Scrape wikipedia-science: 1912 new, 2670 updated, 4695 total (kb-cron)
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:33.978685+00:00"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:31.740905+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
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---
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title: "California Proposition 65 list of chemicals"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:40.740853+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
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The following is a list of chemicals published as a requirement of Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, commonly known as California Proposition 65, that are "known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity" as of January 3, 2020. As a result of lawsuits, the list also contains substances known only to cause cancer in animals.
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This list is not exhaustive, as the complete list contains over 900 chemicals.
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== Chemicals currently listed under California Proposition 65 ==
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=== Annotation ===
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== Chemicals that were formerly listed under California Proposition 65 ==
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† Numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
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Comments:
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Many substances include its strong acid salts
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Airborne particles of many substances are cancerogenic
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Bisphenol A (BPA) was removed from the list on April 19, 2013, and was relisted on May 11, 2015.
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md
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---
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title: "DEA list of chemicals"
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chunk: 1/1
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:00.892735+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
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The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) maintains lists regarding the classification of illicit drugs (see DEA Schedules). It also maintains List I of chemicals and List II of chemicals, which contain chemicals that are used to manufacture the controlled substances/illicit drugs. The list is designated within the Controlled Substances Act but can be modified by the U.S. Attorney General as illegal manufacturing practices change.
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Although the list is controlled by the Attorney General, the list is considered a DEA list because the DEA publishes and enforces the list.
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Suppliers of these products are subject to regulation and control measures:
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== List I chemicals ==
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These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of the controlled substances and are important to the manufacture of the substances:
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== List II chemicals ==
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These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of controlled substances:
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== Special Surveillance List ==
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=== Chemicals ===
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All listed chemicals as specified in 21 CFR 1310.02 (a) or (b). This includes supplements which contain a listed chemical, regardless of their dosage form or packaging and regardless of whether the chemical mixture, drug product or dietary supplement is exempt from regulatory controls. For each chemical, its illicit manufacturing use is given in parentheses. Some Special Surveillance List chemicals do not have an exclusive manufacturing use for a specific illicit drug but rather have a broad range of uses in both legitimate and illicit manufacturing operations.
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=== Equipment ===
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The equipment list:
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22-liter heating mantles
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Encapsulating machines
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Hydrogenators
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Tableting machines, including punches and dies
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== See also ==
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Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act
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Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005
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Drug precursors
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European law on drug precursors
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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DEA Controlled Substance Schedules (Archived 2021-04-25 at the Wayback Machine)
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---
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title: "EPA list of extremely hazardous substances"
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chunk: 1/1
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:11.175702+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
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This is the list of extremely hazardous substances defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. § 11002). The list can be found as an appendix to 40 CFR 355. Updates as of 2006 can be seen on the Federal Register, 71 FR 47121 (August 16, 2006).
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The data were provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
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== A ==
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Acetone cyanohydrin
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Acetone thiosemicarbazide
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Acrolein
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Acrylamide
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Acrylonitrile
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Acryloyl chloride
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Adiponitrile
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Aldicarb
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Aldrin
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Allyl alcohol
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Allylamine
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Aluminium phosphide
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Aminopterin
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Amiton
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Amiton oxalate
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Ammonia
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Amphetamine
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Aniline
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Aniline, 2,4,6-trimethyl-
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Antimony pentafluoride
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Antimycin A
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ANTU (Alpha-Naphthylthiourea)
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Arsenic pentoxide
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Arsenous oxide
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Arsenous trichloride
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Arsine
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Azinphos-ethyl
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Azinphos-methyl
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== B ==
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Benzal chloride
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Benzenamine, 3-(trifluoromethyl)-
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Benzenearsonic acid
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Benzimidazole, 4,5-dichloro-2-(trifluoromethyl)-
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Benzotrichloride
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Benzyl chloride
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Benzyl cyanide
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Bicyclo(2.2.1)heptane-2-carbonitrile
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Bis(chloromethyl) ketone
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Bitoscanate
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Boron trichloride
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Boron trifluoride
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Boron trifluoride compound with dimethyl ether (1:1)
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Bromadiolone
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Bromine
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== C ==
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Cadmium oxide
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Cadmium stearate
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Calcium arsenate
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Camphechlor
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Cantharidin
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Carbachol chloride
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Carbamic acid, Methyl-, O-(((2,4-Dimethyl-1,3-Dithiolan-2-yl)Methylene)Amino)- (Tirpate)
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Carbofuran
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Carbon disulfide
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Carbophenothion
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Chlordane
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Chlorfenvinfos
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Chlorine
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Chlormephos
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Chlormequat chloride
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Chloroacetic acid
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2-chloroethanol
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Chloroethyl chloroformate
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Chloroform
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Chloromethyl ether
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Chloromethyl methyl ether
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Chlorophacinone
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Chloroxuron
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Chlorthiophos
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Chromic chloride
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Cobalt carbonyl
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Colchicine
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Coumaphos
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Cresol, -o
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Crimidine
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Crotonaldehyde
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Crotonaldehyde, (E)-
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Cyanogen bromide
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Cyanogen iodide
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Cyanophos
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Cyanuric fluoride
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Cycloheximide
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Cyclohexylamine
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== D ==
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Decaborane(14)
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Demeton
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Demeton-S-methyl
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Dialifor
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Diborane
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Dichloroethyl ether
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Dichloromethylphenylsilane
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Dichlorvos
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Dicrotophos
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Diepoxybutane
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Diethyl chlorophosphate
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Digitoxin
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Diglycidyl ether
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Digoxin
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Dimefox
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Dimethoate
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Dimethyl phosphorochloridothioate
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Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine
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Dimethyldichlorosilane
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Dimethylhydrazine
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Dimetilan
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Dinitrocresol
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2,4-Dinitrophenol
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Dinoseb
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Dinoterb
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Dioxathion
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Diphacinone
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Disulfoton
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Dithiazanine iodide
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Dithiobiuret
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== E ==
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Endosulfan
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Endothion
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Endrin
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Epichlorohydrin
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EPN, or O-Ethyl-O-(4-nitrophenyl)phenylthiophosphonate
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Ergocalciferol
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Ergotamine tartrate
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Ethanesulfonyl chloride, 2-chloro-
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Ethanol, 1,2-dichloro-, acetate
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Ethion
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Ethoprophos
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Ethylbis(2-chloroethyl)amine
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Ethylene fluorohydrin
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Ethylene oxide
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Ethylenediamine
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Ethyleneimine
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Ethylthiocyanate
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== F ==
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Fenamiphos
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Fenitrothion
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Fensulfothion
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Fluenetil
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Fluomine
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Fluorine
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Fluoroacetamide
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Fluoroacetic acid
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Fluoroacetyl chloride
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Fluorouracil
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Fonofos
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Formaldehyde
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Formaldehyde cyanohydrin
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Formetanate hydrochloride
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Formothion
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Formparanate
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Fosthietan
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Fuberidazole
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Furan
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== G ==
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Gallium trichloride
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== H ==
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Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
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Hexamethylenediamine, N,N'-dibutyl-
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Hydrazine
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Hydrocyanic acid
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Hydrogen chloride (gas only)
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Hydrogen fluoride
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Hydrogen peroxide (conc > 52%)
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Hydrogen selenide
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Hydrogen sulfide
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Hydroquinone
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== I ==
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Iron pentacarbonyl
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Isobenzan
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Isocyanic acid, 3,4-dichlorophenyl ester
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Isodrin
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Isophorone diisocyanate
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Isopropylmethylpyrazolyl dimethylcarbamate
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== L ==
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Lactonitrile
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Leptophos
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Lewisite
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Lindane
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Lithium hydride
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== M ==
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Malononitrile
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Manganese, tricarbonyl methylcyclopentadienyl
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Mechlorethamine
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Mercuric acetate
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Mercuric chloride
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Mercuric oxide
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Methacrolein diacetate
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Methacrylic anhydride
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Methacrylonitrile
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Methacryloyl chloride
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Methacryloyloxyethyl isocyanate
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Methamidophos
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Methanesulfonyl fluoride
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Methidathion
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Methiocarb
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Methomyl
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Methoxyethylmercuric acetate
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Methyl 2-chloroacrylate
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Methyl bromide
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Methyl chloroformate
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Methyl hydrazine
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Methyl isocyanate
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Methyl isothiocyanate
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Methyl phenkapton
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Methyl phosphonic dichloride
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Methyl thiocyanate
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Methyl vinyl ketone
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Methylmercuric dicyanamide
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Methyltrichlorosilane
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Metolcarb
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Mevinphos
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Mexacarbate
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Mitomycin C
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Monocrotophos
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Muscimol
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Mustard gas
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== N ==
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Nickel carbonyl
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Nicotine
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Nicotine sulfate
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Nitric oxide
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Nitrobenzene
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Nitrocyclohexane
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Nitrogen dioxide
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N-Nitrosodimethylamine
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Norbormide
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== O ==
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Organorhodium complex
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Ouabain
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Oxamyl
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Oxetane, 3,3-bis(chloromethyl)-
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Oxydisulfoton
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== P ==
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Paraquat
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Paraquat methosulfate
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Parathion
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Parathion-methyl
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Paris green
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Pentaborane
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Pentadecylamine
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Peracetic acid
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Perchloromethylmercaptan
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Phenol
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Phenol, 2,2'-thiobis(4-chloro-6-methyl)-
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Phenol, 3-(1-methylethyl)-, methylcarbamate
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Phenoxarsine, 10,10'-oxydi-
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Phenyl dichloroarsine
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Phenylhydrazine hydrochloride
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Phenylmercury acetate
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Phenylsilatrane
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Phenylthiourea
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Phosacetim
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Phosfolan
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Phosgene
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Phosmet
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Phosphamidon
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Phosphine
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Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, O-ethyl O-(4-(methylthio)phenyl) ester
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Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, S-(2-(bis(1-methylethyl)amino)ethyl) O-ethyl ester
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Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, O-(4-nitrophenyl) O-phenyl ester
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Phosphoric acid, dimethyl 4-(methylthio)phenyl ester
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Phosphonothioic acid, O,O-dimethyl-S-(2-methylthio) ethyl ester
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Phosphorus
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Phosphorus oxychloride
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Phosphorus pentachloride
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Phosphorus trichloride
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Physostigmine
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Physostigmine, salicylate (1:1)
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Picrotoxin
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Piperidine
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Pirimifos-ethyl
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Plutonium
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Polonium-210
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Potassium arsenite
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Potassium cyanide
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Potassium silver cyanide
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Promecarb
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Propargyl bromide
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Propionitrile
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Propionitrile, 3-chloro-
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Propiophenone, 4'-amino-
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Propyleneimine
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Prothoate
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Pyrene
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Pyridine, 4-amino-
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Pyridine, 4-nitro-, 1-oxide
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Pyriminil
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== R ==
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Ricin
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== S ==
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Salcomine
|
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Sarin
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Selenious acid
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Semicarbazide hydrochloride
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Silane, (4-aminobutyl)diethoxymethyl-
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Sodium arsenate
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Sodium azide
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Sodium cacodylate
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Sodium cyanide
|
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Sodium fluoroacetate
|
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Sodium pentachlorophenate
|
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Sodium selenate
|
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Sodium selenite
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Stannane, acetoxytriphenyl-
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Strychnine
|
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Strychnine sulfate
|
||||
Sulfotep
|
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Sulfoxide, 3-chloropropyl octyl
|
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Sulfur dioxide
|
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Sulfur tetrafluoride
|
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Sulfur trioxide
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Sulfuric acid
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== T ==
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Tabun
|
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Tellurium
|
||||
Tellurium hexafluoride
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TEPP
|
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Terbufos
|
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Tetraethyllead
|
||||
Tetraethyltin
|
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Tetranitromethane
|
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Thallium sulfate
|
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Thallous carbonate
|
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Thallous chloride
|
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Thallous malonate
|
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Thallous sulfate
|
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Thiocarbazide
|
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Thiofanox
|
||||
Thionazin
|
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Thiophenol
|
||||
Thiosemicarbazide
|
||||
Thiourea, (2-chlorophenyl)-
|
||||
Thiourea, (2-methylphenyl)-
|
||||
Titanium tetrachloride
|
||||
Toluene 2,4-diisocyanate
|
||||
Toluene 2,6-diisocyanate
|
||||
Trans-1,4-dichlorobutene
|
||||
Triamiphos
|
||||
Triazofos
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||||
Trichloro(chloromethyl)silane
|
||||
Trichloro(dichlorophenyl)silane
|
||||
Trichloroacetyl chloride
|
||||
Trichloroethylsilane
|
||||
Trichloronate
|
||||
Trichlorophenylsilane
|
||||
Triethoxysilane
|
||||
Trimethylchlorosilane
|
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Trimethylolpropane phosphite
|
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Trimethyltin chloride
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Triphenyltin chloride
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Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine
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== V ==
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Valinomycin
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Vinyl acetate monomer
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== W ==
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Warfarin
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Warfarin sodium
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== X ==
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Xylylene dichloride
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== Z ==
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Zinc phosphide
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== See also ==
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List of highly toxic gases
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== References ==
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40 C.F.R.: Appendix A to Part 355—The List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities (PDF) (July 1, 2008 ed.), Government Printing Office, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-25, retrieved March 8, 2009
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md
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78
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md
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---
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||||
title: "E number"
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chunk: 1/1
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||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number"
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||||
category: "reference"
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||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:06.253893+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
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||||
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E numbers, short for Europe numbers, are codes for substances used as food additives, including those found naturally in many foods, such as vitamin C, for use within the European Union (EU) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Commonly found on food labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The fact that an additive has an E number implies that its use was at one time permitted in products for sale in the European Single Market; some of these additives are no longer allowed today.
|
||||
Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring. In 1964, the directives for preservatives were added; In 1970 antioxidants were added; In 1974 emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents were added as well.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Numbering schemes ==
|
||||
The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentarius committee, though only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union as food additives. Outside the European continent plus Russia, E numbers are also encountered on food labelling in other jurisdictions, including the Gulf Cooperation Council, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and India.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Colloquial use ==
|
||||
In some European countries, the "E number" is used informally as a derogatory term for artificial food additives. For example, in the UK, food companies are required to include the "E number(s)" in the ingredients that are added as part of the manufacturing process. Many components of naturally occurring healthy foods and vitamins have assigned E numbers (and the number is a synonym for the chemical component), e.g. vitamin C (E300) and lycopene (E160d), found in carrots. At the same time, "E number" is sometimes misunderstood to imply approval for safe consumption. This is not necessarily the case, e.g. Avoparcin (E715) is an antibiotic once used in animal feed, but is no longer permitted in the EU, and has never been permitted for human consumption. Sodium nitrite (E250) is toxic. Sulfuric acid (E513) is caustic.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Classification by numeric range ==
|
||||
|
||||
Not all examples of a class fall into the given numeric range; moreover, certain chemicals (particularly in the E400–499 range) have a variety of purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Full list ==
|
||||
|
||||
The list shows all components that have an E-number assigned, even those no longer allowed in the EU.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E100–E199 (colours) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E200–E299 (preservatives) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E300–E399 (antioxidants, acidity regulators) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E400–E499 (thickeners, stabilisers, emulsifiers) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E500–E599 (acidity regulators, anti-caking agents) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E600–E699 (flavour enhancers) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E700–E799 (antibiotics) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E900–E999 (glazing agents, gases and sweeteners) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== E1000–E1599 (additional additives) ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Food Chemicals Codex
|
||||
List of food additives
|
||||
International Numbering System for Food Additives
|
||||
Clean label
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
CODEXALIMENTARIUS FAO-WHO, the international foods standards, established by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1963
|
||||
See also their document "Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives" (Ref: CAC/GL #36 publ. in 1989, Revised in 2008, Amended in 2018, 2019, 2021)
|
||||
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) publications at the World Health Organization (WHO)
|
||||
Food Additive Index, JECFA, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
|
||||
E-codes and ingredients search engine with details/suggestions for Muslims Archived 10 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Databases of EU-approved food additives and flavoring substances
|
||||
Food Additives in the European Union Archived 24 December 2002 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
The Food Additives and Ingredients Association, FAIA website, UK.
|
||||
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16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical-0.md
Normal file
16
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Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
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|
||||
title: "Highly hazardous chemical"
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
A highly hazardous chemical, also called a harsh chemical, is a substance classified by the American Occupational Safety and Health Administration as material that is both toxic and reactive and whose potential for human injury is high if released. Highly hazardous chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, induce genetic damage, cause miscarriage, injury and death from relatively small exposures.
|
||||
As of August 21st, 2025, the highly hazardous chemicals list includes:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
OSHA list of highly hazardous chemicals
|
||||
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||||
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||||
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Normal file
290
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@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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||||
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||||
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||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of climate change topics.
|
||||
|
||||
== 0-9 ==
|
||||
100% renewable energy -
|
||||
100,000-year problem -
|
||||
1500-Year climate cycle -
|
||||
4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Abrupt climate change -
|
||||
The Age of Stupid -
|
||||
Albedo -
|
||||
An Inconvenient Truth -
|
||||
An Inconvenient Book -
|
||||
Antarctica cooling controversy -
|
||||
Antarctic Bottom Water -
|
||||
Antarctic Cold Reversal -
|
||||
Antarctic oscillation -
|
||||
Anthropocene extinction -
|
||||
Arctic amplification -
|
||||
Arctic Climate Impact Assessment -
|
||||
Arctic geoengineering -
|
||||
Arctic shrinkage -
|
||||
Arctic oscillation -
|
||||
Atlantic oscillation -
|
||||
Arctic Climate Impact Assessment -
|
||||
Arctic methane release -
|
||||
Arctic sea ice decline -
|
||||
Arctic shrinkage -
|
||||
Argo (oceanography) -
|
||||
ARkStorm -
|
||||
Athabasca oil sands -
|
||||
Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation -
|
||||
Atmospheric circulation -
|
||||
Atmospheric sciences -
|
||||
Atmospheric window -
|
||||
Attribution of recent climate change -
|
||||
Aviation and climate change -
|
||||
Aviation and the environment -
|
||||
Avoiding dangerous climate change
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Bali Communiqué -
|
||||
Bali Road Map -
|
||||
Bezos Earth Fund -
|
||||
Biochar -
|
||||
Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage -
|
||||
Bio-geoengineering -
|
||||
Black carbon -
|
||||
Blytt–Sernander system -
|
||||
Broad spectrum revolution -
|
||||
Business action on climate change
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Callendar effect -
|
||||
Cap and Share -
|
||||
Carbon bubble -
|
||||
Carbon capture and storage -
|
||||
Carbon cycle -
|
||||
Carbon negative -
|
||||
Carbon neutral -
|
||||
Carbon price -
|
||||
Carbon project -
|
||||
Carbon sequestration -
|
||||
Carbon offset -
|
||||
Carbon sink -
|
||||
Carbon tax -
|
||||
Catastrophic climate change -
|
||||
Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change -
|
||||
Clathrate gun hypothesis -
|
||||
Clean coal technology -
|
||||
Clean Energy Trends -
|
||||
Climate -
|
||||
Climate change -
|
||||
Climate change acronyms -
|
||||
Climate Change Act 2008 -
|
||||
Climate change denial -
|
||||
Climate change feedback -
|
||||
Climate change in Japan -
|
||||
Climate change in popular culture -
|
||||
Climate change mitigation -
|
||||
Climate change mitigation -
|
||||
Climate change mitigation scenarios -
|
||||
Climate Code Red (book) -
|
||||
Climate commitment -
|
||||
Climate communication -
|
||||
Climate crisis -
|
||||
Climate crunch -
|
||||
Climate cycle -
|
||||
Climate emergency declaration -
|
||||
Climate engineering -
|
||||
Climate ethics -
|
||||
Climate governance -
|
||||
Climate Investment Funds -
|
||||
Climate model -
|
||||
Climate refugee -
|
||||
Climate risk management -
|
||||
Climate scientists (list) -
|
||||
Climate sensitivity -
|
||||
Climate spiral -
|
||||
Climate stabilization wedge -
|
||||
Climate surprise -
|
||||
Climate system -
|
||||
Climate variability -
|
||||
Climate Vulnerable Forum -
|
||||
Climatic Research Unit email controversy -
|
||||
Cloud feedback -
|
||||
Cloud reflectivity enhancement -
|
||||
Coal phase out -
|
||||
Contraction and Convergence -
|
||||
Contrail -
|
||||
Cool roof -
|
||||
Cool tropics paradox -
|
||||
Coral bleaching
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
The Day After Tomorrow -
|
||||
Dendroclimatology -
|
||||
Divergence problem -
|
||||
Drought -
|
||||
Drought in the United States
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Early anthropocene -
|
||||
Earth Hour -
|
||||
Earth's atmosphere -
|
||||
Earth's energy budget -
|
||||
Earthshine -
|
||||
East Antarctic Ice Sheet -
|
||||
Eco-efficiency -
|
||||
Ecological Forecasting -
|
||||
Ecotax -
|
||||
Effects of climate change on agriculture -
|
||||
Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity -
|
||||
Effects of climate change on marine mammals -
|
||||
Effects of climate change on oceans -
|
||||
Effects of climate change -
|
||||
Effects of climate change on Australia -
|
||||
Effects of climate change on India -
|
||||
Efficient energy use -
|
||||
El Niño (ENSO) -
|
||||
Emission inventory -
|
||||
Emission Reduction Unit -
|
||||
Emission standards -
|
||||
Emissions trading -
|
||||
Energie-Cités -
|
||||
Energy Autonomy -
|
||||
Energy conservation -
|
||||
Energy forestry -
|
||||
Energy poverty -
|
||||
Enteric fermentation -
|
||||
Environmental crime -
|
||||
Environmental impact of aviation -
|
||||
Environmental skepticism -
|
||||
European Climate Forum -
|
||||
Evidence of global warming -
|
||||
Externality -
|
||||
Extreme event attribution
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Fossil fuel -
|
||||
Fossil fuel divestment -
|
||||
Fossil fuel phase out -
|
||||
Fossil fuel power plant -
|
||||
Freon -
|
||||
Food security
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
G8+5 -
|
||||
Geoengineering -
|
||||
GFDL CM2.X -
|
||||
Glacial period -
|
||||
Global Change Master Directory -
|
||||
Global climate model -
|
||||
Global cooling -
|
||||
Global climate model (General Circulation Model) -
|
||||
Global dimming -
|
||||
Global warming -
|
||||
Global warming controversy -
|
||||
Global warming hiatus -
|
||||
Global warming period -
|
||||
Global warming potential -
|
||||
Greenhouse and icehouse Earth -
|
||||
Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture -
|
||||
Greenhouse debt -
|
||||
Greenhouse effect -
|
||||
Greenhouse gas -
|
||||
Greenhouse gas accounting -
|
||||
Greenhouse gas inventory -
|
||||
Gulf Stream
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Heiligendamm Process -
|
||||
Hell and High Water -
|
||||
History of climate change science -
|
||||
Hockey stick graph -
|
||||
Holocene -
|
||||
Holocene Climatic Optimum -
|
||||
Holocene extinction -
|
||||
Homogenization -
|
||||
How Global Warming Works -
|
||||
Hydraulic fracturing -
|
||||
Hydrological geoengineering -
|
||||
Hypermobile travellers
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Ice age -
|
||||
Ice core -
|
||||
Ice sheet dynamics -
|
||||
Individual and political action on climate change -
|
||||
Insolation -
|
||||
Instrumental temperature record -
|
||||
Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation -
|
||||
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change -
|
||||
International Conference on Climate Change -
|
||||
IPCC list of greenhouse gases
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Keeling Curve -
|
||||
Kyoto Protocol
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Laudato si' -
|
||||
List of climate scientists -
|
||||
List of geoengineering topics -
|
||||
List of ministers of climate change -
|
||||
List of proposed geoengineering projects -
|
||||
Little Ice Age -
|
||||
Long-term effects of global warming
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Magnetosphere -
|
||||
Maunder Minimum -
|
||||
Mauna Loa -
|
||||
Media coverage of climate change-
|
||||
Medieval Warm Period -
|
||||
Meridional overturning circulation -
|
||||
Meteorology -
|
||||
Methane -
|
||||
Methane clathrate -
|
||||
Milankovitch cycles -
|
||||
Molecular-scale temperature
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Nitrous oxide (N2O) -
|
||||
North Atlantic Deep Water -
|
||||
North Atlantic oscillation -
|
||||
Northwest Passage
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Ocean acidification -
|
||||
Ocean anoxia -
|
||||
Older Dryas -
|
||||
Oldest Dryas -
|
||||
Overpopulation -
|
||||
Ozone depletion
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Pacific decadal oscillation -
|
||||
Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum -
|
||||
Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project -
|
||||
Paleothermometer -
|
||||
Parameterization -
|
||||
Planetary engineering -
|
||||
Peak oil -
|
||||
Phenology -
|
||||
Physical impacts of climate change -
|
||||
Polar amplification -
|
||||
Proxy
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Quaternary glaciation -
|
||||
Quasi-biennial oscillation
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Radiative forcing -
|
||||
Renewable energy -
|
||||
Renewable energy commercialization -
|
||||
Retreat of glaciers since 1850 -
|
||||
Runaway climate change
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Index of climate change articles"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Sahara pump theory -
|
||||
Satellite temperature measurements -
|
||||
Scientific opinion on climate change -
|
||||
Scientific consensus -
|
||||
Scientific skepticism -
|
||||
Sea level rise -
|
||||
Shutdown of thermohaline circulation -
|
||||
Sixth extinction -
|
||||
Slash and burn -
|
||||
Snowball Earth -
|
||||
Solar Radiation Management -
|
||||
Solar shade -
|
||||
Solar variation -
|
||||
Space sunshade -
|
||||
Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering -
|
||||
Stratospheric sulfur aerosols -
|
||||
Stratospheric sulfur aerosols (geoengineering) -
|
||||
Sunspot -
|
||||
Surveys of scientists' views on climate change -
|
||||
Sustainable energy
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Table of Historic and Prehistoric Climate Indicators -
|
||||
Temperature record of the past 1000 years -
|
||||
Temperature record since 1880 -
|
||||
Thermohaline circulation -
|
||||
Timeline of glaciation -
|
||||
TEX-86 -
|
||||
Thermocline -
|
||||
The Deniers -
|
||||
The Great Global Warming Swindle -
|
||||
The Republican War on Science -
|
||||
Timeline of environmental history -
|
||||
Tipping point (climatology)
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Urban heat island -
|
||||
UN climate change conference 2009 -
|
||||
The Uninhabitable Earth
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Warming stripes -
|
||||
Waste heat -
|
||||
Water World -
|
||||
West Antarctic Ice Sheet -
|
||||
World climate research programme -
|
||||
World Climate Report
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yamal Peninsula
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Glossary of climate change
|
||||
Scientific opinion on climate change
|
||||
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
|
||||
Category:Climate change
|
||||
Category:Climate change by country
|
||||
Category:Climatology
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
IPCC - glossary
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:53.600553+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:50.801117+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Infrared spectroscopy correlation table"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:26.211950+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An infrared spectroscopy correlation table (or table of infrared absorption frequencies) is a list of absorption peaks and frequencies, typically reported in wavenumber, for common types of molecular bonds and functional groups. In physical and analytical chemistry, infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is a technique used to identify chemical compounds based on the way infrared radiation is absorbed by the compound.
|
||||
The absorptions in this range do not apply only to bonds in organic molecules. IR spectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as metal complexes or fluoromanganates) as well.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Group frequencies ==
|
||||
Tables of vibrational transitions of stable and transient molecules are also available.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Applied spectroscopy
|
||||
Absorption spectroscopy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "International Numbering System for Food Additives"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:16.154713+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) is an international naming system for food additives, aimed at providing a short designation of what may be a lengthy actual name. It is defined by Codex Alimentarius, the international food standards organisation of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). The information is published in the document Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011. The INS is an open list, "subject to the inclusion of additional additives or removal of existing ones on an ongoing basis".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Numbering system ==
|
||||
INS numbers consist of three or four digits, optionally followed by an alphabetical suffix to further characterize individual additives. On packaging in the European Union (EU), approved food additives are written with a prefix of E. An additive that appears in the INS does not automatically have a corresponding E number.
|
||||
INS numbers are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive. INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound, e.g. INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E102. INS numbers are not unique and, in fact, one number may be assigned to a group of similar compounds.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of INS numbers ==
|
||||
|
||||
Except where stated, the list of INS numbers and associated food additives is based on the most recent publication of the Codex Alimentarius, Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011.
|
||||
E number and American approval flags are derived from other sources.
|
||||
In the table below, food additives approved for the EU are listed with an 'E', and those approved for Australia and New Zealand with an 'A'. and for the US with a U, even though the US does not use the INS numbering system.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Codex Alimentarius
|
||||
Codex Alimentarius Austriacus
|
||||
E number
|
||||
Food Additives
|
||||
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
|
||||
Food Chemicals Codex
|
||||
List of food additives
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Codex Alimentarius Archived 2017-11-27 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Food Standards Australia New Zealand
|
||||
Food Additives and Ingredients Association
|
||||
Northern Allergy Centre's Guide to Food Additives
|
||||
USFDA: Food Color Facts
|
||||
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md
Normal file
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of CP cannabinoids"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:58.267339+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Pfizer in the 1970s and 1980s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "CP" (after Charles Pfizer). Recently, several members of this class of cannabinoids have been discovered in recreational drug products.
