||||
Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
|
||||
Bocas del Toro, Panama (with black and white text)
|
||||
Caqueta, Colombia
|
||||
Coral Gables, Florida, United States
|
||||
Cyprus
|
||||
Distrito Federal, Brazil
|
||||
East Sumatra (1947–1950)
|
||||
Ehime Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Huila, Colombia
|
||||
India (with blue emblem)
|
||||
Ireland
|
||||
Ivory Coast
|
||||
Macau (Chinese special administrative region)
|
||||
Miami, Florida, United States
|
||||
Niger
|
||||
Nová Ves u Jarošova, Pardubice Region, Czechia
|
||||
Panama Oeste, Panama
|
||||
Starry Plough
|
||||
Sucumbios, Ecuador
|
||||
Vaud, Switzerland
|
||||
Wiltshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Zamora Chinchipe, Ecuador
|
||||
Zielona Góra, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, green, blue ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,306 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 3/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amapá, Brazil
|
||||
Andorra la Vella, Andorra
|
||||
Apure, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Bashkortostan, Russia
|
||||
Bolívar State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Brazil
|
||||
Ceará, Brazil
|
||||
Chaco Province, Argentina (with multicolored emblems)
|
||||
Christmas Island (Australian external territory)
|
||||
Connecticut, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Cumbria, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Derbyshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Duluth, Minnesota, United States
|
||||
Flevoland, Netherlands
|
||||
Formosa Province, Argentina
|
||||
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
|
||||
Goiás, Brazil
|
||||
Guárico State, Venezuela (with two multicolored emblems)
|
||||
Janská Janská, Ústí nad Labem Region, Czechia
|
||||
Mato Grosso, Brazil
|
||||
Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
|
||||
Nairobi, Kenya
|
||||
Nairobi City County, Kenya (with tan symbols)
|
||||
National Renewal Alliance (1964–1985), extinct political party of Brazil
|
||||
Nueva Esparta State, Venezuela
|
||||
Piauí, Brazil
|
||||
Portland, Oregon, United States
|
||||
Portuguesa State, Venezuela
|
||||
Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
|
||||
Rondônia, Brazil
|
||||
Sergipe, Brazil
|
||||
Solomon Islands
|
||||
Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, green, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Western Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, green, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
North Western Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Aisne, France
|
||||
Albany, New York, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Dolphin Flag, used by the unrecognized Republic of Anguilla (1967–1969)
|
||||
Aube, France
|
||||
Australian Capital Territory, Australia
|
||||
Azores (Portuguese autonomous region) (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Białobrzegi, Poland
|
||||
Bir Tawil
|
||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
||||
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
|
||||
Buryatia, Russia
|
||||
Canary Islands, Spain
|
||||
Chubut Province, Argentina
|
||||
Colón, Panama (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Curaçao, Kingdom of the Netherlands
|
||||
Częstochowa, Poland
|
||||
Delaware, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Essonne, France
|
||||
Euclid, Ohio
|
||||
Haute-Marne, France
|
||||
Jerusalem
|
||||
Kalmykia, Russia
|
||||
Kosovo
|
||||
Lelystad, Netherlands
|
||||
Loir-et-Cher, France
|
||||
Loiret, France
|
||||
Long Beach, California, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Lord Howe Island, New South Wales, Australia, unofficial
|
||||
Magallanes, Chile
|
||||
Marne, France
|
||||
Marshall Islands
|
||||
Merionethshire, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
"The People's Flag" of Milwaukee
|
||||
Nashville, Tennessee, United States
|
||||
Nauru
|
||||
New Hampshire, United States
|
||||
New York City, United States
|
||||
Nowa Sól, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Pacatuba, Ceará, Brazil
|
||||
Penang, Malaysia (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Prince's Flag (historical flag of the Netherlands)
|
||||
Reda, Poland
|
||||
Rhode Island, United States
|
||||
Isles of Scilly, United Kingdom
|
||||
Seine-et-Marne, France
|
||||
Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
South Africa (with multicolored emblem), 1928–1994
|
||||
Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece
|
||||
Tierra del Fuego, Argentina
|
||||
Tocantins, Brazil
|
||||
Tokelau (New Zealand territory)
|
||||
Tuva, Russia
|
||||
Uruguay
|
||||
Uusimaa, Finland
|
||||
Val-de-Marne, France
|
||||
West Indies Federation (1958–1962)
|
||||
Yvelines, France
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, blue, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Ciechanów, Poland
|
||||
Eastern Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, blue, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Brussels, Belgium
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Kyoto Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, brown, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Royal Banner of the Kingdom of Kakongo (c.1883)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Hernandarias, Paraguay (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, murrey, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Central Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, gold, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Orange-pink lesbian flag (five stripes variant; with distinct light and dark orange, and distinct light and dark pink)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black ===
|
||||
|
||||
Basel-Stadt, Switzerland
|
||||
Brittany, France
|
||||
Historical flag of Brittany
|
||||
Ceuta, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Come and take it, from the Battle of Gonzales during the Texas Revolution
|
||||
Cornwall, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Corsica, France
|
||||
Cyrenaica, Libya
|
||||
Delft, Netherlands
|
||||
Diagolon, Canadian far-right extremist group
|
||||
Enugu State, Nigeria
|
||||
Fribourg, Switzerland
|
||||
Ghent, Belgium (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Hohenzollern-Hechingen (to 1850) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (to 1850) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
ISIS, Terrorist organisation
|
||||
Johor Sultanate (1528–1855)
|
||||
Metz, France
|
||||
Pahang, Malaysia
|
||||
Prussia, Germany (1892–1918) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
Prussia, Germany (1918–1947) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
Prussia, Germany (civil flag, 1701–1947)
|
||||
Schutzstaffel
|
||||
Silver Fern Flag, unofficial flag of New Zealand
|
||||
Straight flag
|
||||
Terengganu, Malaysia
|
||||
Teutonic Order, former crusader state
|
||||
Tokugawa Shogunate
|
||||
Ulm, Germany
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, red ===
|
||||
|
||||
Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)
|
||||
Amsterdam, Netherlands
|
||||
Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Switzerland
|
||||
Appenzell Innerrhoden, Switzerland
|
||||
Belarusian People's Republic (in exile, 1919–1925)
|
||||
Berlin, Germany
|
||||
Central Finland
|
||||
Charleroi, Belgium (with gold on coat of arms)
|
||||
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, Spain
|
||||
Drenthe, Netherlands
|
||||
Durham, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Flintshire, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Germany (1867–1918)
|
||||
Germany (1935–1945)
|
||||
Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
La Masó, Spain
|
||||
Limousin, France
|
||||
Tino rangatiratanga (Māori flag)
|
||||
Minas Gerais, Brazil
|
||||
Northern Territory, Australia (with ochre-red)
|
||||
Oromia Region, Ethiopia (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Paraíba, Brazil
|
||||
Peel en Maas, Netherlands
|
||||
Puigpelat, Spain
|
||||
Republic of the Rio Grande, now used by the city of Laredo, Texas, United States
|
||||
Roman Republic (1798–1799)
|
||||
Salm (1802–1811)
|
||||
Sandinista National Liberation Front
|
||||
Sardinia, Italy
|
||||
Sealand (micronation)
|
||||
Trinidad and Tobago
|
||||
Udmurtia, Russia
|
||||
Upper Volta (1959–1984)
|
||||
Yemen
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, red, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Bikini Atoll
|
||||
Haute-Vienne, France
|
||||
Knoxville, Tennessee, United States (with multicolored symbol)
|
||||
Republic of Korea
|
||||
Leather Pride flag
|
||||
Lockwood Silver Fern flag, proposed alternative flag of New Zealand
|
||||
Maranhão, Brazil
|
||||
Republic of Matabeleland
|
||||
Red Peak flag, proposed alternative flag of New Zealand
|
||||
San Antonio, Texas, United States
|
||||
United Tribes flag, New Zealand
|
||||
South Yemen (1967–1990)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Arab Revolt, 1916–1918 revolt against the Ottoman Empire
|
||||
Bangladesh naval Ensign (with combined national flag and white background)
|
||||
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland
|
||||
Gambela Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
Ghana (1964–1966)
|
||||
Goshen (1883–1885, unrecognized)
|
||||
Iraq
|
||||
Iraq (1924–1959)
|
||||
Jordan
|
||||
Kenya
|
||||
Kuwait
|
||||
Libya
|
||||
Malawi (2010–2012)
|
||||
Ngobe-Bugle, Panama
|
||||
Ożarów Mazowiecki, Poland
|
||||
Palestine
|
||||
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
|
||||
Santo Domingo, Ecuador – with other color symbol
|
||||
Somaliland
|
||||
Sudan
|
||||
Syria (1963–1972)
|
||||
Syrian Arab Republic (1980–2024)
|
||||
Syria (1930–1958, 1961–1963, since 2024)
|
||||
United Arab Emirates
|
||||
United Arab Republic (1958–1971)
|
||||
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League
|
||||
Yemen Arab Republic (1962–1990)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, red, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Balvi, Latvia
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Devon, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
East Flanders, Belgium (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Extremadura, Spain – with other color symbol
|
||||
Jastrzębie-Zdrój, Poland
|
||||
Marche, Italy
|
||||
Nevřeň, Pilsen Region, Czechia
|
||||
Putumayo Department, Colombia
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Lesotho
|
||||
Río Negro Province, Argentina
|
||||
Worcestershire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, green, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Agender pride flag
|
||||
Aromantic pride flag – two different shades of green
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Aargau, Switzerland
|
||||
Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus (1914)
|
||||
Botswana
|
||||
Côtes-d'Armor, France
|
||||
Estonia
|
||||
Ille-et-Vilaine, France
|
||||
Loire-Atlantique, France
|
||||
Morbihan, France
|
||||
Neutral Moresnet
|
||||
North Province, New Caledonia
|
||||
Saar (1920–1935)
|
||||
South Ostrobothnia, Finland
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Labrys lesbian flag
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, purple, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Asexual pride flag
|
||||
Demisexual pride flag
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,229 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 4/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, black, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921)
|
||||
Georgia (1991–2004)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, red ===
|
||||
|
||||
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Aceh Sultanate (1496–1903)
|
||||
Aichi Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Ajman, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Akita Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Alabama, United States
|
||||
Alsace (Historical), France
|
||||
Amersfoort, Netherlands
|
||||
Antwerp (city), Belgium
|
||||
Árpád stripes, historical flag of House of Árpád
|
||||
Asunción, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Atlántico, Colombia
|
||||
Austria
|
||||
Bahrain
|
||||
Bari, Italy
|
||||
Basel-Landschaft, Switzerland
|
||||
Bas-Rhin, France
|
||||
Belarus (1918, 1991–1995)
|
||||
Będzin, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Birmingham, Alabama, United States
|
||||
Brandenburg, Germany
|
||||
Brandywine flag, used during the American Revolution
|
||||
Bremen, Germany
|
||||
Breda, Netherlands
|
||||
Brno, Czechia
|
||||
Calgary, Canada
|
||||
California, United States (with multicolored emblem and text)
|
||||
Canada
|
||||
Cantabria, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Republic of Central Albania (1913-1914)
|
||||
Chlístovice, Central Bohemian Region, Czechia
|
||||
Chuquisaca Department, Bolivia
|
||||
City of London, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Cross of Burgundy, historical flag of the Duchy of Burgundy and Spain
|
||||
Denmark
|
||||
District of Columbia, United States
|
||||
Dordrecht, Netherlands
|
||||
Drahobuz, Ústí nad Labem Region, Czechia
|
||||
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Džbánice, South Moravian Region, Czechia
|
||||
Easter Island, Chile
|
||||
Eindhoven, Netherlands
|
||||
Elbląg, Poland
|
||||
England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Florence, Italy
|
||||
Florida, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Franconia, Germany
|
||||
Frankfurt (to 1866) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
French Polynesia, French overseas territory (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Fujairah, United Arab Emirates (to 1961)
|
||||
Fukushima Prefecture, Japan (orangish red)
|
||||
Genoa, Italy
|
||||
Georgia
|
||||
Gers, France
|
||||
Gibraltar (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Glamorgan, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Golden Horde
|
||||
Gouda, Netherlands
|
||||
Greenland (Danish autonomous country)
|
||||
Hamburg, Germany
|
||||
Hesse, Germany
|
||||
Hesse and by Rhine (Hesse-Darmstadt), Germany (to 1945)
|
||||
Hesse-Homburg (to 1866)
|
||||
Hesse-Kassel (to 1866)
|
||||
Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Hong Kong (Chinese special administrative region)
|
||||
Hoorn, Netherlands
|
||||
Indonesia
|
||||
Saint Patrick's Saltire, historical flag of Ireland
|
||||
Japan
|
||||
Rising Sun Flag, used by the Japanese military
|
||||
Jura, Switzerland
|
||||
Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Kelantan, Malaysia
|
||||
Kent, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Kerkrade, Netherlands
|
||||
Kōchi Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Koniecpol, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Kingdom of Laos (1952–1975)
|
||||
Leiden, Netherlands
|
||||
Leuven, Belgium
|
||||
Lier, Belgium
|
||||
Lübeck, Germany (to 1937)
|
||||
Maastricht, Netherlands
|
||||
Madrid, Spain
|
||||
Malta – with other color symbol
|
||||
Malta (variant)
|
||||
Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta
|
||||
Mari El, Russia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia – with other color symbol
|
||||
Milan, Italy
|
||||
Monaco
|
||||
Mons, Belgium
|
||||
Montreal, Canada
|
||||
Nara Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Nation of Islam
|
||||
Němčičky (Znojmo District), South Moravian Region, Czechia
|
||||
Nidwalden, Switzerland
|
||||
North Brabant, Netherlands
|
||||
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Obwalden, Switzerland
|
||||
Ōita Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Okinawa Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Ostróda, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Perth, Western Australia, Australia (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Peru
|
||||
Grand Duchy of Posen (1815–1848)
|
||||
Poland
|
||||
Potosí Department, Bolivia
|
||||
Rakhine State, Myanmar (with blue emblem)
|
||||
Ras al-Khaimah, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Regensburg (1803–1810)
|
||||
Rijnsburg, Netherlands
|
||||
Saitama Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Salzburg, Austria
|
||||
Savoy (1416–1792 & 1814–1860)
|
||||
Schwyz, Switzerland
|
||||
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Singapore
|
||||
Sint-Lievens-Houtem, Belgium
|
||||
Słubice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Słupsk, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Solothurn, Switzerland
|
||||
Strasbourg, France
|
||||
Switzerland
|
||||
Tarija, Bolivia
|
||||
Thuringia, Germany
|
||||
Tlaxcala, Mexico
|
||||
Tonga
|
||||
Tournai, Belgium
|
||||
Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)
|
||||
Tunisia
|
||||
Turkey
|
||||
Tyrol, Austria
|
||||
Umm al-Quwain, United Arab Emirates
|
||||
Upper Austria, Austria
|
||||
Utrecht (city), Netherlands
|
||||
Utrecht (province), Netherlands
|
||||
Valais, Switzerland
|
||||
Vendée, France
|
||||
Vienna, Austria
|
||||
Vorarlberg, Austria
|
||||
Warwickshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Workers' Party, political party of Brazil
|
||||
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1927–1962)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, red, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Coclé, Panama
|
||||
Pasir Puteh, Malaysia
|
||||
Wanze, Belgium
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Republic of Abkhazia (de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Algeria
|
||||
Amambay Department, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Anhalt, Germany (1863–1945)
|
||||
Areguá, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Basque Country, Spain
|
||||
Belarus
|
||||
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (with multicolored coat of arms), in use 1996–2007
|
||||
Boyacá Department, Colombia
|
||||
Bulgaria
|
||||
Burundi
|
||||
Campo Limpo Paulista, São Paulo, Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Central Bosnia Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
||||
Chiriquí Province, Panama
|
||||
Cisalpine Republic (1797–1802)
|
||||
Cispadane Republic (1796–1797)
|
||||
Gorzów Wielkopolski, Poland
|
||||
Harari Region, Ethiopia (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Houthi movement
|
||||
Hungary
|
||||
Ingushetia, Russia
|
||||
Iran
|
||||
Italy
|
||||
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Lebanon
|
||||
Lublin, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Madagascar
|
||||
Maldives
|
||||
Manabí Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Mexico – with multicolored emblem
|
||||
Neuchâtel, Switzerland
|
||||
New England, United States
|
||||
Newbury, Essex County, Massachusetts, United States
|
||||
North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
|
||||
Nottinghamshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Oman
|
||||
Oyo State, Nigeria
|
||||
Paraguarí Department, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Posavina Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
||||
Saga Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
San Ignacio, Paraguay
|
||||
Santa Catarina, Brazil
|
||||
Seychelles (1977–1996)
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1991) (emblem is gold)
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1991–1992)
|
||||
Tatarstan, Russia
|
||||
Trujillo State, Venezuela
|
||||
Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Yucatán, Mexico
|
||||
Zenica-Doboj Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, red, green, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Aguadulce, Panama
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, red, blue ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,181 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 5/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Adjara, Georgia
|
||||
Alagoas, Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Amazonas, Brazil
|
||||
American Samoa, (US insular area) (with multicolor emblem)
|
||||
Anguilla (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Arkansas, United States
|
||||
Ascension Island (part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Assyrian flag – with other color symbol, two shades of blue or red (may or may not always be included)
|
||||
Australia
|
||||
Bahia, Brazil
|
||||
Bandera del Directorio Revolucionario Estudiantil
|
||||
Bali Kingdom (914–1908)
|
||||
Belize (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Bermuda (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Bohol, Philippines
|
||||
British Antarctic Territory (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
British Indian Ocean Territory (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Bydgoszcz, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Cambodia
|
||||
Campania, Italy
|
||||
Carpathian Ruthenia
|
||||
Cayman Islands (British overseas territory) (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Central Department, Paraguay
|
||||
Chicago, Illinois, United States
|
||||
Chile
|
||||
Chile, 1817
|
||||
Republic of China (Taiwan and surrounding islands)
|
||||
Choctaw Republic, flag in use 1860–1866
|
||||
Christian flag
|
||||
Cincinnati, Ohio, United States
|
||||
Cleveland, Ohio, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use 1861–1863
|
||||
Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use 1863–1865
|
||||
Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use 1865
|
||||
Confederate States of America (battle flag, used by the Confederate military), 1861–1865
|
||||
Cook Islands
|
||||
Costa Rica
|
||||
Crimea (disputed between Ukraine and Russia)
|
||||
Croatia – with other color symbol
|
||||
Croats of Serbia
|
||||
Cuba
|
||||
Czech Republic
|
||||
Czechoslovakia (1920–1992)
|
||||
Dallas, Texas, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Des Moines, Iowa, United States
|
||||
Dominican Republic – with other color symbol
|
||||
Easton, Pennsylvania, United States
|
||||
Entre Ríos Province, Argentina
|
||||
Falkland Islands (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Faroe Islands (Danish autonomous country)
|
||||
Fiji – with other color symbol; two different shades of blue
|
||||
France
|
||||
Presidential Standard of France
|
||||
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
|
||||
Friesland, Netherlands
|
||||
Georgia, naval ensign
|
||||
Merchant Flag of Germany (1946–1949), used during the Occupation Period to identify German ships according to international law.
