From d9f0b47cf57d12314d2cad90192ca85bd4e035b7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 01:00:47 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 1912 new, 2670 updated, 4695 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 57102336 -> 57733120 bytes .../wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md | 2 +- ...rnia_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals-0.md | 31 + .../wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md | 51 + ...ist_of_extremely_hazardous_substances-0.md | 424 ++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md | 78 ++ .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md | 2 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zp4!f?X;rBcu4Wvvna#uft)#8uubOw@UHN;c4ARInm?5^d)K9m!fuVzwQCsKf zQxhT4nT(-(P}oRoTD*kl&ZbRkHC>+=4<Y%kCQDOb z?22OFSy-L7y+QYOM$`B;;VmHzoSR4&83Yt(EmHj8potWkIu+bvpd;t`B(UB)qy0a& z+AVb}(mG^iTNEz3xnPpAwEtCK4kH@lDe?VP2s%VbU_VA&hTDl@Tl1_hX1Rgv6a=FP z-eGK}HpfnSvCuwji+zXfR2s1zeoew4mJQORmb-Gz^cDi!NRmY2)t)Y*+_K3G4hNb3 z9mTGEEmOs>0H{pzubwS#-kmEDGDnIf%r5!fGRcp?Mkye&6^q46R~LqtbSaC`B%dK~ zDq(YgapJEFb`D}*7WprY&{*s$zYt&0g-n)CKBhCOgD?%f(FL{{o&VT5kXV diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md index ffc01e95b..63ee2e4cd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:14:33.978685+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:31.740905+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7ee2b3c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "California Proposition 65 list of chemicals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:40.740853+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of chemicals published as a requirement of Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, commonly known as California Proposition 65, that are "known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity" as of January 3, 2020. As a result of lawsuits, the list also contains substances known only to cause cancer in animals. +This list is not exhaustive, as the complete list contains over 900 chemicals. + + +== Chemicals currently listed under California Proposition 65 == + + +=== Annotation === + + +== Chemicals that were formerly listed under California Proposition 65 == + +† Numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) +Comments: + +Many substances include its strong acid salts +Airborne particles of many substances are cancerogenic +Bisphenol A (BPA) was removed from the list on April 19, 2013, and was relisted on May 11, 2015. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d2db5ff4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "DEA list of chemicals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:00.892735+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) maintains lists regarding the classification of illicit drugs (see DEA Schedules). It also maintains List I of chemicals and List II of chemicals, which contain chemicals that are used to manufacture the controlled substances/illicit drugs. The list is designated within the Controlled Substances Act but can be modified by the U.S. Attorney General as illegal manufacturing practices change. +Although the list is controlled by the Attorney General, the list is considered a DEA list because the DEA publishes and enforces the list. +Suppliers of these products are subject to regulation and control measures: + + +== List I chemicals == +These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of the controlled substances and are important to the manufacture of the substances: + + +== List II chemicals == +These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of controlled substances: + + +== Special Surveillance List == + + +=== Chemicals === +All listed chemicals as specified in 21 CFR 1310.02 (a) or (b). This includes supplements which contain a listed chemical, regardless of their dosage form or packaging and regardless of whether the chemical mixture, drug product or dietary supplement is exempt from regulatory controls. For each chemical, its illicit manufacturing use is given in parentheses. Some Special Surveillance List chemicals do not have an exclusive manufacturing use for a specific illicit drug but rather have a broad range of uses in both legitimate and illicit manufacturing operations. + + +=== Equipment === +The equipment list: + +22-liter heating mantles +Encapsulating machines +Hydrogenators +Tableting machines, including punches and dies + + +== See also == +Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act +Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 +Drug precursors +European law on drug precursors + + +== References == + + +== External links == +DEA Controlled Substance Schedules (Archived 2021-04-25 at the Wayback Machine) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5966bb796 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,424 @@ +--- +title: "EPA list of extremely hazardous substances" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:11.175702+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is the list of extremely hazardous substances defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. § 11002). The list can be found as an appendix to 40 CFR 355. Updates as of 2006 can be seen on the Federal Register, 71 FR 47121 (August 16, 2006). +The data were provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). + + +== A == +Acetone cyanohydrin +Acetone thiosemicarbazide +Acrolein +Acrylamide +Acrylonitrile +Acryloyl chloride +Adiponitrile +Aldicarb +Aldrin +Allyl alcohol +Allylamine +Aluminium phosphide +Aminopterin +Amiton +Amiton oxalate +Ammonia +Amphetamine +Aniline +Aniline, 2,4,6-trimethyl- +Antimony pentafluoride +Antimycin A +ANTU (Alpha-Naphthylthiourea) +Arsenic pentoxide +Arsenous oxide +Arsenous trichloride +Arsine +Azinphos-ethyl +Azinphos-methyl + + +== B == +Benzal chloride +Benzenamine, 3-(trifluoromethyl)- +Benzenearsonic acid +Benzimidazole, 4,5-dichloro-2-(trifluoromethyl)- +Benzotrichloride +Benzyl chloride +Benzyl cyanide +Bicyclo(2.2.1)heptane-2-carbonitrile +Bis(chloromethyl) ketone +Bitoscanate +Boron trichloride +Boron trifluoride +Boron trifluoride compound with dimethyl ether (1:1) +Bromadiolone +Bromine + + +== C == +Cadmium oxide +Cadmium stearate +Calcium arsenate +Camphechlor +Cantharidin +Carbachol chloride +Carbamic acid, Methyl-, O-(((2,4-Dimethyl-1,3-Dithiolan-2-yl)Methylene)Amino)- (Tirpate) +Carbofuran +Carbon disulfide +Carbophenothion +Chlordane +Chlorfenvinfos +Chlorine +Chlormephos +Chlormequat chloride +Chloroacetic acid +2-chloroethanol +Chloroethyl chloroformate +Chloroform +Chloromethyl ether +Chloromethyl methyl ether +Chlorophacinone +Chloroxuron +Chlorthiophos +Chromic chloride +Cobalt carbonyl +Colchicine +Coumaphos +Cresol, -o +Crimidine +Crotonaldehyde +Crotonaldehyde, (E)- +Cyanogen bromide +Cyanogen iodide +Cyanophos +Cyanuric fluoride +Cycloheximide +Cyclohexylamine + + +== D == +Decaborane(14) +Demeton +Demeton-S-methyl +Dialifor +Diborane +Dichloroethyl ether +Dichloromethylphenylsilane +Dichlorvos +Dicrotophos +Diepoxybutane +Diethyl chlorophosphate +Digitoxin +Diglycidyl ether +Digoxin +Dimefox +Dimethoate +Dimethyl phosphorochloridothioate +Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine +Dimethyldichlorosilane +Dimethylhydrazine +Dimetilan +Dinitrocresol +2,4-Dinitrophenol +Dinoseb +Dinoterb +Dioxathion +Diphacinone +Disulfoton +Dithiazanine iodide +Dithiobiuret + + +== E == +Endosulfan +Endothion +Endrin +Epichlorohydrin +EPN, or O-Ethyl-O-(4-nitrophenyl)phenylthiophosphonate +Ergocalciferol +Ergotamine tartrate +Ethanesulfonyl chloride, 2-chloro- +Ethanol, 1,2-dichloro-, acetate +Ethion +Ethoprophos +Ethylbis(2-chloroethyl)amine +Ethylene fluorohydrin +Ethylene oxide +Ethylenediamine +Ethyleneimine +Ethylthiocyanate + + +== F == +Fenamiphos +Fenitrothion +Fensulfothion +Fluenetil +Fluomine +Fluorine +Fluoroacetamide +Fluoroacetic acid +Fluoroacetyl chloride +Fluorouracil +Fonofos +Formaldehyde +Formaldehyde cyanohydrin +Formetanate hydrochloride +Formothion +Formparanate +Fosthietan +Fuberidazole +Furan + + +== G == +Gallium trichloride + + +== H == +Hexachlorocyclopentadiene +Hexamethylenediamine, N,N'-dibutyl- +Hydrazine +Hydrocyanic acid +Hydrogen chloride (gas only) +Hydrogen fluoride +Hydrogen peroxide (conc > 52%) +Hydrogen selenide +Hydrogen sulfide +Hydroquinone + + +== I == +Iron pentacarbonyl +Isobenzan +Isocyanic acid, 3,4-dichlorophenyl ester +Isodrin +Isophorone diisocyanate +Isopropylmethylpyrazolyl dimethylcarbamate + + +== L == +Lactonitrile +Leptophos +Lewisite +Lindane +Lithium hydride + + +== M == +Malononitrile +Manganese, tricarbonyl methylcyclopentadienyl +Mechlorethamine +Mercuric acetate +Mercuric chloride +Mercuric oxide +Methacrolein diacetate +Methacrylic anhydride +Methacrylonitrile +Methacryloyl chloride +Methacryloyloxyethyl isocyanate +Methamidophos +Methanesulfonyl fluoride +Methidathion +Methiocarb +Methomyl +Methoxyethylmercuric acetate +Methyl 2-chloroacrylate +Methyl bromide +Methyl chloroformate +Methyl hydrazine +Methyl isocyanate +Methyl isothiocyanate +Methyl phenkapton +Methyl phosphonic dichloride +Methyl thiocyanate +Methyl vinyl ketone +Methylmercuric dicyanamide +Methyltrichlorosilane +Metolcarb +Mevinphos +Mexacarbate +Mitomycin C +Monocrotophos +Muscimol +Mustard gas + + +== N == +Nickel carbonyl +Nicotine +Nicotine sulfate +Nitric oxide +Nitrobenzene +Nitrocyclohexane +Nitrogen dioxide +N-Nitrosodimethylamine +Norbormide + + +== O == +Organorhodium complex +Ouabain +Oxamyl +Oxetane, 3,3-bis(chloromethyl)- +Oxydisulfoton + + +== P == +Paraquat +Paraquat methosulfate +Parathion +Parathion-methyl +Paris green +Pentaborane +Pentadecylamine +Peracetic acid +Perchloromethylmercaptan +Phenol +Phenol, 2,2'-thiobis(4-chloro-6-methyl)- +Phenol, 3-(1-methylethyl)-, methylcarbamate +Phenoxarsine, 10,10'-oxydi- +Phenyl dichloroarsine +Phenylhydrazine hydrochloride +Phenylmercury acetate +Phenylsilatrane +Phenylthiourea +Phosacetim +Phosfolan +Phosgene +Phosmet +Phosphamidon +Phosphine +Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, O-ethyl O-(4-(methylthio)phenyl) ester +Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, S-(2-(bis(1-methylethyl)amino)ethyl) O-ethyl ester +Phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, O-(4-nitrophenyl) O-phenyl ester +Phosphoric acid, dimethyl 4-(methylthio)phenyl ester +Phosphonothioic acid, O,O-dimethyl-S-(2-methylthio) ethyl ester +Phosphorus +Phosphorus oxychloride +Phosphorus pentachloride +Phosphorus trichloride +Physostigmine +Physostigmine, salicylate (1:1) +Picrotoxin +Piperidine +Pirimifos-ethyl +Plutonium +Polonium-210 +Potassium arsenite +Potassium cyanide +Potassium silver cyanide +Promecarb +Propargyl bromide +Propionitrile +Propionitrile, 3-chloro- +Propiophenone, 4'-amino- +Propyleneimine +Prothoate +Pyrene +Pyridine, 4-amino- +Pyridine, 4-nitro-, 1-oxide +Pyriminil + + +== R == +Ricin + + +== S == +Salcomine +Sarin +Selenious acid +Semicarbazide hydrochloride +Silane, (4-aminobutyl)diethoxymethyl- +Sodium arsenate +Sodium azide +Sodium cacodylate +Sodium cyanide +Sodium fluoroacetate +Sodium pentachlorophenate +Sodium selenate +Sodium selenite +Stannane, acetoxytriphenyl- +Strychnine +Strychnine sulfate +Sulfotep +Sulfoxide, 3-chloropropyl octyl +Sulfur dioxide +Sulfur tetrafluoride +Sulfur trioxide +Sulfuric acid + + +== T == +Tabun +Tellurium +Tellurium hexafluoride +TEPP +Terbufos +Tetraethyllead +Tetraethyltin +Tetranitromethane +Thallium sulfate +Thallous carbonate +Thallous chloride +Thallous malonate +Thallous sulfate +Thiocarbazide +Thiofanox +Thionazin +Thiophenol +Thiosemicarbazide +Thiourea, (2-chlorophenyl)- +Thiourea, (2-methylphenyl)- +Titanium tetrachloride +Toluene 2,4-diisocyanate +Toluene 2,6-diisocyanate +Trans-1,4-dichlorobutene +Triamiphos +Triazofos +Trichloro(chloromethyl)silane +Trichloro(dichlorophenyl)silane +Trichloroacetyl chloride +Trichloroethylsilane +Trichloronate +Trichlorophenylsilane +Triethoxysilane +Trimethylchlorosilane +Trimethylolpropane phosphite +Trimethyltin chloride +Triphenyltin chloride +Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine + + +== V == +Valinomycin +Vinyl acetate monomer + + +== W == +Warfarin +Warfarin sodium + + +== X == +Xylylene dichloride + + +== Z == +Zinc phosphide + + +== See also == +List of highly toxic gases + + +== References == + +40 C.F.R.: Appendix A to Part 355—The List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities (PDF) (July 1, 2008 ed.), Government Printing Office, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-25, retrieved March 8, 2009 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..70a77e9e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "E number" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:06.253893+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +E numbers, short for Europe numbers, are codes for substances used as food additives, including those found naturally in many foods, such as vitamin C, for use within the European Union (EU) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Commonly found on food labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The fact that an additive has an E number implies that its use was at one time permitted in products for sale in the European Single Market; some of these additives are no longer allowed today. +Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring. In 1964, the directives for preservatives were added; In 1970 antioxidants were added; In 1974 emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents were added as well. + + +== Numbering schemes == +The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentarius committee, though only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union as food additives. Outside the European continent plus Russia, E numbers are also encountered on food labelling in other jurisdictions, including the Gulf Cooperation Council, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and India. + + +== Colloquial use == +In some European countries, the "E number" is used informally as a derogatory term for artificial food additives. For example, in the UK, food companies are required to include the "E number(s)" in the ingredients that are added as part of the manufacturing process. Many components of naturally occurring healthy foods and vitamins have assigned E numbers (and the number is a synonym for the chemical component), e.g. vitamin C (E300) and lycopene (E160d), found in carrots. At the same time, "E number" is sometimes misunderstood to imply approval for safe consumption. This is not necessarily the case, e.g. Avoparcin (E715) is an antibiotic once used in animal feed, but is no longer permitted in the EU, and has never been permitted for human consumption. Sodium nitrite (E250) is toxic. Sulfuric acid (E513) is caustic. + + +== Classification by numeric range == + +Not all examples of a class fall into the given numeric range; moreover, certain chemicals (particularly in the E400–499 range) have a variety of purposes. + + +== Full list == + +The list shows all components that have an E-number assigned, even those no longer allowed in the EU. + + +=== E100–E199 (colours) === + + +=== E200–E299 (preservatives) === + + +=== E300–E399 (antioxidants, acidity regulators) === + + +=== E400–E499 (thickeners, stabilisers, emulsifiers) === + + +=== E500–E599 (acidity regulators, anti-caking agents) === + + +=== E600–E699 (flavour enhancers) === + + +=== E700–E799 (antibiotics) === + + +=== E900–E999 (glazing agents, gases and sweeteners) === + + +=== E1000–E1599 (additional additives) === + + +== See also == +Food Chemicals Codex +List of food additives +International Numbering System for Food Additives +Clean label + + +== References == + + +== External links == +CODEXALIMENTARIUS FAO-WHO, the international foods standards, established by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1963 +See also their document "Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives" (Ref: CAC/GL #36 publ. in 1989, Revised in 2008, Amended in 2018, 2019, 2021) +Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) publications at the World Health Organization (WHO) +Food Additive Index, JECFA, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) +E-codes and ingredients search engine with details/suggestions for Muslims Archived 10 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine +Databases of EU-approved food additives and flavoring substances +Food Additives in the European Union Archived 24 December 2002 at the Wayback Machine +The Food Additives and Ingredients Association, FAIA website, UK. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md index 9732b989a..c3fd49d3d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:36.342506+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:44.477706+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md index ad8543f12..caab3e497 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md index 985651379..91c120e00 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md index ffaf95039..7e36a467f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md index f8895da3a..79a934d27 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 12/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md index 62fae459b..ad121ca4a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 13/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md index 7b2801a73..f19b95297 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 14/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md index 7a4dd0e1c..e8315a354 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 15/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md index dd4262873..cfb577a3c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 16/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md index 570b9a73e..53b5a27b8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 17/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md index 1609b3c31..b3bad763e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 18/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md index 9913a2525..595b85250 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 19/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md index 0f23bca6f..9bc37e684 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 20/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md index 54a192e39..2a08cfd52 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md index 5bad7ee96..9b577a863 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md index 2b87fb4d9..4b7f4f6a0 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md index b39f5c183..909262f1e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md index b4783299a..d46fb2bd8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md index abcd594b4..ff85a2309 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md index 94af73dca..da2bd2fc5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md index c08e44e14..7a33b1825 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/20 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md index a638edd91..4c544ec16 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md index 138dec77f..d8cf2d5f8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md index ab9a9efdf..5f06e0c72 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md index 25e06a41b..d175a8bd3 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b999824e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Highly hazardous chemical" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:23.601936+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A highly hazardous chemical, also called a harsh chemical, is a substance classified by the American Occupational Safety and Health Administration as material that is both toxic and reactive and whose potential for human injury is high if released. Highly hazardous chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, induce genetic damage, cause miscarriage, injury and death from relatively small exposures. +As of August 21st, 2025, the highly hazardous chemicals list includes: + + +== External links == +OSHA list of highly hazardous chemicals \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-0.md index a87589525..0000cf81e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:05.063266+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-1.md index 11d05e36d..a9782dbfb 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:05.063266+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-2.md index c315b9ce8..dada3b9e4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:05.063266+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-3.md index e5c21d5e5..cafc8de08 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:05.063266+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles-0.md index b06b859c8..66b7f5810 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:17.284080+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:18.164414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..36f3235ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,290 @@ +--- +title: "Index of climate change articles" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of climate change topics. + +== 0-9 == +100% renewable energy - +100,000-year problem - +1500-Year climate cycle - +4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference + +== A == +Abrupt climate change - +The Age of Stupid - +Albedo - +An Inconvenient Truth - +An Inconvenient Book - +Antarctica cooling controversy - +Antarctic Bottom Water - +Antarctic Cold Reversal - +Antarctic oscillation - +Anthropocene extinction - +Arctic amplification - +Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - +Arctic geoengineering - +Arctic shrinkage - +Arctic oscillation - +Atlantic oscillation - +Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - +Arctic methane release - +Arctic sea ice decline - +Arctic shrinkage - +Argo (oceanography) - +ARkStorm - +Athabasca oil sands - +Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation - +Atmospheric circulation - +Atmospheric sciences - +Atmospheric window - +Attribution of recent climate change - +Aviation and climate change - +Aviation and the environment - +Avoiding dangerous climate change + +== B == +Bali Communiqué - +Bali Road Map - +Bezos Earth Fund - +Biochar - +Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage - +Bio-geoengineering - +Black carbon - +Blytt–Sernander system - +Broad spectrum revolution - +Business action on climate change + +== C == +Callendar effect - +Cap and Share - +Carbon bubble - +Carbon capture and storage - +Carbon cycle - +Carbon negative - +Carbon neutral - +Carbon price - +Carbon project - +Carbon sequestration - +Carbon offset - +Carbon sink - +Carbon tax - +Catastrophic climate change - +Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change - +Clathrate gun hypothesis - +Clean coal technology - +Clean Energy Trends - +Climate - +Climate change - +Climate change acronyms - +Climate Change Act 2008 - +Climate change denial - +Climate change feedback - +Climate change in Japan - +Climate change in popular culture - +Climate change mitigation - +Climate change mitigation - +Climate change mitigation scenarios - +Climate Code Red (book) - +Climate commitment - +Climate communication - +Climate crisis - +Climate crunch - +Climate cycle - +Climate emergency declaration - +Climate engineering - +Climate ethics - +Climate governance - +Climate Investment Funds - +Climate model - +Climate refugee - +Climate risk management - +Climate scientists (list) - +Climate sensitivity - +Climate spiral - +Climate stabilization wedge - +Climate surprise - +Climate system - +Climate variability - +Climate Vulnerable Forum - +Climatic Research Unit email controversy - +Cloud feedback - +Cloud reflectivity enhancement - +Coal phase out - +Contraction and Convergence - +Contrail - +Cool roof - +Cool tropics paradox - +Coral bleaching + +== D == +The Day After Tomorrow - +Dendroclimatology - +Divergence problem - +Drought - +Drought in the United States + +== E == +Early anthropocene - +Earth Hour - +Earth's atmosphere - +Earth's energy budget - +Earthshine - +East Antarctic Ice Sheet - +Eco-efficiency - +Ecological Forecasting - +Ecotax - +Effects of climate change on agriculture - +Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity - +Effects of climate change on marine mammals - +Effects of climate change on oceans - +Effects of climate change - +Effects of climate change on Australia - +Effects of climate change on India - +Efficient energy use - +El Niño (ENSO) - +Emission inventory - +Emission Reduction Unit - +Emission standards - +Emissions trading - +Energie-Cités - +Energy Autonomy - +Energy conservation - +Energy forestry - +Energy poverty - +Enteric fermentation - +Environmental crime - +Environmental impact of aviation - +Environmental skepticism - +European Climate Forum - +Evidence of global warming - +Externality - +Extreme event attribution + +== F == +Fossil fuel - +Fossil fuel divestment - +Fossil fuel phase out - +Fossil fuel power plant - +Freon - +Food security + +== G == +G8+5 - +Geoengineering - +GFDL CM2.X - +Glacial period - +Global Change Master Directory - +Global climate model - +Global cooling - +Global climate model (General Circulation Model) - +Global dimming - +Global warming - +Global warming controversy - +Global warming hiatus - +Global warming period - +Global warming potential - +Greenhouse and icehouse Earth - +Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture - +Greenhouse debt - +Greenhouse effect - +Greenhouse gas - +Greenhouse gas accounting - +Greenhouse gas inventory - +Gulf Stream + +== H == +Heiligendamm Process - +Hell and High Water - +History of climate change science - +Hockey stick graph - +Holocene - +Holocene Climatic Optimum - +Holocene extinction - +Homogenization - +How Global Warming Works - +Hydraulic fracturing - +Hydrological geoengineering - +Hypermobile travellers + +== I == +Ice age - +Ice core - +Ice sheet dynamics - +Individual and political action on climate change - +Insolation - +Instrumental temperature record - +Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation - +Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - +International Conference on Climate Change - +IPCC list of greenhouse gases + +== K == +Keeling Curve - +Kyoto Protocol + +== L == +Laudato si' - +List of climate scientists - +List of geoengineering topics - +List of ministers of climate change - +List of proposed geoengineering projects - +Little Ice Age - +Long-term effects of global warming + +== M == +Magnetosphere - +Maunder Minimum - +Mauna Loa - +Media coverage of climate change- +Medieval Warm Period - +Meridional overturning circulation - +Meteorology - +Methane - +Methane clathrate - +Milankovitch cycles - +Molecular-scale temperature + +== N == +Nitrous oxide (N2O) - +North Atlantic Deep Water - +North Atlantic oscillation - +Northwest Passage + +== O == +Ocean acidification - +Ocean anoxia - +Older Dryas - +Oldest Dryas - +Overpopulation - +Ozone depletion + +== P == +Pacific decadal oscillation - +Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum - +Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project - +Paleothermometer - +Parameterization - +Planetary engineering - +Peak oil - +Phenology - +Physical impacts of climate change - +Polar amplification - +Proxy + +== Q == +Quaternary glaciation - +Quasi-biennial oscillation + +== R == +Radiative forcing - +Renewable energy - +Renewable energy commercialization - +Retreat of glaciers since 1850 - +Runaway climate change \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..92c7a9840 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Index of climate change articles" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Sahara pump theory - +Satellite temperature measurements - +Scientific opinion on climate change - +Scientific consensus - +Scientific skepticism - +Sea level rise - +Shutdown of thermohaline circulation - +Sixth extinction - +Slash and burn - +Snowball Earth - +Solar Radiation Management - +Solar shade - +Solar variation - +Space sunshade - +Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering - +Stratospheric sulfur aerosols - +Stratospheric sulfur aerosols (geoengineering) - +Sunspot - +Surveys of scientists' views on climate change - +Sustainable energy + +== T == +Table of Historic and Prehistoric Climate Indicators - +Temperature record of the past 1000 years - +Temperature record since 1880 - +Thermohaline circulation - +Timeline of glaciation - +TEX-86 - +Thermocline - +The Deniers - +The Great Global Warming Swindle - +The Republican War on Science - +Timeline of environmental history - +Tipping point (climatology) + +== U == +Urban heat island - +UN climate change conference 2009 - +The Uninhabitable Earth + +== W == +Warming stripes - +Waste heat - +Water World - +West Antarctic Ice Sheet - +World climate research programme - +World Climate Report + +== Y == +Yamal Peninsula + +== See also == + +Glossary of climate change +Scientific opinion on climate change +List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita +List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita +List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions +Category:Climate change +Category:Climate change by country +Category:Climatology + +== External links == +IPCC - glossary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md index 43453b767..9c59f1097 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:53.600553+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:50.801117+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..589b5fec7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Infrared spectroscopy correlation table" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:26.211950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An infrared spectroscopy correlation table (or table of infrared absorption frequencies) is a list of absorption peaks and frequencies, typically reported in wavenumber, for common types of molecular bonds and functional groups. In physical and analytical chemistry, infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is a technique used to identify chemical compounds based on the way infrared radiation is absorbed by the compound. +The absorptions in this range do not apply only to bonds in organic molecules. IR spectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as metal complexes or fluoromanganates) as well. + + +== Group frequencies == +Tables of vibrational transitions of stable and transient molecules are also available. + + +== See also == +Applied spectroscopy +Absorption spectroscopy + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2be8626e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "International Numbering System for Food Additives" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:16.154713+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) is an international naming system for food additives, aimed at providing a short designation of what may be a lengthy actual name. It is defined by Codex Alimentarius, the international food standards organisation of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). The information is published in the document Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011. The INS is an open list, "subject to the inclusion of additional additives or removal of existing ones on an ongoing basis". + + +== Numbering system == +INS numbers consist of three or four digits, optionally followed by an alphabetical suffix to further characterize individual additives. On packaging in the European Union (EU), approved food additives are written with a prefix of E. An additive that appears in the INS does not automatically have a corresponding E number. +INS numbers are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive. INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound, e.g. INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E102. INS numbers are not unique and, in fact, one number may be assigned to a group of similar compounds. + + +== List of INS numbers == + +Except where stated, the list of INS numbers and associated food additives is based on the most recent publication of the Codex Alimentarius, Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011. +E number and American approval flags are derived from other sources. +In the table below, food additives approved for the EU are listed with an 'E', and those approved for Australia and New Zealand with an 'A'. and for the US with a U, even though the US does not use the INS numbering system. + + +== See also == + +Codex Alimentarius +Codex Alimentarius Austriacus +E number +Food Additives +Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act +Food Chemicals Codex +List of food additives + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Codex Alimentarius Archived 2017-11-27 at the Wayback Machine +Food Standards Australia New Zealand +Food Additives and Ingredients Association +Northern Allergy Centre's Guide to Food Additives +USFDA: Food Color Facts \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad881f02c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of CP cannabinoids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:58.267339+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Pfizer in the 1970s and 1980s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "CP" (after Charles Pfizer). Recently, several members of this class of cannabinoids have been discovered in recreational drug products. + +CP 47,497 — +(C6)-CP 47,497 — +(C7)-CP 47,497 (CP 47,497 itself) — +(C8)-CP 47,497 (Cannabicyclohexanol) — +(C9)-CP 47,497 — +CP 50,556-1 (Levonantradol) — +CP 55,244 — +CP 55,940 — +(±)-CP 55,940 — (±)-CP 55,940 is a widely used cannabinoid research tool. +(+)-CP 55,940 — +(-)-CP 55,940 — +CP-945,598 (Otenabant) — + + +== See also == +List of AM cannabinoids +List of HU cannabinoids +List of JWH cannabinoids +List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..930cef95d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of NA numbers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:43.247450+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The NA numbers (North American Numbers) are assigned by the United States Department of Transportation, supplementing the larger set of UN numbers, for identifying hazardous materials. NA numbers largely duplicate UN numbers, however a selection of additional numbers are provided for materials that are not covered by UN numbers as a hazardous material. In a couple of instances NA numbers provide an alternative description than the equivalent UN number. + + +== See also == +List of UN numbers +NA/UN exceptions - List of specific conflicts between NA numbers and UN numbers. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + +"UN/NA Datasheets". CAMEO Chemicals. Retrieved 2019-10-21. +"Library - Hazardous Materials Table (HMT)". PHMSA. Retrieved 2017-08-25. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c483a06ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "List of SGT cannabinoids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:27.341275+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Stargate International, a now defunct New Zealand company in the 2000s and 2010s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "SGT". PB-22 (SGT-21) is credited with being the first synthetic cannabinoid to feature a quinoline substructure with an ester linker at the indole 3-position. The mainly N-cumyl-indazole-3-carboxamide derivatives are best known. Many SGT compounds are banned as designer drugs in various jurisdictions, such as Japan. + + +== Chemical structures of SGT cannabinoid compounds == + + +== See also == +List of AM cannabinoids +List of CP cannabinoids +List of HU cannabinoids +List of JWH cannabinoids +List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids + + +== External links == +Cannabinoid collection, isomerdesign.com + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..85976b9ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:08.723385+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Schedule 1 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which are feasible either to be used directly as chemical weapons or in the manufacture of chemical weapons, and which have very limited to no use outside of chemical warfare. These may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing (called "protective testing" in the treaty) purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW in accordance with Part VI of the "Verification Annex". A country is limited to possessing a maximum of one tonne of these materials. +Schedule 1 is divided into Part A substances, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B which are precursors useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Examples are mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small-scale non-military applications; for example, minute quantities of nitrogen mustard are used to treat certain cancers. +The Schedule 1 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which are feasible to use as weapons, and their precursors, but which have legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 2 (small-scale applications) and Schedule 3 (large-scale applications). The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the Convention. + + +== Guidelines for Schedule 1 == + +The following criteria shall be taken into account in considering whether a toxic chemical or precursor should be included in Schedule 1: + +It has been developed, produced, stockpiled or used as a chemical weapon as defined in Article II; +It poses otherwise a high risk to the object and purpose of this Convention by virtue of its high potential for use in activities prohibited under this Convention because one or more of the following conditions are met: +It possesses a chemical structure closely related to that of other toxic chemicals listed in Schedule 1, and has, or can be expected to have, comparable properties; +It possesses such lethal or incapacitating toxicity as well as other properties that would enable it to be used as a chemical weapon; +It may be used as a precursor in the final single technological stage of production of a toxic chemical listed in Schedule 1, regardless of whether this stage takes place in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere; +It has little or no use for purposes not prohibited under this Convention. + + +== Toxic chemicals == +O-Alkyl (100 species were used to relate taxonomy to molecular properties. That book was cited by Perutz in the 1938 report of horse hemoglobin crystals that began his long saga to solve the crystal structure. Hemoglobin crystals are pleochroic — dark red in two directions and pale red in the third — because of the orientation of the hemes, and the bright Soret band of the heme porphyrin groups is used in spectroscopic analysis of hemoglobin ligand binding. + +== Hen-egg-white lysozyme == +1965 – Hen-egg-white lysozyme (PDB file 1lyz). was the first crystal structure of an enzyme (it cleaves small carbohydrates into simple sugars), used for early studies of enzyme mechanism. It contained beta sheet (antiparallel) as well as helices, and was also the first macromolecular structure to have its atomic coordinates refined (in real space). The starting material for preparation can be bought at the grocery store, and hen-egg lysozyme crystallizes very readily in many different space groups; it is the favorite test case for new crystallographic experiments and instruments. Recent examples are nanocrystals of lysozyme for free-electron laser data collection and microcrystals for micro electron diffraction. + +== Ribonuclease == +1967 – Ribonuclease A (PDB file 2RSA) is an RNA-cleaving enzyme stabilized by 4 disulfide bonds. It was used in Anfinsen's seminal research on protein folding which led to the concept that a protein's 3-dimensional structure was determined by its amino-acid sequence. Ribonuclease S, the cleaved, two-component form studied by Fred Richards, was also enzymatically active, had a nearly identical crystal structure (PDB file 1RNS), and was shown to be catalytically active even in the crystal, helping dispel doubts about the relevance of protein crystal structures to biological function. + +== Serine proteases == +1967 – The serine proteases are a historically very important group of enzyme structures, because collectively they illuminated catalytic mechanism (in their case, by the Ser-His-Asp "catalytic triad"), the basis of differing substrate specificities, and the activation mechanism by which a controlled enzymatic cleavage buries the new chain end to properly rearrange the active site. The early crystal structures included chymotrypsin (PDB file 2CHA), chymotrypsinogen (PDB file 1CHG), trypsin (PDB file 1PTN), and elastase (PDB file 1EST). They also were the first protein structures that showed two near-identical domains, presumably related by gene duplication. One reason for their wide use as textbook and classroom examples was the insertion-code numbering system, which made Ser195 and His57 consistent and memorable despite the protein-specific sequence differences. + +== Papain == +1968 – Papain + +== Carboxypeptidase == +1969 – Carboxypeptidase A is a zinc metalloprotease. Its crystal structure (PDB file 1CPA) showed the first parallel beta structure: a large, twisted, central sheet of 8 strands with the active-site Zn located at the C-terminal end of the middle strands and the sheet flanked on both sides with alpha helices. It is an exopeptidase that cleaves peptides or proteins from the carboxy-terminal end rather than internal to the sequence. Later a small protein inhibitor of carboxypeptidase was solved (PDB file 4CPA) that mechanically stops the catalysis by presenting its C-terminal end just sticking out from between a ring of disulfide bonds with tight structure behind it, preventing the enzyme from sucking in the chain past the first residue. + +== Subtilisin == +1969 – Subtilisin (PDB file 1sbt ) was a second type of serine protease with a near-identical active site to the trypsin family of enzymes, but with a completely different overall fold. This gave the first view of convergent evolution at the atomic level. Later, an intensive mutational study on subtilisin documented the effects of all 19 other amino acids at each individual position. + +== Lactate dehydrogenase == +1970 – Lactate dehydrogenase \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d607680c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Trypsin inhibitor == +1970 – Basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, or BPTI (PDB file 2pti), is a small, very stable protein that has been a highly productive model system for study of super-tight binding, disulfide bond (SS) formation, protein folding, molecular stability by amino-acid mutations or hydrogen-deuterium exchange, and fast local dynamics by NMR. Biologically, BPTI binds and inhibits trypsin while stored in the pancreas, allowing activation of protein digestion only after trypsin is released into the stomach. + +== Rubredoxin == +1970 – Rubredoxin (PDB file 2rxn) was the first redox structure solved, a minimalist protein with the iron bound by 4 Cys sidechains from 2 loops at the top of β hairpins. It diffracted to 1.2Å, enabling the first reciprocal-space refinement of a protein (4,5rxn). (NB: note that 4rxn was done without geometry restraints.) Archaeal rubredoxins account for many of the highest-resolution small structures in the PDB. + +== Insulin == +1971 – Insulin (PDB file 1INS) is a hormone central to the metabolism of sugar and fat storage, and important in human diseases such as obesity and diabetes. It is biophysically notable for its Zn binding, its equilibrium between monomer, dimer, and hexamer states, its ability to form crystals in vivo, and its synthesis as a longer "pro" form which is then cleaved to fold up as the active 2-chain, SS-linked monomer. Insulin was a success of NASA's crystal-growth program on the Space Shuttle, producing bulk preparations of very uniform tiny crystals for controlled dosage. + +== Staphylococcal nuclease == +1971 – Staphylococcal nuclease + +== Cytochrome C == +1971 – Cytochrome C + +== T4 phage lysozyme == +1974 – T4 phage lysozyme + +== Immunoglobulins == +1974 – Immunoglobulins + +== Superoxide dismutase == +1975 – Cu,Zn Superoxide dismutase + +== Transfer RNA == +1976 – Transfer RNA + +== Triose phosphate isomerase == +1976 – Triose phosphate isomerase + +== Pepsin-like aspartic proteases == +1976 – Rhizopuspepsin +1976 – Endothiapepsin +1976 – Penicillopepsin + +== Later structures (1978 onwards) == +1978 – Icosahedral virus +1981 – Dickerson B-form DNA dodecamer +1981 – Crambin +1985 – Calmodulin +1985 – DNA polymerase + +1985 – Photosynthetic reaction center: Pairs of bacteriochlorophylls (green) inside the membrane capture energy from sunlight, then traveling by many steps to become available at the heme groups (red) in the cytochrome-C module at the top. This was first crystal structure solved for a membrane protein, a milestone recognized by a Nobel Prize to Hartmut Michel, Hans Deisenhofer, and Robert Huber. + +1986 – Repressor/DNA interactions +1987 – Major histocompatibility complex +1987 – Ubiquitin +1987 – ROP protein +1989 – HIV-1 protease +1990 – Bacteriorhodopsin +1991 – GCN4 coiled coil +1991 – HIV-1 reverse transcriptase +1993 – Beta helix of Pectate lyase +1994 – Collagen +1994 – Barnase/barstar complex +1994 – F1 ATPase +1995 – Heterotrimeric G proteins +1996 – Green fluorescent protein +1996 – CDK/cyclin complex + +1996 – Kinesin motor protein +1997 – GroEL/ES chaperone +1997 – Nucleosome +1998 – Group I self-splicing intron + +1998 – DNA topoisomerases perform the biologically important and necessary job of untangling DNA strands or helices that get entwined with each other or twisted too tightly during normal cellular processes such as the transcription of genetic information. +1998 – Tubulin alpha/beta dimer +1998 – Potassium channel +1998 – Holliday junction +2000 – Ribosomes are a central part of biology and biophysics, which first became accessible structurally in 2000 + +2000 – AAA+ ATPase +2002 – Ankyrin repeats +2003 – TOP7 protein design +2004 – Cyanobacterial Circadian clock proteins +2004 – Riboswitch +2006 – Human exosome + +2007 – G-protein-coupled receptor + +2009 – The vault particle is an intriguing new discovery of a large hollow particle common in cells, with several different suggestions for its possible biological function. The crystal structures (PDB files 2zuo, 2zv4, 2zv5 and 4hl8) show that each half of the vault is made up of 39 copies of a long 12-domain protein that swirl together to form the enclosure. Disorder at the very top and bottom ends suggests openings for possible access to the interior of the vault. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fe542a42c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "List of boiling and freezing information of solvents" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:39.524307+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== See also == +Freezing-point depression +Boiling-point elevation +List of cooling baths + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8cc9a911a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "List of carboxylic acids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:42.015494+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. The naming of these compounds is governed by IUPAC nomenclature, which ensures systematic and consistent naming of chemicals. Numerous organic compounds have other common names, often originating in historical source material thereof. The systematic IUPAC name is not always the preferred IUPAC name, for example, lactic acid is a common, and also the preferred, name for what systematic rules call 2-hydroxypropanoic acid. +This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in a carboxylic acid. + + +== C1 == + + +== C2 == + + +== C3 == + + +== C4 == + + +== C5 == + + +== C6 == + + +== C7 == + + +== C8 == + + +== C9 == + + +== C10 == + + +== C11 == + + +== C12 == + + +== C13 == + + +== C14 == + + +== C15 == + + +== C16 == + + +== C17 == + + +== C18 == + + +== C19 == + + +== C20 == + + +== C21 == + + +== C22 == + + +== C23 == + + +== C24 == + + +== C25 == + + +== C26 == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7f8afccd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemical analysis methods" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:29.278276+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A list of chemical analysis methods with acronyms. + + +== A == +Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) +Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) +Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS) +Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) + + +== C == +Capillary electrophoresis (CE) +Chromatography +Colorimetry +Computed tomography +Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) + + +== D == +Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) + + +== E == +Electrodialysis +Electrolysis +Electron microscopy +Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) also called Electron spin resonance (ESR) +Electrophoresis +Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS/EDX) + + +== F == +Field flow fractionation (FFF) +Flow injection analysis (FIA) +Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) + + +== G == +Gas chromatography (GC) +Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) +Gas chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GC-IR) +Gel permeation chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GPC-IR) + + +== H == +High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) +High performance liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (HPLC-IR) + + +== I == +Ion Microprobe (IM) +Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) +Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) +Ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS) +Ion selective electrode (ISE) e.g. determination of pH + + +== L == +Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) +Liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (LC-IR) +Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) + + +== M == +Mass spectrometry (MS) +Mössbauer spectroscopy + + +== N == +Neutron activation analysis +Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) + + +== O == +Optical microscopy +Optical emission spectroscopy +Optical rotation (OR) + + +== P == +Particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE) +Pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (PY-GC-MS) +Particle size determination by laser diffraction (PSD) + + +== R == +Raman spectroscopy +Refractive index +Resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) + + +== S == +Secondary ion mass spectrometry +Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) + + +== T == +Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) +Titration +Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) + + +== V == +Vacuum fusion + + +== X == +X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) +X-ray diffraction (XRD) +X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) +X-ray microscopy (XRM) + + +== See also == +Analytical chemistry +List of materials analysis methods \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f35511df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemical classifications" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:43.273627+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Chemical classification systems attempt to classify elements or compounds according to certain chemical functional or structural properties. Whereas the structural properties are largely intrinsic, functional properties and the derived classifications depend to a certain degree on the type of chemical interaction partners on which the function is exerted. Sometimes other criteria like purely physical ones (e.g. molecular weight) or – on the other hand – functional properties above the chemical level are also used for building chemical taxonomies. +Some systems mix the various levels, resulting in hierarchies where the domains are slightly confused, for example having structural and functional aspects end up on the same level. Whereas chemical function is closely dependent on chemical structure, the situation becomes more involved when e.g. pharmacological function is integrated, because the QSAR can usually not be directly computed from structural qualities. + + +== Physico-chemical == +by molecular weight +by electrical charge: uncharged, positively, negatively, partially charged +formal charge, oxidation state +solubility +pH value (or pKA value) + + +== Functional == +by functional groups +by biological activity (mostly appropriate only for large biological molecules (as at least one interacting partner), in particular enzymes, depends on chemical functions of their constituent amino acids) +ligand vs. receptor, coenzyme +EC number +TC number +pharmacophore vs. non-drug +General commercial classification of chemicals + + +== Mixed systems and directories == +Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System +Gene Ontology +Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals +Chemical Entities of Biological Interest + + +== Historical == +Döbereiner's triads + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Chemical classification at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bc97c1756 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemical databases" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:59.651708+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of websites that contain lists of chemicals, or databases of chemical information. There is further detail on the content of these and other resources in a Wikibook of information sources. + + +== External links == +Drugs, Herbs and Supplements informations at the MedlinePlus service of the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) +The Drug Information Service at the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) +The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) website + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57c4f8ecf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemical engineering societies" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:16.445936+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is the list of chemical engineering societies in the world. They are sorted by continent and alphabetically. They include national or international ones, but not student societies or those otherwise restricted to a particular university or institution. + + +== Africa == +Ethiopian Society of Chemical Engineers (ESChE), Ethiopia +Nigerian Society of Chemical Engineers +South African Institution of Chemical Engineers (SAIChE), South Africa + + +== Asia == +Asia Pacific Confederation of Chemical Engineering (APCChE) +Iranian Association of Chemical Engineering (IAChE) [1], I.R. Iran +Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe), India [2] +Israel Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe), Israel [3] +Korean Chemical Society (KCS), Korea [4] +Korean Institute of Chemical Engineers (ko) (KIChE), Korea [5] +Pakistan Institute of Chemical Engineers (PICHE), Pakistan [6] +Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers (PIChE), Philippines [7] +Society of Chemical Engineers, Japan (SCEJ) (ja), Japan [8] +Society of Chemical Engineers of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal [9] +Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineering (TwIChE), Taiwan [10] +Thai Institute of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry (TIChE), Thailand [11] + + +== Europe == +European Federation of Chemical Engineering (EFCE) (umbrella organization) +Associazione Italiana Di Ingegneria Chimica (AIDIC), Italy +Chamber of Chemical Engineers, Turkey [12] +DECHEMA, Germany +Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE), UK +Société Française de Génie des Procédés (SFGP), France + + +== North America == +American Chemical Society (ACS) +American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) +Association of Energy Engineers (AEE) +Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering (CSChE) +National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE) +Mexican Institute of Chemical Engineers (IMIQ), Mexico + + +== Oceania == +The Australian and New Zealand Federation of Chemical Engineers (ANZFChE) +Engineers Australia Chemical College, Australia +Society of Chemical Engineers New Zealand + + +== South America == +Argentinian Association for Chemical Engineers, Argentina +Brazilian Association of Chemical Engineering, Brazil +Colombian Association of Chemical Engineering, Colombia +Association of Chemical Engineers of Uruguay, Uruguay + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db5baf939 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of cheminformatics toolkits" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:45.678134+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cheminformatics toolkits are notable software development kits that allow cheminformaticians to develop custom computer applications for use in virtual screening, chemical database mining, and structure-activity studies. Toolkits are often used for experimentation with new methodologies. Their most important functions deal with the manipulation of chemical structures and comparisons between structures. Programmatic access is provided to properties of individual bonds and atoms. + + +== Functionality == +Toolkits provide the following functionality: + +Read and save structures in various chemistry file formats. +Determine if one structure is a substructure of another (substructure matching). +Determine if two structures are equal (exact matching). +Identification of substructures common to structures in a set (maximal common substructure, MCS). +Disassemble molecules, splitting into fragments. +Assemble molecules from elements or submolecules. +Apply reactions on input reactant structures, resulting in output of reaction product structures. +Generate molecular fingerprints. Fingerprints are bit-vectors where individual bits correspond to the presence or absence of structural features. The most important use of fingerprints is in indexing of chemistry databases. + + +== List of notable cheminformatics toolkits == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6165d3ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,163 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemistry journals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:30.325768+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of scientific journals in chemistry and its various subfields. For journals mainly about materials science, see List of materials science journals. + + +== A == + + +== B == +Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry +Biochemical Journal +Bioconjugate Chemistry +Biomacromolecules +Biomedical Chromatography +Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry +Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters +Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan + + +== C == + + +== D == +Dalton Transactions + + +== E == +Education in Chemistry +Energy and Environmental Science +Energy & Fuels +Environmental Chemistry +European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry +European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry +European Journal of Organic Chemistry + + +== F == +Faraday Discussions +Faraday Transactions + + +== G == +Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research +Green Chemistry + + +== H == +Helvetica Chimica Acta + + +== I == +Inorganic Chemistry +International Journal of Hydrogen Energy +International Journal of Quantum Chemistry +Ion Exchange Letters + + +== J == + + +== L == +Lab on a Chip +Langmuir +Liebigs Annalen + + +== M == +Macromolecules +Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry +MedChemComm +Metallomics +Methods in Organic Synthesis +Microchimica Acta +Molbank +Molecular BioSystems +Molecular Diversity +Molecular Physics +Molecules + + +== N == +Nano Letters +Natural Product Reports +Nature Chemical Biology +Nature Chemistry +Nature Materials +Nature Protocols +New Journal of Chemistry + + +== O == +Open Chemistry +Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry +Organic Letters +Organometallics + + +== P == +PeerJ Analytical Chemistry +PeerJ Inorganic Chemistry +PeerJ Materials Science +PeerJ Organic Chemistry +PeerJ Physical Chemistry +Perkin Transactions +Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences +Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics +Polish Journal of Chemistry +Polyhedron +Proceedings of the Chemical Society + + +== R == +RSC Advances +Revista Boliviana de Quimica +Revista de la Sociedad Venezolana Química + + +== S == +Scientia Pharmaceutica +Soft Matter +Spectroscopy Letters +Surface Science Reports +Synlett +Synthesis +Science China Chemistry + + +== T == +Talanta +Tetrahedron +Tetrahedron Letters +Theoretical Chemistry Accounts +Trends in Analytical Chemistry +Turkish Journal of Chemistry + + +== Z == +Zeitschrift für Naturforschung +Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B +Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie + + +== See also == +Lists of academic journals +List of scientific journals +List of computational chemistry software +Scientific journal +Scientific literature + + +== External links == + +Chemical Abstracts Service Source Index Search Tool search journal titles, abbreviations, CODENs, and ISSNs +Beyond CASSI compilation of historical journal abbreviations from A., B., C. to Z.; includes CASSI abbreviations used for these journals +List of chemistry journal publishers \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..43bdd69c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemistry mnemonics" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A mnemonic is a memory aid used to improve long-term memory and make the process of consolidation easier. Many chemistry aspects, rules, names of compounds, sequences of elements, their reactivity, etc., can be easily and efficiently memorized with the help of mnemonics. This article contains the list of certain mnemonics in chemistry. + +== Orbitals == + +=== Sequence of orbitals === + +Sober Physicists Don't Find Giraffes Hiding In Kitchens. +Note: After the k shell, they follow alphabetical order (skipping s and p as they came earlier). + +=== Aufbau principle === + +The order of sequence of atomic orbitals (according to Madelung rule or Klechkowski rule) can be remembered by the following. + +== Periodic table == + +=== Periods === + +==== Periods 1, 2 and 3 ==== + +Hi Hello Little Beer Bottles Crack Nicely On Freddie's kNee. Nasties Merge All Silly 'People Suffer Clouts Arnti +Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Might Fear Cows & Nice Cute Zebras. +Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. +Happy Harry/Henry Listens B B C Network Over France Nevertheless Nothing More Arose So Peter Stopped Cleaning Airgun K Ca. +Ha. Healthy Little Beggar Boys Catching Newts Or Fish. +Hi, Here Little Beatniks Brandish Countless Number Of Flick kNives. Nagging Maggie Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." (adapted) +Hi Helium. Little Berries Borrow Carbs, NO Fight Needed. +Hi Hello! Lion Beneath the Burning Car Needs Oxygen For New life. +Native Magpies Always Sit Peacefully Searching Clear Areas. +Naval Magistrates Always Signal Per Siren, Claiming Adequacy. +Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." +Nellie's Naughty Magpie Always Sings Pop Songs Clearly After Killing Cathy. +Shoddy Magician Aligned Six Phones Successfully, Classic Art! +All Silicon Ports. Superman Clean Argon's K-Capture. + +==== Period 4 ==== + +Kindly Cannibals Scare Timid Visitors, 'n' Cruelly Menace Female Communist Nitwits Cuddling Zany Gabbling Geese Astride Several Brutal Kangaroos. +In reverse order: Kry Brother! SeAs of Germany and Gaul sink copper ships Nice and Cold From Manx to Crimea, Vancouver to Timor, and Scandinavia to the California Koast. +Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Maintaining Feline Connections Nice, Cute & Zen. Gallium Germinates As Selene Brings Krypton. + +==== Period 5 ==== + +Ruby, Sir, Yells "Zircon Nebulas !". Most Technicians Rule Rhodes and Paddle Against Cadence". India Sent Sebastian to Tell "Io Xe." +Ruby Stuck in Yuck Zoo, Nice Monk Tackled Rude Rhino. Pay Silver Coin In Tin And Tell I eXeed. + +=== Transition metals === + +==== First ==== + +Scary Tiny Vicious Creatures are Mean; Females Come to NightClub Zen. +Scary Tiny Vicious Creatures Might Fear Cows and Nice Cute Zebras. +SucTion VelCro Man Fears CoNiC uZi. +ScienTist ViCroMan Iron(Fe) Comes from NiCuZan. + +==== Second ==== + +Yes S(Z)ir, Nob. Most Technicians Ruin Rob's Pale Silver Cadillac. + +==== Third ==== + +Lucifer's Half Taken, Wendy Reached Out H(I)er Plate Audibly, Helga. +Lucky Harry Took Walk, Reached Office In Pants, After an Hour. +Lucky Horned-Fox's Tail got Wet. Restless Ostrich Irrelevantly Painted Gold(AU) on Mercury(HG). + +=== Lanthanides and actinides === + +==== Lanthanides ==== + + Last Century Presented New Democratic Prime Minister. Smart European Government Decided To Ban Dirty Hotels Entirely To Make Yellow Buildings Luxurious. +Ladies Can't Put Needles Properly in Slot-machines. Every Girl Tries Daily, However, Every Time You'd Lose. + Languid Centaurs Praise Ned's Promise of Small European Garden Tubs; Dinosaurs Hobble Erratically Thrumming Yellow Lutes. +Lately, Central Park Needed Primroses. Small Entire Golden Tassels Dyeing the Hollow Earth, Tempting Your Love. + +==== Actinides ==== + +Radiant Acting Thoroughly Protects yoUr Nepotism, Plutocratic America Cures-me & Berkeley California, Einstein Firmly Mended Noble Lawreins. +Ace Thor Protects Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Army Cured Bark. In California Einstein and Fermi Made Noble Laws. +Actually Thor Protects Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Army Cured Bark. In California Einstein and Fermi Made Noble Laws. + +=== 56 elements in sequence === + +Here Lies Benjamin Bones. Cry Not Oh Friend Needlessly. Nature Magnifies All Simple People Sometimes Clowns And Kings Can Scream Till Vast Crowds Moan. Fear Conquers Neither Courageous Zealous Gallant Gents. As Seen Brown Karate Robes Strip Yobs. Zurich Noble Mortals Track Ruddy Rhubarb. Paid Silver Candid Indian Sons Sobbing Tears In Xcess Cease Bawling. + +=== Groups === + +==== Group 1 (alkali metals) ==== + +Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium, Francium + +Little Nasty Kids Rub Cats Fur +Little Naughty Kids Robs Cents From (me) +Little Naughty Kids Ruin Ben's Convenient Store Forever +Little Nathan Knew Rubies Cost Fortunes +Little Naughty Kids Rob Crispy Fries + +==== Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) ==== + +Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, Radium + +Bearded Muggers Came Straight Back Rapidly. +Beer Mugs Can Serve Bar Rats. +Ben Meg & Casia Stroll away to Bar of Radium + +==== Group 13 ==== + +Boron, Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, Thallium, Nihonium + +BAlm Game In Tail +Bowler Ali Gave Instant Tea +BAG IT +Bears Always Gave Indians Trouble + +==== Group 14 ==== + +Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin (stannum in Latin), Lead (plumbum in Latin) + +CSI Gets Stan Plums (comment: plum and plumb are homophones) +Can Simple Germans Snare (Tiny) Public (Lead)? +Chemistry Sir Gets Snacks Publicly +Can Someone Get Some Peanutbutter ? + +==== Group 15 (Pnictogens) ==== + +Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Moscovium. + +No Person can Assassinate Sebastian Billy in Moscow (place). + +==== Group 16 (Chalcogens) ==== + +Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium + +Old Style Sets TemPo +Old TSangpo Seems Terribly Polluted Lately. +Ottoman Sultan Sends Textiles to Poor Ladies. + +==== Group 17 (Halogens) ==== + +Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine, Tennessine + +Funny Clowns Broil Innocent Ants. +Fast Clouds Break In Atlantis. +Father Clark B(r)lesses Ivan A(s)tlast. +First Class Briyani In Australia + +==== Group 18 (noble gases) ==== + +Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon. + +Hero Never Argues, Kryptonite Xterminates Rao +Hero Needs Arguable Kryptic Xes. Right-on. +He Never Arrived; Karen eXited with Ron. +He Needs A Kickin', Xylophone-playin' Racehorse! (And... Oh, gee, now we need to add Oganesson (Og)!) +Hey, N(e)ArK(r)s, Run, O.g! + +== Properties of elements == + +=== Abundance of elements on Earth's crust === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01b2ba358 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,146 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemistry mnemonics" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Only Strong Athletes In College Study Past Midnight +Oh, see(Si), Alfie(Fe) Cannot(Na) Kiss Meg(Mg) +As they are present in trace quantities they are measured in parts per million(ppm). + +=== Activity series of metals === + +Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra Crab I Like Her Call Smart Goat +Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Crab Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit +Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In Low Humid Climate ... +Note that carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline. + +Kangaroos Naturally Muck About in Zoos For Purple Hippos Chasing Aardvarks. +Katty's Naughty Cat Mingled with Alice and Zarina; Fearlessly Plundering Her Cupboard of Gold. +Papa Said Call Me After Zinc Interacts Tin Leading Hydrogen Co-operate Mr. Sylvester to Gain Popularity. + +Pretty(Potassium) Sally(Sodium) Could(Calcium) Marry(Magnesium) A(Aluminium) Crazy(Carbon) Zulu(Zinc) IN(Iron/Nickel) Tree(Tin) Lined(Lead) House(Hydrogen) Causing(Copper) Strangely(Silver) Glancing(Gold) People(Platinum). + +=== Electronegativity === + +Pronounce: FOClN BrIS CHP. +(F)irst (O)ff, (Cl)ean (N)ow; (Br)ing (I)n (S)ome (C)lothes, (H)ats, and (P)ants. (First off, clean now. Bring in some caps, hats {and} pants.) + +=== Electrochemical series === + +Paddy Still Could Marry A Zulu In The Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes. +Passive Sarcasm Can Mutate Angry Zombies InTo Large Hypocritical Cold Sexy Guys. +Poor Science Course Makes A Zany Idiot Totally Lose His Composure, Sir! Good! + +== Reactions and ions == + +=== Redox reactions === +A redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which there is a change in oxidation state of atoms participating in the reaction. + +=== Ions === +An atom (or ion) whose oxidation number increases in a redox reaction is said to be oxidized (and is called a reducing agent). It is accomplished by loss of one or more electrons. The atom whose oxidation number decreases gains (receives) one or more electrons and is said to be reduced. This relation can be remembered by the following mnemonics. + +Leo says Ger! or Leo the lion, Ger! can be used to represent Loss of electron is oxidation; Gain of electron is reduction. +Oil Rig: Oxidation is loss; Reduction is gain (of electrons). +Cations are Plussy Cats. + +=== Cations and anions === +Cations are positively (+) charged ions while anions are negatively (−) charged. This can be remembered with the help of the following mnemonics. + +Cats have paws ⇔ Cations are pawsitive. +Ca+ion: The letter t in cation looks like a + (plus) sign. +An anion is a negative ion. (Anegativeion ⇒ Anion). + +=== Oxidation vs. reduction: electrochemical cell and electron gain/loss === + +AN OIL RIG CAT: +At the ANode, Oxidation Involves Loss of electrons. +Reduction Involves Gaining electrons at the CAThode. +LOAN – Left Anode Oxidation Negative. +In written representation of galvanic cell, anode is written on the left. It is the electrode where oxidation takes place. It is the negative electrode. Obviously, the opposite properties (Right/Cathode/Reduction/Positive) are found on the cathode. Hence, by remembering LOAN mnemonic, we can arrive at the corresponding properties for the cathode. +LEO the lion says GER [grr]: +"Loss of Electrons, Oxidation; Gain of Electrons, Reduction". + +=== Electrodes === +An electrode in which oxidation takes place is called an anode while in that which reduction takes place is called cathode. This applies for both electrolytic and electrochemical cells, though the charge on them reverses. The red cat and an ox mnemonics are useful to remember the same. + +Red cat: Reduction at cathode +An ox: Anode for oxidation. +PANIC: Positive Anode, Negative Is Cathode +The words oxidation and anode, both begin with vowels. +Also, both reduction and cathode begin with consonants. +Fat Cat: electrons flow From Anode To Cathode +LOAN: Left side;Oxidation;Anode;Negative. +ACID: Anode Current Into Device + +== Compounds == + +=== Diatomic molecules === +Molecules exhibiting diatomic structures can be remembered through the following mnemonics. + +Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer. +Horses Need Oats For Clear Brown Eyes (I's). +Her Nana's Only Functioning Clicker Broke Instantly. +BrINClHOF: say Brinkelhof. +I Bring Clay For Our New House. +CHINFOB +HONClBrIF say honk-le-brif +Captain HOFBrINCl says "Don't forget diatomic elements!" +HONey it's the Halogens (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, plus the Halogens) + +=== Hydrogen bonds === +Hydrogen forms hydrogen bonds with three elements which are nitrogen (N), oxygen (O) and fluorine (F). The names of these elements can be remembered by the following mnemonic. + +Hydrogen is FON! (fun). +Hydrogen likes to have FON! + +=== Polyatomic ions: -ate and -ite ions === + +Super Popeye Constantly Clubbed Brutus In Nevada. + +Nick Brit the Camel ate an Inky Clam with Crêpes for Supper in Phoenix. +Number of consonants denotes number of oxygen atoms. Number of vowels denotes negative charge quantity. Inclusion of the word "ate" signifies that each ends with the letters a-t-e. To use this for the -ite ions, simply subtract one oxygen but keep the charge the same. + +== Organic chemistry == + +=== Prefixes for naming carbon chains === +The prefixes for naming carbon chains containing one to four carbons. For chains containing five or more carbons, the inorganic prefixes (e.g. pent = 5, hept = 7) are used. + +Monkeys Eat Peeled Bananas +Most Elephants Poop Bananas +For the first five chains. + +Many Elephants Pee Behind Plants +Mom Eats Pretty Big Pears + +=== Carboxylic acids === +Common names of homogeneous aliphatic carboxylic acids: + +Frogs Are Polite, Being Very Courteous. + +=== Dicarboxylic acids === +The sequence of dicarboxylic acids can be remembered with following mnemonics. + +Oh My, Such Good Apples. +Oh My Stars, Green Apples. +Oh My, Such Good Apple Pie, Sweet As Sugar. +Oh My Stars, Go Ahead Please +OMSGAPS – is a phonetic word for the first letters of the first seven dicarboxylic acids above in sequence can be said as below. +Oh My Sir, Give A Party Soon. + +=== Aromatic compounds === + +==== m-directing groups ==== + +Queen Elizabeth Second's Navy Commands, Controls, Communicates. + +==== o,p-directing groups ==== + +AHA AHA P. +Note: -NH2,-NHR and NR2 are para directing groups but not -NR3+ + +=== E–Z notation for isomers === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aee348353 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemistry mnemonics" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"E" for 'enemies'. i.e. higher priority groups on opposite sides. Z form has higher priority groups on same side. +"Z" means 'zame zide' (same side) i.e. high priority groups on same side. + +=== Cis–trans isomerism === + +Cis starts with a C and the functional groups form a C. +Trans, therefore is the other one by default. + +=== Benzene ring: order of substitutes === + +From R group moving around the ring: + +Benzene likes to ROMP. + +== Biochemistry == + +=== Nutrients === +The four most common elements in living organisms – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen – may be remembered with the acronym CHON. An extensions is CHNOPS, which adds phosphorus and sulfur. +To remember the elements necessary for agriculture; + +C (see) Hopkins CaFe, Mighty-good Man, Cu (see your) Money, hope they are Closed or out of Business. +For remembering macronutrients; + + C. HOPKiN'S Ca Mg (C. Hopkins coffee mug). +MagiCal CKN SHOP (Magical Chicken SHOP). +To remember the elements comprising the human body; + +Chopin's CaFe +I.P. Cohn's CaFe + +=== Essential amino acids === + +PVT TIM HaLL and TT HALL Very IMPortant. +These Ten Valuable Acids Have Long Preserved Life In Men +MATT HILL, VP +LIFT HIM KIW(V)I +TV FILM HW(R)K. +FM TK HW RIVL + Any Help In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable. This method begins with the two amino acids that need some qualifications as to their requirements. + +=== Krebs cycle === +To remember the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle): + + Caesar's Armies Invaded Other Kingdoms Searching For Many Oranges. +Citric Acid Is One Key Substrate For Mitochondrial Oxidation + +== See also == +List of medical mnemonics +List of mnemonics + +== References == + +== External links == + +"Mnemonics for the Entire Periodic Table" +Science jokes and mnemonics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bee81cb00 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemistry societies" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:15.181072+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of chemistry societies: + + +== A == +Alpha Chi Sigma (ΑΧΣ) +American Association for Clinical Chemistry +American Chemical Society +American Crystallographic Association +American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) +American Institute of Chemists(AIC) +American Oil Chemists' Society +American Society of Brewing Chemists +American Society for Mass Spectrometry +Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC International) +Association of Greek Chemists + + +== B == +Belgian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology +Biochemical Society +Brazilian Chemical Society + + +== C == +Canadian Society for Chemical Technology (CSCT) + Canadian Society of Clinical Chemists - (CSCC) +Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) +Chemical Heritage Foundation (CHF), now the Science History Institute +Chemical Institute of Canada (CIC) +Chemical Society Located in Taipei (CSLT) +Chemical Society of Japan (CSJ) +Crystallographic Society of Japan (CSJ) +Chemical Society of Pakistan +Chemical Society of Peru +Chinese-American Chemical Society +Chinese Chemical Society (Beijing) (CCS) +Chinese Chemical Society (Taipei) (CSLT) +Council for Chemical Research (CCR) +Chemical Research Society of India + + +== D == +Danish Chemical Society + + +== E == +The Electrochemical Society +European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences + + +== F == +Faraday Society +Federation of European Biochemical Societies + + +== G == +Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh) + + +== H == +Hungarian Chemical Society + + +== I == +Indian Chemical Society +Institute of Chemistry, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) +Institute of Chemistry of Ireland +Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) +International Federation of Societies of Cosmetic Chemists +International Mass Spectrometry Foundation +International Union of Crystallography +International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) +Iota Sigma Pi +Italian Chemical Society(SCI) + + +== J == +Japan Association for International Chemical Information +Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan + + +== K == +The Korean Chemical Society +Korean Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology + + +== L == +Lithuanian Chemical Society + + +== N == +National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers +New Zealand Institute of Chemistry +Chemical Society of Nigeria (CSN) +Norwegian Chemical Society + + +== P == +Pan Africa Chemistry Network +Pancyprian Union of Chemists +Polish Chemical Society +The Institute of Chemists PNG + + +== R == +Royal Australian Chemical Institute (RACI) +Royal Flemish Chemical Society (KVCV) +Royal Netherlands Chemical Society (KNCV) +Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) + + +== S == +Société Royale de Chimie Belgique +Société Chimique de France +Society of Chemical Industry (SCI) +Society of Chemical Industry (American Section) +Society of Chemical Manufacturers and Affiliates +Society of Cosmetic Chemists +Swedish Chemical Society + + +== W == +World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bb4896165 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 1/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. + +== A == + +=== Ab–An === +Richard Abegg (1869–1910), German chemist, pioneer of valence theory +Frederick Abel (1827–1902), English chemist, inventor of cordite +Friedrich Accum (1769–1838), German chemist, advances in the field of gas lighting +Homer Burton Adkins (1892–1949), American chemist, known for work in hydrogenation of organic compounds +Peter Agre (born 1949), American chemist and doctor, known for aquaporin water channels, 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), German scholar known as "the father of mineralogy" +Natalie Ahn (PhD 1985), American chemist working on mechanisms of cell signaling +Arthur Aikin (1773–1855), English chemist and mineralogist, a founding member of the Chemical Society +Adrien Albert (1907–1989), Australian medicinal chemist who studied the links between physico-chemical properties and biological effect of drugs +John Albery (1936–2013), English physical chemist who studied electrochemistry, proton transfer and isotope effects +Kurt Alder (1902–1958), German chemist known for the Diels–Alder reaction, 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Jerome Alexander (1876–1959), American expert on the chemistry of colloids +Ivan Alimarin (1903-1989), Soviet chemist, one of the leaders of analytical chemistry in 20's century +Elmer Lucille Allen (born 1931), American chemist and ceramic artist +Heather C. Allen (born 1960), American chemist who works on interfacial phenomena +Adah Almutairi (born 1976), American chemist known for nanomedicine and nanotechnology +Sidney Altman (1939–2022), Canadian-American biologist known for catalytic RNA, 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Faiza Al-Kharafi (born 1946), Kuwaiti chemist, academic and the first woman to head a major university in the Middle East +Lisa Alvarez-Cohen (PhD 1991), American chemist concerned with microbial degradation of environmental contaminants + +=== An–Av === +Gloria Long Anderson (born 1938), American chemist, pioneer of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy +Christian B. Anfinsen (1916–1995), American chemist known for work on ribonuclease, 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Andrea Angel (1877–1917), English chemist known for work on explosives +Angelo Angeli (1864–1931), Italian chemist who studied nitrogen compounds such as hydrazoic acid +Octavio Augusto Ceva Antunes (died 2009), Brazilian chemist, consultant for the production of anti-HIV drugs +Anthony Joseph Arduengo, III (born 1952), American chemist known for chemical compounds with unusual valency +Johan August Arfwedson (1792–1841), Swedish chemist who discovered lithium +Anton Eduard van Arkel (1893–1976), Dutch chemist who developed a method for preparing pure titanium and other metals +Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), Swedish chemist, one of the founders of physical chemistry, he used physical chemistry to estimate the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide the Earth's increasing surface temperature; Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1903 +Valerie Ashby (born 1965/1966), American chemist known for work on functionalized diene monomers and polymers +Barbara Askins (born 1939), American chemist known for inventing a method to enhance underexposed photographic negatives +Larned B. Asprey (1919–2005), American nuclear chemist known for actinide, lanthanide, rare-earth and fluorine chemistry +Alán Aspuru-Guzik (born 1976), Mexican computational chemist known for variational quantum eigensolver +Francis William Aston (1877–1945), British chemist and physicist known for mass spectroscopy, 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Bengt Aurivillius (1918–1994), Swedish chemist known for his research in metal and mixed oxides. +Karin Aurivillius (1920–1982), Swedish chemist who determined the crystal structures of many mercury compounds +Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), Italian chemist and physicist, discovered Avogadro's law as a copmponent of noted for his contribution to molecular theory + +== B == + +=== Bab–Bar === +Stephen Moulton Babcock (1843–1931), American agricultural chemist worked on the "single-grain experiment" +Myrtle Bachelder (1908–1997), American chemist noted for work on the Manhattan Project atomic bomb, and for work on metal chemistry +Werner Emmanuel Bachmann (1901–1951), American chemist, known for work in steroids and RDX +Simone Badal-McCreath (21st century), Jamaican chemist who created prostate and breast cancer cell lines +Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), Belgian-American chemist known for invention of bakelite +Adolf von Baeyer (1835–1917), German chemist, 1905 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, synthesis of indigo +Piero Baglioni (born 1952), Italian chemist known for inorganic and organic colloids +Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom (1854–1907), Dutch chemist who studied phase behaviour in physical chemistry +Alice Ball (1892–1916), American chemist known for inventing an effective injectable treatment for leprosy +Emily Balskus (born 1980), American chemist and microbiologist known for work on the human microbiome +Zhenan Bao (born 1970), Chinese chemist known for developing technologies with organic field-effect transistors and organic semiconductors +Phil S. Baran (born 1977), American chemist known for synthesis, novel reactions and reagents +Coral Barbas (PhD 1989), Spanish chemist known for research on metabolomics and integration of chemical data +Allen J. Bard (1933–2024), American chemist known for development of the scanning electrochemical microscope, Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Vincenzo Barone (born 1952), Italian chemist working in theoretical and computational chemistry +Neil Bartlett (1932–2008), English/Canadian/American chemist known for creating the first noble-gas compound +Sir Derek Barton (1918–1998), 1969 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for “contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..06a0b4543 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 2/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Bas–Ben === +Fred Basolo (1920–2007), American chemist known for the mechanisms of inorganic reactions +Esther Batchelder (1897–1987), American chemist, educator and specialist in nutrition +Sir Alan Battersby (1925–2018), English organic chemist known for work on biosynthetic pathways +Antoine Baumé (1728–1804), French chemist, inventor of the Baumé scale hydrometer for measuring the density of liquids +Karl Bayer (1847–1904), Austrian chemist who invented the Bayer process of extracting alumina from bauxite +Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682), German who developed the phlogiston theory of combustion +Friedrich Konrad Beilstein (1838–1906), German-Russian chemist, created Beilstein database +Joseph Achille Le Bel (1847–1930), French chemist, early work in stereochemistry addressing the relationship between molecular structure and optical activity +Angela Belcher (PhD 1997), American chemist, materials scientist, and biological engineer +Irina Beletskaya (born 1933), Russian organometallic chemist known for studies on aromatic reaction mechanisms +R. P. (Ronnie) Bell (1907–1996), English physical chemist known in particular for The Proton in Chemistry +Andrey Belozersky (1905–1972), Soviet biologist and biochemist, pioneer of molecular biology and the chemistry of nucelic acids +Ruth R. Benerito (1916–2013), American chemist known for inventions relating to textiles, including wash-and-wear cotton fabrics + +=== Ber–Bla === +Paul Berg (1926–2023), American biochemist known for research on nucleic acids, especially recombinant DNA, 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Friedrich Bergius (1884–1949), German chemist known for known for production of synthetic fuel from coal, 1931 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Helen M. Berman (born 1943), American chemist who worked on structural analysis of protein-nucleic acid complexes +Marcellin Berthelot (1827–1907), French chemist, a prominent anti-vitalist who synthesized many organic compounds from inorganic substances, and developed thermochemistry +Claude Louis Berthollet (1748–1822), French chemist who developed the theory of chemical equilibria +Carolyn R. Bertozzi (born 1966) American chemist who studies chemical reactions compatible with living systems ("bioorthogonal chemistry"), 2022 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Guy Bertrand (born 1952) French chemist working on carbenes, nitrenes, phosphinidenes, radicals and biradicals +Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848), Swedish chemist who discovered several elements +Johannes Martin Bijvoet (1892–1980), Dutch chemist and crystallographer who determined the absolute configuration of sodium rubidium tartrate +Leonora Bilger (1893–1975), American chemist who studied nitrogenous compounds +Katherine Bitting (1869–1937), Canadian and American food chemist for the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Canners Association +Joseph Black (1728–1799), British chemist known for discoveries of magnesium, latent heat, specific heat, and carbon dioxide + +=== Blo–Bou === +Katharine Burr Blodgett (1898–1979), American surface chemist and physicist and inventor of nonreflective glass +Suzanne Blum (born 1978), American chemist developing single-molecule and single-particle fluorescence microscopy +Katharine Blunt (1876–1954), American chemist and nutritionist focusing on home economics, food chemistry and nutrition +Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) Dutch chemist, botanist, Christian humanist & physician, first to isolate urea from urine +Kristie Boering (born 1963), American chemist and planetary scientist studying atmospheric chemistry and mass transport in the extraterrestrial atmosphere +Alexei Bogdanov (born 1935), Soviet and Russian biochemist and molecular biologist known for fundamental contributions to ribosome structure and function, nucleic acid-protein interactions, and protein biosynthesis mechanisms. +Olga Bogdanova (1896–1982), Soviet chemist who specialized in organic catalysis +Dale L. Boger (born 1953), American chemist working on natural product synthesis, synthetic methodology, medicinal chemistry, and combinatorial chemistry +Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran (1838–1912), French chemist who discovered gallium, samarium and dysprosium +Jan Boldingh (1915–2003), Dutch chemist known for new analytic techniques such as gas-chromatography and others +Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Russian chemist and composer. As a chemist he is known best for his work on organic synthesis, including discovery of the aldol reaction +Hans-Joachim Born (1909–1987), German radiochemist who participated in the Soviet nuclear weapons programme +Carl Bosch (1872–1940), German chemist, pioneer in the field of high-pressure industrial chemistry. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1991 +Octave Leopold Boudouard (1872–1923), French chemist who discovered the Boudouard reaction: combination of carbon and carbon dioxide to form carbon monoxide at high temperatures +Jean-Baptiste Boussingault (1802–1887), French chemist with work in agricultural science, petroleum science and metallurgy + +=== Bow–Bro === +E. J. Bowen (1898–1980), English physical chemist known for research into fluorescence +Humphry Bowen (1929–2001), English analytical chemist known for radioisotopes and trace elements +Paul D. Boyer (1918–2018), American biochemist known for studying the biosynthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Robert Boyle (1627–1691), Irish-English pioneer of modern chemistry, best known for Boyle's law +Henri Braconnot (1780–1855), French chemist who worked on plant chemistry and discovered chitin and pectin +Henning Brand (c. 1630–c.1692 or c. 1710), German alchemist, who accidentally discovered phosphorus while searching for the "philosopher's stone" +Mary Bidwell Breed (1870–1949), American chemist focusing on aromatic acids and the atomic mass of palladium +Ronald Breslow (1931–2017), American organic chemist who designed and synthesized new molecules with interesting properties, such as the cyclopropenyl cation +Alan Brisdon (21st century), British chemist known for Inorganic Spectroscopic Methods +Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879–1947), Danish chemist known for work on reaction kinetics, especially acid–base reactions +Herbert C. Brown (1912–2004), American chemist known for work on organoboranes, 1979 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Jeannette Brown (born 1934), American organic medicinal chemist, historian, and author, known for research on drug development targeting tuberculosis and coccidiosis +Jeanette Grasselli Brown (1928–2025), American analytical chemist and spectroscopist +Rachel Fuller Brown (1898–1980), American chemist who co-developed the first useful antifungal antibiotic, nystatin \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..087a1e36f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 11/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Paul Sabatier (1854–1941), French chemist, 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry corecipient +Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), 1958 and 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), Swedish 18th century chemist, discovered numerous elements +Christian Friedrich Schönbein (1799–1868), German-Swiss chemist, invented the fuel cell, and discovered gun cotton and ozone +Stuart L. Schreiber (born 1956), American chemist, a pioneer in a field of chemical biology +Richard R. Schrock (born 1945), 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Peter Schultz (born 1956), American chemist +Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999), 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Nils Gabriel Sefström (1787–1845), chemist +Francesco Selmi (1817–1881), Italian chemist, regarded as one of the founders of colloid chemistry +Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov (1896–1986), physicist and chemist, 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +T. R. Seshadri (1900–1975), Indian chemist, pioneer in plant chemistry +K. Barry Sharpless (born 1941), 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Dan Shechtman (born 1941), 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, discovered quasicrystals +Patsy O. Sherman (1930–2008), 12 US patents +John Sherwood (died 2020), British physical chemist +Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (1873–1952), English theoretical chemist, known for work in valency +Osamu Shimomura (1928–2018), 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Hideki Shirakawa (born 1936), 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Alexander Shulgin (1925–2014), pioneer researcher in Psychopharmacology and Entheogens +Salimuzzaman Siddiqui (1897–1994), Pakistani chemist, pioneer in natural products chemistry +Oktay Sinanoglu (1935–2015), Turkish chemist +Joseph H. Simons (1897–1983), U.S. chemist, discoverer of fluorocarbons, used in gaseous diffusion of Uranium for Manhattan project +Jens Christian Skou (1918–2018), 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Richard Smalley (1943–2005), 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Michael Smith (1932–2000), 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Ascanio Sobrero (1812–1888), Italian chemist, discoverer of nitroglycerin +Frederick Soddy (1877–1956), British chemist, 1921 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Susan Solomon (born 1956), American atmospheric chemist +Ernest Solvay (1838–1922), Belgian chemist and industrialist +S.P.L. Sørensen (1868–1939), Danish chemist +Gabor A. Somorjai (born 1935), 1998 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734), Important work on fermentation +Wendell Meredith Stanley (1904–1971), 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Jean Servais Stas (1813–1891), Belgian analytical chemist +Branko Stanovnik (born 1938), chemist +Hermann Staudinger (1881–1965), polymer chemist, 1953 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Harry Steenbock (1886–1967), American biochemist, work on ultraviolet irradiation +William Howard Stein (1911–1980), 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Thomas A. Steitz (1940–2018), 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Douglas Stephan, Frustrated Lewis Pairs +Alfred Stock (1876–1946), German inorganic chemist, known for work in mercury poisoning +Brian Stoltz (born 1970), award-winning American organic chemist. +Fraser Stoddart (1942–2024), Scottish chemist, a pioneer in the field of the mechanical bond +Molly Shoichet, award-winning Canadian biomedical engineer known for her work in tissue engineering. She is the only person to be a fellow of the three National Academies in Canada +F. Gordon A. Stone (1925–2011), British inorganic chemist +S. Donald Stookey (1915–2014), American glass and ceramic chemist +Gilbert Stork (1921–2017), 1995/6 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz (1829–1896), German organic chemist, principal founder of chemical structure +Yellapragada Subbarow (1895-1948), Indian biochemist known for discovery of ATP and synthesis of many new ground breaking compounds +James B. Sumner (1887–1955), 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Kenneth S. Suslick (born 1952), professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, known for optoelectronic nose +Edwin Sutermeister (1876–1958), American chemist, known for its work on papermaking +Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971), 1926 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Joseph Swan (1828–1914), English physicist, chemist and inventor +Frédéric Swarts (1866–1940), Belgian chemist, prepared the first chlorofluorocarbon compound +Richard Laurence Millington Synge (1914–1994), 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry + +== T == +Koichi Tanaka (born 1959), Japanese electrical engineer, 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Henry Taube (1915–2005), American chemist, (1983 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Louis Jacques Thénard (1777–1857), French chemist, discovered hydrogen peroxide and Thenard's Blue +Sir Harold Warris Thompson (1908–1983), English physical chemist +J. J. Thomson (1856–1940), British physicist, Known in chemistry for discovery of isotopes +T. Don Tilley (born 1954), organometallic chemist +Arne Tiselius (1902–1971), Swedish biochemist, 1948 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Max Tishler (1906–1989), American chemist, 1970 Priestley Medal +Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd (1907–1997), British biochemist, 1957 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), Italian physicist and chemist, invented the barometer, pupil of Galileo +Roger Y. Tsien (1952–2016), American biochemist, 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Mikhail Tsvet (1872–1919), Russian botanist, known for adsorption chromatography +Kristy Turner, British chemist + +== U == +Georges Urbain (1872–1938), French chemist, discovered the element lutetium +Harold Clayton Urey (1893–1981), American physical chemist, discovered the element deuterium, 1934 Nobel Prize in Chemistry + +== V == +Lauri Vaska (1925–2015), Estonian/American chemist +Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1763–1829), French pharmacist and chemist, discovered the elements beryllium and chromium +Vincent du Vigneaud (1901–1978), 1955 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (1895–1973), chemist, Nobel Prize laureate +Max Volmer, Germany (1885–1965) +Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), Italian electrochemist, invented the voltaic cell +Alexander Vinogradov (1895-1975), Soviet geochemist \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1ecd6c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 12/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== W == +Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), Dutch physicist +Sir James Walker (1863–1935), Scottish physical chemist +John E. Walker (born 1941), British chemist, 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Otto Wallach (1847–1931), German chemist, 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +John Warner (born 1962), American chemist, 2014 Perkin Medal, one of the "founders" of green chemistry +Alfred Werner (1866–1919), Swiss chemist, 1913 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Thomas Summers West (1927–2010), British analytical chemist +Peter Jaffrey Wheatley (1921–1997), English chemist +Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), Russian chemist, developed the ABE-process +George M. Whitesides (born 1939), American chemist +John Rex Whinfield (1901–1966), British chemist, discovered polyester fibres +Otto Wichterle (1913–1998), Czech chemist, known for inventing modern contact lenses +Heinrich Otto Wieland (1877–1957), German chemist 1927 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Julius Wilbrand (1839–1906), German chemist, inventor of TNT +Harvey W. Wiley (1844–1930), American chemist, pure food and drug advocate +Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921–1996), English chemist, 1973 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Alexander William Williamson (1824–1904), English chemist, famous for Williamson ether synthesis +Thomas Willson (1860–1915), Canadian chemist, discovered an economically efficient process for creating calcium carbide +Richard Willstätter (1872–1942), German chemist, 1915 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus (1876–1959), German chemist, 1928 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Günter Wirths (1911–2005), German chemist +Georg Wittig (1897–1987), German chemist, 1979 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), German chemist, best known for his synthesis of urea +William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828), English chemist, discovered the elements palladium and rhodium +Robert B. Woodward (1917–1979), American chemist, 1965 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Charles de Worms (1903–1979), English chemist and lepidopterist +Charles-Adolphe Wurtz (1817–1884), Alsatian French chemist, discovered the Wurtz reaction +Kurt Wüthrich (born 1938), 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry + +== X == +Xiaoliang Sunney Xie (born 1962), Chinese-American biochemist, pioneer in the field of Single Molecule Microscopy and CARS (Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy) microscopy +Xie Yi (born 1967), Chinese chemist, member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry. + +== Y == +Ada Yonath (born 1939), Israeli chemist, 2006/7 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Sabir Yunusov (1909–1995), Soviet chemist (alkaloids) + +== Z == +Richard Zare (born 1939), American chemist, 2005 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Nikolay Zefirov (1935-2017), Russian and Soviet Organic and Medicinal Chemist +Nikolay Zelinsky (1861–1953), Russian and Soviet Organic chemist, inventor of the first effective gas mask (1915) +Ahmed H. Zewail (1946–2016), Egyptian chemist, 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on femtochemistry +Karl Ziegler (1898–1973), German chemist, 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Richard Adolf Zsigmondy (1865–1929), 1925 Nobel Prize in Chemistry + +== Chemists famous in other areas == +Marion Barry (1936–2014), Masters in Organic Chemistry, American politician +Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Russian chemist and composer +Jerry Buss (1934–2013), PhD in Physical Chemistry, owner of the NBA LA Lakers and other sports franchises +Catherine Coleman (born 1960), American chemist and retired NASA astronaut who went on two Space Shuttle missions +Emmanuel Dongala (born 1941), Congolese chemist and novelist +Elizabeth J. Feinler (born 1931), American information scientist and past director of the Network Information Systems Center at the Stanford Research Institute +Marye Anne Fox (1947–2021), American chemist and university chancellor +Dolph Lundgren (born 1957), Masters in Chemistry, Swedish actor +Primo Levi (1919–1987), resistance fighter, chemist and novelist +Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian chemist, historian, philologist, and poet +Angela Merkel (born 1954), doctorate in quantum chemistry, Chancellor of Germany (2005–2021) +Gaspard Monge (1746–1818), invented descriptive geometry +Francis Muguet (1955–2009), advocate of open information access +Edward W. Morley (1838–1923), performed the Michelson–Morley experiment +Knute Rockne (1888–1931), head football coach of Notre Dame +Elio Di Rupo (born 1951), Prime Minister of Belgium +Israel Shahak (1933–2001), Israeli chemist and civil-rights activist +Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1979–1990), research chemist at BX Plastics + +== See also == +List of biochemists +List of computational chemists +List of psychedelic chemists +List of Russian chemists + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b4972504 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 3/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Buc–But === +Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), German chemist who sounded the death knell of vitalism by discovering cell-free fermentation, 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Stephen L. Buchwald (born 1955), American organic chemist, co-discoverer of palladium-catalyzed C–N bond formation Buchwald–Hartwig amination +Mary Van Rensselaer Buell (1893–1969), American chemist who worked on nucleic acids and nucleotides, the relation of hormones to the metabolism of carbohydrates, and other topics in biochemistry +Kathryn Bullock (1945–2021), American chemist who co-developed valve-regulated lead-acid batteries +Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899), German inventor, chemist, discovered the elements caesium and rubidium with Gustav Kirchhoff and invented the Bunsen burner +Jeanne Burbank (1915–2002), American chemist who developed lead-acid and silver-zinc batteries for submarines at the United States Naval Research Laboratory +Stephanie Burns (born 1955), American organosilicon chemist and past honorary president of Society of Chemical Industry +William Merriam Burton (1865–1954), American chemist, developed the first thermal cracking process for crude oil +Adolf Butenandt (1903–1995), German biochemist, 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "work on sex hormones" +Alison Butler (PhD 1982), American bioinorganic chemist and metallobiochemist +Aleksandr Butlerov (1828–1886), Russian chemist, one of the creators of the theory of chemical structure, who discovered the formose reaction + +== C == + +=== Ca === +Mary Letitia Caldwell (1890–1972), American chemist who developed a method for purifying crystalline porcine pancreatic amylase +Melvin Calvin (1911–1997), American chemist, winner of 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Allison A. Campbell (born 1963), American chemist studying biomineralization, biomimetics and biomaterials +Constantin Cândea (1887–1971), Romanian analytical chemist who studied methods of separating metals +Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910), Italian chemist, postulated the Cannizzaro reaction +María Luz Cárdenas (born 1944). Chilean-French enzymologist known for work on mammalian hexokinases. +Heinrich Caro (1834–1910), German chemist who developed a synthesis for aniline red and other dyes +Wallace Carothers (1896–1937), American chemist, known for the discovery of nylon +Emma P. Carr (1880–1972), American chemist known for work on unsaturated hydrocarbons and absorption spectra +Marjorie Constance Caserio (1929–2021), American chemist, known for Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry, winner of the Garvan Medal +Marta Catellani (PhD 1971), Italian chemist working on palladium as a catalyst for multistep organic reactions, who discovered the Catellani reaction +Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), British experimental and theoretical chemist and physicist noted for the discovery of hydrogen + +=== Ce–Ci === +Thomas Cech (born 1947), American biochemist, 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of catalytic RNA +Martin Chalfie (born 1947), American scientist, 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the green fluorescent protein +Christopher Chang (born 1974) American chemist known for molecular imaging sensors as applied to neuroscience and immunology, metal catalysts for renewable energy cycles, and green chemistry +Michelle Chang (born 1977), American chemist known for work on biosynthesis of biofuels and pharmaceuticals +Yves Chauvin (1930–2015), French chemist, 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for deciphering the process of olefin metathesis +Michel Eugėne Chevreul (1786–1889), French chemist, the first scientist to define the concept of a chemical compound and to formally characterize the nature of organic compounds +Christine S. Chow (PhD 1992), American chemist who uses fluorescence spectroscopy and mass spectrometry to study drug-RNA interactions +Aaron Ciechanover (born 1947), Israeli biologist, 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on ubiquitination +Giacomo Luigi Ciamician (1857–1922) Italian chemist, pioneer in photochemistry and green chemistry, and the earliest to anticipate artificial photosynthesis + +=== Cl–Cor === +G. Marius Clore FRS (born 1955), American chemist, known for foundational work in three-dimensional protein and nucleic acid structure determination by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy +Edward L. Cochran (born 1929), American chemist, known for pioneering studies on the nature of free radicals +Ernst Cohen (1869–1944 Auschwitz), Dutch chemist known for work on the allotropy of metals) +Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American chemist, a pioneer in the applying nuclear magnetic resonance to enzyme reactions, particularly reactions of adenosine triphosphate +David Collison (PhD 1980), British chemist known for development of electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy +Vicki Colvin (born 1965), American chemist known for work on the synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials +James Bryant Conant (1893–1978), American organic chemist who explored the complex relationship between chemical equilibrium and the reaction rate of chemical processes, Priestley Medal 1944 +Elias James Corey (born 1928), American organic chemist, winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing the theory and methodology of organic synthesis, specifically retrosynthetic analysis +Robert Corey (1897–1971), American biochemist known for co-discovery of the α-helix and the β-sheet +Carl Ferdinand Cori (1896–1984), Czech biochemist, Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine 1947 for discovering how glycogen is broken down and resynthesized +Gerty Cori (1896–1957), American biochemist, Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine 1947 for discovering how glycogen is broken down and resynthesized +John Cornforth (1917–2013), Australian-British chemist, 1975 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalysed reactions +Athel Cornish-Bowden (born 1943). British and French enzymologist known for enzyme kns, hexokinases, and metabolic control analysis +Charles D. Coryell (1912–1971), American chemist who worked on hemoglobin structure and co-discovered the element promethium \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..52428f252 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 4/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cot–Cz === +Frank Albert Cotton (1930–2007), American chemist known for research on transition metals and as coauthor of Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2000 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Charles Coulson (1910–1974), British theoretical chemist, pioneer of the application of quantum theory to problems of molecular structure +Archibald Scott Couper (1831–1892), British chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules +James Crafts (1839–1917), American chemist, developer of Friedel–Crafts reaction for alkylation and acylation +Donald J. Cram (1919–2001), American chemist, winner of the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for development of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity +William Crookes (1832–1919), British chemist who discovered thallium, and was a pioneer of vacuum tubes +Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922), Scottish organic chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules +Paul J. Crutzen (1933–2021), Dutch chemist, winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on atmospheric chemistry, especially in relation to ozone +Ana Maria Cuervo (born 1966), Spanish-American physician, researcher, and cell biologist, best known for work on autophagy +Marie Curie (1867–1934), Polish and French radiation physicist, discovered the elements radium and polonium, 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics, 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Pierre Curie (1859–1906), French physicist and chemist, 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for work on radioactivity +Robert Curl (1933–2022), American chemist, winner of 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of the fullerene class of materials +Theodor Curtius (1857–1928), German chemist known for the Curtius rearrangement, and also discovery of diazoacetic acid, hydrazine and hydrazoic acid +Anthony Czarnik (born 1957), American chemist and inventor known for work on fluorescent chemosensors +Emil Czyrniański (1824–1888), Polish chemist, known for developing chemical nomenclature in Polish + +== D == + +=== Da–Di === +Jeff Dahn (born 1957), Canadian materials chemist noted for significant contributions to lithium-ion batteries +John Dalton (1766–1844), British chemist, physicist and meteorologist, whose work laid the foundations of modern atomic theory and stoichiometric chemistry +Marie Maynard Daly (1921–2003), American biochemist who studied the chemistry of histones, protein synthesis, the relationships between cholesterol and hypertension, and uptake of creatine by muscle cells +Carl Peter Henrik Dam (1895–1976), Danish biochemist, winner of the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering vitamin K and its role in human physiology +Samuel J. Danishefsky (born 1936), American organic chemist, natural product total synthesis, 1995/6 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Raymond Davis, Jr. (1914–2006), American physicist and chemist who won the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics for detecting neutrinos emitted from the Sun +Humphry Davy (1778–1829), British chemist, discovered several alkaline earth metals +Serena DeBeer (born 1973), American chemist known for developing X-ray based spectroscopic probes of electronic structure +Peter Debye (1884–1966), Dutch chemist who improved the theory of electrical conductivity in electrolyte solutions, winner of the 1936 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Johann Deisenhofer (born 1943), German biochemist who determined the three-dimensional structure of a protein complex found in photosynthetic bacteria, 1988 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Margarita del Val (born 1959), Spanish chemist, immunologist, and virologist, coordinator of the Salud Global ("Global Health") platform +Nathalie Demassieux (1884–1961), French mineral chemist and academic who worked on the complex halogenated salts of lead +Gautam Radhakrishna Desiraju (born 1952), Indian chemist known for work on crystal engineering and weak hydrogen bonds +James Dewar (1842–1923), British chemist and physicist known for his invention of the vacuum flask and its usefor studying the liquefaction of gases +François Diederich (1952–2020), Luxembourg chemist known for molecular recognition studies with biological receptors +Otto Diels (1876–1954), German chemist, winner of the 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the Diels–Alder reaction, a method for cyclohexene synthesis +Robert Dirks (1978–2015), American computational chemist known for work on DNA nanotechnology + +=== Do–Dy === +Martha Doan (1872–1960), American chemist who studied thallium compounds +William von Eggers Doering (1917–2011), American chemist known for the total synthesis of quinine +Edward Doisy (1893–1986), American biochemist, winner of the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine +Davorin Dolar (1921–2005), Slovenian physical chemist who studied polyelectrolyte solutions, and is regarded as a founder of modern physical chemistry teaching in Slovenia +Vy Maria Dong (born 1976), American chemist who studies enantioselective catalysis and natural product synthesis +David Adriaan van Dorp (1915–1995), Dutch chemist known for the first full synthesis of vitamin A +Israel Dostrovsky (1918–2010), Russian (Ukraine)-born Israeli physical chemist known for separating oxygen isotopes in water +Herbert Henry Dow (1866–1930), American industrial chemist, known for bromine extraction +Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1633), Dutch inventor, alchemist and chemist who contributed to develop measurement and control systems, optics and chemistry +Jean Baptiste Dumas (1800–1884), French chemist, best known for the determination of atomic and molecular masses weights by measuring vapor densities +Helen Dyer (1895–1998), American biochemist and early cancer researcher known for studies of carcinogenesis mechanisms \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..773070194 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 5/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== E == +Sandra Eaton (PhD 1972), American chemist notable for work on electron paramagnetic resonance +John Tileston Edsall (1902–2002), American protein chemist, and co-author of Proteins, Amino Acids and Peptides +Eilaf Egap (21st century), American chemist who works on imaging techniques and biomaterials for early diagnostics and drug delivery +Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German chemist, winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for contributions to immunology +Arthur Eichengrün (1867–1949), German chemist known for developing the anti-gonorrhea drug Protargol +Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), German chemist, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions +Mostafa El-Sayed (born 1933), Egyptian-American physical chemist known for the El-Sayed rule in spectroscopy +Fausto Elhuyar (1755–1833), Spanish chemist, the first to isolate tungsten +Lorne Elias (PhD 1956), Canadian chemist, inventor of the explosives vapour detector EVD-1 +Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist and recipient of the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for innovative methods of rational drug design +Conrad Elvehjem (1901–1962), American biochemist who identified two vitamins, nicotinic acid (niacin) and nicotinamide +Harry Julius Emeléus (1903–1993), British inorganic chemist known for work on fluorine chemistry +Gladys Anderson Emerson (1903–1984), American chemist and early nutritionist, and the first person to isolate Vitamin E +Emil Erlenmeyer (1825–1909), German chemist known for the early development of the theory of chemical structure and formulating the Erlenmeyer rule. +Richard R. Ernst (1933–2021), Swiss physical chemist, 1991 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy +Gerhard Ertl (born 1936), German physical chemist who laid the foundation of modern surface chemistry, 2007 Nobel prize in chemistry +Margaret C. Etter (1943–1992), American chemist and developer of solid state chemistry for crystalline organic compounds +Hans von Euler-Chelpin (1873–1964), Swedish chemist, winner of the 1929 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the fermentation of sugar and enzymes +Henry Eyring (1901–1981), Mexico-born American theoretical chemist known for the absolute rate theory of chemical reactions + +== F == + +=== Fa–Fi === +Kazimierz Fajans (1887–1975), Polish-American physical chemist, who worked on radioactivity and co-discovered protactinium +Michael Faraday (1791–1867), British chemist and physicist who discovered include the principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and electrolysis +Hermann von Fehling (1812–1885), German chemist who developed use of Fehling's solution for estimation of sugar +John Bennett Fenn (1917–2010), 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work in mass spectrometry +Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), Nuclear chemist and elementary particle physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics 1938 +Louis Fieser (1899–1977), American chemist who work on blood-clotting agents including the first synthesis of vitamin K, and was the author of numerous textbooks +Mary Peters Fieser (1909–1997), American chemist who worked on quinones and steroids, and was co-author of chemistry books +Barbara J. Finlayson-Pitts (PhD 1973), Canadian-American chemist who works on the chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere +Emil Fischer (1852–1919), 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, known for work on stereochemistry and for the lock and key mechanism of enzyme action +Emily V. Fischer (born 1979/1980), American chemist notable for work on the WE-CAN project and on peroxyacetyl nitrate +Ernst Gottfried Fischer (1754–1831), German chemist who proposed a system of equivalents based on sulfuric acid equal to 1000 +Ernst Otto Fischer (1918–2007), German chemist, 1973 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for pioneering work on organometallic chemistry +Franz Joseph Emil Fischer (1877–1947), German chemist, co-discovered the Fischer–Tropsch process +Hans Fischer (1881–1945), German organic chemist, 1930 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for research on the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll +Nellie Ivy Fisher (1907–1995), London-born industrial chemist known for photographic chemistry +Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig (1835–1910), German chemist, co-discovered Wurtz–Fittig reaction + +=== Fl–Fu === +Edith M. Flanigen (born 1929), American chemist known for synthesizing emeralds and zeolites +Nicolas Flamel (c. 1330–1418), French alchemist who was believed to have created and discovered the philosopher's stone +Paul Flory (1910–1985), American chemist, 1974 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the physical chemistry of macromolecules +Maria Forsyth (PhD 1990), Australian chemist known for work on energy storage and on corrosion +Margaret D. Foster (1895–1970), Manhattan Project chemist and the first female chemist to work for the United States Geological Survey +Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy (1775–1809), co-discovered the element Iridium and developed modern chemical notation +Joanna Fowler (born 1942), American neural chemist who studied effects on the human brain and radiotracers in brain chemistry +Michelle Francl (PhD 1983), American computational chemist known for the 6-31G* basis set for Na to Ar and electrostatic potential charges +Edward Frankland (1825–1899), English chemist, one of the originators of organometallic chemistry who introduced the concept of valence +Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958), British chemist and crystallographer whose work was central to understanding the molecular structure of DNA +Katherine Franz (born 1972), American chemist noted for work in metal ion coordination in biological systems +Herman Frasch (1851–1914), German mining engineer and inventor, pioneered the Frasch process +Bertram Fraser-Reid (1934–2020), Jamaican synthetic organic chemist who developed the armed-disarmed principle in glycosylation chemistry +Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), American chemist who developed self-testing systems for diabetes +Carl Remigius Fresenius (1818–1897), German chemist known for work in analytical chemistry +Ida Freund (1863–1914), British chemist known for texts on chemistry teaching, andy first woman university chemistry lecturer in the UK +Charles Friedel (1832–1899), French chemist, developer of Friedel–Crafts reaction +Alexander Naumovich Frumkin (1895–1976), electrochemist and chemist who develped applied electrochemical processes related to chemical sources of electrical power +Kenichi Fukui (1918–1998), 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for investigating mechanisms of chemical reactions +Elizabeth Fulhame (18th–19th centuries), British chemist, pioneer in the study of catalysis and discoverer of photoreduction +Vera Furness (1921–2002), English chemist and industrial manager who worked on the production of the acrylic Courtelle + +== G == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7d657081 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 6/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ga–Gl === +Johan Gadolin (1760–1852), Finnish chemist who discvered yttrium +Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), French chemist and physicist who discovered the Gay-Lussac law, known for discovering that water is made of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume +Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–1856), French chemist known for reforming the notation for chemical formulas, and for synthesizing acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) +Jnan Chandra Ghosh (1894–1959), Indian chemist known for research on strong electrolytes and the dissociation--ionization theory +William Giauque (1895–1982), 1949 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for studies of the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero +Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), American chemist and physicist whose work on thermodynamics helped to transform physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science +Walter Gilbert (born 1932), 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a method of sequencing nucleic acids +Cornelia Gillyard (born 1941), American organic chemist known for work with chemicals in the environment +Henry Gilman (1893–1986), American chemist who developed organometallic chemistry, and discovered the Gilman reagent +Judith Giordan (Thesis 1980), American chemist who worked on unsaturated hydrocarbons and became President-Elect of the American Chemical Society +Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670), Dutch-German alchemist and chemist who discovered sodium sulfate and wrote many books +Lawrence E. Glendenin (1918–2008), American chemist, co-discovered the element promethium + +=== Gm–Gu === +Leopold Gmelin (1788–1853), German chemist who discovered potassium ferricyanide; author of Handbook of Chemistry, which is still used +Theodore Nicolas Gobley (1811–1874), French chemist, pioneer in brain tissues analysis, discoverer of lecithin +Sulamith Goldhaber (1923–1965), Austrian-American chemist, high-energy physicist, and molecular spectroscopist +Victor Goldschmidt (1888–1947), Norwegian mineralogist considered to be one of the founders of modern geochemistry +Moses Gomberg (1866–1947), Russian-American chemist, known for pioneering work in radical chemistry +Mary L. Good (1931–2019), American inorganic chemist who studied catalysis by ruthenium +David van Goorle also called Gorlaeus (1591–1612), Dutch chemist, one of the first modern atomists, who thought that all bodies are made up of atoms +Loney Gordon (1915–1999), American chemist who assisted in creating the pertussis vaccine +Carl Gräbe (1841–1927), German chemist who synthesized the dye alizarin +Thomas Graham (1805–1869), Scottish chemist known for pioneering work on dialysis and diffusion of gases +Harry B. Gray (born 1935), American chemist known for the kinetics of long-range electron-transfer reactions in metalloproteins; 2004 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Martha Greenblatt (born 1941), American solid state inorganic chemist, 2003 American Chemical Society's Garvan-Olin Medal +Bettye Washington Greene (1935–1995), American industrial chemist who studied colloid and latex chemistry, including interactions between latex and paper +Sandra C. Greer (born 1945), American chemist notable for work on thermodynamics of fluids, polymer solutions and phase transitions +François Auguste Victor Grignard (1871–1935), French chemist, 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on reactions important in the formation of carbon–carbon bonds +Robert H. Grubbs (1942–2021), 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on olefin metathesis +Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau (1737–1816), French chemist known for establishing modern chemical nomenclature + +== H == + +=== Ha === +Fritz Haber (1868–1934), German chemist, 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, father of the Haber process +Dorothy Hahn (1876–1950), early American organic chemist and ultraviolet spectroscopist +Otto Hahn (1879–1968), German chemist, discoverer of nuclear fission, 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, father of nuclear chemistry +Sossina M. Haile (born 1966), American chemist notable for developing the first solid acid fuel cells +Naomi Halas (PhD 1987), American biochemist focusing on nanoshells and nanophotonics +John Burdon Sanderson Haldane (1892–1962), British and Indian biochemist, geneticist and evolutionary biologist +Charles Martin Hall (1863–1914), American chemist known for the Hall-Héroult process for inexpensive production of aluminum +Frances Mary Hamer (1894–1980), British chemist who specialized in photographic sensitization compounds +George S. Hammond (1921–2005), American chemist, famous for Hammond's postulate as part of the general theory of the transition state in chemical reactions +Arthur Harden (1865–1940), English biochemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1929 for work on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes +Elizabeth Hardy (1915–2008), Canadian-American chemist who discovered the Cope rearrangement of dienes +Anna J. Harrison (1912–1998), American chemist who studied the structure of organic compounds and their interaction with light, first woman President of the American Chemical Society +Odd Hassel (1897–1981), Norwegian chemist who established the three-dimensionality of molecular geometry, 1969 Nobel Prize in chemistry +Charles Hatchett (1765–1847), English chemist who discovered niobium +Herbert A. Hauptman (1917–2011), American mathematician who developed a method that opened a new era in research in determination of molecular structures of crystallized materials, 1985 Nobel Prize in chemistry +Walter Hawkins (1911–1992), American chemist, a pioneer of polymer chemistry, who co-invented a polymer with antioxidants that prevented deterioration even in extreme temperatures +Walter Haworth (1883–1950), British chemist, 1937 Nobel Prize in chemistry "for his investigations on carbohydrates and vitamin C" +Sam Hay (PhD 2004), New Zealand chemist known for in silico enzymology, quantum mechanics roles in biological processes +Alma Levant Hayden (1927–1967), American spectrophotometrist known for showing that Krebiozen was a quack anti-cancer agent +Jabir Ibn Hayyan (722–804), Persian-Arab chemist and alchemist, purported author of many works in Arabic \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a46c5b7db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 7/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== He–Hi === +Clayton Heathcock (born 1936), American chemist known for his work on the synthesis of complex polycyclic natural products +Alan J. Heeger (1936–2023), American chemist known for co-founding the field of conducting polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in chemistry +Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579–1644), chemist from the Spanish Netherlands known for studying the weight gain of growing plants, The founder of pneumatic chemistry +Victor Henri (1872–1940), French physical chemist of Russian parents, the first to apply ideas of physical chemistry to the properties of enzymes. +Dudley R. Herschbach (born 1932), American chemist, 1986 Nobel Prize in chemistry for work on the dynamics of chemical elementary processes +Avram Hershko (born 1937), Hungarian-born Israeli biochemist, 2004 Nobel Prize in chemistry for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation +Charles Herty (1867–1938), American chemist who revolutionized the turpentine industry +Gerhard Herzberg (1904–1999), German-Canadian chemist, 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals +Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850), Swiss-born Russian chemist who formulated Hess's law, an early principle of thermochemistry +George de Hevesy (1885–1966), Hungarian chemist who discovered hafnium, Nobel Prize in chemistry 1943 for the development of radioactive tracers to study metabolism +Jaroslav Heyrovský (1890–1967), Czech chemist, 1959 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of polarography +Evelyn Hickmans (1883–1972), British biochemist, pioneer in treatment of phenylketonuria +Joel Hildebrand (1881–1983), American educator and chemist specializing in liquids and nonelectrolyte solutions +Mary Elliott Hill (1907–1969), American chemist who developed analytic methodology for ultraviolet light +Cyril Norman Hinshelwood (1897–1967), English physical chemist known for study of chemical kinetics, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1956 + +=== Ho–Hu === +Gladys Lounsbury Hobby (1910–1993), American microbiologist known for development and early understanding of antibiotics +Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994), British chemist, 1964 Nobel Prize in chemistry for development of protein crystallography +Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911), Dutch physical chemist known for developing the princioles of chemical thermodynamics, 1901 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Albert Hofmann (1906–2008), Swiss chemist, synthesized Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) +August Wilhelm Hofmann (1818–1892), German chemist, first to isolate sorbic acid +Darleane C. Hoffman (1926–2025), American nuclear chemist who studied the properties of transuranium elements +Friedrich Hoffmann (1660–1742), German physician and chemist who found that lime, magnesia, etc. existed in almost all mineral springs in Germany +Roald Hoffmann (born 1937), Polish-born American chemist, 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for theories of the course of chemical reactions +Mei Hong (born 1970), Chinese-American biophysical chemist known for development solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance to elucidate the structures and mechanisms of membrane proteins +Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947), British biochemist, known for discovery of vitamins, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 +Marjorie G. Horning (1917–2020), American biochemist and pioneer of chromatography who developed new techniques for studying drug metabolism +Benjamin Hsiao (born 1958), Taiwanese American chemist working to understand the structural, morphological development and manipulation of complex polymer systems +Linda Hsieh-Wilson (PhD 1996), American chemist known for work in chemical neurobiology on understanding the structure and function of carbohydrates in the nervous system +Heinrich Hubert Maria Josef Houben (1875–1940), German organic chemist known for work on ketone synthesis, terpenes, and camphor +Coenraad Johannes van Houten (1801–1887), Dutch chemist and chocolate maker who invented cocoa powder +Amir H. Hoveyda (PhD 1986), American chemist, particularly noted for developing catalysts for stereoselective olefin metathesis +Marcia Huber (PhD 1985), American chemical engineer known for modeling the thermophysical properties of fluids +Robert Huber (born 1937), German chemist known for crystallizing an intramembrane protein important in photosynthesis, 1988 Nobel Prize in chemistry +Catherine T. Hunt (born 1955), American chemist who worked on nuclear magnetic resonance and became president of the American Chemical Society + +== I == +Sir Christopher Kelk Ingold (1893–1970), English chemist known for introducing concepts such as nucleophile, electrophile, inductive and resonance effects +Vladimir Ipatieff (1867–1952), Russian-American chemist who worked in petroleum chemistry and catalysts + +== J == +Nancy B. Jackson (1956–2022), American chemist who worked on heterogeneous catalysis and the development of alternative fuels +Marilyn E. Jacox (1929–2013), American chemist who worked on the spectroscopy of free radicals and other unstable chemical species +Hope Jahren (born 1969), American chemist and isotope analyst known for using stable isotope analysis to analyze fossil forests +Paul Janssen (1926–2003), Belgian physician and entrepreneur who discovered the antispasmodic drug ambucetamide +Allene Jeanes (1906–1995), American chemist who developed Dextran to replace plasma in the Korean War +Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900–1958), French chemist and physicist, 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of induced radioactivity +Irène Joliot-Curie (1897–1956), French chemist and physicist, 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of induced radioactivity +Madeleine M. Joullié (born 1927), French-American-Brazilian organic chemist who worked on synthesizing organic compounds such as tilorone, furanomycin, and numerous cyclopeptides +Percy Lavon Julian (1899–1975), African American organic chemist who was a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine. + +== K == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5913c0bf5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 8/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ka--Kj === +Henri B. Kagan (born 1930) French chemist, pioneer of asymmetric catalysis, 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Isabella Karle (1921–2017), American chemist instrumental for extracting plutonium chloride from a mixture containing plutonium oxide +Jerome Karle (1918–2013), 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the direct analysis of crystal structures by X-ray scattering +Paul Karrer (1889–1971), Swiss organic chemist known for research on vitamins, 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Alan R. Katritzky (1928–2014), British-American organic chemist, pioneer of heterocyclic chemistry +Joyce Jacobson Kaufman (1929–2016), American chemist and inventor of conformational topology +Melinda H. Keefe (PhD 2001), American chemist known for identifying solvents that can be used to remove dirt without damaging layers of paint +August Kekulé (1829–1896), German organic chemist known for the theory of chemical structure, especially the structure of benzene +John Kendrew (1917–1997), British biochemist and crystallographer known for solving the structure of myoglobin, 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Ann Kiessling (born 1942), American chemist and reproductive biologist known for discovering reverse transcriptase activity in normal human cells +Ann Kimble-Hill (21st century), American biochemist studying structure-function relationships of membrane proteins and lipids +Petrus Jacobus Kipp (1808–1864), Dutch chemist, inventor of Kipp's apparatus +Johan Kjeldahl (1849–1900), Danish chemist who developed a method for determining the amount of nitrogen in organic compounds + +=== Kl--Ku === +Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1743–1817), German chemist, who discovered uranium and zirconium, and contributed to the discovery of other elements +Trevor Kletz (1922–2013), British promoter of industrial safety +Aaron Klug (1926–2018), winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing crystallographic electron microscopy +Emil Knoevenagel (1865–1921) German organic chemist, known for the condensation reaction of carbonyl compounds with active methylene compounds +Jeremy Randall Knowles (1935–2008), British physical organic chemist known for studies of chemical mechanisms, especially in enzyme catalysis +William Standish Knowles (1917–2012), 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on asymmetric synthesis, specifically in hydrogenation reactions +Walter Kohn (1923–2016), 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for contributions to the understanding of the electronic properties of materials +Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (1818–1884), German chemist known for Kolbe nitrile synthesis +Izaak Kolthoff (1894–1993), Dutch-American chemist with abundant published research in diverse fields of analysis, the "Father of Analytical Chemistry" +Arthur Kornberg (1918–2007), American biochemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1959) for discovery of DNA polymerase +Hans Kornberg (1928–2019), British biochemist known for research in microbial biochemistry +Roger D. Kornberg (born 1947), 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for elucidation of how genetic information from DNA is copied to RNA +Teresa Kowalska (1946–2023), Polish chemist, specialized in the theory and application of chromatography +Hans A. Krebs (1900–1981), German-British biochemist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1953)for work on metabolic cycles +Harold Kroto (1939–2016), English chemist, 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of fullerenes +Richard Kuhn (1900–1967), 1938 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on carotenoids and vitamins +Eugenia Kumacheva (PhD 1986), Ukrainian-Canadian chemist with work on fundamental and applied polymers science, nanotechnology, microfluidics, and interface chemistry +Theodore Kuwana, (1931–2022), American chemist, founder of the field of spectroelectrochemistry + +== L == + +=== La–Li === +Irving Langmuir (1881–1957), American chemist, physicist, 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work in surface chemistry +Auguste Laurent (1807–1853), French chemist who discovered trichloroethylene, anthracene, phthalic acid, and carbolic acid +Paul Lauterbur (1929–2007), American chemist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2003) work which that the development of magnetic resonance imaging possible +Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), French chemist who recognized oxygen and hydrogen as elements +Nicolas Leblanc (1742–1806), French chemist and surgeon who discovered how to manufacture soda ash from common salt +Henri Louis Le Chatelier (1850–1936), French chemist known for Le Chatelier's principle, which allows prediction of the effect of a changing condition on a system in chemical equilibrium +Yuan T. Lee (born 1936), Taiwanese chemist, 1986 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for contributions to the development of reaction dynamics +Valery Legasov (1936–1988), Soviet inorganic chemist known for his position as head of the Chernobyl Commission for the Chernobyl Disaster +Jean-Marie Lehn (born 1939), French chemist, 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the synthesis of cryptands +Marko Leko (1853–1932), Serbian chemist known for work on the nature of ammonium chloride +Luis Federico Leloir (1906–1987), Argentine biochemist and winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Raymond Lemieux (1920–2000), Canadian organic chemist, Wolf Prize in Chemistry +Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946), American chemist and first Dean of the Berkeley College of Chemistry + +=== Li–Lu === +Andreas Libavius (1555–1616), German doctor and alchemist who discovered how prepare hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfate, etc. +Carl Theodore Liebermann (1842–1914), German chemist, known for synthesis of alizarin +Willard Libby (1908–1980), American chemist known for development of radiocarbon dating, 1960 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), German inventor and pioneer in agricultural and biological chemistry +Karl Paul Link (1901–1978), American biochemist, discovered the anticoagulant warfarin +John Wilfrid Linnett (1913–1975), British chemist at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, known for contributions to theoretical chemistry +William Lipscomb (1919–2011), American chemist known for work in nuclear magnetic resonance, theoretical chemistry, boron chemistry, and biochemistry; 1976 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister (1827–1912), English surgeon known for recognising that putrefaction in wounds is caused by germs +Arthur H. Livermore (1915–2009), American science educator and chemist who contributed to the synthesis of penicillin +Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russian scientist, anticipated the kinetic-molecular theory by 100 years +H. Christopher Longuet-Higgins (1923–2004), British chemist with many contributions to theoretical chemistry +Janis Louie, (born 1971), American chemist who works of catalisis by nickel-based systems +Martin Lowry (1874–1936), British physical chemist who developed acid–base theory +Sima Lozanić (1847–1935), Serbian chemist known for chemistry textbooks +Alfred Lucas (1867–1945), Egypt-based English analytical chemist and archaeologist known for work after the excavation of Tutankhamun's tomb +Ignacy Łukasiewicz (1802–1882), Polish pharmacist, inventor of the modern kerosene lamp + +== M == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a6ccf256 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 9/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ma–Me === +Alan MacDiarmid (1927–2007), American-New Zealand chemist who discovered conductive polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Carolina