|
||||
|
||||
CP 47,497 —
|
||||
(C6)-CP 47,497 —
|
||||
(C7)-CP 47,497 (CP 47,497 itself) —
|
||||
(C8)-CP 47,497 (Cannabicyclohexanol) —
|
||||
(C9)-CP 47,497 —
|
||||
CP 50,556-1 (Levonantradol) —
|
||||
CP 55,244 —
|
||||
CP 55,940 —
|
||||
(±)-CP 55,940 — (±)-CP 55,940 is a widely used cannabinoid research tool.
|
||||
(+)-CP 55,940 —
|
||||
(-)-CP 55,940 —
|
||||
CP-945,598 (Otenabant) —
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of AM cannabinoids
|
||||
List of HU cannabinoids
|
||||
List of JWH cannabinoids
|
||||
List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md
Normal file
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of NA numbers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:43.247450+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The NA numbers (North American Numbers) are assigned by the United States Department of Transportation, supplementing the larger set of UN numbers, for identifying hazardous materials. NA numbers largely duplicate UN numbers, however a selection of additional numbers are provided for materials that are not covered by UN numbers as a hazardous material. In a couple of instances NA numbers provide an alternative description than the equivalent UN number.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of UN numbers
|
||||
NA/UN exceptions - List of specific conflicts between NA numbers and UN numbers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
"UN/NA Datasheets". CAMEO Chemicals. Retrieved 2019-10-21.
|
||||
"Library - Hazardous Materials Table (HMT)". PHMSA. Retrieved 2017-08-25.
|
||||
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md
Normal file
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of SGT cannabinoids"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:27.341275+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Stargate International, a now defunct New Zealand company in the 2000s and 2010s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "SGT". PB-22 (SGT-21) is credited with being the first synthetic cannabinoid to feature a quinoline substructure with an ester linker at the indole 3-position. The mainly N-cumyl-indazole-3-carboxamide derivatives are best known. Many SGT compounds are banned as designer drugs in various jurisdictions, such as Japan.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Chemical structures of SGT cannabinoid compounds ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of AM cannabinoids
|
||||
List of CP cannabinoids
|
||||
List of HU cannabinoids
|
||||
List of JWH cannabinoids
|
||||
List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Cannabinoid collection, isomerdesign.com
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:08.723385+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Schedule 1 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which are feasible either to be used directly as chemical weapons or in the manufacture of chemical weapons, and which have very limited to no use outside of chemical warfare. These may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing (called "protective testing" in the treaty) purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW in accordance with Part VI of the "Verification Annex". A country is limited to possessing a maximum of one tonne of these materials.
|
||||
Schedule 1 is divided into Part A substances, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B which are precursors useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Examples are mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small-scale non-military applications; for example, minute quantities of nitrogen mustard are used to treat certain cancers.
|
||||
The Schedule 1 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which are feasible to use as weapons, and their precursors, but which have legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 2 (small-scale applications) and Schedule 3 (large-scale applications). The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the Convention.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Guidelines for Schedule 1 ==
|
||||
|
||||
The following criteria shall be taken into account in considering whether a toxic chemical or precursor should be included in Schedule 1:
|
||||
|
||||
It has been developed, produced, stockpiled or used as a chemical weapon as defined in Article II;
|
||||
It poses otherwise a high risk to the object and purpose of this Convention by virtue of its high potential for use in activities prohibited under this Convention because one or more of the following conditions are met:
|
||||
It possesses a chemical structure closely related to that of other toxic chemicals listed in Schedule 1, and has, or can be expected to have, comparable properties;
|
||||
It possesses such lethal or incapacitating toxicity as well as other properties that would enable it to be used as a chemical weapon;
|
||||
It may be used as a precursor in the final single technological stage of production of a toxic chemical listed in Schedule 1, regardless of whether this stage takes place in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere;
|
||||
It has little or no use for purposes not prohibited under this Convention.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Toxic chemicals ==
|
||||
O-Alkyl (<C10, incl. cycloalkyl) alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-phosphonofluoridates, e.g.
|
||||
Sarin: O-Isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate
|
||||
Soman: O-Pinacolyl methylphosphonofluoridate
|
||||
|
||||
O-Alkyl (<C10, incl. cycloalkyl) N,N-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) phosphoramidocyanidates, e.g.
|
||||
Tabun: O-Ethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate
|
||||
O-Alkyl (H or <C10, incl. cycloalkyl) S-2-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-aminoethyl alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) phosphonothiolates and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts, e.g.
|
||||
VX: O-Ethyl S-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate
|
||||
Sulfur mustards:
|
||||
2-Chloroethylchloromethylsulfide
|
||||
Mustard gas: Bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide
|
||||
Bis(2-chloroethylthio)methane
|
||||
Sesquimustard: 1,2-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)ethane
|
||||
1,3-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-propane
|
||||
1,4-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-butane
|
||||
1,5-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-pentane
|
||||
Bis(2-chloroethylthiomethyl)ether
|
||||
O-Mustard: Bis(2-chloroethylthioethyl)ether
|
||||
Lewisites:
|
||||
Lewisite 1: 2-Chlorovinyldichloroarsine
|
||||
Lewisite 2: Bis(2-chlorovinyl)chloroarsine
|
||||
Lewisite 3: Tris(2-chlorovinyl)arsine
|
||||
Nitrogen mustards:
|
||||
HN1: Bis(2-chloroethyl)ethylamine
|
||||
HN2: Bis(2-chloroethyl)methylamine
|
||||
HN3: Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine
|
||||
Saxitoxin
|
||||
Ricin
|
||||
Novichok agents: Р-alkyl (H or ≤C10, incl. cycloalkyl) N-(1-(dialkyl(≤C10, incl. cycloalkyl)amino))alkylidene(H or ≤C10, incl. cycloalkyl) phosphonamidic fluorides and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts
|
||||
e.g. N-(1-(di-n-decylamino)-n-decylidene)-P-decylphosphonamidic fluoride
|
||||
Methyl-(1-(diethylamino)ethylidene)phosphonamidofluoridate, also known as A-230
|
||||
Novichok agents: O-alkyl (H or ≤C10, incl. cycloalkyl) N-(1-(dialkyl(≤C10, incl. cycloalkyl)amino))alkylidene(H or ≤C10, incl. cycloalkyl) phosphoramidofluoridates and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts, e.g.
|
||||
O-n-Decyl N-(1-(di-n-decylamino)-n-decylidene)phosphoramidofluoridate
|
||||
Methyl (1-(diethylamino)ethylidene)phosphoramidofluoridate, also known as A-232
|
||||
Ethyl (1-(diethylamino)ethylidene)phosphoramidofluoridate, also known as A-234.
|
||||
Novichok agents: Methyl-(bis(diethylamino)methylene)phosphonamidofluoridate
|
||||
Carbamates (quaternaries and bisquaternaries of dimethylcarbamoyloxypyridines) Quaternaries of dimethylcarbamoyloxypyridines:
|
||||
1-[N,N-dialkyl(≤C10)-N-(n-(hydroxyl, cyano, acetoxy)alkyl(≤C10)) ammonio]-n-[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolinyl)-N,N-dialkyl(≤C10) ammonio]decane dibromide (n=1-8)
|
||||
e.g. 1-[N,N-dimethyl-N-(2-hydroxy)ethylammonio]-10-[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-αpicolinyl)-N,N-dimethylammonio]decane dibromide
|
||||
Bisquaternaries of dimethylcarbamoyloxypyridines: 1,n-Bis[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolyl)-N,N-dialkyl(≤C10) ammonio]-alkane-(2,(n-1)-dione) dibromide (n=2-12)
|
||||
e.g. 1,10-Bis[N-(3-dimethylcarbamoxy-α-picolyl)-N-ethyl-N-methylammonio]decane-2,9-dione dibromide
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Precursors ==
|
||||
|
||||
Alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) phosphonyldifluorides, e.g.
|
||||
DF: Methylphosphonyl difluoride
|
||||
O-Alkyl (H or <C10, incl. cycloalkyl) O-2-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-aminoethyl alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) phosphonites and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts, e.g.
|
||||
QL: O-Ethyl O-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonite
|
||||
Chlorosarin: O-Isopropyl methylphosphonochloridate
|
||||
Chlorosoman: O-Pinacolyl methylphosphonochloridate
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Schedule 2
|
||||
Schedule 3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Chemical Weapons Convention. Annex on Chemicals. A. Guidelines for Schedules of Chemicals // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
|
||||
Chemical Weapons Convention. Annex on Chemicals. B. Schedules of Chemicals. Schedule 1, pdf // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:10.335309+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Schedule 2 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals that are feasible to use as chemical weapons themselves (Part A), or their manufacturing precursors (Part B), and which have small-scale applications outside of chemical warfare and so can be legitimately manufactured in small quantities. An example is thiodiglycol, which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents but is also used as a solvent in inks. Manufacture must be declared as their production is subject to declaration to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) per Part VII of the "Verification Annex", and they may not be exported to countries that are not party to the Convention.
|
||||
The Schedule 2 list is one of three lists. Chemicals that can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but that have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 3 is used for chemicals that also have widespread industrial uses. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the convention.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Guidelines for Schedule 2 ==
|
||||
Schedule 2 lists toxic chemicals and precursors – not listed in Schedule 1 – that are deemed to pose a significant risk to be used as a chemical weapon, or may be important for the production of any of the chemicals listed in Schedule 1. They are not produced in large quantities for commercial or other purposes not prohibited by the Convention and may be used for those purposes in limited quantities.
|
||||
The listed chemicals are subjected to the following criteria:
|
||||
|
||||
It poses a significant risk to the object and purpose of this Convention because it possesses such lethal or incapacitating toxicity as well as other properties that could enable it to be used as a chemical weapon;
|
||||
It may be used as a precursor in one of the chemical reactions at the final stage of formation of a chemical listed in Schedule 1 or Schedule 2, part b
|
||||
It poses a significant risk to the object and purpose of this Convention by virtue of its importance in the production of a chemical listed in Schedule 1 or Schedule 2, part A;
|
||||
It is not produced in large commercial quantities for purposes not prohibited under this Convention.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Toxic chemicals ==
|
||||
Amiton: O,O-Diethyl S-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl)phosphorothiolate and corresponding alkylated or protonated salts
|
||||
PFIB: 1,1,3,3,3-Pentafluoro-2-(trifluoromethyl)-1-propene
|
||||
3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate (BZ)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Precursors ==
|
||||
Chemicals, except for those listed in Schedule 1, containing a phosphorus atom to which is bonded one methyl, ethyl or propyl (normal or iso) group but not further carbon atoms, e.g.
|
||||
Methylphosphonyl dichloride
|
||||
Dimethyl methylphosphonate
|
||||
Exemption: Fonofos: O-Ethyl S-phenyl ethylphosphonothiolothionate
|
||||
N,N-Dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) phosphoramidic dihalides
|
||||
Dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) N,N-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)-phosphoramidates
|
||||
Arsenic trichloride
|
||||
2,2-diphenyl-2-hydroxyacetic acid
|
||||
Quinuclidin-3-ol
|
||||
N,N-Dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) aminoethyl-2-chlorides and corresponding protonated salts
|
||||
N,N-Dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) aminoethane-2-ols and corresponding protonated salts
|
||||
Exemptions: N,N-Dimethylaminoethanol and corresponding protonated salts; N,N-Diethylaminoethanol and corresponding protonated salts
|
||||
N,N-Dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr) aminoethane-2-thiols and corresponding protonated salts
|
||||
Thiodiglycol: Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)sulfide
|
||||
Pinacolyl alcohol: 3,3-Dimethylbutan-2-ol
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Schedule 1
|
||||
Schedule 3
|
||||
Dual use technology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Chemical Weapons Convention. Annex on Chemicals. B. Schedules of Chemicals. Schedule 2, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, OPCW
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Schedule 3 substances (CWC)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:12.650792+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Schedule 3 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which have large-scale industrial uses, but are feasible to use as toxic chemical weapons (Part A) or manufacturing precursors (Part B).
|
||||
Plants which manufacture more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared and can be inspected as per Part VIII of the "Verification Annex", and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. Examples of these substances are phosgene, which has been used as a chemical weapon but which is also a precursor in the manufacture of many legitimate organic compounds, and triethanolamine, used in the manufacture of nitrogen mustard but also commonly used in toiletries and detergents.
|
||||
The Schedule 3 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but which have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 2 is used for chemicals which have legitimate small-scale applications. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the Convention.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Guidelines for Schedule 3 ==
|
||||
The criteria for including a chemical in this schedule is that it is not listed in either of the other two, and:
|
||||
|
||||
It has been produced, stockpiled or used as a chemical weapon;
|
||||
It poses otherwise a risk to the object and purpose of the Convention because it possesses such lethal or incapacitating toxicity as well as other properties that might enable it to be used as a chemical weapon;
|
||||
It poses a risk to the object and purpose of the Convention by virtue of its importance in the production of one or more chemicals listed in Schedule 1 or Schedule 2, part B;
|
||||
It may be produced in large commercial quantities for purposes not prohibited under the Convention.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Toxic chemicals ==
|
||||
Phosgene: Carbonyl dichloride
|
||||
Cyanogen chloride
|
||||
Hydrogen cyanide
|
||||
Chloropicrin: Trichloronitromethane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Precursors ==
|
||||
Phosphorus oxychloride
|
||||
Phosphorus trichloride
|
||||
Phosphorus pentachloride
|
||||
Trimethyl phosphite
|
||||
Triethyl phosphite
|
||||
Dimethyl phosphite
|
||||
Diethyl phosphite
|
||||
Sulfur monochloride
|
||||
Sulfur dichloride
|
||||
Thionyl chloride
|
||||
Ethyl diethanolamine
|
||||
Methyl diethanolamine
|
||||
Triethanolamine
|
||||
Pinacolone
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Dual-use technology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Chemical Weapons Convention. Annex on Chemicals. A. Guidelines for Schedules of Chemicals // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
|
||||
Chemical Weapons Convention. Annex on Chemicals. B. Schedules of Chemicals. Schedule 3 // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerator_mass_spectrometry_facilities"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:36.747687+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following list of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities includes research centers that employ accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS).
|
||||
Accelerator mass spectrometry is a form of mass spectrometry that accelerates ions to extraordinarily high kinetic energies before mass analysis.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Facilities ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
iThemba Laboratory for Accelerator Based Sciences, Johannesburg, South Africa
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
14UD The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
|
||||
SSAMS The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
|
||||
ANTARES 10MV, STAR 2MV, Sydney, Australia
|
||||
Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, GNS Science, New Zealand
|
||||
Chronos 14Carbon-Cycle Facility, UNSW, Australia.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
Accium BioSciences at Swedish Medical Center Cherry Hill, Seattle, WA
|
||||
André E. Lalonde Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (AEL AMS) at the University of Ottawa in Ottawa, Canada
|
||||
Beta Analytic Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility in Miami, Florida
|
||||
Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (CAMS) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
|
||||
Center for Applied Isotope Studies (CAIS) at University of Georgia.
|
||||
DirectAMS (D-AMS) radiocarbon labs in Bothell, WA & Seattle, WA
|
||||
Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
|
||||
Institute for Structure and Nuclear Astrophysics, The University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
|
||||
Institute of Energy and the Environment Radiocarbon Laboratory at the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
|
||||
MegaSIMS at the University of California, Los Angeles in Los Angeles, CA
|
||||
National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (NOSAMS) Facility at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
|
||||
NSF - Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Laboratory
|
||||
Pharmaron ABS, Inc. in Germantown, Maryland
|
||||
Purdue Rare Isotope Measurement Laboratory at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana
|
||||
Trace Element Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (TEAMS) at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC
|
||||
W.M. Keck Carbon Cycle Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (KCCAMS) Facility at the University of California, Irvine
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
Inter University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), New Delhi 110067 .
|
||||
Xi'an AMS Center, China
|
||||
Tandem accelerator for Environmental Research and Radiocarbon Analysis (NIES-TERRA) of the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), Tsukuba, Japan
|
||||
BINP AMS Facility, Novosibirsk, Russia
|
||||
National Taiwan University, Department of Geosciences, Taipei, Taiwan
|
||||
Accelerator Unit for Radio isotope Studies (AURiS), Geoscience Division, Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India.
|
||||
China Institute for Radiation Protection, Taiyuan, China
|
||||
Laboratory of AMS Dating and the Environment, Nanjing University, China
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
Lancaster AMS-UK for trace actinides and radiocarbon at Lancaster University, England
|
||||
Vilnius Radiocarbon AMS dating laboratory in Vilnius, Lithuania
|
||||
Centre for Isotope Research on Cultural and Environmental heritage (CIRCE) [1], Mathematics and Physics Department [2], Università degli Studi della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Caserta, Italy
|
||||
CEREGE in Aix en Provence, France
|
||||
LMC14 Laboratoire de mesure du carbone 14, at LSCE, Saclay, France
|
||||
LSCE-ECHoMICADAS, at LSCE, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
|
||||
14Chrono Centre for Climate, the Environment, and Chronology Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland
|
||||
Bristol Radiocarbon Accelerator Mass Spectrometer at University of Bristol, England
|
||||
RICH, Royal Institute for Cultural heritage, Brussels, Belgium
|
||||
CologneAMS at University of Cologne, Germany
|
||||
Hertelendi Laboratory of Environmental Studies at ATOMKI, Debrecen, Hungary
|
||||
DREAMS at Dresden, Germany
|
||||
Centre for Isotope Research Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, The Netherlands
|
||||
Beta Analytic Europe in London, England
|
||||
Tandem Laboratory at Uppsala University in Uppsala, Sweden
|
||||
Lund Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility at Lund University, Sweden
|
||||
RoAMS Laboratory of the "Horia Hulubei" National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering Măgurele, Romania
|
||||
AMS at the Maier-Leibnitz-Laboratory joint facility of LMU Munich and Technical University of Munich, Germany
|
||||
Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
|
||||
Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory, Poland
|
||||
Centre for Dating and Diagnostics (CEDAD), University of Salento, Italy [3]
|
||||
Centro Nacional de Aceleradores, CNA University of Sevilla, Spain
|
||||
NERC Recognised Accelerator Mass Spectrometer at SUERC, Scotland
|
||||
Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator at the University of Vienna, Austria
|
||||
Ion Beam Physics Laboratory of the ETH Zurich and the Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland
|
||||
National 1MV AMS Laboratory, TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center Turkey
|
||||
Nuclear Physics Institute, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Closed Facilities ==
|
||||
Eckert & Ziegler Vitalea Science AMS company based in Davis, California, closed in 2016.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
AMS Facilities of the World at the Wayback Machine (archived 4 March 2016), compiled by Walter Kutschera (to the best of his knowledge), VERA Lab, Faculty of Physics, University of Vienna, Austria.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Citations ===
|
||||
380
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-0.md
Normal file
380
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,380 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of additives in cigarettes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:21.769470+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a static list of 599 additives that could be added to tobacco cigarettes in 1994. The ABC News program Day One first released the list to the public on March 7, 1994. It was submitted to the United States Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. They are also listed in the documents that are part of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. It applies, as documented, only to American manufactured cigarettes intended for distribution within the United States by the listed companies. The five major tobacco companies that reported the information were:
|
||||
|
||||
American Tobacco Company
|
||||
Brown and Williamson
|
||||
Liggett Group, Inc.
|
||||
Philip Morris Inc.
|
||||
R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company
|
||||
One significant issue is that while all these chemical compounds have been approved as additives to food, they were not tested by burning. Burning changes the properties of chemicals. Burning creates additional toxic compounds, including carcinogens. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute: "Of the more than 7,000 chemicals in tobacco smoke, at least 250 are known to be harmful, including hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, and ammonia. Among the 250 known harmful chemicals in tobacco smoke, at least 69 can cause cancer." See: Health effects of tobacco smoking and List of cigarette smoke carcinogens.
|
||||
Although many of these additives are used in making cigarettes, each cigarette does not contain all of these additives. Some of these additives are found in cigarettes outside the USA too.
|
||||
Some American brands are sold in other nations. For example: Marlboro, L&M, Winston, Chesterfield, Kent, and Newport.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
Acetanisole
|
||||
Acetic acid
|
||||
Acetoin
|
||||
Acetophenone
|
||||
6-Acetoxydihydrotheaspirane
|
||||
2-Acetyl-3-ethylpyrazine
|
||||
2-Acetyl-5-methylfuran
|
||||
Acetylpyrazine
|
||||
2-Acetylpyridine
|
||||
3-Acetylpyridine
|
||||
2-Acetylthiazole
|
||||
Aconitic acid
|
||||
dl-Alanine
|
||||
Alfalfa extract
|
||||
Allspice extract, oleoresin, and oil
|
||||
Allyl hexanoate
|
||||
Allyl ionone
|
||||
Almond bitter oil
|
||||
Ambergris tincture
|
||||
Ammonia
|
||||
Ammonium bicarbonate
|
||||
Ammonium hydroxide
|
||||
Ammonium sulfide
|
||||
Amyl alcohol
|
||||
Amyl butyrate
|
||||
Amyl formate
|
||||
Amyl octanoate
|
||||
alpha-Amylcinnamaldehyde
|
||||
Amyris oil
|
||||
trans-Anethole
|
||||
Angelica root extract, oil and seed oil
|
||||
Anise
|
||||
Anise star, extract and oils
|
||||
Anisyl acetate
|
||||
Anisyl alcohol
|
||||
Anisyl formate
|
||||
Anisyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Apple juice concentrate, extract, and skins
|
||||
Apricot extract and juice concentrate
|
||||
L-Arginine
|
||||
Asafetida fluid extract and oil
|
||||
Ascorbic acid
|
||||
L-Asparagine monohydrate
|
||||
L-Aspartic acid
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Balsam of Peru and oil
|
||||
Basil oil
|
||||
Bay leaf, bay leaf oil, and sweet bay leaf oil
|
||||
Beeswax, white
|
||||
Beet juice concentrate
|
||||
Benzaldehyde
|
||||
Benzaldehyde glyceryl acetal
|
||||
Benzoic acid
|
||||
benzoin
|
||||
Benzoin resin
|
||||
Benzophenone
|
||||
Benzyl alcohol
|
||||
Benzyl benzoate
|
||||
Benzyl butyrate
|
||||
Benzyl cinnamate
|
||||
Benzyl propionate
|
||||
Benzyl salicylate
|
||||
Bergamot oil
|
||||
Bisabolene
|
||||
Black currant buds absolute
|
||||
Borneol
|
||||
Bornyl acetate
|
||||
Buchu leaf oil
|
||||
1,3-Butanediol
|
||||
2,3-Butanedione
|
||||
1-Butanol
|
||||
2-Butanone
|
||||
4(2-Butenylidene)-3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one
|
||||
Butter, butter esters, and butter oil
|
||||
Butyl acetate
|
||||
Butyl butyrate
|
||||
Butyl butyryl lactate
|
||||
Butyl isovalerate
|
||||
Butyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Butyl undecylenate
|
||||
3-Butylidenephthalide
|
||||
Butyric acid
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Cadinene
|
||||
Caffeine
|
||||
Calcium carbonate
|
||||
Camphene
|
||||
Cananga oil
|
||||
Capsicum oleoresin
|
||||
Caramel color
|
||||
Caraway oil
|
||||
Carbon dioxide
|
||||
Cardamom oleoresin, extract, seed oil, and powder
|
||||
Carob bean and extract
|
||||
beta-Carotene
|
||||
Carrot oil
|
||||
Carvacrol
|
||||
4-Carvomenthenol
|
||||
L-Carvone
|
||||
beta-Caryophyllene
|
||||
beta-Caryophyllene oxide
|
||||
Cascarilla oil and bark extract
|
||||
Cassia bark oil
|
||||
Cassie absolute and oil
|
||||
Castoreum extract, tincture and absolute
|
||||
Cedar leaf oil
|
||||
Cedarwood oil terpenes and virginiana
|
||||
Cedrol
|
||||
Celery Seed extract, solid, oil, And oleoresin
|
||||
Cellulose fiber
|
||||
Chamomile flower oil and extract
|
||||
Chicory extract
|
||||
Chocolate
|
||||
Cinnamaldehyde
|
||||
Cinnamic acid
|
||||
Cinnamon leaf oil, bark oil, and extract
|
||||
Cinnamyl acetate
|
||||
Cinnamyl alcohol
|
||||
Cinnamyl cinnamate
|
||||
Cinnamyl isovalerate
|
||||
Cinnamyl propionate
|
||||
Citral
|
||||
Citric acid
|
||||
Citronella oil
|
||||
dl-Citronellol
|
||||
Citronellyl butyrate
|
||||
Citronellyl isobutyrate
|
||||
Civet absolute
|
||||
Clary Oil
|
||||
Clover tops, red solid extract
|
||||
Cocoa
|
||||
Cocoa shells, extract, distillate and powder
|
||||
Coconut oil
|
||||
Coffee
|
||||
Cognac white and green oil
|
||||
Copaiba oil
|
||||
Coriander extract and oil