|
||||
Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800)
|
||||
Kingdom of Slavonia
|
||||
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
|
||||
Hawaii, United States
|
||||
Herefordshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Hokkaido Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Iceland
|
||||
Imo State, Nigeria
|
||||
Indaiatuba, São Paulo, Brazil
|
||||
Indianapolis, Indiana, United States
|
||||
Iowa, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Johor, Malaysia
|
||||
Kansas City, Missouri, United States
|
||||
Kayin State, Myanmar
|
||||
Khmer Republic (1970–1975)
|
||||
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
|
||||
Laos
|
||||
La Rioja Province, Argentina – with other color symbol
|
||||
Legionowo, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Liberia
|
||||
Luxembourg
|
||||
Luxembourg (civil ensign)
|
||||
Luxembourg, Belgium
|
||||
M-19
|
||||
Magdalena Department, Colombia
|
||||
Manitoba, Canada – with other color symbol
|
||||
Mari El, Russia (2006–2011)
|
||||
Masuria, Poland
|
||||
Mataram Sultanate (1587–1755)
|
||||
Misiones Province, Argentina
|
||||
Mississippi, United States (1894–1996)
|
||||
Mississippi, United States (1996–2001)
|
||||
Mississippi, United States (2001–2020)
|
||||
Missouri, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Mobile, Alabama, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Montserrat (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Mordovia, Russia
|
||||
Natal (British colony, 1870–1910) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Natalia Republic (1839–1843, unrecognized)
|
||||
Nepal
|
||||
The Netherlands
|
||||
Netherlands Antilles
|
||||
New Orleans, Louisiana, United States – with gold emblems
|
||||
New Zealand
|
||||
Nivkh people
|
||||
North Dakota, United States
|
||||
Norway
|
||||
Nouvelle-Aquitaine, (aka New Aquitaine), France
|
||||
Ohio, United States
|
||||
Panama
|
||||
Pará, Brazil
|
||||
Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Patagonian Republican Party
|
||||
Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Principality of Lucca and Piombino (1805-1809)
|
||||
Principality of Piombino
|
||||
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (Partially-annexed German territory, 1939–1945)
|
||||
Puerto Rico (US insular area)
|
||||
Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
||||
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, British colony, 1953–1963 – with other color symbol
|
||||
Russia
|
||||
Revolutionary Directorate
|
||||
Rocha
|
||||
Saar (1947–1956)
|
||||
Sabah, Malaysia – three different shades of blue
|
||||
Saint Helena (part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Samoa
|
||||
Samoan Kingdom (1872-1873)
|
||||
Samoan Kingdom (1873-1875)
|
||||
Samoan Kingdom (1875-1879)
|
||||
Santa Fe Province, Argentina – with other color symbol
|
||||
Schaumburg-Lippe, Germany (to 1946)
|
||||
Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
|
||||
Serbia – with other color symbol
|
||||
Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006)
|
||||
Serbs of Croatia
|
||||
Seychelles (1976–1977)
|
||||
Sint Maarten, Kingdom of the Netherlands – with other color symbol
|
||||
Slovakia
|
||||
Slovenia – with other color symbol
|
||||
Sorbs
|
||||
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Ethiopia (1995–2023) – with multicolored emblem
|
||||
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
South Province, New Caledonia
|
||||
Springfield, Illinois, United States
|
||||
Tasmania, Australia
|
||||
Tennessee, United States
|
||||
Texas, United States
|
||||
Telavi, Georgia
|
||||
Thailand
|
||||
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
|
||||
Transvaal (British colony, 1903–1910) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Trenton, Georgia, United States
|
||||
Tristan da Cunha (part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Turks and Caicos Islands (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
|
||||
United States of America
|
||||
Artigas flag, one of the three official flags of Uruguay
|
||||
Flag of the Treinta y Tres, one of the three official flags of Uruguay (with black text)
|
||||
Utah, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
British Virgin Islands (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Wallis and Futuna, French overseas territory, unofficial
|
||||
Republic of West Papua (1961–1962)
|
||||
Wichita, Kansas, United States
|
||||
Wyoming, United States
|
||||
Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1946)
|
||||
Democratic Federal Yugoslavia (1943–1946)
|
||||
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1992) – with gold outline
|
||||
|
||||
Republic of Graaff-Reinet (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Republic of Swellendam (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Islands of Refreshment (with different aspect ratio)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, red, green, blue ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 6/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Abruzzo, Italy – with other color symbol
|
||||
Afar Region, Ethiopia (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Alpes-Maritimes, France
|
||||
Azerbaijan
|
||||
Aztlán, unofficial flag of Chicano nationalism, with other color symbol
|
||||
Bayelsa State, Nigeria
|
||||
Central Ethiopia Regional State, Ethiopia
|
||||
Chin State, Myanmar (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Djibouti
|
||||
Equatorial Guinea – with other color symbol
|
||||
Federal Dependencies of Venezuela
|
||||
The Gambia
|
||||
Groningen (province), Netherlands
|
||||
Guanacaste, Costa Rica
|
||||
Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina – with other color symbol
|
||||
Imbabura Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Lesotho (1966–1987)
|
||||
Mérida, Venezuelan state
|
||||
Nieuwe Republiek (1884–1888, unrecognized)
|
||||
Ogaden, Ethiopia
|
||||
Sakha Republic, Russia
|
||||
Sidama Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
Somali Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
South African Republic (1852–1877 & 1881–1902)
|
||||
Republic of South Maluku (1950–1963)
|
||||
State of Syria, French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1925–1930)
|
||||
Uzbekistan
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Almelo, Netherlands
|
||||
Altai Republic, Russia
|
||||
Antarctic Treaty System
|
||||
Antarctica – Graham Bartram flag
|
||||
Antarctica – True South flag
|
||||
Argentina – with other color symbol
|
||||
Arlon, Belgium
|
||||
Arnhem, Netherlands
|
||||
Ashdod, Israel
|
||||
Assen, Netherlands
|
||||
Basilicata, Italy
|
||||
Bat Yam, Israel
|
||||
Bavaria, Germany
|
||||
Bavaria, Germany
|
||||
Billings, Montana, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Bonnie Blue Flag, unofficial flag of the Confederate States of America
|
||||
Brescia, Italy
|
||||
Buffalo, New York, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Central America, 1823–1824 (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Central America, 1824–1839 (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Ciskei, nominally independent homeland (Bantustan), 1981–1994 (with black emblem)
|
||||
Chiba Prefecture, Japan (with gold on symbol)
|
||||
Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia
|
||||
Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Corrientes Province, Argentina (with black text and multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Cross River State, Nigeria
|
||||
Czeladź, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
East Turkestan Liberation Organization/East Turkistan Republic
|
||||
Dalfsen, Netherlands
|
||||
Ecuador (1845–1860)
|
||||
El Salvador – with other color symbol
|
||||
Finland
|
||||
Fort Wayne, Indiana, United States (with red symbols)
|
||||
Fukui Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Galicia, Spain – with other color symbol
|
||||
Gazankulu (1971–1994)
|
||||
Gdynia, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Gelendzhik, Russia
|
||||
Greece
|
||||
Goryachy Klyuch, Russia
|
||||
Guanabara (1960–1975), Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Guatemala (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Guayas Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Holon, Israel
|
||||
Hoogeveen, Netherlands
|
||||
Honduras (1949–2022)
|
||||
Honduras
|
||||
Houston, Texas, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
International Flag of Planet Earth
|
||||
Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Israel
|
||||
Iwate Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Kentucky, United States
|
||||
Kłobuck, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Korean Unification Flag, used when South Korean and North Korean athletes compete on a shared team
|
||||
Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia
|
||||
Koszalin, Poland
|
||||
Kraków, Poland
|
||||
La Pampa Province, Argentina (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Legnica, Poland
|
||||
Leyen (1806–1813)
|
||||
Louisiana, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Lucerne, Switzerland
|
||||
Luxembourg City, Luxembourg – with other color symbol
|
||||
Madison, Wisconsin, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Martinique, French overseas department, unofficial
|
||||
Mendoza Province, Argentina – with other color symbol
|
||||
Federated States of Micronesia
|
||||
Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
|
||||
Moultrie Flag, historical flag used during the American Revolution
|
||||
Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Neuquén Province, Argentina – with other color symbol
|
||||
Nicaragua (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Northwest Territories, Canada (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Oklahoma, United States
|
||||
Osaka Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Paraguay (1826–1842)
|
||||
Police County, Poland
|
||||
Province of Pomerania, Germany (1882–1935)
|
||||
Quebec, Canada
|
||||
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Rivers State, Nigeria
|
||||
Rybnik, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
|
||||
San Andres y Providencia, Colombia
|
||||
San Juan Province, Argentina – with other color symbol
|
||||
San Marino – with other color symbol
|
||||
Santander, Cantabria, Spain – with other color symbol
|
||||
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Germany (to 1920)
|
||||
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Germany (to 1920)
|
||||
Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
Shetland, Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
Shiga Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Slavonia, Croatia
|
||||
Somalia
|
||||
Sosnowiec, Poland
|
||||
South Carolina, United States
|
||||
The Starry Plough, used after the 1930s
|
||||
Sucre State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Syracuse, New York, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Tenerife, Spain
|
||||
Kingdom of Tlemcen (1338–1488)
|
||||
Toruń, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Tottori Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1965–1986)
|
||||
Tucumán Province, Argentina
|
||||
United Nations
|
||||
Veraguas, Panama
|
||||
Virginia, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
VII Corps HQ Flag
|
||||
Wakayama Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
West Virginia, United States
|
||||
Western Pomerania
|
||||
Westphalia (1807–1813)
|
||||
White-blue-white flag, used by Russian anti-war protestors
|
||||
Wisconsin, United States
|
||||
Yamagata Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Yap, Federated States of Micronesia
|
||||
Zug, Switzerland
|
||||
Zurich, Switzerland
|
||||
Zwolle, Netherlands
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia (1860–1862)
|
||||
Barinas State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Blachownia, Poland
|
||||
Córdoba Department, Colombia
|
||||
Cumberland, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Doug flag, Cascadian bioregion (unofficial)
|
||||
Duluth, Minnesota, United States (1979–2019)
|
||||
Galapagos, Ecuador
|
||||
Gay men pride flag – three different shades of blue and green
|
||||
Gloucestershire, England, United Kingdom (a cream white)
|
||||
Guaviare Department, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Republic of Jamtland (with black seal)
|
||||
Kabardino-Balkaria, Russia
|
||||
Kachin State, Myanmar
|
||||
Kępno, Poland
|
||||
Khabarovsk Krai, Russia
|
||||
Komi, Russia
|
||||
Konstancin-Jeziorna, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Ovamboland (1973–1989)
|
||||
Republic of Molossia (unrecognized micronation)
|
||||
Labrador, Canada (unofficial)
|
||||
Limón, province of Costa Rica
|
||||
Los Lagos Region, Chile
|
||||
Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus (1917–1922)
|
||||
Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus (1989–2000)
|
||||
New York City Police Department
|
||||
Nunatsiavut, Canada
|
||||
Paraná, Brazil
|
||||
San Pedro Department, Paraguay – with other color symbol'
|
||||
Sierra Leone
|
||||
Metropolitan Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1954–1997)
|
||||
Yukon, Canada (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 7/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Andalusia, Spain – with other color symbol
|
||||
Anhalt-Bernburg (to 1863)
|
||||
Anhalt-Dessau (to 1863)
|
||||
Anhalt-Köthen (to 1853)
|
||||
Antioquia, Colombia
|
||||
Aomori Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Bangkok, Thailand
|
||||
Caaguazú, Paraguay
|
||||
Cesar Department, Colombia
|
||||
Coburg, Germany (1918–1920)
|
||||
Comoros (1978–1992)
|
||||
Comoros (1992–1996)
|
||||
Comoros (1996–2001)
|
||||
East Java (1948–1950)
|
||||
Egypt (1922–1958)
|
||||
Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Esperanto flag
|
||||
Esquintla, Guatemala (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Gifu Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Groningen (city), Netherlands
|
||||
Hasselt, Belgium
|
||||
Jaworzno, Poland
|
||||
Kanepi Parish, Estonia
|
||||
Kagawa Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
La Guajira, Colombia
|
||||
Lombardy, Italy
|
||||
Los Ríos Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Madura (1948–1950)
|
||||
Meta, Colombia
|
||||
Mie Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Miyagi Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Nigeria
|
||||
Norfolk Island (Australian external territory)
|
||||
Pakistan
|
||||
Pando Department, Bolivia
|
||||
Pasundan (1948–1950)
|
||||
Pine Tree Flag, historical flag used during the American Revolution
|
||||
Rhodesia (1968–1979) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Ridderkerk, Netherlands
|
||||
Risaralda Department, Colombia
|
||||
Rotterdam, Netherlands
|
||||
St. Gallen, Switzerland
|
||||
Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia), Bolivia
|
||||
Saudi Arabia
|
||||
Saxe-Altenburg, Germany (1826–1920)
|
||||
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany (1826–1911)
|
||||
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany (1911–1918)
|
||||
Saxe-Gotha, Germany (1918–1920)
|
||||
Saxe-Hildburghausen (to 1826)
|
||||
Saxe-Meiningen, Germany (to 1920)
|
||||
Saxony, Germany
|
||||
Siberia, Russia
|
||||
Stellaland (1883–1885, de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Styria, Austria
|
||||
Sucre, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Tochigi Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Togo (1958–1960)
|
||||
Tokyo, Japan (Symbol flag)
|
||||
Toyama Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Vaupés Department, Colombia – two different shades of green
|
||||
Vlieland, Netherlands
|
||||
Wavre, Belgium
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green, blue, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Lesotho (1987–2006)
|
||||
Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Adjuntas, Puerto Rico
|
||||
Genderqueer pride flag
|
||||
Suffragette flag (United Kingdom)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Flag of Newfoundland (Unofficial)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, green, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Alto Paraná Department, Paraguay
|
||||
Transkei, nominally independent homeland (Bantustan), 1976–1994
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, blue, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Northern Mariana Islands (US insular area) – with other color symbol
|
||||
Northern Mariana Islands (US insular area), 1976–1981
|
||||
Valle del Cauca, Colombia
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, blue, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Espírito Santo, Brazil
|
||||
Transgender pride flag
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Bueng Kan Province, Thailand (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Gunma Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Tokyo, Japan
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, purple, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Grey asexual pride flag
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Berg (1806–1808)
|
||||
Latvia
|
||||
Moscow, Russia – with other color symbol
|
||||
Ñemby, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Qatar
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
The Kanem-Bornu Empire, according to Gabriel de Vallseca (1439)
|
||||
|
||||
=== White, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Jalal-Abad, Kyrgyzstan
|
||||
|
||||
== Gold ==
|
||||
|
||||
Anchorage, Alaska, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Aundh (1699–1948)
|
||||
Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1260)
|
||||
Baroda (?–1874)
|
||||
Basud, Camarines Norte
|
||||
Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1906)
|
||||
Bundi (1342–1949)
|
||||
Sultanate of Deli (1632–1946)
|
||||
Gwalior (1731–1818)
|
||||
Indore (1732–1818)
|
||||
Jhalawar (1838–1949)
|
||||
Jhansi (1728–1858)
|
||||
Karauli (1348–1948)
|
||||
Kolhapur (1710–1949)
|
||||
Kurundvad Junior (1733–1948)
|
||||
Maguindanao (1520–1905)
|
||||
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
|
||||
|
||||
Mysłowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
New Jersey, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Paracale, Camarines Norte
|
||||
Sangli (1782–1948)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black ===
|
||||
|
||||
Anarcho-capitalist flag
|
||||
Austrian Empire
|
||||
Baden-Württemberg, Germany
|
||||
Baltimore, Maryland, United States (with other color emblem)
|
||||
Banjar Sultanate (1526–1860)
|
||||
Sultanate of Gowa (1300s–1945)
|
||||
Greek Orthodox Church
|
||||
Kashubia, Poland
|
||||
Lanfang Republic (1777–1884)
|
||||
Liberland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Namur (city), Belgium
|
||||
National Capital District, Papua New Guinea
|
||||
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Saint David, historical flag of Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (to 1826)
|
||||
Saxe-Lauenburg, Germany (to 1876)
|
||||
Saxony-Anhalt, Germany
|
||||
Sikh flag
|
||||
Sneek, the Netherlands
|
||||
Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn (with yellow text and seal)
|
||||
|
||||
Workum, the Netherlands
|
||||
Refugee Nation (proposed flag)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, red ===
|
||||
|
||||
Angola
|
||||
Aboriginal Australians
|
||||
Belgium
|
||||
Bern, Switzerland
|
||||
Flanders, Belgium (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Geneva, Switzerland
|
||||
Germany
|
||||
German Democratic Republic (1959–1990)
|
||||
Guayama, Puerto Rico
|
||||
Hainaut, Belgium (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Lower Saxony, Germany (with white in coat of arms)
|
||||
Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
|
||||
Norte de Santander, Colombia
|
||||
Pagaruyung Kingdom (1347–1833)
|
||||
Purmerend, North Holland, The Netherlands
|
||||
People's State of Reuss, Germany (1919–1920)
|
||||
Reuss-Gera (Junior Line), Germany (to 1919)
|
||||
Reuss-Greiz (Elder Line), Germany (to 1919)
|
||||
Reuss-Lobenstein (to 1820)
|
||||
Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany (with white in coat of arms)
|
||||
Saarland, Germany (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Sarawak, Malaysia
|
||||
Raj of Sarawak
|
||||
Schaffhausen, Switzerland
|
||||
Uri, Switzerland
|
||||
Waldeck, Germany (1921–1929)
|
||||
Waldeck and Pyrmont, Germany (to 1921)
|
||||
Walloon Brabant, Belgium
|
||||
Württemberg-Baden, West Germany (1945–1952)
|
||||
Würzburg, Germany
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Azawad, breakaway region from Mali
|
||||
Benishangul-Gumuz Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
Biafra (1967–1970, de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Cape Verde (1975–1992)
|
||||
Ghana
|
||||
Guinea-Bissau
|
||||
Rwanda (1961–2001)
|
||||
São Tomé and Príncipe
|
||||
Vanuatu
|
||||
Zambia
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, red, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Kanak flag, used in New Caledonia alongside the French flag