Henriette Mac Gillavry (1904–1993), Dutch chemist and crystallographer known for discoveries on the use of diffraction in crystallography +Roderick MacKinnon (born 1956), American biophsicist known for work on ion channels; 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Pierre Macquer (1718–1784), French chemist known for Dictionnaire de chymie +Rudolph A. Marcus (born 1923), Canadian chemist known for work on the theory of electron transfer reactions; 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Jacob A. Marinsky (1918–2005), American chemist, co-discovered the element promethium +Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894), Swiss chemist who discovered ytterbium and co-discovered gadolinium +Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov (1838–1904), Russian chemist known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions of hydrogen halides and alkenes +Tobin J. Marks (born 1944), American inorganic chemist and materials scientist known for work in polymerization catalysts +Alan G. Marshall (born 1944), American chemist, co-inventor of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry +Archer John Porter Martin (1910–2002), British physical chemist, 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of partition chromatography +Martinus van Marum (1750–1837), Dutch physician, inventor, scientist and teacher, which created the "large electricity machine" +Elmer McCollum (1879–1967), American biochemist, known for work of diet on health +Edwin McMillan (1907–1991), American physicist, the first to produce a transuranium element, neptunium, 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Lise Meitner (1878–1968), Austrian and Swedish nuclear physicist instrumental in the discovery of nuclear fission +Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907), Russian chemist, creator of the Periodic table of elements +Maud Menten (1879–1960). Canadian biochemist known for early work on enzyme kinetics +John Mercer (1791–1866), British dye and fabric chemist who developed mercerisation, a process for treating cotton +Robert Bruce Merrifield (1921–2006), solid-phase chemist, 1984 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895), German chemist, one of the pioneers in developing the earliest versions of the periodic table of the chemical elements +Viktor Meyer (1848–1897), German organic and inorganic chemist, known for work on vapour densities + +=== Mi === +August Michaelis (1847–1916), German chemist who discovered the Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction +Leonor Michaelis (1875–1949), German biochemist and physical chemist known for fundamental advances in enzyme chemistry +Hartmut Michel (born 1948), German biochemist, 1988 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determination of the first crystal structure of an integral membrane protein +Huang Minlon (1889–1979), Chinese chemist, pioneer of modern pharmaceutical industries in China +Stanley Miller (1930–2007), American chemist, best known for the Miller–Urey experiment +Eugène Millon (1812–1867), French military chemist and physician who discovered the reaction of mercury and nitric acid with egg albumen +David P. Mills (PhD 2007), British chemist who investigates lanthanide and actinide f-block elements +Luis E. Miramontes (1925–2004), Mexican co-inventor of the combined oral contraceptive pill +Peter D. Mitchell (1920–1992), British biochemist known for the theory of chemiosmosis, 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Eilhardt Mitscherlich (1794–1863), German chemist, remembered for the law of isomorphism. +Alexander Mitscherlich (1836–1918), German chemist known for discovering crystallographic isomorphism + +=== Mo–Mu === +Karl Friedrich Mohr (1806–1879), German chemist famous for early statement on the Conservation of energy +Henri Moissan (1852–1907), French chemist and the winner of the 1906 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on fluorine +Mario J. Molina (1943–2020), Mexican chemist known for discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole, 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Jacques Monod (1910–1976), French biochemist, winner of Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965 "for discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis" +Jeffrey S. Moore (born 1961), American materials chemist known for work on macromolecular architectures +Peter Moore (born 1939), American biochemist known for work on the structure, function, and mechanism of the ribosome +Stanford Moore (1913–1982), American biochemist known for automatic amino acid analysis, 1972 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on the structure of the enzyme ribonuclease +Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (1887–1915), British physicist who discovered Moseley's law and introduced the concept of atomic number +Gerardus Johannes Mulder (1802–1880), Dutch organic chemist who introduced the concept of protein +Paul Müller (1899–1965), Swiss chemist who discovered DDT and its use as an insecticide; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1939 +Robert S. Mulliken (1896–1986), American physicist and chemist known for molecular orbital theory, 1966 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Jnanendra Nath Mukherjee(1893-1983), Indian chemist known for work on the electrochemistry of colloids +Kary Mullis (1944–2019), American biochemist who invented the polymerase chain reaction, 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Earl Muetterties (1927–1984), American chemist known for work on boranes and various aspects of catalysis +Catherine J. Murphy (born 1964), American chemist and materials scientist known for work on nanomaterials \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..feb32449e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemists" +chunk: 10/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== N == +Robert Nalbandyan (1937–2002), Armenian protein chemist known for discovery of photosynthetic protein plantacyanin +Sergey Nametkin (1976–1950), Russian organic chemist known the cracking of petrochemicals, and rearrangement of camphenes +Louise Natrajan (PhD 2003), British chemist who ortks on actinide chemistry and luminescence spectroscopy +Giulio Natta (1903–1979), Italian chemical engineer worked on high density polymers, 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Costin Nenițescu (1902–1970), Romanian chemist who studied the oxidation of open-chain and aromatic hydrocarbons with chromic acid and chromic oxychloride +Antonio Neri (1576–1614), Florentine priest, author of L’Arte Vetraria (The Art of Glass), the first general treatise on the systematics of glassmaking +Walther Nernst (1864–1941), German physical chemist whose heat theorem led the way to the third law of thermodynamics, 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +John Alexander Reina Newlands (1837–1898), British analytical chemist, precursor of the periodic order of elements +William Nicholson (1753–1815), British chemist and civil engineer, the first to achieve electrolysis +Kyriacos Costa Nicolaou (born 1946), Cypriot-American chemist known for total synthesis of natural products +Julius Nieuwland (1878–1936), Belgian and American prirest and chemist who worked on synthetic rubber +Mathias Nilsson, Swedish physical and analytical chemist concerned with liquid NMR spectroscopy +Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), Swedish chemist who invented dynamite and established the Nobel Prizes +Ronald George Wreyford Norrish (1897–1978), British chemist known for flash photolysis and the Norrish reaction, 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +John Howard Northrop (1891–1987), American biochemist known for isolation, crystallization, and study of enzymes, proteins, and viruses; 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Ryōji Noyori (born 1938), Japanese chemist, 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the study of chirally catalyzed hydrogenations +Ralph Nuzzo (born 1954), American materials chemist known for work on the chemistry of materials, including processes that occur at surfaces and interfaces + +== O == +George Andrew Olah (1927–2017), Hungarian and American chemist who worked on the generation and reactivity of carbocations via superacids; 1994 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Marilyn Olmstead (1943–2020), American chemist, expert in small-molecule crystallography +Fred Olsen (1891–1986), British-born American chemist, inventor of the ball propellant manufacturing process +Lars Onsager (1903–1976), Norwegian and American physical chemist and theoretical physicist who cirrected the Debye-Hückel theory of electrolytic solutions, 1968 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Tony Orchard (1941–2005), British inorganic chemist whose research helped to lay the foundations of much modern consumer electronic technology +Joan Oró (1923–2004), Spanish (Catalan) biochemist known for studies of the origin of life +Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851), Danish chemist and physicist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields +Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932), Baltic German physical chemist, 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for contributions to the fields of catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities +Larry E. Overman (born 1943), American organic chemist developing chemical reactions, particularly transition metal catalyzed reactions +Geoffrey Ozin (DPhil 1967), British materials chemist known for research on nanomaterials + +== P == +Paracelsus (1493–1541), alchemist +Rudolph Pariser (1923–2021), theoretical and organic chemist +Robert G. Parr (1921–2017), theoretical chemist +Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), French biochemist, father of pasteurization +Linus Pauling (1901–1994), Nobel Prizes in chemistry and peace +Charles J. Pedersen (1904–1989), 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Eugène-Melchior Péligot (1811–1890), French chemist who isolated the uranium metal +William Henry Perkin (1838–1907), British organic chemist and inventor of mauveine (dye) +William Henry Perkin, Jr. (1860–1929), British organic chemist, son of Sir William Henry Perkin +Max Perutz (1914–2002), 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Eva Philbin (1914–2005), Irish chemist +David Andrew Phoenix (born 1966), British biochemist +Georgy Pigulevsky (1888–1964), Russian chemist and biochemist +James Pitts (1921–2014), American chemist known for work on photochemistry and atmospheric chemistry +Roy J. Plunkett (1910–1994), discoverer of Teflon +John Charles Polanyi (born 1929), Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1986 +John A. Pople (1925–2004), theoretical chemist, 1998 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Vera Vevstafievna Popova (1867–1896), one of the first female Russian chemists +George Porter (1920–2002), 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Fritz Pregl (1869–1930), Slovene-German chemist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1923 +Vladimir Prelog (1906–1998), 1975 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), no formal training as a scientist, discovered the element oxygen +Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003), 1977 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Joseph Louis Proust (1754–1826), discovered the Law of definite proportions +Evgenii Przhevalsky (1879-1953), Russian and Soviet chemist, father of analytical chemistry in USSR + +== R == +Ronald T. Raines (born 1958), American chemist +Adam Vladislavovich Rakovsky (1879–1941), Soviet physical chemist +Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (born 1952), 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +William Ramsay (1852–1916), Scottish chemist, 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +C. N. R. Rao (born 1934), Indian chemist +François-Marie Raoult (1830–1901), French chemist, known for Raoult's law +Henry Rapoport (1918–2002), American chemist, UC Berkeley +William Sage Rapson (1912–1999), South African chemist and co-author of Gold Usage +Nil Ratan Dhar (1892–1986), Pioneering Indian soil chemist +Ken Raymond (born 1942), American inorganic and bioinorganic chemist, UC Berkeley +Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861–1944), Indian chemist +Julius Rebek (born 1944), Hungarian American chemist +Charles Lee Reese (1862–1940), American chemist and Chemical Director of DuPont +Henri Victor Regnault (1810–1878), French chemist and physicist +Tadeus Reichstein (1897–1996), chemist, 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine +Oleg Reutov (1920-1998), soviet organic chemist +Rhazes (Razi) (865–925), Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist +Stuart A. Rice (1932–2024), physical chemist +Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911), industrial and environmental chemist +Theodore William Richards (1868–1928), 1914 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Wim Richter (1946–2019), South Africa +Jeremias Benjamin Richter (1762–1807), German chemist, first used the term stoichiometry +Nikolaus Riehl (1901–1990), German chemist +Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), Spanish-Mexican geochemist, discovered vanadium +Robert Robinson (1886–1975), British chemist, 1947 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Pierre Jean Robiquet (1780–1840), French chemist, discovered caffeine, alizarin, cantharidin +Hillar Rootare (1928–2008), Estonian-American physical chemist +Irwin Rose (1926–2015), 2004 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Guillaume-François Rouelle (1703–1770), French chemist +Hilaire-Marin Rouelle (1718–1779), French chemist +Frank Sherwood Rowland (1927–2012), 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry +Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), Scottish chemist +Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937), New Zealand born chemist and nuclear physicist. Discovered the proton. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908 +Leopold Ruzicka (Lavoslav Ružička) (1887–1976), 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fdf6a7d8e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "List of chlorinated propanes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:48.360196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of the 29 molecules of chlorinated propane in order of number of chlorine atoms. + + +== Monochloro == +1-Chloropropane +2-Chloropropane + + +== Dichloro == +1,1-Dichloropropane +1,2-Dichloropropane +1,3-Dichloropropane +2,2-Dichloropropane + + +== Trichloro == +1,1,1-Trichloropropane +1,2,3-Trichloropropane +1,2,2-Trichloropropane +1,1,2-Trichloropropane +1,1,3-Trichloropropane + + +== Tetrachloro == +1,1,1,2-Tetrachloropropane +1,1,1,3-Tetrachloropropane +1,1,2,2-Tetrachloropropane +1,1,2,3-Tetrachloropropane +1,1,3,3-Tetrachloropropane +1,2,2,3-tetrachloropropane + + +== Pentachloro == +1,1,1,2,2-Pentachloropropane +1,1,1,2,3-Pentachloropropane +1,1,1,3,3-Pentachloropropane +1,1,2,2,3-Pentachloropropane +1,1,2,3,3-Pentachloropropane + + +== Hexachloro == +1,1,1,2,2,3-Hexachloropropane +1,1,1,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane +1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexachloropropane +1,1,2,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane + + +== Heptachloro == +1,1,1,2,2,3,3-Heptachloropropane +1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptachloropropane + + +== Octachloro == +Octachloropropane + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d85f85e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of cigarette smoke carcinogens" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:49.504661+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Commercial tobacco smoke is a mixture of more than 5,000 chemicals. A 2011 report in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) lists 65 carcinogens or possible carcinogens: "Our list of hazardous smoke components includes all nine components reported in mainstream cigarette smoke that are known human carcinogens (IARC Group I carcinogens), as well as all nine components that are probably carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2A carcinogens). In addition, it contains 34 of the 48 components that are possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B carcinogens)." + + +== IJERPH table == +"1Cancer inhalation risk values provide an excess lifetime exposure risk, in this case the human lung cancer risk at a 1 in 100,000 (E-5) level." + + +== See also == +Kent, a cigarette that contained a filter made of asbestos. +Composition of electronic cigarette aerosol +Health effects of tobacco smoking +List of additives in cigarettes + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..be2b305b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "List of climate change books" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:44.352085+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on climate change. + + +== Non-fiction == +Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject that is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition. + + +== Fiction == + + +== See also == +Climate change in literature +List of environmental books + + +== References == + +Books on Global Warming, Climate Change Books, Climate Change Education.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f67c392ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "List of compounds" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:50.676864+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Compounds are organized into the following lists: + +List of inorganic compounds, compounds without a C–H bond +List of biomolecules + + +== See also == +Chemical substance – Form of matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +List of alchemical substances +List of chemical elements +List of fragrance compounds +List of minerals +List of named alloys +List of straight-chain alkanes +Polyatomic ion – Ion containing two or more atoms +Exotic molecule – a compound containing one or more exotic atoms + + +== External links == +Relevant links for chemical compounds are: + +Chemical Abstracts Service, a division of the American Chemical Society +Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) – substance databases +CAS Common Chemistry +ChemSpider +PubChem \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c80a8f884 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "List of computational chemistry software" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:51.876846+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of computational chemistry software used for electronic structure calculations, molecular property prediction, and related simulations. The programs listed below implement methods such as Hartree–Fock, Post–Hartree–Fock, density-functional theory, and relativistic formalisms for molecular, biological, and solid-state chemistry systems. + + +== Quantum chemistry == + + +== Molecular dynamics == + + +== Molecular modeling software == + + +== Cheminformatics, docking, and modeling == + + +== Utilities and frameworks == + + +== See also == + +Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software +Computational Chemistry List +Crystallographic database +Crystallography Open Database +List of chemical process simulators +List of chemistry journals +List of computational chemists +List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software +List of molecular graphics systems +List of software for Monte Carlo molecular modeling +List of software for nanostructures modeling + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Software | Computational Chemical Sciences Open-Source Software Development Group +Free and open source software for computational chemistry education +Cheminformatics and Molecular Modeling – Translational Informatics Division +Best Open Source Chemistry Software 2025 +lmmentel/awesome-python-chemistry +Cutting-Edge Free Tools To Unlock the Power of Computational Chemistry \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..79e0ee0c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "List of conjugated polymers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:53.097778+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== See also == +Light emitting polymers in OLEDs +Conductive polymer +Electroluminescence + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dca08e65f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "List of cooling baths" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:54.317715+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article contains a list of cooling bath mixtures. + + +== Table == + + +== References == + +Lee, Do W.; Jensen, Craig M. (2000). "Dry-Ice Bath Based on Ethylene Glycol Mixtures". J. Chem. Educ. 77 (5): 629. doi:10.1021/ed077p629. +Phipps, Alan M.; Hume, David N. (1968). "General purpose low temperature dry-ice baths". J. Chem. Educ. 45 (10): 664. Bibcode:1968JChEd..45..664P. doi:10.1021/ed045p664. +Rondeau, Roger E. (1966). "Slush baths". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 11: 124. doi:10.1021/je60028a037. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c86190f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "List of copper salts" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:55.607543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and the atomic number of 29. It is easily recognisable, due to its distinct red-orange color. Copper also has a range of different organic and inorganic salts, having varying oxidation states ranging from (0,I) to (III). These salts (mostly the (II) salts) are often blue to green in color, rather than the orange color copper is known for. Despite being considered a semi-noble metal, copper is one of the most common salt-forming transition metals, along with iron. + + +== Copper(0,I) salts == + + +== Copper(I) salts == + + +== Copper(II) salts == + + +== Copper(I, II) salts == + + +== See also == +List of organic salts +List of inorganic compounds \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3adee418e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ +--- +title: "List of corticosteroids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:56.951676+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) or derivatives of cortisol (hydrocortisone). Most esters of these corticosteroids are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead. +The most common structural modifications in synthetic corticosteroids include 1(2)-dehydrogenation, 6α-, 9α-, 16α-, and 16β-substitution (with a halogen or methyl group), 16α,17α-acetonidation, and 17α- and 21-esterification. + + +== Natural == + +11-Dehydrocorticosterone (11-oxocorticosterone, 17-deoxycortisone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione +11-Deoxycorticosterone (deoxycortone, desoxycortone; 21-hydroxyprogesterone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +11-Deoxycortisol (cortodoxone, cortexolone) = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +11-Ketoprogesterone (11-oxoprogesterone; Ketogestin) = pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione +11β-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [1] +11β-Hydroxyprogesterone (21-deoxycorticosterone) = 11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [2] +17α,21-Dihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [3] +17α-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one +17α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione +18-Hydroxy-11-deoxycorticosterone = 18,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [4] +18-Hydroxycorticosterone = 11β,18,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +18-Hydroxyprogesterone = 18-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [5] +21-Deoxycortisol = 11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, +21-Deoxycortisone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione +21-Hydroxypregnenolone (prebediolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one +Aldosterone = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,18,20-trione +Corticosterone (17-deoxycortisol) = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +Cortisol (hydrocortisone) = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +Cortisone = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione +Pregnenolone = pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one +Progesterone = pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +The glucocorticoid activity of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is very weak (>100-fold less than that of cortisol). +The above list includes precursors and intermediates in corticosteroid biosynthesis. + + +== Synthetic == + + +=== Progesterone-type === +Flugestone (flurogestone) = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +Fluorometholone = 6α-methyl-9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Medrysone (hydroxymethylprogesterone) = 6α-methyl-11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +Prebediolone acetate (21-acetoxypregnenolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one 21-acetate +In addition to the above, various progesterone derivative progestins such as chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, medrogestone, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, and segesterone acetate possess weak glucocorticoid activity which can manifest clinically at high dosages. + + +=== Hydrocortisone-type === +Chloroprednisone = 6α-chloro-17α,21-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione +Cloprednol = 6-chloro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4,6-triene-3,20-dione +Difluprednate = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione 17α-butyrate 21-acetate +Fludrocortisone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +Fluocinolone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Fluperolone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-21-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Fluprednisolone = 6α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Loteprednol = 11β,17α,dihydroxy-21-oxa-21-chloromethylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Methylprednisolone = 6α-methyl-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Prednicarbate = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione 17α-ethylcarbonate 21-propionate +Prednisolone = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Prednisone = 17α,21-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione +Tixocortol = 11β,17α-dihydroxy-21-sulfanylpregn-4-ene-3,20-dione +Triamcinolone = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione + + +=== Methasone-type (16-methylated) === + +Alclometasone = 7α-chloro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Beclometasone = 9α-chloro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16β-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Betamethasone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16β-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Clobetasol = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16β-methyl-21-chloropregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Clobetasone = 9α-fluoro-16β-methyl-17α-hydroxy-21-chloropregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione +Clocortolone = 6α-fluoro-9α-chloro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Desoximetasone = 9α-fluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Dexamethasone = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Diflorasone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16β-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Difluocortolone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Fluclorolone = 6α-fluoro-9α,11β-dichloro-16α,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione +Flumetasone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Fluocortin = 6α-fluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20,21-trione +Fluocortolone = 6α-fluoro-11β,21-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Fluprednidene = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16-methylenepregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Fluticasone = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methyl-21-thia-21-fluoromethylpregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione +Fluticasone furoate = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methyl-21-thia-21-fluoromethylpregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione 17α-(2-furoate) +Halometasone = 2-chloro-6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Meprednisone = 16β-methyl-17α,21-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,11,20-trione +Mometasone = 9α,21-dichloro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Mometasone furoate = 9α,21-dichloro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione 17α-(2-furoate) +Paramethasone = 6α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Prednylidene = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16-methylenepregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione +Rimexolone = 11β-hydroxy-16α,17α,21-trimethylpregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione +Ulobetasol (halobetasol) = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxy-16β-methyl-21-chloropregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione + + +=== Acetonides and related === +Amcinonide = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with cyclopentanone, 21-acetate +Budesonide = 11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with butyraldehyde +Ciclesonide = 11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with (R)-cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde, 21-isobutyrate +Deflazacort = 11β,21-dihydroxy-2'-methyl-5'H-pregna-1,4-dieno[17,16-d]oxazole-3,20-dione 21-acetate +Desonide = 11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone +Formocortal (fluoroformylone) = 3-(2-chloroethoxy)-9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxy-20-oxopregna-3,5-diene-6-carboxaldehyde cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone, 21-acetate +Fluclorolone acetonide (flucloronide) = 6α-fluoro-9α,11β-dichloro-16α,17α,21-trihydroxypregna-1,4-dien-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone +Fludroxycortide (flurandrenolone, flurandrenolide) = 6α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone +Flunisolide = 6α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone +Fluocinolone acetonide = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone +Fluocinonide = 6α,9α-difluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone, 21-acetate +Halcinonide = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α-trihydroxy-21-chloropregn-4-ene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone +Triamcinolone acetonide = 9α-fluoro-11β,16α,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16α,17α-acetal with acetone + + +=== Others === +Cortivazol = 6,16α-dimethyl-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-2'-phenyl[3,2-c]pyrazolopregna-4,6-dien-20-one 21-acetate +RU-28362 = 6-methyl-11β,17β-dihydroxy-17α-(1-propynyl)androsta-1,4,6-trien-3-one + + +== See also == +List of steroids +List of corticosteroid cyclic ketals +List of corticosteroid esters + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1fc8ecf9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:45.541574+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by the European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The following table lists the annual CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000. +The data only consider carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry. Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports. +In 2023, global GHG emissions reached 53.0 GtCO2eq (without Land Use, land Use Change and Forestry). The 2023 data represent the highest level recorded and experienced an increase of 1.9% or 994 MtCO2eq compared to the levels in 2022. The majority of GHG emissions consisted of fossil CO2 accounting for 73.7% of total emissions. +China, the United States, India, the European Union, Russia and Brazil were the world's largest GHG emitters in 2023. Together they account for 49.8% of global population, 63.2% of global gross domestic product, 64.2% of global fossil fuel consumption and 62.7% of global GHG emissions. Among these top emitters, in 2023 China, India, Russia and Brazil increased their emissions compared to 2022, with India having the largest increase in relative terms (+ 6.1%) and China the largest absolute increase by 784 MtCO2eq. +CO2 emissions from the top 10 countries with the highest emissions accounted for almost two thirds of the global total. Since 2006, China has been emitting more CO2 than any other country. However, the main disadvantage of measuring total national emissions is that it does not take population size into account. China has the largest CO2 emissions in the world, but also the second largest population. Some argue that for a fair comparison, emissions should be analyzed in terms of the amount of CO2 per capita. Their main argument is illustrated by CO2 per capita emissions in 2023, China's levels (9.24) are almost two thirds those of the United States (13.83) and less than a sixth of those of Palau (62.59 – the country with the highest emissions of CO2 per capita). +Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North America. +Greenhouse gases (GHG) – primarily carbon dioxide but also others, including methane and chlorofluorocarbons – trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Higher temperatures then act on the climate, with varying effects. For example, dry regions might become drier while, at the poles, the ice caps are melting, causing higher sea levels. In 2016, the global average temperature was already 1.1°C above pre-industrial levels. +According to the review of the scientific literature conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas by warming contribution. The other major anthropogenic greenhouse gases) are not included in the following list, nor are humans emissions of water vapor (H2O), the most important greenhouse gases, as they are negligible compared to naturally occurring quantities. Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide should allow independent monitoring in the mid-2020s. + + +== Fossil carbon dioxide emissions by country == + + + +== Fossil CO2 emissions 2023 vs. fossil CO2 emissions per capita 2023 == + + + + +== Cumulative fossil CO2 emissions 1970-2023 vs. fossil CO2 emissions 2023 == + + + + +== Maps and charts == + + +== See also == + +List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita +List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions +List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita +List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP +List of countries by renewable electricity production +List of locations and entities by greenhouse gas emissions +United Nations | Sustainable Development Goal 13 - Climate action + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform – The SDGs +GHG data from UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions data +CO2 emissions in kilotons – World Bank +CO2 emissions in metric tons per capita – Google Public Data Explorer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..624e8949c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "List of desiccants" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:02.174207+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of desiccants: + +Activated alumina +Aerogel +Benzophenone (as anion) +Bentonite clay +Calcium chloride +Calcium hydride +Calcium oxide +Calcium sulfate (Drierite) +Cobalt(II) chloride +Copper(II) sulfate +Lithium chloride +Lithium bromide +Magnesium chloride hexahydrate +Magnesium sulfate +Magnesium perchlorate +Molecular sieve +Phosphorus pentoxide +Potassium carbonate +Potassium hydroxide +Rice +Silica gel +Sodium +Sodium chlorate +Sodium chloride +Sodium hydroxide +Sodium sulfate +Sucrose +Sulfuric acid +Triethylene glycol +Zeolite (molecular sieves) + + +== External links == +Education Center + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..00f746a77 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "List of discredited substances" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:03.476066+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of substances or materials generally considered discredited. +A substance can be discredited in one of three ways: + +It was widely believed to exist at one time but no longer is. Such substances are often part of an obsolete scientific theory. +It was once believed to have drastically different properties from those accepted now. It was widely claimed and believed to possess significant properties that are no longer attributed to it. +It is currently believed to exist as part of a theory that has not met the theoretical and experimental requirements of mainstream science. In particular, such a theory must be predictive. + + +== Substances whose existence is discredited == + + +== Substances whose properties are discredited == +This is not to be construed as implying that these items–as they are understood today–are discredited. What is listed are fire, water, metal, etc. as universal principles or fundamentals. + +Classical elements and Chinese elements discredited by atomic theory and nuclear physics. +Fire (classical element) +Water (classical element) +Earth (classical element) +Air (classical element) +Wood (classical element) +Metal (classical element) +Aether (classical element): Now known not to exist (see above) +The four bodily humours: Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile, and Yellow Bile. Fluids believed to determine health and character. Discredited by modern biology, including discovery of hormones. +The tria prima of Paracelsus and later alchemy: Salt, Mercury and Sulphur. Discredited by modern chemistry (the atomic theory and modern understanding of elements and compounds). + + +== See also == +List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and subatomic particles +List of misidentified chemical elements + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5df01c23c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of dyes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:04.859605+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of dyes with Colour Index International generic names and numbers and CAS Registry numbers. + +Note + +Synonyms should be treated with caution because they are often used inconsistently, see discussion page and external link [1] + + +== See also == +Glossary of dyeing terms + + +== Sources == +BDH laboratory chemicals & biochemicals catalogue 1983 +Important Early Synthetic Dyes 1991 Smithsonian Institution + + +== External links == +Stainsfile dye index +World Dye Variety +Hazardous substances used in textile dyeing \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aeeaf71b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "List of essential oils" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:07.468008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or Solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds. + +Agar oil or oodh, distilled from agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis). Highly prized for its fragrance. +Ajwain oil, distilled from the leaves of (Carum copticum). Oil contains 35–65% thymol. +Amyris oil +Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica. Has a green musky scent. +Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum, rich odor of licorice +Armoise/Mugwort oil A green and camphorous essential oil. +Asafoetida oil, used to flavor food. +Attar or ittar, used in perfumes for fragrances such as rose and sandlewood. +Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon, used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for a cheaper alternative to vanilla. +Basil oil, used in making perfumes, as well as in aromatherapy +Bay leaf oil is used in perfumery and aromatherapy +Beeswax absolute A solid absolute with a rich, honeyed scent. Mainly used in perfumery. +Bergamot oil, used in aromatherapy and in perfumes. +Birch oil used in aromatherapy +Bitter Almond oil, Mainly used to extract benzaldehyde for the use of perfumery. Has a rich maraschino cherry scent +Black pepper oil is distilled from the berries of Piper nigrum. +Buchu oil, made from the buchu shrub. Considered toxic and no longer widely used. Formerly used medicinally. +Calamodin oil or calamansi essential oil comes from a citrus tree in the Philippines extracted via cold press or steam distillation. +Calamus oil Used in perfumery and formerly as a food additive +Camphor oil used in cosmetics and household cleaners. +Cannabis flower essential oil, used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy and beverages. Also used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and candles. +Caraway seed oil, used a flavoring in foods. Also used in mouthwashes, toothpastes, etc. as a flavoring agent. +Cardamom seed oil, used in aromatherapy. Extracted from seeds of subspecies of Zingiberaceae (ginger). Also used as a fragrance in soaps, perfumes, etc. +Carrot seed oil, used in aromatherapy. +Cedar oil (or cedarwood oil), primarily used in perfumes and fragrances. +Chamomile oil, there are many varieties of chamomile but only two are used in aromatherapy, Roman and German. German chamomile contains a higher level of the chemical azulene +Cinnamon oil, used for flavoring +Cistus ladanifer leaves and flowers used in perfumery. +Citron oil, used in Ayurveda and perfumery. +Citronella oil, from a plant related to lemon grass is used as an insect repellent +Clary Sage oil, used in perfumery and as an additive flavoring in some alcoholic beverages. +Clove oil used in perfumery and medicinally. +Coconut oil, used for skin, food, and hair +Coffee oil, used to flavor food. +Coriander oil +Costmary oil (bible leaf oil), formerly used medicinally in Europe; still used as such in southwest Asia. Discovered to contain up to 12.5% of the toxin β-thujone. +Costus root oil +Cranberry seed oil, equally high in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, primarily used in the cosmetic industry. +Cubeb oil, used to flavor foods. +Cumin seed oil/black seed oil, used as a flavor, particularly in meat products +Curry leaf oil, used to flavor food. +Cypress oil, used in cosmetics +Cypriol oil, from Cyperus scariosus +Davana oil, from the Artemisia pallens, used as a perfume ingredient +Dill oil, chemically almost identical to Caraway seed oil. High carvone content. +Douglas-fir oil is unique amongst conifer oils as Douglas-fir is not a true Fir but its own genus. The New Zealand variety steam distilled using mountain spring water is particularly sought after for its purity and chemical profile. +Elecampane oil +Elemi oil, used as a perfume and fragrance ingredient. Comes from the oleoresins of Canarium luzonicum and Canarium ovatum which are common in the Philippines. +Eucalyptus oil, historically used as a germicide. +Fennel seed oil +Fenugreek oil, used for cosmetics from ancient times. +Fir oil +Frankincense oil, used in aromatherapy and in perfumes. +Galangal oil , used to flavor food. +Galbanum oil, used in perfumery. +Garlic oil is distilled from Allium sativum. +Geranium oil, also referred to as geraniol. Used in herbal medicine, aromatherapy, and perfumery. +Ginger oil, used medicinally in many cultures, and has been studied extensively as a nausea treatment, where it was found more effective than placebo. +Goldenrod oil used in herbal medicine, including treatment of urological problems. +Grapefruit oil, extracted from the peel of the fruit. Used in aromatherapy. Contains 90% limonene. +Henna oil, used in body art. Known to be dangerous to people with certain enzyme deficiencies. Pre-mixed pastes are considered dangerous, primarily due to adulterants. +Helichrysum oil +Hickory nut oil +Horseradish oil +Hyssop +Jasmine oil, used for its flowery fragrance. +Juniper berry oil, used as a flavor. +Lavender oil, used primarily as a fragrance. +Ledum +Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. Unlike other essential oils, lemon oil is usually cold pressed. Used in cosmetics. +Lemongrass. Lemongrass is a highly fragrant grass from India. The oil is very useful for insect repellent. +Lime +Litsea cubeba oil, lemon-like scent, often used in perfumes and aromatherapy. +Linalool +Mandarin +Marjoram +Manuka oil +Melissa oil (Lemon balm), sweet smelling oil +Mentha arvensis oil, mint oil, used in flavoring toothpastes, mouthwashes and pharmaceuticals, as well as in aromatherapy. +Moringa oil, can be used directly on the skin and hair. It can also be used in soap and as a base for other cosmetics. +Mountain Savory +Mugwort oil, used in ancient times for medicinal and magical purposes. Currently considered to be a neurotoxin. +Mustard oil, containing a high percentage of allyl isothiocyanate or other isothiocyanates, depending on the species of mustard +Myrrh oil, warm, slightly musty smell. +Myrtle +Neem oil or neem tree oil +Neroli is produced from the blossom of the bitter orange tree. +Nutmeg oil +Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. +Oregano oil, contains thymol and carvacrol +Orris oil is extracted from the roots of the Florentine iris (Iris florentina), Iris germanica and Iris pallida. It is used as a flavouring agent, in perfume, and medicinally. +Palo Santo +Parsley oil, used in soaps, detergents, colognes, cosmetics and perfumes, especially men's fragrances. +Patchouli oil, very common ingredient in perfumes. +Perilla essential oil, extracted from the leaves of the perilla plant. Contains about 50–60% perillaldehyde. +Pennyroyal oil, highly toxic. It is abortifacient and can even in small quantities cause acute liver and lung damage. +Peppermint oil +Petitgrain +Pine oil, used as a disinfectant, and in aromatherapy. +Ravensara +Red Cedar +Roman Chamomile +Rose oil, distilled from rose petals, used primarily as a fragrance. +Rosehip oil, distilled from the seeds of the Rosa rubiginosa or Rosa mosqueta. +Rosemary oil, distilled from the flowers of Rosmarinus officinalis. +Rosewood oil, used primarily for skin care applications. +Sage oil, \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a65170581 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of essential oils" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:07.468008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sandalwood oil, used primarily as a fragrance, for its pleasant, woody fragrance. +Sassafras oil, from sassafras root bark. Used in aromatherapy, soap-making, perfumes, and the like. Formerly used as a spice, and as the primary flavoring of root beer, inter alia. Sassafras oil is heavily regulated in the United States due to its high safrole content. +Savory oil, from Satureja species. Used in aromatherapy, cosmetic and soap-making applications. +Schisandra oil +Spearmint oil, often used in flavoring mouthwash and chewing gum, among other applications. +Spikenard +Spruce oil +Star anise oil, highly fragrant oil using in cooking. Also used in perfumery and soaps, has been used in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. 90% of the world's star anise crop is used in the manufacture of Tamiflu, a drug used to treat influenza, and is hoped to be useful for avian flu +Tangerine +Tarragon oil, distilled from Artemisia dracunculus +Tea tree oil, extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia. +Thyme oil +Tsuga belongs to the pine tree family. +Turmeric, used to flavor food. +Valerian +Warionia, used as a perfume ingredient +Vetiver oil (khus oil) a thick, amber oil, primarily from India. Used as a fixative in perfumery, and in aromatherapy. +Western red cedar +Wintergreen +Yarrow oil +Ylang-ylang + +== See also == +Eau de Cologne +Perfume + +== Books == +Julia Lawless, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The Complete Guide to the Use of Oils in Aromatherapy and Herbalism (ISBN 1852307218) 1995 +The Complete Book of Essential Oils & Aromatherapy + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b5c2d0d51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "List of esters" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:08.661866+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group (−OH) of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (−R). Analogues derived from oxygen replaced by other chalcogens belong to the ester category as well (i.e. esters of acidic −SH, −SeH, −TeH, −PoH and −LvH groups). According to some authors, organyl derivatives of acidic hydrogen of other acids are esters as well (e.g. amides), but not according to the IUPAC. +An example of an ester formation is the substitution reaction between a carboxylic acid (R−C(=O)−OH) and an alcohol (R'OH), forming an ester (R−C(=O)−O−R'), where R and R′ are organyl groups, or H in the case of esters of formic acid. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the main classes of lipids, and making up the bulk of animal fats and vegetable oils. Esters of carboxylic acids with low molecular weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils and pheromones. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters are important plastics, with monomers linked by ester moieties. Esters of carboxylic acids usually have a sweet smell and are considered high-quality solvents for a broad array of plastics, plasticizers, resins, and lacquers. They are also one of the largest classes of synthetic lubricants on the commercial market. + + +== By number of R' group carbons (R−C(=O)−O−R') == + + +=== 1 carbon === + + +=== 2 carbons === + + +=== 3 carbons === + + +=== 4 carbons === + + +=== 5 carbons === + + +=== 7 carbons === + + +=== 8 carbons === + + +=== 10 carbons === + + +== By number of R group carbons (R−C(=O)−O−R') == + + +=== 0 carbons === + + +=== 1 carbon === + + +=== 2 carbons === + + +=== 3 carbons === + + +=== 4 carbons === + + +=== 5 carbons === + + +=== 6 carbons === + + +=== 7 carbons === + + +=== 8 carbons === + + +=== 9 carbons === + + +=== 10 carbons === + + +=== 16 carbons === + + +== List of ester odorants == +Many esters of carboxylic acid have distinctive fruit-like odors, and many occur naturally in fruits and the essential oils of plants. This has also led to their common use in artificial flavorings and fragrances which aim to mimic those odors. + + +== Lactones == +Lactones are a specific class cyclic carboxylic esters that are formed through intramolecular esterification. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..caf537fbf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "List of estrogens" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:09.935711+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of steroidal estrogens or derivatives of estradiol, estrone, and estriol. Most esters of these estrogens are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead. + + +== Estradiol derivatives == + + +=== 17α-Substituted estradiol derivatives === + + +=== Nitrogen mustard-coupled alkylating antineoplastic estradiol derivatives === + + +=== 17β-Aminoestrogens === + + +== Estrone derivatives == + + +=== Nitrogen mustard-coupled alkylating antineoplastic estrone derivatives === + + +== Estriol derivatives == + + +=== 17α-Substituted estriol derivatives === + + +== Other estrogen derivatives == + + +=== Epimers === + + +=== Equine estrogens === + + +== See also == +List of steroids + + +== Notes == +? = Chemical names that are unverified. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1580012b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of fentanyl analogues" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of fentanyl analogues (sometimes referred to as fentalogs), and includes both compounds developed by pharmaceutical companies for legitimate medical use, and those which have been sold as designer drugs. The latter have been reported to national drug control agencies such as the DEA, and some to transnational agencies such as the EMCDDA and UNODC. This is not a comprehensive or exhaustive list of fentanyl analogues, as more than 1400 compounds from this family have been described in the scientific and patent literature. However, this list does include many notable compounds that have reached late-stage human clinical trials, and compounds which have been sold as designer drugs, as well as representative examples of significant structural variations reported in the scientific and patent literature. The structural variations among fentanyl analogues can impart profound pharmacological differences between each other, especially regarding potency and efficacy. +In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) placed the class of "Fentanyl-Related Substances" on the list of Schedule I drugs in 2018, making it illegal to manufacture, distribute, or possess fentanyl analogs, with very broad terminology being used in its scheduling. Regarding the temporary control of fentanyl-related substances, Schedule I was extended through December 31, 2024 by Public Law 117-328. + +== Chemical structures of various fentanyl analogues == + +== Analogue controls == +Several jurisdictions have implemented analogue law controls of fentanyl analogues in an attempt to pre-emptively ban novel derivatives before they appear on the market. One representative example is the New Zealand provisions enacted in 1988 in response to the first wave of fentanyl derivatives. This bans a set of structures as follows; +"Fentanyl analogues, in which the N-[1-(2-phenethyl)-4-piperidyl]aniline nucleus has additional radicals, either alone or in combination, attached as follows: +(a) an acetyl, propionyl, butenoyl or butanoyl radical, attached to the aniline nitrogen atom: +(b) 1 or more alkyl radicals, with up to 10 carbon atoms in total, attached to the ethyl moiety: +(c) any combination of up to 5 alkyl radicals and/or alkoxy radicals (each with up to 6 carbon atoms, including cyclic radicals) and/or halogen radicals, attached to each of the benzene rings." +A more recent and somewhat broader example was introduced into US Federal legislation in 2018, covering the following structures; +"...fentanyl-related substances includes any substance not otherwise controlled in any schedule...that is structurally related to fentanyl by one or more of the following modifications: + +Replacement of the phenyl portion of the phenethyl group by any monocycle, whether or not further substituted in or on the monocycle; +substitution in or on the phenethyl group with alkyl, alkenyl, alkoxyl, hydroxyl, halo, haloalkyl, amino or nitro groups; +substitution in or on the piperidine ring with alkyl, alkenyl, alkoxyl, ester, ether, hydroxyl, halo, haloalkyl, amino or nitro groups; +replacement of the aniline ring with any aromatic monocycle whether or not further substituted in or on the aromatic monocycle; and/or +replacement of the N-propionyl group by another acyl group." + +== Organic chemistry == +Because there are so many analogues of fentanyl, the naming for them tends to follow classical or IUPAC nomenclature conventions. This section is written to help illustrate the basic ring structure of fentanyl and what popular analogues reference on the carbon skeleton, helping a chemist working with fentanyl analogues quickly and consistently navigate the nomenclature system. + +Part I + +The synthesis of fentanyl and its analogues are illustrated in these skeletal diagrams. The synthesis of fentalogs is done by reacting the ring structure as a base, 4-ANPP also called 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine and despropionylfentanyl. 4-ANPP acts as a base because of its two amine nitrogens, the secondary amine acts as a base to react with an organic acid which condenses into an amide. Depending on the organic acid used in the amide condensation, different analogues of fentanyl will be produced. To help align this phenomenon in the eyes of chemists, we have numerated the precursor 4-ANPP with a [0.], and then the reactions synthesizing fentanyl, acetylfentanyl, butyrylfentanyl, and benzoylfentanyl with a [1.], [2.], [3.], and [4.] respectively. To further aid in the chemical pedagogy we have aligned each number with a reaction number -> precursor -> product system that follows the following scheme: +EXAMPLE: reaction number -> precursor -> product [compound name] 1 -> α -> a [fentanyl] 2 -> β -> b [acetylfentanyl] 3 -> γ -> c [butyrylfentanyl] 4 -> δ -> d [benzoylfentanyl] +Using the above scheme, a chemist can quickly extrapolate the reactions necessary for other fentanyl analogues with more complex organic acids, such as cyclopropryl fentanyl or cyclopentyl fentanyl, or any other fentanyl analogue derived from a reaction of 4-ANPP with a novel organic acid. + +Part II \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6dd193538 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of fentanyl analogues" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The modifications covered in this diagram have to do with carbon skeleton modifications of the original fentanyl molecular structure. +These are organized into methyl acetate additions, which are most known for the fentanyl -> carfentanil conversion. Many analogues of great potency, such as ohmfentanyl and lofentanyl possess methyl acetate groups added to the 4-carbon (of the piperidine ring, in the para- position relative to the annular nitrogen). The methyl acetate is added here from the α-carbon of the acetate moiety as it is with ohm- and lofentanyl. The 4-carbon is not a chiral center in carfetnanil because of a lack of piperidinyl substituents, but this same carbon is a chiral center in both ohm- and lofentanyl because both of those analogues have piperidinyl substituents. +The second group are organized into methyl additions, which are known for the fentanyl analogues such as α-methylfentanyl and cis-3-methylfentanyl. These analogues can possess a wide variety of modified pharmacological properties, including increased and decreased potency (receptor binding efficiency), increased or decreased half-life (metabolic binding efficiency) or other side effects on human physiology. Other substituents such as hydroxy, chloro, fluoro, and a wide variety of alkyl groups, are also substituted in place of these methylations to produce psychoactive analogues of fentanyl, but because they often use the same skeletal naming conventions as the simple methyl analogues, we did not reproduce them all in the image here. + +Part III + +The modifications described here cover alterations to the ring structure donated by the fentanyl precursor 4-ANPP. Although another series covered substitutions of hydrogen atoms on the original carbon ring structure, sometimes called functional group additions, this series focuses on the three main modifications to the phenethyl moiety. The first modifications is the removal of the phenethyl moeity from the piperidinyl nitrogen, depicted here as hydrolysis yielding phenethanol. This changes the parent skeletal name to norfentanyl. +The second and third modifications are the removal and addition of a methylene moiety internally in the ethyl chain within the greater phenethyl moiety. The removal of a methylene, which shortens the chain by one carbon length, creates the benzylfentanyl structure. The addition of a methylene, which lengthens the chain by one length, creates homofentanyl. + +Part IV + +The modifications covered in this diagram have to do with stereochemistry and the assignment of unique Cahn-Ingold-Prelog R/S assignments to complex analogues of fentanyl. +The stereochemistry of fentanyl analogues can seem at first counter-intuitive, because of the complex and unique nature of the reasoning organic chemists must develop to internalize complex three dimensional geometries such as those needed to comprehend stereochemistry. Thankfully these images follow a simple procedure for organizing a potential analogue of fentanyl into the total number of unique stereoisomers, the number of true stereocenters on the molecule, and the number of Cahn-Ingold-Prelog R/S assignments that are appropriate for that analogue. +The procedure used in the analysis of stereochemistry in these series of images is the following: + +First the image is drawn out. +Second asterisks are placed by potential stereocenters as indicators (*). +Third the pairs of each stereocenters R and S orientations are combined through all possible permutations of stereocenters. +Fourth the permutations are checked for super-imposability, indicating that they are varying around what is not a true stereocenter and therefore the permutations are truly the self-same stereoisomer. +This procedure will be used when making an assessment of the number of valid stereoisomers that an analogue of fentanyl will be predicted to have. Because the analogues of fentanyl are so large, and the moieities (sub-regions) of the molecule that are relevant to its chirality are so small, that we often reproduce the fentanyl analogue as a smaller, simpler molecule with the same number of, and dynamics between its, stereocenters. This saves significant space allowing us not to reproduce redundant material that consumes a lot of space on the image. +The first case studied here is fentanyl itself, or propionyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine, the most well known of the fentanyl analogues and the eponymous molecule (namesake) for the whole chemical category. The only identified stereocenter is found at the 4-carbon, opposite the piperidine nitrogen but adjacent to the aniline nitrogen. This seems to be a stereocenter because of the apparent 4 unique substituents. We transfer this stereocenter to the equivalent molecule cyclohexanol, with an analogous apparent stereocenter. Once we draw out the potential stereoisomers, we see that the two structures are super-imposable in three dimensions, and therefore are the self-same molecule. For this reason fentanyl does not have R/S assignments. +The second case studied here is of 3-methylfentanyl. There are two potential stereocenters, at the 4-carbon and also at the 3-carbon, where there is additionally a methyl group. Now, we mark both 3 and 4 carbon as potential stereocenters with an asterisk (*), and see how many potential stereoisomers we can eliminate. We see that of the four permutations of stereoisomers, none are super-imposable in three dimensions, meaning each is a unique stereoisomer and that both potential stereocenters were true. This gives four potential R/S assignments, 1R3S, 1R3R, 1S3S, 1S3R. What is particularly interesting and quite a contrast from the previous example of cyclohexanol, is the stereocenter at C-4 is indeed a true stereocenter here, whereas in the previous example of cyclohexanol as an analogy to fentanyl, the C-4 was not a true stereocenter. This changed because the modification of the C-3 carbon without an equivalent change on the C-2 carbon created an imbalance between two formerly identical substituents, creating a novel stereocenter where there was not one previously. This is why it is so important to follow the 4 steps in the above procedure every time, as "inherited procedural wisdom" may hold an organic chemist back in finding the true or correct answer. + +Part V \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1220a54a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of fentanyl analogues" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The third case studied here is alpha-methylfentanyl. This group contains a substitution similar to the 3-methylfentanyl that was examined in the previous example on the previous image in this series (Fentanyl Synthesis p4.png), but it is on the phenethyl chain as opposed to being implanted on the piperidine ring. We then mark the two stereocenters, one on the C-4 carbon just as on fentanyl itself, and the other on the C-α (alpha carbon). To analogize these stereocenters we chose N-(1-hydroxyethyl)-4-hydroxypiperidine. When we draw out all potential stereoisomers, we see that the C-4 stereocenter is super-imposable, eliminating it as a true stereocenter. This leaves only 2 R/S assignments that follow the orientation of the stereocenter at the C-α (alpha carbon) position for the real α-methylfentanyl. These are labeled 7S and 7R, a reflection of the stereocenter in the piperidine derivative we used being at C-7 position. It is interesting that the C-4 stereocenter, which has no chiral activity in fentanyl (1st example), activiates it in 3-methylfentanyl with an on-the-ring addition, and loses it again in α-methylfentanyl with an off-the-ring addition. +The fourth case studied here is ohmfentanyl. Ohmfentanyl has three potential stereocenters, which are best analogized by another piperidine derivative: N-(1-hydroxyethyl)-3-methyl-4-hydroxypiperidine. This uses a similar structure to analogize the three potential stereocenters in ohmfentanyl, namely the 4-C, the 3-C, and the β-C (beta carbon). These three stereocenters are analogized in the C-4, C-3, and C-7 respectively. When we draw all potential stereoisomers out we see that they are not super-imposable in any combination of pairing, and therefore we have eight unique stereoisomers and three true stereocenters. This yields eight unique R/S assignment combinations which are outlined as captions under the stereoisomers of the analogous molecule. +These fundamentals are typically enough to help a chemists navigate the world of fentanyl analogues proficiently. Other substituents and substitutions generally follow the naming conventions outlined in this section. However, the presence of three six-membered rings which can each be independently substituted can easily lead to confusion, especially with the inconsistent use of prime notation. + +For instance, 4-methylfentanyl, 4'-methylfentanyl and 4"-methylfentanyl are all known compounds, as are 3-methylthio-fentanyl and 3-methyl-thiofentanyl, all of which have varying potencies and pharmacokinetics. +Confusion between different positional isomers is especially significant in the case of fentanyls because of the huge variation in potency between different members of the class. The weakest compounds such as benzylfentanyl are around the same potency as codeine (i.e. approximately 1/10th the potency of morphine), while the strongest compounds such as carfentanil and ohmefentanil can be over 10,000x more potent than morphine, meaning there is a 100,000-fold variation in potency between the strongest and weakest fentanyl derivatives. This means that two positional isomers with the same molecular weight, which may be difficult to tell apart without detailed chemical analysis, may be hundreds or even thousands of times different in pharmacological potency. Also the wide variety of substitutions that have been used on the basic fentanyl structure, each of which can either reduce or increase the potency, can be unpredictable when used in combination, so it may be impossible to estimate the likely potency of newly discovered analogues until pharmacological testing has been carried out. + +== See also == +25-NB +Arylcyclohexylamine +List of benzimidazole opioids +List of orphine opioids +List of phenyltropanes +Opioid +Structural scheduling of synthetic cannabinoids +Substituted cathinone +Utopioid + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == +"Fentanyl landscape | PiHKAL · info". isomerdesign.com. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..175c034eb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and subatomic particles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:13.721495+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list contains fictional chemical elements, materials, isotopes or subatomic particles that either a) play a major role in a notable work of fiction, b) are common to several unrelated works, or c) are discussed in detail by independent sources. + + +== Fictional elements and materials == + + +== Fictional isotopes and allotropes of real elements == + + +== Fictional subatomic particles == + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Elements from DC Comics Legion of Super-heroes +Periodic Table of Comic Books – lists comic book uses of real elements +Periodic table from the BBC comedy series Look Around You. +Tarzan at the Earths Core \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80d49e83d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,131 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. + +== Purposes == +Additives are used for many purposes but the main uses are: + +Acids +Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, folic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid. +Acidity regulators +Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods. +Anticaking agents +Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. +Antifoaming agents +Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. +Antioxidants +Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. +Bulking agents +Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. +Food coloring +Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. +Color retention agents +In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. +Emulsifiers +Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk. +Flavors +Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially. +Flavor enhancers +Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially. +Flour treatment agents +Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking. +Glazing agents +Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods. +Humectants +Humectants prevent foods from drying out. +Tracer gas +Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life. +Preservatives +Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms. +Stabilizers +Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions. +Sweeteners +Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay. +Thickeners +Thickeners are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties. +Caffeine and other GRAS (generally recognized as safe) additives such as sugar and +salt are not required to go through the regulation process. + +== Alphabetical index of food additives == + +== 0–9 == +1,4-heptonolactone – food acid * +2-hydroxybiphenyl – preservative + +== A == +Abietic acid – +Acacia vera – +Acacia – thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer +Acesulfame potassium – artificial sweetener +Acesulfame – +Acetic acid – acidity regulator +Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier +Acetone – +Acetylated distarch adipate – thickener, vegetable gum +Acetylated distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum +Acetylated oxidised starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Acetylated starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Acid treated starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Adipic acid – food acid +Agar – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent +Alcohol – +Alfalfa – +Alginic acid – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Alitame – artificial sweetener +Alkaline treated starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Alkanet – color (red) +Allspice – +Allura red AC – color (FDA: FD&C Red #40) +Almond oil – used as a substitute for olive oil. Also used as an emollient. +Aluminium – color (silver) +Aluminium ammonium sulfate – mineral salt +Aluminium potassium sulfate – mineral salt +Aluminium silicate – anti-caking agent +Aluminium sodium sulfate – mineral salt +Aluminium sulfate – mineral salt +Amaranth – color (red) (FDA: [DELISTED] Red #2) Note that amaranth dye is unrelated to the amaranth plant +Amaranth oil – high in squalene and unsaturated fatty acids – used in food and cosmetic industries. +Amchur (mango powder) – +Ammonium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator +Ammonium adipates – acidity regulator +Ammonium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Ammonium bicarbonate – mineral salt +Ammonium carbonate – mineral salt +Ammonium chloride – mineral salt +Ammonium ferric citrate – food acid +Ammonium fumarate – food acid +Ammonium hydroxide – mineral salt +Ammonium lactate – food acid +Ammonium malate – food acid +Ammonium phosphates – mineral salt +Ammonium phosphatides – emulsifier +Ammonium polyphosphates – anti-caking agent +Ammonium sulfate – mineral salt, improving agent +Amylases – flour treatment agent +Angelica (Angelica archangelica) – +Anise – +Annatto – color +Anthocyanins – color +Apricot oil – a cooking oil from certain cultivars. +Arabinogalactan – thickener, vegetable gum +Argan oil – a food oil from Morocco that has also attracted recent attention in Europe. +Argon – propellant +Rocket (Arugula) – +Asafoetida – +Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) – antioxidant (water-soluble) +Ascorbyl palmitate – antioxidant (fat soluble) +Ascorbyl stearate – antioxidant (fat soluble) +Aspartame – artificial sweetener +Aspartame-acesulfame salt – artificial sweetener +Astaxanthin – color +Avocado oil – used a substitute for olive oil. Also used in cosmetics and skin care products. +Azodicarbonamide – flour bleaching agent. Also used in the production of foamed plastics and the manufacture of gaskets. Banned as a food additive in Australia and Europe. +Azorubine – color (red) (FDA: Ext D&C Red #10) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e0ba08ac1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +Babassu oil – similar to, and used as a substitute for coconut oil. +Baking powder – leavening agent; includes acid and base +Baking soda – food base +Balm, lemon – +Balm oil – +Balsam of Peru – used in food and drink for flavoring +Barberry – +Barley flour – +Basil (Ocimum basilicum) – +Basil extract – +Bay leaves – +Beeswax – glazing agent +Beet red – color (red) +Beetroot red – color (red) +Ben oil – extracted from the seeds of the moringa oleifera. High in behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for biofuel. +Bentonite – anti-caking agent +Benzoic acid – preservative +Benzoyl peroxide – flour treatment agent +Berebere – +Bergamot – in Earl Grey tea +Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30) – color +Beta-apo-8'-carotenic acid ethyl ester – color +Betanin – color (red) +Biphenyl – preservative +Bison grass (Hierochloe odorata) – +Bixin – color +Black 7984 – color (brown and black) +Black cardamom – +Black cumin – +Blackcurrant seed oil – used as a food supplement, because of high content of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Also used in cosmetics. +Black limes – +Pepper (black, white, and green) – +Black PN – color (brown and black) +Bleached starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Bolivian Coriander (Porophyllum ruderale) – +Bone phosphate – anti-caking agent +Borage (Borago officinalis) – +Borage seed oil – similar to blackcurrant seed oil – used primarily medicinally. +Borax – +Boric acid – preservative +Brilliant Black BN- color (brown and black) +Brilliant blue FCF – color (FDA: FD&C Blue #1) +Brilliant Scarlet 4R – color (FDA: Ext D&C Red #8) +Brominated vegetable oil – emulsifier, stabiliser +Brown FK – color (brown and black) +Bush tomato – +Butane – propellant +Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) – antioxidant (fat soluble) +Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) – antioxidant (fat soluble) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..efbdde00d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +Cacao shell – +Cachou extract – +Cactus root extract – +Cadinene – +Caffeine – stimulant +Cajeput oil – +Calamus – +Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides – flavor enhancer +Calcium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator +Calcium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Calcium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) +Calcium aluminosilicate (calcium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent +Calcium ascorbate (Vitamin C) – +Calcium benzoate – preservative +Calcium bisulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Calcium carbonates – color (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser +Calcium chloride – mineral salt +Calcium citrates – food acid, firming agent +Calcium diglutamate – flavor enhancer +Calcium disodium EDTA – preservative +Calcium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent +Calcium formate – preservative +Calcium fumarate – food acid +Calcium gluconate – acidity regulator +Calcium guanylate – flavor enhancer +Calcium hydrogen sulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Calcium hydroxide – mineral salt +Calcium inosinate – flavor enhancer +Calcium lactate – food acid +Calcium lactobionate – stabilizer +Calcium malates – food acid +Calcium oxide – mineral salt +Calcium pantothenate (Vitamin B5) – +Calcium peroxide – +Calcium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent, firming agent +Calcium polyphosphates – anti-caking agent +Calcium propionate – preservative +Calcium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent +Calcium silicate – anti-caking agent +Calcium sorbate – preservative +Calcium stearoyl lactylate – emulsifier +Calcium sulfate – flour treatment agent, mineral salt, sequestrant, improving agent, firming agent +Calcium sulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Calcium tartrate – food acid, emulsifier +Camomile – +Candelilla wax – glazing agent +Candle nut – +Canola oil/Rapeseed oil – one of the most widely used cooking oils, from a (trademarked) cultivar of rapeseed +Canthaxanthin – color +Caper (Capparis spinosa) – +Caprylic acid - preservative +Capsanthin – color +Capsorubin – color +Carrageenan – A family of linear sulphated polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds. +Caramel I (plain) – color (brown and black) +Caramel II (Caustic Sulfite process) – color (brown and black) +Caramel III (Ammonia process) – color (brown and black) +Caramel IV (Ammonia sulfite process) – color (brown and black) +Caraway – +Carbamide – flour treatment agent +Carbon black – color (brown and black) +Carbon dioxide – acidity regulator, propellant +Cardamom – +carmines – color (red) +Carmoisine – color (red) (FDA: Ext D&C Red #10) +Carnauba wax – glazing agent +Carob pod – +Carob pod oil/Algaroba oil – used medicinally +Carotenes – color +Alpha-carotene – color +Beta-carotene – color +Gamma-carotene – color +Carrageenan – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Carrot oil – +Cashew oil – somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting dental cavities. +Cassia – +Catechu extract – +Celery salt – +Celery seed – +Wheat germ oil – used as a food supplement, and for its "grainy" flavor. Also used medicinally. Highly unstable. +Chalk – color (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser +Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) – +Chicory – +Chicory Root Extract – High in Inulin +Chile pepper – +Chili powder – +Chives (Allium schoenoprasum) – +Chlorine dioxide – flour treatment agent +Chlorine – flour treatment agent +Chlorophylls and Chlorophyllins – color (green) +Chocolate Brown HT – color +Choline salts and esters – emulsifier +Chrysoine resorcinol – color (red) +Cicely (Myrrhis odorata) – +Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) – +Cilantro (see Coriander) (Coriandrum sativum) – +Cinnamon – +Cinnamon oil – used for flavoring. +Citranaxanthin – color +Citric acid – food acid +Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier +Citrus red 2 – color (red) +Cloves – +Cochineal – color (red) +Coconut oil – a cooking oil, high in saturated fat – particularly used in baking and cosmetics. +Sage (Salvia officinalis) – +Copper complexes of chlorophylls – color (green) +Coriander – +Coriander seed oil – used medicinally. Also used as a flavoring agent in pharmaceutical and food industries. +Corn oil – one of the most common, and inexpensive cooking oils. +Corn syrup – +Cottonseed oil – a major food oil, often used in industrial food processing. +Cress – +Crocetin – color +Crocin – color +Crosslinked Sodium carboxymethylcellulose – emulsifier +Cryptoxanthin – color +Cumin – +Cumin oil/Black seed oil – used as a flavor, particularly in meat products. Also used in veterinary medicine. +Cupric sulfate – mineral salt +Curcumin – color (yellow and orange) +Curry powder – +Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) – +Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12) – +Cyclamates – artificial sweetener +Cyclamic acid – artificial sweetener +beta-cyclodextrin – emulsifier +Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus, and other species) – + +== D == +Damiana (Turnera aphrodisiaca, T. diffusa) – +Dandelion leaf – +Dandelion Root – +Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) – +Decanal dimethyl acetal – +Decanal – +Decanoic acid – +Dehydroacetic acid – preservative +Delta-tocopherol(synthetic) – antioxidant +Devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens)– medicinal +Dextrin roasted starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Diacetyltartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier +Dicalcium diphosphate – anti-caking agent +Dilauryl thiodipropionate – antioxidant +Dill seed – +Dill (Anethum graveolens) – +Dimethyl dicarbonate – preservative +Dimethylpolysiloxane – emulsifier, anti-caking agent +Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate – emulsifier +Diphenyl – preservative +Diphosphates – mineral salt, emulsifier +Dipotassium guanylate – flavor enhancer +Dipotassium inosinate – flavor enhancer +Disodium 5'-ribonucleotides – flavor enhancer +Disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate – antioxidant, preservative +Disodium guanylate – flavor enhancer +Disodium inosinate – flavor enhancer +Distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum +Distearyl thiodipropionate – antioxidant +Dl-alpha-tocopherol (synthetic) – antioxidant +Dodecyl gallate – antioxidant + +== E == +Echinacea – +EDTA – Antioxidant, Chelating Agent +Egg – +Egg yolk – +Egg white – +Elderberry – +Eleutherococcus senticosus – +Enzymatically hydrolyzed Carboxymethyl cellulose – emulsifier +Enzyme treated starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Epazote (Chenopodium ambrosioides) – +Epsom salts – mineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent +Erythorbic acid – antioxidant +Erythrosine – color (red) (FDA: FD&C Red #3) +Erythritol – sweetener +Ethanol (alcohol) – +Ethoxyquin - antioxidant, preservative +Ethyl maltol – flavor enhancer +Ethyl methyl cellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier +Ethylparaben (ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate) – preservative +Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid – +Evening primrose oil – used as a food supplement for its purported medicinal properties. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6b200e8a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== F == +False flax oil – made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. Can be considered as a food or fuel oil. +Fantesk – +Farnesol – +Fast green FCF – color (FDA: FD&C Green #3) +Fat – +Flavoxanthin – color +Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) – +Fenugreek – +Ferric ammonium citrate – food acid +Ferrous gluconate – color retention agent +Ferrous lactate – +Filé powder – +Five-spice powder (Chinese) – +Fo-ti-tieng – +Formaldehyde – preservative +Formic acid – preservative +Fructose – +Fumaric acid – acidity regulator +Folic acid – fortyfying agent + +== G == +Galangal – +Galangal root – +Galbanum oil – +Gallic acid – +Gamma-tocopherol(synthetic) – antioxidant +Garam masala – +Garlic extract – +Garlic – +Garlic oil – +Gelatin/gelatine – Gelling agent, emulsifier +Gellan gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier +Ginger – +Ginger oil – +Ginger root – +Ginseng – +Glacial Acetic acid – preservative, acidity regulator +Glucitol – +Gluconate – +Glucono delta-lactone – acidity regulator +Glucose oxidase – antioxidant +Glucose syrup – sweetener +Glutamate – +Glutamic acid – flavor enhancer +Gluten – +Glycerin – humectant, sweetener +Glycerol – +Glycerol ester of wood rosin – emulsifier +Glyceryl distearate – emulsifier +Glyceryl monostearate – emulsifier +Glycine – flavor enhancer +Glyoxylic acid – +Gold – color (gold) +Grains of paradise – +Grape color extract – +Grape seed oil – suitable for cooking at high temperatures. Also used as a salad oil, and in cosmetics. +Green S – color (green) +Green tea – +Guanylic acid – flavor enhancer +Guar gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer +Guaranine – +Gum arabic / Gum acacia / E414 – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier +Gum guaicum – preservative + +== H == +Haw bark – +Hazelnut oil – used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its slight astringent nature. +Heliotropin – +Helium – propellant +Hemlock oil – +Hemp oil – a high quality food oil. +Heptyl p-hydroxybenzoate – preservative +Hesperidin – +Hexamine (hexamethylene tetramine) – preservative +Hexyl acetate – +High fructose corn syrup – +Horseradish – +Hydrochloric acid – acidity regulator +Hydroxypropyl cellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier +Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum +Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier +Hydroxypropyl starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) – + +== I == +Indanthrene blue RS – color (blue) +Indigo carmine – color (blue) (FDA: FD&C Blue #2) +Indigotine – color (blue) (FDA: FD&C Blue #2) +Indole – +Inosinate – +Inosinic acid – flavor enhancer +Inositol – +Insoluble fiber – +Intense sweeteners – +Inulin – +Invert sugar – +Invertase – +Iron ammonium citrate – +Iron – +Iron oxides and hydroxides – color +Isobutane – propellant +Isomalt – humectant +Isopropyl citrates – antioxidant, preservative + +== J == +Jasmine – +Jamaican jerk spice – +Jasmine absolute – +Jiaogulan (Gynostemma pentaphyllum) – +Juniper – +Juniper berry – +Juniper berry oil – used as a flavor. Also used medicinally, including traditional medicine. +Juniper extract – + +== K == +Kaffir Lime Leaves (Citrus hystrix, C. papedia) – +Kaolin – anti-caking agent +Kapok seed oil, obtained from any of several related tree species, all referred to as "Kapok trees", for example: Ceiba pentandra, Bombax ceiba and Bombax costatum – used as an edible oil, and in soap production. +Karaya gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier +Kelp – +Kokam – +Kola nut extract – +Konjac – thickener, vegetable gum +Konjac glucomannate – thickener, vegetable gum +Konjac gum – thickener, vegetable gum + +== L == +L-cysteine – flour treatment agent +Lactic acid – acidity regulator, preservative, antioxidant +Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier +Lactitol – humectant +Lactose – +Lactylated fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycol – emulsifier +Larch gum – +Lard – +Latolrubine – color +Laurel berry – +Laurel leaf oil – +Lavender (Lavandula spp.) – +Lavender oil – +Lecithins – antioxidant, Emulsifier +Lecithin citrate – preservative +Lemon – +Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) – +Lemon extract – +Lemon juice – +Lemon Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) – +Lemon oil – +Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) – +Lemongrass Oil – +Leucine – flavor enhancer +Licorice – +Lipases – flavor enhancer +Lithol Rubine BK – color +Litholrubine – color +Locust bean gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Long pepper – +Lovage (Levisticum officinale) – +L(+)-Tartaric acid – food acid +Lutein – color +Lycopene – color +Lysine – +Lysozyme – preservative \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e62d7dbb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +Macadamia oil – used as an edible oil. Also used as a massage oil. +Mace – +Magnesium – +Magnesium carbonate – anti-caking agent, mineral salt +Magnesium chloride – mineral salt +Magnesium citrate – acidity regulator +Magnesium diglutamate – flavor enhancer +Magnesium hydroxide – mineral salt +Magnesium lactate – food acid +Magnesium oxide – anti-caking agent +Magnesium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent +Magnesium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent +Magnesium silicate – anti-caking agent +Magnesium stearate – emulsifier, stabiliser +Magnesium sulfate – mineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent +Mahleb – +Malabathrum – +Malic acid – acidity regulator +Malt extract – flavor enhancer +Maltitol – humectant, stabiliser +Maltodextrin – carbohydrate sweetener +Maltol – flavor enhancer +Maltose – +Mandarin oil – leavening agent +Manganese – +Mannitol – humectant, anti-caking agent, sweetener +Margarine – +Marjoram (Origanum majorana) – +Mastic – +Meadowfoam seed oil – highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications. +Mega-purple – a Kosher food additive made from grapes +Mentha arvensis oil/Mint oil, used in flavoring toothpastes, mouthwashes and pharmaceuticals, as well as in aromatherapy and other medicinal applications. +Metatartaric acid – food acid, emulsifier +Methionine – +Methyl butyrate – +Methyl disulfide – +Methyl ethyl cellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier +Methyl hexenoate – +Methyl isobutyrate – +Methylcellulose – thickener, emulsifier, vegetable gum +Methylparaben (methyl para-hydroxybenzoate) – preservative +Methyltheobromine – +Microcrystalline cellulose – anti-caking agent +Milk thistle (Silybum) – +Milk – +Mint (Mentha spp.) – +Mixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier +Modified starch – +Molasses extract – +Molybdenum – +Bergamot (Monarda didyma) – +Mono- and diglycerides of Fatty acids – emulsifier +Monoammonium glutamate – flavor enhancer +Monopotassium glutamate – flavor enhancer +Monosodium glutamate (MSG) – flavor enhancer +Monostarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum +Montanic acid esters – humectant +Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) – +Mustard – +Mustard oil – (essential oil), containing a high percentage of allyl isothiocyanate or other isothiocyanates, depending on the species of mustard +Mustard oil (pressed) – used in India as a cooking oil. Also used as a massage oil. +Mustard plant – +Mustard seed – + +== N == +Natamycin – preservative +Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone – artificial sweetener +Niacin (vitamin B3) – color retention agent +nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) – color retention agent +Nicotinamide (vitamin B3) – color retention agent +Nigella (Kolanji, Black caraway) – +Nisin – preservative +Nitrogen – propellant +Nitrous oxide – propellant +Norbixin – color +Nordihydroguaiaretic acid - antioxidant. Banned as a food additive since the early 1960s. +Nutmeg – + +== O == +Octyl gallate – antioxidant, preservative +Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis et al.) – +Okra oil (Hibiscus seed oil) – from the seed of the Hibiscus esculentus. Composed predominantly of oleic and lanoleic acids. +Oleomargarine – +Olive oil – used in cooking – cosmetics – soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps +Orange GGN – color (orange) +Orange oil – like lemon oil – cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. +Orcein – color (red) +Orchil – color (red) +Oregano (Origanum vulgare, O. heracleoticum, and other species) – +Oregano oil – contains thymol and carvacrol +Orris root – +Orthophenyl phenol – preservative +Oxidised polyethylene wax – humectant +Oxidised starch – thickener, vegetable gum +Oxystearin – antioxidant, sequestrant \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67c762f59 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +Palm oil – the most widely produced tropical oil. Also used to make biofuel. +Panax ginseng – +Panax quinquefolius – +Ponch phoran – +Pandan leaf – +Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) – +Papain – A cysteine protease hydrolase enzyme present in papaya (Carica papaya) and mountain papaya (Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis). +Paprika red – +Paprika – +Paprika extract – +Paraffins – glazing agent +Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) – +Patent blue V – color (blue) +Peanut oil/Ground nut oil – mild-flavored cooking oil. +Pecan oil – valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil. +Pectin – vegetable gum, emulsifier +Perilla seed oil – high in omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes, in skin care products and as a drying oil. +Phosphated distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum +Phosphoric acid – food acid +Phytic acid – preservative +Pigment Rubine – color +Pimaricin – preservative +Pine needle oil +Pine seed oil – an expensive food oil, used in salads and as a condiment. +Pistachio oil – strongly flavored oil, particularly for use in salads. +Prune kernel oil – marketed as a gourmet cooking oil +Poly vinyl pyrrolidone – +Polydextrose – humectant +Polyethylene glycol 8000 – antifoaming agent +Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids – emulsifier +Polyglycerol polyricinoleate – emulsifier +Polymethylsiloxane – antifoaming agent +Polyoxyethylene (40) stearate – emulsifier +Polyoxyethylene (8) stearate – emulsifier, stabilizer +Polyphosphates – mineral salt, emulsifier +Polysorbate 20 – emulsifier +Polysorbate 40 – emulsifier +Polysorbate 60 – emulsifier +Polysorbate 65 – emulsifier +Polysorbate 80 – emulsifier +Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone – color stabiliser +Pomegranate seeds (though some consider these a fruit, not a spice) – +Ponceau 4R – color (FDA: Ext D&C Red #8) +Ponceau 6R – color +Ponceau SX – color +Poppy seed – +Poppyseed oil – used for cooking, moisturizing skin, and in paints, varnishes and soaps. +Potassium acetates – preservative, acidity regulator +Potassium adipate – food acid +Potassium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Potassium aluminium silicate – anti-caking agent +Potassium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) +Potassium benzoate – preservative +Potassium bicarbonate – mineral salt +Potassium bisulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Potassium bromate – flour treatment agent +Potassium carbonate – mineral salt +Potassium chloride – mineral salt +Potassium citrates – food acid +Potassium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent +Potassium fumarate – food acid +Potassium gluconate – stabiliser +Potassium hydrogen sulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Potassium hydroxide – mineral salt +Potassium lactate – food acid +Potassium malate – food acid +Potassium metabisulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Potassium nitrate – preservative, color fixative +Potassium nitrite – preservative, color fixative +Potassium phosphates – mineral salt +Potassium propionate – preservative +Potassium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent +Potassium sodium tartrate – food acid +Potassium sorbate – preservative +Potassium sulfate – mineral salt, seasoning +Potassium sulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Potassium tartrates – food acid +Powdered Cellulose – anti-caking agent +Primrose (Primula) – candied flowers, tea +Processed Eucheuma seaweed – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Propane-1,2-diol alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier +Propionic acid – preservative +Propyl gallate – antioxidant +Propylene glycol – humectant +Propylene glycol alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier +Propylene glycol esters of fatty acids – emulsifier +Propylparaben (propyl para-hydroxybenzoate) – preservative +Pumpkin seed oil – a specialty cooking oil, produced in Austria and Slovenia. Doesn't tolerate high temperatures. +Pulegone – flavoring present in mint +Purslane – +Pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin B6) – + +== Q == +Quatre épices – +Quillaia extract – humectant +Quinoa oil – similar in composition and use to corn oil +Quinoline Yellow WS – color (yellow and orange) (FDA: D&C Yellow #10) + +== R == +Ramtil oil – pressed from the seeds of the one of several species of genus Guizotia abyssinica (Niger pea) in India and Ethiopia. Used for both cooking and lighting. +Ras-el hanout – +Raspberry (leaves) – +Red 2G – color +Refined microcrystalline wax – glazing agent +Rhodoxanthin – color +Riboflavin (vitamin B2) – color (yellow and orange) +Rice bran oil – suitable for high temperature cooking. Widely used in Asia. +Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) – +Rubixanthin – color \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..633b91d31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,179 @@ +--- +title: "List of food additives" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Saccharin – artificial sweetener +Safflower oil – a flavorless and colorless cooking oil. +Safflower – +Saffron – color +Saigon Cinnamon – +Salad Burnet (Sanguisorba minor or Poterium sanguisorba) – +Salt – +Sandalwood – color +Savory (Satureja hortensis, S. montana) – +Scarlet GN – color +Sesame oil – used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India. +Sesame seed – +Shellac – glazing agent +Sichuan pepper (Xanthoxylum piperitum) – +Silicon dioxide – anti-caking agent +Silver – color (silver) +Luohanguo – +Sodium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator +Sodium adipate – food acid +Sodium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier +Sodium aluminium phosphate – acidity regulator, emulsifier +Sodium aluminosilicate (sodium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent +Sodium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) +Sodium benzoate – preservative +Sodium bicarbonate – mineral salt +Sodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite) – preservative, antioxidant +Sodium carbonate – mineral salt +Sodium carboxymethylcellulose – emulsifier +Sodium citrates – food acid +Sodium dehydroacetate – preservative +Sodium erythorbate – antioxidant +Sodium erythorbin – antioxidant +Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative +Sodium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent +Sodium formate – preservative +Sodium fumarate – food acid +Sodium gluconate – stabiliser +Sodium hydrogen acetate – preservative, acidity regulator +Sodium hydroxide – mineral salt +Sodium lactate – food acid +Sodium malates – food acid +Sodium metabisulfite – preservative, antioxidant, bleaching agent +Sodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative +Sodium nitrate – preservative, color fixative +Sodium nitrite – preservative, color fixative +Sodium orthophenyl phenol – preservative +Sodium propionate – preservative +Sodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative +Sodium sorbate – preservative +Sodium stearoyl lactylate – emulsifier +Sodium succinates – acidity regulator, flavor enhancer +Sodium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent +Sodium sulfite – mineral salt, preservative, antioxidant +Sodium sulfite – preservative, antioxidant +Sodium tartrates – food acid +Sodium tetraborate – preservative +Sorbic acid – preservative +Sorbitan monolaurate – emulsifier +Sorbitan monooleate – emulsifier +Sorbitan monopalmitate – emulsifier +Sorbitan monostearate – emulsifier +Sorbitan tristearate – emulsifier +Sorbitol – humectant, emulsifier, sweetener +Sorbol – +Sorrel (Rumex spp.) – +Soybean oil – accounts for about half of worldwide edible oil production. +Spearmint oil – often used in flavoring mouthwash and chewing gum, among other applications. +Star anise – +Star anise oil – highly fragrant oil using in cooking. Also used in perfumery and soaps, has been used in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. 