|
||||
Corn oil
|
||||
Corn silk
|
||||
Costus root oil
|
||||
Cubeb oil
|
||||
Cuminaldehyde
|
||||
para-Cymene
|
||||
L-Cysteine
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Dandelion root solid extract
|
||||
Davana oil
|
||||
2-trans,4-trans-Decadienal
|
||||
delta-Decalactone
|
||||
gamma-Decalactone
|
||||
Decanal
|
||||
Decanoic acid
|
||||
1-Decanol
|
||||
2-Decenal
|
||||
Dehydromenthofurolactone
|
||||
Diacetyl
|
||||
Diammonium phosphate
|
||||
Diethyl malonate
|
||||
Diethyl sebacate
|
||||
2,3-Diethylpyrazine
|
||||
Dihydro anethole
|
||||
5,7-Dihydro-2-methylthieno(3,4-D) pyrimidine
|
||||
Dill seed oil and extract
|
||||
meta-Dimethoxybenzene
|
||||
para-Dimethoxybenzene
|
||||
2,6-Dimethoxyphenol
|
||||
Dimethyl succinate
|
||||
3,4-Dimethyl-1,2-cyclopentanedione
|
||||
3,5-Dimethyl-1,2-cyclopentanedione
|
||||
3,7-Dimethyl-1,3,6-octatriene
|
||||
4,5-Dimethyl-3-hydroxy-2,5-dihydrofuran-2-one
|
||||
6,10-Dimethyl-5,9-undecadien-2-one
|
||||
3,7-Dimethyl-6-octenoic acid
|
||||
2,4 Dimethylacetophenone
|
||||
alpha,para-Dimethylbenzyl alcohol
|
||||
alpha,alpha-Dimethylphenethyl acetate
|
||||
alpha,alpha-Dimethylphenethyl butyrate
|
||||
2,3-Dimethylpyrazine
|
||||
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine
|
||||
2,6-Dimethylpyrazine
|
||||
Dimethyltetrahydrobenzofuranone
|
||||
delta-Dodecalactone
|
||||
gamma-Dodecalactone
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
para-Ethoxybenzaldehyde
|
||||
Ethyl 10-undecenoate
|
||||
Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate
|
||||
Ethyl acetate
|
||||
Ethyl acetoacetate
|
||||
Ethyl alcohol
|
||||
Ethyl benzoate
|
||||
Ethyl butyrate
|
||||
Ethyl cinnamate
|
||||
Ethyl decanoate
|
||||
Ethyl fenchol
|
||||
Ethyl furoate
|
||||
Ethyl heptanoate
|
||||
Ethyl hexanoate
|
||||
Ethyl isovalerate
|
||||
Ethyl lactate
|
||||
Ethyl laurate
|
||||
Ethyl levulinate
|
||||
Ethyl maltol
|
||||
Ethyl methylphenylglycidate
|
||||
Ethyl myristate
|
||||
Ethyl nonanoate
|
||||
Ethyl octadecanoate
|
||||
Ethyl octanoate
|
||||
Ethyl oleate
|
||||
Ethyl palmitate
|
||||
Ethyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Ethyl propionate
|
||||
Ethyl salicylate
|
||||
Ethyl trans-2-butenoate
|
||||
Ethyl valerate
|
||||
Ethyl vanillin
|
||||
2-Ethyl (or methyl)-(3,5 and 6)-methoxypyrazine
|
||||
2-Ethyl-1-Hexanol,3-ethyl-2-hydroxy-2-cyclopenten-1-one
|
||||
2-Ethyl-3,(5 or 6)-dimethylpyrazine
|
||||
5-Ethyl-3-hydroxy-4-methyl-2(5H)-furanone
|
||||
2-Ethyl-3-methylpyrazine
|
||||
3-Ethylpyridine
|
||||
4-Ethylbenzaldehyde
|
||||
4-Ethylguaiacol
|
||||
4-Ethylphenol (para-ethylphenol)
|
||||
Eucalyptol
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Farnesol
|
||||
D-Fenchone
|
||||
Fennel sweet oil
|
||||
Fenugreek, extract, resin, and absolute
|
||||
Fig juice concentrate
|
||||
Food starch modified
|
||||
Furfuryl Mercaptan
|
||||
4-(2-Furyl)-3-buten-2-one
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Galbanum oil
|
||||
Genet absolute
|
||||
Gentian root extract
|
||||
Geraniol
|
||||
Geranium rose oil
|
||||
Geranyl acetate
|
||||
Geranyl butyrate
|
||||
Geranyl formate
|
||||
Geranyl isovalerate
|
||||
Geranyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Ginger oil and oleoresin
|
||||
L-Glutamic acid
|
||||
L-Glutamine
|
||||
Glycerol
|
||||
Glycyrrhizin ammoniated
|
||||
Grape juice concentrate
|
||||
Guaiac wood oil
|
||||
Guaiacol
|
||||
Guar gum
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
2,4-Heptadienal
|
||||
gamma-Heptalactone
|
||||
Heptanoic acid
|
||||
2-Heptanone
|
||||
3-Hepten-2-One
|
||||
2-Hepten-4-One
|
||||
4-Heptenal
|
||||
trans-2-Heptenal
|
||||
Heptyl acetate
|
||||
omega-6-Hexadecenlactone
|
||||
gamma-Hexalactone
|
||||
Hexanal
|
||||
Hexanoic acid
|
||||
2-Hexen-1-Ol
|
||||
3-Hexen-1-Ol
|
||||
cis-3-Hexen-1-yl acetate
|
||||
2-Hexenal
|
||||
3-Hexenoic acid
|
||||
trans-2-Hexenoic acid
|
||||
cis-3-Hexenyl formate
|
||||
Hexyl 2-methylbutyrate
|
||||
Hexyl acetate
|
||||
Hexyl alcohol
|
||||
Hexyl phenylacetate
|
||||
L-Histidine
|
||||
Honey
|
||||
Hops oil
|
||||
Hydrolyzed milk solids
|
||||
Hydrolyzed plant proteins
|
||||
5-Hydroxy-2,4-decadienoic acid delta-lactone
|
||||
4-Hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone
|
||||
2-Hydroxy-3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one
|
||||
4-Hydroxy-3-pentenoic Acid lactone
|
||||
2-Hydroxy-4-methylbenzaldehyde
|
||||
4-Hydroxybutanoic acid lactone
|
||||
Hydroxycitronellal
|
||||
6-Hydroxydihydrotheaspirane
|
||||
4-(para-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone
|
||||
Hyssop oil
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Immortelle absolute and extract
|
||||
alpha-Ionone
|
||||
beta-Ionone
|
||||
alpha-Irone
|
||||
Isoamyl acetate
|
||||
Isoamyl benzoate
|
||||
Isoamyl butyrate
|
||||
Isoamyl cinnamate
|
||||
Isoamyl formate
|
||||
Isoamyl hexanoate
|
||||
Isoamyl isovalerate
|
||||
Isoamyl octanoate
|
||||
Isoamyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Isobornyl acetate
|
||||
Isobutyl acetate
|
||||
Isobutyl alcohol
|
||||
Isobutyl cinnamate
|
||||
Isobutyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Isobutyl salicylate
|
||||
2-Isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine
|
||||
alpha-Isobutyl phenethyl alcohol
|
||||
Isobutyraldehyde
|
||||
Isobutyric Acid
|
||||
d,l-Isoleucine
|
||||
alpha-Isomethyl ionone
|
||||
2-Isopropylphenol
|
||||
Isovaleric acid
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Jasmine absolute, concrete and oil
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Kola nut extract
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Labdanum absolute and oleoresin
|
||||
Lactic acid
|
||||
Lauric acid
|
||||
Lauric aldehyde
|
||||
Lavandin oil
|
||||
Lavender oil
|
||||
Lemon oil and extract
|
||||
Lemongrass oil
|
||||
L-Leucine
|
||||
Levulinic acid
|
||||
Liquorice root, fluid, extract and powder
|
||||
Lime Oil
|
||||
Linalool
|
||||
Linalool oxide
|
||||
Linalyl acetate
|
||||
Linden flowers
|
||||
Lovage oil and extract
|
||||
L-Lysine
|
||||
312
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-1.md
Normal file
312
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,312 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of additives in cigarettes"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:21.769470+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Mace powder, extract and oil
|
||||
Magnesium carbonate
|
||||
Malic acid
|
||||
Malt and malt extract
|
||||
Maltodextrin
|
||||
Maltol
|
||||
Maltyl isobutyrate
|
||||
Mandarin oil
|
||||
Maple syrup and concentrate
|
||||
Mate leaf, absolute and oil
|
||||
para-Mentha-8-Thiol-3-One
|
||||
Menthol
|
||||
Menthone
|
||||
Menthyl acetate
|
||||
dl-Methionine
|
||||
Methoprene
|
||||
2-Methoxy-4-methylphenol
|
||||
2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol
|
||||
para-Methoxybenzaldehyde
|
||||
1-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-1-penten-3-one
|
||||
4-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone
|
||||
1-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-2-propanone
|
||||
Methoxypyrazine
|
||||
Methyl 2-furoate
|
||||
Methyl 2-octynoate
|
||||
Methyl 2-pyrrolyl ketone
|
||||
Methyl anisate
|
||||
Methyl anthranilate
|
||||
Methyl benzoate
|
||||
Methyl cinnamate
|
||||
Methyl dihydrojasmonate
|
||||
Methyl ester of rosin, partially hydrogenated
|
||||
Methyl isovalerate
|
||||
Methyl linoleate (48%)
|
||||
Methyl linolenate (52%) mixture
|
||||
Methyl naphthyl ketone
|
||||
Methyl nicotinate
|
||||
Methyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Methyl salicylate
|
||||
Methyl sulfide
|
||||
3-Methyl-1-cyclopentadecanone
|
||||
4-Methyl-1-phenyl-2-pentanone
|
||||
5-Methyl-2-phenyl-2-hexenal
|
||||
5-Methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde
|
||||
6-Methyl-3,-5-heptadien-2-one
|
||||
2-Methyl-3-(para-isopropylphenyl) propionaldehyde
|
||||
5-Methyl-3-hexen-2-one
|
||||
1-Methyl-3-methoxy-4-isopropylbenzene
|
||||
4-Methyl-3-pentene-2-one
|
||||
2-Methyl-4-phenylbutyraldehyde
|
||||
6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one
|
||||
4-Methyl-5-thiazoleethanol
|
||||
4-Methyl-5-vinylthiazole
|
||||
Methyl-alpha-ionone
|
||||
Methyl-trans-2-butenoic acid
|
||||
4-Methylacetophenone
|
||||
para-Methylanisole
|
||||
alpha-Methylbenzyl acetate
|
||||
alpha-Methylbenzyl alcohol
|
||||
2-Methylbutyraldehyde
|
||||
3-Methylbutyraldehyde
|
||||
2-Methylbutyric acid
|
||||
alpha-Methylcinnamaldehyde
|
||||
Methylcyclopentenolone
|
||||
2-Methylheptanoic acid
|
||||
2-Methylhexanoic acid
|
||||
3-Methylpentanoic acid
|
||||
4-Methylpentanoic acid
|
||||
2-Methylpyrazine
|
||||
5-Methylquinoxaline
|
||||
2-Methyltetrahydrofuran-3-one
|
||||
(Methylthio)Methylpyrazine (mixture of isomers)
|
||||
3-Methylthiopropionaldehyde
|
||||
Methyl 3-methylthiopropionate
|
||||
2-Methylvaleric acid
|
||||
Mimosa absolute and extract
|
||||
Molasses extract and tincture
|
||||
Mountain maple solid extract
|
||||
Mullein flowers
|
||||
Myristaldehyde
|
||||
Myristic acid
|
||||
Myrrh oil
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
beta-Napthyl ethyl ether
|
||||
Nerol
|
||||
Neroli bigarde oil
|
||||
Nerolidol
|
||||
Nona-2-trans,6-cis-dienal
|
||||
2,6-Nonadien-1-ol
|
||||
gamma-Nonalactone
|
||||
Nonanal
|
||||
Nonanoic acid
|
||||
Nonanone
|
||||
trans-2-Nonen-1-ol
|
||||
2-Nonenal
|
||||
Nonyl acetate
|
||||
Nutmeg powder and oil
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Oak chips extract and oil
|
||||
Oakmoss absolute
|
||||
9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (48%) and 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (52%)
|
||||
delta-Octalactone
|
||||
gamma-Octalactone
|
||||
Octanal
|
||||
Octanoic acid
|
||||
1-Octanol
|
||||
2-Octanone
|
||||
3-Octen-2-one
|
||||
1-Octen-3-ol
|
||||
1-Octen-3-yl acetate
|
||||
2-Octenal
|
||||
Octyl isobutyrate
|
||||
Oleic acid
|
||||
Olibanum oil
|
||||
Opoponax oil and gum
|
||||
Orange blossom water, absolute, and leaf absolute
|
||||
Orange oil and extract
|
||||
Origanum oil
|
||||
Orris concrete oil and root extract
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Palmarosa oil
|
||||
Palmitic acid
|
||||
Parsley seed oil
|
||||
Patchouli oil
|
||||
omega-Pentadecalactone
|
||||
2,3-Pentanedione
|
||||
2-Pentanone
|
||||
4-Pentenoic acid
|
||||
2-Pentylpyridine
|
||||
Pepper oil, black and white
|
||||
Peppermint oil
|
||||
Peruvian (Bois de Rose) oil
|
||||
Petitgrain absolute, Mandarin oil, and terpeneless oil
|
||||
alpha-Phellandrene
|
||||
2-Phenenthyl acetate
|
||||
Phenethyl alcohol
|
||||
Phenethyl butyrate
|
||||
Phenethyl cinnamate
|
||||
Phenethyl isobutyrate
|
||||
Phenethyl isovalerate
|
||||
Phenethyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Phenethyl salicylate
|
||||
1-Phenyl-1-propanol
|
||||
3-Phenyl-1-propanol
|
||||
2-Phenyl-2-butenal
|
||||
4-Phenyl-3-buten-2-ol
|
||||
4-Phenyl-3-buten-2-one
|
||||
Phenylacetaldehyde
|
||||
Phenylacetic acid
|
||||
L-Phenylalanine
|
||||
3-Phenylpropionaldehyde
|
||||
3-Phenylpropionic acid
|
||||
3-Phenylpropyl acetate
|
||||
3-Phenylpropyl cinnamate
|
||||
2-(3-Phenylpropyl)Tetrahydrofuran
|
||||
Phosphoric acid
|
||||
Pimenta leaf oil
|
||||
Pine needle oil
|
||||
Pine oil, Scotch
|
||||
Pineapple juice concentrate
|
||||
alpha-Pinene, beta-Pinene
|
||||
D-Piperitone
|
||||
Piperonal
|
||||
Pipsissewa leaf extract
|
||||
Plum juice
|
||||
Potassium sorbate
|
||||
L-Proline
|
||||
Propenylguaethol
|
||||
Propionic acid
|
||||
Propyl acetate
|
||||
Propyl para-hydroxybenzoate
|
||||
Propylene glycol
|
||||
3-Propylidenephthalide
|
||||
Prune juice and concentrate
|
||||
Pyridine
|
||||
Pyroligneous acid and extract
|
||||
Pyrrole
|
||||
Pyruvic acid
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Raisin juice concentrate
|
||||
Rhodinol
|
||||
Rose absolute and oil
|
||||
Rosemary oil
|
||||
Rum
|
||||
Rum ether
|
||||
Rye extract
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Sage, sage oil, and sage oleoresin
|
||||
Salicylaldehyde
|
||||
Sandalwood oil, yellow
|
||||
Sclareolide
|
||||
Skatole
|
||||
Smoke flavor
|
||||
Snakeroot oil
|
||||
Sodium acetate
|
||||
Sodium benzoate
|
||||
Sodium bicarbonate
|
||||
Sodium carbonate
|
||||
Sodium chloride
|
||||
Sodium citrate
|
||||
Sodium hydroxide
|
||||
Solanone
|
||||
Spearmint oil
|
||||
Styrax extract, gum and oil
|
||||
Sucrose octaacetate
|
||||
Sugar alcohols
|
||||
Sugars
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Tagetes oil
|
||||
Tannic acid
|
||||
Tartaric acid
|
||||
Tea leaf and absolute
|
||||
alpha-Terpineol
|
||||
Terpinolene
|
||||
Terpinyl acetate
|
||||
5,6,7,8-Tetrahydroquinoxaline
|
||||
1,5,5,9-Tetramethyl-13-oxatricyclo(8.3.0.0(4,9))tridecane
|
||||
2,3,4,5- and 3,4,5,6-Tetramethylethyl-cyclohexanone
|
||||
2,3,5,6-Tetramethylpyrazine
|
||||
Thiamine hydrochloride
|
||||
Thiazole
|
||||
L-Threonine
|
||||
Thyme oil, white and red
|
||||
Thymol
|
||||
Tobacco extracts
|
||||
Tocopherols (mixed)
|
||||
Tolu balsam gum and extract
|
||||
Tolualdehydes
|
||||
para-Tolyl 3-methylbutyrate
|
||||
para-Tolyl acetaldehyde
|
||||
para-Tolyl acetate
|
||||
para-Tolyl isobutyrate
|
||||
para-Tolyl phenylacetate
|
||||
Triacetin
|
||||
2-Tridecanone
|
||||
2-Tridecenal
|
||||
Triethyl citrate
|
||||
3,5,5-Trimethyl-1-hexanol
|
||||
para,alpha,alpha-Trimethylbenzyl alcohol
|
||||
4-(2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohex-1-enyl)but-2-en-4-one
|
||||
2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohex-2-ene-1,4-dione
|
||||
2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-dienyl methanal
|
||||
4-(2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-dienyl)but-2-en-4-one
|
||||
2,2,6-Trimethylcyclohexanone
|
||||
2,3,5-Trimethylpyrazine
|
||||
L-Tyrosine
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
delta-Undecalactone
|
||||
gamma-Undecalactone
|
||||
Undecanal
|
||||
2-Undecanone
|
||||
10-Undecenal
|
||||
Urea
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Valencene
|
||||
Valeraldehyde
|
||||
Valerian root extract, oil, and powder
|
||||
Valeric acid
|
||||
gamma-Valerolactone
|
||||
Valine
|
||||
Vanilla extract and oleoresin
|
||||
Vanillin
|
||||
Veratraldehyde
|
||||
Vetiver oil
|
||||
Vinegar
|
||||
Violet leaf absolute
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Walnut hull extract
|
||||
Water
|
||||
Wheat extract and flour
|
||||
Wild cherry bark extract
|
||||
Wine and wine sherry
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Xanthan gum
|
||||
3,4-Xylenol
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yeast
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of food additives
|
||||
List of cigarette smoke carcinogens
|
||||
Health effects of tobacco smoking
|
||||
Tobacco harm reduction
|
||||
Composition of electronic cigarette aerosol
|
||||
Tobacco packaging warning messages
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Making cigarettes. Philip Morris International. List of ingredients by market and brand. Scroll down to "Product ingredient finder". Pick country. Download ingredient list for that country. Open it, and scroll down for ingredients by brand.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of additives used for fracking"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_used_for_fracking"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:20.553565+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The differences between additives for fracking in different countries are the type of chemicals used (hazardous, non-hazardous), the disclosure of chemicals and the composition of fracturing fluid. In 2010, Halliburton announced the creation of food additive based hydraulic fracturing fluid in response to calls for transparency and demand for a "more environmentally friendly" unconventional hydrocarbon production.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Europe ==
|
||||
In Europe, Poland, Norway and Germany have the largest reserves of shale gas, and drillings are underway.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== United Kingdom ==
|
||||
In the United Kingdom, the environmental regulator permits only chemical additives which are classed as non hazardous to groundwater for fracturing fluids. Operators are required to disclose the content of hydraulic fracturing fluids to the relevant environment agency while the composition must be disclosed if the regulator demands it. The permitted additives for hydraulic fracturing fluid include polycrylamide, hydrochloric acid and a biocide.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== United States ==
|
||||
In the US, about 750 compounds have been listed as additives for hydraulic fracturing, also known as ingredients of pressurized fracking fluid, in an industry report to the US Congress in 2011 The following is a partial list of the chemical constituents in additives that are used or may have been used in fracturing operations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Hydraulic fracturing
|
||||
Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom
|
||||
Hydraulic fracturing in the United States
|
||||
Hydraulic fracturing proppants
|
||||
Uses of radioactivity in oil and gas wells
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
100
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances-0.md
Normal file
100
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of alchemical substances"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:23.012305+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Alchemy studies produced a number of substances, which were later classified as particular chemical compounds or mixture of compounds.
|
||||
Many of these terms were in common use into the 20th century.
|
||||
|
||||
== Metals and metalloids ==
|
||||
|
||||
Antimony/Stibnium – Sb
|
||||
Bismuth (German: Wismuth) – Bi
|
||||
Copper/Cuprum – associated with Venus. Cu
|
||||
Gold/Aurum – associated with the Sun. Au
|
||||
Iron/Ferrum – associated with Mars. Fe
|
||||
Lead/Plumbum – associated with Saturn. Pb
|
||||
Quicksilver/Hydrargyrum – associated with Mercury. Hg
|
||||
Silver/Argentum – associated with the Moon. Ag
|
||||
Tin/Stannum – associated with Jupiter. Sn
|
||||
|
||||
== Minerals, Stones, and Pigments ==
|
||||
Bluestone – Mineral form of Copper(II) Sulfate Pentahydrate, also called Blue Vitriol.
|
||||
Borax – Sodium Borate; was also used to refer to other related minerals.
|
||||
Cadmia/Tuttia/Tutty – Probably Zinc Carbonate.
|
||||
Calamine – Zinc Carbonate.
|
||||
Calomel/Horn Quicksilver/Horn Mercury – Mercury(I) Chloride, a very poisonous purgative formed by subliming a mixture of Mercuric Chloride and Metallic Mercury, triturated in a mortar and heated in an Iron pot. The crust formed on the lid was ground to powder and boiled with water to remove the Calomel.
|
||||
Calx – Calcium Oxide; was also used to refer to other metal oxides.
|
||||
Chalcanthum – The residue produced by strongly roasting Blue Vitriol (Copper Sulfate); it is composed mostly of Cupric Oxide.
|
||||
Chalk – A rock composed of porous biogenic Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3
|
||||
Chrome green – Chromic Oxide and Cobalt Oxide.
|
||||
Chrome Orange – Chrome Yellow and Chrome Red.
|
||||
Chrome Red – Basic Lead Chromate – PbCrO4+PbO
|
||||
Chrome Yellow/Paris Yellow/Leipzig Yellow– Lead Chromate, PbCrO4
|
||||
Cinnabar/vermilion – Refers to several substances, among them: Mercury(II) Sulfide (HgS), or native Vermilion (the common ore of Mercury).
|
||||
Copper Glance – Copper(I) Sulfide ore.
|
||||
Cuprite – Copper(I) Oxide ore.
|
||||
Dutch White – A pigment formed from one part of White Lead to three of Barium Sulfate. BaSO4
|
||||
Flowers of Antimony – Antimony Trioxide, formed by roasting Stibnite at high temperature and condensing the white fumes that form Sb2O3.
|
||||
Fool's Gold – A mineral, Iron Disulfide or Pyrite; can form Oil of Vitriol on contact with water and air.
|
||||
Fulminating Silver – Principally, Silver Nitride, formed by dissolving Silver(I) Oxide in ammonia. Very explosive when dry.
|
||||
Fulminating Gold – A number of gold based explosives which "fulminate", or detonate easily.
|
||||
Gold Hydrazide, formed by adding ammonia to the Auric Hydroxide. When dry, can explode on concussion.
|
||||
An unstable Gold Carbonate formed by precipitation by potash from Gold dissolved in Aqua Regia.
|
||||
Galena – Lead(II) Sulfide, Lead ore.
|
||||
Glass of Antimony – Impure Antimony Tetroxide, Sb2O4 formed by roasting stibnite. A yellow pigment for glass and porcelain.
|
||||
Gypsum – a mineral; calcium sulfate. CaSO4
|
||||
Horn silver/argentum cornu – a weathered form of chlorargyrite, an ore of silver chloride.
|
||||
Luna cornea – silver chloride, formed by heating horn silver till it liquefies and then cooling.
|
||||
King's yellow – formed by mixing orpiment with white arsenic.
|
||||
Lapis solaris (Bologna stone) – barium sulfide – 1603, Vincenzo Cascariolo.
|
||||
Lead fume – lead oxide, found in flues at lead smelters.
|
||||
Lime/quicklime (burnt lime)/calx viva/unslaked lime – calcium oxide, formed by calcining limestone
|
||||
Slaked lime – calcium hydroxide. Ca(OH)2
|
||||
Marcasite – a mineral; iron disulfide. In moist air it turns into green vitriol, FeSO4.
|
||||
Massicot – lead monoxide. PbO
|
||||
Litharge – lead monoxide, formed by fusing and powdering massicot.
|
||||
Minium/red lead – trilead tetroxide, Pb3O4; formed by roasting litharge in air.
|
||||
Naples yellow/cassel yellow – oxychloride of lead, formed by heating litharge with sal ammoniac.
|
||||
Mercurius praecipitatus – red mercuric oxide.
|
||||
Mosaic gold – stannic sulfide, formed by heating a mixture of tin filings, sulfur, and sal-ammoniac.
|
||||
Orpiment – arsenic trisulfide, an ore of arsenic.
|
||||
Pearl white – bismuth nitrate, BiNO3
|
||||
Philosophers' wool/nix alba (white snow)/Zinc White – zinc oxide, formed by burning zinc in air, used as a pigment
|
||||
Plumbago – a mineral, graphite; not discovered in pure form until 1564
|
||||
Powder of Algaroth – antimony oxychloride, formed by precipitation when a solution of butter of antimony and spirit of salt is poured into water.
|
||||
Purple of Cassius – formed by precipitating a mixture of gold, stannous and stannic chlorides, with alkali. Used for glass coloring
|
||||
Realgar – arsenic disulfide, an ore of arsenic.
|
||||
Regulus of antimony
|
||||
Resin of copper – copper(I) chloride (cuprous chloride), formed by heating copper with corrosive sublimate.
|
||||
Rouge/crocus/colcothar – ferric oxide, formed by burning green vitriol in air.
|
||||
Stibnite – antimony or antimony trisulfide, ore of antimony.
|
||||
Turpeth mineral – hydrolysed form of mercury(II) sulfate.
|
||||
Verdigris – Carbonate of Copper or (more recently) copper(II) acetate. The carbonate is formed by weathering copper. The acetate is formed by vinegar acting on copper. One version was used as a green pigment.
|
||||
White arsenic – arsenious oxide, formed by sublimating arsenical soot from the roasting ovens.
|
||||
White lead – carbonate of lead, a toxic pigment, produced by corroding stacks of lead plates with dilute vinegar beneath a heap of moistened wood shavings. (replaced by blanc fixe & lithopone)
|
||||
Venetian white – formed from equal parts of white lead and barium sulfate.
|
||||
Zaffre – impure cobalt arsenate, formed after roasting cobalt ore.
|
||||
Zinc blende – zinc sulfide.
|
||||
|
||||
== Salts ==
|
||||
Glauber's salt – sodium sulfate. Na2SO4
|
||||
Sal alembroth – salt composed of chlorides of ammonium and mercury.
|
||||
Sal ammoniac – ammonium chloride.
|
||||
Sal petrae (Med. Latin: "stone salt")/salt of petra/saltpetre/nitrate of potash – potassium nitrate, KNO3, typically mined from covered dungheaps.
|
||||
Salt/common salt – a mineral, sodium chloride, NaCl, formed by evaporating seawater (impure form).
|
||||
Salt of tartar – potassium carbonate; also called potash.
|
||||
Salt of hartshorn/sal volatile – ammonium carbonate formed by distilling bones and horns.
|
||||
Tin salt – hydrated stannous chloride; see also spiritus fumans, another chloride of tin.
|
||||
|
||||
== Vitriols ==
|
||||
Blue vitriol – copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.
|
||||
Green vitriol – a mineral; iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate. (or ferrous sulfate)
|
||||
Red vitriol - cobalt sulfate.
|
||||
Sweet vitriol – diethyl ether. It could be made by mixing oil of vitriol with spirit of wine and heating it.
|
||||
White vitriol – zinc sulfate, formed by lixiviating roasted zinc blende.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of alchemical substances"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:23.012305+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Waters, oils and spirits ==
|
||||
Aqua fortis/spirit of nitre – nitric acid, formed by 2 parts saltpetre in 1 part (pure) oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid). (Historically, this process could not have been used, as 98% oil of vitriol was not available.)
|
||||
Aqua ragia/spirit of turpentine/oil of turpentine/gum turpentine – turpentine, formed by the distillation of pine tree resin.
|
||||
Aqua regia (Latin: "royal water") – a mixture of aqua fortis and spirit of salt.
|
||||
Aqua tofani – arsenic trioxide, As2O3 (extremely poisonous)
|
||||
Aqua vitae/aqua vita/spirit of wine, ardent spirits – ethanol, formed by distilling wine
|
||||
Butter (or oil) of antimony – antimony trichloride. Formed by distilling roasted stibnite with corrosive sublimate, or dissolving stibnite in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and distilling. SbCl3
|
||||
Butter of tin – hydrated tin(IV) chloride; see also spiritus fumans, another chloride of tin.
|
||||
Oil of tartar – concentrated potassium carbonate, K2CO3 solution
|
||||
Oil of tartar per deliquium – potassium carbonate dissolved in the water which its extracts from the air.
|
||||
Oil of vitriol/spirit of vitriol – sulfuric acid, a weak version can be formed by heating green vitriol and blue vitriol. H2SO4
|
||||
Spirit of box/pyroxylic spirit – methanol, CH3OH, distilled wood alcohol.
|
||||
Spiritus fumans – stannic chloride, formed by distilling tin with corrosive sublimate.
|
||||
Spirit of hartshorn – ammonia, formed by the decomposition of sal-ammoniac by unslaked lime.
|
||||
Spirit of salt/acidum salis – the liquid form of hydrochloric acid (also called muriatic acid), formed by mixing common salt with oil of vitriol.
|
||||
Marine acid air – gaseous form of hydrochloric acid.
|
||||
|
||||
== Others ==
|
||||
Alkahest – universal solvent.
|
||||
Azoth – initially this referred to a supposed universal solvent but later became another name for Mercury.
|
||||
Bitumen – highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum.
|
||||
Blende
|
||||
Brimstone – sulfur
|
||||
Flowers of sulfur – formed by distilling sulfur.
|
||||
Caustic potash/caustic wood alkali – potassium hydroxide, formed by adding lime to potash.
|
||||
Caustic Soda/caustic marine alkali – sodium hydroxide, NaOH, formed by adding lime to natron.
|
||||
Caustic volatile alkali – ammonium hydroxide.
|
||||
Corrosive sublimate – mercuric chloride, formed by subliming mercury, calcined green vitriol, common salt, and nitre.
|
||||
Gum Arabic – gum from the acacia tree.
|
||||
Liver of sulfur – a loosely defined mixture of potassium sulfide, potassium polysulfide, potassium thiosulfate, and likely potassium bisulfide.
|
||||
Lunar caustic/lapis infernalis – silver nitrate, formed by dissolving silver in aqua fortis and evaporating.
|
||||
Lye – potash in a water solution, formed by leaching wood ashes.
|
||||
Potash – potassium carbonate, formed by evaporating lye; also called salt of tartar. K2CO3
|
||||
Pearlash – formed by baking potash in a kiln.
|
||||
Milk of sulfur (lac sulphuris) – formed by adding an acid to thion hudor (lime sulfur).
|
||||
Natron/soda ash/soda – sodium carbonate. Na2CO3
|
||||
Nitrum flammans – ammonium nitrate.
|
||||
Sugar of lead – lead(II) acetate, formed by dissolving lead oxide in vinegar.
|
||||
Thion hudor – lime sulfur, formed by boiling flowers of sulfur with slaked lime.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Alchemical symbol
|
||||
List of alchemists
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Eklund, Jon (1975). The Incompleat Chymist: Being an Essay on the Eighteenth-Century Chemist in His Laboratory, with a Dictionary of Obsolete Chemical Terms of the Period (Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology, Number 33). Smithsonian Institution Press.
|
||||
Giunta, Carmen. Glossary of Archaic Chemical Terms: Introduction and Part I (A-B). Classic Chemistry.
|
||||
Giunta, Carmen. A Dictionary of the New Chymical Nomenclature. Classic Chemistry. Based on Guyton de Morveau, Louis Bernard; Lavoisier, Antoine; Bertholet, Claude-Louis; Fourcroy, Antoine-François de (1788) [1787]. Method of chymical nomenclature, proposed by Messrs. de Morveau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and de Fourcroy: To which is added A new system of chymical characters adapted to the nomenclature by Mess. Hassenfratz and Adet. Translated by St. John, James. pp. 105–176.