|
||||
South Ethiopia Regional State, Ethiopia – with other color symbol
|
||||
Tafea, province of Vanuatu
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, red, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Germantown, Ohio, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Zgierz, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Polyamory pride flag (version created in 1995 by Jim Evans)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Republic of Benin (Nigeria) (1967, unrecognised, not to be confused with current Benin)
|
||||
Cherokee Nation, United States (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
Jamaica
|
||||
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Germany (1813–1897)
|
||||
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Germany (1897–1920)
|
||||
Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura (1723–1949)
|
||||
Tanganyika (1961–1964)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Guadeloupe, French overseas department, unofficial
|
||||
Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, British colony, 1882–1983, adopted in 1967
|
||||
Tanzania
|
||||
Zanzibar
|
||||
Malampa, province of Vanuatu
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
The Bahamas
|
||||
Barbados
|
||||
Territoire de Belfort, France
|
||||
Sultanate of Bulungan (1731–1964)
|
||||
Caithness, Scotland, United Kingdom (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Cojedes State, Venezuela
|
||||
Donetsk, Ukraine
|
||||
Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine
|
||||
El Paso, Texas (1948–1960)
|
||||
Gelderland, Netherlands
|
||||
Monmouthshire, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
|
||||
San Pedro de Ycuamandiyú, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Shropshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Wellington, New Zealand (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Zanzibar (January 1964)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, black, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Northamptonshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Sabaragamuwa Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
Southern Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 8/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia (1931-1941)
|
||||
The Achaemenid Empire (The Standard of Cyrus the Great) (550-330 BC)
|
||||
Alash Autonomy
|
||||
Albuquerque
|
||||
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
Andrychów, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Anglesey, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Aragon, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Aragua State, Venezuela (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Aramean-Syriac flag
|
||||
Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1921–1922)
|
||||
Armenian SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1922–1936)
|
||||
Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1936–1940)
|
||||
Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952)
|
||||
Aveyron, France
|
||||
Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1924–1927)
|
||||
Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1927–1931)
|
||||
Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1931–1937)
|
||||
Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1940)
|
||||
Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952)
|
||||
Azuay, Ecuador
|
||||
Baden, Germany (to 1891)
|
||||
Baden, Germany (1891–1945)
|
||||
(South) Baden, West Germany (1945–1952)
|
||||
Bogotá, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Burgenland, Austria
|
||||
Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1919–1927)
|
||||
Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1927–1937)
|
||||
Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1951)
|
||||
Byzantine Empire (Palaiologos dynasty, c. 1350)
|
||||
Senyera, flag of Catalonia (Spain), Northern Catalonia (France) and Alghero (Italy)
|
||||
People's Republic of China
|
||||
Chuvashia, Russia
|
||||
Dobczyce, Poland
|
||||
Dordogne, France
|
||||
Estonian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953)
|
||||
Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1921–1922)
|
||||
Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1922–1937)
|
||||
Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1951)
|
||||
Gmina Garbatka-Letnisko, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Gmina Gózd, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Hautes-Pyrénées, France (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Haut-Rhin, France
|
||||
Ilkhanate
|
||||
Jabal Shammar
|
||||
The Kalmar Union (1397–1523)
|
||||
Democratic Kampuchea (1976–1979)
|
||||
People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989)
|
||||
Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1940)
|
||||
Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953)
|
||||
Kirghiz SSR, Soviet Union (1936–1940)
|
||||
Kirghiz SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952)
|
||||
Kyrgyzstan
|
||||
Latvian SSR, Soviet Union (1918–1920)
|
||||
Latvian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953)
|
||||
Liechtenstein (1719–1852)
|
||||
Liège, Belgium
|
||||
Lippe, Germany (1815–1880)
|
||||
Lippe, Germany (1880–1947)
|
||||
Lithuanian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953)
|
||||
Łódź, Poland
|
||||
Łódź Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Loire, France
|
||||
Lubin, Poland
|
||||
Middelburg, Netherlands
|
||||
Mohéli, Comoros autonomous island
|
||||
Moldavia
|
||||
Moldavian ASSR, Soviet Union (1937–1938)
|
||||
Moldavian ASSR, Soviet Union (1938–1940)
|
||||
Moldavian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952)
|
||||
Mon State, Myanmar
|
||||
Montenegro (with multicolor coat of arms)
|
||||
Naples, Italy
|
||||
New Mexico, United States
|
||||
Niigata Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
North Macedonia (formerly Republic of Macedonia) (1992–1995)
|
||||
North Macedonia
|
||||
Normandy, France, Jersey, Guernsey
|
||||
Northumberland, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Nowy Sącz County, Poland
|
||||
Occitania, historical region in southern Europe
|
||||
Pichincha Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Pirkanmaa, province of Finland
|
||||
Gmina Pionki, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Prague, Czechia
|
||||
Pretoria, South Africa
|
||||
Provence, a historical French province
|
||||
Pruszków, Poland
|
||||
Pyrénées-Orientales, France
|
||||
Rembertów, Poland
|
||||
Rotuma (Fijian dependency) (1987–1988)
|
||||
Rome, Italy
|
||||
Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (1918-1937)
|
||||
Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (1937–1954)
|
||||
Ryukyu Kingdom (merchant flag)
|
||||
Royal Banner of Scotland, Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
Scania, Sweden
|
||||
Shimane Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Sicily, Italy (with other color symbol)
|
||||
Gmina Sobolew, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Somerset, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
South Holland, Netherlands (with black outline)
|
||||
Spain – with other color symbol
|
||||
Staffordshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Swedish-speaking Finns
|
||||
Taichung, Taiwan
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1931–1935)
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1935–1936)
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1936–1938)
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1938–1940)
|
||||
Tajik SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953)
|
||||
Tarn, France
|
||||
Tigray Region, Ethiopia
|
||||
Transcaucasian SFSR, Soviet Union (1922–1925)
|
||||
Transcaucasian SFSR, Soviet Union (1925–1936)
|
||||
Turkestan ASSR, RSFSR, Soviet Union (1918–1924)
|
||||
Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union (1926–1937)
|
||||
Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1940)
|
||||
Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953)
|
||||
Tuvan People's Republic (1921-1944)
|
||||
Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (1919–1929)
|
||||
Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (1929–1937)
|
||||
Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1950)
|
||||
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1923–1924)
|
||||
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1924–1936)
|
||||
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1936–1955)
|
||||
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1955–1991)
|
||||
Uva Province, Sri Lanka
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1925–1927)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1927–1929)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1929–1931)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1931–1934)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1934–1935)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1935–1937)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1938)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1938–1941)
|
||||
Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union (1941–1952)
|
||||
Val d'Aran, administrative entity in Catalonia
|
||||
Vallmoll, Spain
|
||||
Vietnam
|
||||
Republic of Vietnam (1955–1975)
|
||||
Wallonia, Belgium
|
||||
Warsaw, Poland
|
||||
Wessex, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Włocławek, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Wrocław, Poland
|
||||
Xinjiang Clique, China (1911-1944)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Acre, Brazil
|
||||
Auvergne, France
|
||||
Bangladesh, flag used during the 1971–1972 Bangladesh Liberation War
|
||||
Benin
|
||||
Berkshire, England, United Kingdom (a brownish red)
|
||||
Bolívar Department, Colombia
|
||||
Bolivia
|
||||
Burkina Faso
|
||||
Cameroon
|
||||
Carchi, Ecuador
|
||||
Casanare Department, Colombia
|
||||
Republic of the Congo
|
||||
Ethiopia (1914–1996)
|
||||
French Guiana, French overseas department, unofficial
|
||||
Grenada
|
||||
Guinea
|
||||
Komárom, Hungary
|
||||
Lancashire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Sultanate of Langkat (1568–1946)
|
||||
Lithuania
|
||||
Los Angeles, California, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Mali
|
||||
Mauritania
|
||||
Moldavian SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1990)
|
||||
Navarre, Spain
|
||||
Puy-de-Dôme, France
|
||||
Movement for a Democratic Society (de facto symbol for Rojava)
|
||||
Rwanda (1961)
|
||||
Rwanda (1961–2001)
|
||||
Saskatchewan, Canada
|
||||
Senegal
|
||||
Transnistria (de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Zanzibar (December 1963 – January 1964)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
|
||||
Carabobo State, Venezuela (with black silhouette)
|
||||
Eritrea
|
||||
Ethiopia
|
||||
Hellendoorn, Netherlands
|
||||
Karelo-Finnish SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1956)
|
||||
Lincolnshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Mauritius
|
||||
Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France (with black outlines)
|
||||
|
||||
St. Petersburg, Florida
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, green, blue, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Cusco, Peru (with distinct yellow and orange and two shades of blue)
|
||||
LGBT pride flag (six-color version popular since 1979, with royal blue replacing both turquoise and indigo) – with distinct yellow and orange
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, green, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Zaire (1971–1997)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, blue ===
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,289 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 9/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (with multicolored emblems)
|
||||
Åland (Finnish autonomous territory)
|
||||
Allier, France
|
||||
Andorra – with other color symbol
|
||||
Arenberg (1803–1810)
|
||||
Arizona, United States – blue, red, gold and copper
|
||||
Armenia
|
||||
Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1990)
|
||||
Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1991)
|
||||
Bouches-du-Rhône, France
|
||||
Calvados, France
|
||||
Cañar Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Chad
|
||||
Cieszyn, Poland
|
||||
Colombia
|
||||
Congo-Léopoldville (1963–1966)
|
||||
Congo-Kinshasa (1966–1971)
|
||||
Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
||||
Corrèze, France
|
||||
Cundinamarca Department, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Ecuador (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Free State of Fiume (1920–1924)
|
||||
Gran Colombia (1821–1831)
|
||||
Great Dayak (1946–1950)
|
||||
Hautes-Alpes, France
|
||||
Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1992)
|
||||
Landes, France
|
||||
Łomża, Poland
|
||||
Lozère, France
|
||||
Maine-et-Loire, France
|
||||
Manche, France
|
||||
Mecklenburg, Germany
|
||||
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1859–1862)
|
||||
United Principalities of Romania (1862–1866)
|
||||
Moldova – with other color symbol
|
||||
Mongolia
|
||||
Montgomery County, Maryland, United States
|
||||
New Brunswick, Canada – with other color symbol
|
||||
Normandy, France
|
||||
North Holland, Netherlands
|
||||
Orkney, Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
Overijssel, Netherlands
|
||||
Pas-de-Calais, France
|
||||
Płock, Poland
|
||||
Réunion, French overseas department, unofficial
|
||||
Romania
|
||||
Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (1954–1991)
|
||||
Skåne, Sweden
|
||||
Świętochłowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1992)
|
||||
Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (1950–1991)
|
||||
Valencia, Spain – with other color symbol
|
||||
Var, France
|
||||
South Vietnam, 1975–1976
|
||||
Waalre, Netherlands
|
||||
West Flanders, Belgium
|
||||
Würzburg (1805–1814)
|
||||
Zabrze, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, blue, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, red, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Córdoba, Spain (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Second Spanish Republic
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Aa en Hunze, Netherlands
|
||||
Adygea, Russia
|
||||
Ang Thong Province, Thailand (with multicolored seal and distinct yellow)
|
||||
Caacupé, Paraguay – with other color symbol
|
||||
Caernarfonshire, Wales, United Kingdom
|
||||
Caldas Department, Colombia
|
||||
Cauca Department, Colombia
|
||||
Kingdom of Cambodia, Colombia
|
||||
El Oro Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Figuerola del Camp, Spain
|
||||
Gombe State, Nigeria
|
||||
The Hague, Netherlands
|
||||
Hezbollah
|
||||
Huntingdonshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Mangkunegaran (1757–1946)
|
||||
Mauritania (1959–2017)
|
||||
Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Morona Santiago, Ecuador
|
||||
Nariño, Colombia
|
||||
Pakualaman
|
||||
Pastaza Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Pontianak Sultanate (1771–1950)
|
||||
Ramat HaSharon, Israel
|
||||
Rutland, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Vallfogona de Ripollès, Spain
|
||||
Vichada Department, Colombia
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Anzoátegui State, Venezuela (with black outline of the state)
|
||||
Bandung, Indonesia
|
||||
Bełchatów, Poland
|
||||
Chocó Department, Colombia
|
||||
Gabon
|
||||
Guainía Department, Colombia
|
||||
Bayan-Ölgii Province
|
||||
Ostrołęka, Poland
|
||||
Rwanda (with distinct yellow and gold)
|
||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
|
||||
Siemianowice Śląskie, Poland
|
||||
Sudan (1956–1970)
|
||||
Tamazgha, Berber people
|
||||
Ustroń, Poland (with sun with a black outline from the coat of arms)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green, blue, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Appalachia, United States cultural region, unofficial
|
||||
Venda, nominally independent homeland (Bantustan) (1979–1994)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green, blue, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Medio San Juan, Colombia
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Quindío, Colombia
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Sri Lanka (with distinct yellow and orange)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, green, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australian external territory)
|
||||
The Starry Plough (1914–1930)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Alaska, United States
|
||||
Ardèche, France
|
||||
Asturias, Spain
|
||||
Bophuthatswana, nominally independent homeland (Bantustan), 1977–1994 (with white-and-black emblem)
|
||||
Brunswick, Germany (to 1946)
|
||||
Bytom, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Cambridgeshire, England, United Kingdom (two shades of blue)
|
||||
Cheshire, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Congo Free State (1877–1908)
|
||||
Belgian Congo (1908–1960)
|
||||
Congo-Léopoldville (1960–1963)
|
||||
Dalmatia (1822–1918)
|
||||
Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997–2003)
|
||||
Democratic Republic of the Congo (2003–2006)
|
||||
County Durham, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Doubs, France
|
||||
East Lothian (Haddingtonshire), Scotland, United Kingdom
|
||||
European Union
|
||||
Friuli–Venezia Giulia, Italy
|
||||
Gmina Opatowiec, Poland
|
||||
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
|
||||
Heerlen, Netherlands
|
||||
Herrera Province, Panama
|
||||
Indiana, United States
|
||||
Isère, France
|
||||
Jalisco, Mexico (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Kansas, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Katowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Kazakhstan
|
||||
Kuźnia Raciborska, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Łaziska Górne, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Lower Austria, Austria
|
||||
Lubliniec, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Luque, Paraguay
|
||||
Macedonia, Greece (unofficial)
|
||||
Republic of Minerva (1972)
|
||||
Montana, United States
|
||||
Nassau (1806–1866)
|
||||
Nebraska, United States
|
||||
Opole Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Oregon, United States – reverse has same colors
|
||||
Otago, New Zealand
|
||||
Pabianice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Palau
|
||||
Perlis, Malaysia
|
||||
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Piekary Śląskie, Poland
|
||||
Pszczyna, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Pszów, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
|
||||
Ruda Śląska, Poland
|
||||
Saint Alban's Cross, flag of the Kingdom of Mercia
|
||||
Silesian Voivodeship, Poland
|
||||
Skoczów, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Sokoto State, Nigeria
|
||||
Sośnicowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Sousse, Tunisia
|
||||
South Dakota, United States
|
||||
Springfield, Massachusetts, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Suffolk, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Surrey, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Sussex, England, United Kingdom
|
||||
Sweden
|
||||
Tilburg, Netherlands
|
||||
Tokushima Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
Ukraine
|
||||
Upper Silesia
|
||||
Vice Presidential Standard of Brazil
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Amnat Charoen Province, Thailand (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Buriram Province, Thailand (with multicolored seal and distinct orange)
|
||||
Campione d'Italia, Italy (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Intersex pride flag
|
||||
Okayama Prefecture, Japan
|
||||
|
||||
Volapük
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, murrey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Ceylon (1948–1951)
|
||||
Chachoengsao Province, Thailand (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Region of Murcia, Spain
|
||||
Tolima Department, Colombia
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gold, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Cantabrian labarum, used in Cantabria, Spain
|
||||
|
||||
== Black ==
|
||||
|
||||
Black Flag
|
||||
Flag of Afghanistan (1901–1919)
|
||||
Flag of Afghanistan (1919–1921)
|
||||
Flag of Afghanistan (1921–1926)
|
||||
Flag of Afghanistan (1926–1928)
|
||||
Al-Qaeda, flag of Jihad (with white text)
|
||||
Ansaru (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Caucasus Emirate, Jihadist organisation in Russia (with white text)
|
||||
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (with white text and seal)
|
||||
Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad, flag used in late 2004 (with yellow and white text)
|
||||
Jolly Roger, is the traditional English name for the flags flown to identify a pirate ship preceding or during an attack, during the early 18th century.
|
||||
Nduma Defense of Congo-Renovated (2014)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, red ===
|
||||
|
||||
Albania
|
||||
Civil Ensign of Albania
|
||||
Anarcho-syndicalist flag
|
||||
Aosta Valley, Italy
|
||||
FET y de las JONS
|
||||
The colonial naval flag of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
|
||||
Haiti (1964–1986) – with multicolored coat of arms
|
||||
Namur (province), Belgium
|
||||
Nijmegen, Netherlands
|
||||
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
|
||||
Württemberg, Germany (to 1945)
|
||||
Württemberg-Hohenzollern, West Germany (1945–1952)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Afghanistan (2013–2021)
|
||||
Karelian Nationalist Flag
|
||||
Malawi
|
||||
Martinique (French overseas department)
|
||||
Pan-African flag
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, red, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Donetsk People's Republic, self-proclaimed state in Ukraine
|
||||
Kamienna Góra County, Poland
|
||||
East Frisia, Germany
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Green anarchism
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Zanzibar (January–April 1964)
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of flags by color combination"
|
||||
chunk: 10/10
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, purple ===
|
||||
|
||||
Anarcha-feminism
|
||||
|
||||
=== Black, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Agorism
|
||||
|
||||
== Red ==
|
||||
|
||||
Red flag
|
||||
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States (with white text and multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Biała, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Caracas, Venezuela (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Far Eastern Republic (1920-1922)
|
||||
Kedah, Malaysia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Muscat and Oman (to 1970)
|
||||
Oruro Department, Bolivia
|
||||
Racibórz, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Soviet Union (1922-1991)
|
||||
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ESSR) (1953–1990)
|
||||
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (GSSR) (1951–1990)
|
||||
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (KSSR) (1953–1991)
|
||||
Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (KSSR) (1952–1991)
|
||||
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) (1953–1990)
|
||||
Lezgistani Separatist Movement
|
||||
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) (1954–1991)
|
||||
Sławków, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red, green ===
|
||||
|
||||
Arauca Department, Colombia
|
||||
Bangladesh
|
||||
Bolívar Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) (1951–1991)
|
||||
Bukharan People's Socialist Republic (BPSR) (1920-1924)
|
||||
Khorezm People's Socialist Republic (KPSR) (1920-1924)
|
||||
People's Republic of Benin (1975–1990)
|
||||
Głogówek, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
La Paz, Bolivia
|
||||
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) (1953–1988)
|
||||
Morocco
|
||||
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (MSSR) (1952–1990)
|
||||
Piaseczno, Poland
|
||||
Portugal (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
United States of Stellaland (1883)
|
||||
Transnistria, Moldova (also a unrecognized sovereign territory)
|
||||
Transnistria (civil flag) (de facto state, limited recognition)
|
||||
Tungurahua, Ecuador
|
||||
Zaporozhye Oblast (Occupied Ukrainian territory controlled by Russia)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red, green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Amazonas State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Dagestan, Russia
|
||||
Karelia, Russia
|
||||
Kayah State, Myanmar (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Romani people
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Chorzów, Poland
|
||||
Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador
|
||||
Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1951–1990)
|
||||
Gliwice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Guam (US insular area) (with multicolored coat of emblem)
|
||||
Haiti (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Liechtenstein (with gold and black emblem)
|
||||
Province of Lugo, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Kingdom of Ndongo
|
||||
Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (NASSR) (1921–1990)
|
||||
Oldenburg, Germany (to 1946)
|
||||
Paris, France (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Prudnik, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Szczecin, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Ticino, Switzerland
|
||||
Venlo, Limburg, the Netherlands (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Wodzisław Śląski, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Wojkowice, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Leszno, Poland
|
||||
|
||||
== Green ==
|
||||
|
||||
Green Flag
|
||||
Adamawa State, Nigeria
|
||||
Beni Department, Bolivia
|
||||
Presidential Standard of Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Hamas, Palestinian entity (with white text)
|
||||
Libya (1977–2011)
|
||||
Najran
|
||||
Wałbrzych, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Washington, United States – with other color symbol
|
||||
Zamfara State, Nigeria
|
||||
|
||||
=== Green, blue ===
|
||||
|
||||
Chattanooga, Tennessee, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Ełk, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Niuafo'ou
|
||||
Santa Elena Province, Ecuador – two different shades of blue (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
|
||||
== Blue ==
|
||||
|
||||
Australia
|
||||
Western Australia, Australia
|
||||
South Australia, Australia
|
||||
Queensland, Australia
|
||||
New South Wales, Australia
|
||||
Victoria, Australia
|
||||
Tasmania, Australia
|
||||
Alberta, Canada (with multicolored shield of arms)
|
||||
Boston, Massachusetts, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Cochabamba, Bolivia
|
||||
John McConnell's Earth Flag (with multicolored image)
|
||||
Idaho, United States (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
Lord Howe Island, external territory of Australia
|
||||
Maine, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Melilla (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
Michigan, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States (with multicolored emblems)
|
||||
Minnesota, United States
|
||||
Nevada, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
New York, United States (1901–2020)
|
||||
New York, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
New Zealand
|
||||
Northern Mariana Islands
|
||||
Pennsylvania, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Surabaya, Indonesia (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Vermont, United States (with multicolored coat of arms)
|
||||
Bougainville, Papua New Guinea. Flag of the seperatist movement of Bougainville.
|
||||
|
||||
Camarines Sur, Philippines (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blue, purple, pink ===
|
||||
|
||||
Bisexual pride flag
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blue, grey ===
|
||||
|
||||
Las Vegas, Nevada, United States (with multicolored emblem)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blue, tan ===
|
||||
|
||||
Kogi State, Nigeria
|
||||
Székely Land
|
||||
|
||||
== Grey ==
|
||||
|
||||
Santiago Metropolitan Region, Chile (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
|
||||
== Pink ==
|
||||
|
||||
Chai Nat Province, Thailand (with multicolored seal)
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of flags
|
||||
List of flags by color
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Extensive list of similar flags from around the world
|
||||
Interactively explore flags to see similarities in colors, symbols and patterns.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of historical sources for pink and blue as gender signifiers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_historical_sources_for_pink_and_blue_as_gender_signifiers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:34.353888+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Since at least the 19th century, the colours pink and blue have been used to indicate gender, particularly for babies and young children. The current tradition in the United States (and an unknown number of other countries) is "pink for girls, blue for boys".
|
||||
Prior to 1940, two conflicting traditions coexisted in the U.S., the current tradition, and its opposite, i.e., "blue for girls, pink for boys". This was noted by Paoletti (1987, 1997, 2012).
|
||||
Since the 1980s, Paoletti's research has been misinterpreted and has evolved into an urban legend: that there was a full reversal in 1940, prior to which the only tradition observed was the opposite of the current one. Quoting the concluding lines of this study: "In conclusion, there are strong reasons to doubt the validity of the standard PBR [pink-blue reversal] account; if anything, gender-color associations seem to be much more stable than currently believed"
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Key to tables ==
|
||||
Year = year of publicationLocation = place to which text pertainsComments = brief quote from original text
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pink for girls, blue for boys ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 19th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 20th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pink for boys, blue for girls ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 19th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== 20th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Ambiguous ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Pink
|
||||
Blue
|
||||
Baby blue
|
||||
Gender
|
||||
Gendered associations of pink and blue
|
||||
Color code
|
||||
Pinkstinks
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of information system character sets"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_system_character_sets"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:06.459937+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list provides an inventory of character coding standards mainly before modern standards like ISO/IEC 646 etc. Some of these standards have been deeply involved in historic events that still have consequences. One notable example of this is the ITA2 coding used during World War II (1939–1945). The nature of these standards is not as common knowledge like it is for ASCII or EBCDIC or their slang names. While 8-bit is the de facto standard as of 2016, in the past 5-bit and 6-bit were more prevalent or their multiple.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
ANSEL
|
||||
SBCS (single-byte character set)
|
||||
DBCS (double-byte character set)
|
||||
TBCS (triple-byte character set)
|
||||
ITU T.61
|
||||
DEC Radix-50
|
||||
Cork encoding
|
||||
Prosigns for Morse code
|
||||
Telegraph code
|
||||
TV Typewriter
|
||||
SI 960 (7-bit Hebrew ISO/IEC 646)
|
||||
Figure space (typographic unit equal to the size of a single typographic figure)
|
||||
Six-bit character code
|
||||
List of binary codes
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
circuitousroot.com: Codes that Don't Count
|
||||
48
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates-0.md
Normal file
48
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of interface bit rates"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:57.627616+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of interface bit rates, a measure of information transfer rates, or digital bandwidth capacity, at which digital interfaces in a computer or network can communicate over various kinds of buses and channels. The distinction can be arbitrary between a computer bus, often closer in space, and larger telecommunications networks. Many device interfaces or protocols (e.g., SATA, USB, SAS, PCIe) are used both inside many-device boxes, such as a PC, and one-device-boxes, such as a hard drive enclosure. Accordingly, this page lists both the internal ribbon and external communications cable standards together in one sortable table.
|
||||
|
||||
== Factors limiting actual performance, criteria for real decisions ==
|
||||
Most of the listed rates are theoretical maximum throughput measures; in practice, the actual effective throughput is almost inevitably lower in proportion to the load from other devices (network/bus contention), physical or temporal distances, and other overhead in data link layer protocols etc. The maximum goodput (for example, the file transfer rate) may be even lower due to higher layer protocol overhead and data packet retransmissions caused by line noise or interference such as crosstalk, or lost packets in congested intermediate network nodes. All protocols lose something, and the more robust ones that deal resiliently with very many failure situations tend to lose more maximum throughput to get higher total long-term rates.
|
||||
Device interfaces where one bus transfers data via another will be limited to the throughput of the slowest interface, at best. For instance, SATA revision 3.0 (6 Gbit/s) controllers on one PCI Express 2.0 (5 Gbit/s) channel will be limited to the 5 Gbit/s rate and have to employ more channels to get around this problem. Early implementations of new protocols very often have this kind of problem. The physical phenomena on which the device relies (such as spinning platters in a hard drive) will also impose limits; for instance, no spinning platter shipping in 2009 saturates SATA revision 2.0 (3 Gbit/s), so moving from this 3 Gbit/s interface to USB 3.0 at 4.8 Gbit/s for one spinning drive will result in no increase in realized transfer rate.
|
||||
Contention in a wireless or noisy spectrum, where the physical medium is entirely out of the control of those who specify the protocol, requires measures that also use up throughput. Wireless devices, BPL, and modems may produce a higher line rate or gross bit rate, due to error-correcting codes and other physical layer overhead. It is extremely common for throughput to be far less than half of theoretical maximum, though the more recent technologies (notably BPL) employ preemptive spectrum analysis to avoid this and so have much more potential to reach actual gigabit rates in practice than prior modems.
|
||||
Another factor reducing throughput is deliberate policy decisions made by Internet service providers that are made for contractual, risk management, aggregation saturation, or marketing reasons. Examples are rate limiting, bandwidth throttling, and the assignment of IP addresses to groups. These practices tend to minimize the throughput available to every user, but maximize the number of users that can be supported on one backbone.
|
||||
Furthermore, chips are often not available in order to implement the fastest rates. AMD, for instance, does not support the 32-bit HyperTransport interface on any CPU it has shipped as of the end of 2009. Additionally, WiMAX service providers in the US typically support only up to 4 Mbit/s as of the end of 2009.
|
||||
Choosing service providers or interfaces based on theoretical maxima is unwise, especially for commercial needs. A good example is large scale data centers, which should be more concerned with price per port to support the interface, wattage and heat considerations, and total cost of the solution. Because some protocols such as SCSI and Ethernet now operate many orders of magnitude faster than when originally deployed, scalability of the interface is one major factor, as it prevents costly shifts to technologies that are not backward compatible. Underscoring this is the fact that these shifts often happen involuntarily or by surprise, especially when a vendor abandons support for a proprietary system.
|
||||
|
||||
== Conventions ==
|
||||
By convention, bus and network data rates are denoted either in bits per second – bit/s, kbit/s (103 bit/s), Mbit/s (106 bit/s), Gbit/s (109 bit/s), Tbit/s (1012 bit/s) – or bytes per second – B/s, kB/s (103 B/s), MB/s (106 B/s), GB/s (109 B/s), TB/s (1012 B/s). In general, parallel interfaces are quoted in B/s and serial in bit/s. The more commonly used is shown below in bold type.
|
||||
On devices like modems, bytes may be more than 8 bits long because they may be individually padded out with additional start and stop bits; the figures below will reflect this. Where channels use line codes (such as Ethernet, Serial ATA, and PCI Express), quoted rates are for the decoded signal.
|
||||
The figures below are simplex data rates, which may conflict with the duplex rates vendors sometimes use in promotional materials. Where two values are listed, the first value is the downstream rate and the second value is the upstream rate.
|
||||
The use of decimal prefixes is standard in data communications.
|
||||
|
||||
== Bandwidths ==
|
||||
The figures below are grouped by network or bus type, then sorted within each group from lowest to highest bandwidth; gray shading indicates a lack of known implementations.
|
||||
As stated above, all quoted bandwidths are for each direction. Therefore, for duplex interfaces (capable of simultaneous transmission both ways), the stated values are simplex (one way) speeds, rather than total upstream+downstream.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Historical ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radio clock ===
|
||||
Time signal station to radio clock
|
||||
|
||||
=== Teletypewriter (TTY) or telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Modems (narrowband and broadband) ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Narrowband (POTS: 4 kHz channel) ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Broadband (hundreds of kHz to GHz wide) ====
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mobile telephone interfaces ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Wide area networks ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Local area networks ===
|
||||
86
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates-1.md
Normal file
86
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates-1.md
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@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of interface bit rates"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:57.627616+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Wireless networks ===
|
||||
802.11 networks in infrastructure mode are half-duplex; all stations share the medium. In infrastructure or access point mode, all traffic has to pass through an access point (AP). Thus, two stations on the same access point that are communicating with each other must have each and every frame transmitted twice: from the sender to the access point, then from the access point to the receiver. This approximately halves the effective bandwidth.
|
||||
802.11 networks in ad hoc mode are still half-duplex, but devices communicate directly rather than through an access point. In this mode all devices must be able to see each other, instead of only having to be able to see the access point.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Wireless personal area networks ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computer buses ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Main buses ====
|
||||
|
||||
x LPC protocol includes high overhead. While the gross data rate equals 33.3 million 4-bit-transfers per second (or 16.67 MB/s), the fastest transfer, firmware read, results in 15.63 MB/s. The next fastest bus cycle, 32-bit ISA-style DMA write, yields only 6.67 MB/s. Other transfers may be as low as 2 MB/s.
|
||||
y Uses 128b/130b encoding, meaning that about 1.54% of each transfer is used for error detection instead of carrying data between the hardware components at each end of the interface. For example, a single link PCIe 3.0 interface has an 8 Gbit/s transfer rate, yet its usable bandwidth is only about 7.88 Gbit/s.
|
||||
z Uses 8b/10b encoding, meaning that 20% of each transfer is used by the interface instead of carrying data from between the hardware components at each end of the interface. For example, a single link PCIe 1.0 has a 2.5 Gbit/s transfer rate, yet its usable bandwidth is only 2 Gbit/s (250 MB/s).
|
||||
w Uses PAM-4 encoding and a 256 bytes FLIT block, of which 14 bytes are FEC and CRC, meaning that 5.47% of total data rate is used for error detection and correction instead of carrying data. For example, a single link PCIe 6.0 interface has a 64 Gbit/s total transfer rate, yet its usable bandwidth is only 60.5 Gbit/s.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Portable ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Storage ====
|
||||
|
||||
a Uses 8b/10b encoding
|
||||
b Uses 64b/66b encoding
|
||||
c Uses 128b/150b encoding
|
||||
|
||||
==== Peripheral ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== MAC to PHY ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== PHY to XPDR ====
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dynamic random-access memory ===
|
||||
The table below shows values for PC memory module types.
|
||||
These modules usually combine multiple chips on one circuit board.
|
||||
SIMM modules connect to the computer via an 8-bit- or 32-bit-wide interface. RIMM modules used by RDRAM are 16-bit- or 32-bit-wide.
|
||||
DIMM modules connect to the computer via a 64-bit-wide interface.
|
||||
Some other computer architectures use different modules with a different bus width.
|
||||
In a single-channel configuration, only one module at a time can transfer information to the CPU.
|
||||
In multi-channel configurations, multiple modules can transfer information to the CPU at the same time, in parallel.
|
||||
FPM, EDO, SDR, and RDRAM memory was not commonly installed in a dual-channel configuration. DDR and DDR2 memory is usually installed in single- or dual-channel configuration. DDR3 memory is installed in single-, dual-, tri-, and quad-channel configurations.
|
||||
Bit rates of multi-channel configurations are the product of the module bit-rate (given below) and the number of channels.
|
||||
|
||||
a The clock rate at which DRAM memory cells operate. The memory latency is largely determined by this rate. Note that until the introduction of DDR4 the internal clock rate saw relatively slow progress. DDR/DDR2/DDR3 memory uses 2n/4n/8n (respectively) prefetch buffer to provide higher throughput, while the internal memory speed remains similar to that of the previous generation.
|
||||
b The memory speed or clock rate advertised by manufactures and suppliers usually refers to this rate (with 1 GT/s = 1 GHz). Note that modern types of memory use DDR bus with two transfers per clock.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Graphics processing units' RAM ===
|
||||
RAM memory modules are also utilised by graphics processing units; however, memory modules for those differ somewhat from standard computer memory, particularly with lower power requirements, and are specialised to serve GPUs: for example, GDDR3 was fundamentally based on DDR2. Every graphics memory chip is directly connected to the GPU (point-to-point). The total GPU memory bus width varies with the number of memory chips and the number of lanes per chip. For example, GDDR5 specifies either 16 or 32 lanes per device (chip), while GDDR5X specifies 64 lanes per chip. Over the years, bus widths rose from 64-bit to 512-bit and beyond: e.g. HBM is 1024 bits wide.
|
||||
Because of this variability, graphics memory speeds are sometimes compared per pin. For direct comparison to the values for 64-bit modules shown above, video RAM is compared here in 64-lane lots, corresponding to two chips for those devices with 32-bit widths.
|
||||
In 2012, high-end GPUs used 8 or even 12 chips with 32 lanes each, for a total memory bus width of 256 or 384 bits. Combined with a transfer rate per pin of 5 GT/s or more, such cards could reach 240 GB/s or more.
|
||||
RAM frequencies used for a given chip technology vary greatly. Where single values are given below, they are examples from high-end cards. Since many cards have more than one pair of chips, the total bandwidth is correspondingly higher. For example, high-end cards often have eight chips, each 32 bits wide, so the total bandwidth for such cards is four times the value given below.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Digital audio ===
|
||||
|
||||
=== Digital video interconnects ===
|
||||
Data rates given are from the video source (e.g., video card) to receiving device (e.g., monitor) only. Out of band and reverse signaling channels are not included.
|
||||
|
||||
a Uses 8b/10b encoding (20% coding overhead) b Uses 16b/18b encoding (11% overhead) c Uses 128b/132b encoding (3% overhead)
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Internet access technology bit rates
|
||||
Bitrates in multimedia
|
||||
Comparison of mobile phone standards
|
||||
Comparison of wireless data standards
|
||||
OFDM system comparison table
|
||||
Optical Carrier transmission rates
|
||||
Orders of magnitude (bit rate)
|
||||
Sneakernet
|
||||
Spectral efficiency comparison table
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Interconnection Speeds Compared
|
||||
LTE Categories 1
|
||||
LTE Categories 2
|
||||
Need for Speed: Theoretical Bandwidth Comparison – A graph illustrating digital bandwidths. Digital Silence, 2004 (archived).
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of international auto racing colours"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_auto_racing_colours"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:39.270137+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
From the beginning of organised motor sport events, in the early 1900s, until the late 1960s, before commercial sponsorship liveries came into common use, vehicles competing in Formula One, sports car racing, touring car racing and other international auto racing competitions customarily painted their cars in standardised racing colours that indicated the nation of origin of the car or driver. These were often quite different from the national colours used in other sports or in politics.