|
||||
63
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols-0.md
Normal file
63
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of alkanols"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:24.186459+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in an alcohol.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C1 ==
|
||||
Methanol
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C2 ==
|
||||
Ethanol
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C3 ==
|
||||
|
||||
1-Propanol
|
||||
Isopropyl alcohol
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C4 ==
|
||||
|
||||
n-Butanol
|
||||
Isobutanol
|
||||
sec-Butanol
|
||||
tert-Butyl alcohol
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C5 ==
|
||||
|
||||
1-Pentanol
|
||||
Isoamyl alcohol
|
||||
2-Methyl-1-butanol
|
||||
Neopentyl alcohol
|
||||
2-Pentanol
|
||||
3-Methyl-2-butanol
|
||||
3-Pentanol
|
||||
tert-Amyl alcohol
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C6 ==
|
||||
|
||||
1-Hexanol
|
||||
2-Hexanol
|
||||
3-Hexanol
|
||||
2-Methyl-1-pentanol
|
||||
3-Methyl-1-pentanol
|
||||
4-Methyl-1-pentanol
|
||||
2-Methyl-2-pentanol
|
||||
3-Methyl-2-pentanol
|
||||
4-Methyl-2-pentanol
|
||||
2-Methyl-3-pentanol
|
||||
3-Methyl-3-pentanol
|
||||
2,2-Dimethyl-1-butanol
|
||||
2,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol
|
||||
3,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of ammonium nitrate incidents and disasters"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ammonium_nitrate_incidents_and_disasters"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:28.061063+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
When heated, ammonium nitrate decomposes non-explosively into nitrous oxide and water vapor; however, it can be induced to decompose explosively by detonation into oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor. Large stockpiles of the material can be a major fire risk due to their supporting oxidation, and may also detonate, as happened in the Texas City disaster of 1947 which led to major changes in the regulations for storage and handling.
|
||||
There are two major classes of incidents resulting in explosions:
|
||||
|
||||
In the first case, the explosion happens by the shock induced detonation. The initiation happens by an explosive charge going off in the mass, by the detonation of a shell thrown into the mass, or by detonation of an explosive mixture in contact with the mass. Examples are Kriewald, Morgan, Oppau, Tessenderlo, and Traskwood.
|
||||
In the second case, the explosion results from a fire that spreads into the ammonium nitrate (AN) itself (Texas City, Brest, Tianjin, Beirut) or to a mixture of an ammonium nitrate with a combustible material during the fire. The fire must be confined at least to a degree for successful transition from a fire to an explosion (a phenomenon known as "deflagration to detonation transition", or DDT). Pure, compact AN is stable and very difficult to initiate.
|
||||
Ammonium nitrate decomposes in temperatures above 169 °C (336 °F). Pure AN is stable and will stop decomposing once the heat source is removed, but when catalysts are present, the reaction can become self-sustaining (known as self-sustaining decomposition, or SSD). This is a well-known hazard with some types of NPK fertilizers and is responsible for the loss of several cargo ships.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Timeline of major incidents ==
|
||||
The column AN states the amount of ammonium nitrate consumed in the disaster in metric tonnes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil)
|
||||
Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions, many of which involved ammonium nitrate
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
54
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-0.md
Normal file
54
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of antioxidants in food"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:30.508673+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of antioxidants naturally occurring in food. Vitamin C and vitamin E – which are ubiquitous among raw plant foods – are confirmed as dietary antioxidants, whereas vitamin A becomes an antioxidant following metabolism of provitamin A beta-carotene and cryptoxanthin. Most food compounds listed as antioxidants – such as polyphenols common in colorful, edible plants – have antioxidant activity only in vitro, as their fate in vivo is to be rapidly metabolized and excreted, and the in vivo properties of their metabolites remain poorly understood. For antioxidants added to food to preserve them, see butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene.
|
||||
|
||||
== Regulatory guidance ==
|
||||
In the following discussion, the term "antioxidant" refers mainly to non-nutrient compounds in foods, such as polyphenols, which have antioxidant capacity in vitro and so provide an artificial index of antioxidant strength – the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) measurement. Other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins – vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E – no food compounds have been proved to be antioxidants in vivo. Accordingly, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have published guidance disallowing food product labels to claim an inferred antioxidant benefit when no such physiological evidence exists.
|
||||
|
||||
== Physiological context ==
|
||||
Despite the above discussion implying that ORAC-rich foods with polyphenols may provide antioxidant benefits when in the diet, there remains no physiological evidence that any polyphenols have such actions or that ORAC has any relevance in the human body.
|
||||
On the contrary, research indicates that although polyphenols are antioxidants in vitro, antioxidant effects in vivo are probably negligible or absent. By non-antioxidant mechanisms still undefined, polyphenols may affect mechanisms of cardiovascular disease or cancer.
|
||||
The increase in antioxidant capacity of blood seen after the consumption of polyphenol-rich (ORAC-rich) foods is not caused directly by the polyphenols, but most likely results from increased uric acid levels derived from metabolism of flavonoids. According to Frei, "we can now follow the activity of flavonoids in the body, and one thing that is clear is that the body sees them as foreign compounds and is trying to get rid of them." Another mechanism may be the increase in activities of paraoxonases by dietary antioxidants that can reduce oxidative stress.
|
||||
|
||||
== Vitamins ==
|
||||
Vitamin A (retinol), also synthesized by the body from beta-carotene, protects dark green, yellow, and orange vegetables and fruits from solar radiation damage, and is thought to play a similar role in the human body. Carrots, squash, broccoli, sweet potatoes, tomatoes (which gain their color from the compound lycopene), kale, mangoes, oranges, seabuckthorn berries, wolfberries (goji), collards, cantaloupe, peaches, and apricots are particularly rich sources of beta-carotene, the major provitamin A carotenoid.
|
||||
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble compound that fulfills several roles in living systems. Sources include citrus fruits (such as oranges, sweet lime, etc.), green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, black currants, strawberries, blueberries, seabuckthorn, raw cabbage, and tomatoes.
|
||||
Vitamin E, including tocotrienol and tocopherol, is fat soluble and protects lipids. Sources include wheat germ, seabuckthorn, nuts, seeds, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, kiwifruit, vegetable oil, and fish-liver oil. Alpha-tocopherol is the main form in which vitamin E is consumed. Recent studies showed that some tocotrienol isomers have significant anti-oxidant properties.
|
||||
|
||||
== Vitamin cofactors and minerals ==
|
||||
Coenzyme Q10
|
||||
Manganese, particularly when in its +2 valence state as part of the enzyme called superoxide dismutase (SOD)
|
||||
Iodide
|
||||
|
||||
== Hormones ==
|
||||
Melatonin
|
||||
|
||||
== Carotenoid terpenoids ==
|
||||
|
||||
Alpha-carotene - found in carrots, winter squash, tomatoes, green beans, cilantro, Swiss chard
|
||||
Astaxanthin - found naturally in red algae and animals higher in the marine food chain. It is a red pigment familiarly recognized in crustacean shells as well as salmon flesh and roe
|
||||
Beta-carotene - found in high concentrations in butternut squash, carrots, orange bell peppers, pumpkins, kale, peaches, apricots, mango, turnip greens, broccoli, spinach, and sweet potatoes
|
||||
Canthaxanthin
|
||||
Cryptoxanthin - present in papaya, egg yolk, butter, apples
|
||||
Lutein - found in high concentration in spinach, kale, Swiss chard, collard greens, beet and mustard greens, endive, red pepper, and okra
|
||||
Lycopene - found in high concentration in cooked red tomato products such as canned tomatoes, tomato sauce, tomato juice and garden cocktails, guava, and watermelons.
|
||||
Zeaxanthin - best sources are kale, collard greens, spinach, turnip greens, Swiss chard, mustard and beet greens, corn, and broccoli
|
||||
|
||||
== Polyphenols ==
|
||||
|
||||
Natural phenols are a class of molecules found in abundance in plants. Many common foods contain rich sources of polyphenols that have antioxidant properties only in test tube studies. As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute, dietary polyphenols have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. Not like controlled test tube conditions, the fate of flavones or polyphenols in vivo shows they are poorly absorbed and poorly conserved (less than 5%), so that most of what is absorbed exists as metabolites modified during digestion, destined for rapid excretion.
|
||||
Spices, herbs, and essential oils are rich in polyphenols in the plant itself and shown with antioxidant potential in vitro. Red wine is high in total polyphenol count that supplies antioxidant quality that is unlikely to be conserved following digestion (see section below).
|
||||
Deeply pigmented fruits such as cranberries, blueberries, plums, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, blackcurrants, and other fruits such as figs, cherries, guava, oranges, mango, grape juice, and pomegranate juice also have significant polyphenol content.
|
||||
Sorghum bran, cocoa powder, and cinnamon are rich sources of procyanidins, which are large molecular weight compounds found in many fruits and some vegetables. Partly due to the large molecular weight (size) of these compounds, their amount absorbed in the body is low, however, an effect also resulting from the action of stomach acids, enzymes, and bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract where smaller derivatives are metabolized and excreted.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Flavonoids ===
|
||||
Flavonoids, a subset of polyphenol antioxidants, are present in many berries, as well as in coffee and tea.
|
||||
Examples:
|
||||
50
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-1.md
Normal file
50
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of antioxidants in food"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:30.508673+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Myricetin - walnuts are a rich source
|
||||
Isoflavone phytoestrogens - found primarily in soy, peanuts, and other members of the family Fabaceae
|
||||
Resveratrol - found in the skins of dark-colored grapes, and concentrated in red wine
|
||||
Pterostilbene - methoxylated analogue of resveratrol, abundant in Vaccinium berries
|
||||
|
||||
=== Phenolic acids and their esters ===
|
||||
|
||||
Examples:
|
||||
|
||||
Chicoric acid - another caffeic acid derivative, is found in chicory and Echinacea
|
||||
Chlorogenic acid - found in high concentration in coffee (more concentrated in robusta than arabica beans), blueberries, and tomatoes - produced from esterification of caffeic acid
|
||||
Cinnamic acid and its derivatives, such as ferulic acid - found in seeds of plants such as in brown rice, whole wheat, and oats, as well as in coffee, apple, artichoke, peanut, orange, and pineapple.
|
||||
Ellagic acid - found in high concentration in raspberry and strawberry, and in ester form in barrel-aged alcohol such as red wine and whisky
|
||||
Ellagitannins - hydrolysable tannin polymer formed when ellagic acid, a polyphenol monomer, esterifies and binds with the hydroxyl group of a polyol carbohydrate such as glucose
|
||||
Gallic acid - found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and many other plants
|
||||
Rosmarinic acid - found in high concentration in rosemary, oregano, lemon balm, sage, and marjoram
|
||||
Salicylic acid - found in most vegetables, fruits, and herbs; but most abundantly in the bark of willow trees, from where it was extracted for use in the early manufacture of aspirin
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other nonflavonoid phenolics ===
|
||||
Curcumin - Curcumin has low bioavailability, because, much of it is excreted through glucuronidation, however, bioavailability is substantially enhanced by solubilization in a lipid (oil or lecithin) or by heat
|
||||
Flavonolignans - e.g. silymarin - a mixture of flavonolignans extracted from milk thistle
|
||||
|
||||
== Other compounds ==
|
||||
Capsaicin, the active component of chili peppers
|
||||
Bilirubin, a breakdown product of blood, has been identified as a possible antioxidant
|
||||
Citric acid, oxalic acid, and phytic acid
|
||||
N-Acetylcysteine, water-soluble
|
||||
R-α-Lipoic acid, fat- and water-soluble
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Antioxidant
|
||||
Colour retention agent
|
||||
Nutrition
|
||||
Polyphenol antioxidant
|
||||
Free radical
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The total antioxidant content of more than 3100 foods, beverages, spices, herbs and supplements used worldwide Nutr J. 2010
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of areas depopulated due to climate change"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:43.016588+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This article lists several areas, regions, and municipalities that have either been completely or markedly depopulated, or are involved in plans for depopulation or relocation due to anthropogenic climate change. Several factors created or worsened by climate change can be responsible for necessitating managed retreat or the relocation of people and/or infrastructure. These include rising sea levels, increased flooding risk, changes to the makeup of the land (e.g. a habitable area becoming a wetland), coastal erosion, increased susceptibility to dangerous cyclones, droughts, water shortages, wildfires, and other factors, all of which can overlap with each other to enhance the risk of danger or inhabitability of a formerly populated region.
|
||||
The lists contain a general number of the number of people moved or at risk of being moved due to climate change-related causes, as well as rough dates for when programs to relocate were first created or for when a climate disaster first caused significant forcible displacement of a population.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Lists ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Completely depopulated ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Significantly impacted ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Gallery ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Climate migration
|
||||
Environmental migrant
|
||||
Extreme event attribution
|
||||
Great Filter
|
||||
Managed retreat
|
||||
List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds-0.md
Normal file
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of benzo compounds"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:32.866001+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In organic chemistry the addition of the prefix benzo to the name of a chemical compound indicates the addition of an even number of carbon atoms to an unsaturated or already aromatic compound by which a new aromatic ring is formed. Between the prefix benzo and the name of the parent compound then place of the addition of the extra carbon atoms is indicated by letters written between square brackets. Quite often the number of added carbon atoms is four, although sometimes two else will do the job as shown in the following table. The first entry also shows different routes to the name of the same molecule.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Examples ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Benzodiazepine
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites-0.md
Normal file
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of biology websites"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:16.215533+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is an annotated list of biological websites, including only notable websites dealing with biology generally and those with a more specific focus.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of biodiversity databases
|
||||
Lists of websites
|
||||
197
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules-0.md
Normal file
197
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,197 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of biomolecules"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:38.260823+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of articles that describe particular biomolecules or types of biomolecules.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
For substances with an A- or α- prefix such as
|
||||
α-amylase, please see the parent page (in this case Amylase).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Endonuclease
|
||||
Enzyme
|
||||
Ephedrine
|
||||
Epinephrine – C9H13NO3
|
||||
Erucic acid – CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)11COOH
|
||||
Erythritol
|
||||
Erythropoietin (EPO)
|
||||
Estradiol
|
||||
Estriol
|
||||
Estrogen
|
||||
Estrone
|
||||
Eugenol
|
||||
Exonuclease
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Indigo dye
|
||||
Indole
|
||||
Inosine
|
||||
Inositol
|
||||
Insulin
|
||||
Insulin-like growth factor
|
||||
Integral membrane protein
|
||||
Integrase
|
||||
Integrin
|
||||
Intein
|
||||
Interferon
|
||||
Interleukin
|
||||
Inulin
|
||||
Ionomycin
|
||||
Ionone
|
||||
Iron–sulfur cluster
|
||||
Isoleucine
|
||||
Isomerase
|
||||
Isoprene
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
K252a
|
||||
K252b
|
||||
KT5720
|
||||
KT5823
|
||||
Keratin
|
||||
Kinase
|
||||
Kisspeptin
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
For substances with an l- or L- prefix such as L-alanine or DL-alanine, please see the parent page (in this case alanine).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Natural phenols
|
||||
Neurotransmitters
|
||||
Neuropeptide Y
|
||||
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
|
||||
Norepinephrine
|
||||
Nucleic Acid
|
||||
Nucleosome
|
||||
Nucleoside
|
||||
Nucleotide
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Ochratoxin A
|
||||
Oestrogens
|
||||
Oligopeptide
|
||||
Oligomycin
|
||||
Orcin
|
||||
Orexin
|
||||
Ornithine
|
||||
Oxalic acid
|
||||
Oxidase
|
||||
Oxytocin
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Quinidine
|
||||
Quinine
|
||||
Quinone
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Ubiquitin
|
||||
Uracil
|
||||
Urea
|
||||
Urease
|
||||
Uric acid – C5H4N4O3
|
||||
Uridine
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Valine
|
||||
Valinomycin
|
||||
Vanabins
|
||||
Vasopressin
|
||||
Verruculogen
|
||||
Vitamins (in general)
|
||||
Vitamin A (retinol)
|
||||
Vitamin B
|
||||
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
|
||||
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
|
||||
Vitamin B3 (niacin or nicotinic acid)
|
||||
Vitamin B4 (adenine)
|
||||
Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)
|
||||
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine or pyridoxamine)
|
||||
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
|
||||
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
|
||||
Vitamin D (calciferol)
|
||||
Vitamin E (tocopherol)
|
||||
Vitamin F
|
||||
Vitamin H (biotin)
|
||||
Vitamin K (naphthoquinone)
|
||||
Vitamin M (folic acid)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Water
|
||||
Wortmannin
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Xanthophyll
|
||||
Xylose
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yellow fluorescent protein
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Zearalenone
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Chemical compound
|
||||
Organic compound
|
||||
biochemistry
|
||||
Similar lists
|
||||
List of compounds
|
||||
List of organic compounds
|
||||
List of proteins
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Crystal structures of protein and nucleic acid molecules and their complexes are central to the practice of most parts of biophysics, and have shaped much of what we understand scientifically at the atomic-detail level of biology. Their importance is underlined by the United Nations declaring 2014 as the International Year of Crystallography, as the 100th anniversary of Max von Laue's 1914 Nobel Prize for discovering the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. This chronological list of biophysically notable protein and nucleic acid structures is loosely based on a review in the Biophysical Journal. The list includes all the first dozen distinct structures, those that broke new ground in subject or method, and those that became model systems for work in future biophysical areas of research.
|
||||
|
||||
== Myoglobin ==
|
||||
|
||||
1958 – Myoglobin was the very first crystal structure of a protein molecule. Myoglobin cradles an iron-containing heme group that reversibly binds oxygen for use in powering muscle fibers, and those first crystals were of myoglobin from the sperm whale, whose muscles need copious oxygen storage for deep dives. The myoglobin 3-dimensional structure is made up of 8 alpha-helices, and the crystal structure showed that their conformation was right-handed and very closely matched the geometry proposed by Linus Pauling, with 3.6 residues per turn and backbone hydrogen bonds from the peptide NH of one residue to the peptide CO of residue i+4. Myoglobin is a model system for many types of biophysical studies, especially involving the binding process of small ligands such as oxygen and carbon monoxide.
|
||||
|
||||
== Hemoglobin ==
|
||||
|
||||
1960 – The hemoglobin crystal structure showed a tetramer of two related chain types and was solved at much lower resolution than the monomeric myoglobin, but it clearly had the same basic 8-helix architecture (now called the "globin fold"). Further hemoglobin crystal structures at higher resolution (PDB 1MHB, 1DHB) soon showed the coupled change of both local and quaternary conformation between the oxy and deoxy states of hemoglobin, which explains the cooperativity of oxygen binding in the blood and the allosteric effect of factors such as pH and DPG. For decades hemoglobin was the primary teaching example for the concept of allostery, as well as being an intensive focus of research and discussion on allostery. In 1909, hemoglobin crystals from >100 species were used to relate taxonomy to molecular properties. That book was cited by Perutz in the 1938 report of horse hemoglobin crystals that began his long saga to solve the crystal structure. Hemoglobin crystals are pleochroic — dark red in two directions and pale red in the third — because of the orientation of the hemes, and the bright Soret band of the heme porphyrin groups is used in spectroscopic analysis of hemoglobin ligand binding.
|
||||
|
||||
== Hen-egg-white lysozyme ==
|
||||
1965 – Hen-egg-white lysozyme (PDB file 1lyz). was the first crystal structure of an enzyme (it cleaves small carbohydrates into simple sugars), used for early studies of enzyme mechanism. It contained beta sheet (antiparallel) as well as helices, and was also the first macromolecular structure to have its atomic coordinates refined (in real space). The starting material for preparation can be bought at the grocery store, and hen-egg lysozyme crystallizes very readily in many different space groups; it is the favorite test case for new crystallographic experiments and instruments. Recent examples are nanocrystals of lysozyme for free-electron laser data collection and microcrystals for micro electron diffraction.
|
||||
|
||||
== Ribonuclease ==
|
||||
1967 – Ribonuclease A (PDB file 2RSA) is an RNA-cleaving enzyme stabilized by 4 disulfide bonds. It was used in Anfinsen's seminal research on protein folding which led to the concept that a protein's 3-dimensional structure was determined by its amino-acid sequence. Ribonuclease S, the cleaved, two-component form studied by Fred Richards, was also enzymatically active, had a nearly identical crystal structure (PDB file 1RNS), and was shown to be catalytically active even in the crystal, helping dispel doubts about the relevance of protein crystal structures to biological function.
|
||||
|
||||
== Serine proteases ==
|
||||
1967 – The serine proteases are a historically very important group of enzyme structures, because collectively they illuminated catalytic mechanism (in their case, by the Ser-His-Asp "catalytic triad"), the basis of differing substrate specificities, and the activation mechanism by which a controlled enzymatic cleavage buries the new chain end to properly rearrange the active site. The early crystal structures included chymotrypsin (PDB file 2CHA), chymotrypsinogen (PDB file 1CHG), trypsin (PDB file 1PTN), and elastase (PDB file 1EST). They also were the first protein structures that showed two near-identical domains, presumably related by gene duplication. One reason for their wide use as textbook and classroom examples was the insertion-code numbering system, which made Ser195 and His57 consistent and memorable despite the protein-specific sequence differences.
|
||||
|
||||
== Papain ==
|
||||
1968 – Papain
|
||||
|
||||
== Carboxypeptidase ==
|
||||
1969 – Carboxypeptidase A is a zinc metalloprotease. Its crystal structure (PDB file 1CPA) showed the first parallel beta structure: a large, twisted, central sheet of 8 strands with the active-site Zn located at the C-terminal end of the middle strands and the sheet flanked on both sides with alpha helices. It is an exopeptidase that cleaves peptides or proteins from the carboxy-terminal end rather than internal to the sequence. Later a small protein inhibitor of carboxypeptidase was solved (PDB file 4CPA) that mechanically stops the catalysis by presenting its C-terminal end just sticking out from between a ring of disulfide bonds with tight structure behind it, preventing the enzyme from sucking in the chain past the first residue.
|
||||
|
||||
== Subtilisin ==
|
||||
1969 – Subtilisin (PDB file 1sbt ) was a second type of serine protease with a near-identical active site to the trypsin family of enzymes, but with a completely different overall fold. This gave the first view of convergent evolution at the atomic level. Later, an intensive mutational study on subtilisin documented the effects of all 19 other amino acids at each individual position.
|
||||
|
||||
== Lactate dehydrogenase ==
|
||||
1970 – Lactate dehydrogenase
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Trypsin inhibitor ==
|
||||
1970 – Basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, or BPTI (PDB file 2pti), is a small, very stable protein that has been a highly productive model system for study of super-tight binding, disulfide bond (SS) formation, protein folding, molecular stability by amino-acid mutations or hydrogen-deuterium exchange, and fast local dynamics by NMR. Biologically, BPTI binds and inhibits trypsin while stored in the pancreas, allowing activation of protein digestion only after trypsin is released into the stomach.
|
||||
|
||||
== Rubredoxin ==
|
||||
1970 – Rubredoxin (PDB file 2rxn) was the first redox structure solved, a minimalist protein with the iron bound by 4 Cys sidechains from 2 loops at the top of β hairpins. It diffracted to 1.2Å, enabling the first reciprocal-space refinement of a protein (4,5rxn). (NB: note that 4rxn was done without geometry restraints.) Archaeal rubredoxins account for many of the highest-resolution small structures in the PDB.
|
||||
|
||||
== Insulin ==
|
||||
1971 – Insulin (PDB file 1INS) is a hormone central to the metabolism of sugar and fat storage, and important in human diseases such as obesity and diabetes. It is biophysically notable for its Zn binding, its equilibrium between monomer, dimer, and hexamer states, its ability to form crystals in vivo, and its synthesis as a longer "pro" form which is then cleaved to fold up as the active 2-chain, SS-linked monomer. Insulin was a success of NASA's crystal-growth program on the Space Shuttle, producing bulk preparations of very uniform tiny crystals for controlled dosage.
|
||||
|
||||
== Staphylococcal nuclease ==
|
||||
1971 – Staphylococcal nuclease
|
||||
|
||||
== Cytochrome C ==
|
||||
1971 – Cytochrome C
|
||||
|
||||
== T4 phage lysozyme ==
|
||||
1974 – T4 phage lysozyme
|
||||
|
||||
== Immunoglobulins ==
|
||||
1974 – Immunoglobulins
|
||||
|
||||
== Superoxide dismutase ==
|
||||
1975 – Cu,Zn Superoxide dismutase
|
||||
|
||||
== Transfer RNA ==
|
||||
1976 – Transfer RNA
|
||||
|
||||
== Triose phosphate isomerase ==
|
||||
1976 – Triose phosphate isomerase
|
||||
|
||||
== Pepsin-like aspartic proteases ==
|
||||
1976 – Rhizopuspepsin
|
||||
1976 – Endothiapepsin
|
||||
1976 – Penicillopepsin
|
||||
|
||||
== Later structures (1978 onwards) ==
|
||||
1978 – Icosahedral virus
|
||||
1981 – Dickerson B-form DNA dodecamer
|
||||
1981 – Crambin
|
||||
1985 – Calmodulin
|
||||
1985 – DNA polymerase
|
||||
|
||||
1985 – Photosynthetic reaction center: Pairs of bacteriochlorophylls (green) inside the membrane capture energy from sunlight, then traveling by many steps to become available at the heme groups (red) in the cytochrome-C module at the top. This was first crystal structure solved for a membrane protein, a milestone recognized by a Nobel Prize to Hartmut Michel, Hans Deisenhofer, and Robert Huber.
|
||||
|
||||
1986 – Repressor/DNA interactions
|
||||
1987 – Major histocompatibility complex
|
||||
1987 – Ubiquitin
|
||||
1987 – ROP protein
|
||||
1989 – HIV-1 protease
|
||||
1990 – Bacteriorhodopsin
|
||||
1991 – GCN4 coiled coil
|
||||
1991 – HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
|
||||
1993 – Beta helix of Pectate lyase
|
||||
1994 – Collagen
|
||||
1994 – Barnase/barstar complex
|
||||
1994 – F1 ATPase
|
||||
1995 – Heterotrimeric G proteins
|
||||
1996 – Green fluorescent protein
|
||||
1996 – CDK/cyclin complex
|
||||
|
||||
1996 – Kinesin motor protein
|
||||
1997 – GroEL/ES chaperone
|
||||
1997 – Nucleosome
|
||||
1998 – Group I self-splicing intron
|
||||
|
||||
1998 – DNA topoisomerases perform the biologically important and necessary job of untangling DNA strands or helices that get entwined with each other or twisted too tightly during normal cellular processes such as the transcription of genetic information.
|
||||
1998 – Tubulin alpha/beta dimer
|
||||
1998 – Potassium channel
|
||||
1998 – Holliday junction
|
||||
2000 – Ribosomes are a central part of biology and biophysics, which first became accessible structurally in 2000
|
||||
|
||||
2000 – AAA+ ATPase
|
||||
2002 – Ankyrin repeats
|
||||
2003 – TOP7 protein design
|
||||
2004 – Cyanobacterial Circadian clock proteins
|
||||
2004 – Riboswitch
|
||||
2006 – Human exosome
|
||||
|
||||
2007 – G-protein-coupled receptor
|
||||
|
||||
2009 – The vault particle is an intriguing new discovery of a large hollow particle common in cells, with several different suggestions for its possible biological function. The crystal structures (PDB files 2zuo, 2zv4, 2zv5 and 4hl8) show that each half of the vault is made up of 39 copies of a long 12-domain protein that swirl together to form the enclosure. Disorder at the very top and bottom ends suggests openings for possible access to the interior of the vault.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of boiling and freezing information of solvents"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:39.524307+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Freezing-point depression
|
||||
Boiling-point elevation
|
||||
List of cooling baths
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
90
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md
Normal file
90
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of carboxylic acids"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:42.015494+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. The naming of these compounds is governed by IUPAC nomenclature, which ensures systematic and consistent naming of chemicals. Numerous organic compounds have other common names, often originating in historical source material thereof. The systematic IUPAC name is not always the preferred IUPAC name, for example, lactic acid is a common, and also the preferred, name for what systematic rules call 2-hydroxypropanoic acid.
|
||||
This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in a carboxylic acid.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C1 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C2 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C3 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C4 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C5 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C6 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C7 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C8 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C9 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C10 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C11 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C12 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C13 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C14 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C15 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C16 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C17 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C18 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C19 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C20 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C21 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C22 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C23 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C24 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C25 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C26 ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemical analysis methods"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:29.278276+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A list of chemical analysis methods with acronyms.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)
|
||||
Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES)
|
||||
Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS)
|
||||
Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Capillary electrophoresis (CE)
|
||||
Chromatography
|
||||
Colorimetry
|
||||
Computed tomography
|
||||
Cyclic Voltammetry (CV)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Electrodialysis
|
||||
Electrolysis
|
||||
Electron microscopy
|
||||
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) also called Electron spin resonance (ESR)
|
||||
Electrophoresis
|
||||
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS/EDX)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Field flow fractionation (FFF)
|
||||
Flow injection analysis (FIA)
|
||||
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gas chromatography (GC)
|
||||
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
|
||||
Gas chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GC-IR)
|
||||
Gel permeation chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GPC-IR)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
|
||||
High performance liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (HPLC-IR)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Ion Microprobe (IM)
|
||||
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP)
|
||||
Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)
|
||||
Ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS)
|
||||
Ion selective electrode (ISE) e.g. determination of pH
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)
|
||||
Liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (LC-IR)
|
||||
Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Mass spectrometry (MS)
|
||||
Mössbauer spectroscopy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Neutron activation analysis
|
||||
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Optical microscopy
|
||||
Optical emission spectroscopy
|
||||
Optical rotation (OR)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE)
|
||||
Pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (PY-GC-MS)
|
||||
Particle size determination by laser diffraction (PSD)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Raman spectroscopy
|
||||
Refractive index
|
||||
Resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Secondary ion mass spectrometry
|
||||
Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
|
||||
Titration
|
||||
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Vacuum fusion
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
|
||||
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
|
||||
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)
|
||||
X-ray microscopy (XRM)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Analytical chemistry
|
||||
List of materials analysis methods
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemical classifications"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:43.273627+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Chemical classification systems attempt to classify elements or compounds according to certain chemical functional or structural properties. Whereas the structural properties are largely intrinsic, functional properties and the derived classifications depend to a certain degree on the type of chemical interaction partners on which the function is exerted. Sometimes other criteria like purely physical ones (e.g. molecular weight) or – on the other hand – functional properties above the chemical level are also used for building chemical taxonomies.
|
||||
Some systems mix the various levels, resulting in hierarchies where the domains are slightly confused, for example having structural and functional aspects end up on the same level. Whereas chemical function is closely dependent on chemical structure, the situation becomes more involved when e.g. pharmacological function is integrated, because the QSAR can usually not be directly computed from structural qualities.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Physico-chemical ==
|
||||
by molecular weight
|
||||
by electrical charge: uncharged, positively, negatively, partially charged
|
||||
formal charge, oxidation state
|
||||
solubility
|
||||
pH value (or pKA value)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Functional ==
|
||||
by functional groups
|
||||
by biological activity (mostly appropriate only for large biological molecules (as at least one interacting partner), in particular enzymes, depends on chemical functions of their constituent amino acids)
|
||||
ligand vs. receptor, coenzyme
|
||||
EC number
|
||||
TC number
|
||||
pharmacophore vs. non-drug
|
||||
General commercial classification of chemicals
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Mixed systems and directories ==
|
||||
Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
|
||||
Gene Ontology
|
||||
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
|
||||
Chemical Entities of Biological Interest
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Historical ==
|
||||
Döbereiner's triads
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Media related to Chemical classification at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md
Normal file
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemical databases"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:59.651708+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of websites that contain lists of chemicals, or databases of chemical information. There is further detail on the content of these and other resources in a Wikibook of information sources.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Drugs, Herbs and Supplements informations at the MedlinePlus service of the US National Institutes of Health (NIH)
|
||||
The Drug Information Service at the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
|
||||
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) website
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemical engineering societies"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:16.445936+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is the list of chemical engineering societies in the world. They are sorted by continent and alphabetically. They include national or international ones, but not student societies or those otherwise restricted to a particular university or institution.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Africa ==
|
||||
Ethiopian Society of Chemical Engineers (ESChE), Ethiopia
|
||||
Nigerian Society of Chemical Engineers
|
||||
South African Institution of Chemical Engineers (SAIChE), South Africa
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Asia ==
|
||||
Asia Pacific Confederation of Chemical Engineering (APCChE)
|
||||
Iranian Association of Chemical Engineering (IAChE) [1], I.R. Iran
|
||||
Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe), India [2]
|
||||
Israel Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe), Israel [3]
|
||||
Korean Chemical Society (KCS), Korea [4]
|
||||
Korean Institute of Chemical Engineers (ko) (KIChE), Korea [5]
|
||||
Pakistan Institute of Chemical Engineers (PICHE), Pakistan [6]
|
||||
Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers (PIChE), Philippines [7]
|
||||
Society of Chemical Engineers, Japan (SCEJ) (ja), Japan [8]
|
||||
Society of Chemical Engineers of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal [9]
|
||||
Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineering (TwIChE), Taiwan [10]
|
||||
Thai Institute of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry (TIChE), Thailand [11]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Europe ==
|
||||
European Federation of Chemical Engineering (EFCE) (umbrella organization)
|
||||
Associazione Italiana Di Ingegneria Chimica (AIDIC), Italy
|
||||
Chamber of Chemical Engineers, Turkey [12]
|
||||
DECHEMA, Germany
|
||||
Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE), UK
|
||||
Société Française de Génie des Procédés (SFGP), France
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== North America ==
|
||||
American Chemical Society (ACS)
|
||||
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
|
||||
Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)
|
||||
Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering (CSChE)
|
||||
National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE)
|
||||
Mexican Institute of Chemical Engineers (IMIQ), Mexico
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Oceania ==
|
||||
The Australian and New Zealand Federation of Chemical Engineers (ANZFChE)
|
||||
Engineers Australia Chemical College, Australia
|
||||
Society of Chemical Engineers New Zealand
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== South America ==
|
||||
Argentinian Association for Chemical Engineers, Argentina
|
||||
Brazilian Association of Chemical Engineering, Brazil
|
||||
Colombian Association of Chemical Engineering, Colombia
|
||||
Association of Chemical Engineers of Uruguay, Uruguay
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of cheminformatics toolkits"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:45.678134+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Cheminformatics toolkits are notable software development kits that allow cheminformaticians to develop custom computer applications for use in virtual screening, chemical database mining, and structure-activity studies. Toolkits are often used for experimentation with new methodologies. Their most important functions deal with the manipulation of chemical structures and comparisons between structures. Programmatic access is provided to properties of individual bonds and atoms.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Functionality ==
|
||||
Toolkits provide the following functionality:
|
||||
|
||||
Read and save structures in various chemistry file formats.
|
||||
Determine if one structure is a substructure of another (substructure matching).
|
||||
Determine if two structures are equal (exact matching).
|
||||
Identification of substructures common to structures in a set (maximal common substructure, MCS).
|
||||
Disassemble molecules, splitting into fragments.
|
||||
Assemble molecules from elements or submolecules.
|
||||
Apply reactions on input reactant structures, resulting in output of reaction product structures.
|
||||
Generate molecular fingerprints. Fingerprints are bit-vectors where individual bits correspond to the presence or absence of structural features. The most important use of fingerprints is in indexing of chemistry databases.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of notable cheminformatics toolkits ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
163
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md
Normal file
163
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemistry journals"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:30.325768+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of scientific journals in chemistry and its various subfields. For journals mainly about materials science, see List of materials science journals.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry
|
||||
Biochemical Journal
|
||||
Bioconjugate Chemistry
|
||||
Biomacromolecules
|
||||
Biomedical Chromatography
|
||||
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry
|
||||
Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters
|
||||
Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Dalton Transactions
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Education in Chemistry
|
||||
Energy and Environmental Science
|
||||
Energy & Fuels
|
||||
Environmental Chemistry
|
||||
European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry
|
||||
European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry
|
||||
European Journal of Organic Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Faraday Discussions
|
||||
Faraday Transactions
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research
|
||||
Green Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Helvetica Chimica Acta
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Inorganic Chemistry
|
||||
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
|
||||
International Journal of Quantum Chemistry
|
||||
Ion Exchange Letters
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Lab on a Chip
|
||||
Langmuir
|
||||
Liebigs Annalen
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Macromolecules
|
||||
Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry
|
||||
MedChemComm
|
||||
Metallomics
|
||||
Methods in Organic Synthesis
|
||||
Microchimica Acta
|
||||
Molbank
|
||||
Molecular BioSystems
|
||||
Molecular Diversity
|
||||
Molecular Physics
|
||||
Molecules
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Nano Letters
|
||||
Natural Product Reports
|
||||
Nature Chemical Biology
|
||||
Nature Chemistry
|
||||
Nature Materials
|
||||
Nature Protocols
|
||||
New Journal of Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Open Chemistry
|
||||
Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry
|
||||
Organic Letters
|
||||
Organometallics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
PeerJ Analytical Chemistry
|
||||
PeerJ Inorganic Chemistry
|
||||
PeerJ Materials Science
|
||||
PeerJ Organic Chemistry
|
||||
PeerJ Physical Chemistry
|
||||
Perkin Transactions
|
||||
Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences
|
||||
Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
|
||||
Polish Journal of Chemistry
|
||||
Polyhedron
|
||||
Proceedings of the Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
RSC Advances
|
||||
Revista Boliviana de Quimica
|
||||
Revista de la Sociedad Venezolana Química
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Scientia Pharmaceutica
|
||||
Soft Matter
|
||||
Spectroscopy Letters
|
||||
Surface Science Reports
|
||||
Synlett
|
||||
Synthesis
|
||||
Science China Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Talanta
|
||||
Tetrahedron
|
||||
Tetrahedron Letters
|
||||
Theoretical Chemistry Accounts
|
||||
Trends in Analytical Chemistry
|
||||
Turkish Journal of Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Zeitschrift für Naturforschung
|
||||
Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B
|
||||
Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Lists of academic journals
|
||||
List of scientific journals
|
||||
List of computational chemistry software
|
||||
Scientific journal
|
||||
Scientific literature
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Chemical Abstracts Service Source Index Search Tool search journal titles, abbreviations, CODENs, and ISSNs
|
||||
Beyond CASSI compilation of historical journal abbreviations from A., B., C. to Z.; includes CASSI abbreviations used for these journals
|
||||
List of chemistry journal publishers
|
||||
167
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md
Normal file
167
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemistry mnemonics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A mnemonic is a memory aid used to improve long-term memory and make the process of consolidation easier. Many chemistry aspects, rules, names of compounds, sequences of elements, their reactivity, etc., can be easily and efficiently memorized with the help of mnemonics. This article contains the list of certain mnemonics in chemistry.
|
||||
|
||||
== Orbitals ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sequence of orbitals ===
|
||||
|
||||
Sober Physicists Don't Find Giraffes Hiding In Kitchens.
|
||||
Note: After the k shell, they follow alphabetical order (skipping s and p as they came earlier).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Aufbau principle ===
|
||||
|
||||
The order of sequence of atomic orbitals (according to Madelung rule or Klechkowski rule) can be remembered by the following.
|
||||
|
||||
== Periodic table ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Periods ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Periods 1, 2 and 3 ====
|
||||
|
||||
Hi Hello Little Beer Bottles Crack Nicely On Freddie's kNee. Nasties Merge All Silly 'People Suffer Clouts Arnti
|
||||
Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Might Fear Cows & Nice Cute Zebras.
|
||||
Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News.
|
||||
Happy Harry/Henry Listens B B C Network Over France Nevertheless Nothing More Arose So Peter Stopped Cleaning Airgun K Ca.
|
||||
Ha. Healthy Little Beggar Boys Catching Newts Or Fish.
|
||||
Hi, Here Little Beatniks Brandish Countless Number Of Flick kNives. Nagging Maggie Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." (adapted)
|
||||
Hi Helium. Little Berries Borrow Carbs, NO Fight Needed.
|
||||
Hi Hello! Lion Beneath the Burning Car Needs Oxygen For New life.
|
||||
Native Magpies Always Sit Peacefully Searching Clear Areas.
|
||||
Naval Magistrates Always Signal Per Siren, Claiming Adequacy.
|
||||
Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around."
|
||||
Nellie's Naughty Magpie Always Sings Pop Songs Clearly After Killing Cathy.
|
||||
Shoddy Magician Aligned Six Phones Successfully, Classic Art!
|
||||
All Silicon Ports. Superman Clean Argon's K-Capture.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Period 4 ====
|
||||
|
||||
Kindly Cannibals Scare Timid Visitors, 'n' Cruelly Menace Female Communist Nitwits Cuddling Zany Gabbling Geese Astride Several Brutal Kangaroos.
|
||||
In reverse order: Kry Brother! SeAs of Germany and Gaul sink copper ships Nice and Cold From Manx to Crimea, Vancouver to Timor, and Scandinavia to the California Koast.
|
||||
Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Maintaining Feline Connections Nice, Cute & Zen. Gallium Germinates As Selene Brings Krypton.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Period 5 ====
|
||||
|
||||
Ruby, Sir, Yells "Zircon Nebulas !". Most Technicians Rule Rhodes and Paddle Against Cadence". India Sent Sebastian to Tell "Io Xe."
|
||||
Ruby Stuck in Yuck Zoo, Nice Monk Tackled Rude Rhino. Pay Silver Coin In Tin And Tell I eXeed.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Transition metals ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== First ====
|
||||
|
||||
Scary Tiny Vicious Creatures are Mean; Females Come to NightClub Zen.
|
||||
Scary Tiny Vicious Creatures Might Fear Cows and Nice Cute Zebras.
|
||||
SucTion VelCro Man Fears CoNiC uZi.
|
||||
ScienTist ViCroMan Iron(Fe) Comes from NiCuZan.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Second ====
|
||||
|
||||
Yes S(Z)ir, Nob. Most Technicians Ruin Rob's Pale Silver Cadillac.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Third ====
|
||||
|
||||
Lucifer's Half Taken, Wendy Reached Out H(I)er Plate Audibly, Helga.
|
||||
Lucky Harry Took Walk, Reached Office In Pants, After an Hour.
|
||||
Lucky Horned-Fox's Tail got Wet. Restless Ostrich Irrelevantly Painted Gold(AU) on Mercury(HG).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Lanthanides and actinides ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Lanthanides ====
|
||||
|
||||
Last Century Presented New Democratic Prime Minister. Smart European Government Decided To Ban Dirty Hotels Entirely To Make Yellow Buildings Luxurious.
|
||||
Ladies Can't Put Needles Properly in Slot-machines. Every Girl Tries Daily, However, Every Time You'd Lose.
|
||||
Languid Centaurs Praise Ned's Promise of Small European Garden Tubs; Dinosaurs Hobble Erratically Thrumming Yellow Lutes.
|
||||
Lately, Central Park Needed Primroses. Small Entire Golden Tassels Dyeing the Hollow Earth, Tempting Your Love.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Actinides ====
|
||||
|
||||
Radiant Acting Thoroughly Protects yoUr Nepotism, Plutocratic America Cures-me & Berkeley California, Einstein Firmly Mended Noble Lawreins.
|
||||
Ace Thor Protects Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Army Cured Bark. In California Einstein and Fermi Made Noble Laws.
|
||||
Actually Thor Protects Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Army Cured Bark. In California Einstein and Fermi Made Noble Laws.
|
||||
|
||||
=== 56 elements in sequence ===
|
||||
|
||||
Here Lies Benjamin Bones. Cry Not Oh Friend Needlessly. Nature Magnifies All Simple People Sometimes Clowns And Kings Can Scream Till Vast Crowds Moan. Fear Conquers Neither Courageous Zealous Gallant Gents. As Seen Brown Karate Robes Strip Yobs. Zurich Noble Mortals Track Ruddy Rhubarb. Paid Silver Candid Indian Sons Sobbing Tears In Xcess Cease Bawling.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Groups ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 1 (alkali metals) ====
|
||||
|
||||
Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium, Francium
|
||||
|
||||
Little Nasty Kids Rub Cats Fur
|
||||
Little Naughty Kids Robs Cents From (me)
|
||||
Little Naughty Kids Ruin Ben's Convenient Store Forever
|
||||
Little Nathan Knew Rubies Cost Fortunes
|
||||
Little Naughty Kids Rob Crispy Fries
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) ====
|
||||
|
||||
Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, Radium
|
||||
|
||||
Bearded Muggers Came Straight Back Rapidly.
|
||||
Beer Mugs Can Serve Bar Rats.
|
||||
Ben Meg & Casia Stroll away to Bar of Radium
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 13 ====
|
||||
|
||||
Boron, Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, Thallium, Nihonium
|
||||
|
||||
BAlm Game In Tail
|
||||
Bowler Ali Gave Instant Tea
|
||||
BAG IT
|
||||
Bears Always Gave Indians Trouble
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 14 ====
|
||||
|
||||
Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin (stannum in Latin), Lead (plumbum in Latin)
|
||||
|
||||
CSI Gets Stan Plums (comment: plum and plumb are homophones)
|
||||
Can Simple Germans Snare (Tiny) Public (Lead)?
|
||||
Chemistry Sir Gets Snacks Publicly
|
||||
Can Someone Get Some Peanutbutter ?
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 15 (Pnictogens) ====
|
||||
|
||||
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Moscovium.
|
||||
|
||||
No Person can Assassinate Sebastian Billy in Moscow (place).
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 16 (Chalcogens) ====
|
||||
|
||||
Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium
|
||||
|
||||
Old Style Sets TemPo
|
||||
Old TSangpo Seems Terribly Polluted Lately.
|
||||
Ottoman Sultan Sends Textiles to Poor Ladies.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 17 (Halogens) ====
|
||||
|
||||
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine, Tennessine
|
||||
|
||||
Funny Clowns Broil Innocent Ants.
|
||||
Fast Clouds Break In Atlantis.
|
||||
Father Clark B(r)lesses Ivan A(s)tlast.
|
||||
First Class Briyani In Australia
|
||||
|
||||
==== Group 18 (noble gases) ====
|
||||
|
||||
Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon.
|
||||
|
||||
Hero Never Argues, Kryptonite Xterminates Rao
|
||||
Hero Needs Arguable Kryptic Xes. Right-on.
|
||||
He Never Arrived; Karen eXited with Ron.
|
||||
He Needs A Kickin', Xylophone-playin' Racehorse! (And... Oh, gee, now we need to add Oganesson (Og)!)
|
||||
Hey, N(e)ArK(r)s, Run, O.g!
|
||||
|
||||
== Properties of elements ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Abundance of elements on Earth's crust ===
|
||||
146
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md
Normal file
146
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemistry mnemonics"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Only Strong Athletes In College Study Past Midnight
|
||||
Oh, see(Si), Alfie(Fe) Cannot(Na) Kiss Meg(Mg)
|
||||
As they are present in trace quantities they are measured in parts per million(ppm).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Activity series of metals ===
|
||||
|
||||
Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra Crab I Like Her Call Smart Goat
|
||||
Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Crab Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit
|
||||
Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In Low Humid Climate ...
|
||||
Note that carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline.
|
||||
|
||||
Kangaroos Naturally Muck About in Zoos For Purple Hippos Chasing Aardvarks.
|
||||
Katty's Naughty Cat Mingled with Alice and Zarina; Fearlessly Plundering Her Cupboard of Gold.
|
||||
Papa Said Call Me After Zinc Interacts Tin Leading Hydrogen Co-operate Mr. Sylvester to Gain Popularity.
|
||||
|
||||
Pretty(Potassium) Sally(Sodium) Could(Calcium) Marry(Magnesium) A(Aluminium) Crazy(Carbon) Zulu(Zinc) IN(Iron/Nickel) Tree(Tin) Lined(Lead) House(Hydrogen) Causing(Copper) Strangely(Silver) Glancing(Gold) People(Platinum).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Electronegativity ===
|
||||
|
||||
Pronounce: FOClN BrIS CHP.
|
||||
(F)irst (O)ff, (Cl)ean (N)ow; (Br)ing (I)n (S)ome (C)lothes, (H)ats, and (P)ants. (First off, clean now. Bring in some caps, hats {and} pants.)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Electrochemical series ===
|
||||
|
||||
Paddy Still Could Marry A Zulu In The Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes.
|
||||
Passive Sarcasm Can Mutate Angry Zombies InTo Large Hypocritical Cold Sexy Guys.
|
||||
Poor Science Course Makes A Zany Idiot Totally Lose His Composure, Sir! Good!
|
||||
|
||||
== Reactions and ions ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Redox reactions ===
|
||||
A redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which there is a change in oxidation state of atoms participating in the reaction.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ions ===
|
||||
An atom (or ion) whose oxidation number increases in a redox reaction is said to be oxidized (and is called a reducing agent). It is accomplished by loss of one or more electrons. The atom whose oxidation number decreases gains (receives) one or more electrons and is said to be reduced. This relation can be remembered by the following mnemonics.
|
||||
|
||||
Leo says Ger! or Leo the lion, Ger! can be used to represent Loss of electron is oxidation; Gain of electron is reduction.
|
||||
Oil Rig: Oxidation is loss; Reduction is gain (of electrons).
|
||||
Cations are Plussy Cats.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cations and anions ===
|
||||
Cations are positively (+) charged ions while anions are negatively (−) charged. This can be remembered with the help of the following mnemonics.
|
||||
|
||||
Cats have paws ⇔ Cations are pawsitive.
|
||||
Ca+ion: The letter t in cation looks like a + (plus) sign.
|
||||
An anion is a negative ion. (Anegativeion ⇒ Anion).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oxidation vs. reduction: electrochemical cell and electron gain/loss ===
|
||||
|
||||
AN OIL RIG CAT:
|
||||
At the ANode, Oxidation Involves Loss of electrons.
|
||||
Reduction Involves Gaining electrons at the CAThode.
|
||||
LOAN – Left Anode Oxidation Negative.
|
||||
In written representation of galvanic cell, anode is written on the left. It is the electrode where oxidation takes place. It is the negative electrode. Obviously, the opposite properties (Right/Cathode/Reduction/Positive) are found on the cathode. Hence, by remembering LOAN mnemonic, we can arrive at the corresponding properties for the cathode.
|
||||
LEO the lion says GER [grr]:
|
||||
"Loss of Electrons, Oxidation; Gain of Electrons, Reduction".
|
||||
|
||||
=== Electrodes ===
|
||||
An electrode in which oxidation takes place is called an anode while in that which reduction takes place is called cathode. This applies for both electrolytic and electrochemical cells, though the charge on them reverses. The red cat and an ox mnemonics are useful to remember the same.
|
||||
|
||||
Red cat: Reduction at cathode
|
||||
An ox: Anode for oxidation.
|
||||
PANIC: Positive Anode, Negative Is Cathode
|
||||
The words oxidation and anode, both begin with vowels.
|
||||
Also, both reduction and cathode begin with consonants.
|
||||
Fat Cat: electrons flow From Anode To Cathode
|
||||
LOAN: Left side;Oxidation;Anode;Negative.
|
||||
ACID: Anode Current Into Device
|
||||
|
||||
== Compounds ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Diatomic molecules ===
|
||||
Molecules exhibiting diatomic structures can be remembered through the following mnemonics.
|
||||
|
||||
Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer.
|
||||
Horses Need Oats For Clear Brown Eyes (I's).
|
||||
Her Nana's Only Functioning Clicker Broke Instantly.
|
||||
BrINClHOF: say Brinkelhof.
|
||||
I Bring Clay For Our New House.
|
||||
CHINFOB
|
||||
HONClBrIF say honk-le-brif
|
||||
Captain HOFBrINCl says "Don't forget diatomic elements!"
|
||||
HONey it's the Halogens (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, plus the Halogens)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Hydrogen bonds ===
|
||||
Hydrogen forms hydrogen bonds with three elements which are nitrogen (N), oxygen (O) and fluorine (F). The names of these elements can be remembered by the following mnemonic.
|
||||
|
||||
Hydrogen is FON! (fun).
|
||||
Hydrogen likes to have FON!
|
||||
|
||||
=== Polyatomic ions: -ate and -ite ions ===
|
||||
|
||||
Super Popeye Constantly Clubbed Brutus In Nevada.
|
||||
|
||||
Nick Brit the Camel ate an Inky Clam with Crêpes for Supper in Phoenix.
|
||||
Number of consonants denotes number of oxygen atoms. Number of vowels denotes negative charge quantity. Inclusion of the word "ate" signifies that each ends with the letters a-t-e. To use this for the -ite ions, simply subtract one oxygen but keep the charge the same.
|
||||
|
||||
== Organic chemistry ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Prefixes for naming carbon chains ===
|
||||
The prefixes for naming carbon chains containing one to four carbons. For chains containing five or more carbons, the inorganic prefixes (e.g. pent = 5, hept = 7) are used.
|
||||
|
||||
Monkeys Eat Peeled Bananas
|
||||
Most Elephants Poop Bananas
|
||||
For the first five chains.
|
||||
|
||||
Many Elephants Pee Behind Plants
|
||||
Mom Eats Pretty Big Pears
|
||||
|
||||
=== Carboxylic acids ===
|
||||
Common names of homogeneous aliphatic carboxylic acids:
|
||||
|
||||
Frogs Are Polite, Being Very Courteous.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dicarboxylic acids ===
|
||||
The sequence of dicarboxylic acids can be remembered with following mnemonics.
|
||||
|
||||
Oh My, Such Good Apples.
|
||||
Oh My Stars, Green Apples.
|
||||
Oh My, Such Good Apple Pie, Sweet As Sugar.
|
||||
Oh My Stars, Go Ahead Please
|
||||
OMSGAPS – is a phonetic word for the first letters of the first seven dicarboxylic acids above in sequence can be said as below.
|
||||
Oh My Sir, Give A Party Soon.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Aromatic compounds ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== m-directing groups ====
|
||||
|
||||
Queen Elizabeth Second's Navy Commands, Controls, Communicates.
|
||||
|
||||
==== o,p-directing groups ====
|
||||
|
||||
AHA AHA P.
|
||||
Note: -NH2,-NHR and NR2 are para directing groups but not -NR3+
|
||||
|
||||
=== E–Z notation for isomers ===
|
||||
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md
Normal file
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemistry mnemonics"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
"E" for 'enemies'. i.e. higher priority groups on opposite sides. Z form has higher priority groups on same side.
|
||||
"Z" means 'zame zide' (same side) i.e. high priority groups on same side.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cis–trans isomerism ===
|
||||
|
||||
Cis starts with a C and the functional groups form a C.
|
||||
Trans, therefore is the other one by default.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Benzene ring: order of substitutes ===
|
||||
|
||||
From R group moving around the ring:
|
||||
|
||||
Benzene likes to ROMP.
|
||||
|
||||
== Biochemistry ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Nutrients ===
|
||||
The four most common elements in living organisms – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen – may be remembered with the acronym CHON. An extensions is CHNOPS, which adds phosphorus and sulfur.
|
||||
To remember the elements necessary for agriculture;
|
||||
|
||||
C (see) Hopkins CaFe, Mighty-good Man, Cu (see your) Money, hope they are Closed or out of Business.
|
||||
For remembering macronutrients;
|
||||
|
||||
C. HOPKiN'S Ca Mg (C. Hopkins coffee mug).
|
||||
MagiCal CKN SHOP (Magical Chicken SHOP).
|
||||
To remember the elements comprising the human body;
|
||||
|
||||
Chopin's CaFe
|
||||
I.P. Cohn's CaFe
|
||||
|
||||
=== Essential amino acids ===
|
||||
|
||||
PVT TIM HaLL and TT HALL Very IMPortant.
|
||||
These Ten Valuable Acids Have Long Preserved Life In Men
|
||||
MATT HILL, VP
|
||||
LIFT HIM KIW(V)I
|
||||
TV FILM HW(R)K.
|
||||
FM TK HW RIVL
|
||||
Any Help In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable. This method begins with the two amino acids that need some qualifications as to their requirements.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Krebs cycle ===
|
||||
To remember the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle):
|
||||
|
||||
Caesar's Armies Invaded Other Kingdoms Searching For Many Oranges.