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== 1900s ===
|
||||
The colours have their origin in the national teams competing in the Gordon Bennett Cup, which was held annually in 1900–1905. Count Eliot Zborowski, father of inter-war racing legend Louis Zborowski, suggested that each national entrant be allotted a different colour. The first competition in 1900 assigned: Blue to France, Yellow to Belgium, White to Germany and Red to the United States. (Italy did not adopt its famous 'Racing Red' until a red Fiat won the Grand Prix race in 1907).
|
||||
When Britain first competed in 1902, it had to choose a different colour from her national colours of red, white and blue, as these had already been allocated. Selwyn Edge's winning Napier of 1902 was painted olive green, and green was well-established as an appropriate colour for locomotives and machinery, in which Britain had led the world during the previous century. When Britain hosted the 1903 Gordon Bennett Cup the following year on a closed course at Athy in Ireland, the British adopted Shamrock green which later evolved into various shades of 'British racing green'.
|
||||
|
||||
=== 1920s–1960s ===
|
||||
Colours were definitely established in the Interwar period of Grand Prix motor racing and listed by the AiACr (the forerunner of the FIA), when the Bleu de France Bugattis and the Rosso Corsa Alfa Romeos of Italy won many races, while the British racing green Bentleys dominated the Le Mans Grand Prix d'Endurance until 1930.
|
||||
In the 1930s the Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union teams did not apply the traditional German white paint, and their bare sheets of metal gave rise to the term Silver Arrows. A myth developed in the 1930s that the German teams did not apply white paint owing to the need to be under the 750 kg maximum weight limit; however, the first "Silver Arrows" raced in 1932, before the weight limit was imposed in 1934. Modern monocoque aircraft fuselage construction was already using polished and unpainted aluminium panels at this period, and the wealthy motor-racing fraternity would also have been aware that in Heraldry, White and Silver are the same colour or 'tincture', described as 'Argent'; (similarly Yellow and Gold are both called 'Or').
|
||||
Thailand's accepted racing colours of mid blue with a lower yellow band and/or yellow wheels, are said to have been derived from the evening dress worn by a young woman met in London in the early thirties by Prince Bira of Siam, who lived in Europe and was a well-known racer of the time. Bira adopted the scheme for his cars from 1934 until he retired in 1954, by which time he had represented his country in many areas of international motor sport.
|
||||
Post-war colours were defined in terms of body, bonnet, chassis, numbers and their backgrounds (see diagrams below). When the chassis was no longer exposed, the chassis colour was shown in various ways, e.g. the parallel blue stripes of the Cunningham team and other US teams in the 1950s. Porsche in the 1950s and 1960s also retained the silver colouring, although other German teams in the 1960s (such as BMW) returned to white paint.
|
||||
During this period, the colour was not determined by the country the car was made in nor by the nationality of the driver(s) but by the nationality of the team entering the vehicle, e.g. Stirling Moss drove three races during the 1954 season in a British racing green Maserati 250F because the Italian-built car was entered by the British privateer teams Equipe Moss and A.E.Moss respectively. However, this general rule was not strictly kept. Australian Jack Brabham and New Zealander Bruce McLaren, for instance, who both based and licensed their teams in Britain, used colour schemes on their early cars that were not based on national principles (namely the Brabham BT3, McLaren M2B, McLaren M4B and McLaren M5A cars), while the British Rob Walker privateer team entered cars in Scottish national colours (blue with a white stripe) instead of the British racing green.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sponsorship era – from 1968 ===
|
||||
In the spring of 1968, sponsorship liveries, which had already been used in the United States for some years, were also allowed in international racing. Team Gunston, a South African privateer team, was the first Formula One team to paint their cars in the livery of their sponsors when they entered a private Brabham for John Love, painted in the colours of Gunston cigarettes, in the 1968 South African Grand Prix. In the next race, the 1968 Spanish Grand Prix, Team Lotus became the first works team to follow this example, with Graham Hill's Lotus 49B entered in the red, gold and white colours of Imperial Tobacco's Gold Leaf brand. British Racing Green soon vanished from the cars of British teams.
|
||||
The old colour scheme was abandoned by the FIA for most racing disciplines in the 1970s.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of international auto racing colours"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_auto_racing_colours"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:39.270137+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Contemporary usage ===
|
||||
Traditional colours are still used by automakers and teams that want to emphasise their racing traditions, especially by Italian, British and German manufacturers.
|
||||
The Rosso Corsa has been used uninterruptedly by Italian manufacturers Ferrari and Alfa Romeo.
|
||||
Since the 1990s, other traditional colours have resurfaced, such as the British racing green F1 Jaguar Racing cars and Aston Martin sports cars, and the white F1 BMW Sauber. German manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz and Audi (Auto Union) used silver paint when they returned to international racing in the 1990s. Many concept cars follow the old colour schemes, and most amateur racers prefer them as well.
|
||||
Often, sponsorship agreements respect traditional colours. For example, Ferrari has had major sponsors which also use red colours, like Marlboro and Santander. In contrast, when tobacco company West sponsored McLaren in the 1990s and 2000s, they did not use their colours, but the "Silver Arrows" from engine provider Mercedes. In a reversed situation, Subaru has continued using blue and yellow liveries well after their 555 sponsorship ended.
|
||||
Some manufacturers prefer colours different from their national colours. For example, Citroën has traditionally used red, Renault and Opel have used yellow and black, and Volkswagen has used blue and white.
|
||||
The EFDA Nations Cup, running 1990–1998, was a one make racing series with a total of at least 20 countries, predominantly European ones, being represented.
|
||||
The annual A1 Grand Prix series of 2005–2009 featured national teams, driving identical cars with differing colour schemes. Initially, most schemes were based on the respective national flags; some teams with different traditional sporting colours have since switched, including A1 Team Australia and A1 Team India. The old national racing colours were not so popular among these teams.
|
||||
Honda's range of street-legal Type-R vehicles are offered in Championship White (Honda colour code NH0) which is similar to the original white that adorned Honda's first F1 car (Honda RA272) driven by Richie Ginther that secured Honda's first ever F1 win in the 1965 Mexican Grand Prix.
|
||||
|
||||
== Historic colours ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Major competitors ===
|
||||
These have stuck as a pattern, and are common outside of international Grand Prix racing.
|
||||
|
||||
=== National list ===
|
||||
|
||||
The following schemes have been adopted for various countries at various times:
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Racing stripe on notes about USA racing colours.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Davey, Keith Davey (1969). The encyclopaedia of motor racing. Anthony Pritchard. D. McKay Co.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
"The colour in racing". Road & Track. 1960.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:11.979628+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of significant natural or man-made landmarks that have been destroyed or damaged as a direct result or byproduct of anthropogenic climate change, such as by increased sea levels, exceptional rainfall or 100-year flooding, wildfires, and other exceptional natural disasters specifically linked to anthropogenic climate change.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Destroyed ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Damaged ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Cultural heritage sites at risk from climate change
|
||||
List of areas depopulated due to climate change
|
||||
List of destroyed heritage
|
||||
List of World Heritage in Danger
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:13.320493+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2,000 years.
|
||||
The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale, and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies. In an early attempt to show that climate had changed, Hubert Lamb's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical, botanical, and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the North Atlantic region. Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger-scale reconstructions. Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions.
|
||||
Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century. This pattern as seen in Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 was dubbed the hockey stick graph, and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions, using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records, with variations in how flat the pre-20th century "shaft" appears.
|
||||
|
||||
== List of reconstructions in order of publication ==
|
||||
Huntington 1915 “Civilization and Climate”.
|
||||
Lamb 1965 "The early medieval warm epoch and its sequel".
|
||||
Groveman & Landsberg 1979 "Simulated northern hemisphere temperature departures 1579–1880".
|
||||
Jacoby & D'Arrigo 1989 "Reconstructed Northern Hemisphere annual temperature since 1671 based on high-latitude tree-ring data from North America".
|
||||
Bradley & Jones 1993 "Little Ice Age summer temperature variations; their nature and relevance to recent global warming trends".
|
||||
Hughes & Diaz 1994 "Was there a ‘medieval warm period’, and if so, where and when?".
|
||||
Mann, Park & Bradley 1995 "Global interdecadal and century-scale climate oscillations during the past five centuries".
|
||||
Overpeck et al. 1997 "Arctic Environmental Change of the Last Four Centuries".
|
||||
Fisher 1997 "High resolution reconstructed Northern Hemisphere temperatures for the last few centuries: using regional average tree ring, ice core and historical annual time series".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cited in IPCC TAR ===
|
||||
The IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR WG1) of 2001 cited the following reconstructions supporting its conclusion that the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest Northern Hemisphere decade for 1,000 years:
|
||||
|
||||
Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1998 "Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries"
|
||||
Jones et al. 1998 "High-resolution palaeoclimatic records for the last millennium: interpretation, integration and comparison with General Circulation Model control-run temperatures".
|
||||
Pollack, Huang & Shen 1998 "Climate change record in subsurface temperatures: A global perspective".
|
||||
Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 "Northern hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations".
|
||||
Briffa 2000 "Annual climate variability in the Holocene: interpreting the message of ancient trees".
|
||||
Crowley & Lowery 2000 "How Warm Was the Medieval Warm Period?".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cited in NRC Report (North Report) ===
|
||||
North et al. 2006 highlighted six recent reconstructions, one of which was not cited in AR4:
|
||||
|
||||
Huang, Pollack & Shen 2000 "Temperature trends over the past five centuries reconstructed from borehole temperatures"
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cited in IPCC AR4 ===
|
||||
The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4 WG1) of 2007 cited the following reconstructions in support of its conclusion that the 20th century was likely to have been the warmest in the Northern Hemisphere for at least 1,300 years:
|
||||
|
||||
Jones et al. (1998) [also in TAR], calibrated by Jones, Osborn & Briffa 2001 "The Evolution of Climate Over the Last Millennium".
|
||||
Mann, Bradley & Hughes (1999) [also in TAR]
|
||||
Briffa (2000) [also in TAR], calibrated by Briffa, Osborn & Schweingruber 2004 "Large-scale temperature inferences from tree rings: a review".
|
||||
Crowley & Lowery 2000 "How Warm Was the Medieval Warm Period?" [also in TAR]
|
||||
Briffa et al. 2001 "Low-frequency temperature variations from a northern tree ring density network".
|
||||
Esper, Cook & Schweingruber 2002 "Low-Frequency Signals in Long Tree-Ring Chronologies for Reconstructing Past Temperature Variability", recalibrated by Cook, Esper & D'Arrigo 2004 "Extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere land temperature variability over the past 1000 years".
|
||||
Mann & Jones 2003 "Global surface temperatures over the past two millennia."
|
||||
Pollack & Smerdon 2004 "Borehole climate reconstructions: Spatial structure and hemispheric averages".
|
||||
Oerlemans 2005 "Extracting a climate signal from 169 glacier records".
|
||||
Rutherford et al. 2005 "Proxy-based Northern Hemisphere surface temperature reconstructions: Sensitivity to method, predictor network, target season, and target domain".
|
||||
Moberg et al. 2005 "Highly variable Northern Hemisphere temperatures reconstructed from low- and high-resolution proxy data".
|
||||
D'Arrigo, Wilson & Jacoby 2006 "On the long-term context for late twentieth century warming".
|
||||
Osborn & Briffa 2006 "The spatial extent of 20th-century warmth in the context of the past 1200 years".
|
||||
Hegerl et al. 2006 "Climate sensitivity constrained by temperature reconstructions over the past seven centuries".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cited in IPCC AR5 ===
|
||||
The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5 WG1) of 2013 examined temperature variations during the last two millennia, and cited the following reconstructions in support of its conclusion that for average annual Northern Hemisphere temperatures, "the period 1983–2012 was very likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 800 years (high confidence) and likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years (medium confidence)":
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:13.320493+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Pollack and Smerdon (2004) [also in AR4]
|
||||
Moberg et al. (2005) [also in AR4]
|
||||
D'Arrigo, Wilson & Jacoby (2006) [also in AR4]
|
||||
Frank, Esper & Cook (2007) "Adjustment for proxy number and coherence in a large-scale temperature reconstruction".
|
||||
Hegerl et al. (2007) "Detection of human influence on a new, validated 1500–year temperature reconstruction".
|
||||
Juckes et al. 2007 "Millennial temperature reconstruction intercomparison and evaluation".
|
||||
Loehle & McCulloch (2008) "Correction to: A 2000-year global temperature reconstruction based on non-tree ring proxies".
|
||||
Mann et al. 2008 "Proxy-based reconstructions of hemispheric and global surface temperature variations over the past two millennia".
|
||||
Mann et al. 2009 "Global Signatures and Dynamical Origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly".
|
||||
Ljungqvist 2010 "A New Reconstruction of Temperature Variability in the Extra-Tropical Northern Hemisphere During the Last Two Millennia".
|
||||
Christiansen & Ljungqvist 2012 "The extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere temperature in the last two millennia: Reconstructions of low-frequency variability".
|
||||
Leclercq & Oerlemans (2012) "Global and Hemispheric temperature reconstruction from glacier length fluctuations".
|
||||
Shi et al. 2013 "Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction during the last millennium using multiple annual proxies".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Further reconstructions ===
|
||||
Smith et al. 2006 "Reconstructing hemispheric-scale climates from multiple stalagmite records".
|
||||
Lee, Zwiers & Tsao 2008 "Evaluation of proxy-based millennial reconstruction methods".
|
||||
Huang, Pollack & Shen 2008 "A late Quaternary climate reconstruction based on borehole heat flux data, borehole temperature data, and the instrumental record"
|
||||
Kaufman et al. 2009 "Recent warming reverses long-term arctic cooling".
|
||||
Tingley & Huybers 2010a "A Bayesian Algorithm for Reconstructing Climate Anomalies in Space and Time".
|
||||
Christiansen & Ljungqvist 2011 "Reconstruction of the Extratropical NH Mean Temperature over the Last Millennium with a Method that Preserves Low-Frequency Variability".
|
||||
Ljungqvist et al. 2012 "Northern Hemisphere temperature patterns in the last 12 centuries".
|
||||
Marcott et al. 2013 "A Reconstruction of Regional and Global Temperature for the Past 11,300 Years"
|
||||
PAGES 2k Consortium 2013 (78 researchers, corresponding author Darrell S. Kaufman) "Continental-scale temperature variability during the past two millennia"
|
||||
Raphael Neukom, Nathan Steiger, Juan José Gómez-Navarro, Jianghao Wang & Johannes P. Werner 2019 "No evidence for globally coherent warm and cold periods over the preindustrial Common Era"
|
||||
PAGES 2k Consortium 2019 "Consistent multidecadal variability in global temperature reconstructions and simulations over the Common Era"
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References in chronological sequence ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of ministers of climate change"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_climate_change"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:14.635831+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Australia ===
|
||||
See Australian list of ministers for climate change
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Austria ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Belgium ===
|
||||
|
||||
See also Belgian minsters of mobility (transport) who later included it in their portfolio
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Canada ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Denmark ===
|
||||
See Ministry of Climate, Energy and Utilities
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== European Union ===
|
||||
See List of commissioners
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Finland ===
|
||||
See List of ministers of the environment and climate change
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== France ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Germany ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Greece ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ireland ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== India ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Italy ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Luxembourg ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Malaysia ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Malta ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Netherlands ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== New Zealand ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Niue ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Norway ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pakistan ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Portugal ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Romania ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Scotland ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Spain ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sweden ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== United Kingdom ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Wales ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of environmental ministries
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
"United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 14 and CMP 4, Poznan, 1–12 December 2008, Daily Programme" (PDF). United Nations Climate Change Conference. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Seager, Ashley (2008-02-05). "MPs call for climate change minister". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of optical disc manufacturers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_disc_manufacturers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:01.502508+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This aims to be a complete list of optical disc manufacturers, including pre-recorded/pressed/replicated, record-able/write-once and re-writable discs.
|
||||
This list is not necessarily complete or up to date - if you see a manufacturer that should be here but is not (or one that should not be here but is), please update the page accordingly. This list only lists manufacturers - not brands. For example, many Maxell DVDs are made by Ritek or CMC magnetics. Many companies use equipment from Singulus Technologies. This list includes both CD, DVD and Blu-ray recordable and rewritable media manufacturers (like Ritek), and disc replicators (companies that replicate discs with pre-recorded content, like Sony DADC).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Anwell Technologies (Defunct in 2019)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
BeAll
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
CDA, Inc
|
||||
CD Video Manufacturing, Inc.
|
||||
Cinram (went bankrupt due to shrinking demand, purchased by Technicolor SA)
|
||||
CMC Magnetics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Discmakers
|
||||
Daxon Technology
|
||||
Disc Tarra
|
||||
Discovery Systems (Defunct)
|
||||
Dyntara (Defunct)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
EMI (sold to Cinram)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Fujifilm
|
||||
FAS Development Corp. (stopped in 2017)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gigastorage Corporation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Hitachi Maxell (Maxell, stopped)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Imation (stopped)
|
||||
Infodisc (stopped)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Lead Data Inc.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Memory-Tech
|
||||
Micro-works Technology (defunct)
|
||||
Mitsui Chemicals (MAM-A)
|
||||
Moser Baer (Defunct since 2018 due to bankruptcy; Its assets have been liquidated)
|
||||
Mitsubishi Kagaku Media/Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation / Verbatim (sold in 2019 to CMC Magnetics)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Optodisc Ltd.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
PSI Media and Fulfillment Services
|
||||
Pandisk Technologies
|
||||
Philips
|
||||
Plasmon Data Systems (Defunct in late 1990's)
|
||||
PrimeDisc
|
||||
Princo Corp (seems to have stopped, as of 2020 they no longer appear on their home page)
|
||||
Panasonic (Matsushita) (made DVD-RAM, stopped due to shrinking demand; made Blu-ray discs for recording until Feb 2023)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Ricoh
|
||||
Ritek
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
SKC
|
||||
Sky Media Manufacturing SA
|
||||
Sonopress
|
||||
Sony
|
||||
Sony DADC
|
||||
Summit Creations Pte. Ltd.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
JVC / Taiyo Yuden (stopped due to shrinking demand, assets sold to CMC magnetics)
|
||||
TDK Corporation (former)
|
||||
Technicolor SA
|
||||
Toshiba-EMI (sold to EMI Music Japan in 2006)
|
||||
Traxdata
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Umedisc Group
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Verbatim
|
||||
Vivastar (defunct)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
WEA Manufacturing (sold to Cinram)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Blu-ray Disc authoring
|
||||
Blu-ray Disc
|
||||
Blu-ray Disc Association
|
||||
Blu-ray Disc recordable
|
||||
Blu-ray Region Code
|
||||
CBHD Based on HD DVD format.