|
||||
Citric Acid Is One Key Substrate For Mitochondrial Oxidation
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of medical mnemonics
|
||||
List of mnemonics
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
"Mnemonics for the Entire Periodic Table"
|
||||
Science jokes and mnemonics
|
||||
136
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies-0.md
Normal file
136
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemistry societies"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:15.181072+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following is a list of chemistry societies:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Alpha Chi Sigma (ΑΧΣ)
|
||||
American Association for Clinical Chemistry
|
||||
American Chemical Society
|
||||
American Crystallographic Association
|
||||
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
|
||||
American Institute of Chemists(AIC)
|
||||
American Oil Chemists' Society
|
||||
American Society of Brewing Chemists
|
||||
American Society for Mass Spectrometry
|
||||
Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC International)
|
||||
Association of Greek Chemists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Belgian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
|
||||
Biochemical Society
|
||||
Brazilian Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Canadian Society for Chemical Technology (CSCT)
|
||||
Canadian Society of Clinical Chemists - (CSCC)
|
||||
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
|
||||
Chemical Heritage Foundation (CHF), now the Science History Institute
|
||||
Chemical Institute of Canada (CIC)
|
||||
Chemical Society Located in Taipei (CSLT)
|
||||
Chemical Society of Japan (CSJ)
|
||||
Crystallographic Society of Japan (CSJ)
|
||||
Chemical Society of Pakistan
|
||||
Chemical Society of Peru
|
||||
Chinese-American Chemical Society
|
||||
Chinese Chemical Society (Beijing) (CCS)
|
||||
Chinese Chemical Society (Taipei) (CSLT)
|
||||
Council for Chemical Research (CCR)
|
||||
Chemical Research Society of India
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Danish Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
The Electrochemical Society
|
||||
European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Faraday Society
|
||||
Federation of European Biochemical Societies
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Hungarian Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Indian Chemical Society
|
||||
Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
|
||||
Institute of Chemistry of Ireland
|
||||
Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE)
|
||||
International Federation of Societies of Cosmetic Chemists
|
||||
International Mass Spectrometry Foundation
|
||||
International Union of Crystallography
|
||||
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi
|
||||
Italian Chemical Society(SCI)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Japan Association for International Chemical Information
|
||||
Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
The Korean Chemical Society
|
||||
Korean Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Lithuanian Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers
|
||||
New Zealand Institute of Chemistry
|
||||
Chemical Society of Nigeria (CSN)
|
||||
Norwegian Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Pan Africa Chemistry Network
|
||||
Pancyprian Union of Chemists
|
||||
Polish Chemical Society
|
||||
The Institute of Chemists PNG
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Royal Australian Chemical Institute (RACI)
|
||||
Royal Flemish Chemical Society (KVCV)
|
||||
Royal Netherlands Chemical Society (KNCV)
|
||||
Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Société Royale de Chimie Belgique
|
||||
Société Chimique de France
|
||||
Society of Chemical Industry (SCI)
|
||||
Society of Chemical Industry (American Section)
|
||||
Society of Chemical Manufacturers and Affiliates
|
||||
Society of Cosmetic Chemists
|
||||
Swedish Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
74
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md
Normal file
74
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 1/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ab–An ===
|
||||
Richard Abegg (1869–1910), German chemist, pioneer of valence theory
|
||||
Frederick Abel (1827–1902), English chemist, inventor of cordite
|
||||
Friedrich Accum (1769–1838), German chemist, advances in the field of gas lighting
|
||||
Homer Burton Adkins (1892–1949), American chemist, known for work in hydrogenation of organic compounds
|
||||
Peter Agre (born 1949), American chemist and doctor, known for aquaporin water channels, 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), German scholar known as "the father of mineralogy"
|
||||
Natalie Ahn (PhD 1985), American chemist working on mechanisms of cell signaling
|
||||
Arthur Aikin (1773–1855), English chemist and mineralogist, a founding member of the Chemical Society
|
||||
Adrien Albert (1907–1989), Australian medicinal chemist who studied the links between physico-chemical properties and biological effect of drugs
|
||||
John Albery (1936–2013), English physical chemist who studied electrochemistry, proton transfer and isotope effects
|
||||
Kurt Alder (1902–1958), German chemist known for the Diels–Alder reaction, 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Jerome Alexander (1876–1959), American expert on the chemistry of colloids
|
||||
Ivan Alimarin (1903-1989), Soviet chemist, one of the leaders of analytical chemistry in 20's century
|
||||
Elmer Lucille Allen (born 1931), American chemist and ceramic artist
|
||||
Heather C. Allen (born 1960), American chemist who works on interfacial phenomena
|
||||
Adah Almutairi (born 1976), American chemist known for nanomedicine and nanotechnology
|
||||
Sidney Altman (1939–2022), Canadian-American biologist known for catalytic RNA, 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Faiza Al-Kharafi (born 1946), Kuwaiti chemist, academic and the first woman to head a major university in the Middle East
|
||||
Lisa Alvarez-Cohen (PhD 1991), American chemist concerned with microbial degradation of environmental contaminants
|
||||
|
||||
=== An–Av ===
|
||||
Gloria Long Anderson (born 1938), American chemist, pioneer of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
|
||||
Christian B. Anfinsen (1916–1995), American chemist known for work on ribonuclease, 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Andrea Angel (1877–1917), English chemist known for work on explosives
|
||||
Angelo Angeli (1864–1931), Italian chemist who studied nitrogen compounds such as hydrazoic acid
|
||||
Octavio Augusto Ceva Antunes (died 2009), Brazilian chemist, consultant for the production of anti-HIV drugs
|
||||
Anthony Joseph Arduengo, III (born 1952), American chemist known for chemical compounds with unusual valency
|
||||
Johan August Arfwedson (1792–1841), Swedish chemist who discovered lithium
|
||||
Anton Eduard van Arkel (1893–1976), Dutch chemist who developed a method for preparing pure titanium and other metals
|
||||
Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), Swedish chemist, one of the founders of physical chemistry, he used physical chemistry to estimate the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide the Earth's increasing surface temperature; Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1903
|
||||
Valerie Ashby (born 1965/1966), American chemist known for work on functionalized diene monomers and polymers
|
||||
Barbara Askins (born 1939), American chemist known for inventing a method to enhance underexposed photographic negatives
|
||||
Larned B. Asprey (1919–2005), American nuclear chemist known for actinide, lanthanide, rare-earth and fluorine chemistry
|
||||
Alán Aspuru-Guzik (born 1976), Mexican computational chemist known for variational quantum eigensolver
|
||||
Francis William Aston (1877–1945), British chemist and physicist known for mass spectroscopy, 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Bengt Aurivillius (1918–1994), Swedish chemist known for his research in metal and mixed oxides.
|
||||
Karin Aurivillius (1920–1982), Swedish chemist who determined the crystal structures of many mercury compounds
|
||||
Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), Italian chemist and physicist, discovered Avogadro's law as a copmponent of noted for his contribution to molecular theory
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bab–Bar ===
|
||||
Stephen Moulton Babcock (1843–1931), American agricultural chemist worked on the "single-grain experiment"
|
||||
Myrtle Bachelder (1908–1997), American chemist noted for work on the Manhattan Project atomic bomb, and for work on metal chemistry
|
||||
Werner Emmanuel Bachmann (1901–1951), American chemist, known for work in steroids and RDX
|
||||
Simone Badal-McCreath (21st century), Jamaican chemist who created prostate and breast cancer cell lines
|
||||
Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), Belgian-American chemist known for invention of bakelite
|
||||
Adolf von Baeyer (1835–1917), German chemist, 1905 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, synthesis of indigo
|
||||
Piero Baglioni (born 1952), Italian chemist known for inorganic and organic colloids
|
||||
Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom (1854–1907), Dutch chemist who studied phase behaviour in physical chemistry
|
||||
Alice Ball (1892–1916), American chemist known for inventing an effective injectable treatment for leprosy
|
||||
Emily Balskus (born 1980), American chemist and microbiologist known for work on the human microbiome
|
||||
Zhenan Bao (born 1970), Chinese chemist known for developing technologies with organic field-effect transistors and organic semiconductors
|
||||
Phil S. Baran (born 1977), American chemist known for synthesis, novel reactions and reagents
|
||||
Coral Barbas (PhD 1989), Spanish chemist known for research on metabolomics and integration of chemical data
|
||||
Allen J. Bard (1933–2024), American chemist known for development of the scanning electrochemical microscope, Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Vincenzo Barone (born 1952), Italian chemist working in theoretical and computational chemistry
|
||||
Neil Bartlett (1932–2008), English/Canadian/American chemist known for creating the first noble-gas compound
|
||||
Sir Derek Barton (1918–1998), 1969 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for “contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry"
|
||||
71
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md
Normal file
71
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 2/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bas–Ben ===
|
||||
Fred Basolo (1920–2007), American chemist known for the mechanisms of inorganic reactions
|
||||
Esther Batchelder (1897–1987), American chemist, educator and specialist in nutrition
|
||||
Sir Alan Battersby (1925–2018), English organic chemist known for work on biosynthetic pathways
|
||||
Antoine Baumé (1728–1804), French chemist, inventor of the Baumé scale hydrometer for measuring the density of liquids
|
||||
Karl Bayer (1847–1904), Austrian chemist who invented the Bayer process of extracting alumina from bauxite
|
||||
Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682), German who developed the phlogiston theory of combustion
|
||||
Friedrich Konrad Beilstein (1838–1906), German-Russian chemist, created Beilstein database
|
||||
Joseph Achille Le Bel (1847–1930), French chemist, early work in stereochemistry addressing the relationship between molecular structure and optical activity
|
||||
Angela Belcher (PhD 1997), American chemist, materials scientist, and biological engineer
|
||||
Irina Beletskaya (born 1933), Russian organometallic chemist known for studies on aromatic reaction mechanisms
|
||||
R. P. (Ronnie) Bell (1907–1996), English physical chemist known in particular for The Proton in Chemistry
|
||||
Andrey Belozersky (1905–1972), Soviet biologist and biochemist, pioneer of molecular biology and the chemistry of nucelic acids
|
||||
Ruth R. Benerito (1916–2013), American chemist known for inventions relating to textiles, including wash-and-wear cotton fabrics
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ber–Bla ===
|
||||
Paul Berg (1926–2023), American biochemist known for research on nucleic acids, especially recombinant DNA, 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Friedrich Bergius (1884–1949), German chemist known for known for production of synthetic fuel from coal, 1931 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Helen M. Berman (born 1943), American chemist who worked on structural analysis of protein-nucleic acid complexes
|
||||
Marcellin Berthelot (1827–1907), French chemist, a prominent anti-vitalist who synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances, and developed thermochemistry
|
||||
Claude Louis Berthollet (1748–1822), French chemist who developed the theory of chemical equilibria
|
||||
Carolyn R. Bertozzi (born 1966) American chemist who studies chemical reactions compatible with living systems ("bioorthogonal chemistry"), 2022 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Guy Bertrand (born 1952) French chemist working on carbenes, nitrenes, phosphinidenes, radicals and biradicals
|
||||
Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848), Swedish chemist who discovered several elements
|
||||
Johannes Martin Bijvoet (1892–1980), Dutch chemist and crystallographer who determined the absolute configuration of sodium rubidium tartrate
|
||||
Leonora Bilger (1893–1975), American chemist who studied nitrogenous compounds
|
||||
Katherine Bitting (1869–1937), Canadian and American food chemist for the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Canners Association
|
||||
Joseph Black (1728–1799), British chemist known for discoveries of magnesium, latent heat, specific heat, and carbon dioxide
|
||||
|
||||
=== Blo–Bou ===
|
||||
Katharine Burr Blodgett (1898–1979), American surface chemist and physicist and inventor of nonreflective glass
|
||||
Suzanne Blum (born 1978), American chemist developing single-molecule and single-particle fluorescence microscopy
|
||||
Katharine Blunt (1876–1954), American chemist and nutritionist focusing on home economics, food chemistry and nutrition
|
||||
Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) Dutch chemist, botanist, Christian humanist & physician, first to isolate urea from urine
|
||||
Kristie Boering (born 1963), American chemist and planetary scientist studying atmospheric chemistry and mass transport in the extraterrestrial atmosphere
|
||||
Alexei Bogdanov (born 1935), Soviet and Russian biochemist and molecular biologist known for fundamental contributions to ribosome structure and function, nucleic acid-protein interactions, and protein biosynthesis mechanisms.
|
||||
Olga Bogdanova (1896–1982), Soviet chemist who specialized in organic catalysis
|
||||
Dale L. Boger (born 1953), American chemist working on natural product synthesis, synthetic methodology, medicinal chemistry, and combinatorial chemistry
|
||||
Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran (1838–1912), French chemist who discovered gallium, samarium and dysprosium
|
||||
Jan Boldingh (1915–2003), Dutch chemist known for new analytic techniques such as gas-chromatography and others
|
||||
Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Russian chemist and composer. As a chemist he is known best for his work on organic synthesis, including discovery of the aldol reaction
|
||||
Hans-Joachim Born (1909–1987), German radiochemist who participated in the Soviet nuclear weapons programme
|
||||
Carl Bosch (1872–1940), German chemist, pioneer in the field of high-pressure industrial chemistry. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1991
|
||||
Octave Leopold Boudouard (1872–1923), French chemist who discovered the Boudouard reaction: combination of carbon and carbon dioxide to form carbon monoxide at high temperatures
|
||||
Jean-Baptiste Boussingault (1802–1887), French chemist with work in agricultural science, petroleum science and metallurgy
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bow–Bro ===
|
||||
E. J. Bowen (1898–1980), English physical chemist known for research into fluorescence
|
||||
Humphry Bowen (1929–2001), English analytical chemist known for radioisotopes and trace elements
|
||||
Paul D. Boyer (1918–2018), American biochemist known for studying the biosynthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Robert Boyle (1627–1691), Irish-English pioneer of modern chemistry, best known for Boyle's law
|
||||
Henri Braconnot (1780–1855), French chemist who worked on plant chemistry and discovered chitin and pectin
|
||||
Henning Brand (c. 1630–c.1692 or c. 1710), German alchemist, who accidentally discovered phosphorus while searching for the "philosopher's stone"
|
||||
Mary Bidwell Breed (1870–1949), American chemist focusing on aromatic acids and the atomic mass of palladium
|
||||
Ronald Breslow (1931–2017), American organic chemist who designed and synthesized new molecules with interesting properties, such as the cyclopropenyl cation
|
||||
Alan Brisdon (21st century), British chemist known for Inorganic Spectroscopic Methods
|
||||
Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879–1947), Danish chemist known for work on reaction kinetics, especially acid–base reactions
|
||||
Herbert C. Brown (1912–2004), American chemist known for work on organoboranes, 1979 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Jeannette Brown (born 1934), American organic medicinal chemist, historian, and author, known for research on drug development targeting tuberculosis and coccidiosis
|
||||
Jeanette Grasselli Brown (1928–2025), American analytical chemist and spectroscopist
|
||||
Rachel Fuller Brown (1898–1980), American chemist who co-developed the first useful antifungal antibiotic, nystatin
|
||||
96
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 11/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Paul Sabatier (1854–1941), French chemist, 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry corecipient
|
||||
Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), 1958 and 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), Swedish 18th century chemist, discovered numerous elements
|
||||
Christian Friedrich Schönbein (1799–1868), German-Swiss chemist, invented the fuel cell, and discovered gun cotton and ozone
|
||||
Stuart L. Schreiber (born 1956), American chemist, a pioneer in a field of chemical biology
|
||||
Richard R. Schrock (born 1945), 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Peter Schultz (born 1956), American chemist
|
||||
Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999), 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Nils Gabriel Sefström (1787–1845), chemist
|
||||
Francesco Selmi (1817–1881), Italian chemist, regarded as one of the founders of colloid chemistry
|
||||
Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov (1896–1986), physicist and chemist, 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
T. R. Seshadri (1900–1975), Indian chemist, pioneer in plant chemistry
|
||||
K. Barry Sharpless (born 1941), 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Dan Shechtman (born 1941), 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, discovered quasicrystals
|
||||
Patsy O. Sherman (1930–2008), 12 US patents
|
||||
John Sherwood (died 2020), British physical chemist
|
||||
Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (1873–1952), English theoretical chemist, known for work in valency
|
||||
Osamu Shimomura (1928–2018), 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Hideki Shirakawa (born 1936), 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Alexander Shulgin (1925–2014), pioneer researcher in Psychopharmacology and Entheogens
|
||||
Salimuzzaman Siddiqui (1897–1994), Pakistani chemist, pioneer in natural products chemistry
|
||||
Oktay Sinanoglu (1935–2015), Turkish chemist
|
||||
Joseph H. Simons (1897–1983), U.S. chemist, discoverer of fluorocarbons, used in gaseous diffusion of Uranium for Manhattan project
|
||||
Jens Christian Skou (1918–2018), 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Richard Smalley (1943–2005), 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Michael Smith (1932–2000), 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Ascanio Sobrero (1812–1888), Italian chemist, discoverer of nitroglycerin
|
||||
Frederick Soddy (1877–1956), British chemist, 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Susan Solomon (born 1956), American atmospheric chemist
|
||||
Ernest Solvay (1838–1922), Belgian chemist and industrialist
|
||||
S.P.L. Sørensen (1868–1939), Danish chemist
|
||||
Gabor A. Somorjai (born 1935), 1998 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734), Important work on fermentation
|
||||
Wendell Meredith Stanley (1904–1971), 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Jean Servais Stas (1813–1891), Belgian analytical chemist
|
||||
Branko Stanovnik (born 1938), chemist
|
||||
Hermann Staudinger (1881–1965), polymer chemist, 1953 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Harry Steenbock (1886–1967), American biochemist, work on ultraviolet irradiation
|
||||
William Howard Stein (1911–1980), 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Thomas A. Steitz (1940–2018), 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Douglas Stephan, Frustrated Lewis Pairs
|
||||
Alfred Stock (1876–1946), German inorganic chemist, known for work in mercury poisoning
|
||||
Brian Stoltz (born 1970), award-winning American organic chemist.
|
||||
Fraser Stoddart (1942–2024), Scottish chemist, a pioneer in the field of the mechanical bond
|
||||
Molly Shoichet, award-winning Canadian biomedical engineer known for her work in tissue engineering. She is the only person to be a fellow of the three National Academies in Canada
|
||||
F. Gordon A. Stone (1925–2011), British inorganic chemist
|
||||
S. Donald Stookey (1915–2014), American glass and ceramic chemist
|
||||
Gilbert Stork (1921–2017), 1995/6 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz (1829–1896), German organic chemist, principal founder of chemical structure
|
||||
Yellapragada Subbarow (1895-1948), Indian biochemist known for discovery of ATP and synthesis of many new ground breaking compounds
|
||||
James B. Sumner (1887–1955), 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Kenneth S. Suslick (born 1952), professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, known for optoelectronic nose
|
||||
Edwin Sutermeister (1876–1958), American chemist, known for its work on papermaking
|
||||
Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971), 1926 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Joseph Swan (1828–1914), English physicist, chemist and inventor
|
||||
Frédéric Swarts (1866–1940), Belgian chemist, prepared the first chlorofluorocarbon compound
|
||||
Richard Laurence Millington Synge (1914–1994), 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Koichi Tanaka (born 1959), Japanese electrical engineer, 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Henry Taube (1915–2005), American chemist, (1983 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Louis Jacques Thénard (1777–1857), French chemist, discovered hydrogen peroxide and Thenard's Blue
|
||||
Sir Harold Warris Thompson (1908–1983), English physical chemist
|
||||
J. J. Thomson (1856–1940), British physicist, Known in chemistry for discovery of isotopes
|
||||
T. Don Tilley (born 1954), organometallic chemist
|
||||
Arne Tiselius (1902–1971), Swedish biochemist, 1948 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Max Tishler (1906–1989), American chemist, 1970 Priestley Medal
|
||||
Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd (1907–1997), British biochemist, 1957 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), Italian physicist and chemist, invented the barometer, pupil of Galileo
|
||||
Roger Y. Tsien (1952–2016), American biochemist, 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Mikhail Tsvet (1872–1919), Russian botanist, known for adsorption chromatography
|
||||
Kristy Turner, British chemist
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Georges Urbain (1872–1938), French chemist, discovered the element lutetium
|
||||
Harold Clayton Urey (1893–1981), American physical chemist, discovered the element deuterium, 1934 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Lauri Vaska (1925–2015), Estonian/American chemist
|
||||
Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1763–1829), French pharmacist and chemist, discovered the elements beryllium and chromium
|
||||
Vincent du Vigneaud (1901–1978), 1955 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (1895–1973), chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
|
||||
Max Volmer, Germany (1885–1965)
|
||||
Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), Italian electrochemist, invented the voltaic cell
|
||||
Alexander Vinogradov (1895-1975), Soviet geochemist
|
||||
83
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-11.md
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83
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 12/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), Dutch physicist
|
||||
Sir James Walker (1863–1935), Scottish physical chemist
|
||||
John E. Walker (born 1941), British chemist, 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Otto Wallach (1847–1931), German chemist, 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
John Warner (born 1962), American chemist, 2014 Perkin Medal, one of the "founders" of green chemistry
|
||||
Alfred Werner (1866–1919), Swiss chemist, 1913 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Thomas Summers West (1927–2010), British analytical chemist
|
||||
Peter Jaffrey Wheatley (1921–1997), English chemist
|
||||
Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), Russian chemist, developed the ABE-process
|
||||
George M. Whitesides (born 1939), American chemist
|
||||
John Rex Whinfield (1901–1966), British chemist, discovered polyester fibres
|
||||
Otto Wichterle (1913–1998), Czech chemist, known for inventing modern contact lenses
|
||||
Heinrich Otto Wieland (1877–1957), German chemist 1927 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Julius Wilbrand (1839–1906), German chemist, inventor of TNT
|
||||
Harvey W. Wiley (1844–1930), American chemist, pure food and drug advocate
|
||||
Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921–1996), English chemist, 1973 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Alexander William Williamson (1824–1904), English chemist, famous for Williamson ether synthesis
|
||||
Thomas Willson (1860–1915), Canadian chemist, discovered an economically efficient process for creating calcium carbide
|
||||
Richard Willstätter (1872–1942), German chemist, 1915 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus (1876–1959), German chemist, 1928 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Günter Wirths (1911–2005), German chemist
|
||||
Georg Wittig (1897–1987), German chemist, 1979 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), German chemist, best known for his synthesis of urea
|
||||
William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828), English chemist, discovered the elements palladium and rhodium
|
||||
Robert B. Woodward (1917–1979), American chemist, 1965 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Charles de Worms (1903–1979), English chemist and lepidopterist
|
||||
Charles-Adolphe Wurtz (1817–1884), Alsatian French chemist, discovered the Wurtz reaction
|
||||
Kurt Wüthrich (born 1938), 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
Xiaoliang Sunney Xie (born 1962), Chinese-American biochemist, pioneer in the field of Single Molecule Microscopy and CARS (Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy) microscopy
|
||||
Xie Yi (born 1967), Chinese chemist, member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry.
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Ada Yonath (born 1939), Israeli chemist, 2006/7 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Sabir Yunusov (1909–1995), Soviet chemist (alkaloids)
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Richard Zare (born 1939), American chemist, 2005 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Nikolay Zefirov (1935-2017), Russian and Soviet Organic and Medicinal Chemist
|
||||
Nikolay Zelinsky (1861–1953), Russian and Soviet Organic chemist, inventor of the first effective gas mask (1915)
|
||||
Ahmed H. Zewail (1946–2016), Egyptian chemist, 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on femtochemistry
|
||||
Karl Ziegler (1898–1973), German chemist, 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Richard Adolf Zsigmondy (1865–1929), 1925 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
== Chemists famous in other areas ==
|
||||
Marion Barry (1936–2014), Masters in Organic Chemistry, American politician
|
||||
Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Russian chemist and composer
|
||||
Jerry Buss (1934–2013), PhD in Physical Chemistry, owner of the NBA LA Lakers and other sports franchises
|
||||
Catherine Coleman (born 1960), American chemist and retired NASA astronaut who went on two Space Shuttle missions
|
||||
Emmanuel Dongala (born 1941), Congolese chemist and novelist
|
||||
Elizabeth J. Feinler (born 1931), American information scientist and past director of the Network Information Systems Center at the Stanford Research Institute
|
||||
Marye Anne Fox (1947–2021), American chemist and university chancellor
|
||||
Dolph Lundgren (born 1957), Masters in Chemistry, Swedish actor
|
||||
Primo Levi (1919–1987), resistance fighter, chemist and novelist
|
||||
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian chemist, historian, philologist, and poet
|
||||
Angela Merkel (born 1954), doctorate in quantum chemistry, Chancellor of Germany (2005–2021)
|
||||
Gaspard Monge (1746–1818), invented descriptive geometry
|
||||
Francis Muguet (1955–2009), advocate of open information access
|
||||
Edward W. Morley (1838–1923), performed the Michelson–Morley experiment
|
||||
Knute Rockne (1888–1931), head football coach of Notre Dame
|
||||
Elio Di Rupo (born 1951), Prime Minister of Belgium
|
||||
Israel Shahak (1933–2001), Israeli chemist and civil-rights activist
|
||||
Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1979–1990), research chemist at BX Plastics
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of biochemists
|
||||
List of computational chemists
|
||||
List of psychedelic chemists
|
||||
List of Russian chemists
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
65
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 3/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Buc–But ===
|
||||
Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), German chemist who sounded the death knell of vitalism by discovering cell-free fermentation, 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Stephen L. Buchwald (born 1955), American organic chemist, co-discoverer of palladium-catalyzed C–N bond formation Buchwald–Hartwig amination
|
||||
Mary Van Rensselaer Buell (1893–1969), American chemist who worked on nucleic acids and nucleotides, the relation of hormones to the metabolism of carbohydrates, and other topics in biochemistry
|
||||
Kathryn Bullock (1945–2021), American chemist who co-developed valve-regulated lead-acid batteries
|
||||
Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899), German inventor, chemist, discovered the elements caesium and rubidium with Gustav Kirchhoff and invented the Bunsen burner
|
||||
Jeanne Burbank (1915–2002), American chemist who developed lead-acid and silver-zinc batteries for submarines at the United States Naval Research Laboratory
|
||||
Stephanie Burns (born 1955), American organosilicon chemist and past honorary president of Society of Chemical Industry
|
||||
William Merriam Burton (1865–1954), American chemist, developed the first thermal cracking process for crude oil
|
||||
Adolf Butenandt (1903–1995), German biochemist, 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "work on sex hormones"
|
||||
Alison Butler (PhD 1982), American bioinorganic chemist and metallobiochemist
|
||||
Aleksandr Butlerov (1828–1886), Russian chemist, one of the creators of the theory of chemical structure, who discovered the formose reaction
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ca ===
|
||||
Mary Letitia Caldwell (1890–1972), American chemist who developed a method for purifying crystalline porcine pancreatic amylase
|
||||
Melvin Calvin (1911–1997), American chemist, winner of 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Allison A. Campbell (born 1963), American chemist studying biomineralization, biomimetics and biomaterials
|
||||
Constantin Cândea (1887–1971), Romanian analytical chemist who studied methods of separating metals
|
||||
Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910), Italian chemist, postulated the Cannizzaro reaction
|
||||
María Luz Cárdenas (born 1944). Chilean-French enzymologist known for work on mammalian hexokinases.
|
||||
Heinrich Caro (1834–1910), German chemist who developed a synthesis for aniline red and other dyes
|
||||
Wallace Carothers (1896–1937), American chemist, known for the discovery of nylon
|
||||
Emma P. Carr (1880–1972), American chemist known for work on unsaturated hydrocarbons and absorption spectra
|
||||
Marjorie Constance Caserio (1929–2021), American chemist, known for Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry, winner of the Garvan Medal
|
||||
Marta Catellani (PhD 1971), Italian chemist working on palladium as a catalyst for multistep organic reactions, who discovered the Catellani reaction
|
||||
Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), British experimental and theoretical chemist and physicist noted for the discovery of hydrogen
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ce–Ci ===
|
||||
Thomas Cech (born 1947), American biochemist, 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of catalytic RNA
|
||||
Martin Chalfie (born 1947), American scientist, 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the green fluorescent protein
|
||||
Christopher Chang (born 1974) American chemist known for molecular imaging sensors as applied to neuroscience and immunology, metal catalysts for renewable energy cycles, and green chemistry
|
||||
Michelle Chang (born 1977), American chemist known for work on biosynthesis of biofuels and pharmaceuticals
|
||||
Yves Chauvin (1930–2015), French chemist, 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for deciphering the process of olefin metathesis
|
||||
Michel Eugėne Chevreul (1786–1889), French chemist, the first scientist to define the concept of a chemical compound and to formally characterize the nature of organic compounds
|
||||
Christine S. Chow (PhD 1992), American chemist who uses fluorescence spectroscopy and mass spectrometry to study drug-RNA interactions
|
||||
Aaron Ciechanover (born 1947), Israeli biologist, 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on ubiquitination
|
||||
Giacomo Luigi Ciamician (1857–1922) Italian chemist, pioneer in photochemistry and green chemistry, and the earliest to anticipate artificial photosynthesis
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cl–Cor ===
|
||||
G. Marius Clore FRS (born 1955), American chemist, known for foundational work in three-dimensional protein and nucleic acid structure determination by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
|
||||
Edward L. Cochran (born 1929), American chemist, known for pioneering studies on the nature of free radicals
|
||||
Ernst Cohen (1869–1944 Auschwitz), Dutch chemist known for work on the allotropy of metals)
|
||||
Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American chemist, a pioneer in the applying nuclear magnetic resonance to enzyme reactions, particularly reactions of adenosine triphosphate
|
||||
David Collison (PhD 1980), British chemist known for development of electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy
|
||||
Vicki Colvin (born 1965), American chemist known for work on the synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials
|
||||
James Bryant Conant (1893–1978), American organic chemist who explored the complex relationship between chemical equilibrium and the reaction rate of chemical processes, Priestley Medal 1944
|
||||
Elias James Corey (born 1928), American organic chemist, winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing the theory and methodology of organic synthesis, specifically retrosynthetic analysis
|
||||
Robert Corey (1897–1971), American biochemist known for co-discovery of the α-helix and the β-sheet
|
||||
Carl Ferdinand Cori (1896–1984), Czech biochemist, Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine 1947 for discovering how glycogen is broken down and resynthesized
|
||||
Gerty Cori (1896–1957), American biochemist, Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine 1947 for discovering how glycogen is broken down and resynthesized
|
||||
John Cornforth (1917–2013), Australian-British chemist, 1975 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalysed reactions
|
||||
Athel Cornish-Bowden (born 1943). British and French enzymologist known for enzyme kns, hexokinases, and metabolic control analysis
|
||||
Charles D. Coryell (1912–1971), American chemist who worked on hemoglobin structure and co-discovered the element promethium
|
||||
60
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60
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@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 4/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cot–Cz ===
|
||||
Frank Albert Cotton (1930–2007), American chemist known for research on transition metals and as coauthor of Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2000 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Charles Coulson (1910–1974), British theoretical chemist, pioneer of the application of quantum theory to problems of molecular structure
|
||||
Archibald Scott Couper (1831–1892), British chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules
|
||||
James Crafts (1839–1917), American chemist, developer of Friedel–Crafts reaction for alkylation and acylation
|
||||
Donald J. Cram (1919–2001), American chemist, winner of the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for development of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity
|
||||
William Crookes (1832–1919), British chemist who discovered thallium, and was a pioneer of vacuum tubes
|
||||
Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922), Scottish organic chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules
|
||||
Paul J. Crutzen (1933–2021), Dutch chemist, winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on atmospheric chemistry, especially in relation to ozone
|
||||
Ana Maria Cuervo (born 1966), Spanish-American physician, researcher, and cell biologist, best known for work on autophagy
|
||||
Marie Curie (1867–1934), Polish and French radiation physicist, discovered the elements radium and polonium, 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics, 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Pierre Curie (1859–1906), French physicist and chemist, 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for work on radioactivity
|
||||
Robert Curl (1933–2022), American chemist, winner of 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of the fullerene class of materials
|
||||
Theodor Curtius (1857–1928), German chemist known for the Curtius rearrangement, and also discovery of diazoacetic acid, hydrazine and hydrazoic acid
|
||||
Anthony Czarnik (born 1957), American chemist and inventor known for work on fluorescent chemosensors
|
||||
Emil Czyrniański (1824–1888), Polish chemist, known for developing chemical nomenclature in Polish
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Da–Di ===
|
||||
Jeff Dahn (born 1957), Canadian materials chemist noted for significant contributions to lithium-ion batteries
|
||||
John Dalton (1766–1844), British chemist, physicist and meteorologist, whose work laid the foundations of modern atomic theory and stoichiometric chemistry
|
||||
Marie Maynard Daly (1921–2003), American biochemist who studied the chemistry of histones, protein synthesis, the relationships between cholesterol and hypertension, and uptake of creatine by muscle cells
|
||||
Carl Peter Henrik Dam (1895–1976), Danish biochemist, winner of the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering vitamin K and its role in human physiology
|
||||
Samuel J. Danishefsky (born 1936), American organic chemist, natural product total synthesis, 1995/6 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Raymond Davis, Jr. (1914–2006), American physicist and chemist who won the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics for detecting neutrinos emitted from the Sun
|
||||
Humphry Davy (1778–1829), British chemist, discovered several alkaline earth metals
|
||||
Serena DeBeer (born 1973), American chemist known for developing X-ray based spectroscopic probes of electronic structure
|
||||
Peter Debye (1884–1966), Dutch chemist who improved the theory of electrical conductivity in electrolyte solutions, winner of the 1936 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Johann Deisenhofer (born 1943), German biochemist who determined the three-dimensional structure of a protein complex found in photosynthetic bacteria, 1988 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Margarita del Val (born 1959), Spanish chemist, immunologist, and virologist, coordinator of the Salud Global ("Global Health") platform
|
||||
Nathalie Demassieux (1884–1961), French mineral chemist and academic who worked on the complex halogenated salts of lead
|
||||
Gautam Radhakrishna Desiraju (born 1952), Indian chemist known for work on crystal engineering and weak hydrogen bonds
|
||||
James Dewar (1842–1923), British chemist and physicist known for his invention of the vacuum flask and its usefor studying the liquefaction of gases
|
||||
François Diederich (1952–2020), Luxembourg chemist known for molecular recognition studies with biological receptors
|
||||
Otto Diels (1876–1954), German chemist, winner of the 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the Diels–Alder reaction, a method for cyclohexene synthesis
|
||||
Robert Dirks (1978–2015), American computational chemist known for work on DNA nanotechnology
|
||||
|
||||
=== Do–Dy ===
|
||||
Martha Doan (1872–1960), American chemist who studied thallium compounds
|
||||
William von Eggers Doering (1917–2011), American chemist known for the total synthesis of quinine
|
||||
Edward Doisy (1893–1986), American biochemist, winner of the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
|
||||
Davorin Dolar (1921–2005), Slovenian physical chemist who studied polyelectrolyte solutions, and is regarded as a founder of modern physical chemistry teaching in Slovenia
|
||||
Vy Maria Dong (born 1976), American chemist who studies enantioselective catalysis and natural product synthesis
|
||||
David Adriaan van Dorp (1915–1995), Dutch chemist known for the first full synthesis of vitamin A
|
||||
Israel Dostrovsky (1918–2010), Russian (Ukraine)-born Israeli physical chemist known for separating oxygen isotopes in water
|
||||
Herbert Henry Dow (1866–1930), American industrial chemist, known for bromine extraction
|
||||
Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1633), Dutch inventor, alchemist and chemist who contributed to develop measurement and control systems, optics and chemistry
|
||||
Jean Baptiste Dumas (1800–1884), French chemist, best known for the determination of atomic and molecular masses weights by measuring vapor densities
|
||||
Helen Dyer (1895–1998), American biochemist and early cancer researcher known for studies of carcinogenesis mechanisms
|
||||
75
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-4.md
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75
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@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 5/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Sandra Eaton (PhD 1972), American chemist notable for work on electron paramagnetic resonance
|
||||
John Tileston Edsall (1902–2002), American protein chemist, and co-author of Proteins, Amino Acids and Peptides
|
||||
Eilaf Egap (21st century), American chemist who works on imaging techniques and biomaterials for early diagnostics and drug delivery
|
||||
Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German chemist, winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for contributions to immunology
|
||||
Arthur Eichengrün (1867–1949), German chemist known for developing the anti-gonorrhea drug Protargol
|
||||
Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), German chemist, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions
|
||||
Mostafa El-Sayed (born 1933), Egyptian-American physical chemist known for the El-Sayed rule in spectroscopy
|
||||
Fausto Elhuyar (1755–1833), Spanish chemist, the first to isolate tungsten
|
||||
Lorne Elias (PhD 1956), Canadian chemist, inventor of the explosives vapour detector EVD-1
|
||||
Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist and recipient of the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for innovative methods of rational drug design
|
||||
Conrad Elvehjem (1901–1962), American biochemist who identified two vitamins, nicotinic acid (niacin) and nicotinamide
|
||||
Harry Julius Emeléus (1903–1993), British inorganic chemist known for work on fluorine chemistry
|
||||
Gladys Anderson Emerson (1903–1984), American chemist and early nutritionist, and the first person to isolate Vitamin E
|
||||
Emil Erlenmeyer (1825–1909), German chemist known for the early development of the theory of chemical structure and formulating the Erlenmeyer rule.
|
||||
Richard R. Ernst (1933–2021), Swiss physical chemist, 1991 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
|
||||
Gerhard Ertl (born 1936), German physical chemist who laid the foundation of modern surface chemistry, 2007 Nobel prize in chemistry
|
||||
Margaret C. Etter (1943–1992), American chemist and developer of solid state chemistry for crystalline organic compounds
|
||||
Hans von Euler-Chelpin (1873–1964), Swedish chemist, winner of the 1929 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the fermentation of sugar and enzymes
|
||||
Henry Eyring (1901–1981), Mexico-born American theoretical chemist known for the absolute rate theory of chemical reactions
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fa–Fi ===
|
||||
Kazimierz Fajans (1887–1975), Polish-American physical chemist, who worked on radioactivity and co-discovered protactinium
|
||||
Michael Faraday (1791–1867), British chemist and physicist who discovered include the principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and electrolysis
|
||||
Hermann von Fehling (1812–1885), German chemist who developed use of Fehling's solution for estimation of sugar
|
||||
John Bennett Fenn (1917–2010), 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work in mass spectrometry
|
||||
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), Nuclear chemist and elementary particle physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics 1938
|
||||
Louis Fieser (1899–1977), American chemist who work on blood-clotting agents including the first synthesis of vitamin K, and was the author of numerous textbooks
|
||||
Mary Peters Fieser (1909–1997), American chemist who worked on quinones and steroids, and was co-author of chemistry books
|
||||
Barbara J. Finlayson-Pitts (PhD 1973), Canadian-American chemist who works on the chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere
|
||||
Emil Fischer (1852–1919), 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, known for work on stereochemistry and for the lock and key mechanism of enzyme action
|
||||
Emily V. Fischer (born 1979/1980), American chemist notable for work on the WE-CAN project and on peroxyacetyl nitrate
|
||||
Ernst Gottfried Fischer (1754–1831), German chemist who proposed a system of equivalents based on sulfuric acid equal to 1000
|
||||
Ernst Otto Fischer (1918–2007), German chemist, 1973 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for pioneering work on organometallic chemistry
|
||||
Franz Joseph Emil Fischer (1877–1947), German chemist, co-discovered the Fischer–Tropsch process
|
||||
Hans Fischer (1881–1945), German organic chemist, 1930 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for research on the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll
|
||||
Nellie Ivy Fisher (1907–1995), London-born industrial chemist known for photographic chemistry
|
||||
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig (1835–1910), German chemist, co-discovered Wurtz–Fittig reaction
|
||||
|
||||
=== Fl–Fu ===
|
||||
Edith M. Flanigen (born 1929), American chemist known for synthesizing emeralds and zeolites
|
||||
Nicolas Flamel (c. 1330–1418), French alchemist who was believed to have created and discovered the philosopher's stone
|
||||
Paul Flory (1910–1985), American chemist, 1974 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the physical chemistry of macromolecules
|
||||
Maria Forsyth (PhD 1990), Australian chemist known for work on energy storage and on corrosion
|
||||
Margaret D. Foster (1895–1970), Manhattan Project chemist and the first female chemist to work for the United States Geological Survey
|
||||
Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy (1775–1809), co-discovered the element Iridium and developed modern chemical notation
|
||||
Joanna Fowler (born 1942), American neural chemist who studied effects on the human brain and radiotracers in brain chemistry
|
||||
Michelle Francl (PhD 1983), American computational chemist known for the 6-31G* basis set for Na to Ar and electrostatic potential charges
|
||||
Edward Frankland (1825–1899), English chemist, one of the originators of organometallic chemistry who introduced the concept of valence
|
||||
Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958), British chemist and crystallographer whose work was central to understanding the molecular structure of DNA
|
||||
Katherine Franz (born 1972), American chemist noted for work in metal ion coordination in biological systems
|
||||
Herman Frasch (1851–1914), German mining engineer and inventor, pioneered the Frasch process
|
||||
Bertram Fraser-Reid (1934–2020), Jamaican synthetic organic chemist who developed the armed-disarmed principle in glycosylation chemistry
|
||||
Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), American chemist who developed self-testing systems for diabetes
|
||||
Carl Remigius Fresenius (1818–1897), German chemist known for work in analytical chemistry
|
||||
Ida Freund (1863–1914), British chemist known for texts on chemistry teaching, andy first woman university chemistry lecturer in the UK
|
||||
Charles Friedel (1832–1899), French chemist, developer of Friedel–Crafts reaction
|
||||
Alexander Naumovich Frumkin (1895–1976), electrochemist and chemist who develped applied electrochemical processes related to chemical sources of electrical power
|
||||
Kenichi Fukui (1918–1998), 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for investigating mechanisms of chemical reactions
|
||||
Elizabeth Fulhame (18th–19th centuries), British chemist, pioneer in the study of catalysis and discoverer of photoreduction
|
||||
Vera Furness (1921–2002), English chemist and industrial manager who worked on the production of the acrylic Courtelle
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-5.md
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66
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@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 6/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ga–Gl ===
|
||||
Johan Gadolin (1760–1852), Finnish chemist who discvered yttrium
|
||||
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), French chemist and physicist who discovered the Gay-Lussac law, known for discovering that water is made of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume
|
||||
Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–1856), French chemist known for reforming the notation for chemical formulas, and for synthesizing acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)
|
||||
Jnan Chandra Ghosh (1894–1959), Indian chemist known for research on strong electrolytes and the dissociation--ionization theory
|
||||
William Giauque (1895–1982), 1949 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for studies of the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero
|
||||
Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), American chemist and physicist whose work on thermodynamics helped to transform physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science
|
||||
Walter Gilbert (born 1932), 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a method of sequencing nucleic acids
|
||||
Cornelia Gillyard (born 1941), American organic chemist known for work with chemicals in the environment
|
||||
Henry Gilman (1893–1986), American chemist who developed organometallic chemistry, and discovered the Gilman reagent
|
||||
Judith Giordan (Thesis 1980), American chemist who worked on unsaturated hydrocarbons and became President-Elect of the American Chemical Society
|
||||
Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670), Dutch-German alchemist and chemist who discovered sodium sulfate and wrote many books
|
||||
Lawrence E. Glendenin (1918–2008), American chemist, co-discovered the element promethium
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gm–Gu ===
|
||||
Leopold Gmelin (1788–1853), German chemist who discovered potassium ferricyanide; author of Handbook of Chemistry, which is still used
|
||||
Theodore Nicolas Gobley (1811–1874), French chemist, pioneer in brain tissues analysis, discoverer of lecithin
|
||||
Sulamith Goldhaber (1923–1965), Austrian-American chemist, high-energy physicist, and molecular spectroscopist
|
||||
Victor Goldschmidt (1888–1947), Norwegian mineralogist considered to be one of the founders of modern geochemistry
|
||||
Moses Gomberg (1866–1947), Russian-American chemist, known for pioneering work in radical chemistry
|
||||
Mary L. Good (1931–2019), American inorganic chemist who studied catalysis by ruthenium
|
||||
David van Goorle also called Gorlaeus (1591–1612), Dutch chemist, one of the first modern atomists, who thought that all bodies are made up of atoms
|
||||
Loney Gordon (1915–1999), American chemist who assisted in creating the pertussis vaccine
|
||||
Carl Gräbe (1841–1927), German chemist who synthesized the dye alizarin
|
||||
Thomas Graham (1805–1869), Scottish chemist known for pioneering work on dialysis and diffusion of gases
|
||||
Harry B. Gray (born 1935), American chemist known for the kinetics of long-range electron-transfer reactions in metalloproteins; 2004 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Martha Greenblatt (born 1941), American solid state inorganic chemist, 2003 American Chemical Society's Garvan-Olin Medal
|
||||
Bettye Washington Greene (1935–1995), American industrial chemist who studied colloid and latex chemistry, including interactions between latex and paper
|
||||
Sandra C. Greer (born 1945), American chemist notable for work on thermodynamics of fluids, polymer solutions and phase transitions
|
||||
François Auguste Victor Grignard (1871–1935), French chemist, 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on reactions important in the formation of carbon–carbon bonds
|
||||
Robert H. Grubbs (1942–2021), 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on olefin metathesis
|
||||
Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau (1737–1816), French chemist known for establishing modern chemical nomenclature
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ha ===
|
||||
Fritz Haber (1868–1934), German chemist, 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, father of the Haber process
|
||||
Dorothy Hahn (1876–1950), early American organic chemist and ultraviolet spectroscopist
|
||||
Otto Hahn (1879–1968), German chemist, discoverer of nuclear fission, 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, father of nuclear chemistry
|
||||
Sossina M. Haile (born 1966), American chemist notable for developing the first solid acid fuel cells
|
||||
Naomi Halas (PhD 1987), American biochemist focusing on nanoshells and nanophotonics
|
||||
John Burdon Sanderson Haldane (1892–1962), British and Indian biochemist, geneticist and evolutionary biologist
|
||||
Charles Martin Hall (1863–1914), American chemist known for the Hall-Héroult process for inexpensive production of aluminum
|
||||
Frances Mary Hamer (1894–1980), British chemist who specialized in photographic sensitization compounds
|
||||
George S. Hammond (1921–2005), American chemist, famous for Hammond's postulate as part of the general theory of the transition state in chemical reactions
|
||||
Arthur Harden (1865–1940), English biochemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1929 for work on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes
|
||||
Elizabeth Hardy (1915–2008), Canadian-American chemist who discovered the Cope rearrangement of dienes
|
||||
Anna J. Harrison (1912–1998), American chemist who studied the structure of organic compounds and their interaction with light, first woman President of the American Chemical Society
|
||||
Odd Hassel (1897–1981), Norwegian chemist who established the three-dimensionality of molecular geometry, 1969 Nobel Prize in chemistry
|
||||
Charles Hatchett (1765–1847), English chemist who discovered niobium
|
||||
Herbert A. Hauptman (1917–2011), American mathematician who developed a method that opened a new era in research in determination of molecular structures of crystallized materials, 1985 Nobel Prize in chemistry
|
||||
Walter Hawkins (1911–1992), American chemist, a pioneer of polymer chemistry, who co-invented a polymer with antioxidants that prevented deterioration even in extreme temperatures
|
||||
Walter Haworth (1883–1950), British chemist, 1937 Nobel Prize in chemistry "for his investigations on carbohydrates and vitamin C"
|
||||
Sam Hay (PhD 2004), New Zealand chemist known for in silico enzymology, quantum mechanics roles in biological processes
|
||||
Alma Levant Hayden (1927–1967), American spectrophotometrist known for showing that Krebiozen was a quack anti-cancer agent
|
||||
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (722–804), Persian-Arab chemist and alchemist, purported author of many works in Arabic
|
||||
64
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md
Normal file
64
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 7/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== He–Hi ===
|
||||
Clayton Heathcock (born 1936), American chemist known for his work on the synthesis of complex polycyclic natural products
|
||||
Alan J. Heeger (1936–2023), American chemist known for co-founding the field of conducting polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in chemistry
|
||||
Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579–1644), chemist from the Spanish Netherlands known for studying the weight gain of growing plants, The founder of pneumatic chemistry
|
||||
Victor Henri (1872–1940), French physical chemist of Russian parents, the first to apply ideas of physical chemistry to the properties of enzymes.
|
||||
Dudley R. Herschbach (born 1932), American chemist, 1986 Nobel Prize in chemistry for work on the dynamics of chemical elementary processes
|
||||
Avram Hershko (born 1937), Hungarian-born Israeli biochemist, 2004 Nobel Prize in chemistry for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation
|
||||
Charles Herty (1867–1938), American chemist who revolutionized the turpentine industry
|
||||
Gerhard Herzberg (1904–1999), German-Canadian chemist, 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals
|
||||
Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850), Swiss-born Russian chemist who formulated Hess's law, an early principle of thermochemistry
|
||||
George de Hevesy (1885–1966), Hungarian chemist who discovered hafnium, Nobel Prize in chemistry 1943 for the development of radioactive tracers to study metabolism
|
||||
Jaroslav Heyrovský (1890–1967), Czech chemist, 1959 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of polarography
|
||||
Evelyn Hickmans (1883–1972), British biochemist, pioneer in treatment of phenylketonuria
|
||||
Joel Hildebrand (1881–1983), American educator and chemist specializing in liquids and nonelectrolyte solutions
|
||||
Mary Elliott Hill (1907–1969), American chemist who developed analytic methodology for ultraviolet light
|
||||
Cyril Norman Hinshelwood (1897–1967), English physical chemist known for study of chemical kinetics, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1956
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ho–Hu ===
|
||||
Gladys Lounsbury Hobby (1910–1993), American microbiologist known for development and early understanding of antibiotics
|
||||
Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994), British chemist, 1964 Nobel Prize in chemistry for development of protein crystallography
|
||||
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911), Dutch physical chemist known for developing the princioles of chemical thermodynamics, 1901 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Albert Hofmann (1906–2008), Swiss chemist, synthesized Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
|
||||
August Wilhelm Hofmann (1818–1892), German chemist, first to isolate sorbic acid
|
||||
Darleane C. Hoffman (1926–2025), American nuclear chemist who studied the properties of transuranium elements
|
||||
Friedrich Hoffmann (1660–1742), German physician and chemist who found that lime, magnesia, etc. existed in almost all mineral springs in Germany
|
||||
Roald Hoffmann (born 1937), Polish-born American chemist, 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for theories of the course of chemical reactions
|
||||
Mei Hong (born 1970), Chinese-American biophysical chemist known for development solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance to elucidate the structures and mechanisms of membrane proteins
|
||||
Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947), British biochemist, known for discovery of vitamins, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929
|
||||
Marjorie G. Horning (1917–2020), American biochemist and pioneer of chromatography who developed new techniques for studying drug metabolism
|
||||
Benjamin Hsiao (born 1958), Taiwanese American chemist working to understand the structural, morphological development and manipulation of complex polymer systems
|
||||
Linda Hsieh-Wilson (PhD 1996), American chemist known for work in chemical neurobiology on understanding the structure and function of carbohydrates in the nervous system
|
||||
Heinrich Hubert Maria Josef Houben (1875–1940), German organic chemist known for work on ketone synthesis, terpenes, and camphor
|
||||
Coenraad Johannes van Houten (1801–1887), Dutch chemist and chocolate maker who invented cocoa powder
|
||||
Amir H. Hoveyda (PhD 1986), American chemist, particularly noted for developing catalysts for stereoselective olefin metathesis
|
||||
Marcia Huber (PhD 1985), American chemical engineer known for modeling the thermophysical properties of fluids
|
||||
Robert Huber (born 1937), German chemist known for crystallizing an intramembrane protein important in photosynthesis, 1988 Nobel Prize in chemistry
|
||||
Catherine T. Hunt (born 1955), American chemist who worked on nuclear magnetic resonance and became president of the American Chemical Society
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Sir Christopher Kelk Ingold (1893–1970), English chemist known for introducing concepts such as nucleophile, electrophile, inductive and resonance effects
|
||||
Vladimir Ipatieff (1867–1952), Russian-American chemist who worked in petroleum chemistry and catalysts
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Nancy B. Jackson (1956–2022), American chemist who worked on heterogeneous catalysis and the development of alternative fuels
|
||||
Marilyn E. Jacox (1929–2013), American chemist who worked on the spectroscopy of free radicals and other unstable chemical species
|
||||
Hope Jahren (born 1969), American chemist and isotope analyst known for using stable isotope analysis to analyze fossil forests
|
||||
Paul Janssen (1926–2003), Belgian physician and entrepreneur who discovered the antispasmodic drug ambucetamide
|
||||
Allene Jeanes (1906–1995), American chemist who developed Dextran to replace plasma in the Korean War
|
||||
Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900–1958), French chemist and physicist, 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of induced radioactivity
|
||||
Irène Joliot-Curie (1897–1956), French chemist and physicist, 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of induced radioactivity
|
||||
Madeleine M. Joullié (born 1927), French-American-Brazilian organic chemist who worked on synthesizing organic compounds such as tilorone, furanomycin, and numerous cyclopeptides
|
||||
Percy Lavon Julian (1899–1975), African American organic chemist who was a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine.
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
81
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-7.md
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81
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Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 8/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ka--Kj ===
|
||||
Henri B. Kagan (born 1930) French chemist, pioneer of asymmetric catalysis, 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Isabella Karle (1921–2017), American chemist instrumental for extracting plutonium chloride from a mixture containing plutonium oxide
|
||||
Jerome Karle (1918–2013), 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the direct analysis of crystal structures by X-ray scattering
|
||||
Paul Karrer (1889–1971), Swiss organic chemist known for research on vitamins, 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Alan R. Katritzky (1928–2014), British-American organic chemist, pioneer of heterocyclic chemistry
|
||||
Joyce Jacobson Kaufman (1929–2016), American chemist and inventor of conformational topology
|
||||
Melinda H. Keefe (PhD 2001), American chemist known for identifying solvents that can be used to remove dirt without damaging layers of paint
|
||||
August Kekulé (1829–1896), German organic chemist known for the theory of chemical structure, especially the structure of benzene
|
||||
John Kendrew (1917–1997), British biochemist and crystallographer known for solving the structure of myoglobin, 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Ann Kiessling (born 1942), American chemist and reproductive biologist known for discovering reverse transcriptase activity in normal human cells
|
||||
Ann Kimble-Hill (21st century), American biochemist studying structure-function relationships of membrane proteins and lipids
|
||||
Petrus Jacobus Kipp (1808–1864), Dutch chemist, inventor of Kipp's apparatus
|
||||
Johan Kjeldahl (1849–1900), Danish chemist who developed a method for determining the amount of nitrogen in organic compounds
|
||||
|
||||
=== Kl--Ku ===
|
||||
Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1743–1817), German chemist, who discovered uranium and zirconium, and contributed to the discovery of other elements
|
||||
Trevor Kletz (1922–2013), British promoter of industrial safety
|
||||
Aaron Klug (1926–2018), winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing crystallographic electron microscopy
|
||||
Emil Knoevenagel (1865–1921) German organic chemist, known for the condensation reaction of carbonyl compounds with active methylene compounds
|
||||
Jeremy Randall Knowles (1935–2008), British physical organic chemist known for studies of chemical mechanisms, especially in enzyme catalysis
|
||||
William Standish Knowles (1917–2012), 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on asymmetric synthesis, specifically in hydrogenation reactions
|
||||
Walter Kohn (1923–2016), 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for contributions to the understanding of the electronic properties of materials
|
||||
Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (1818–1884), German chemist known for Kolbe nitrile synthesis
|
||||
Izaak Kolthoff (1894–1993), Dutch-American chemist with abundant published research in diverse fields of analysis, the "Father of Analytical Chemistry"
|
||||
Arthur Kornberg (1918–2007), American biochemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1959) for discovery of DNA polymerase
|
||||
Hans Kornberg (1928–2019), British biochemist known for research in microbial biochemistry
|
||||
Roger D. Kornberg (born 1947), 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for elucidation of how genetic information from DNA is copied to RNA
|
||||
Teresa Kowalska (1946–2023), Polish chemist, specialized in the theory and application of chromatography
|
||||
Hans A. Krebs (1900–1981), German-British biochemist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1953)for work on metabolic cycles
|
||||
Harold Kroto (1939–2016), English chemist, 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of fullerenes
|
||||
Richard Kuhn (1900–1967), 1938 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on carotenoids and vitamins
|
||||
Eugenia Kumacheva (PhD 1986), Ukrainian-Canadian chemist with work on fundamental and applied polymers science, nanotechnology, microfluidics, and interface chemistry
|
||||
Theodore Kuwana, (1931–2022), American chemist, founder of the field of spectroelectrochemistry
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== La–Li ===
|
||||
Irving Langmuir (1881–1957), American chemist, physicist, 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work in surface chemistry
|
||||
Auguste Laurent (1807–1853), French chemist who discovered trichloroethylene, anthracene, phthalic acid, and carbolic acid
|
||||
Paul Lauterbur (1929–2007), American chemist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2003) work which that the development of magnetic resonance imaging possible
|
||||
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), French chemist who recognized oxygen and hydrogen as elements
|
||||
Nicolas Leblanc (1742–1806), French chemist and surgeon who discovered how to manufacture soda ash from common salt
|
||||
Henri Louis Le Chatelier (1850–1936), French chemist known for Le Chatelier's principle, which allows prediction of the effect of a changing condition on a system in chemical equilibrium
|
||||
Yuan T. Lee (born 1936), Taiwanese chemist, 1986 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for contributions to the development of reaction dynamics
|
||||
Valery Legasov (1936–1988), Soviet inorganic chemist known for his position as head of the Chernobyl Commission for the Chernobyl Disaster
|
||||
Jean-Marie Lehn (born 1939), French chemist, 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the synthesis of cryptands
|
||||
Marko Leko (1853–1932), Serbian chemist known for work on the nature of ammonium chloride
|
||||
Luis Federico Leloir (1906–1987), Argentine biochemist and winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Raymond Lemieux (1920–2000), Canadian organic chemist, Wolf Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946), American chemist and first Dean of the Berkeley College of Chemistry
|
||||
|
||||
=== Li–Lu ===
|
||||
Andreas Libavius (1555–1616), German doctor and alchemist who discovered how prepare hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfate, etc.