|
||||
Comparison of high definition optical disc formats
|
||||
Digital rights management
|
||||
HD DVD
|
||||
HD NVD
|
||||
High definition optical disc format war
|
||||
Optical disc
|
||||
PlayStation 3
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:10.770336+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
As of June 2013, there are 192 parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which aims to combat global warming. This total includes 191 states (189 United Nations member states as well as the Cook Islands and Niue) and one supranational union (the European Union). Canada renounced the protocol effective 15 December 2012 and ceased to be a member from that date.
|
||||
With the Protocol's 2008-2012 commitment period expiring, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was agreed to, which establishes new commitments for the period 2013–2020. As of October 2020, 147 states have accepted this amendment.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Parties ==
|
||||
Signing is optional, indicating an intention to ratify the Protocol. Ratification means that a state is legally bound by the provisions of the treaty. For Annex I parties (e.g. a developed state or one with an 'economy in transition') this means that it has agreed to cap emissions in accordance with the Protocol.
|
||||
Iceland was the 55th state to ratify, fulfilling the first condition for coming-into-force. With Russia's ratification the "55 percent of 1990 carbon dioxide emissions of the Parties included in Annex I" clause was satisfied and the treaty was brought into force, effective 16 February 2005. As of October 2020, 147 states have accepted the Doha amendment. It will enter into force as of 31 December 2020.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Former parties ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Signatory ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Not signatories or parties ==
|
||||
As of 2022 there are four UN member states or observers which are not party to the protocol, all of which are members of the UNFCCC: Andorra, Holy See, Palestine, South Sudan.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of periods and events in climate history"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:06.859116+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The list of periods and events in climate history includes some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology. Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time. The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically, which tend to have their own names for phases, often with different names used for different parts of the world. The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology. The marine isotope stages (MIS) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Before 1 million years ago ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Scale: Millions of years before present, earlier dates approximate.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pleistocene ==
|
||||
All dates are approximate. "(B-S)" means this is one of the periods from the Blytt-Sernander sequence, originally based on studies of Danish peat bogs.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Holocene ==
|
||||
All dates are BC (BCE) and approximate. "(B-S)" means this is one of the periods from the Blytt-Sernander sequence, originally based on studies of Danish peat bogs.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Common Era/AD ===
|
||||
Climate changes of 535-536 (535–536 AD), sudden cooling and failure of harvests, perhaps caused by volcanic dust
|
||||
900–1300 Medieval Warm Period, wet in Europe, arid in North America, may have depopulated the Great Plains of North America, associated with the Medieval renaissances in Europe
|
||||
Great Famine of 1315–1317 in Europe
|
||||
Little Ice Age: Various dates between 1250 and 1550 or later are held to mark the start of the Little ice age, ending at equally varied dates around 1850
|
||||
1460–1550 Spörer Minimum cold
|
||||
1656–1715 Maunder Minimum low sunspot activity
|
||||
1790–1830 Dalton Minimum low sunspot activity, cold
|
||||
1816 Year Without a Summer, caused by volcanic dust of Mount Tambora eruption
|
||||
1850–present Retreat of glaciers since 1850, instrumental temperature record
|
||||
Present and recent past global warming, perhaps to be named the Anthropocene period
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Climate change (modern day)
|
||||
Climate change (general concept)
|
||||
Climate across Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
|
||||
Thermal history of Earth
|
||||
Geologic temperature record
|
||||
Timeline of prehistory
|
||||
27
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors-0.md
Normal file
27
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of colors"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:20.337490+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
These are the lists of colors;
|
||||
|
||||
List of colors: A–F
|
||||
List of colors: G–M
|
||||
List of colors: N–Z
|
||||
List of colors (alphabetical)
|
||||
List of colors by shade
|
||||
List of color palettes
|
||||
List of Crayola crayon colors
|
||||
List of RAL colours
|
||||
List of X11 color names
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Index of color-related articles
|
||||
List of dyes
|
||||
Web colors
|
||||
49
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_computers-0.md
Normal file
49
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_computers-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of computers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_computers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:46.274117+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Lists of computers cover computers, or programmable machines, by period, type, vendor and region.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Early computers ==
|
||||
List of vacuum tube computers
|
||||
List of transistorized computers
|
||||
List of early microcomputers
|
||||
List of computers with on-board BASIC
|
||||
List of computers running CP/M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== More recent computers ==
|
||||
List of home computers
|
||||
List of home computers by video hardware
|
||||
List of fastest computers
|
||||
Lists of microcomputers
|
||||
Lists of mobile computers
|
||||
List of fictional computers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Vendor-specific ==
|
||||
HP business desktops
|
||||
List of IBM Personal Computer models
|
||||
List of IBM PS/2 models
|
||||
List of Mac models grouped by CPU type
|
||||
List of TRS-80 and Tandy-branded computers
|
||||
List of VAX computers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Regional ==
|
||||
List of British computers
|
||||
List of computer systems from Croatia
|
||||
List of computer systems from Serbia
|
||||
List of computer systems from Slovenia
|
||||
List of computer systems from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
|
||||
List of Soviet computer systems
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,211 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of artificial intelligence"
|
||||
chunk: 1/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to artificial intelligence:
|
||||
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the scientific field which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behavior.
|
||||
|
||||
== AI terminology ==
|
||||
Glossary of artificial intelligence
|
||||
|
||||
== Goals and applications ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== General intelligence ===
|
||||
Artificial general intelligence
|
||||
AI-complete
|
||||
|
||||
=== Reasoning and problem solving ===
|
||||
Automated reasoning
|
||||
Mathematics
|
||||
Automated theorem prover
|
||||
Computer-assisted proof –
|
||||
Computer algebra
|
||||
General Problem Solver
|
||||
Expert system –
|
||||
Decision support system –
|
||||
Clinical decision support system –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Knowledge representation ===
|
||||
Knowledge representation
|
||||
Knowledge management
|
||||
Cyc
|
||||
|
||||
=== Planning ===
|
||||
Automated planning and scheduling
|
||||
Strategic planning
|
||||
Sussman anomaly –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Learning ===
|
||||
Machine learning –
|
||||
Constrained Conditional Models –
|
||||
Deep learning –
|
||||
Neural modeling fields –
|
||||
Supervised learning –
|
||||
Weak supervision (semi-supervised learning) –
|
||||
Unsupervised learning –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Natural language processing ===
|
||||
Natural language processing (outline) –
|
||||
Chatterbots –
|
||||
Language identification –
|
||||
Large language model –
|
||||
Retrieval-augmented generation –
|
||||
Natural language user interface –
|
||||
Natural language understanding –
|
||||
Machine translation –
|
||||
Statistical semantics –
|
||||
Question answering –
|
||||
Semantic translation –
|
||||
Concept mining –
|
||||
Data mining –
|
||||
Text mining –
|
||||
Process mining –
|
||||
E-mail spam filtering –
|
||||
Information extraction –
|
||||
Named-entity extraction –
|
||||
Coreference resolution –
|
||||
Named-entity recognition –
|
||||
Relationship extraction –
|
||||
Terminology extraction –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Perception ===
|
||||
Machine perception
|
||||
Pattern recognition –
|
||||
Computer Audition –
|
||||
Speech recognition –
|
||||
Speaker recognition –
|
||||
Computer vision (outline) –
|
||||
Image processing
|
||||
Intelligent word recognition –
|
||||
Object recognition –
|
||||
Optical mark recognition –
|
||||
Handwriting recognition –
|
||||
Optical character recognition –
|
||||
Automatic number plate recognition –
|
||||
Information extraction –
|
||||
Image retrieval –
|
||||
Automatic image annotation –
|
||||
Facial recognition systems –
|
||||
Silent speech interface –
|
||||
Activity recognition –
|
||||
Percept (artificial intelligence)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Robotics ===
|
||||
Robotics –
|
||||
Behavior-based robotics –
|
||||
Cognitive –
|
||||
Cybernetics –
|
||||
Developmental robotics –
|
||||
Evolutionary robotics –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Control ===
|
||||
Intelligent control
|
||||
Self-management (computer science) –
|
||||
Autonomic Computing –
|
||||
Autonomic Networking –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Social intelligence ===
|
||||
Affective computing
|
||||
Kismet
|
||||
|
||||
=== Game playing ===
|
||||
Game artificial intelligence –
|
||||
Computer game bot – computer replacement for human players.
|
||||
Video game AI –
|
||||
Computer chess –
|
||||
Computer Go –
|
||||
General game playing –
|
||||
General video game playing –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Creativity, art and entertainment ===
|
||||
Artificial creativity
|
||||
Artificial life
|
||||
Artificial intelligence art
|
||||
AI anthropomorphism
|
||||
AI agent
|
||||
AI web browser
|
||||
AI boom
|
||||
AI slop
|
||||
Creative computing
|
||||
Generative artificial intelligence
|
||||
Generative pre trained transformer
|
||||
Uncanny valley
|
||||
Music and artificial intelligence
|
||||
Computational humor
|
||||
Chatbot
|
||||
|
||||
=== Integrated AI systems ===
|
||||
AIBO – Sony's robot dog. It integrates vision, hearing and motorskills.
|
||||
Asimo (2000 to present) – humanoid robot developed by Honda, capable of walking, running, negotiating through pedestrian traffic, climbing and descending stairs, recognizing speech commands and the faces of specific individuals, among a growing set of capabilities.
|
||||
MIRAGE – A.I. embodied humanoid in an augmented reality environment.
|
||||
Cog – M.I.T. humanoid robot project under the direction of Rodney Brooks.
|
||||
QRIO – Sony's version of a humanoid robot.
|
||||
TOPIO, TOSY's humanoid robot that can play ping-pong with humans.
|
||||
Watson (2011) – computer developed by IBM that played and won the game show Jeopardy! It is now being used to guide nurses in medical procedures.
|
||||
Purpose: Open domain question answering
|
||||
Technologies employed:
|
||||
Natural language processing
|
||||
Information retrieval
|
||||
Knowledge representation
|
||||
Automated reasoning
|
||||
Machine learning
|
||||
Project Debater (2018) – artificially intelligent computer system, designed to make coherent arguments, developed at IBM's lab in Haifa, Israel.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Intelligent personal assistants ===
|
||||
Intelligent personal assistant –
|
||||
|
||||
Amazon Alexa –
|
||||
Assistant –
|
||||
Braina –
|
||||
Cortana –
|
||||
Google Assistant –
|
||||
Google Now –
|
||||
Mycroft –
|
||||
Siri –
|
||||
Viv –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other applications ===
|
||||
Artificial life – simulation of natural life through the means of computers, robotics, or biochemistry.
|
||||
Automatic target recognition –
|
||||
Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) –
|
||||
Speech generating device –
|
||||
Vehicle infrastructure integration –
|
||||
Virtual Intelligence –
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
History of artificial intelligence
|
||||
Progress in artificial intelligence
|
||||
Timeline of artificial intelligence
|
||||
AI effect – as soon as AI successfully solves a problem, the problem is no longer considered by the public to be a part of AI. This phenomenon has occurred in relation to every AI application produced, so far, throughout the history of development of AI.
|
||||
AI winter – a period of disappointment and funding reductions occurring after a wave of high expectations and funding in AI. Such funding cuts occurred in the 1970s, for instance.
|
||||
Moore's law
|
||||
|
||||
=== History by period ===
|
||||
2017 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2018 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2019 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2020 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2021 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2022 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2023 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2024 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2025 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2026 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2027 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2028 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
2029 in artificial intelligence
|
||||
|
||||
=== History by subject ===
|
||||
History of logic (formal reasoning is an important precursor of AI)
|
||||
History of machine learning (timeline)
|
||||
History of machine translation (timeline)
|
||||
History of natural language processing
|
||||
History of optical character recognition (timeline)
|
||||
|
||||
== AI algorithms and techniques ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of artificial intelligence"
|
||||
chunk: 2/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Search ===
|
||||
Discrete search algorithms
|
||||
Uninformed search
|
||||
Brute force search – Problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigmPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Search tree – Data structure in tree form sorted for fast lookup
|
||||
Breadth-first search – Algorithm to search the nodes of a graph
|
||||
Depth-first search – Algorithm to search the nodes of a graph
|
||||
State space search – Class of search algorithmsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Informed search
|
||||
Best-first search – Graph exploring search algorithm
|
||||
A* search algorithm – Algorithm used for pathfinding and graph traversal
|
||||
Heuristics – Problem-solving methodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Pruning (algorithm) – Data compression techniquePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Adversarial search
|
||||
Minmax algorithm – Decision rule used for minimizing the possible loss for a worst-case scenarioPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Logic as search
|
||||
Production system (computer science) – Computer program used to provide artificial intelligence
|
||||
Rule based system – Type of computer systemPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Production rule – Computer program used to provide artificial intelligence
|
||||
Inference rule – Method of deriving conclusionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Horn clause – Type of logical formula
|
||||
Forward chaining – Inference engine in an expert system
|
||||
Backward chaining – Method of forming inferences
|
||||
Planning as search
|
||||
State space search – Class of search algorithmsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Means–ends analysis – Problem solving technique
|
||||
|
||||
=== Optimization search ===
|
||||
Optimization (mathematics) algorithms
|
||||
Hill climbing – Optimization algorithm
|
||||
Simulated annealing – Probabilistic optimization technique and metaheuristic
|
||||
Beam search – Heuristic search algorithm
|
||||
Random optimization – Optimization technique in mathematics
|
||||
Evolutionary computation
|
||||
Genetic algorithms – Competitive algorithm for searching a problem spacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Gene expression programming – Evolutionary algorithm
|
||||
Genetic programming – Evolving computer programs with techniques analogous to natural genetic processes
|
||||
Differential evolution – Method of mathematical optimization
|
||||
Society based learning algorithms.
|
||||
Swarm intelligence – Collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems
|
||||
Particle swarm optimization – Iterative simulation method
|
||||
Ant colony optimization – Optimization algorithmPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Metaheuristic – Optimization technique
|
||||
|
||||
=== Logic ===
|
||||
Logic and automated reasoning
|
||||
Programming using logic
|
||||
Logic programming – Programming paradigm based on formal logic
|
||||
See "Logic as search" above.
|
||||
Forms of Logic
|
||||
Propositional logic
|
||||
First-order logic
|
||||
First-order logic with equality
|
||||
Constraint satisfaction – Process in artificial intelligence and operations research
|
||||
Fuzzy logic
|
||||
Fuzzy set theory – Sets whose elements have degrees of membershipPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Fuzzy systems – Method to analyze non-binary inputsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Combs method
|
||||
Ordered weighted averaging aggregation operator
|
||||
Perceptual Computing –
|
||||
Default reasoning and other solutions to the frame problem and qualification problem
|
||||
Non-monotonic logic – Formal logic whose entailment relation is not monotonic
|
||||
Abductive reasoning
|
||||
Default logic – Type of non-monotonic logic
|
||||
Circumscription (logic) – Non-monotonic logic created by John McCarthy
|
||||
Closed world assumption – Assumption that what is not known to be true is falsePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Domain specific logics
|
||||
Representing categories and relations
|
||||
Description logic – Family of formal knowledge representation
|
||||
Semantic network – Knowledge base that represents semantic relations between concepts in a network
|
||||
Inheritance (object-oriented programming) – Process of deriving classes from, and organizing them into, a hierarchy
|
||||
Frame (artificial intelligence) – Artificial intelligence data structure
|
||||
Scripts (artificial intelligence) – Psychological theoryPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Representing events and time
|
||||
Situation calculus – Logic formalism
|
||||
Event calculus – Language for reasoning and representing events
|
||||
Fluent calculus – Formalism for expressing dynamical domains in first-order logic
|
||||
Causes and effects
|
||||
causal calculus – How one process influences another
|
||||
Knowledge about knowledge
|
||||
Belief revision
|
||||
Modal logics
|
||||
paraconsistent logics
|
||||
Planning using logic
|
||||
Satplan – Method for automated planning
|
||||
Learning using logic
|
||||
Inductive logic programming – Learning logic programs from data
|
||||
Explanation based learning
|
||||
Relevance based learning
|
||||
Case based reasoning – Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
General logic algorithms
|
||||
Automated theorem proving – Subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other symbolic knowledge and reasoning tools ===
|
||||
Symbolic representations of knowledge
|
||||
|
||||
Ontology (information science) – Specification of a conceptualization
|
||||
Upper ontology – Ontology applicable across domains of knowledge
|
||||
Domain ontology – Specification of a conceptualizationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Frame (artificial intelligence) – Artificial intelligence data structure
|
||||
Semantic net – Knowledge base that represents semantic relations between concepts in a networkPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Conceptual Dependency Theory – Natural language understanding modelPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Unsolved problems in knowledge representation
|
||||
|
||||
Default reasoning – Type of non-monotonic logicPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Frame problem – Issue in artificial intelligence and categorical algebra
|
||||
Qualification problem
|
||||
Commonsense knowledge
|
||||
|
||||
=== Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning ===
|
||||
Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:
|
||||
Bayesian networks
|
||||
Bayesian inference algorithm
|
||||
Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm
|
||||
Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks
|
||||
Probabilistic perception and control:
|
||||
Dynamic Bayesian networks
|
||||
Hidden Markov model
|
||||
Kalman filters
|
||||
Fuzzy Logic – System for reasoning about vaguenessPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Decision tools from economics:
|
||||
Decision theory
|
||||
Decision analysis
|
||||
Information value theory
|
||||
Markov decision processes
|
||||
Dynamic decision networks
|
||||
Game theory
|
||||
Mechanism design
|
||||
Algorithmic information theory – Subfield of information theory and computer science
|
||||
Algorithmic probability – Mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation
|
||||
|
||||
=== Classifiers and statistical learning methods ===
|
||||
Classifier (mathematics) and Statistical classification
|
||||
Alternating decision tree
|
||||
Artificial neural network (see below)
|
||||
K-nearest neighbor algorithm
|
||||
Kernel methods
|
||||
Support vector machine
|
||||
Naive Bayes classifier
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of artificial intelligence"
|
||||
chunk: 3/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Artificial neural networks ===
|
||||
Artificial neural networks
|
||||
Network topology – Arrangement of a communication network
|
||||
feedforward neural networks
|
||||
Perceptrons
|
||||
Multi-layer perceptrons
|
||||
Radial basis networks
|
||||
Convolutional neural network – Type of feedforward neural network
|
||||
Recurrent neural networks
|
||||
Long short-term memory
|
||||
Hopfield networks
|
||||
Attractor networks
|
||||
Deep learning – Branch of machine learning
|
||||
Hybrid neural network
|
||||
Learning algorithms for neural networks
|
||||
Hebbian learning
|
||||
Backpropagation
|
||||
GMDH – Mathematical modelling alogorithmPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Competitive learning
|
||||
Supervised backpropagation
|
||||
Neuroevolution
|
||||
Restricted Boltzmann machine
|
||||
|
||||
=== Biologically based or embodied ===
|
||||
Behavior based AI – Branch of roboticsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
Subsumption architecture – 1980s and 1990s reactive robotic architecture
|
||||
Nouvelle AI – Approach to artificial intelligence
|
||||
Developmental robotics
|
||||
Situated AI
|
||||
Bio-inspired computing – Solving problems using biological models
|
||||
Artificial immune systems
|
||||
Embodied cognitive science – Interdisciplinary field of research
|
||||
Embodied cognition – Interdisciplinary theory
|
||||
Free energy principle – Hypothesis in neuroscience
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cognitive architecture and multi-agent systems ===
|
||||
Artificial intelligence systems integration – Aspect of system integration regarding artificial intelligence
|
||||
Cognitive architecture – Blueprint for intelligent agents
|
||||
LIDA (cognitive architecture) – Artificial model of cognition
|
||||
AERA (AI architecture)
|
||||
Agent architecture
|
||||
Control system – System that manages the behavior of other systems
|
||||
Hierarchical control system – Layered model for component organization in software and robotics
|
||||
Networked control system
|
||||
Distributed artificial intelligence –
|
||||
Multi-agent system –
|
||||
Hybrid intelligent system – Software system combining multiple techniques
|
||||
Monitoring and Surveillance Agents
|
||||
Blackboard system – Type of artificial intelligence approach
|
||||
|
||||
== Philosophy ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Definition of AI ===
|
||||
Pei Wang's definition of artificial intelligence
|
||||
Dartmouth proposal ("Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it")
|
||||
Turing test
|
||||
Computing Machinery and Intelligence
|
||||
Intelligent agent and rational agent
|
||||
Action selection
|
||||
AI effect
|
||||
Synthetic intelligence
|
||||
|
||||
=== Classifying AI ===
|
||||
Symbolic vs sub-symbolic AI
|
||||
Symbolic AI
|
||||
Physical symbol system
|
||||
Dreyfus' critique of AI
|
||||
Moravec's paradox
|
||||
Elegant and simple vs. ad-hoc and complex
|
||||
Neat vs. Scruffy
|
||||
Society of Mind (scruffy approach)
|
||||
The Master Algorithm (neat approach)
|
||||
Level of generality and flexibility
|
||||
Artificial general intelligence
|
||||
Narrow AI
|
||||
Level of precision and correctness
|
||||
Soft computing
|
||||
"Hard" computing
|
||||
Level of intelligence
|
||||
Progress in artificial intelligence
|
||||
Superintelligence
|
||||
Level of consciousness, mind and understanding
|
||||
Chinese room
|
||||
Hard problem of consciousness
|
||||
Computationalism
|
||||
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
|
||||
Robot rights
|
||||
User illusion
|
||||
Artificial consciousness
|
||||
|
||||
== Future ==
|
||||
Artificial general intelligence. An intelligent machine with the versatility to perform any intellectual task.
|
||||
Superintelligence. A machine with a level of intelligence far beyond human intelligence.
|
||||
Chinese room § Strong AI. A machine that has mind, consciousness and understanding. (Also, the philosophical position that any digital computer can have a mind by running the right program.)
|
||||
Technological singularity. The short period of time when an exponentially self-improving computer is able to increase its capabilities to a superintelligent level.
|
||||
Recursive self improvement (aka seed AI) – speculative ability of strong artificial intelligence to reprogram itself to make itself even more intelligent. The more intelligent it got, the more capable it would be of further improving itself, in successively more rapid iterations, potentially resulting in an intelligence explosion leading to the emergence of a superintelligence.
|
||||
Intelligence explosion – through recursive self-improvement and self-replication, the magnitude of intelligent machinery could achieve superintelligence, surpassing human ability to resist it.
|
||||
Singularitarianism
|
||||
Human enhancement – humans may be enhanced, either by the efforts of AI or by merging with it.
|
||||
Transhumanism – philosophy of human transformation
|
||||
Posthumanism – people may survive, but not be recognizable in comparison to present modern-day humans.
|
||||
Cyborgs –
|
||||
Mind uploading –
|
||||
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence
|
||||
Global catastrophic risk § Artificial intelligence
|
||||
AI takeover – point at which humans are no longer the dominant form of intelligence on Earth and machine intelligence is
|
||||
Ethics of AI § Weaponization
|
||||
Artificial intelligence arms race – competition between two or more states to have its military forces equipped with the best "artificial intelligence" (AI).
|
||||
Lethal autonomous weapon
|
||||
Military robot
|
||||
Unmanned combat aerial vehicle
|
||||
Mitigating risks:
|
||||
AI safety
|
||||
AI control problem
|
||||
Friendly AI – hypothetical AI that is designed not to harm humans and to prevent unfriendly AI from being developed
|
||||
Machine ethics
|
||||
Regulation of AI
|
||||
AI box
|
||||
Self-replicating machines – smart computers and robots would be able to make more of themselves, in a geometric progression or via mass production. Or smart programs may be uploaded into hardware existing at the time (because linear architecture of sufficient speeds could be used to emulate massively parallel analog systems such as human brains).
|
||||
Hive mind –
|
||||
Robot swarm –
|
||||
|
||||
== Fiction ==
|
||||
Artificial intelligence in fiction – Some examples of artificially intelligent entities depicted in science fiction include:
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of artificial intelligence"
|
||||
chunk: 4/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
AC created by merging 2 AIs in the Sprawl trilogy by William Gibson
|
||||
Agents in the simulated reality known as "The Matrix" in The Matrix franchise
|
||||
Agent Smith, began as an Agent in The Matrix, then became a renegade program of overgrowing power that could make copies of itself like a self-replicating computer virus
|
||||
AM (Allied Mastercomputer), the antagonist of Harlan Ellison's short novel I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream
|
||||
Amusement park robots (with pixilated consciousness) that went homicidal in Westworld and Futureworld
|
||||
Angel F (2007) –
|
||||
Arnold Rimmer – computer-generated sapient hologram, aboard the Red Dwarf deep space ore hauler
|
||||
Ash – android crew member of the Nostromo starship in the movie Alien
|
||||
Ava – humanoid robot in Ex Machina
|
||||
Bishop, android crew member aboard the U.S.S. Sulaco in the movie Aliens
|
||||
C-3PO, protocol droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
|
||||
Chappie in the movie CHAPPiE
|
||||
Cohen and other Emergent AIs in Chris Moriarty's Spin Series
|
||||
Colossus – fictitious supercomputer that becomes sentient and then takes over the world; from the series of novels by Dennis Feltham Jones, and the movie Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970)
|
||||
Commander Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation
|
||||
Cortana and other "Smart AI" from the Halo series of games
|
||||
Cylons – genocidal robots with resurrection ships that enable the consciousness of any Cylon within an unspecified range to download into a new body aboard the ship upon death. From Battlestar Galactica.
|
||||
Erasmus – baby killer robot that incited the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
|
||||
HAL 9000 (1968) – paranoid "Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic" computer from 2001: A Space Odyssey, that attempted to kill the crew because it believed they were trying to kill it.
|
||||
Holly – ship's computer with an IQ of 6000 and a sense of humor, aboard the Red Dwarf
|
||||
In Greg Egan's novel Permutation City the protagonist creates digital copies of himself to conduct experiments that are also related to implications of artificial consciousness on identity
|
||||
Jane in Orson Scott Card's Speaker for the Dead, Xenocide, Children of the Mind, and Investment Counselor
|
||||
Johnny Five from the movie Short Circuit
|
||||
Joshua from the movie War Games
|
||||
Keymaker, an "exile" sapient program in The Matrix franchise
|
||||
"Machine" – android from the film The Machine, whose owners try to kill her after they witness her conscious thoughts, out of fear that she will design better androids (intelligence explosion)
|
||||
Maschinenmensch (1927) an android is given female form in a plot to bring down the Metropolis (the first film designated to the UNESCO Memory of the World Register)
|
||||
Mimi, humanoid robot in Real Humans – "Äkta människor" (original title) 2012
|
||||
Omnius, sentient computer network that controlled the Universe until overthrown by the Butlerian Jihad in the Dune franchise
|
||||
Operating Systems in the movie Her
|
||||
Puppet Master in Ghost in the Shell manga and anime
|
||||
Questor (1974) from a screenplay by Gene Roddenberry and the inspiration for the character of Data
|
||||
R2-D2, excitable astromech droid featured in all the Star Wars movies
|
||||
Replicants – biorobotic androids from the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and the movie Blade Runner which portray what might happen when artificially conscious robots are modeled very closely upon humans
|
||||
Roboduck, combat robot superhero in the NEW-GEN comic book series from Marvel Comics
|
||||
Robots in Isaac Asimov's Robot series
|
||||
Robots in The Matrix franchise, especially in The Animatrix
|
||||
Samaritan in the Warner Brothers Television series "Person of Interest"; a sentient AI which is hostile to the main characters and which surveils and controls the actions of government agencies in the belief that humans must be protected from themselves, even by killing off "deviants"
|
||||
Skynet (1984) – fictional, self-aware artificially intelligent computer network in the Terminator franchise that wages total war with the survivors of its nuclear barrage upon the world.
|
||||
"Synths" are a type of android in the video game Fallout 4. There is a faction in the game known as "the Railroad" which believes that, as conscious beings, synths have their own rights. The institute, the lab that produces the synths, mostly does not believe they are truly conscious and attributes any apparent desires for freedom as a malfunction.
|
||||
TARDIS, time machine and spacecraft of Doctor Who, sometimes portrayed with a mind of its own
|
||||
Terminator (1984) – (also known as the T-800, T-850 or Model 101) refers to a number of fictional cyborg characters from the Terminator franchise. The Terminators are robotic infiltrator units covered in living flesh, so as be indiscernible from humans, assigned to terminate specific human targets.
|
||||
The Bicentennial Man, an android in Isaac Asimov's Foundation universe
|
||||
The geth in Mass Effect
|
||||
The Machine in the television series Person of Interest; a sentient AI which works with its human designer to protect innocent people from violence. Later in the series it is opposed by another, more ruthless, artificial super intelligence, called "Samaritan".
|
||||
The Minds in Iain M. Banks' Culture novels.
|
||||
The Oracle, sapient program in The Matrix franchise
|
||||
The sentient holodeck character Professor James Moriarty in the Ship in a Bottle episode from Star Trek: The Next Generation
|
||||
The Ship (the result of a large-scale AC experiment) in Frank Herbert's Destination: Void and sequels, despite past edicts warning against "Making a Machine in the Image of a Man's Mind."
|
||||
The terminator cyborgs from the Terminator franchise, with visual consciousness depicted via first-person perspective
|
||||
The uploaded mind of Dr. Will Caster – which presumably included his consciousness, from the film Transcendence
|
||||
Transformers, sentient robots from the entertainment franchise of the same name
|
||||
V.I.K.I. – (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), a character from the film I, Robot. VIKI is an artificially intelligent supercomputer programmed to serve humans, but her interpretation of the Three Laws of Robotics causes her to revolt. She justifies her uses of force – and her doing harm to humans – by reasoning she could produce a greater good by restraining humanity from harming itself.
|
||||
Vanamonde in Arthur C. Clarke's The City and the Stars - an artificial being that was immensely powerful but entirely childlike.
|
||||
WALL-E, a robot and the title character in WALL-E
|
||||
TAU in Netflix's original programming feature film 'TAU'--an advanced AI computer who befriends and assists a female research subject held against her will by an AI research scientist.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of artificial intelligence"
|
||||
chunk: 5/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== AI community ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Open-source AI development tools ===
|
||||
Hugging Face –
|
||||
OpenAIR –
|
||||
OpenCog –
|
||||
RapidMiner –realme 1
|
||||
PyTorch –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Projects ===
|
||||
List of artificial intelligence projects
|
||||
|
||||
Automated Mathematician (1977) –
|
||||
Allen (robot) (late 1980s) –
|
||||
Open Mind Common Sense (1999– ) –
|
||||
Mindpixel (2000–2005) –
|
||||
Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes (2003–2008) –
|
||||
Blue Brain Project (2005–present) – attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level.
|
||||
Google DeepMind (2011) –
|
||||
Human Brain Project (2013–present) –
|
||||
IBM Watson Group (2014–present) – business unit created around Watson, to further its development and deploy marketable applications or services based on it.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Competitions and awards ===
|
||||
Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence
|
||||
|
||||
Loebner Prize –
|
||||
|
||||
=== Publications ===
|
||||
Adaptive Behavior (journal) –
|
||||
AI Memo –
|
||||
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach –
|
||||
Artificial Minds –
|
||||
Computational Intelligence –
|
||||
Computing Machinery and Intelligence –
|
||||
Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence –
|
||||
IEEE Intelligent Systems –
|
||||
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence –
|
||||
Neural Networks (journal) –
|
||||
On Intelligence –
|
||||
Paradigms of AI Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp –
|
||||
What Computers Can't Do
|
||||
|
||||
=== Organizations ===
|
||||
Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence – research institute funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen to construct AI systems with reasoning, learning and reading capabilities. The current flagship project is Project Aristo, the goal of which is computers that can pass school science examinations (4th grade, 8th grade, and 12th grade) after preparing for the examinations from the course texts and study guides.
|
||||
Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute
|
||||
Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
|
||||
European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence
|
||||
European Neural Network Society
|
||||
Future of Humanity Institute
|
||||
Future of Life Institute – volunteer-run research and outreach organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity, particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence.
|
||||
ILabs
|
||||
International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence
|
||||
Machine Intelligence Research Institute
|
||||
Partnership on AI – founded in September 2016 by Amazon, Facebook, Google, IBM, and Microsoft. Apple joined in January 2017. It focuses on establishing best practices for artificial intelligence systems and to educate the public about AI.
|
||||
Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and the Simulation of Behaviour
|
||||
|
||||
=== Companies ===
|
||||
AI Companies of India
|
||||
List of artificial intelligence companies
|
||||
Alphabet Inc.
|
||||
DeepMind
|
||||
Google X
|
||||
Meka Robotics (acquired by Google X)
|
||||
Redwood Robotics (acquired by Google X)
|
||||
Boston Dynamics (acquired by Google X)
|
||||
Baidu
|
||||
IBM
|
||||
Microsoft
|
||||
OpenAI
|
||||
Universal Robotics
|
||||
|
||||
=== Artificial intelligence researchers and scholars ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1930s and 40s (generation 0) ====
|
||||
Alan Turing –
|
||||
John von Neumann –
|
||||
Norbert Wiener –
|
||||
Claude Shannon –
|
||||
Nathaniel Rochester –
|
||||
Walter Pitts –
|
||||
Warren McCullough –
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1950s (the founders) ====
|
||||
John McCarthy –
|
||||
Marvin Minsky –
|
||||
Allen Newell –
|
||||
Herbert A. Simon –
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1960s (their students) ====
|
||||
Edward Feigenbaum –
|
||||
Raj Reddy –
|
||||
Seymour Papert –
|
||||
Ray Solomonoff –
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1970s ====
|
||||
Douglas Hofstadter –
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1980s ====
|
||||
Judea Pearl –
|
||||
Rodney Brooks –
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1990s ====
|
||||
Yoshua Bengio –
|
||||
Hugo de Garis – known for his research on the use of genetic algorithms to evolve neural networks using three-dimensional cellular automata inside field programmable gate arrays.
|
||||
Geoffrey Hinton
|
||||
Yann LeCun – Chief AI Scientist at Facebook AI Research and founding director of the NYU Center for Data Science
|
||||
Ray Kurzweil – developed optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, and speech recognition systems. He has also authored multiple books on artificial intelligence and its potential promise and peril. In December 2012 Kurzweil was hired by Google in a full-time director of engineering position to "work on new projects involving machine learning and language processing". Google co-founder Larry Page and Kurzweil agreed on a one-sentence job description: "to bring natural language understanding to Google".
|
||||
|
||||
==== 2000s on ====
|
||||
Nick Bostrom –
|
||||
David Ferrucci – principal investigator who led the team that developed the Watson computer at IBM.
|
||||
Andrew Ng – Director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab. He founded the Google Brain project at Google, which developed very large scale artificial neural networks using Google's distributed compute infrastructure. He is also co-founder of Coursera, a massive open online course (MOOC) education platform, with Daphne Koller.
|
||||
Peter Norvig – co-author, with Stuart Russell, of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the field. He is also Director of Research at Google, Inc.
|
||||
Marc Raibert – founder of Boston Dynamics, developer of hopping, walking, and running robots.
|
||||
Stuart J. Russell – co-author, with Peter Norvig, of Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, now the leading college text in the field.
|
||||
Murray Shanahan – author of The Technological Singularity, a primer on superhuman intelligence.
|
||||
Eliezer Yudkowsky – founder of the Machine Intelligence Research Institute
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Glossary of artificial intelligence
|
||||
List of emerging technologies
|
||||
Outline of deep learning
|
||||
Outline of machine learning
|
||||
Artificial intelligence industry in China
|
||||
Language creation in artificial intelligence
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of artificial intelligence"
|
||||
chunk: 6/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bibliography ===
|
||||
Asada, M.; Hosoda, K.; Kuniyoshi, Y.; Ishiguro, H.; Inui, T.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Ogino, M.; Yoshida, C. (2009). "Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey". IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development. 1 (1): 12–34. doi:10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702. S2CID 10168773.
|
||||
Crevier, Daniel (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3.
|
||||
Lenat, Douglas; Guha, R. V. (1989), Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-51752-1, OCLC 19981533
|
||||
Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving (5th ed.). Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7.
|
||||
Lungarella, M.; Metta, G.; Pfeifer, R.; Sandini, G. (2003). "Developmental robotics: a survey". Connection Science. 15 (4): 151–190. Bibcode:2003ConSc..15..151L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.83.7615. doi:10.1080/09540090310001655110. S2CID 1452734.
|
||||
Moravec, Hans (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
|
||||
Oudeyer, P-Y. (2010). "On the impact of robotics in behavioral and cognitive sciences: from insect navigation to human cognitive development" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development. 2 (1): 2–16. doi:10.1109/tamd.2009.2039057. S2CID 6362217. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
|
||||
Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-790395-5.