|
||||
Carl Theodore Liebermann (1842–1914), German chemist, known for synthesis of alizarin
|
||||
Willard Libby (1908–1980), American chemist known for development of radiocarbon dating, 1960 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), German inventor and pioneer in agricultural and biological chemistry
|
||||
Karl Paul Link (1901–1978), American biochemist, discovered the anticoagulant warfarin
|
||||
John Wilfrid Linnett (1913–1975), British chemist at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, known for contributions to theoretical chemistry
|
||||
William Lipscomb (1919–2011), American chemist known for work in nuclear magnetic resonance, theoretical chemistry, boron chemistry, and biochemistry; 1976 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister (1827–1912), English surgeon known for recognising that putrefaction in wounds is caused by germs
|
||||
Arthur H. Livermore (1915–2009), American science educator and chemist who contributed to the synthesis of penicillin
|
||||
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian scientist, anticipated the kinetic-molecular theory by 100 years
|
||||
H. Christopher Longuet-Higgins (1923–2004), British chemist with many contributions to theoretical chemistry
|
||||
Janis Louie, (born 1971), American chemist who works of catalisis by nickel-based systems
|
||||
Martin Lowry (1874–1936), British physical chemist who developed acid–base theory
|
||||
Sima Lozanić (1847–1935), Serbian chemist known for chemistry textbooks
|
||||
Alfred Lucas (1867–1945), Egypt-based English analytical chemist and archaeologist known for work after the excavation of Tutankhamun's tomb
|
||||
Ignacy Łukasiewicz (1802–1882), Polish pharmacist, inventor of the modern kerosene lamp
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
62
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md
Normal file
62
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 9/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ma–Me ===
|
||||
Alan MacDiarmid (1927–2007), American-New Zealand chemist who discovered conductive polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Carolina Henriette Mac Gillavry (1904–1993), Dutch chemist and crystallographer known for discoveries on the use of diffraction in crystallography
|
||||
Roderick MacKinnon (born 1956), American biophsicist known for work on ion channels; 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Pierre Macquer (1718–1784), French chemist known for Dictionnaire de chymie
|
||||
Rudolph A. Marcus (born 1923), Canadian chemist known for work on the theory of electron transfer reactions; 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Jacob A. Marinsky (1918–2005), American chemist, co-discovered the element promethium
|
||||
Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894), Swiss chemist who discovered ytterbium and co-discovered gadolinium
|
||||
Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov (1838–1904), Russian chemist known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions of hydrogen halides and alkenes
|
||||
Tobin J. Marks (born 1944), American inorganic chemist and materials scientist known for work in polymerization catalysts
|
||||
Alan G. Marshall (born 1944), American chemist, co-inventor of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry
|
||||
Archer John Porter Martin (1910–2002), British physical chemist, 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of partition chromatography
|
||||
Martinus van Marum (1750–1837), Dutch physician, inventor, scientist and teacher, which created the "large electricity machine"
|
||||
Elmer McCollum (1879–1967), American biochemist, known for work of diet on health
|
||||
Edwin McMillan (1907–1991), American physicist, the first to produce a transuranium element, neptunium, 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Lise Meitner (1878–1968), Austrian and Swedish nuclear physicist instrumental in the discovery of nuclear fission
|
||||
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907), Russian chemist, creator of the Periodic table of elements
|
||||
Maud Menten (1879–1960). Canadian biochemist known for early work on enzyme kinetics
|
||||
John Mercer (1791–1866), British dye and fabric chemist who developed mercerisation, a process for treating cotton
|
||||
Robert Bruce Merrifield (1921–2006), solid-phase chemist, 1984 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895), German chemist, one of the pioneers in developing the earliest versions of the periodic table of the chemical elements
|
||||
Viktor Meyer (1848–1897), German organic and inorganic chemist, known for work on vapour densities
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mi ===
|
||||
August Michaelis (1847–1916), German chemist who discovered the Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction
|
||||
Leonor Michaelis (1875–1949), German biochemist and physical chemist known for fundamental advances in enzyme chemistry
|
||||
Hartmut Michel (born 1948), German biochemist, 1988 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determination of the first crystal structure of an integral membrane protein
|
||||
Huang Minlon (1889–1979), Chinese chemist, pioneer of modern pharmaceutical industries in China
|
||||
Stanley Miller (1930–2007), American chemist, best known for the Miller–Urey experiment
|
||||
Eugène Millon (1812–1867), French military chemist and physician who discovered the reaction of mercury and nitric acid with egg albumen
|
||||
David P. Mills (PhD 2007), British chemist who investigates lanthanide and actinide f-block elements
|
||||
Luis E. Miramontes (1925–2004), Mexican co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill
|
||||
Peter D. Mitchell (1920–1992), British biochemist known for the theory of chemiosmosis, 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Eilhardt Mitscherlich (1794–1863), German chemist, remembered for the law of isomorphism.
|
||||
Alexander Mitscherlich (1836–1918), German chemist known for discovering crystallographic isomorphism
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mo–Mu ===
|
||||
Karl Friedrich Mohr (1806–1879), German chemist famous for early statement on the Conservation of energy
|
||||
Henri Moissan (1852–1907), French chemist and the winner of the 1906 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on fluorine
|
||||
Mario J. Molina (1943–2020), Mexican chemist known for discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole, 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Jacques Monod (1910–1976), French biochemist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965 "for discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis"
|
||||
Jeffrey S. Moore (born 1961), American materials chemist known for work on macromolecular architectures
|
||||
Peter Moore (born 1939), American biochemist known for work on the structure, function, and mechanism of the ribosome
|
||||
Stanford Moore (1913–1982), American biochemist known for automatic amino acid analysis, 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the structure of the enzyme ribonuclease
|
||||
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (1887–1915), British physicist who discovered Moseley's law and introduced the concept of atomic number
|
||||
Gerardus Johannes Mulder (1802–1880), Dutch organic chemist who introduced the concept of protein
|
||||
Paul Müller (1899–1965), Swiss chemist who discovered DDT and its use as an insecticide; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1939
|
||||
Robert S. Mulliken (1896–1986), American physicist and chemist known for molecular orbital theory, 1966 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Jnanendra Nath Mukherjee(1893-1983), Indian chemist known for work on the electrochemistry of colloids
|
||||
Kary Mullis (1944–2019), American biochemist who invented the polymerase chain reaction, 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Earl Muetterties (1927–1984), American chemist known for work on boranes and various aspects of catalysis
|
||||
Catherine J. Murphy (born 1964), American chemist and materials scientist known for work on nanomaterials
|
||||
103
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-9.md
Normal file
103
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Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chemists"
|
||||
chunk: 10/12
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Robert Nalbandyan (1937–2002), Armenian protein chemist known for discovery of photosynthetic protein plantacyanin
|
||||
Sergey Nametkin (1976–1950), Russian organic chemist known the cracking of petrochemicals, and rearrangement of camphenes
|
||||
Louise Natrajan (PhD 2003), British chemist who ortks on actinide chemistry and luminescence spectroscopy
|
||||
Giulio Natta (1903–1979), Italian chemical engineer worked on high density polymers, 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Costin Nenițescu (1902–1970), Romanian chemist who studied the oxidation of open-chain and aromatic hydrocarbons with chromic acid and chromic oxychloride
|
||||
Antonio Neri (1576–1614), Florentine priest, author of L’Arte Vetraria (The Art of Glass), the first general treatise on the systematics of glassmaking
|
||||
Walther Nernst (1864–1941), German physical chemist whose heat theorem led the way to the third law of thermodynamics, 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
John Alexander Reina Newlands (1837–1898), British analytical chemist, precursor of the periodic order of elements
|
||||
William Nicholson (1753–1815), British chemist and civil engineer, the first to achieve electrolysis
|
||||
Kyriacos Costa Nicolaou (born 1946), Cypriot-American chemist known for total synthesis of natural products
|
||||
Julius Nieuwland (1878–1936), Belgian and American prirest and chemist who worked on synthetic rubber
|
||||
Mathias Nilsson, Swedish physical and analytical chemist concerned with liquid NMR spectroscopy
|
||||
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), Swedish chemist who invented dynamite and established the Nobel Prizes
|
||||
Ronald George Wreyford Norrish (1897–1978), British chemist known for flash photolysis and the Norrish reaction, 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
John Howard Northrop (1891–1987), American biochemist known for isolation, crystallization, and study of enzymes, proteins, and viruses; 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Ryōji Noyori (born 1938), Japanese chemist, 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the study of chirally catalyzed hydrogenations
|
||||
Ralph Nuzzo (born 1954), American materials chemist known for work on the chemistry of materials, including processes that occur at surfaces and interfaces
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
George Andrew Olah (1927–2017), Hungarian and American chemist who worked on the generation and reactivity of carbocations via superacids; 1994 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Marilyn Olmstead (1943–2020), American chemist, expert in small-molecule crystallography
|
||||
Fred Olsen (1891–1986), British-born American chemist, inventor of the ball propellant manufacturing process
|
||||
Lars Onsager (1903–1976), Norwegian and American physical chemist and theoretical physicist who cirrected the Debye-Hückel theory of electrolytic solutions, 1968 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Tony Orchard (1941–2005), British inorganic chemist whose research helped to lay the foundations of much modern consumer electronic technology
|
||||
Joan Oró (1923–2004), Spanish (Catalan) biochemist known for studies of the origin of life
|
||||
Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851), Danish chemist and physicist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields
|
||||
Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932), Baltic German physical chemist, 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for contributions to the fields of catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities
|
||||
Larry E. Overman (born 1943), American organic chemist developing chemical reactions, particularly transition metal catalyzed reactions
|
||||
Geoffrey Ozin (DPhil 1967), British materials chemist known for research on nanomaterials
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Paracelsus (1493–1541), alchemist
|
||||
Rudolph Pariser (1923–2021), theoretical and organic chemist
|
||||
Robert G. Parr (1921–2017), theoretical chemist
|
||||
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), French biochemist, father of pasteurization
|
||||
Linus Pauling (1901–1994), Nobel Prizes in chemistry and peace
|
||||
Charles J. Pedersen (1904–1989), 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Eugène-Melchior Péligot (1811–1890), French chemist who isolated the uranium metal
|
||||
William Henry Perkin (1838–1907), British organic chemist and inventor of mauveine (dye)
|
||||
William Henry Perkin, Jr. (1860–1929), British organic chemist, son of Sir William Henry Perkin
|
||||
Max Perutz (1914–2002), 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Eva Philbin (1914–2005), Irish chemist
|
||||
David Andrew Phoenix (born 1966), British biochemist
|
||||
Georgy Pigulevsky (1888–1964), Russian chemist and biochemist
|
||||
James Pitts (1921–2014), American chemist known for work on photochemistry and atmospheric chemistry
|
||||
Roy J. Plunkett (1910–1994), discoverer of Teflon
|
||||
John Charles Polanyi (born 1929), Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1986
|
||||
John A. Pople (1925–2004), theoretical chemist, 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Vera Vevstafievna Popova (1867–1896), one of the first female Russian chemists
|
||||
George Porter (1920–2002), 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Fritz Pregl (1869–1930), Slovene-German chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1923
|
||||
Vladimir Prelog (1906–1998), 1975 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), no formal training as a scientist, discovered the element oxygen
|
||||
Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003), 1977 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Joseph Louis Proust (1754–1826), discovered the Law of definite proportions
|
||||
Evgenii Przhevalsky (1879-1953), Russian and Soviet chemist, father of analytical chemistry in USSR
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Ronald T. Raines (born 1958), American chemist
|
||||
Adam Vladislavovich Rakovsky (1879–1941), Soviet physical chemist
|
||||
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (born 1952), 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
William Ramsay (1852–1916), Scottish chemist, 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
C. N. R. Rao (born 1934), Indian chemist
|
||||
François-Marie Raoult (1830–1901), French chemist, known for Raoult's law
|
||||
Henry Rapoport (1918–2002), American chemist, UC Berkeley
|
||||
William Sage Rapson (1912–1999), South African chemist and co-author of Gold Usage
|
||||
Nil Ratan Dhar (1892–1986), Pioneering Indian soil chemist
|
||||
Ken Raymond (born 1942), American inorganic and bioinorganic chemist, UC Berkeley
|
||||
Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861–1944), Indian chemist
|
||||
Julius Rebek (born 1944), Hungarian American chemist
|
||||
Charles Lee Reese (1862–1940), American chemist and Chemical Director of DuPont
|
||||
Henri Victor Regnault (1810–1878), French chemist and physicist
|
||||
Tadeus Reichstein (1897–1996), chemist, 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
|
||||
Oleg Reutov (1920-1998), soviet organic chemist
|
||||
Rhazes (Razi) (865–925), Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist
|
||||
Stuart A. Rice (1932–2024), physical chemist
|
||||
Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911), industrial and environmental chemist
|
||||
Theodore William Richards (1868–1928), 1914 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Wim Richter (1946–2019), South Africa
|
||||
Jeremias Benjamin Richter (1762–1807), German chemist, first used the term stoichiometry
|
||||
Nikolaus Riehl (1901–1990), German chemist
|
||||
Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), Spanish-Mexican geochemist, discovered vanadium
|
||||
Robert Robinson (1886–1975), British chemist, 1947 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Pierre Jean Robiquet (1780–1840), French chemist, discovered caffeine, alizarin, cantharidin
|
||||
Hillar Rootare (1928–2008), Estonian-American physical chemist
|
||||
Irwin Rose (1926–2015), 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Guillaume-François Rouelle (1703–1770), French chemist
|
||||
Hilaire-Marin Rouelle (1718–1779), French chemist
|
||||
Frank Sherwood Rowland (1927–2012), 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), Scottish chemist
|
||||
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), New Zealand born chemist and nuclear physicist. Discovered the proton. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908
|
||||
Leopold Ruzicka (Lavoslav Ružička) (1887–1976), 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
|
||||
67
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md
Normal file
67
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chlorinated propanes"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:48.360196+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of the 29 molecules of chlorinated propane in order of number of chlorine atoms.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Monochloro ==
|
||||
1-Chloropropane
|
||||
2-Chloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dichloro ==
|
||||
1,1-Dichloropropane
|
||||
1,2-Dichloropropane
|
||||
1,3-Dichloropropane
|
||||
2,2-Dichloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Trichloro ==
|
||||
1,1,1-Trichloropropane
|
||||
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
|
||||
1,2,2-Trichloropropane
|
||||
1,1,2-Trichloropropane
|
||||
1,1,3-Trichloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Tetrachloro ==
|
||||
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,1,3-Tetrachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,2,3-Tetrachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,3,3-Tetrachloropropane
|
||||
1,2,2,3-tetrachloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Pentachloro ==
|
||||
1,1,1,2,2-Pentachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,1,2,3-Pentachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,1,3,3-Pentachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,2,2,3-Pentachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,2,3,3-Pentachloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hexachloro ==
|
||||
1,1,1,2,2,3-Hexachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,1,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,2,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Heptachloro ==
|
||||
1,1,1,2,2,3,3-Heptachloropropane
|
||||
1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptachloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Octachloro ==
|
||||
Octachloropropane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of cigarette smoke carcinogens"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:49.504661+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Commercial tobacco smoke is a mixture of more than 5,000 chemicals. A 2011 report in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) lists 65 carcinogens or possible carcinogens: "Our list of hazardous smoke components includes all nine components reported in mainstream cigarette smoke that are known human carcinogens (IARC Group I carcinogens), as well as all nine components that are probably carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2A carcinogens). In addition, it contains 34 of the 48 components that are possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B carcinogens)."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== IJERPH table ==
|
||||
"1Cancer inhalation risk values provide an excess lifetime exposure risk, in this case the human lung cancer risk at a 1 in 100,000 (E-5) level."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Kent, a cigarette that contained a filter made of asbestos.
|
||||
Composition of electronic cigarette aerosol
|
||||
Health effects of tobacco smoking
|
||||
List of additives in cigarettes
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md
Normal file
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of climate change books"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:44.352085+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on climate change.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Non-fiction ==
|
||||
Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject that is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fiction ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Climate change in literature
|
||||
List of environmental books
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
Books on Global Warming, Climate Change Books, Climate Change Education.org
|
||||
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md
Normal file
36
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of compounds"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:50.676864+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Compounds are organized into the following lists:
|
||||
|
||||
List of inorganic compounds, compounds without a C–H bond
|
||||
List of biomolecules
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Chemical substance – Form of matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
List of alchemical substances
|
||||
List of chemical elements
|
||||
List of fragrance compounds
|
||||
List of minerals
|
||||
List of named alloys
|
||||
List of straight-chain alkanes
|
||||
Polyatomic ion – Ion containing two or more atoms
|
||||
Exotic molecule – a compound containing one or more exotic atoms
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Relevant links for chemical compounds are:
|
||||
|
||||
Chemical Abstracts Service, a division of the American Chemical Society
|
||||
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) – substance databases
|
||||
CAS Common Chemistry
|
||||
ChemSpider
|
||||
PubChem
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of computational chemistry software"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:51.876846+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of computational chemistry software used for electronic structure calculations, molecular property prediction, and related simulations. The programs listed below implement methods such as Hartree–Fock, Post–Hartree–Fock, density-functional theory, and relativistic formalisms for molecular, biological, and solid-state chemistry systems.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Quantum chemistry ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Molecular dynamics ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Molecular modeling software ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cheminformatics, docking, and modeling ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Utilities and frameworks ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software
|
||||
Computational Chemistry List
|
||||
Crystallographic database
|
||||
Crystallography Open Database
|
||||
List of chemical process simulators
|
||||
List of chemistry journals
|
||||
List of computational chemists
|
||||
List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software
|
||||
List of molecular graphics systems
|
||||
List of software for Monte Carlo molecular modeling
|
||||
List of software for nanostructures modeling
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Software | Computational Chemical Sciences Open-Source Software Development Group
|
||||
Free and open source software for computational chemistry education
|
||||
Cheminformatics and Molecular Modeling – Translational Informatics Division
|
||||
Best Open Source Chemistry Software 2025
|
||||
lmmentel/awesome-python-chemistry
|
||||
Cutting-Edge Free Tools To Unlock the Power of Computational Chemistry
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of conjugated polymers"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:53.097778+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Light emitting polymers in OLEDs
|
||||
Conductive polymer
|
||||
Electroluminescence
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md
Normal file
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of cooling baths"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:54.317715+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This article contains a list of cooling bath mixtures.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Table ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
Lee, Do W.; Jensen, Craig M. (2000). "Dry-Ice Bath Based on Ethylene Glycol Mixtures". J. Chem. Educ. 77 (5): 629. doi:10.1021/ed077p629.
|
||||
Phipps, Alan M.; Hume, David N. (1968). "General purpose low temperature dry-ice baths". J. Chem. Educ. 45 (10): 664. Bibcode:1968JChEd..45..664P. doi:10.1021/ed045p664.
|
||||
Rondeau, Roger E. (1966). "Slush baths". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 11: 124. doi:10.1021/je60028a037.
|
||||
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md
Normal file
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of copper salts"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:55.607543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and the atomic number of 29. It is easily recognisable, due to its distinct red-orange color. Copper also has a range of different organic and inorganic salts, having varying oxidation states ranging from (0,I) to (III). These salts (mostly the (II) salts) are often blue to green in color, rather than the orange color copper is known for. Despite being considered a semi-noble metal, copper is one of the most common salt-forming transition metals, along with iron.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Copper(0,I) salts ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Copper(I) salts ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Copper(II) salts ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Copper(I, II) salts ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of organic salts
|
||||
List of inorganic compounds
|
||||
127
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md
Normal file
127
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of corticosteroids"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:56.951676+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) or derivatives of cortisol (hydrocortisone). Most esters of these corticosteroids are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead.
|
||||
The most common structural modifications in synthetic corticosteroids include 1(2)-dehydrogenation, 6α-, 9α-, 16α-, and 16β-substitution (with a halogen or methyl group), 16α,17α-acetonidation, and 17α- and 21-esterification.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Natural ==
|
||||
|
||||
11-Dehydrocorticosterone (11-oxocorticosterone, 17-deoxycortisone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
11-Deoxycorticosterone (deoxycortone, desoxycortone; 21-hydroxyprogesterone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
11-Deoxycortisol (cortodoxone, cortexolone) = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
11-Ketoprogesterone (11-oxoprogesterone; Ketogestin) = pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
11β-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [1]
|
||||
11β-Hydroxyprogesterone (21-deoxycorticosterone) = 11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [2]
|
||||
17α,21-Dihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [3]
|
||||
17α-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one
|
||||
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
18-Hydroxy-11-deoxycorticosterone = 18,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [4]
|
||||
18-Hydroxycorticosterone = 11β,18,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
18-Hydroxyprogesterone = 18-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [5]
|
||||
21-Deoxycortisol = 11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione,
|
||||
21-Deoxycortisone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
21-Hydroxypregnenolone (prebediolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one
|
||||
Aldosterone = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,18,20-trione
|
||||
Corticosterone (17-deoxycortisol) = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Cortisol (hydrocortisone) = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Cortisone = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
Pregnenolone = pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one
|
||||
Progesterone = pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
The glucocorticoid activity of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is very weak (>100-fold less than that of cortisol).
|
||||
The above list includes precursors and intermediates in corticosteroid biosynthesis.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Synthetic ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Progesterone-type ===
|
||||
Flugestone (flurogestone) = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluorometholone = 6α-methyl-9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Medrysone (hydroxymethylprogesterone) = 6α-methyl-11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Prebediolone acetate (21-acetoxypregnenolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one 21-acetate
|
||||
In addition to the above, various progesterone derivative progestins such as chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, medrogestone, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, and segesterone acetate possess weak glucocorticoid activity which can manifest clinically at high dosages.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Hydrocortisone-type ===
|
||||
Chloroprednisone = 6α-chloro-17α,21-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
Cloprednol = 6-chloro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4,6-triene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Difluprednate = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione 17α-butyrate 21-acetate
|
||||
Fludrocortisone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluocinolone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluperolone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-21-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluprednisolone = 6α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Loteprednol = 11β,17α,dihydroxy-21-oxa-21-chloromethylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Methylprednisolone = 6α-methyl-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Prednicarbate = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione 17α-ethylcarbonate 21-propionate
|
||||
Prednisolone = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Prednisone = 17α,21-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
Tixocortol = 11β,17α-dihydroxy-21-sulfanylpregn-4-ene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Triamcinolone = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Methasone-type (16-methylated) ===
|
||||
|
||||
Alclometasone = 7α-chloro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Beclometasone = 9α-chloro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16β-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Betamethasone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16β-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Clobetasol = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16β-methyl-21-chloropregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Clobetasone = 9α-fluoro-16β-methyl-17α-hydroxy-21-chloropregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
Clocortolone = 6α-fluoro-9α-chloro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Desoximetasone = 9α-fluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Dexamethasone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Diflorasone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16β-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Difluocortolone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluclorolone = 6α-fluoro-9α,11β-dichloro-16α,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione
|
||||
Flumetasone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluocortin = 6α-fluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20,21-trione
|
||||
Fluocortolone = 6α-fluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluprednidene = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16-methylenepregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluticasone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methyl-21-thia-21-fluoromethylpregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione
|
||||
Fluticasone furoate = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methyl-21-thia-21-fluoromethylpregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione 17α-(2-furoate)
|
||||
Halometasone = 2-chloro-6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Meprednisone = 16β-methyl-17α,21-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione
|
||||
Mometasone = 9α,21-dichloro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Mometasone furoate = 9α,21-dichloro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione 17α-(2-furoate)
|
||||
Paramethasone = 6α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Prednylidene = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16-methylenepregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
Rimexolone = 11β-hydroxy-16α,17α,21-trimethylpregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione
|
||||
Ulobetasol (halobetasol) = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16β-methyl-21-chloropregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Acetonides and related ===
|
||||
Amcinonide = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with cyclopentanone, 21-acetate
|
||||
Budesonide = 11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with butyraldehyde
|
||||
Ciclesonide = 11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with (R)-cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde, 21-isobutyrate
|
||||
Deflazacort = 11β,21-dihydroxy-2'-methyl-5'H-pregna-1,4-dieno[17,16-d]oxazole-3,20-dione 21-acetate
|
||||
Desonide = 11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
Formocortal (fluoroformylone) = 3-(2-chloroethoxy)-9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxy-20-oxopregna-3,5-diene-6-carboxaldehyde cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone, 21-acetate
|
||||
Fluclorolone acetonide (flucloronide) = 6α-fluoro-9α,11β-dichloro-16α,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
Fludroxycortide (flurandrenolone, flurandrenolide) = 6α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
Flunisolide = 6α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
Fluocinolone acetonide = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
Fluocinonide = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone, 21-acetate
|
||||
Halcinonide = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α-trihydroxy-21-chloropregn-4-ene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
Triamcinolone acetonide = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Others ===
|
||||
Cortivazol = 6,16α-dimethyl-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-2'-phenyl[3,2-c]pyrazolopregna-4,6-dien-20-one 21-acetate
|
||||
RU-28362 = 6-methyl-11β,17β-dihydroxy-17α-(1-propynyl)androsta-1,4,6-trien-3-one
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of steroids
|
||||
List of corticosteroid cyclic ketals
|
||||
List of corticosteroid esters
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:45.541574+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by the European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The following table lists the annual CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000.
|
||||
The data only consider carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry. Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports.
|
||||
In 2023, global GHG emissions reached 53.0 GtCO2eq (without Land Use, land Use Change and Forestry). The 2023 data represent the highest level recorded and experienced an increase of 1.9% or 994 MtCO2eq compared to the levels in 2022. The majority of GHG emissions consisted of fossil CO2 accounting for 73.7% of total emissions.
|
||||
China, the United States, India, the European Union, Russia and Brazil were the world's largest GHG emitters in 2023. Together they account for 49.8% of global population, 63.2% of global gross domestic product, 64.2% of global fossil fuel consumption and 62.7% of global GHG emissions. Among these top emitters, in 2023 China, India, Russia and Brazil increased their emissions compared to 2022, with India having the largest increase in relative terms (+ 6.1%) and China the largest absolute increase by 784 MtCO2eq.
|
||||
CO2 emissions from the top 10 countries with the highest emissions accounted for almost two thirds of the global total. Since 2006, China has been emitting more CO2 than any other country. However, the main disadvantage of measuring total national emissions is that it does not take population size into account. China has the largest CO2 emissions in the world, but also the second largest population. Some argue that for a fair comparison, emissions should be analyzed in terms of the amount of CO2 per capita. Their main argument is illustrated by CO2 per capita emissions in 2023, China's levels (9.24) are almost two thirds those of the United States (13.83) and less than a sixth of those of Palau (62.59 – the country with the highest emissions of CO2 per capita).
|
||||
Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North America.
|
||||
Greenhouse gases (GHG) – primarily carbon dioxide but also others, including methane and chlorofluorocarbons – trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Higher temperatures then act on the climate, with varying effects. For example, dry regions might become drier while, at the poles, the ice caps are melting, causing higher sea levels. In 2016, the global average temperature was already 1.1°C above pre-industrial levels.
|
||||
According to the review of the scientific literature conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas by warming contribution. The other major anthropogenic greenhouse gases) are not included in the following list, nor are humans emissions of water vapor (H2O), the most important greenhouse gases, as they are negligible compared to naturally occurring quantities. Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide should allow independent monitoring in the mid-2020s.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fossil carbon dioxide emissions by country ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Fossil CO2 emissions 2023 vs. fossil CO2 emissions per capita 2023 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Cumulative fossil CO2 emissions 1970-2023 vs. fossil CO2 emissions 2023 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Maps and charts ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
|
||||
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions
|
||||
List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
|
||||
List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
|
||||
List of countries by renewable electricity production
|
||||
List of locations and entities by greenhouse gas emissions
|
||||
United Nations | Sustainable Development Goal 13 - Climate action
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs
|
||||
GHG data from UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions data
|
||||
CO2 emissions in kilotons – World Bank
|
||||
CO2 emissions in metric tons per capita – Google Public Data Explorer
|
||||
49
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md
Normal file
49
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of desiccants"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:02.174207+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
List of desiccants:
|
||||
|
||||
Activated alumina
|
||||
Aerogel
|
||||
Benzophenone (as anion)
|
||||
Bentonite clay
|
||||
Calcium chloride
|
||||
Calcium hydride
|
||||
Calcium oxide
|
||||
Calcium sulfate (Drierite)
|
||||
Cobalt(II) chloride
|
||||
Copper(II) sulfate
|
||||
Lithium chloride
|
||||
Lithium bromide
|
||||
Magnesium chloride hexahydrate
|
||||
Magnesium sulfate
|
||||
Magnesium perchlorate
|
||||
Molecular sieve
|
||||
Phosphorus pentoxide
|
||||
Potassium carbonate
|
||||
Potassium hydroxide
|
||||
Rice
|
||||
Silica gel
|
||||
Sodium
|
||||
Sodium chlorate
|
||||
Sodium chloride
|
||||
Sodium hydroxide
|
||||
Sodium sulfate
|
||||
Sucrose
|
||||
Sulfuric acid
|
||||
Triethylene glycol
|
||||
Zeolite (molecular sieves)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Education Center
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of discredited substances"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:03.476066+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of substances or materials generally considered discredited.
|
||||
A substance can be discredited in one of three ways:
|
||||
|
||||
It was widely believed to exist at one time but no longer is. Such substances are often part of an obsolete scientific theory.
|
||||
It was once believed to have drastically different properties from those accepted now. It was widely claimed and believed to possess significant properties that are no longer attributed to it.
|
||||
It is currently believed to exist as part of a theory that has not met the theoretical and experimental requirements of mainstream science. In particular, such a theory must be predictive.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Substances whose existence is discredited ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Substances whose properties are discredited ==
|
||||
This is not to be construed as implying that these items–as they are understood today–are discredited. What is listed are fire, water, metal, etc. as universal principles or fundamentals.
|
||||
|
||||
Classical elements and Chinese elements discredited by atomic theory and nuclear physics.
|
||||
Fire (classical element)
|
||||
Water (classical element)
|
||||
Earth (classical element)
|
||||
Air (classical element)
|
||||
Wood (classical element)
|
||||
Metal (classical element)
|
||||
Aether (classical element): Now known not to exist (see above)
|
||||
The four bodily humours: Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile, and Yellow Bile. Fluids believed to determine health and character. Discredited by modern biology, including discovery of hormones.
|
||||
The tria prima of Paracelsus and later alchemy: Salt, Mercury and Sulphur. Discredited by modern chemistry (the atomic theory and modern understanding of elements and compounds).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and subatomic particles
|
||||
List of misidentified chemical elements
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Some files were not shown because too many files have changed in this diff Show More
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Reference in New Issue
Block a user