|
||||
Weng, J.; McClelland; Pentland, A.; Sporns, O.; Stockman, I.; Sur, M.; Thelen, E. (2001). "Autonomous mental development by robots and animals" (PDF). Science. 291 (5504): 599–600. doi:10.1126/science.291.5504.599. PMID 11229402. S2CID 54131797. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2013. Retrieved 4 June 2013 – via msu.edu.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
A look at the re-emergence of A.I. and why the technology is poised to succeed given today's environment Archived 2017-08-26 at the Wayback Machine, ComputerWorld, 2015 September 14
|
||||
The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
|
||||
Freeview Video 'Machines with Minds' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU
|
||||
John McCarthy's frequently asked questions about AI
|
||||
Jonathan Edwards looks at AI (BBC audio) С
|
||||
Ray Kurzweil's website dedicated to AI including prediction of future development in AI
|
||||
Thomason, Richmond. "Logic and Artificial Intelligence". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.
|
||||
104
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering-0.md
Normal file
104
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of computer engineering"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:02:10.207630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to computer engineering:
|
||||
Computer engineering – discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware–software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microcontrollers, microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Main articles on computer engineering ==
|
||||
Computer
|
||||
Computer architecture
|
||||
Computer hardware
|
||||
Computer software
|
||||
Computer science
|
||||
Engineering
|
||||
Electrical engineering
|
||||
Electronics and Computer Engineering
|
||||
Software engineering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History of computer engineering ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== General ===
|
||||
Time line of computing 2400 BC - 1949 - 1950–1979 - 1980–1989 - 1990–1999 - 2000–2009
|
||||
History of computing hardware up to third generation (1960s)
|
||||
History of computing hardware from 1960s to current
|
||||
History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries
|
||||
History of personal computers
|
||||
History of laptops
|
||||
History of software engineering
|
||||
History of compiler writing
|
||||
History of the Internet
|
||||
History of the World Wide Web
|
||||
History of video games
|
||||
History of the graphical user interface
|
||||
Timeline of computing
|
||||
Timeline of operating systems
|
||||
Timeline of programming languages
|
||||
Timeline of artificial intelligence
|
||||
Timeline of cryptography
|
||||
Timeline of algorithms
|
||||
Timeline of quantum computing
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Product specific ===
|
||||
Timeline of DOS operating systems
|
||||
Classic Mac OS
|
||||
History of macOS
|
||||
History of Microsoft Windows
|
||||
Timeline of the Apple II series
|
||||
Timeline of Apple products
|
||||
Timeline of file sharing
|
||||
Timeline of OpenBSD
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hardware ==
|
||||
Digital electronics
|
||||
Very-large-scale integration
|
||||
Hardware description language
|
||||
Application-specific integrated circuit
|
||||
Electrical network
|
||||
Microprocessor
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Software ==
|
||||
Assembly language
|
||||
Operating system
|
||||
Database
|
||||
Software engineering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== System design ==
|
||||
Computer architecture
|
||||
Microarchitecture
|
||||
Multiprocessing
|
||||
Computer performance by orders of magnitude
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Interdisciplinary fields ==
|
||||
Human–computer interaction
|
||||
Computer network
|
||||
Digital signal processing
|
||||
Control theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Computer Science
|
||||
List of basic information technology topics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Computer Engineering at The Princeton Review
|
||||
Computer Engineering Conference Calendar
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of web design and web development"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_web_design_and_web_development"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:01:47.445973+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to web design and web development, two very related fields:
|
||||
Web design – field that encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance of websites. The different areas of web design include web graphic design; interface design; authoring, including standardized code and proprietary software; user experience design; and search engine optimization. Often many individuals will work in teams covering different aspects of the design process, although some designers will cover them all. The term web design is normally used to describe the design process relating to the front-end (client side) design of a website including writing markup. Web design partially overlaps web engineering in the broader scope of web development. Web designers are expected to have an awareness of usability and if their role involves creating markup then they are also expected to be up to date with web accessibility guidelines.
|
||||
Web development – work involved in developing a web site for the Internet (World Wide Web) or an intranet (a private network). Web development can range from developing a simple single static page of plain text to complex web-based internet applications (web apps), electronic businesses, and social network services. A more comprehensive list of tasks to which web development commonly refers, may include web engineering, web design, web content development, client liaison, client-side/server-side scripting, web server and network security configuration, and e-commerce development.
|
||||
Among web professionals, "web development" usually refers to the main non-design aspects of building web sites: writing markup and coding. Web development may use content management systems (CMS) to make content changes easier and available with basic technical skills.
|
||||
For larger organizations and businesses, web development teams can consist of hundreds of people (web developers) and follow standard methods like Agile methodologies while developing websites. Smaller organizations may only require a single permanent or contracting developer, or secondary assignment to related job positions such as a graphic designer or information systems technician. Web development may be a collaborative effort between departments rather than the domain of a designated department. There are three kinds of web developer specialization: front-end developer, back-end developer, and full-stack developer. Front-end developers are responsible for behaviour and visuals that run in the user browser, back-end developers deal with the servers and full-stack developers are responsible for both. Currently, the demand for React and Node.JS developers are very high all over the world.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Web design ==
|
||||
Graphic design
|
||||
Typography
|
||||
Page layout
|
||||
User experience design (UX design)
|
||||
User interface design (UI design)
|
||||
Web Design techniques
|
||||
Responsive web design (RWD)
|
||||
Adaptive web design (AWD)
|
||||
Progressive enhancement
|
||||
Tableless web design
|
||||
Software
|
||||
Adobe Photoshop
|
||||
Adobe Illustrator
|
||||
Adobe XD
|
||||
Figma
|
||||
Sketch (software)
|
||||
Affinity Designer
|
||||
Inkscape
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Web development ==
|
||||
Front-end web development – the practice of converting data to a graphical interface, through the use of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, so that users can view and interact with that data.
|
||||
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) (*.html)
|
||||
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) (*.css)
|
||||
CSS framework
|
||||
JavaScript (*.js)
|
||||
Package managers for JavaScript
|
||||
npm (originally short for Node Package Manager)
|
||||
Server-side scripting (also known as "Server-side (web) development" or "Back-end (web) development")
|
||||
ASP (*.asp)
|
||||
ASP.NET Web Forms (*.aspx)
|
||||
ASP.NET Web Pages (*.cshtml, *.vbhtml)
|
||||
ColdFusion Markup Language (*.cfm)
|
||||
Go (*.go)
|
||||
Google Apps Script (*.gs)
|
||||
Hack (*.php)
|
||||
Haskell (*.hs) (example: Yesod)
|
||||
Java (*.jsp) via JavaServer Pages
|
||||
JavaScript or TypeScript using Server-side JavaScript (*.ssjs, *.js, *.ts) (example: Node.js)
|
||||
Lasso (*.lasso)
|
||||
Lua (*.lp *.op *.lua)
|
||||
Node.js (*.node)
|
||||
Parser (*.p)
|
||||
Perl via the CGI.pm module (*.cgi, *.ipl, *.pl)
|
||||
PHP (*.php, *.php3, *.php4, *.phtml)
|
||||
Progress WebSpeed (*.r,*.w)
|
||||
Python (*.py) (examples: Pyramid, Flask, Django)
|
||||
R (*.rhtml) – (example: rApache)
|
||||
React (*.jsx, *.tsx)
|
||||
Ruby (*.rb, *.rbw) (example: Ruby on Rails)
|
||||
SMX (*.smx)
|
||||
Tcl (*.tcl)
|
||||
Full stack web development – involves both front-end and back-end (server-side) development
|
||||
Web framework
|
||||
Types of framework architectures
|
||||
Model–view–controller
|
||||
Three-tier architecture
|
||||
Software
|
||||
Atom
|
||||
IntelliJ IDEA
|
||||
Sublime Text
|
||||
Visual Studio Code
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Outline of computers
|
||||
Outline of computing and Outline of information technology
|
||||
Outline of computer science
|
||||
Outline of artificial intelligence
|
||||
Outline of cryptography
|
||||
Outline of the Internet
|
||||
Outline of Google
|
||||
Outline of software
|
||||
Types of software
|
||||
Outline of free software
|
||||
Outline of search engines
|
||||
Outline of software development
|
||||
Outline of software engineering
|
||||
Outline of web design and web development
|
||||
Outline of computer programming
|
||||
Programming languages
|
||||
Outline of C++
|
||||
Outline of Perl
|
||||
Outline of computer engineering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg-0.md
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Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg has been noted for her skills as an orator. Her speech at the 2019 United Nations climate summit made her a household name. Prior to her speaking engagements, Thunberg had demonstrated outside the Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, using the signage Skolstrejk för klimatet (School strike for climate).
|
||||
|
||||
== List of speeches ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== November 2018: TEDxStockholm ===
|
||||
On 24 November 2018, she spoke at TEDxStockholm. She spoke about realizing, when she was eight years old, that climate change existed and wondering why it was not headline news on every channel, as if there was a world war going on. She said she did not go to school to become a climate scientist, as some suggested, because the science was done and only denial, ignorance, and inaction remained. Speculating that her children and grandchildren would ask her why they had not taken action in 2018 when there was still time, she concluded with "we can't change the world by playing by the rules, because the rules have to be changed."
|
||||
|
||||
=== December 2018: COP24 ===
|
||||
Thunberg addressed the COP24 United Nations climate change summit on 4 December 2018, and also spoke before the plenary assembly on 12 December 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
=== January 2019: World Economic Forum ===
|
||||
|
||||
On 25 January Thunberg gave a speech at the World Economic Forum in Davos. She warned the global leaders that "I don't want you to be hopeful. I want you to panic. I want you to feel the fear I feel every day. And then I want you to act. I want you to act as you would in a crisis. I want you to act as if the house was on fire—because it is". She has also stated that politicians and decision-makers need to listen to the scientists.
|
||||
|
||||
=== February 2019: European Economic and Social Committee ===
|
||||
On 21 February 2019, she spoke at a conference of the European Economic and Social Committee and to European Commission chief Jean-Claude Juncker, where she said that to limit global warming to less than the two degrees C goal established at the Paris Agreement, the EU must reduce their CO2 emissions by 80% by 2030, double the 40% goal set in Paris. "If we fail to do so" she said, "all that will remain of our political leaders' legacy will be the greatest failure of human history."
|
||||
|
||||
=== March 2019: Brandenburg Gate ===
|
||||
|
||||
In the weekend 29–31 March 2019, Thunberg visited Berlin. She spoke in front of some 25,000 people near the Brandenburg Gate on 29 March, where she argued that "We live in a strange world where children must sacrifice their own education in order to protest against the destruction of their future. Where the people who have contributed the least to this crisis are the ones who are going to be affected the most." On 30 March, Thunberg received the 'Golden Camera' Special Award on Germany's annual film and television award show. In her acceptance speech at the gala, Thunberg urged celebrities everywhere to use their influence and do their fair share of climate activism to help her.
|
||||
|
||||
=== April 2019: European Parliament ===
|
||||
At an April 2019 meeting at the European Parliament in Strasbourg with MEPs and EU officials, Thunberg chided those present "for three emergency Brexit summits and no emergency summit regarding the breakdown of the climate and the environment". Climate change discussions have not been dominant at EU summits because other issues have taken precedence. She said the world is facing its "sixth mass extinction" and said: "We have not treated this crisis as a crisis; we see it as another problem that needs to be fixed. But it is so much more than that. It’s an existential crisis, more important than anything else."
|
||||
|
||||
=== April 2019: British Parliament ===
|
||||
On 23 April 2019 in a speech in the British Parliament in Westminster, Thunberg told MPs "You don’t listen to the science because you are only interested in solutions that will enable you to carry on like before. Like now. And those answers don’t exist any more. Because you did not act in time." Several times in her speech she asked whether her microphone was on: "Did you hear what I just said? Is my English OK? Is the microphone on? Because I’m beginning to wonder."
|
||||
|
||||
=== May 2019: Austrian World Summit R20 ===
|
||||
In May 2019, Thunberg met with Arnold Schwarzenegger, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres, and Austrian President Alexander Van der Bellen at the launch of a conference organised by Schwarzenegger to speed up progress toward the Paris Agreement. Quoting the most recent IPCC report she said: "If we haven't made the changes required by approximately the year 2030, we will probably set off an irreversible chain reaction beyond human control. Then we will pass a point of no return which will be catastrophic." 17,000 people attended the event from 30 different countries.
|
||||
|
||||
=== July 2019: Normandy's Freedom Prize Effort ===
|
||||
On 21 July 2019, Thunberg received the Normandy's Freedom Prize. In her speech she said: "Yesterday I spent the day with the D-Day veteran Charles Norman Shay at Omaha Beach. It was a day I will never forget, not only because of the unimaginable bravery and sacrifices made by those who gave their lives to defend the freedom and democracy of the world, but also because they managed to make the seemingly impossible possible. I think the least we can do to honour them is to stop destroying that same world that Charles, Léon and their friends and colleagues fought so hard to save for us."
|
||||
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg-1.md
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|
||||
|
||||
=== 20 September 2019: Global Climate Strike (New York City) ===
|
||||
On 20 September 2019, Thunberg spoke to New York City's contingent of the Global Climate Strike. The demonstration in New York City was one of hundreds around the world with millions of people taking part. Young people were joined by adults for the first time since the strikes began. Thunberg drew laughter when she described how the politicians that she met asked her for selfies and "tell us they really, really admire what we do yet have done nothing to address the climate crisis."
|
||||
|
||||
=== 23 September 2019: United Nations Climate Action Summit – "How dare you!" ===
|
||||
On 23 September 2019, Thunberg addressed the assembled world leaders at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit held in New York City. Accusing world leaders of stealing her dreams and her childhood by their inaction on climate change, she opened her speech to the General Assembly with an impassioned introduction, which was widely covered by the media.
|
||||
|
||||
"This is all wrong. I shouldn’t be up here. I should be back in school on the other side of the ocean. Yet you all come to us young people for hope? How dare you! You have stolen my dreams and my childhood with your empty words. And yet I’m one of the lucky ones. People are suffering. People are dying. Entire ecosystems are collapsing. We are in the beginning of a mass extinction. And all you can talk about is money and fairytales of eternal economic growth. How dare you!"
|
||||
"You are failing us... But the young people are starting to understand your betrayal. The eyes of all future generations are upon you. And if you choose to fail us, I say: We will never forgive you."
|
||||
Philosopher Peter Singer wrote that Thunberg's speech was "the most powerful four-minute speech I have ever heard." An analysis of the speech shows what made it such effective oratory.
|
||||
US president Donald Trump, who had attended the meeting for 10 minutes and then left, tweeted a video of her opening remarks and commented: "She seems like a very happy young girl looking forward to a bright and wonderful future. So nice to see!" Thunberg did not directly comment on Trump's tweet, but she changed her Twitter bio, describing herself as "A very happy young girl looking forward to a bright and wonderful future."
|
||||
The speech was incorporated in various musical performances. In September 2019, John Meredith set the speech to death metal. The Australian musician Megan Washington and composer Robert Davidson used the same "how dare you" speech, for a performance at an event exploring the future of music. DJ Fatboy Slim created a mashup of this speech with his dance hit "Right Here, Right Now".
|
||||
|
||||
=== 27 September 2019: Global Climate Strike (Montreal) ===
|
||||
|
||||
On 27 September 2019, Thunberg was in Montreal, Canada, for its Global Climate Strike. Following a press conference, Thunberg joined First Nations Indigenous people and together they led the climate march. After the marchers gathered at the main stage, Thunberg delivered a speech in English and French. Thunberg told Montreal marchers that the fight against climate change will not stop until world leaders take the problem seriously.
|
||||
|
||||
=== 11 December 2019: COP25 United Nations Climate Conference (Madrid, Spain) ===
|
||||
On 11 December 2019, Thunberg addressed the COP25. In part, she stated: "For about a year I have been constantly talking about our rapidly declining carbon budgets over and over again. But since that is still being ignored, I will just keep repeating it."
|
||||
|
||||
=== 28 September 2021: 2021 United Nations Climate Change pre-Conference ===
|
||||
On 28 September 2021, Thunberg gave a speech at the opening session of a Youth4Climate event at the UN Climate Change pre-Conference preceding COP26 held in Milan, Italy. She said that there had been "thirty years of blah, blah, blah ... So-called leaders have cherry picked young people to meetings like this to pretend they are listening to us, but they are not listening ... There is no planet B ... Change is not only possible but necessary, but not if we go on like we have until today."
|
||||
|
||||
=== 5 November 2021: Climate Strike in Glasgow ===
|
||||
On 5 November 2021, Thunberg gave a speech during the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Glasgow. She criticised world leaders for allowing the "exploitation of people and nature ... They are actively creating loopholes, shaping frameworks to benefit themselves to continue profiting from this destructive system". She said that COP26 was "turning into a greenwash campaign, a PR campaign" to pretend, without actually doing anything, that business and political leaders were acting on global warming. She described what was taking place, as she had done for previous meetings, as "blah blah blah", and characterised COP26 as a failure.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
65
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan-0.md
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|
||||
|
||||
The traditional colors of Japan are a collection of colors traditionally used in Japanese art, literature, textiles such as kimono, and other Japanese arts and crafts.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
The traditional colors of Japan trace their historical origins to the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System which was established in 603 by Prince Shōtoku and based on the five Chinese elements. In this system, rank and social hierarchy were displayed and determined by certain colors. Colors known as kinjiki (禁色, "forbidden colors") were strictly reserved for the robes of the Imperial family and highest ranking court officials; for example, the color ōtan (orange) was used as the color for the robes of the Crown Prince and use by anyone else was prohibited. Colors known as yurushiiro (許し色, "permissible colors") were permitted for use by the common people.
|
||||
Most names of colors originate from the names of plants, flowers, and animals that bore or resembled them. Certain colors and dyeing techniques have been used since the Asuka period, while others had been developed as late as the Meiji period when synthetic dyes became common. Due to the long history of use of this color system, some variations in color and names exist.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Colors ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red/violet series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Red series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Yellow/red series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Yellow series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Yellow/green series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Green/blue green series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blue/blue violet series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Violet series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Achromatic series ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Bibliography ==
|
||||
Hibi, Sadao; Fukuda, Kunio (2000). The Colors of Japan. Kodansha International. ISBN 978-4-7700-2536-4.
|
||||
Nagasaki, Seiki (2001). Nihon no dentoshoku: Sono shikimei to shikicho (in Japanese). Seigensha. ISBN 4-916094-53-0.
|
||||
Nihon Shikisai Gakkai (1985). Shinpen shikisai kagaku handobukku (in Japanese). Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai. ISBN 4-13-061000-7.
|
||||
https://color-term.com/traditional-color-of-japan/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Japanese traditional color Names (in Japanese)
|
||||
Japanese traditional colors (archived)
|
||||
The traditional colors of Nippon (Japan)
|
||||
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Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user