90% of the world's star anise crop is used in the manufacture of Tamiflu, a drug used to treat avian flu. +Starch sodium octenylsuccinate – thickener, vegetable gum +Stearic acid – anti-caking agent +Stearyl tartarate – emulsifier +Succinic acid – food acid +Sucralose – artificial sweetener +Sucroglycerides – emulsifier +Sucrose acetate isobutyrate – emulsifier, stabiliser +Sucrose esters of fatty acids – emulsifier +Sugar – +Sulfur dioxide – preservative, antioxidant +Sulfuric acid – acidity regulator +Sumac – +Sunflower oil – a common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel. +Sunset Yellow FCF – color (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #6) +Sweet basil – +Sweet woodruff – + +== T == +Talc – anti-caking agent +Tamarind – flavoring +Tanacetum balsamita / Costmary – +Tandoori masala – +Tannins – color, emulsifier, stabiliser, thickener +Tansy – +Tara gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer +Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) – +Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier +Tartrazine – color (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #5) +Tea oil/Camellia oil – widely used in southern China as a cooking oil. Also used in making soaps, hair oils and a variety of other products. +Tert-butylhydroquinone – antioxidant +Tetrahydrocannabinol- flavor enhancer, potent anti-carcinogen – +Thaumatin – flavor enhancer, artificial sweetener +Theine – +Thermally oxidised soya bean oil – emulsifier +Thiabendazole – preservative +Thiamine (Vitamin B1) – +Thiodipropionic acid – antioxidant +Thujaplicins – preservatives registered in Japan +Thyme – used as a flavor, particularly as seasoning for meat products. +stannous chloride – color retention agent, antioxidant +Titanium dioxide – color (white) +Tocopherol (Vitamin E) – +Tocopherol concentrate (natural) – antioxidant +Tragacanth – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier +Triacetin – humectant +Triammonium citrate – food acid +Triethyl citrate – thickener, vegetable gum +Trimethylxanthine – +Triphosphates – mineral salt, emulsifier +Trisodium phosphate – mineral salt, antioxidant +Turmeric – color (yellow and orange) + +== V == +Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) – flavoring +Vegetable carbon – color (brown and black) +Vinegar – +Violaxanthin – color +Vitamin – +Vitamin A (Retinol) – +Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – +Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – +Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) – +Vitamin B6 (Pyrodoxine) – +Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) – +Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) – +Vitamin D (Calciferol) – +Vitamin E (Tocopherol) – +Vitamin K (Potassium) – + +== W == +Walnut oil – used for its flavor, also used by Renaissance painters in oil paints +Wasabi – +Water – +Wattleseed – thickener + +== X == +Xanthan gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer +Xylitol – humectant, stabiliser + +== Y == +Yellow 2G – color (yellow and orange) +Yucca extract – foaming agent, stabilizer + +== Z == +Zeaxanthin – color +Zinc acetate – flavor enhancer + +== See also == +Food Chemicals Codex +List of additives in cigarettes +List of food additives, Codex Alimentarius +List of unrefined sweeteners +List of phytochemicals in food + +== References == + +== External links == +Food Additive Status List | FDA +Australian Food Additive Codes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4eeb80b6f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ +--- +title: "List of gases" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:17.619086+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of gases at standard conditions, which means substances that boil or sublime at or below 25 °C (77 °F) and 1 atm pressure and are reasonably stable. + + +== List == +This list is sorted by boiling point of gases in ascending order, but can be sorted on different values. "sub" and "triple" refer to the sublimation point and the triple point, which are given in the case of a substance that sublimes at 1 atm; "dec" refers to decomposition. "~" means approximately. Blue type items have an article available by clicking on the name. + +Number of entries: 550 + + +== Known as gas == +The following list has substances known to be gases, but with an unknown boiling point. + +Fluoroamine +Trifluoromethyl trifluoroethyl trioxide CF3OOOCF2CF3 boils between 10 and 20° +Bis-trifluoromethyl carbonate boils between −10 and +10° possibly +12, freezing −60° +Difluoroaminosulfinyl fluoride F2NS(O)F is a gas but decomposes over several hours +Trifluoromethylsulfinyl chloride CF3S(O)Cl +Nitrosyl cyanide ?−20° blue-green gas 4343-68-4 +Thiazyl chloride NSCl greenish yellow gas; trimerises. + + +== Possible == +This list includes substances that may be gases. However reliable references are not available. + +cis-1-Fluoro-1-propene +trans-1-Chloropropene ? +cis-1-Chloropropene ? +Perfluoro-1,2-butadiene +Perfluoro-1,2,3-butatriene −5 polymerizes +Perfluoropent-2-ene +Perfluoropent-1-ene 29-30° +Trifluoromethanesulfenylfluoride CF3SF +N-Sulfinyltrifluoromethaneamine CF3NSO 18° +(Chlorofluoromethyl)silane 373-67-1 274.37 K (1.22 °C) +Difluoromethylsilane 420-34-8 237.56 K (−35.59 °C) +Trifluoromethyl sulfenic trifloromethyl ester +Pentafluoro(penta-fluorethoxy)sulfur 900001-56-6 15° +Ethenol 557-75-5 10.5° = vinyl alcohol (tautomerizes) +1,1,1,2,2,3,4,4,4-nonafluorobutane 2-10° melt −129° +trans-2H-Heptafluoro-2-butene +Pentafluoroethylhypochlorite around −10° +Trifluoromethyl pentafluoroethyl sulfide 6° 33547-10-3 +1,1,1-Trifluoro-N-(trifluoromethoxy)methanamine 671-63-6 0.6° +1-Chloro-1,1,2,2,3,3-hexafluoropropane 422-55-9 16.7 +1-Chloro-1,1,2,3,3,3-hexafluoropropane 359-58-0 17.15 +2-Chloro-1,1,1,2,3,3-hexafluoropropane 51346-64-6 16.7° +3-Chloro-1,1,1,2,2,3-hexafluoropropane 422-57-1 16.7° +Trifluormethyl 1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl ether 2356-62-9 11° +2-Chloro-1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane HFC-235da 134251-06-2 8° +1,1,2,3,3-Pentafluoropropane 24270-66-4 −3.77 +2,2,3,3,4,5,5-Heptafluoro oxolane +(Heptafluoropropyl)carbonimidic difluoride 378-00-7 +Pentafluoroethyl carbonimidic difluoride 428-71-7 +(Trifluoromethyl)carbonimidic difluoride 371-71-1 CF3N=CF2 +Perfluoro[N-methyl-(propylenamine)] 680-23-9 +Perfluoro-N,N-dimethylvinylamine 13821-49-3 +3,3,4-Trifluoro-2,4-bis-trifluoromethyl-[1,2]oxazetidine 714-52-3 +Bis(trifluoromethyl) 2,2-difluoro-vinylamine 13747-23-4 +Bis(trifluoromethyl) 1,2-difluoro-vinylamine 13747-24-5 +1,1,2-Trifluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)cyclopropane 2967-53-5 +Bis(trifluoromethyl) 2-fluoro-vinylamine 25211-47-6 +2-Fluoro-1,3-butadiene 381-61-3 +Trifluormethylcyclopropane 381-74-8 +cis-1-Fluoro-1-butene 66675-34-1 +trans-1-Fluoro-1-butene 66675-35-2 +2-Fluoro-1-butene +3-Fluoro-1-butene +trans-1-Fluoro-2-butene +cis-2-fluoro-2-butene +trans-2-fluoro-2-butene +1-Fluoro-2-methyl-1-propene +3-Fluoro-2-methyl-1-propene +Perfluoro-2-methyl-1,3-butadiene 384-04-3 +1,1,3,4,4,5,5,5-Octafluoro-1,2-pentadiene 21972-01-0 + + +== Near misses == +This list includes substances that boil just above standard condition temperatures. Numbers are boiling temperatures in °C. + +1,1,2,2,3-Pentafluoropropane 25–26 °C +Dimethoxyborane 25.9 °C +1,4-Pentadiene 25.9 °C +2-Bromo-1,1,1-trifluoroethane 26 °C +1,2-Difluoroethane 26 °C +Hydrogen cyanide 26 °C +Trimethylgermane 26.2 °C +1,H-Pentafluorocyclobut-1-ene +1,H:2,H-hexafluorocyclobutane +Tetramethylsilane 26.7 °C +Chlorosyl trifluoride 27 °C +2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane 27.8 °C +Perfluoroethyl 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl ether 27.89 °C +Perfluoroethyl ethyl ether 28 °C +Perfluorocyclopentadiene C5F6 28 °C +2-Butyne 29 °C +Digermane 29 °C +Perfluoroisopropyl methyl ether 29 °C +Trifluoromethanesulfonyl chloride 29–32 °C +Perfluoropentane 29.2 °C +Rhenium(VI) fluoride 33.8 °C +Chlorodimethylsilane 34.7 °C +Dimethylarsine 36 °C +Polonium hydride 36.1 °C +Spiro[2.2]pentane 39 °C +Ruthenium(VIII) oxide 40 °C +1,3-Difluoropropane 40-42 °C +Nickel carbonyl 42.1 °C +1,2-Difluoropropane 43 °C +Trimethylphosphine 43 °C + + +== Unstable substances == +Gallane liquid decomposes at 0 °C. +Nitroxyl and diazene are simple nitrogen compounds known to be gases but they are too unstable and short lived to be condensed. +Methanetellurol CH3TeH 25284-83-7 unstable at room temperature. +Sulfur pentafluoride isocyanide isomerises to sulfur pentafluoride cyanide. + + +== References == +Haynes, W. M., ed. (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (96th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. pp. 3–4–4–101. ISBN 978-1482260960. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aa9e72f2f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +--- +title: "List of gasoline additives" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:18.970391+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gasoline additives may increase gasoline's octane rating, thus allowing the use of higher compression ratios for greater efficiency and power, or act as corrosion inhibitors or as lubricants. Other additives include metal deactivators, oxygenates and antioxidants. +Some additives are harmful and are regulated or banned in some countries. + + +== Fictional additives == +Sugar, as seen in The Passionate Stranger (1957) and popularly believed to damage the engine. + + +== Additives == + + +=== Oxygenates === + + +==== Alcohols ==== +Methanol (MeOH) +Ethanol (EtOH); see also common ethanol fuel mixtures +Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) +n-butanol (BuOH) +Gasoline grade t-butanol (GTBA) + + +==== Ethers ==== +Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), now outlawed in many states of the U.S. for road use because of water contamination. +Tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) +Tertiary hexyl methyl ether (THEME) +Ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) +Tertiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE) +Diisopropyl ether (DIPE) + + +=== Antioxidants, stabilizers === +Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) +Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) +2-tert-Butylphenol +3-tert-Butylphenol +4-tert-Butylphenol +2,4-Dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol +2,6-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,6-DTBP) +2,4,6-Tri-tert-butylphenol (2,4,6-TTBP) +tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) +p-Phenylenediamine +N,N'-Di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine +Ethylenediamine + + +=== Detergents === + +Fuel detergents combine a low molecular weight polymer "tail" with a polar "head" group such as the amine group. + +Polybuteneamine (PBA), also known as polybutylene amine. +Polyisobuteneamine (PIBA), also known as polyisobutylene amine. Some sources inaccurately refer to PIBA as "polyisobutylene" (PIB). While PIBA is derived from PIB, the amine group require for detergent power renders it a different molecule. +Polyetheramine (PEA), formerly a proprietary component in Techron. Patent has since expired. See also polyether. + + +=== Antiknock agents === +Metal-based: + +Tetraethyllead (TEL), now banned almost everywhere for causing brain damage, both in its unburned and burned forms. +Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT); a neurotoxic substance like gasoline itself. Can be fatal if swallowed/inhaled. Can cause manganism. Toxicity is mostly relevant to people who handle the unburned form, especially workers who handle gasoline. The combustion products are relatively harmless, especially in the restricted concentrations found in exhaust. +Ferrocene, an iron compound +Metal-free: + +Dimethyl methylphosphonate +Toluene +Isooctane +Triptane + + +=== Lead scavengers (for leaded gasoline) === +Tricresyl phosphate (TCP) (also an AW additive and EP additive) +1,2-Dibromoethane +1,2-Dichloroethane + + +=== Fuel dyes === +most common: + +Solvent Red 24 +Solvent Red 26 +Solvent Yellow 124 +Solvent Blue 35 + + +=== Fuel additives in general === +Ether and other flammable hydrocarbons have been used extensively as starting fluid for many difficult-to-start engines, especially diesel engines +Nitromethane, or "nitro", is a high-performance racing fuel +Acetone is a vaporization additive, mainly used with methanol racing fuel +Butyl rubber (as polyisobutylene succinimide, detergent to prevent fouling of diesel fuel injectors) +Ferrous picrate, used in diesel fuel to increase fuel conversion efficiency and reduce emissions +Two-stroke oil, for lubrication of small engines reliant on crankcase compression +Upper cylinder lubricant, extensively advertised but of unproven value + + +== Racing formulations == +Nitromethane can increase the cetane number of diesel fuel, improving its combustion properties +Nitrous oxide, or simply nitrous, is an oxidizer used in many forms of motorsports such as drag racing and street racing. + + +== Legislation == + + +=== United States === +Fuel additives in the United States are regulated under section 211 of the Clean Air Act (as amended in January 1995). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires the registration of all fuel additives which are commercially distributed for use in highway motor vehicles in the United States, and may require testing and ban harmful additives. The EPA also regularly reviews the health and net economic benefits of Clean Air Act policies. +The act also requires deposit control additives (DCAs) be added to all petrol. This type of additive is a detergent additive that acts as a cleansing agent in small passages in the carburetor or fuel injectors. This in turn serves to ensure a consistent air and fuel mixture that will contribute to better gas mileage. + + +== See also == +Metering pump +Oil additive +Greenwashing + + +== References == +ARRC Auto Repair Reference Center. Point 5 Technologies. Accessed via EbscoHost on November 27, 2009 +EPA: List of Registered Gasoline Additives (Under 40 CFR Part 79) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b91e51568 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "List of herbicides" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:22.282288+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of herbicides. These are chemical compounds which have been registered as herbicides. The names on the list are the ISO common name for the active ingredient which is formulated into the branded product sold to end-users. The University of Hertfordshire maintains a database of the chemical and biological properties of these materials, including their brand names and the countries and dates where and when they have been introduced. The industry-sponsored Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) advises on the use of herbicides in crop protection and classifies the available compounds according to their chemical structures and mechanism of action so as to manage the risks of pesticide resistance developing. The 2024 HRAC poster of herbicide modes of action includes the majority of chemicals listed below. The British Crop Production Council also publishes information on ISO common names of new pesticides. +The Weed Science Society of America also classifies herbicides by their mechanism of action using the HRAC classification system. + + +== 0-9 == + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== V == + + +== X == + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +List of fungicides +List of insecticides +Category:Herbicides by numeric HRAC + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2dd709e39 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "List of highly toxic gases" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:24.913057+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Many gases have toxic properties, which are often assessed using the LC50 (median lethal concentration) measure. In the United States, many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health rating of 4 (may be fatal) or 3 (may cause serious or permanent injury), and/or exposure limits (TLV, TWA/PEL, STEL, or REL) determined by the ACGIH professional association. Some, but by no means all, toxic gases are detectable by odor, which can serve as a warning. Among the best known toxic gases are carbon monoxide, chlorine, nitrogen dioxide and phosgene. + + +== Definitions == +Toxic: a chemical that has a median lethal concentration (LC50) in air of more than 200 parts per million (ppm) but not more than 2,000 parts per million by volume of gas or vapor, or more than 2 milligrams per liter but not more than 20 milligrams per liter of mist, fume or dust, when administered by continuous inhalation for 1 hour (or less if death occurs within 1 hour) to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 grams each. +Highly Toxic: a gas that has a LC50 in air of 200 ppm or less. +NFPA 704: Materials that, under emergency conditions, can cause serious or permanent injury are given a Health Hazard rating of 3. Their acute inhalation toxicity corresponds to those vapors or gases having LC50 values greater than 1,000 ppm but less than or equal to 3,000 ppm. Materials that, under emergency conditions, can be lethal are given a Health Hazard rating of 4. Their acute inhalation toxicity corresponds to those vapors or gases having LC50 values less than or equal to 1,000 ppm. + + +== List == + + +== See also == +List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC) +EPA list of extremely hazardous substances +Chemical warfare +Chemical weapon +List of chemical warfare agents +List of psychoactive drugs used by militaries +Psychochemical warfare +List of gases +Toxicity class +Toxicity label + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +OSHA Limits for Air Contaminants +OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits +California Department of Industrial Relations Permissible Exposure Limits for Chemicals \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1369e1d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,269 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Although most compounds are referred to by their IUPAC systematic names (following IUPAC nomenclature), traditional names have also been kept where they are in wide use or of significant historical interests. + +== A == + +=== Ac === +Actinium(III) chloride – AcCl3 +Actinium(III) fluoride – AcF3 +Actinium(III) oxide – Ac2O3 +Actinium(III) sulfide – Ac2S3 +Actinium(III) nitrate – Ac(NO3)3 +Actinium(III) bromide – AcBr3 +Actinium(III) hydroxide – Ac(OH)3 +Actinium(III) iodide – AcI3 +Actinium(III) phosphate – AcPO4 + +=== Al === +Aluminium antimonide – AlSb +Aluminium arsenate – AlAsO4 +Aluminium arsenide – AlAs +Aluminium diboride – AlB2 +Aluminium bromide – AlBr3 +Aluminium carbide – Al4C3 +Aluminium iodide – AlI3 +Aluminium nitride – AlN +Aluminium oxide – Al2O3 +Aluminium phosphide – AlP +Aluminium chloride – AlCl3 +Aluminium fluoride – AlF3 +Aluminium hydroxide – Al(OH)3 +Aluminium nitrate – Al(NO3)3 +Aluminium sulfide – Al2S3 +Aluminium sulfate – Al2(SO4)3 +Aluminium potassium sulfate – KAl(SO4)2 +Aluminium hydride – AlH3 + +=== Am === +Americium(II) bromide – AmBr2 +Americium(III) bromide – AmBr3 +Americium(II) chloride – AmCl2 +Americium(III) chloride – AmCl3 +Americium(III) fluoride – AmF3 +Americium(IV) fluoride – AmF4 +Americium(II) iodide – AmI2 +Americium(III) iodide – AmI3 +Americium dioxide – AmO2 + +=== NH3/[NH4]+ === +Ammonia – NH3 +Ammonium azide – [NH4]N3 +Ammonium bicarbonate – [NH4]HCO3 +Ammonium bisulfate – [NH4]HSO4 +Ammonium bromide – NH4Br +Ammonium chromate – [NH4]2CrO4 +Ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate – [NH4]2[Ce(NO3)6] +Ammonium cerium(IV) sulfate – [NH4]4[Ce(SO4)4] +Ammonium chloride – [NH4]Cl +Ammonium chlorate – [NH4]ClO3 +Ammonium cyanide – [NH4]CN +Ammonium dichromate – [NH4]2Cr2O7 +Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate – [NH4]H2PO4 +Ammonium hexafluoroaluminate – AlF6H12 N3 +Ammonium hexafluorophosphate – F6H4 NP +Ammonium hexachloroplatinate – [NH4]2[PtCl6] +Ammonium hexafluorosilicate +Ammonium hexafluorotitanate +Ammonium hexafluorozirconate +Ammonium hydroxide – [NH4]OH +Ammonium nitrate – [NH4]NO3 +Ammonium orthomolybdate – [NH4]2MoO4 +Ammonium sulfamate – [NH4]SO3NH2 +Ammonium sulfide – [NH4]2S +Ammonium sulfite – [NH4]2SO3 +Ammonium sulfate – [NH4]2SO4 +Ammonium perchlorate – [NH4]ClO4 +Ammonium permanganate – [NH4]MnO4 +Ammonium persulfate – [NH4]2S2O8 +Ammonium diamminetetrathiocynatochromate(III) – [NH4][Cr(SCN)4(NH3)2] +Ammonium thiocyanate – [NH4]SCN +Ammonium triiodide – [NH4][I3] +Diammonium dioxido(dioxo)molybdenum – H8MoN2O4 +Diammonium phosphate – [NH4]2HPO4 +Tetramethylammonium perchlorate – [N(CH3)4]ClO4 + +=== Sb === +Antimony hydride (stybine) – SbH3 +Antimony pentachloride – SbCl5 +Antimony pentafluoride – SbF5 +Antimony potassium tartrate – K2Sb2(C4H2O6)2 +Antimony sulfate – Sb2(SO4)3 +Antimony trichloride – SbCl3 +Antimony trifluoride – SbF3 +Antimony trioxide – Sb2O3 +Antimony trisulfide – Sb2S3 +Antimony pentasulfide – Sb2S5 + +=== Ar === +Argon fluorohydride – HArF + +=== As === +Arsenic trifluoride – AsF3 +Arsenic triiodide –AsI3 +Arsenic pentafluoride – AsF5 +Arsenic trioxide (Arsenic(III) oxide) – As2O3 +Arsenous acid – As(OH)3 +Arsenic acid – AsO(OH)3 +Arsine – AsH3 + +== B == + +=== Ba === +Barium azide – Ba(N3)2 +Barium bromide – BaBr2 +Barium carbonate – BaCO3 +Barium chlorate – Ba(ClO3)2 +Barium chloride – BaCl2 +Barium chromate – BaCrO4 +Barium ferrate – BaFeO4 +Barium ferrite – BaFe12O19 +Barium fluoride – BaF2 +Barium hydroxide – Ba(OH)2 +Barium iodide – BaI2 +Barium manganate – BaMnO4 +Barium nitrate – Ba(NO3)2 +Barium oxalate – Ba(C2O4) +Barium oxide – BaO +Barium permanganate – Ba(MnO4)2 +Barium peroxide – BaO2 +Barium sulfate – BaSO4 +Barium sulfide – BaS +Barium titanate – BaTiO3 +Barium thiocyanate – Ba(SCN)2 + +=== Be === +Beryllium borohydride – Be[BH4]2 +Beryllium bromide – BeBr2 +Beryllium carbonate – BeCO3 +Beryllium chloride – BeCl2 +Beryllium fluoride – BeF2 +Beryllium hydride – BeH2 +Beryllium hydroxide – Be(OH)2 +Beryllium iodide – BeI2 +Beryllium nitrate – Be(NO3)2 +Beryllium nitride – Be3N2 +Beryllium oxide – BeO +Beryllium sulfate – BeSO4 +Beryllium sulfide – BeS +Beryllium telluride – BeTe + +=== Bi === +Bismuth chloride – BiCl3 +Bismuth ferrite – BiFeO3 +Bismuth hydroxide–BiH3O3 +Bismuth(III) iodide–BiI3 +Bismuth(III) nitrate–BiN3O9 +Bismuth(III) oxide – Bi2O3 +Bismuth oxychloride – BiOCl +Bismuth pentafluoride – BiF5 +Bismuth(III) sulfide– Bi2S3 +Bismuth(III) telluride – Bi2Te3 +Bismuth tribromide – BiBr3 +Bismuth tungstate – Bi2WO6 + +=== B === +Borane – BH3 +Borax – Na2B4O7·10H2O +Borazine – B3H6N3 +Borazocine ((3Z,5Z,7Z)-azaborocine) – B4H8N4 +Boric acid – H3BO3 +Boron carbide – B4C +Boron nitride – BN +Boron phosphate – BPO4 +Boron phosphide – BP +Boron suboxide – B6O +Boron tribromide – BBr3 +Boron trichloride – BCl3 +Boron trifluoride – BF3 +Boron triiodide –BI3 +Boron oxide – B2O3 +Boroxine – B3H3O3 +Calcium hexaboride – CaB6 +Decaborane – B10H14 +Diborane – B2H6 +Diboron tetrachloride – B2Cl4 +Diboron tetrafluoride – B2F4 +Fluoroboric acid – HBF4 +Hexaborane(10) – B6H10 +Hexaborane(12) – B6H12 +Lanthanum hexaboride – LaB6 +Magnesium diboride – MgB2 +Metaboric acid – H3B3O6 +Octadecaborane – B18H22 +Ortho-carborane – C2B10H12 +Pentaborane – B5H9 +Pentaborane(11) – B5H11 +Sodium metaborate – NaBO2 +Sodium perborate – NaBO3 +Sodium tetrahydroxyborate – NaB(OH)4 +Tetraborane – B4H10 +Tetrahydroxydiboron – B2H4O4 + +=== Br === +Bromine monochloride – BrCl +Bromine pentafluoride – BrF5 +Perbromic acid – HBrO4 +Aluminium Bromide – AlBr3 +Ammonium bromide – NH4Br +Boron tribromide – BBr3 +Bromic acid – HBrO3 +Bromine monoxide – Br2O +Bromine pentafluoride – BrF5 +Bromine trifluoride – BrF3 +Bromine monofluoride – BrF +Calcium bromide – CaBr2 +Carbon tetrabromide – CBr4 +Copper(I) bromide – CuBr +Copper(II) bromide – CuBr2 +Hydrobromic acid – HBr(aq) +Hydrogen bromide – HBr +Hypobromous acid – HOBr +Iodine monobromide – IBr +Iron(II) bromide – FeBr2 +Iron(III) bromide – FeBr3 +Lead(II) bromide – PbBr2 +Lithium bromide – LiBr +Magnesium bromide – MgBr2 +Mercury(I) bromide – Hg2Br2 +Mercury(II) bromide – HgBr2 +Nitrosyl bromide – NOBr +Phosphorus pentabromide – PBr5 +Phosphorus tribromide – PBr3 +Phosphorus heptabromide – PBr7 +Potassium bromide – KBr +Potassium bromate – KBrO3 +Potassium perbromate – KBrO4 +Tribromosilane – HSiBr3 +Silicon tetrabromide – SiBr4 +Silver bromide – AgBr +Sodium bromide – NaBr +Sodium bromate – NaBrO3 +Sodium perbromate – NaBrO4 +Thionyl bromide – SOBr2 +Tin(II) bromide – SnBr2 +Zinc bromide – ZnBr2 + +== C == + +=== Cd === +Cadmium arsenide – Cd3As2 +Cadmium bromide – CdBr2 +Cadmium chloride – CdCl2 +Cadmium fluoride – CdF2 +Cadmium iodide – CdI2 +Cadmium nitrate – Cd(NO3)2 +Cadmium oxide – CdO +Cadmium phosphide – Cd3P2 +Cadmium selenide – CdSe +Cadmium sulfate – CdSO4 +Cadmium sulfide – CdS +Cadmium telluride – CdTe \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b0bdd23ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cs === +Caesium bicarbonate – CsHCO3 +Caesium bromide – CsBr +Caesium carbonate – Cs2CO3 +Caesium chloride – CsCl +Caesium chromate – Cs2CrO4 +Caesium dichloroiodate – CsICl2 +Caesium dodecaborate – Cs2B12H12 +Caesium fluoride – CsF +Caesium heptafluoroxenate – CsXeF7 +Caesium hydride – CsH +Caesium hydrogen sulfate – CsHSO4 +Caesium iodide – CsI +Caesium monoxide – Cs2O +Caesium nitrate – CsNO3 +Caesium ozonide – CsO3 +Caesium perchlorate – CsClO4 +Caesium peroxide – Cs2O2 +Caesium sulfate – Cs2SO4 +Caesium superoxide – CsO2 +Caesium triiodide – CsI3 + +=== Cf === +Californium(III) bromide – CfBr3 +Californium(III) carbonate – Cf2(CO3)3 +Californium(III) chloride – CfCl3 +Californium(III) fluoride – CfF3 +Californium(III) iodide – CfI3 +Californium(II) iodide – CfI2 +Californium(III) nitrate – Cf(NO3)3 +Californium(III) oxide – Cf2O3 +Californium(III) phosphate – CfPO4 +Californium(III) sulfate – Cf2(SO4)3 +Californium(III) sulfide – Cf2S3 +Californium oxyfluoride – CfOF +Californium oxychloride – CfOCl + +=== Ca === +Calcium bromide – CaBr2 +Calcium carbide – CaC2 +Calcium carbonate (Precipitated Chalk) – CaCO3 +Calcium chlorate – Ca(ClO3)2 +Calcium chloride – CaCl2 +Calcium chromate – CaCrO4 +Calcium cyanamide – CaCN2 +Calcium fluoride – CaF2 +Calcium hydride – CaH2 +Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2 +Calcium monosilicide – CaSi +Calcium oxalate – CaC2O4 +Calcium hydroxychloride – CaOCl2 +Calcium perchlorate – Ca(ClO4)2 +Calcium permanganate – Ca(MnO4)2 +Calcium sulfate (gypsum) – CaSO4 +Calcium thiocyanate C2CaN2S2 + +=== C === +Carbon dioxide – CO2 +Carbon disulfide – CS2 +Carbon monoxide – CO +Carbon tetrabromide – CBr4 +Carbon tetrachloride – CCl4 +Carbon tetrafluoride – CF4 +Carbon tetraiodide – CI4 +Carbonic acid – H2CO3 +Carbonyl chloride – COCl2 +Carbonyl fluoride – COF2 +Carbonyl sulfide – COS +Carboplatin – C6H12N2O4Pt + +=== Ce === +Cerium(III) bromide – CeBr3 +Cerium(III) carbonate – Ce2(CO3)3 +Cerium(III) chloride – CeCl3 +Cerium(III) fluoride – CeF3 +Cerium(III) hydroxide – Ce(OH)3 +Cerium(III) iodide – CeI3 +Cerium(III) nitrate – Ce(NO3)3 +Cerium(III) oxide – Ce2O3 +Cerium(III) sulfate – Ce2(SO4)3 +Cerium(III) sulfide – Ce2S3 +Cerium(IV) hydroxide – Ce(OH)4 +Cerium(IV) nitrate – Ce(NO3)4 +Cerium(IV) oxide – CeO2 +Cerium(IV) sulfate – Ce(SO4)2 +Cerium(III,IV) oxide – Ce3O4 +Ceric ammonium nitrate – (NH4)2Ce(NO3)6 +Cerium hexaboride – CeB6 +Cerium aluminium – CeAl +Cerium cadmium – CeCd +Cerium magnesium – CeMg +Cerium mercury – CeHg +Cerium silver – CeAg +Cerium thallium – CeTl +Cerium zinc – CeZn \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a28dc4e04 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,258 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cl === +Actinium(III) chloride – AcCl3 +Aluminium chloride – AlCl3 +Americium(III) chloride – AmCl3 +Ammonium chloride – [NH4]Cl +Antimony(III) chloride – SbCl3 +Antimony(V) chloride – SbCl5 +Arsenic(III) chloride – AsCl3 +Barium chloride – BaCl2 +Beryllium chloride – BeCl2 +Bismuth(III) chloride – BiCl3 +Boron trichloride – BCl3 +Bromine monochloride – BrCl +Cadmium chloride – CdCl2 +Caesium chloride – CsCl +Calcium chloride – CaCl2 +Calcium hypochlorite – Ca(ClO)2 +Carbon tetrachloride – CCl4 +Cerium(III) chloride – CeCl3 +Chloramine – NH2Cl +Chloric acid – HClO3 +Chlorine azide – ClN3 +Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 +Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 +Chlorine monofluoride – ClF +Chlorine monoxide – ClO +Chlorine pentafluoride – ClF5 +Chlorine perchlorate – Cl2O4 +Chlorine tetroxide – O3ClOOClO3 +Chlorine trifluoride – ClF3 +Chlorine trifluoride – ClF3 +Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 +Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 +Chloroplatinic acid – H2[PtCl6] +Chlorosulfonic acid – ClSO3H +Chlorosulfonyl isocyanate – ClSO2NCO +Chloryl fluoride – ClO2F +Chromium(II) chloride – CrCl2 +Chromium(III) chloride – CrCl3 +Chromyl chloride – CrO2Cl2 +Cisplatin (cis–platinum(II) chloride diamine) – [PtCl2(NH3)2] +Cobalt(II) chloride – CoCl2 +Copper(I) chloride – CuCl +Copper(II) chloride – CuCl2 +Curium(III) chloride – CmCl3 +Cyanogen chloride – ClCN +Dichlorine dioxide – Cl2O2 +Dichlorine heptaoxide – Cl2O7 +Dichlorine heptoxide – Cl2O7 +Dichlorine hexoxide – Cl2O6 +Dichlorine monoxide – Cl2O +Dichlorine monoxide – Cl2O +Dichlorine tetroxide (chlorine perchlorate) – ClOClO3 +Dichlorine trioxide – Cl2O3 +Dichlorosilane – SiH2Cl2 +Disulfur dichloride – S2Cl2 +Dysprosium(III) chloride – DyCl3 +Erbium(III) chloride – ErCl3 +Europium(II) chloride – EuCl2 +Europium(III) chloride – EuCl3 +Gadolinium(III) chloride – GdCl3 +Gallium trichloride – GaCl3 +Germanium dichloride – GeCl2 +Germanium tetrachloride – GeCl4 +Gold(I) chloride – AuCl +Gold(III) chloride – AuCl3 +Hafnium(IV) chloride – HfCl4 +Holmium(III) chloride – HoCl3 +Hydrochloric acid – HCl(aq) +Hydrogen chloride – HCl +Hypochlorous acid – HOCl +Indium(I) chloride – InCl +Indium(III) chloride – InCl3 +Iodine monochloride – ICl +Iridium(III) chloride – IrCl3 +Iron(II) chloride – FeCl2 +Iron(III) chloride – FeCl3 +Lanthanum chloride – LaCl3 +Lead(II) chloride – PbCl2 +Lithium chloride – LiCl +Lithium perchlorate – LiClO4 +Lutetium chloride – LuCl3 +Magnesium chloride – MgCl2 +Magnesium perchlorate – Mg(ClO4)2 +Manganese(II) chloride – MnCl2 +Mercury(I) chloride – Hg2Cl2 +Mercury(II) chloride – HgCl2 +Mercury(II) perchlorate – Hg(ClO4)2 +Molybdenum(III) chloride – MoCl3 +Molybdenum(V) chloride – MoCl5 +Neodymium(III) chloride – NdCl3 +Neptunium(IV) chloride – NpCl4 +Nickel(II) chloride – NiCl2 +Niobium oxide trichloride – NbOCl3 +Niobium(IV) chloride – NbCl4 +Niobium(V) chloride – NbCl5 +Nitrogen trichloride – NCl3 +Nitrosyl chloride – NOCl +Nitryl chloride – NO2Cl +Osmium(III) chloride – OsCl3 +Palladium(II) chloride – PdCl2 +Perchloric acid – HClO4 +Perchloryl fluoride – ClO3F +Phosgene – COCl2 +Phosphonitrilic chloride trimer – (PNCl)3 +Phosphorus oxychloride – POCl3 +Phosphorus pentachloride – PCl5 +Phosphorus trichloride – PCl3 +Platinum(II) chloride – PtCl2 +Platinum(IV) chloride – PtCl4 +Plutonium(III) chloride – PuCl3 +Potassium chlorate – KClO3 +Potassium chloride – KCl +Potassium perchlorate – KClO4 +Praseodymium(III) chloride – PrCl3 +Protactinium(V) chloride – PaCl5 +Radium chloride – RaCl2 +Rhenium(III) chloride – ReCl3 +Rhenium(V) chloride – ReCl5 +Rhodium(III) chloride – RhCl3 +Rubidium chloride – RbCl +Ruthenium(III) chloride – RuCl3 +Samarium(III) chloride – SmCl3 +Scandium chloride – ScCl3 +Selenium dichloride – SeCl2 +Selenium tetrachloride – SeCl4 +Silicon tetrachloride – SiCl4 +Silver chloride – AgCl +Silver perchlorate – AgClO4 +Sodium chlorate – NaClO3 +Sodium chloride (table salt, rock salt) – NaCl +Sodium chlorite – NaClO2 +Sodium hypochlorite – NaOCl +Sodium perchlorate – NaClO4 +Strontium chloride – SrCl2 +Sulfur dichloride – SCl2 +Sulfuryl chloride – SO2Cl2 +Tantalum(III) chloride – TaCl3 +Tantalum(IV) chloride – TaCl4 +Tantalum(V) chloride – TaCl5 +Tellurium tetrachloride – TeCl4 +Terbium(III) chloride – TbCl3 +Tetrachloroauric acid – H[AuCl4] +Thallium(I) chloride – TlCl +Thallium(III) chloride – TlCl3 +Thionyl chloride – SOCl2 +Thiophosgene – CSCl2 +Thorium(IV) chloride – ThCl4 +Thulium(III) chloride – TmCl3 +Tin(II) chloride – SnCl2 +Tin(IV) chloride – SnCl4 +Titanium tetrachloride – TiCl4 +Titanium(III) chloride – TiCl3 +Trichlorosilane – HSiCl3 +Trigonal bipyramidal – CdCl5 +Tungsten(IV) chloride – WCl4 +Tungsten(V) chloride – WCl5 +Tungsten(VI) chloride – WCl6 +Uranium hexachloride – UCl6 +Uranium(III) chloride – UCl3 +Uranium(IV) chloride – UCl4 +Uranium(V) chloride – UCl5 +Uranyl chloride – UO2Cl2 +Vanadium oxytrichloride – VOCl3 +Vanadium(II) chloride – VCl2 +Vanadium(III) chloride – VCl3 +Vanadium(IV) chloride – VCl4 +Ytterbium(III) chloride – YbCl3 +Yttrium chloride – YCl3 +Zinc chloride – ZnCl2 +Zirconium(IV) chloride – ZrCl4 + +=== Cr === +Chromic acid – H2CrO4 +Chromium trioxide (Chromic acid) – CrO3 +Chromium(II) chloride (chromous chloride) – CrCl2 +Chromium(II) sulfate – CrSO4 +Chromium(III) chloride – CrCl3 +Chromium(III) nitrate – Cr(NO3)3 +Chromium(III) oxide – Cr2O3 +Chromium(III) sulfate – Cr2(SO4)3 +Chromium(III) telluride – Cr2Te3 +Chromium(IV) oxide – CrO2 +Chromium pentafluoride – CrF5 +Chromium sulfide bromide – CrSBr +Chromyl chloride – CrO2Cl2 +Chromyl fluoride – CrO2F2 + +=== Co === +Cobalt(II) acetate – Co(CH3CO2)2 +Cobalt(II) bromide – CoBr2 +Cobalt(II) carbonate – CoCO3 +Cobalt(II) chloride – CoCl2 +Cobalt(II) fluoride – CoF2 +Cobalt(II) hydroxide – Co(OH)2 +Cobalt(II) iodide – CoI2 +Cobalt(II) nitrate – Co(NO3)2 +Cobalt(II) oxide – CoO +Cobalt(II) perchlorate – Co(ClO4)2 +Cobalt(II) phosphate – Co3(PO4)2 +Cobalt(II) sulfate – CoSO4 +Cobalt(II) thiocyanate – Co(SCN)2 +Cobalt(II,III) oxide – Co3O4 +Cobalt(III) chloride – CoCl3 +Cobalt(III) fluoride – CoF3 +Cobalt(III) hydroxide – Co(OH)3 +Cobalt(III) nitrate – Co(NO3)3 +Cobalt(III) oxide – Co2O3 + +=== Cu === +Copper(I) acetylide – Cu2C2 +Copper(I) azide – CuN3 +Copper(I) bromide – CuBr +Copper(I) chloride – CuCl +Copper(I) fluoride – CuF +Copper(I) hydroxide – CuOH +Copper(I) iodide – CuI +Copper(I) nitrate – CuNO3 +Copper(I) oxide – Cu2O +Copper(I) phosphide – Cu3P +Copper(I) selenide – Cu2Se +Copper(I) sulfate – CuSO4 +Copper(I) sulfide – Cu2S +Copper(I) telluride – Cu2Te +Copper(I) thiocyanate – CuSCN +Copper(I,II) sulfite – Cu3(SO3)2 +Copper(II) arsenate – Cu3(AsO4)2 +Copper(II) azide – Cu(N3)2 +Copper(II) borate – Cu3(BO3)2 +Copper(II) bromide – CuBr2 +Copper(II) carbonate – CuCO3 +Copper(II) carbonate hydroxide – Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 +Copper(II) chlorate – Cu(ClO3)2 +Copper(II) chloride – CuCl2 +Copper(II) fluoride – CuF2 +Copper(II) hydroxide – Cu(OH)2 +Copper(II) nitrate – Cu(NO3)2 +Copper(II) oxide – CuO +Copper(II) perchlorate – Cu(ClO4)2 +Copper(II) phosphate – Cu3(PO4)2 +Copper(II) selenide – CuSe +Copper(II) selenite – CuSeO3 +Copper(II) sulfate – CuSO4 +Copper(II) sulfide – CuS +Copper(II) telluride – CuTe +Copper(II) thiocyanate – Cu(SCN)2 +Copper oxychloride – H3ClCu2O3 +Tetramminecopper(II) sulfate – [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3964498f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,231 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cm === +Curium(III) chloride – CmCl3 +Curium(III) oxide – Cm2O3 +Curium(IV) oxide – CmO2 +Curium hydroxide – Cm(OH)3 + +=== CN === +Cyanogen bromide – BrCN +Cyanogen chloride – ClCN +Cyanogen iodide – ICN +Cyanogen – (CN)2 +Cyanuric chloride – C3Cl3N3 +Cyanogen thiocyanate – CNSCN +Cyanogen selenocyanate – CNSeCN +Cyanogen azide – N3CN + +== D == + +=== Dy === +Dysprosium(II) chloride – DyCl2 +Dysprosium(II) iodide – DyI2 +Dysprosium(III) acetate – Dy(CH3COO)3 +Dysprosium(III) bromide – DyBr3 +Dysprosium(III) carbonate – Dy2(CO3)3 +Dysprosium(III) chloride – DyCl3 +Dysprosium(III) fluoride – DyF3 +Dysprosium(III) iodide – DyI3 +Dysprosium(III) nitrate – Dy(NO3)3 +Dysprosium(III) oxalate – Dy2(C2O4)3 +Dysprosium(III) oxide – Dy2O3 +Dysprosium(III) phosphate – DyPO4 +Dysprosium(III) selenide – Dy2Se3 +Dysprosium(III) sulfide – Dy2S3 +Dysprosium(III) sulfate – Dy2(SO4)3 +Dysprosium(III) telluride – Dy2Te3 +Dysprosium arsenide – DyAs +Dysprosium bismuthide – DyBi +Dysprosium iodate – Dy(IO3)3 +Dysprosium monosulfide – DyS +Dysprosium nitride – DyN +Dysprosium phosphide – DyP +Dysprosium stannate – Dy2Sn2O7 +Dysprosium titanate – Dy2Ti2O7 + +== E == + +=== Es === +Einsteinium(III) bromide – EsBr3 +Einsteinium(III) carbonate – Es2(CO3)3 +Einsteinium(III) chloride – EsCl3 +Einsteinium(III) fluoride – EsF3 +Einsteinium(III) iodide – EsI3 +Einsteinium(III) nitrate – Es(NO3)3 +Einsteinium(III) oxide – Es2O3 +Einsteinium(III) phosphate – EsPO4 +Einsteinium(III) sulfate – Es2(SO4)3 +Einsteinium(III) sulfide – Es2S3 + +=== Er === +Erbium-copper – ErCu +Erbium-gold – ErAu +Erbium-iridium – ErIr +Erbium-silver – ErAg +Erbium hexaboride – ErB6 +Erbium iodate – Er(IO3)3 +Erbium nitride – ErN +Erbium oxybromide – ErOBr +Erbium oxychloride – ErOCl +Erbium oxyfluoride – ErOF +Erbium phosphide – ErP +Erbium silicide – ErSi2 +Erbium tetraboride – ErB4 +Erbium(III) bromide – ErBr3 +Erbium(III) chloride – ErCl3 +Erbium(III) fluoride – ErF3 +Erbium(III) hydroxide – Er(OH)3 +Erbium(III) iodide – ErI3 +Erbium(III) nitrate – Er(NO3)3 +Erbium(III) oxide – Er2O3 +Erbium(III) selenate – Er2(SeO4)3 +Erbium(III) selenide – Er2Se3 +Erbium(III) sulfate – Er2(SO4)3 +Erbium(III) telluride – Er2Te3 + +=== Eu === +Europium(II) bromide – EuBr2 +Europium(II) chloride – EuCl2 +Europium(II) fluoride – EuF2 +Europium(II) hydride – EuH2 +Europium(II) hydroxide – Eu(OH)2 +Europium(II) oxide – EuO +Europium(II) iodide – EuI2 +Europium(II) selenide – EuSe +Europium(II) silicide – EuSi2 +Europium(II) sulfate – EuSO4 +Europium(II) sulfide – EuS2 +Europium(II) telluride – EuTe +Europium(II) titanate – EuTiO3 +Europium(III) acetate – Eu(CH3COO)3 +Europium(III) arsenate – EuAsO4 +Europium(III) bromide – EuBr3 +Europium(III) carbonate – Eu(CO3)3 +Europium(III) chloride – EuCl3 +Europium(III) chromate – EuCrO4 +Europium(III) fluoride – EuF3 +Europium(III) hydroxide – Eu(OH)3 +Europium(III) iodate – Eu(IO3)3 +Europium(III) iodide – EuI3 +Europium(III) nitrate – Eu(NO3)3 +Europium(III) oxide – Eu2O3 +Europium(III) perchlorate – Eu(ClO4)3 +Europium(III) phosphate – EuPO4 +Europium(III) phosphide – EuP +Europium(III) selenide – Eu2Se3 +Europium(III) sulfate – Eu2(SO4)3 +Europium(III) telluride – Eu2Te3 +Europium(III) vanadate – EuVO4 +Europium barium titanate – BaEuTiO4 + +== F == + +=== F === +Fluoroantimonic acid – H2FSbF6 +Tetrafluorohydrazine – N2F4 +Trifluoromethylisocyanide – C2NF3 +Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid – CF3SO3H +Other fluorides: AlF3, AmF3, NH4F, NH4HF2, NH4BF4, SbF5, SbF3, AsF5, AsF3, BaF2, BeF2, BiF3, F5SOOSF5, BF3, BrF5, BrF3, BrF, CdF2, CsF, CaF2, CF4, COF2, CeF3, CeF4, ClF5, ClF3, ClF, CrF3, CrF5, CrO2F2, CoF2, CoF3, CuF, CuF2, CmF3, N2F2, N2F4, O2F2, P2F4, S2F2, DyF3, ErF3, EuF3, HBF4, FN3, FOSO2F, FNO3, FSO3H, GdF3, GaF3, GeF4, AuF3, HfF4, H2SbF6, HPF6, H2SiF6, H2TiF6, HF, HF(aq), HFO, InF3, IF7, IF, IF5, IrF3, IrF6, FeF2, FeF3, KrF2, LaF3, PbF2, PbF4, LiF, MgF2, MnF2, MnF3, MnF4, Hg2F2, HgF2, MoF3, MoF5, MoF6, NbF4, NbF5, NdF3, NiF2, NpF4, NpF5, NpF6, ONF3, NF3, NO2BF4, NOBF4, NOF, NO2F, OsF4, OsF6, OsF7, OF2, PdF2, PdF4, FSO2OOSO2F, POF3, PF5, PF3, PtF2, PtF4, PtF6, PuF3, PuF4, PuF6, KF, KPF6, KBF4, PrF3, PaF5, RaF2, RnF2, ReF4, ReF6, ReF7, RhF3, RbF, RuF3, RuF4, RuF6, SmF3, ScF3, SeF6, SeF4, SiF4, AgF, AgF2, AgBF4, NaF, NaFSO3, Na3AlF6, NaSbF6, NaPF6, Na2SiF6, Na2TiF6, NaBF4, SrF2, SF2, SF6, SF4, SO2F2, TaF5, TcF6, TeF6, TeF4, TlF, TlF3, SOF2, ThF4, SnF2, SnF4, TiF3, TiF4, HSiF3, WF6, UF4, UF5, UF6, UO2F2, VF3, VF4, VF5, XeF2, XeO2F2, XeF6, XePtF6, XeF4, YbF3, YF3, ZnF2, ZrF4 + +=== Fr === +Francium oxide – Fr2O +Francium chloride – FrCl +Francium bromide – FrBr +Francium iodide – FrI +Francium carbonate – Fr2CO3 +Francium hydroxide – FrOH +Francium sulfate – Fr2SO4 + +== G == + +=== Gd === +Gadolinium(III) chloride – GdCl3 +Gadolinium(III) oxide – Gd2O3 +Gadolinium(III) carbonate – Gd2(CO3)3 +Gadolinium(III) chloride – GdCl3 +Gadolinium(III) fluoride – GdF3 +Gadolinium gallium garnet – Gd3Ga5O12 +Gadolinium(III) nitrate – Gd(NO3)3 +Gadolinium(III) oxide – Gd2O3 +Gadolinium(III) phosphate – GdPO4 +Gadolinium(III) sulfate – Gd2(SO4)3 + +=== Ga === +Gallium antimonide – GaSb +Gallium arsenide – GaAs +Gallium(III) fluoride – GaF3 +Gallium trichloride – GaCl3 +Gallium nitride – GaN +Gallium phosphide – GaP +Gallium(II) sulfide – GaS +Gallium(III) sulfide – Ga2S3 + +=== Ge === +Digermane – Ge2H6 +Germane – GeH4 +Germanium(II) bromide – GeBr2 +Germanium(II) chloride – GeCl2 +Germanium(II) fluoride – GeF2 +Germanium(II) iodide – GeI2 +Germanium(II) oxide – GeO +Germanium(II) selenide – GeSe +Germanium(II) sulfide – GeS +Germanium(IV) bromide – GeBr4 +Germanium(IV) chloride – GeCl4 +Germanium(IV) fluoride – GeF4 +Germanium(IV) iodide – GeI4 +Germanium(IV) nitride – Ge3N4 +Germanium(IV) oxide – GeO2 +Germanium(IV) selenide – GeSe2 +Germanium(IV) sulfide – GeS2 +Germanium difluoride – GeF2 +Germanium dioxide – GeO2 +Germanium tetrachloride – GeCl4 +Germanium tetrafluoride – GeF4 +Germanium telluride – GeTe + +=== Au === +Gold(I) bromide – AuBr +Gold(I) chloride – AuCl +Gold(I) cyanide – AuCN +Gold(I) hydride – AuH +Gold(I) iodide – AuI +Gold(I) selenide – Au2Se +Gold(I) sulfide – Au2S +Gold(III) bromide – (AuBr3)2 +Gold(III) chloride – (AuCl3)2 +Gold(III) fluoride – AuF3 +Gold(III) iodide – AuI3 +Gold(III) oxide – Au2O3 +Gold(III) selenide – Au2Se3 +Gold(III) sulfide – Au2S3 +Gold(III) nitrate – Au(NO3)3 +Gold(V) fluoride – AuF5 +Gold(I,III) chloride – Au4Cl8 +Gold ditelluride – AuTe2 +Gold heptafluoride – AuF5·F2 (AuF7) + +== H == + +=== Hf === +Hafnium(IV) bromide – HfBr4 +Hafnium(IV) carbide – HfC +Hafnium(IV) chloride – HfCl4 +Hafnium(IV) fluoride – HfF4 +Hafnium(IV) iodide – HfI4 +Hafnium(IV) oxide – HfO2 +Hafnium(IV) silicate – HfSiO4 +Hafnium(IV) sulfide – HfS2 +Hexadecacarbonylhexarhodium – Rh6(CO)16 + +=== Hs === +Hassium tetroxide – HsO4 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0903a19b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,274 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ho === +Holmium antimonide – HoSb +Holmium arsenide – HoAs +Holmium bismuthide – HoBi +Holmium diantimonide – HoSb2 +Holmium disilicide – HoSi2 +Holmium iodate – Ho(IO3)3 +Holmium monosulfide – HoS +Holmium nitride – HoN +Holmium oxychloride – HoOCl +Holmium oxyfluoride – HoOF +Holmium phosphide – HoP +Holmium titanate – Ho2Ti2O7 +Holmium(III) acetate – Ho(CH3COO3)3 +Holmium(III) acetylacetonate – Ho(acac)3 +Holmium(III) bromide – HoBr3 +Holmium(III) carbonate – Ho2(CO3)3 +Holmium(III) chloride – HoCl3 +Holmium(III) fluoride – HoF3 +Holmium(III) hydroxide – Ho(OH)3 +Holmium(III) iodide – HoI3 +Holmium(III) nitrate – Ho(NO3)3 +Holmium(III) oxalate – Ho2(C2O4)3 +Holmium(III) oxide – Ho2O3 +Holmium(III) phosphate – HoPO4 +Holmium(III) selenide – Ho2Se3 +Holmium(III) sulfate – Ho2(SO4)3 +Holmium(III) sulfide – Ho2S3 +Holmium(III) telluride – Ho2Te3 + +=== H === +Hexafluorosilicic acid – H2F6Si +Hydrazine – N2H4 +Hydrazoic acid – HN3 +Hydroiodic acid – HI +Hydrogen bromide – HBr +Hydrogen chloride – HCl +Hydrogen cyanide – HCN +Hydrogen fluoride – HF +Hydrogen peroxide – H2O2 +Hydrogen selenide – H2Se +Hydrogen sulfide – H2S +Hydrogen telluride – H2Te +Hydroxylamine – NH2OH +Hypobromous acid – HBrO +Hypochlorous acid – HClO +Hypophosphorous acid – H3PO2 +Metaphosphoric acid – HPO3 +Protonated molecular hydrogen – H+3 +Trioxidane – H2O3 +Water - H2O + +=== He === +Sodium helide – Na2He + +== I == + +=== In === +Indium(I) bromide – InBr +Indium(I) iodide – InI +Indium(I) oxide – In2O +Indium(III) bromide – InBr3 +Indium(III) chloride – InCl3 +Indium(III) fluoride – InF3 +Indium(III) nitrate – In(NO3)3 +Indium(III) oxide – In2O3 +Indium(III) selenide – In2Se3 +Indium(III) sulfate – In2(SO4)3 +Indium(III) sulfide – In2S3 +Indium antimonide – InSb +Indium arsenide – InAs +Indium nitride – InN +Indium phosphide – InP +Trimethylindium – In(CH3)3 + +=== I === +Iodic acid – HIO3 +Iodine heptafluoride – IF7 +Iodine pentafluoride – IF5 +Iodine monochloride – ICl +Iodine trichloride – ICl3 +Iodine pentachloride - ICl5 +Iodine tribromide - IBr3 +Periodic acid – HIO4 +Tetrachloroiodic acid - HICl4 + +=== Ir === +Iridium(IV) chloride – IrCl4 +Iridium(V) fluoride – IrF5 +Iridium hexafluoride – IrF6 +Iridium tetrafluoride – IrF4 + +=== Fe === +Columbite – Fe2+Nb2O6 +Iron(II) chloride – FeCl2 +Iron(II) oxalate – FeC2O4 +Iron(II) oxide – FeO +Iron(II) selenate – FeSeO4 +Iron(II) sulfate – FeSO4 +Iron(III) chloride – FeCl3 +Iron(III) fluoride – FeF3 +Iron(III) oxalate – C6Fe2O12 +Iron(III) oxide – Fe2O3 +Iron(III) nitrate – Fe(NO3)3(H2O)9 +Iron(III) sulfate – Fe2(SO4)3 +Iron(III) thiocyanate – Fe(SCN)3 +Iron(II,III) oxide – Fe3O4 +Iron ferrocyanide – Fe7(CN)18 +Prussian blue (Iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II)) – Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 +Ammonium iron(II) sulfate – (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2 +Iron(II) bromide – FeBr2 +Iron(III) bromide – FeBr3 +Iron(II) chloride – FeCl2 +Iron(III) chloride – FeCl3 +Iron disulfide – FeS2 +Iron dodecacarbonyl – Fe3(CO)12 +Iron(III) fluoride – FeF3 +Iron(II) iodide – FeI2 +Iron naphthenate – Fe(ONap)3 +Iron(III) nitrate – Fe(NO3)3 +Iron nonacarbonyl – Fe2(CO)9 +Iron(II) oxalate – FeC2O4 +Iron(II,III) oxide – Fe3O4 +Iron(III) oxide – Fe2O3 +Iron pentacarbonyl – Fe(CO)5 +Iron(III) perchlorate – Fe(ClO4)3 +Iron(III) phosphate – FePO4 +Iron(II) sulfamate – (NH2SO3)2Fe +Iron(II) sulfate – FeSO4 +Iron(III) sulfate – Fe2(SO4)3 +Iron(II) sulfide – FeS + +== K == + +=== Kr === +Krypton difluoride – KrF2 + +== L == + +=== La === +Lanthanum aluminium – LaAl +Lanthanum cadmium – LaCd +Lanthanum carbonate – La2(CO3)3 +Lanthanum magnesium – LaMg +Lanthanum manganite – LaMnO3 +Lanthanum mercury – LaHg +Lanthanum silver – LaAg +Lanthanum thallium – LaTl +Lanthanum zinc – LaZn +Lanthanum boride – LaB6 +Lanthanum carbonate – La2(CO3)3 +Lanthanum(III) chloride – LaCl3 +Lanthanum trifluoride – LaF3 +Lanthanum(III) oxide – La2O3 +Lanthanum(III) nitrate – La(NO3)3 +Lanthanum(III) phosphate – LaPO4 +Lanthanum(III) sulfate – La2(SO4)3 + +=== Pb === +Lead(II) azide – Pb(N3)2 +Lead(II) bromide – PbBr2 +Lead(II) carbonate – Pb(CO3) +Lead(II) chloride – PbCl2 +Lead(II) fluoride – PbF2 +Lead(II) hydroxide – Pb(OH)2 +Lead(II) iodide – PbI2 +Lead(II) nitrate – Pb(NO3)2 +Lead(II) oxide – PbO +Lead(II) phosphate – Pb3(PO4)2 +Lead(II) sulfate – Pb(SO4) +Lead(II) selenide – PbSe +Lead(II) sulfide – PbS +Lead(II) telluride – PbTe +Lead(II) thiocyanate – Pb(CNS)2 +Lead(II,IV) oxide – Pb3O4 +Lead(IV) oxide – PbO2 +Lead(IV) sulfide – PbS2 +Lead hydrogen arsenate – PbHAsO4 +Lead styphnate – C6HN3O8Pb +Lead tetrachloride – PbCl4 +Lead tetrafluoride – PbF4 +Lead tetroxide – Pb3O4 +Lead titanate – PbTiO3 +Lead zirconate titanate – Pb[TixZr1−x]O3 (e.g., x = 0.52 is lead zirconium titanate) +Plumbane – PbH4 + +=== Li === +Lithium tetrachloroaluminate – LiAlCl4 +Lithium aluminium hydride – LiAlH4 +Lithium bromide – LiBr +Lithium borohydride – LiBH4 +Lithium carbonate (Lithium salt) – Li2CO3 +Lithium chloride – LiCl +Lithium hypochlorite – LiClO +Lithium chlorate – LiClO3 +Lithium perchlorate – LiClO4 +Lithium cobalt oxide – LiCoO2 +Lithium oxide – Li2O +Lithium peroxide – Li2O2 +Lithium hydride – LiH +Lithium hydroxide – LiOH +Lithium iodide – LiI +Lithium iron phosphate – FeLiO4P +Lithium nitrate – LiNO3 +Lithium sulfide – Li2S +Lithium sulfite – Li2SO3 +Lithium sulfate – Li2SO4 +Lithium superoxide – LiO2 +Lithium hexafluorophosphate – LiPF6 + +== M == + +=== Mg === +Magnesium antimonide – MgSb +Magnesium bromide – MgBr2 +Magnesium carbonate – MgCO3 +Magnesium chloride – MgCl2 +Magnesium citrate – C6H6MgO7 +Magnesium oxide – MgO +Magnesium perchlorate – Mg(ClO4)2 +Magnesium phosphate – Mg3(PO4)2 +Magnesium sulfate – MgSO4 +Magnesium bicarbonate – Mg(HCO3)2 +Magnesium boride – MgB6 +Magnesium bromide – MgBr2 +Magnesium carbide – MgC2 +Magnesium carbonate – MgCO3 +Magnesium chloride – MgCl2 +Magnesium cyanamide – MgCN2 +Magnesium fluoride – MgF2 +Magnesium fluorophosphate – MgPO3F +Magnesium gluconate – Mg(HOCH2(CHOH)4CO2)2 +Magnesium hydride – MgH2 +Dimagnesium phosphate – MgHPO4 +Magnesium hydroxide – Mg(OH)2 +Magnesium hypochlorite – Mg(OCl)2 +Magnesium iodide – MgI2 +Magnesium molybdate – MgMoO4 +Magnesium nitrate – Mg(NO3)2 +Magnesium oxalate – MgC2O4 +Magnesium peroxide – MgO2 +Magnesium phosphate – Mg3(PO4)2 +Magnesium silicate – MgSiO3 +Magnesium sulfate – MgSO4 +Magnesium sulfide – MgS +Magnesium titanate – MgTiO3 +Magnesium tungstate – MgWO4 +Magnesium zirconate – MgZrO3 + +=== Mn === +Manganese(II) bromide – MnBr2 +Manganese(II) chloride – MnCl2 +Manganese(II) hydroxide – Mn(OH)2 +Manganese(II) oxide – MnO +Manganese(II) phosphate – Mn3(PO4)2 +Manganese(II) sulfate – MnSO4 +Manganese(II) sulfate monohydrate – MnSO4·H2O +Manganese(III) chloride – MnCl3 +Manganese(III) oxide – Mn2O3 +Manganese(IV) fluoride – MnF4 +Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide) – MnO2 +Manganese(II,III) oxide – Mn3O4 +Manganese dioxide – MnO2 +Manganese heptoxide – Mn2O7 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a2898f49 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,230 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Hg === +Mercury(I) chloride – Hg2Cl2 +Mercury(I) sulfate – Hg2SO4 +Mercury(II) chloride – HgCl2 +Mercury(II) hydride – HgH2 +Mercury(II) selenide – HgSe +Mercury(II) sulfate – HgSO4 +Mercury(II) sulfide – HgS +Mercury(II) telluride – HgTe +Mercury(II) thiocyanate – Hg(SCN)2 +Mercury(IV) fluoride – HgF4 +Mercury fulminate – Hg(ONC)2 + +=== Mo === +Molybdenum(II) bromide – MoBr2 +Molybdenum(II) chloride – Mo6Cl12 +Molybdenum(III) bromide – MoBr3 +Molybdenum(III) chloride – MoCl3 +Molybdenum(IV) carbide – MoC +Molybdenum(IV) chloride – MoCl4 +Molybdenum(IV) fluoride – MoF4 +Molybdenum(V) chloride – Mo2Cl10 +Molybdenum(V) fluoride – MoF5 +Molybdenum diselenide – MoSe2 +Molybdenum disulfide – MoS2 +Molybdenum hexacarbonyl – Mo(CO)6 +Molybdenum hexafluoride – MoF6 +Molybdenum tetrachloride – MoCl4 +Molybdenum trioxide – MoO3 +Molybdic acid – H2MoO4 + +== N == + +=== Nd === +Neodymium acetate – Nd(CH3COO)3 +Neodymium(III) arsenate – NdAsO4 +Neodymium(II) chloride – NdCl2 +Neodymium(III) chloride – NdCl3 +Neodymium magnet – Nd2Fe14B +Neodymium(II) bromide – NdBr2 +Neodymium(III) bromide – NdBr3 +Neodymium(III) fluoride – NdF3 +Neodymium(III) hydride – NdH3 +Neodymium(II) iodide – NdI2 +Neodymium(III) iodide – NdI3 +Neodymium molybdate – Nd2(MoO4)3 +Neodymium perrhenate – Nd(ReO4)3 +Neodymium(III) sulfide – Nd2S3 +Neodymium tantalate – NdTaO4 +Neodymium(III) vanadate – NdVO4 + +=== Np === +Neptunium(III) fluoride – NpF3 +Neptunium(IV) fluoride – NpF4 +Neptunium(IV) oxide – NpO2 +Neptunium(VI) fluoride – NpF6 + +=== Ni === +Nickel(II) carbonate – NiCO3 +Nickel(II) chloride – NiCl2 +Nickel(II) fluoride – NiF2 +Nickel(II) hydroxide – Ni(OH)2 +Nickel(II) nitrate – Ni(NO3)2 +Nickel(II) oxide – NiO +Nickel(II) sulfamate – Ni(SO3NH2)2 +Nickel(II) sulfide – NiS + +=== Nb === +Niobium(IV) fluoride – NbF4 +Niobium(V) fluoride – NbF5 +Niobium oxychloride – NbOCl3 +Niobium pentachloride – NbCl5 + +=== N === +Dinitrogen pentoxide (nitronium nitrate) – N2O5 +Dinitrogen tetrafluoride – N2F4 +Dinitrogen tetroxide – N2O4 +Dinitrogen trioxide – N2O3 +Nitric acid – HNO3 +Nitrous acid – HNO2 +Nitrogen dioxide – NO2 +Nitrogen monoxide – NO +Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen monoxide, laughing gas, NOS) – N2O +Nitrogen pentafluoride – NF5 +Nitrogen triiodide – NI3 + +=== NO === +Nitrosonium octafluoroxenate(VI) – (NO)2XeF8 +Nitrosonium tetrafluoroborate – NOBF4 +Nitrosylsulfuric acid – NOHSO4 + +== O == + +=== Os === +Osmium hexafluoride – OsF6 +Osmium tetroxide (osmium(VIII) oxide) – OsO4 +Osmium trioxide (osmium(VI) oxide) – OsO3 + +=== O === +Tributyltin – C24H54OSn2 +Oxygen difluoride – OF2 +Ozone – O3 +Aluminium oxide – Al2O3 +Americium(II) oxide – AmO +Americium(IV) oxide – AmO2 +Antimony trioxide – Sb2O3 +Antimony(V) oxide – Sb2O5 +Arsenic trioxide – As2O3 +Arsenic(V) oxide – As2O5 +Barium oxide – BaO +Beryllium oxide – BeO +Bismuth(III) oxide – Bi2O3 +Bismuth oxychloride – BiOCl +Boron trioxide – B2O3 +Bromine monoxide – Br2O +Carbon dioxide – CO2 +Carbon monoxide – CO +Cerium(IV) oxide – CeO2 +Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 +Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 +Dichlorine heptaoxide – Cl2O7 +Dichlorine monoxide – Cl2O +Chromium(III) oxide – Cr2O3 +Chromium(IV) oxide – CrO2 +Chromium(VI) oxide – CrO3 +Cobalt(II) oxide – CoO +Copper(I) oxide – Cu2O +Copper(II) oxide – CuO +Curium(III) oxide – Cm2O3 +Curium(IV) oxide – CmO2 +Dysprosium(III) oxide – Dy2O3 +Erbium(III) oxide – Er2O3 +Europium(III) oxide – Eu2O3 +Oxygen difluoride – OF2 +Dioxygen difluoride – O2F2 +Francium oxide – Fr2O +Gadolinium(III) oxide – Gd2O3 +Gallium(III) oxide – Ga2O3 +Germanium dioxide – GeO2 +Gold(III) oxide – Au2O3 +Hafnium dioxide – HfO2 +Holmium(III) oxide – Ho2O3 +Indium(I) oxide – In2O +Indium(III) oxide – In2O3 +Iodine pentoxide – I2O5 +Iridium(IV) oxide – IrO2 +Iron(II) oxide – FeO +Iron(II,III) oxide – Fe3O4 +Iron(III) oxide – Fe2O3 +Lanthanum(III) oxide – La2O3 +Lead(II) oxide – PbO +Lead dioxide – PbO2 +Lithium oxide – Li2O +Magnesium oxide – MgO +Potassium oxide – K2O +Rubidium oxide – Rb2O +Sodium oxide – Na2O +Strontium oxide – SrO +Tellurium dioxide – TeO2 +Uranium(IV) oxide – UO2 +(only simple oxides, oxyhalides, and related compounds, not hydroxides, carbonates, acids, or other compounds listed elsewhere) + +== P == + +=== Pd === +Palladium(II) chloride – PdCl2 +Palladium(II) nitrate – Pd(NO3)2 +Palladium(II,IV) fluoride – PdF3 +Palladium sulfate – PdSO4 +Palladium tetrafluoride – PdF4 + +=== P === +Diphosphorus tetrachloride – P2Cl4 +Diphosphorus tetrafluoride – P2F4 +Diphosphorus tetraiodide – P2I4 +Hexachlorophosphazene – (NPCl2)3 +Phosphine – PH3 +Phosphomolybdic acid – H3PMo12O40 +Phosphoric acid – H3PO4 +Phosphorous acid (Phosphoric(III) acid) – H3PO3 +Phosphoroyl nitride – NPO +Phosphorus pentabromide – PBr5 +Phosphorus pentafluoride – PF5 +Phosphorus pentasulfide – P4S10 +Phosphorus pentoxide – P2O5 +Phosphorus sesquisulfide – P4S3 +Phosphorus tribromide – PBr3 +Phosphorus trichloride – PCl3 +Phosphorus trifluoride – PF3 +Phosphorus triiodide – PI3 +Phosphotungstic acid – H3PW12O40 +Poly(dichlorophosphazene) – (NPCl2)n + +=== Pt === +Platinum(II) chloride – PtCl2 +Platinum(IV) chloride – PtCl4 +Platinum hexafluoride – PtF6 +Platinum pentafluoride – PtF5 +Platinum tetrafluoride – PtF4 + +=== Pu === +Plutonium(III) bromide – PuBr3 +Plutonium(III) chloride – PuCl3 +Plutonium(III) fluoride – PuF3 +Plutonium(III) iodide – PuI3 +Plutonium dihydride – PuH2+x +Plutonium dioxide (Plutonium(IV) oxide) – PuO2 +Plutonium hexafluoride – PuF6 +Plutonium tetrafluoride – PuF4 +Plutonium trihydride – PuH3 + +=== Po === +Polonium hexafluoride – PoF6 +Polonium monoxide – PoO +Polonium dioxide – PoO2 +Polonium trioxide – PoO3 + +=== Ps === +Di-positronium – Ps2 +Positronium hydride – PsH \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b59785755 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,222 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== K === +Potash Alum – K2SO4·Al2(SO4)3·24H2O +Potassium alum – AlK(SO4)2 +Potassium aluminium fluoride – KAlF4 +Potassium amide – KNH2 +Potassium argentocyanide – KAg(CN)2 +Potassium arsenite – KAsO2 +Potassium azide – KN3 +Potassium borate – K2B4O7·4H2O +Potassium bromide – KBr +Potassium bicarbonate – KHCO3 +Potassium bifluoride – KHF2 +Potassium bisulfite – KHSO3 +Potassium carbonate – K2CO3 +Potassium calcium chloride – KCaCl3 +Potassium chlorate – KClO3 +Potassium chloride – KCl +Potassium chlorite – KClO2 +Potassium chromate – K2CrO4 +Potassium cyanide – KCN +Potassium dichromate – K2Cr2O7 +Potassium dithionite – K2S2O4 +Potassium ferrate – K2FeO4 +Potassium ferrioxalate – K3[Fe(C2O4)3] +Potassium ferricyanide – K3[Fe(CN)6] +Potassium ferrocyanide – K4[Fe(CN)6] +Potassium heptafluorotantalate – K2[TaF7] +Potassium hexafluorophosphate – KPF6 +Potassium hydrogen carbonate – KHCO3 +Potassium hydrogen fluoride – KHF2 +Potassium hydroxide – KOH +Potassium iodide – KI +Potassium iodate – KIO3 +Potassium manganate – K2MnO4 +Potassium monopersulfate – K2SO4·KHSO4·2KHSO5 +Potassium nitrate – KNO3 +Potassium perbromate – KBrO4 +Potassium perchlorate – KClO4 +Potassium periodate – KIO4 +Potassium permanganate – KMnO4 +Potassium sodium tartrate – KNaC4H4O6 +Potassium sulfate – K2SO4 +Potassium sulfite – K2SO3 +Potassium sulfide – K2S +Potassium tartrate – K2C4H4O6 +Potassium tetrachloroiodate(III) – KICl4 +Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) – K2HgI4 +Potassium thiocyanate – KSCN +Potassium titanyl phosphate – KTiOPO4 +Potassium vanadate – KVO3 +Tripotassium phosphate – K3PO4 + +=== Pr === +Praseodymium(III) chloride – PrCl3 +Praseodymium(III) sulfate – Pr2(SO4)3 +Praseodymium(III) bromide – PrBr3 +Praseodymium(III) carbonate – Pr2(CO3)3 +Praseodymium(III) chloride – PrCl3 +Praseodymium(III) fluoride – PrF3 +Praseodymium(III) iodide – PrI3 +Praseodymium(III) nitrate – Pr(NO3)3 +Praseodymium(III) oxide – Pr2O3 +Praseodymium(III) phosphate – PrPO4 +Praseodymium(III) sulfate – Pr2(SO4)3 +Praseodymium(III) sulfide – Pr2S3 + +=== Pm === +Promethium(III) chloride – PmCl3 +Promethium(III) oxide – Pm2O3 +Promethium(III) bromide – PmBr3 +Promethium(III) carbonate – Pm2(CO3)3 +Promethium(III) chloride – PmCl3 +Promethium(III) fluoride – PmF3 +Promethium(III) iodide – PmI3 +Promethium(III) nitrate – Pm(NO3)3 +Promethium(III) oxide – Pm2O3 +Promethium(III) phosphate – PmPO4 +Promethium(III) sulfate – Pm2(SO4)3 +Promethium(III) sulfide – Pm2S3 + +== R == + +=== Ra === +Radium bromide – RaBr2 +Radium carbonate – RaCO3 +Radium chloride – RaCl2 +Radium fluoride – RaF2 + +=== Rn === +Radon difluoride – RnF2 + +=== Re === +Rhenium(IV) oxide – ReO2 +Rhenium(VII) oxide – Re2O7 +Rhenium heptafluoride – ReF7 +Rhenium hexafluoride – ReF6 + +=== Rh === +Rhodium hexafluoride – RhF6 +Rhodium pentafluoride – Rh4F20 +Rhodium(III) chloride – RhCl3 +Rhodium(III) hydroxide – Rh(OH)3 +Rhodium(III) iodide – RhI3 +Rhodium(III) nitrate – Rh(NO3)3 +Rhodium(III) oxide – Rh2O3 +Rhodium(III) sulfate – Rh2(SO4)6 +Rhodium(III) sulfide – Rh2S3 +Rhodium(IV) fluoride – RhF4 +Rhodium(IV) oxide – RhO2 + +=== Rb === +Rubidium azide – RbN3 +Rubidium bromide – RbBr +Rubidium chloride – RbCl +Rubidium fluoride – RbF +Rubidium hydrogen sulfate – RbHSO4 +Rubidium hydroxide – RbOH +Rubidium iodide – RbI +Rubidium nitrate – RbNO3 +Rubidium oxide – Rb2O +Rubidium telluride – Rb2Te +Rubidium titanyl phosphate — RbTiOPO4 + +=== Ru === +Ruthenium hexafluoride – RuF6 +Ruthenium pentafluoride – RuF5 +Ruthenium(VIII) oxide – RuO4 +Ruthenium(III) chloride – RuCl3 +Ruthenium(IV) oxide – RuO2 + +== S == + +=== Sm === +Samarium(II) iodide – SmI2 +Samarium(III) chloride – SmCl3 +Samarium(III) oxide – Sm2O3 +Samarium(III) bromide – SmBr3 +Samarium(III) carbonate – Sm2(CO3)3 +Samarium(III) fluoride – SmF3 +Samarium(III) iodide – SmI3 +Samarium(III) nitrate – Sm(NO3)3 +Samarium(III) oxide – Sm2O3 +Samarium(III) phosphate – SmPO4 +Samarium(III) sulfate – Sm2(SO4)4 +Samarium(III) sulfide – Sm2S3 + +=== Sc === +Scandium(III) fluoride – ScF3 +Scandium(III) nitrate – Sc(NO3)3 +Scandium(III) oxide – Sc2O3 +Scandium(III) triflate – Sc(OSO2CF3)3 + +=== Sg === +Seaborgium hexacarbonyl – Sg(CO)6 + +=== Se === +Selenic acid – H2SeO4 +Selenious acid – H2SeO3 +Selenium dibromide – SeBr2 +Selenium dioxide – SeO2 +Selenium disulfide – SeS2 +Selenium hexafluoride – SeF6 +Selenium hexasulfide – Se2S6 +Selenium oxybromide – SeOBr2 +Selenium oxydichloride – SeOCl2 +Selenium tetrachloride – SeCl4 +Selenium tetrafluoride – SeF4 +Selenium trioxide – SeO3 +Selenoyl fluoride – SeO2F2 + +=== Si === +Disilane – Si2H6 +Silane – SiH4 +Silica gel – SiO2·nH2O +Silicic acid – Si(OH)4 +Silicochloroform, trichlorosilane – SiHCl3 +Silicofluoric acid – H2SiF6 +Silicon boride – SiB3 +Silicon carbide (carborundum) – SiC +Silicon dioxide – SiO2 +Silicon monoxide – SiO +Silicon nitride – Si3N4 +Silicon tetrabromide – SiBr4 +Silicon tetrachloride – SiCl4 +Silicon tetrafluoride – SiF4 +Silicon tetraiodide – SiI4 +Thortveitite – (Sc,Y)2Si2O7 + +=== Ag === +Silver(I) fluoride – AgF +Silver(II) fluoride – AgF2 +Silver acetylide – Ag2C2 +Silver argentocyanide – KAg(CN)2 +Silver azide – AgN3 +Silver bromate – AgBrO3 +Silver bromide – AgBr +Silver chlorate – AgClO3 +Silver chloride – AgCl +Silver chromate – Ag2CrO4 +Silver fluoroborate – AgBF4 +Silver fulminate – AgCNO +Silver hydroxide – AgOH +Silver iodide – AgI +Silver nitrate – AgNO3 +Silver nitride – Ag3N +Silver oxide – Ag2O +Silver perchlorate – AgClO4 +Silver permanganate – AgMnO4 +Silver phosphate (silver orthophosphate) – Ag3PO4 +Silver subfluoride – Ag2F +Silver sulfate – Ag2SO4 +Silver sulfide – Ag2S \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e28649c24 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,259 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Na === +Sodamide – NaNH2 +Sodium aluminate – NaAlO2 +Sodium arsenate – H24Na3AsO16 +Sodium azide – NaN3 +Sodium bicarbonate – NaHCO3 +Sodium biselenide – NaSeH +Sodium bisulfate – NaHSO4 +Sodium bisulfite – NaHSO3 +Sodium borate – Na2B4O7 +Sodium borohydride – NaBH4 +Sodium bromate – NaBrO3 +Sodium bromide – NaBr +Sodium bromite – NaBrO2 +Sodium carbide – Na2C2 +Sodium carbonate – Na2CO3 +Sodium chlorate – NaClO3 +Sodium chloride – NaCl +Sodium chlorite – NaClO2 +Sodium cobaltinitrite – CoN6Na3O12 +Sodium copper tetrachloride – Na2CuCl4 +Sodium cyanate – NaCNO +Sodium cyanide – NaCN +Sodium dichromate – Na2Cr2O7·2H2O +Sodium dioxide – NaO2 +Sodium dithionite – Na2S2O4 +Sodium ferrocyanide – Na4[Fe(CN)6] +Sodium fluoride – NaF +Sodium fluorosilicate – Na2[SiF6] +Sodium formate – HCOONa +Sodium hydride – NaH +Sodium hydrogen carbonate (Sodium bicarbonate) – NaHCO3 +Sodium hydrosulfide – NaSH +Sodium hydroxide – NaOH +Sodium hypobromite – NaOBr +Sodium hypochlorite – NaOCl +Sodium hypoiodite – NaOI +Sodium hypophosphite – NaPO2H2 +Sodium iodate – NaIO3 +Sodium iodide – NaI +Sodium manganate – Na2MnO4 +Sodium molybdate – Na2MoO4 +Sodium monofluorophosphate (MFP) – Na2PFO3 +Sodium nitrate – NaNO3 +Sodium nitrite – NaNO2 +Sodium nitroprusside – Na2[Fe(CN)5NO]·2H2O +Sodium oxide – Na2O +Sodium perborate – NaBO3·H2O +Sodium perbromate – NaBrO4 +Sodium percarbonate – 2Na2CO3·3H2O2 +Sodium perchlorate – NaClO4 +Sodium periodate – NaIO4 +Sodium permanganate – NaMnO4 +Sodium peroxide – Na2O2 +Sodium peroxycarbonate – Na2CO4 +Sodium perrhenate – NaReO4 +Sodium persulfate – Na2S2O8 +Sodium phosphate; see trisodium phosphate – Na3PO4 +Sodium selenate – Na2O4Se +Sodium selenide – Na2Se +Sodium selenite – Na2SeO3 +Sodium silicate – Na2SiO3 +Sodium sulfate – Na2SO4 +Sodium sulfide – Na2S +Sodium sulfite – Na2SO3 +Sodium tartrate – C4H4Na2O6 +Sodium tellurite – Na2TeO3 +Sodium tetrachloroaluminate – NaAlCl4 +Sodium tetrafluoroborate – NaBF4 +Sodium thioantimoniate – Na3(SbS4)·9H2O +Sodium thiocyanate – NaSCN +Sodium thiosulfate – Na2S2O3 +Sodium tungstate – Na2WO4 +Sodium uranate – Na2O7U2 +Sodium zincate – H4Na2O4Zn +Trisodium phosphate – Na3PO4 + +=== Sr === +Strontium bromide – SrBr2 +Strontium carbonate – SrCO3 +Strontium chloride – SrCl2 +Strontium fluoride – SrF2 +Strontium hydroxide – Sr(OH)2 +Strontium iodide – SrI2 +Strontium nitrate – Sr(NO3)2 +Strontium oxide – SrO +Strontium titanate – SrTiO3 +Strontium bicarbonate – Sr(HCO3)2 +Strontium boride – SrB6 +Strontium bromide – SrBr2 +Strontium carbide – SrC2 +Strontium carbonate – SrCO3 +Strontium chloride – SrCl2 +Strontium cyanamide – SrCN2 +Strontium fluoride – SrF2 +Strontium fluorophosphate – SrPO3F +Strontium gluconate – Sr(HOCH2(CHOH)4CO2)2 +Strontium hydride – SrH2 +Strontium hydrogen phosphate – SrHPO4 +Strontium hydroxide – Sr(OH)2 +Strontium hypochlorite – Sr(OCl)2 +Strontium iodide – SrI2 +Strontium molybdate – SrMoO4 +Strontium nitrate – Sr(NO3)2 +Strontium oxalate – SrC2O4 +Strontium oxide – SrO +Strontium peroxide – SrO2 +Strontium phosphate – Sr3(PO4)2 +Strontium silicate – SrSiO3 +Strontium sulfate – SrSO4 +Strontium sulfide – SrS +Strontium titanate – SrTiO3 +Strontium tungstate – SrWO4 +Strontium zirconate – SrZrO3 + +=== S === +Disulfur decafluoride – S2F10 +Disulfur dichloride – S2Cl2 +Hydrogen sulfide (sulfane) – H2S +Pyrosulfuric acid – H2S2O7 +Sulfamic acid – H3NO3S +Sulfur dibromide – Br2S +Sulfur dioxide – SO2 +Sulfur hexafluoride – SF6 +Sulfur tetrafluoride – SF4 +Sulfuric acid – H2SO4 +Sulfurous acid – H2SO3 +Sulfuryl chloride – SO2Cl2 +Tetrasulfur tetranitride – S4N4 +Persulfuric acid (Caro's acid) – H2SO5 + +== T == + +=== Ta === +Tantalum arsenide – TaAs +Tantalum carbide – TaC +Tantalum pentafluoride – TaF5 +Tantalum(V) oxide – Ta2O5 + +=== Tc === +Technetium hexafluoride – TcF6 +Ammonium pertechnetate – NH4TcO4 +Sodium pertechnetate – NaTcO4 + +=== Te === +Ditellurium bromide – Te2Br +Telluric acid – H6TeO6 +Tellurium dioxide – TeO2 +Tellurium hexafluoride – TeF6 +Tellurium tetrabromide – TeBr4 +Tellurium tetrachloride – TeCl4 +Tellurium tetrafluoride – TeF4 +Tellurium tetraiodide – TeI4 +Tellurous acid – H2TeO3 +Beryllium telluride – BeTe +Bismuth telluride – Bi2Te3 +Cadmium telluride – CdTe +Cadmium zinc telluride – (Cd,Zn)Te +Dimethyltelluride – (CH3)2Te +Mercury Cadmium Telluride – (Hg,Cd)Te +Lead telluride – PbTe +Mercury telluride – HgTe +Mercury zinc telluride – (Hg,Zn)Te +Silver telluride – Ag2Te +Tin telluride – SnTe +Zinc telluride – ZnTe +Teflic acid – HOTeF5 +Telluric acid – H6TeO6 +Sodium tellurite – Na2TeO3 +Tellurium dioxide – TeO2 +Tellurium hexafluoride – TeF6 +Tellurium tetrafluoride – TeF4 +Tellurium tetrachloride – TeCl4 + +=== Tb === +Terbium(III) chloride – TbCl3 +Terbium(III) bromide – TbBr3 +Terbium(III) carbonate – Tb2(CO3)3 +Terbium(III) chloride – TbCl3 +Terbium(III) fluoride – TbF3 +Terbium(III) iodide – TbI3 +Terbium(III) nitrate – Tb(NO3)3 +Terbium(III) oxide – Tb2O3 +Terbium(III) phosphate – TbPO4 +Terbium(III) sulfate – Tb2(SO4)3 +Terbium(III) sulfide – Tb2S3 + +=== Tl === +Thallium(I) bromide – TlBr +Thallium(I) carbonate – Tl2CO3 +Thallium(I) fluoride – TlF +Thallium(I) sulfate – Tl2SO4 +Thallium(III) oxide – Tl2O3 +Thallium(III) sulfate – Tl2(SO4)3 +Thallium triiodide – TlI3 +Thallium antimonide – TlSb +Thallium arsenide – TlAs +Thallium(III) bromide – TlBr3 +Thallium(III) chloride – TlCl3 +Thallium(III) fluoride – TlF3 +Thallium(I) iodide – TlI +Thallium(III) nitrate – Tl(NO3)3 +Thallium(I) oxide – Tl2O +Thallium(III) oxide – Tl2O3 +Thallium phosphide – TlP +Thallium(III) selenide – Tl2Se3 +Thallium(III) sulfate – Tl2(SO4)3 +Thallium(III) sulfide – Tl2S3 +TrimethylThallium – Tl(CH3)3 +Thallium(I) hydroxide – TlOH + +=== SO === +Thionyl chloride – SOCl2 +Thionyl tetrafluoride – SOF4 + +=== ClS === +Thiophosgene – CSCl2 +Thiophosphoryl chloride – Cl3PS + +=== Th === +Thorium(IV) nitrate – Th(NO3)4 +Thorium(IV) sulfate – Th(SO4)2 +Thorium dioxide – ThO2 +Thorium tetrafluoride – ThF4 + +=== Tm === +Thulium(III) bromide – TmBr3 +Thulium(III) chloride – TmCl3 +Thulium(III) oxide – Tm2O3 + +=== Sn === +Stannane – SnH4 +Tin(II) bromide – SnBr2 +Tin(II) chloride (stannous chloride) – SnCl2 +Tin(II) fluoride – SnF2 +Tin(II) hydroxide – Sn(OH)2 +Tin(II) iodide – SnI2 +Tin(II) oxide – SnO +Tin(II) sulfate – SnSO4 +Tin(II) sulfide – SnS +Tin(IV) bromide – SnBr4 +Tin(IV) chloride – SnCl4 +Tin(IV) fluoride – SnF4 +Tin(IV) iodide – SnI4 +Tin(IV) oxide – SnO2 +Tin(IV) sulfide – SnS2 +Tin(IV) cyanide – Sn(CN)4 +Tin selenide – SnSe2 +Tin telluride – SnTe \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd0df378d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,231 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ti === +Hexafluorotitanic acid – (H3O)2[TiF6] +Titanium(II) chloride – TiCl2 +Titanium(II) oxide – TiO +Titanium(II) sulfide – TiS +Titanium(III) bromide – TiBr3 +Titanium(III) chloride – TiCl3 +Titanium(III) fluoride – TiF3 +Titanium(III) iodide – TiI3 +Titanium(III) oxide – Ti2O3 +Titanium(III) phosphide – TiP +Titanium(IV) bromide (titanium tetrabromide) – TiBr4 +Titanium(IV) carbide – TiC +Titanium(IV) chloride (titanium tetrachloride) – TiCl4 +Titanium(IV) hydride – TiH4 +Titanium(IV) iodide (titanium tetraiodide) – TiI4 +Titanium carbide – TiC +Titanium diboride – TiB2 +Titanium dioxide (titanium(IV) oxide) – TiO2 +Titanium diselenide – TiSe2 +Titanium disilicide – TiSi2 +Titanium disulfide – TiS2 +Titanium nitrate – Ti(NO3)4 +Titanium nitride – TiN +Titanium perchlorate – Ti(ClO4)4 +Titanium silicon carbide – Ti3SiC2 +Titanium tetrabromide – TiBr4 +Titanium tetrafluoride – TiF4 +Titanium tetraiodide – TiI4 + +=== TiO === +Titanyl sulfate – TiOSO4 + +=== W === +Tungsten(VI) chloride – WCl6 +Tungsten(VI) fluoride – WF6 +Tungsten boride – WB2 +Tungsten carbide – WC +Tungstic acid – H2WO4 +Tungsten hexacarbonyl – W(CO)6 + +== U == + +=== U === +Triuranium octaoxide (pitchblende or yellowcake) – U3O8 +Uranium hexafluoride – UF6 +Uranium pentafluoride – UF5 +Uranium sulfate – U(SO4)2 +Uranium tetrachloride – UCl4 +Uranium tetrafluoride – UF4 +Uranium(III) chloride – UCl3 +Uranium(IV) chloride – UCl4 +Uranium(V) chloride – UCl5 +Uranium hexachloride – UCl6 +Uranium(IV) fluoride – UF4 +Uranium pentafluoride – UF5 +Uranium(VI) fluoride – UF6 +Uranyl peroxide – UO4 +Uranium dioxide – UO2 + +=== UO2 === +Uranyl carbonate – UO2CO3 +Uranyl chloride – UO2Cl2 +Uranyl fluoride – UO2F2 +Uranyl hydroxide – UO2(OH)2 +Uranyl hydroxide – (UO2)2(OH)4 +Uranyl nitrate – UO2(NO3)2 +Uranyl sulfate – UO2SO4 + +== V == + +=== V === +Vanadium(II) chloride – VCl2 +Vanadium(II) oxide – VO +Vanadium(III) bromide – VBr3 +Vanadium(III) chloride – VCl3 +Vanadium(III) fluoride – VF3 +Vanadium(III) nitride – VN +Vanadium(III) oxide – V2O3 +Vanadium(IV) chloride – VCl4 +Vanadium(IV) fluoride – VF4 +Vanadium(IV) oxide – VO2 +Vanadium(IV) sulfate – VOSO4 +Vanadium(V) oxide – V2O5 +Vanadium carbide – VC +Vanadium oxytrichloride (Vanadium(V) oxide trichloride) – VOCl3 +Vanadium pentafluoride – VF5 +Vanadium tetrachloride – VCl4 +Vanadium tetrafluoride – VF4 + +== W == +Water – H2O + +== X == + +=== Xe === +Perxenic acid – H4XeO6 +Xenon difluoride – XeF2 +Xenon hexafluoride – XeF6 +Xenon hexafluoroplatinate – Xe[PtF6] +Xenon tetrafluoride – XeF4 +Xenon tetroxide – XeO4 +Xenic acid – H2XeO4 + +== Y == + +=== Yb === +Ytterbium(III) chloride – YbCl3 +Ytterbium(III) oxide – Yb2O3 +Ytterbium(III) sulfate – Yb2(SO4)3 +Ytterbium(III) bromide – YbBr3 +Ytterbium(III) carbonate – Yb2(CO3)3 +Ytterbium(III) chloride – YbCl3 +Ytterbium(III) fluoride – YbF3 +Ytterbium(III) iodide – YbI3 +Ytterbium(III) nitrate – Yb(NO3)3 +Ytterbium(III) oxide – Yb2O3 +Ytterbium(III) phosphate – YbPO4 +Ytterbium(III) sulfate – Yb2(SO4)3 +Ytterbium(III) sulfide – Yb2S3 + +=== Y === + +Yttrium(III) antimonide – YSb +Yttrium(III) arsenate – YAsO4 +Yttrium(III) arsenide – YAs +Yttrium(III) bromide – YBr3 +Yttrium(III) fluoride – YF3 +Yttrium(III) oxide – Y2O3 +Yttrium(III) nitrate – Y(NO3)3 +Yttrium(III) sulfide – Y2S3 +Yttrium(III) sulfate – Y2(SO4)3 +Yttrium aluminium garnet – Y3Al5O12 +Yttrium barium copper oxide – YBa2Cu3O7 +Yttrium cadmium – YCd +Yttrium copper – YCu +Yttrium gold – YAu +Yttrium iridium – YIr +Yttrium iron garnet – Y3Fe5O12 +Yttrium magnesium – YMg +Yttrium phosphate – YPO4 +Yttrium phosphide – YP +Yttrium rhodium – YRh +Yttrium silver – YAg +Yttrium zinc – YZn + +== Z == + +=== Zn === +Zinc arsenide – Zn3As2 +Zinc bromide – ZnBr2 +Zinc carbonate – ZnCO3 +Zinc chloride – ZnCl2 +Zinc cyanide – Zn(CN)2 +Zinc diphosphide – ZnP2 +Zinc fluoride – ZnF2 +Zinc iodide – ZnI2 +Zinc nitrate – Zn(NO3)2 +Zinc oxide – ZnO +Zinc phosphide – Zn3P2 +Zinc pyrophosphate – Zn2P2O7 +Zinc selenate – ZnSeO4 +Zinc selenide – ZnSe +Zinc selenite – ZnSeO3 +Zinc selenocyanate – Zn(SeCN)2 +Zinc sulfate – ZnSO4 +Zinc sulfide – ZnS +Zinc sulfite – ZnSO3 +Zinc telluride – ZnTe +Zinc thiocyanate – Zn(SCN)2 +Zinc tungstate – ZnWO4 + +=== Zr === +Zirconia hydrate – ZrO2·nH2O +Zirconium boride – ZrB2 +Zirconium carbide – ZrC +Zirconium(IV) chloride – ZrCl4 +Zirconium(IV) oxide – ZrO2 +Zirconium hydroxide – Zr(OH)4 +Zirconium orthosilicate – ZrSiO4 +Zirconium nitride – ZrN +Zirconium tetrafluoride – ZrF4 +Zirconium tetrahydroxide – H4O4Zr +Zirconium tungstate – ZrW2O8 +Zirconyl bromide – ZrOBr2 +Zirconyl chloride – ZrOCl2 +Zirconyl nitrate – ZrO(NO3)2 +Zirconyl sulfate – ZrOSO4 +Zirconium dioxide – ZrO2 +Zirconium nitride – ZrN +Zirconium tetrachloride – ZrCl4 +Zirconium(IV) sulfide – ZrS2 +Zirconium(IV) silicide – ZrSi2 +Zirconium(IV) silicate – ZrSiO4 +Zirconium(IV) fluoride – ZrF4 +Zirconium(IV) bromide – ZrBr4 +Zirconium(IV) iodide – ZrI4 +Zirconium(IV) hydroxide – Zr(OH)4 +Schwartz's reagent – C10H11ClZr +Zirconium propionate – Zr(CH3CH2COO)4 +Zirconium tungstate – Zr(WO4)2 +Zirconium(II) hydride – ZrH2 +Lead zirconate titanate – Pb(ZrxTi1−xO3) + +== See also == +Dictionary of chemical formulas +List of alchemical substances +List of biomolecules +List of compounds +List of copper salts +List of inorganic compounds named after people +List of minerals +List of organic compounds +List of organic salts +Named inorganic compounds +Polyatomic ions + +== References == + +== External links == +Inorganic Molecules made thinkable, an interactive visualisation showing inorganic compounds for an array of common metal and non-metal ions \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82fc8c950 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic compounds named after people" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:44.503558+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Well-known inorganic and organometallic compounds and reagents that are named after individuals include: + +Adams' catalyst (proposed to be PtOx) +Adamsite (NH(C6H4)2AsCl) +Adkins catalyst (Cu2Cr2O5) +Attenburrow's Oxide (MnO2) +Arduengo carbene (class of compounds) +Baeyer's reagent (KMnO4(aq)) +Benedict's reagent +Bobbitt's salt (4-(Acetylamino)-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-oxo-piperidinium tetrafluoroborate) +Bertrand carbene (class of compounds) +Brookhart's acid (H(OEt2)2BArF4) +Buckminsterfullerene (C60) +Burow's solution (Al(CH3CO2)3(aq)) +Calderon catalyst (WCl6/EtAlCl2/EtOH) +Caro's acid (H2SO5) +Chevreul's salt (Cu3(SO3)2 • 2 H2O) +Chugaev's red salt ([Pt(C(NHMe)2N2H2](CNMe)2]Cl2) +Chugaev's salt ([Pt(NH3)5Cl]Cl3) +Cleve's triammine ([Pt(NH3)3Cl]Cl) +Collman's reagent (Na2Fe(CO)4) +Collins reagent (CrO3 / py / CH2Cl2) +Condy's crystals (KMnO4) +Corey–Chaykovsky reagent (O=S(CH2)Me2) +Cornforth reagent ([pyH]2[Cr2O7]) +Crabtree's catalyst (Ir(COD)(py)(PCy3)+) +Creutz–Taube complex ([(NH3)10Ru2(pyrazine)]5+) +Etard's reagent (CrO2Cl2) +Davy's reagent {(MeS)PS}2S2 +Deacon Catalyst (CuO/CuCl2) +Dimroth's reagent (B(OAc)2)2O +Durrant's Salt (K2[Co2(oxalate)4(OH)2]3H2O] +Fehling's solution ([Cu(C4H4O6)2]4−) +Fenton's reagent (Fe2+ / H2O2) +Fetizon's reagent (Ag2CO3 / celite) +Fischer carbene (class of compounds related to [(CO)5Cr=C(CH3)OCH3] +Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (H3PMo12O40 / H3PW12O40) +Furukawa's cyclopropanation reagent (ZnEt2 / CH2I2) +Frémy's salt (Na2NO(SO3)2) +Gilman reagents (R2CuLi, class of compounds) +Glauber's salt (Na2SO4·10H2O) +Gmelin's salt (K3Fe(CN)6) +Gingras reagent (Ph3SnF2.NnBu4) +Grignard reagents (RMgX, class of compounds) +Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)2(CHPh)) +Hauser base (R2NMgBr) +Hoveyda–Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)(CH(C6H4)OiPr)) +Jacobsen's catalyst (derivative of Mn(salen)Cl) +Jones reagent (CrO3 / H2SO4(aq) / Me2CO) +Jordan's cation ((Cp)2Zr(Me)(THF)+) +Kagan's reagent (SmI2) +Karstedt's catalyst (Pt2{(CH2=CH2Si(Me)2)2O}3) +Kauffmann's reagent ({O=M(THF)2Cl(mu-CH2)}2 M = Mo, W) +Keinan reagent (SiH2I2) +Kläui ligand {(C5H5)Co[(CH3O)2PO]3}− +Knölker complex (Fe(CO)2H(hydroxycyclopentadienyl)) +Knowles' catalyst ([Rh-DIPAMP-COD]BF4) +Kobayashi's anion (B[3,5-(CF3)2C6H3]4−) +Koser's reagent (PhI(OTs)OH) +Lawesson's reagent ([CH3OC6H4PS2]2) +Lazier catalyst (Cu2Cr2O5) +Lemieux-Johnson reagent (NaIO4 / OsO4) +Lewisite (ClCH=CHAsCl2) +Ley-Griffith reagent (RuO4N(C3H7)4) +Lindlar catalyst (Pd / CaCO3 / PbO) +Lombardo reagent (CH2Br2 / TiCl4 / Zn) +Lucas' reagent (ZnCl2 / HCl(aq)) +Luche reagent (NaBH4 / CeCl3) +Magnus' green salt (Pt2(NH3)4Cl4) +Magnus' pink salt (polymorph of Magnus' green salt) +Marignac's salt (K2Ta2O3F6) +Meerwein's reagent [(CH3CH2)3O]BF4 +Meisenheimer complex +Millon's Base (Hg2N)OH(H2O)x +Millon's reagent (Hg/HNO3(aq)) +Mohr's salt (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2·6H2O +Negishi reagent (Cp2ZrBu2) +Nessler's reagent (K2HgI4) +Normant reagents (RMgX + CuX) +Nugent's reagent (TiCp2Cl) +Nysted reagent (ZnCH2(ZnBr)2.THF) +Pearlman's catalyst (proposed to be Pd(OH)2/C) +Péligot's salt (KCrO3Cl) +Periana catalyst (Pt(2,2'-Bipyrimidine)Cl2) +Petasis reagent (Cp2TiMe2) +Peyrone's salt (cis-PtCl2(NH3)2) +Piers' borane (HB(C6F5)2) +Piers' catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)CHPCy3.BF4) +Prevost's reagent (Ag(OBz) / I2) +Raney nickel (hydrogen dissolved in high surface area nickel) +Reinecke's salt (NH4[Cr(NCS)4(NH3)2].H2O) +Reiset's second chloride (trans-PtCl2(NH3)2, his first salt is Peyrone's salt) +Rice's Bromine Solution (Br2 / NaBr(aq)) +Rieke metals (class of materials) +Rochelle salt (KNaC4H4O6·4H2O) +Roussin's black salt (KFe4S3(NO)7) +Roussin's red salt (K2Fe2S2(NO)4) +Scheele's green (CuHAsO3) +Schlosser's base (nBuLi/KOtBu) +Schrock carbene (class of compounds related to [((CH3)3CCH2)3Ta=CHC(CH3)3] +Schrock catalyst +Schrock-Osborn catalyst (CODRh(PPh3)2+) +Schultze's reagent (KClO3 / HNO3) +Schweinfurter Green (Cu(OAc)2·3Cu(AsO2)2) +Schwartz's reagent (Cp2Zr(H)Cl) +Schweizer's reagent ([Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2](OH)2) +Schwessinger base (P(NP(NMe2)3)3(NtBu)) +Scott-Wilson Reagent (Hg(CN)2/AgNO3/KOH) +Seignette's salt (KNaC4H4O6·4H2O) +Seyferth reagent (PhHgCCl3) +Shilov catalyst (PtCl2 / H2PtCl6) +Sharpless reagent (Ti(OiPr)4 / diethyl tartrate / tBuOOH) +Shvo catalyst ((C5Ph4O)2HRu2H(CO)4) +Simmons–Smith reagent (ICH2ZnI) +Sonnenschein's Reagent (H3PMo12O40) +Speier's catalyst (H2PtCl6) +Spirit of Mindererus (NH4CH3CO2(aq)) +Stiles' reagent (Mg(OCO2Me)2) +Stryker's reagent (Cu6H6(PPh3)6) +Swart's reagent (SbF3) +Tebbe's reagent (Cp2TiCl(CH2)AlMe2) +Tollens' reagent ([Ag(NH3)2]+) +Trinder reagent (10% FeCl3(aq)) +Turnbull's blue (Fe7(CN)18⋅14H2O) +Udenfriend reagent +Ugi's amine (Fe(Cp)(C5H4CH(Me)(NMe2)) +Vauquelin's Salt (Pd analogue of Magnus' green salt, Pd2(NH3)4Cl4) +Vaska's complex (trans-IrCl(CO)[PPh3]2) +Vedejs' reagent (Mo(O)(O2)2(py)(OP(NMe2)3)) +Wagner's Reagent (I2 / KI / H2O) +Wanzlick carbene (class of compounds) +Well's salt (CsAuCl3) +White catalyst ((PhS(O)CH2CH2S(O)Ph).Pd(OAc)2) +Wij's Solution (ICl / acetic acid) +Wilkinson's catalyst (RhCl(PPh3)3) +Wolffram's Red Salt [Pt(C2H5NH2)4][Pt(C2H5NH2)4Cl2]Cl4·4H2O +Woollins' reagent ((PhP(Se)Se)2) +Zeise's salt (K[PtCl3(C2H4)]·H2O) +Zerewitinoff Reagent (MeMgI / nBu2O) +Zhan catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)(CH(2-SO2NMe2-C6H3)OiPr)) +Ziegler–Natta catalyst +ZoBell's solution (KCl/K4[Fe(CN)6]/K3[Fe(CN)6]) + + +== See also == +List of inorganic reactions +List of inorganic compounds +List of organic reactions +List of organic compounds +List of alloys +Inorganic compounds by element + + +== External links == +http://www.chem.wisc.edu/areas/reich/handouts/NameReagents/namedreag-cont.htm +https://careerchem.com/NAMED/Named-Reagents%28A-F%29.pdf +https://careerchem.com/NAMED/Named-Reagents%28G-Z%29.pdf \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11da21b3e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +--- +title: "List of inorganic reactions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:29.087997+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Well-known types of reactions that involve inorganic compounds include: + +Alkylation +Alkyne trimerisation +Alkyne metathesis +Aminolysis +Amination +Arylation +Barbier reaction +Beta-hydride elimination +Birch reduction +Bönnemann cyclization +Bromination +Buchwald–Hartwig coupling +Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling +Calcination +Carbometalation +Carbothermal reduction +Carbonation +Carbonylation +Castro–Stephens coupling +Clemmensen reduction +Chain walking +Chan–Lam coupling +Chlorination +Comproportionation +C–C coupling +C–H activation +Cyanation +Cyclometalation +Decarbonylation +Decarboxylation +Dehydration +Dehalogenation +Dehydrogenation +Dehydrohalogenation +Deprotonation +Desilylation +Dimerisation +Disproportionation +Dötz reaction +Eder reaction +Electromerism +Electron transfer (inner sphere and outer sphere) +Étard reaction +Fenton oxidation +Fischer–Tropsch process +Fluorination +Formylation +Fowler process +Fukuyama coupling +Glaser coupling +Gomberg–Bachmann reaction +Haber–Weiss reaction +Halcon process +Halogenation +Hay coupling +Heck reaction +Heck–Matsuda reaction +Hiyama coupling +Hofmann-Sand reaction +Homolysis +Huisgen cycloaddition +Hydride reduction +Hydroamination +Hydration +Hydroboration +Hydrocarboxylation +Hydrocyanation +Hydrodesulfurization +Hydroformylation +Hydrogenation +Hydrohalogenation +Hydrolysis +Hydrometalation +Hydrosilylation +Iodination +Isomerisation +Jones oxidation +Kulinkovich reaction +Kumada coupling +Lemieux–Johnson oxidation +Ley oxidation +Linkage isomerization +Luche reduction +McMurry reaction +Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction +Mercuration +Methylation +Migratory insertion +Negishi coupling +Nicholas reaction +Nitrosylation +Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation +Olefin polymerization +Oppenauer oxidation +Oxidation +Oxidative addition +Oxygenation +Oxymercuration reaction +Pauson–Khand reaction +Photodissociation +Pseudorotation +Protonation +Protonolysis +Proton-coupled electron transfer +Racemization +Redox reactions (see list of oxidants and reductants) +Reduction +Reductive elimination +Reppe synthesis +Riley oxidation +Salt metathesis +Sarett oxidation +Sharpless epoxidation +Shell higher olefin process +Silylation +Simmons–Smith reaction +Sonogashira coupling +Staudinger reaction +Stille reaction +Sulfidation +Suzuki reaction +Transmetalation +Ullmann reaction +Upjohn dihydroxylation +Wacker process +Water gas shift reaction +Water oxidation +Wurtz coupling +Ziegler-Natta polymerization + + +== See also == +List of organic reactions +Named inorganic compounds +List of inorganic compounds +Inorganic compounds by element \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..680ac2e52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +--- +title: "List of insecticides" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:31.599050+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of insecticides. These are chemical compounds which have been registered as insecticides. Biological insecticides are not included. The names on the list are the ISO common names. A complete list of pesticide common names is published by the BCPC. The University of Hertfordshire maintains a database of the chemical and biological properties of these materials, including their brand names and the countries and dates where and when they have been introduced. The industry-sponsored Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) advises on the use of insecticides in crop protection and classifies the available compounds according to their chemical classes and mechanism of action so as to manage the risks of pesticide resistance developing. The 2024 IRAC poster of insecticide modes of action includes the majority of chemicals listed below. The pesticide manual provides much information on pesticides. The British Crop Production Council also publishes information on ISO common names of new insecticides. +Many of the insecticides in the list are not in use. The developer of a pesticide applies for a common name when they intend to sell it, but some nevertheless do not reach the market. Many insecticides have been banned or otherwise withdrawn from the market over the decades. + + +== Brand names and common names == +Pesticides are sold under their brand names. The purchased pesticide is a mixture (formulation) of the active ingredient, which is the pesticide itself, and inert ingredients, such as emulsifiers, or surfactants. Only the common names of the active ingredients are shown in this list. These are approved by ISO committee (TC81). Common names are used by the authorities, in scientific literature and on the labelling information of purchasable pesticides. + + +== 0-9 == + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +Biopesticide +Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act +List of fungicides +List of herbicides + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eca23542c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:42.079611+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed. + + +== Background == + +The molecules listed below were detected through astronomical spectroscopy. Their spectral features arise because molecules either absorb or emit a photon of light when they transition between two molecular energy levels. The energy (and thus the wavelength) of the photon matches the energy difference between the levels involved. Molecular electronic transitions occur when one of the molecule's electrons moves between molecular orbitals, producing a spectral line in the ultraviolet, optical or near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Alternatively, a vibrational transition transfers quanta of energy to (or from) vibrations of molecular bonds, producing signatures in the mid- or far-infrared. Gas-phase molecules also have quantised rotational levels, leading to transitions at microwave or radio wavelengths. +Sometimes a transition can involve more than one of these types of energy level e.g. ro-vibrational spectroscopy changes both the rotational and vibrational energy level. Occasionally all three occur together, as in the Phillips band of C2 (diatomic carbon), in which an electronic transition produces a line in the near-infrared, which is then split into several vibronic bands by a simultaneous change in vibrational level, which in turn are split again into rotational branches. +The spectrum of a particular molecule is governed by the selection rules of quantum chemistry and by its molecular symmetry. Some molecules have simple spectra which are easy to identify, whilst others (even some small molecules) have extremely complex spectra with flux spread among many different lines, making them far harder to detect. Interactions between the atomic nuclei and the electrons sometimes cause further hyperfine structure of the spectral lines. If the molecule exists in multiple isotopologues (versions containing different atomic isotopes), the spectrum is further complicated by isotope shifts. +Detection of a new interstellar or circumstellar molecule requires identifying a suitable astronomical object where it is likely to be present, then observing it with a telescope equipped with a spectrograph working at the required wavelength, spectral resolution and sensitivity. The first molecule detected in the interstellar medium was the methylidyne radical (CH•) in 1937, through its strong electronic transition at 4300 angstroms (in the optical). Advances in astronomical instrumentation have led to increasing numbers of new detections. From the 1950s onwards, radio astronomy began to dominate new detections, with sub-mm astronomy also becoming important from the 1990s. +The inventory of detected molecules is highly biased towards certain types which are easier to detect. For example, radio astronomy is most sensitive to small linear molecules with a high molecular dipole. The most common molecule in the Universe, H2 (molecular hydrogen), is completely invisible to radio telescopes because it has no dipole; its electronic transitions are too energetic for optical telescopes, so detection of H2 required ultraviolet observations with a sounding rocket. Vibrational lines are often not specific to an individual molecule, allowing only the general class to be identified. For example, the vibrational lines of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were identified in 1984, showing the class of molecules is very common in space, but it took until 2021 to identify any specific PAHs through their rotational lines. + +One of the richest sources for detecting interstellar molecules is Sagittarius B2 (Sgr B2), a giant molecular cloud near the centre of the Milky Way. About half of the molecules listed below were first found in Sgr B2, and many of the others have been subsequently detected there. Many of the largest molecules were first detected in another molecular cloud, TMC-1. A rich source of circumstellar molecules is CW Leonis (also known as IRC +10216), a nearby carbon star, where about 50 molecules have been identified. There is no clear boundary between interstellar and circumstellar media, so both are included in the tables below. +The discipline of astrochemistry includes understanding how these molecules form and explaining their abundances. The extremely low density of the interstellar medium is not conducive to the formation of molecules, making conventional gas-phase reactions between neutral species (atoms or molecules) inefficient. Many regions also have very low temperatures (typically 10 kelvin inside a molecular cloud), further reducing the reaction rates, or high ultraviolet radiation fields, which destroy molecules through photochemistry. Explaining the observed abundances of interstellar molecules requires calculating the balance between formation and destruction rates using gas-phase ion chemistry (often driven by cosmic rays), surface chemistry on cosmic dust, radiative transfer including interstellar extinction, and sophisticated reaction networks. The use of molecular lines to determine the physical properties of astronomical objects is known as molecular astrophysics. + + +== Molecules == +The following tables list molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium or circumstellar matter, grouped by the number of component atoms. Neutral molecules and their molecular ions are listed in separate columns; if there is no entry in the molecule column, only the ionized form has been detected. Designations (names of molecules) are those used in the scientific literature describing the detection; if none was given that field is left empty. Mass is listed in daltons. Deuterated molecules, which contain at least one deuterium (2H) atom, have slightly different masses and are listed in a separate table. The total number of unique species, including distinct ionization states, is indicated in each section header. +Most of the molecules detected so far are organic. The only detected inorganic molecule with five or more atoms is SiH4. Molecules larger than that all have at least one carbon atom, with no N−N or O−O bonds. + + +=== Diatomic (45) === + + +=== Triatomic (45) === + + +=== Four atoms (31) === + + +=== Five atoms (21) === + + +=== Six atoms (16) === + + +=== Seven atoms (16) === + + +=== Eight atoms (14) === + + +=== Nine atoms (11) === + + +=== Ten or more atoms (24) === + + +== Deuterated molecules (22) == +These molecules all contain one or more deuterium atoms, a heavier isotope of hydrogen. + + +== Unconfirmed (16) == +Evidence for the existence of the following molecules has been reported in the scientific literature, but the detections either are described as tentative by the authors, or have been challenged by other researchers. They await independent confirmation. + + +== See also == + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Woon, David E. (October 1, 2010). "Interstellar and Circumstellar Molecules". Retrieved 2010-10-04. +"Molecules in Space". Universität zu Köln. April 2022. Retrieved 2022-05-25. +Dworkin, Jason P. (February 1, 2007). "Interstellar Molecules". NASA's Cosmic Ice Lab. Retrieved 2010-12-23. +Wootten, Al (November 2005). "The 129 reported interstellar and circumstellar molecules". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Retrieved 2007-02-13. +Lovas, F. J.; Dragoset, R. A. (February 2004). "NIST Recommended Rest Frequencies for Observed Interstellar Molecular Microwave Transitions, 2002 Revision". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 33 (1): 177. Bibcode:2004JPCRD..33..177L. doi:10.1063/1.1633275. Archived from the original on 2013-02-01. Retrieved 2007-02-13. +Williams, David A.; Cecchi-Pestellini, Cesare (8 February 2023). Astrochemistry: Chemistry in Interstellar and Circumstellar Space. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-83916-939-7. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d6e07f6a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of largest aluminum producers by output" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:32.839223+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Below is a list of the largest aluminum-producing companies by output (in 1,000,000 metric tons), accurate as of 2022 according to Statista. + + +== See also == +List of largest manufacturing companies by revenue +List of public corporations by market capitalization +List of largest financial services companies by revenue +List of largest European manufacturing companies by revenue +List of largest companies by revenue + + +== References == + + +== External links == +statista website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..916cd6456 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "List of largest selling pharmaceutical products" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:51.992126+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== Best selling pharmaceuticals of U.S. market == +The top 5 best selling pharmaceuticals 2015–2019. Sales in billion USD. + + +== Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18 == +The top 16 best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18. + + +== Largest selling pharmaceutical products of 2015 == +Drugs with sales above $5 billion in 2015 included: + + +== Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2013 == +For the fourth quarter of 2013, the largest selling drugs were: + + +== See also == +List of drugs +Lists about the pharmaceutical industry + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47361cab0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "List of misidentified chemical elements" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:37.916882+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Chemical elements that have been mistakenly "discovered". Further investigation showed that their discovery was either mistaken, that they have been mistaken from an already-known element, or mixture of two elements, or that they indicated a failing in theory where a new element had been assumed rather than some previously unknown behaviour. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..490e02aab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,359 @@ +--- +title: "List of named alloys" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:26.720373+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of named alloys grouped alphabetically by the metal with the highest percentage. Within these headings, the alloys are also grouped alphabetically. Some of the main alloying elements are optionally listed after the alloy names. + + +== Alloys by base metal == + + +=== Alkali intermetallics === + +Sodium–potassium alloy + + +=== Aluminum === + +AA-8000: used for electrical building wire in the U.S. per the National Electrical Code, replacing AA-1350. +Al–Li (2.45% lithium): aerospace applications, including the Space Shuttle +Alnico (nickel, cobalt): used for permanent magnets +Aluminium–Scandium (scandium) +Birmabright (magnesium, manganese): used in car bodies, mainly used by Land Rover cars. +Devarda's alloy (45% Al, 50% Cu, 5% Zn): chemical reducing agent. +Duralumin (copper) +Hiduminium or R.R. alloys (2% copper, iron, nickel): used in aircraft pistons +Hydronalium (up to 12% magnesium, 1% manganese): used in shipbuilding, resists seawater corrosion +Italma (3.5% magnesium, 0.3% manganese): formerly used to make coinage of the Italian lira +Magnalium (5-50% magnesium): used in airplane bodies, ladders, pyrotechnics, etc. +Ni-Ti-Al (nickel 50%, titanium 40%, aluminium 10%), also called Nitinol +Y alloy (4% copper, nickel, magnesium) +Aluminium also forms complex metallic alloys, like β–Al–Mg, ξ'–Al–Pd–Mn, and T–Al3Mn. + + +=== Beryllium === + +Lockalloy (62% beryllium, 38% aluminium) + + +=== Bismuth === + +Bismanol (manganese); magnetic alloy from the 1950s using powder metallurgy +Cerrosafe (lead, tin, cadmium) +Rose metal (lead, tin) +Wood's metal (lead, tin, cadmium) + + +=== Chromium === + +Chromium hydride (hydrogen) +Nichrome (nickel) +Ferrochrome (iron) + + +=== Cobalt === + +Elgiloy (cobalt, chromium, nickel, iron, molybdenum, manganese, carbon)[Cr-Co-Ni] +Megallium (cobalt, chromium, molybdenum) +Stellite (chromium, tungsten, carbon) +Talonite (tungsten, molybdenum, carbon) +Ultimet (chromium, nickel, iron, molybdenum, tungsten) +Vitallium (chromium, molybdenum) + + +=== Copper === + +Arsenical copper (arsenic) +Beryllium copper (0.5–3% beryllium, 99.5%–97% copper) +Billon (silver) +Brass (zinc) see also Brass §Brass types for longer list +Calamine brass (zinc) +Chinese silver (zinc) +Dutch metal (zinc) +Gilding metal (zinc) +Muntz metal (zinc) +Pinchbeck (zinc) +Prince's metal (zinc) +Tombac (zinc) +Bronze (tin, aluminium or other element) +Aluminium bronze (aluminium) +Arsenical bronze (arsenic, tin) +Bell metal (tin) +Bismuth bronze (bismuth) +Brastil (alloy, bronze) +Florentine bronze (aluminium or tin) +Glucydur (beryllium, iron) +Guanín (gold, silver) +Gunmetal (tin, zinc) +Phosphor bronze (tin and phosphorus) +Ormolu (zinc) +Silicon bronze (tin, arsenic, silicon) +Speculum metal (tin) +White bronze (tin, zinc) +Constantan (nickel) +Copper hydride (hydrogen) +Copper–tungsten (tungsten) +Corinthian bronze (gold, silver) +Cunife (nickel, iron) +Cupronickel (nickel) +CuSil (silver) +Cymbal alloys (tin) +Devarda's alloy (aluminium, zinc) +Hepatizon (gold, silver) +Manganin (manganese, nickel) +Melchior (nickel); high corrosion resistance, used in marine applications in condenser tubes +Nickel silver (nickel) +Nordic gold (aluminium, zinc, tin) +Shakudo (gold) +Tellurium copper (tellurium) +Tumbaga (gold) + + +=== Gallium === + +AlGa (aluminium, gallium) +Galfenol (iron) +Galinstan (indium, tin) + + +=== Gold === + +See also notes below +Colored gold (silver, copper) +Crown gold (silver, copper) +Electrum (silver) +Purple gold (aluminium) +Goloid +Rhodite (rhodium) +Rose gold (copper) +Tumbaga (copper) +White gold (nickel, palladium) + + +=== Indium === + +Field's metal (bismuth, tin) + + +=== Iron === + +Most iron alloys are steels, with carbon as a major alloying element. + +Elinvar (nickel, chromium) +Fernico (nickel, cobalt) +Ferroalloys (Category:Ferroalloys) +Ferroboron +Ferrocerium +Ferrochrome +Ferromagnesium +Ferromanganese +Ferromolybdenum +Ferronickel +Ferrophosphorus +Ferrosilicon +Ferrotitanium +Ferrouranium +Ferrovanadium +Invar (nickel) +Cast iron (carbon) +Pig iron (carbon) +Iron hydride (hydrogen) +Kanthal (20–30% chromium, 4–7.5% aluminium); used in heating elements, including e-cigarettes +Kovar (nickel, cobalt) +Spiegeleisen (manganese, carbon, silicon) +Staballoy (stainless steel) (manganese, chromium, carbon) - see also Uranium below +Steel (carbon) (Category:Steels) +Bulat steel +Chromoly (chromium, molybdenum) +Crucible steel +Damascus steel +Ducol +Hadfield steel +High-speed steel +Mushet steel +HSLA steel +Maraging steel +Reynolds 531 +Silicon steel (silicon) +Spring steel +Stainless steel (chromium, nickel) +AL-6XN +Alloy 20 +Celestrium +Marine grade stainless +Martensitic stainless steel +Alloy 28 or Sanicro 28 (nickel, chromium) +Surgical stainless steel (chromium, molybdenum, nickel) +Zeron 100 (chromium, nickel, molybdenum) +Tool steel (tungsten or manganese) +Silver steel (US:Drill rod) (manganese, chromium, silicon) +Weathering steel ('Cor-ten') (silicon, manganese, chromium, copper, vanadium, nickel) +Wootz steel +Wrought iron + + +=== Lead === + +Molybdochalkos (copper) +Solder (tin) +Terne (tin) +Type metal (tin, antimony) + + +=== Magnesium === + +Elektron +Magnox (0.8% aluminium, 0.004% beryllium); used in nuclear reactors +T-Mg–Al–Zn (Bergman phase) is a complex metallic alloy + + +=== Manganese === + +MN40, used in a foil for brazing +MN70, used in a foil for brazing +Ferromanganese +Spiegeleisen + + +=== Mercury === + +Amalgam +Ashtadhatu + + +=== Nickel === + +Alloy 230 +Alnico (aluminium, cobalt); used in magnets +Alumel (manganese, aluminium, silicon) +Brightray (20% chromium, iron, rare earths); originally for hard-facing valve seats +Chromel (chromium) +Cupronickel (bronze, copper) +Ferronickel (iron) +German silver (copper, zinc) +Hastelloy (molybdenum, chromium, sometimes tungsten) +Inconel (chromium, iron) +Inconel 686 (chromium, molybdenum, tungsten) +Invar +Monel metal (copper, iron, manganese) +Nichrome (chromium) +Nickel-carbon (carbon) +Nicrosil (chromium, silicon, magnesium) +Nimonic (chromium, cobalt, titanium), used in jet engine turbine blades +Nisil (silicon) +Nitinol (titanium, shape memory alloy) +Magnetically "soft" alloys +Mu-metal (iron) +Permalloy (iron, molybdenum) +Supermalloy (molybdenum) +Brass (copper, zinc, manganese) +Nickel hydride (hydrogen) +Stainless steel (chromium, molybdenum, carbon, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, silicon) +Coin silver (nickel) + + +=== Platinum === + +Platinum-iridium + + +=== Plutonium === + +Plutonium–aluminium +Plutonium–cerium +Plutonium–cerium–cobalt +Plutonium–gallium (gallium) +Plutonium–gallium–cobalt +Plutonium–zirconium + + +=== Rare earths === + +Mischmetal (various rare earth elements) +Terfenol-D (terbium, dysprosium, and iron), a highly magnetostrictive alloy used in portable speakers such as the SoundBug device +Ferrocerium (cerium, iron) +Neodymium magnets, another strong permanent magnet +SmCo (cobalt); used for permanent magnets in guitar pickups, headphones, satellite transponders, etc. +Scandium hydride (hydrogen) +Lanthanum-nickel alloy (nickel) + + +=== Rhodium === + +Pseudo palladium (rhodium–silver alloy) + + +=== Silver === + +Argentium sterling silver (copper, germanium) +Billon +Britannia silver (copper) +Doré bullion (gold) +Dymalloy (copper, metal matrix composite with diamond) +Electrum (gold) +Goloid (copper, gold) +Platinum sterling (platinum) +Shibuichi (copper) +Sterling silver (copper) +Tibetan silver (copper) + + +=== Titanium === + +Beta C (vanadium, chromium, others) +Grade 5 Titanium (aluminium, vanadium) [Ti-6Al-4V] +Gum metal (niobium, tantalum, zirconium, oxygen); used in spectacle frames, precision screws, etc. +Titanium carbide (carbon) [Ti-C] +Titanium gold (gold) +Titanium hydride (hydrogen) +Titanium nitride (nitrogen) + + +=== Tin === + +Babbitt (copper, antimony, lead; used for bearing surfaces) +Britannium (copper, antimony) +Pewter (antimony, copper) +Queen's metal (antimony, lead, and bismuth) +Solder (lead, antimony) +Terne (lead) +White metal, (copper or lead); used as base metal for plating, in bearings, etc. +Lead free solder (copper, silver) + + +=== Tungsten === +Carboloy (cobalt) + + +=== Uranium === + +Staballoy (depleted uranium with other metals, usually titanium or molybdenum). See also Iron above for Staballoy (stainless steel). +Uranium hydride (hydrogen) +Mulberry (alloy) (niobium, zirconium) + + +=== Zinc === + +Zamak (aluminium, magnesium, copper) +Electroplated zinc alloys + + +== See also == +Complex metallic alloys +Heusler alloy, a range of ferromagnetic alloys (66% copper, cobalt, iron, manganese, nickel or palladium) +High-entropy alloys +Intermetallic compounds +List of brazing alloys +Pot metal; inexpensive casting metal of non-specific composition + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..be0664308 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,253 @@ +--- +title: "List of neurosteroids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:45.691264+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Neurosteroids are natural and synthetic steroids that are active on the mammalian nervous system through receptors other than steroid hormone receptors. It includes inhibitory, excitatory, and neurotrophic neurosteroids as well as pheromones and vomeropherines. In contrast to steroid hormones, neurosteroids have rapid, non-genomic effects through interactions with membrane steroid receptors and can quickly influence central nervous system function. + + +== Inhibitory == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Cholestanes ==== +25-Hydroxycholesterol: cholest-5-en-3β,25-diol – NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator + + +==== Androstanes ==== +3α,5α-Androstanediol (3α-androstanediol): 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +3α,5β-Androstanediol (etiocholanediol): 5β-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +3α-Androstenol: 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Androsterone: 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Etiocholanolone: 5β-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +The following are proneurosteroids: + +Dihydrotestosterone (DHT; androstanolone, stanolone): 5α-androst-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids +Testosterone: androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +3α-Dihydroprogesterone (3α-DHP): pregn-4-en-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +5α-Dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP; allopregnanedione): 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +5β-Dihydroprogesterone (5β-DHP; pregnanedione): 5β-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Allopregnanediol: 5α-pregnane-3α,20α-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Allopregnanolone (brexanolone; SAGE-547): 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (DHDOC): 21-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Pregnanediol: 5β-pregnan-3α,20α-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Pregnanolone (eltanolone): 5β-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone (THDOC): 3α,21-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +The following are proneurosteroids: + +Deoxycorticosterone (desoxycortone): 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione – of DHDOC and THDOC +Pregnenolone (P5): pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one – of pregnanolones and pregnanediols (see above) +Progesterone (P4): pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione – of pregnanediones, pregnanolones, and pregnanediols (see above) + + +=== Synthetic === + + +==== Cholestanes ==== +Acebrochol (cholesteryl acetate dibromide): 5α,6β-dibromocholestan-3β-ol 3β-acetate – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +Alfadolone: 3α,21-dihydroxy-5α-pregnane-11,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Alfadolone acetate: 3α,21-dihydroxy-5α-pregnane-11,20-dione 21-acetate – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Alfaxalone: 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnane-11,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +EIDD-036 (P4-20-O): 20-(hydroxyimino)pregn-4-en-3-one – progesterone-like inhibitory neurosteroid +Ganaxolone: 3β-methyl-5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Hydroxydione: 21-hydroxy-5β-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Minaxolone: 11α-(dimethylamino)-2β-ethoxy-5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +ORG-20599: 21-chloro-2β-morpholin-4-yl-5β-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +ORG-21465: 2β-(2,2-dimethyl-4-morpholinyl)-3α-hydroxy-11,20-dioxo-5α-pregnan-21-yl methanesulfonate – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Posovolone (Co 134444): 3β-Hydroxy-21-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-3α-(methoxymethyl)-5α-pregnan-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Renanolone: 5β-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +SGE-516 – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +SGE-872 – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +Zuranolone (SAGE-217): 3α-hydroxy-3β-methyl-21-(4-cyano-1H-pyrazol-1'-yl)-19-nor-5β-pregnan-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator +The following are proneurosteroids: + +EIDD-1723 – of EIDD-036 (see above) +P1-185 – of progesterone and by extension pregnanediones, pregnanolones, and pregnanediols (see above) +Progesterone carboxymethyloxime (P4-3-CMO) – of progesterone and by extension pregnanediones, pregnanolones, and pregnanediols (see above) + + +== Excitatory == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Cholestanes ==== +Cerebrosterol (24(S)-Hydroxycholesterol): cholest-5-en-3β,24S-diol – NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +3β-Dihydroprogesterone (3β-DHP): pregn-4-en-3β-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator +Epipregnanolone: 5β-pregnan-3β-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator +Isopregnanolone (sepranolone): 5α-pregnan-3β-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator +Pregnenolone sulfate (PS): pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one 3β-sulfate – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator, NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator, sigma-1 receptor agonist, TRPM3 agonist, other actions +The following are proneurosteroids: + +Pregnenolone (P5): pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one – of pregnenolone sulfate + + +==== Androstanes ==== +Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA; prasterone): androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator, NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator, sigma-1 receptor agonist, other actions +Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S; prasterone sulfate): androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one 3β-sulfate – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator, NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator, other actions + + +=== Synthetic === + + +==== Androstanes ==== +17-Phenylandrostenol (17-PA): 17-phenyl-5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator +Golexanolone (GR-3027): 3α-ethynyl-3β-hydroxyandrostan-17E-one oxime – GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulator + + +==== Others ==== +SAGE-201 - oxysterol/cholesterol analogue – NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator +SAGE-301 - oxysterol/cholesterol analogue – NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator +SAGE-718: oxysterol/cholesterol analogue; exact chemical structure undisclosed – NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator + + +== Mixed == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Cholestanes ==== +Cholesterol: cholest-5-en-3β-ol – NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator, possible GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator, many other actions + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +Epipregnanolone sulfate: 5β-pregnan-3β-ol-20-one 3β-sulfate – GABAA and NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator, TRPM3 agonist + + +== Neurotrophic == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Androstanes ==== +Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA; prasterone): androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one – TrkA, TrkC, and p75NTR agonist, TrkB ligand +Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S; prasterone sulfate): androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one 3β-sulfate – TrkA and p75NTR agonist + + +==== Ergostanes ==== +Anicequol (NGA0187, NGD-187): 16β-acetoxy-3β,7β,11β-trihydroxy-5α-ergost-22(E)-en-6-one – non-endogenous; fungi-derived; undefined mechanism of action; shows neurotrophic activity in vitro; was formerly under development for the treatment of cognitive disorders + + +=== Synthetic === + + +==== Androstanes ==== +BNN-20: 17β-spiro-(androst-5-en-17,2'-oxiran)-3β-ol – TrkA, TrkB, and p75NTR agonist + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +BNN-27: 17α,20R-epoxypregn-5-ene-3β,21-diol – TrkA and p75NTR agonist + + +== Antineurotrophic == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Androstanes ==== +Testosterone: androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one – TrkA and p75NTR antagonist + + +=== Synthetic === + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +Dexamethasone: 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxy-16α-methylpregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione – TrkA and p75NTR antagonist + + +== Pheromones and pherines == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Androstanes ==== +3α-Androstenol: 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol +3β-Androstenol: 5α-androst-16-en-3β-ol +Androstadienol: androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol +Androstadienone: androsta-4,16-dien-3-one +Androstenone: 5α-androst-16-en-3-one +Androsterone: 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one + + +==== Estranes ==== +Estratetraenol: estra-1,3,5(10),16-tetraen-3-ol + + +=== Synthetic === + + +==== Androstanes ==== +Fasedienol (Aloradine; PH94B; 4-androstadienol): androsta-4,16-dien-3β-ol + + +==== Estranes ==== +Estratetraenyl acetate (ETA): estra-1,3,5(10),16-tetraen-3-yl acetate + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +Pregnadienedione (PDD): pregna-4,20-dien-3,6-dione + + +==== Others ==== +PH10, PH15, PH30, PH56, PH78, PH84, Salubrin (PH80) – pherines with undefined structures developed by a company called Pherin Pharmaceuticals + + +== Others == + + +=== Natural === + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +Pregnenolone (P5): pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one – MAP2 ligand +Progesterone (P4): pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione – sigma-1 receptor antagonist, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor negative allosteric modulator, MAP2 ligand, other actions + + +==== Spirostanes ==== + +Caprospinol (SP-233; diosgenin 3-caproate): (22R,25R)-20α-spirost-5-en-3β-yl hexanoate – β-amyloid ligand, sigma-1 receptor ligand, other actions; found naturally in Gynura japonica; under development as a neuroprotective against Alzheimer's disease + + +==== Estranes ==== +Estradiol (E2): Estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17β-diol; found to increase the expression of the oxytocin receptor. + + +=== Synthetic === + + +==== Pregnanes ==== +3β-Methoxypregnenolone (MAP-4343): 3β-methoxypregn-5-en-20-one – MAP2 ligand +Cyclopregnol (neurosterone): 6β-hydroxy-3:5-cyclopregnan-20-one – undefined mechanism of action; developed as a "psychotropic agent" for the treatment of "mental disorders" such as schizophrenia in the 1950s + + +==== Androstanes ==== +Cetadiol: androst-5-ene-3β,16α-diol – undefined mechanism of action; developed as a "tranquilizer" and for the treatment of alcoholism in the 1950s + + +== See also == +List of steroids +Neurosteroidogenesis inhibitor + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2a248fec7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of nonmetal monographs" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:46.930047+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The purpose of this annotated list is to provide a chronological, consolidated list of nonmetal monographs, which could enable the interested reader to further trace classification approaches in this area. Those marked with a ▲ classify these 14 elements as nonmetals: H, N; O, S; the 4 stable halogens; and the 6 naturally occurring noble gases. + +Steudel R 2020, Chemistry of the Non-metals: Syntheses - Structures - Bonding - Applications, in collaboration with D Scheschkewitz, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, doi:10.1515/9783110578065. ▲ +An updated translation of the 5th German edition of 2013, incorporating the literature up to Spring 2019. Twenty-three nonmetals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Te, and At but not Sb (nor Po). The nonmetals are identified on the basis of their electrical conductivity at absolute zero putatively being close to zero, rather than finite as in the case of metals. That does not work for As however, which has the electronic structure of a semimetal (like Sb). +Halka M & Nordstrom B 2010, "Nonmetals", Facts on File, New York, ISBN 978-0-8160-7367-2 +A reading level 9+ book covering H, C, N, O, P, S, Se. Complementary books by the same authors examine (a) the post-transition metals (Al, Ga, In, Tl, Sn, Pb and Bi) and metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te and Po); and (b) the halogens and noble gases. +Woolins JD 1988, Non-Metal Rings, Cages and Clusters, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, ISBN 978-0-471-91592-8. +A more advanced text that covers H; B; C, Si, Ge; N, P, As, Sb; O, S, Se and Te. +Steudel R 1977, Chemistry of the Non-metals: With an Introduction to Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding, English edition by FC Nachod & JJ Zuckerman, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-004882-7. ▲ +Twenty-four nonmetals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Te, Po and At. +Powell P & Timms PL 1974, The Chemistry of the Non-metals, Chapman & Hall, London, ISBN 978-0-470-69570-8. ▲ +Twenty-two nonmetals including B, Si, Ge, As and Te. Tin and antimony are shown as being intermediate between metals and nonmetals; they are later shown as either metals or nonmetals. Astatine is counted as a metal. +Emsley J 1971, The Inorganic Chemistry of the Non-metals, Methuen Educational, London, ISBN 978-0-423-86120-4. ▲ +Twenty nonmetals. H is placed over F; B and Si are counted as nonmetals; Ge, As, Sb and Te are counted as metalloids. +Johnson RC 1966, Introductory Descriptive Chemistry: Selected Nonmetals, their Properties, and Behavior, WA Benjamin, New York. ▲ +Eighteen nonmetals. H is shown floating over B and C. Silicon, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po and At are shown as semimetals. At is later shown as a nonmetal (p. 133). +Jolly WL 1966, The Chemistry of the Non-metals, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. ▲ +Twenty-four nonmetals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te and At. H is placed over F. +Sherwin E & Weston GJ 1966, Chemistry of the Non-metallic Elements, Pergamon Press, Oxford. ▲ +Twenty-three nonmetals. H is shown over Li and F; Germanium, As, Se, and Te are later referred to as metalloids; Sb is shown as a nonmetal but later referred to as a metal. They write, "Whilst these heavier elements [Se and Te] look metallic they show the chemical properties of non-metals and therefore come into the category of "metalloids" (p. 64). +Phillips CSG & Williams RJP 1965, Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 1, Principles and non-metals, Oxford University Press, Clarendon. ▲ +Twenty-three nonmetals, excluding Sb, including At. An advanced work for its time, presenting inorganic chemistry as the difficult and complex subject it was, with many novel insights. +Yost DM & Russell Jr, H 1946 Systematic Inorganic Chemistry of the Fifth-and-Sixth-Group Nonmetallic Elements, Prentice-Hall, New York, accessed August 8, 2021. +Includes tellurium as a nonmetallic element. +Bailey GH 1918, The Tutorial Chemistry, Part 1: The Non-Metals, 4th ed., W Briggs (ed.), University Tutorial Press, London. +Fourteen nonmetals (excl. the noble gases), including B, Si, Se, and Te. The author writes that arsenic and antimony resemble metals in their luster and conductivity of heat and electricity but that in their chemical properties they resemble the non-metals, since they form acidic oxides and insoluble in dilute mineral acids; "such elements are called metalloids" (p. 530). +Appleton JH 1897, The Chemistry of the Non-metals: An Elementary Text-Book for Schools and Colleges, Snow & Farnham Printers, Providence, Rhode Island +Eighteen nonmetals: He, Ar; F, Cl, Br, I; O, S, Se, Te; N, P, As, Sb; C, Si; B; H. Neon, germanium, krypton and xenon are listed as new or doubtful elements. For Sb, Appleton writes: +"Antimony is sometimes classed as a metal, sometimes as a non-metal. In case of several other elements the question of classification is difficult—indeed, the classification is one of convenience, in a sense, more than one of absolute scientific certainty. In some of its relations, especially its physical properties, antimony resembles the well-defined metals—in its chemical relations, it falls into the group containing boron, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, well-defined non-metals." (p. 166). +Thorpe TE 1896, A Manual of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 1, The Non-Metals, William Collins, Sons, & Co., London, p. 37 +Sixteen nonmetals: Ar; F, Cl, Br, I; O, S, Se, Te; N, P, As; C, Si; B; H. +"In its chemical characters, antimony is closely allied to arsenic on the one hand, and to bismuth on the other; it constitutes, indeed, a connecting link between the metals and the non-metals." (p. 442) +Roscoe HE & Schorlemmer C 1891, A Treatise on Chemistry, Vol. 1 The Nonmetallic Elements, D Appleton and Company, New York +Fifteen nonmetals: H, B, C, Si, N, P, As, O, S, Se, Te, F, Cl, Br, I. +Appleton JH 1888, Beginners' Hand-book of Chemistry: The Subject Developed by Facts and Principles Drawn Chiefly from the Non-metals, Chautauqua Press, New York. +Fifteen nonmetals including B, Si, As, Sb and Se (the six noble gases were not then known; Ge had only been discovered in 1886). Te is shown in a list of the chemical elements but not mentioned elsewhere. +Gmelin L 1849, Handbook of Chemistry, vol. 2, Non-metallic elements, H Watts (trans.), Cavendish Society, London. +Twelve nonmetals (then called "metalloids"): H, B, C, N, O, F, P, S, Cl, Se, Br, I. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..425d5369b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,422 @@ +--- +title: "List of organic reactions" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Well-known reactions and reagents in organic chemistry include + +== 0-9 == +1,2-Wittig rearrangement +1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition +2,3-Wittig rearrangement + +== A == +Acetalisation +Acetoacetic ester condensation +Achmatowicz reaction +Acylation +Acyloin condensation +Adams' catalyst +Adams decarboxylation +Adkins catalyst +Adkins–Peterson reaction +Akabori amino acid reaction +Alcohol oxidation +Alder ene reaction +Alder–Stein rules +Aldol addition +Aldol condensation +Algar–Flynn–Oyamada reaction +Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution +Alkyne trimerisation +Alkyne zipper reaction +Allan–Robinson reaction +Allylic rearrangement +Amadori rearrangement +Amine alkylation +Angeli–Rimini reaction +Andrussov oxidation +Appel reaction +Arbuzov reaction, Arbusow reaction +Arens–Van Dorp synthesis, Isler modification +Aromatic nitration +Arndt–Eistert synthesis +Aston–Greenburg rearrangement +Auwers synthesis +Aza-Cope rearrangement +Azo coupling + +== B == +Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis +Baeyer–Villiger oxidation, Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement +Bakeland process (Bakelite) +Baker–Venkataraman rearrangement, Baker–Venkataraman transformation +Baldwin's rules +Bally–Scholl synthesis +Balz–Schiemann reaction +Bamberger rearrangement +Bamberger triazine synthesis +Bamford–Stevens reaction +Barbier reaction +Barbier–Wieland degradation +Bardhan–Sengupta phenanthrene synthesis +Barfoed's test +Bargellini reaction +Bartoli indole synthesis, Bartoli reaction +Barton decarboxylation +Barton reaction +Barton–Kellogg reaction +Barton–McCombie reaction, Barton deoxygenation +Barton-Zard Synthesis +Barton vinyl iodine procedure +Baudisch reaction +Bayer test +Baylis–Hillman reaction +Bechamp reaction +Bechamp reduction +Beckmann fragmentation +Beckmann rearrangement +Bellus–Claisen rearrangement +Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction +Benary reaction +Benedict's reagent +Benkeser reaction +Benzidine rearrangement +Benzilic acid rearrangement +Benzoin condensation +Bergman cyclization +Bergmann azlactone peptide synthesis +Bergmann degradation +Bergmann–Zervas carbobenzoxy method +Bernthsen acridine synthesis +Bestmann's reagent +Betti reaction +Biginelli pyrimidine synthesis +Biginelli reaction +Bingel reaction +Birch reduction +Bischler–Möhlau indole synthesis +Bischler–Napieralski reaction +Biuret test +Blaise ketone synthesis +Blaise reaction +Blanc reaction +Blanc chloromethylation +Blum–Ittah aziridine synthesis +Bodroux reaction +Bodroux–Chichibabin aldehyde synthesis +Bogert–Cook synthesis +Bohlmann-Rahtz pyridine synthesis +Bohn–Schmidt reaction +Boord olefin synthesis +Borodin reaction +Borsche–Drechsel cyclization +Bosch–Meiser urea process +Bosch reaction +Bouveault aldehyde synthesis +Bouveault–Blanc reduction +Boyland–Sims oxidation +Boyer Reaction +Bredt's rule +Brook rearrangement +Brown hydroboration +Bucherer carbazole synthesis +Bucherer reaction +Bucherer–Bergs reaction +Buchner ring enlargement +Büchner–Curtius–Schlotterbeck reaction +Buchwald–Hartwig amination +Bunnett reaction +Burgess reagent + +== C == +Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling +Cadogan-Sundberg indole synthesis +Camps quinoline synthesis +Cannizzaro reaction +Carbohydrate acetalisation +Carbonyl reduction +Carbonylation +Carbylamine reaction +Carroll reaction +Castro–Stephens coupling +Catalytic reforming +Catellani Reaction +CBS reduction +Chan–Lam coupling +Chapman rearrangement +Cheletropic reaction +Chichibabin pyridine synthesis +Chichibabin reaction +Chiral pool synthesis +Chugaev elimination +Ciamician–Dennstedt rearrangement +Claisen condensation +Claisen rearrangement +Claisen–Schmidt condensation +Clemmensen reduction +Collins reagent +Combes quinoline synthesis +Conia reaction +Conrad–Limpach synthesis +Cook–Heilbron thiazole synthesis +Cope elimination +Cope rearrangement +Corey reagent +Corey–Bakshi–Shibata reduction +Corey–Fuchs reaction +Corey–Gilman–Ganem oxidation +Corey–Kim oxidation +Corey-Nicolaou macrolactonization +Corey–Posner, Whitesides–House reaction +Corey-Seebach reaction +Corey–Winter olefin synthesis +Corey–Winter reaction +Cornforth rearrangement +Coupling reaction +Crabbé reaction +Craig method +Cram's rule of asymmetric induction +Creighton process +Criegee reaction +Criegee rearrangement +Cross metathesis +Crum Brown–Gibson rule +Curtius degradation +Curtius rearrangement, Curtius reaction +Cyanohydrin reaction + +== D == +Dakin reaction (aka Dakin oxidation) +Dakin–West reaction +Danheiser annulation +Danheiser benzannulation +Darapsky degradation +Darzens condensation, Darzens–Claisen reaction, Glycidic ester condensation +Darzens halogenation +Darzens synthesis of unsaturated ketones +Darzens tetralin synthesis +Davis' reagent, Davis oxidation +Davis–Beirut reaction +De Kimpe aziridine synthesis +Dehydration reaction +Dehydrogenation +Delépine reaction +DeMayo reaction +Demjanov rearrangement +Demjanow desamination +Dess–Martin oxidation +Diazoalkane 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition +Diazotisation +DIBAL-H selective reduction +Dieckmann condensation +Dieckmann reaction +Diels–Alder reaction +Diels–Reese reaction +Dienol–benzene rearrangement +Dienone–phenol rearrangement +Dimroth rearrangement +Di-π-methane rearrangement +Directed ortho metalation +Doebner modification +Doebner reaction +Doebner–Miller reaction, Beyer method for quinolines +Doering–LaFlamme carbon chain extension +Dötz reaction +Dowd–Beckwith ring expansion reaction +Duff reaction +Dutt–Wormall reaction +Dyotropic reaction + +== E == +E1cB elimination reaction +Eder reaction +Edman degradation +Eglinton reaction +Ehrlich–Sachs reaction +Einhorn variant +Einhorn–Brunner reaction +Elbs persulfate oxidation +Elbs reaction +Electrochemical fluorination +Electrocyclic reaction +Electrophilic halogenation +Electrophilic amination +Elimination reaction +Emde degradation +Emmert reaction +Enders SAMP/RAMP hydrazone-alkylation reaction +Ene reaction +Enyne metathesis +Epoxidation +Erlenmeyer synthesis, Azlactone synthesis +Erlenmeyer–Plöchl azlactone and amino-acid synthesis +Eschenmoser fragmentation +Eschenmoser sulfide contraction +Eschweiler–Clarke reaction +Ester pyrolysis +Ether cleavage +Étard reaction +Evans aldol +Evans–Saksena reduction +Evans–Tishchenko reaction + +== F == +Favorskii reaction +Favorskii rearrangement +Favorskii–Babayan synthesis +Fehling test +Feist–Benary synthesis +Fenton reaction +Ferrario reaction +Ferrier carbocyclization +Ferrier rearrangement +Fétizon oxidation +Fiesselmann thiophene synthesis +Finkelstein reaction +Fischer indole synthesis +Fischer oxazole synthesis +Fischer peptide synthesis +Fischer phenylhydrazine and oxazone reaction +Fischer glycosidation +Fischer–Hepp rearrangement +Fischer–Speier esterification +Fischer Tropsch synthesis +Fleming–Tamao oxidation +Flood reaction +Folin–Ciocalteu reagent +Formox process +Forster reaction +Forster–Decker method +Fowler process +Franchimont reaction +Frankland synthesis +Frankland–Duppa reaction +Fráter–Seebach alkylation +Free radical halogenation +Freund reaction +Friedel–Crafts acylation +Friedel–Crafts alkylation +Friedländer synthesis +Fries rearrangement +Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement +Fujimoto–Belleau reaction +Fujiwara–Moritani reaction +Fukuyama coupling +Fukuyama indole synthesis +Fukuyama reduction + +== G == +Gabriel ethylenimine method +Gabriel synthesis +Gabriel–Colman rearrangement, Gabriel isoquinoline synthesis +Gallagher–Hollander degradation +Gassman indole synthesis +Gastaldi synthesis +Gattermann aldehyde synthesis +Gattermann Koch reaction +Gattermann reaction +Geminal halide hydrolysis +Gewald reaction +Gibbs phthalic anhydride process +Gilman reagent +Glaser coupling +Glycol cleavage +Goldberg reaction +Gomberg–Bachmann reaction +Gomberg–Bachmann–Hey reaction +Gomberg radical reaction +Gould–Jacobs reaction +Graebe–Ullmann synthesis +Grignard degradation +Griesbaum coozonolysis +Grignard reaction +Grob fragmentation +Grubbs' catalyst in Olefin metathesis +Grundmann aldehyde synthesis +Gryszkiewicz–Trochimowski and McCombie method +Guareschi–Thorpe condensation +Guerbet reaction +Gutknecht pyrazine synthesis + +== H == +Hajos–Parrish–Eder–Sauer–Wiechert reaction +Haller–Bauer reaction +Haloform reaction +Halogen addition reaction +Halohydrin formation reaction +Hammick reaction +Hammond principle or Hammond postulate +Hantzsch pyrrole synthesis +Hantzsch dihydropyridine synthesis, Hantzsch pyridine synthesis +Hantzsch pyridine synthesis, Gattermann–Skita synthesis, Guareschi–Thorpe condensation, Knoevenagel–Fries modification +Hantzsch–Collidin synthesis +Harries ozonolysis +Haworth methylation +Haworth synthesis +Hay coupling +Hayashi rearrangement +Heck reaction +Hegedus indole synthesis +Helferich method +Hell–Volhard–Zelinsky halogenation +Hemetsberger indole synthesis +Hemetsberger–Knittel synthesis +Henkel reaction, Raecke process, Henkel process +Henry reaction, Kamlet reaction +Herz reaction, Herz compounds +Herzig–Meyer alkimide group determination +Heumann indigo synthesis +Hiyama coupling +Hydration reaction +Hydroamination +Hydrodesulfurization +Hydrogenolysis +Hydrosilylation +Hinsberg indole synthesis +Hinsberg oxindole synthesis +Hinsberg reaction +Hinsberg separation +Hinsberg sulfone synthesis +Hirao coupling +Hoch–Campbell ethylenimine synthesis +Hock rearrangement +Hofmann bromamide reaction +Hofmann degradation, Exhaustive methylation +Hofmann elimination +Hofmann Isonitrile synthesis, Carbylamine reaction +Hofmann product +Hofmann rearrangement +Hofmann–Löffler reaction, Löffler–Freytag reaction, Hofmann–Löffler–Freytag reaction +Hofmann–Martius rearrangement +Hofmann's rule +Hofmann–Sand reaction +Homo rearrangement of steroids +Hooker reaction +Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction +Hoesch reaction +Hosomi–Sakurai reaction +Houben–Fischer synthesis +Hudlicky fluorination +Huisgen cycloaddition +Hunsdiecker reaction, Hunsdiecker–Borodin reaction +Hurd-Mori 1,2,3-thiadiazole synthesis +Hurtley reaction +Hydroboration +Hydrocarbon cracking +Hydrohalogenation + +== I == +Indium mediated allylation +Ing–Manske procedure +Ipso substitution +Ireland–Claisen rearrangement +Isay reaction +Ishikawa reagent +trans-cis isomerism +Ivanov reagent, Ivanov reaction \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..039e7d67b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,452 @@ +--- +title: "List of organic reactions" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== J == +Jacobsen epoxidation +Jacobsen rearrangement +Janovsky reaction +Japp–Klingemann reaction +Japp–Maitland condensation +Jocic reaction +Johnson–Claisen rearrangement +Johnson–Corey–Chaykovsky reaction +Jones oxidation +Jordan–Ullmann–Goldberg synthesis +Julia olefination, Julia–Lythgoe olefination + +== K == +Kabachnik–Fields reaction +Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction +Keck asymmetric allylation +Ketimine Mannich reaction +Ketone halogenation +Kiliani–Fischer synthesis +Kindler reaction +Kishner cyclopropane synthesis +Knoevenagel condensation +Knorr pyrazole synthesis +Knorr pyrrole synthesis +Knorr quinoline synthesis +Koch–Haaf reaction +Kochi reaction +Koenigs–Knorr reaction +Kolbe electrolysis +Kolbe nitrile synthesis +Kolbe–Schmitt reaction +Kornblum oxidation +Kornblum–DeLaMare rearrangement +Kostanecki acylation +Kowalski ester homologation +Krapcho decarboxylation +Krische allylation +Kröhnke aldehyde synthesis +Kröhnke oxidation +Kröhnke pyridine synthesis +Kucherov reaction +Kuhn–Winterstein reaction +Kulinkovich reaction +Kumada coupling + +== L == +Larock indole synthesis +Lawesson's reagent +Lebedev process +Lehmstedt–Tanasescu reaction +Leimgruber–Batcho indole synthesis +Letts nitrile synthesis +Leuckart reaction +Leuckart thiophenol reaction +Leuckart–Wallach reaction +Leuckart amide synthesis +Levinstein process +Ley oxidation +Lieben iodoform reaction, Haloform reaction +Liebeskind–Srogl coupling +Liebig melamine synthesis +Lindlar catalyst +Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation +Lombardo methylenation +Lossen rearrangement +Lucas' reagent +Luche reduction + +== M == +Maillard reaction +Madelung synthesis +Malaprade reaction, Periodic acid oxidation +Malonic ester synthesis +Mannich reaction +Markó–Lam deoxygenation +Markovnikov's rule, Markownikoff rule, Markownikow rule +Marschalk reaction +Martinet dioxindole synthesis +McDougall monoprotection +McFadyen–Stevens reaction +McMurry reaction +Meerwein arylation +Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction +Meisenheimer rearrangement +Meissenheimer complex +Menshutkin reaction +Metal-ion-catalyzed σ-bond rearrangement +Mesylation +Merckwald asymmetric synthesis +Metallo-ene reaction +Methylation +Meyer and Hartmann reaction +Meyer reaction +Meyer synthesis +Meyer–Schuster rearrangement +Michael addition +Michael addition, Michael system +Michael condensation +Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction +Midland Alpine borane reduction +Mignonac reaction +Milas hydroxylation of olefins +Minisci reaction +Mislow–Evans rearrangement +Mitsunobu reaction +Miyaura borylation +Modified Wittig-Claisen tandem reaction +Molisch's test +Mozingo reduction +Mukaiyama aldol addition (Mukaiyama reaction) +Mukaiyama hydration +Myers' asymmetric alkylation + +== N == +Nametkin rearrangement +Narasaka–Prasad reduction +Nazarov cyclization reaction +Neber rearrangement +Nef reaction +Negishi coupling +Negishi zipper reaction +Nenitzescu indole synthesis +Nenitzescu reductive acylation +Newman–Kwart rearrangement +Nicholas reaction +Niementowski quinazoline synthesis +Niementowski quinoline synthesis +Nierenstein reaction +NIH shift +Ninhydrin test +Nitroaldol reaction +Nitrone-olefin 3+2 cycloaddition +Normant reagents +Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation +Nozaki–Hiyama–Kishi reaction +Nucleophilic acyl substitution + +== O == +Ohira–Bestmann reaction +Olah reagent +Olefin metathesis +Oppenauer oxidation +Orton rearrangement +Ostromyslenskii reaction, Ostromisslenskii reaction +Overman rearrangement +Oxidative decarboxylation +Oxo synthesis +Oxy-Cope rearrangement +Oxymercuration +Oxidation of alcohols to carbonyl compounds +Ozonolysis + +== P == +Paal–Knorr pyrrole synthesis +Paal–Knorr synthesis +Paneth technique +Passerini reaction +Paternò–Büchi reaction +Pauson–Khand reaction +Payne rearrangement +Pechmann condensation +Pechmann pyrazole synthesis +Pellizzari reaction +Pelouze synthesis +Peptide synthesis +Perkin alicyclic synthesis +Perkin reaction +Perkin rearrangement +Perkow reaction +Petasis reaction +Petasis reagent +Peterson olefination +Peterson reaction +Petrenko-Kritschenko piperidone synthesis +Pfau–Plattner azulene synthesis +Pfitzinger reaction +Pfitzner–Moffatt oxidation +Phosphonium coupling +Photosynthesis +Piancatelli rearrangement +Pictet–Gams isoquinoline synthesis +Pictet–Hubert reaction +Pictet–Spengler tetrahydroisoquinoline synthesis +Pictet–Spengler reaction +Piloty–Robinson pyrrole synthesis +Pinacol coupling reaction +Pinacol rearrangement +Pinner amidine synthesis +Pinner method for ortho esters +Pinner reaction +Pinner triazine synthesis +Pinnick oxidation +Piria reaction +Polonovski reaction +Pomeranz–Fritsch reaction +Ponzio reaction +Prato reaction +Prelog strain +Prevost reaction +Prileschajew reaction +Prilezhaev reaction +Prins reaction +Prinzbach synthesis +Protecting group +Pschorr reaction +Pummerer rearrangement +Purdie methylation, Irvine–Purdie methylation +PUREX + +== Q == +Quelet reaction + +== R == +Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction +Raney nickel +Rap–Stoermer condensation +Raschig phenol process +Rauhut–Currier reaction +Racemization +Reductive amination +Reductive dehalogenation of halo ketones +Reed reaction +Reformatskii reaction, Reformatsky reaction +Reilly–Hickinbottom rearrangement +Reimer–Tiemann reaction +Reissert indole synthesis +Reissert reaction, Reissert compound +Reppe synthesis +Retropinacol rearrangement +Rieche formylation +Riemschneider thiocarbamate synthesis +Riley oxidations +Ring closing metathesis +Ring opening metathesis +Ritter reaction +Robinson annulation +Robinson–Gabriel synthesis +Robinson Schopf reaction +Rosenmund reaction +Rosenmund reduction +Rosenmund–von Braun synthesis +Roskamp reaction +Rothemund reaction +Rupe rearrangement +Rubottom oxidation +Ruff–Fenton degradation +Ruzicka large-ring synthesis + +== S == +Saegusa–Ito oxidation +Sakurai reaction +Salol reaction +Sandheimer +Sandmeyer diphenylurea isatin synthesis +Sandmeyer isonitrosoacetanilide isatin synthesis +Sandmeyer reaction +Sanger reagent +Saponification +Sarett oxidation +Schiemann reaction +Schiff reaction +Schiff test +Schlenk equilibrium +Schlosser modification +Schlosser variant +Schmidlin ketene synthesis +Schmidt degradation +Schmidt reaction +Scholl reaction +Schorigin Shorygin reaction, Shorygin reaction, Wanklyn reaction +Schotten–Baumann reaction +Seliwanoff's test +Semidine rearrangement +Semmler–Wolff reaction +Seyferth–Gilbert homologation +Shapiro reaction +Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation +Sharpless epoxidation +Sharpless oxyamination or aminohydroxylation +Shenck ene reaction +Shi epoxidation +Shiina esterification +Shiina macrolactonization or Shiina lactonization +Sigmatropic reaction +Simmons–Smith reaction +Simonini reaction +Simonis chromone cyclization +Simons process +Skraup chinolin synthesis +Skraup reaction +Smiles rearrangement +SNAr nucleophilic aromatic substitution +SN1 +SN2 +SNi +Solvolysis +Sommelet reaction +Sonn–Müller method +Sonogashira coupling +Sørensen formol titration +Staedel–Rugheimer pyrazine synthesis +Stahl oxidation +Staudinger reaction +Staudinger synthesis +Steglich esterification +Stephen aldehyde synthesis +Stephens-Castro coupling +Stetter reaction +Stevens rearrangement +Stieglitz rearrangement +Stille coupling +Stobbe condensation +Stollé synthesis +Stork acylation +Stork enamine alkylation +Strecker amino acid synthesis +Strecker degradation +Strecker sulfite alkylation +Strecker synthesis +Stereocontrolled 1,2-addition to carbonyl groups +Suzuki coupling +Swain equation +Swarts reaction +Swern oxidation + +== T == +Tamao oxidation +Tafel rearrangement +Takai olefination +Tebbe olefination +ter Meer reaction +Thiele reaction +Thiol-yne reaction +Thorpe reaction +Tiemann rearrangement +Tiffeneau ring enlargement reaction +Tiffeneau–Demjanov rearrangement +Tischtschenko reaction +Tishchenko reaction, Tishchenko–Claisen reaction +Tollens' reagent +Transfer hydrogenation +Trapp mixture +Transesterification +Traube purine synthesis +Truce–Smiles rearrangement +Tscherniac–Einhorn reaction +Tschitschibabin reaction +Tschugajeff reaction +Tsuji–Trost reaction +Tsuji–Wilkinson decarbonylation reaction +Twitchell process +Tyrer sulfonation process + +== U == +Ugi reaction +Ullmann reaction +Upjohn dihydroxylation +Urech cyanohydrin method +Urech hydantoin synthesis + +== V == +Van Leusen reaction +Van Slyke determination +Varrentrapp reaction +Vilsmeier reaction +Vilsmeier–Haack reaction +Voight amination +Volhard–Erdmann cyclization +von Braun amide degradation +von Braun reaction +von Richter cinnoline synthesis +von Richter reaction + +== W == +Wacker–Tsuji oxidation +Wagner-Jauregg reaction +Wagner–Meerwein rearrangement +Waits–Scheffer epoxidation +Walden inversion +Wallach rearrangement +Weerman degradation +Weinreb ketone synthesis +Wenker ring closure +Wenker synthesis +Wessely–Moser rearrangement +Westphalen–Lettré rearrangement +Wharton reaction +Whiting reaction +Wichterle reaction +Widman–Stoermer synthesis +Wilkinson catalyst +Willgerodt rearrangement +Willgerodt–Kindler reaction +Williamson ether synthesis +Winstein reaction +Wittig reaction +Wittig rearrangement: +1,2-Wittig rearrangement +2,3-Wittig rearrangement +Wittig–Horner reaction +Wohl degradation +Wohl–Aue reaction +Wohler synthesis +Wohl–Ziegler reaction +Wolffenstein–Böters reaction +Wolff rearrangement +Wolff–Kishner reduction +Woodward cis-hydroxylation +Woodward–Hoffmann rule +Wulff–Dötz reaction +Wurtz coupling, Wurtz reaction +Wurtz–Fittig reaction + +== Y == +Yamada–Okamoto purine synthesis +Yamaguchi esterification + +== Z == +Zaitsev's rule +Zeisel determination +Zerevitinov determination, Zerewitinoff determination +Ziegler condensation +Ziegler method +Zimmermann reaction +Zincke disulfide cleavage +Zincke nitration +Zincke reaction +Zincke–Suhl reaction +Zinin reduction + +== See also == + +Stigler's law of eponymy +Name reaction +List of organic compounds +List of inorganic compounds +Named inorganic compounds +List of biomolecules +List of minerals + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..958a5fd41 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "List of phenyltropanes" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Phenyltropanes (PTs) are a family of chemical compounds originally derived from structural modification of cocaine. The main feature differentiating phenyltropanes from cocaine is that they lack the ester functionality at the 3-position terminating in the benzene; thus, the phenyl is attached direct to the tropane skeleton (hence the name "phenyl"-tropane) with no further spacer that the cocaine benzoyloxy provided. The original purpose of phenyltropane-related research was to extirpate the cardiotoxicity inherent in the local anesthetic "numbing" capability of cocaine (which stems from the methylated benzoate ester being essential to cocaine's blockage of sodium channels, and which causes topical anesthesia) while retaining stimulant function. +Phenyltropane compounds present promising avenues of research into therapeutic applications, particularly in regard to addiction treatment. These compounds' uses vary depending on their construction and structure-activity relationship ranging from the treating of cocaine dependency to understanding the dopamine reward system in the human brain to treating Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. (Since 2008 there have been continual additions to the list and enumerations of the plethora of types of chemicals that fall into the category of this substance profile.) Certain phenyltropanes can even be used as a smoking cessation aid (cf. RTI-29). Many of the compounds were first elucidated in published material by the Research Triangle Institute and are thus named with "RTI" serial-numbers (in this case the long form is either RTI-COC-n, for 'cocaine' "analog", or specifically RTI-4229-n of the subsequent numbers given below in this article) Similarly, a number of others are named for Sterling-Winthrop pharmaceuticals ("WIN" serial-numbers) and Wake Forest University ("WF" serial-numbers). The following includes many of the phenyltropane class of drugs that have been made and studied. + +== 2-Carboxymethyl esters (phenyl-methylecgonines) == + +Like cocaine, phenyltropanes are considered a 'typical' or 'classical' (i.e. "cocaine-like") DAT re-uptake pump ligands in that they stabilize an "open-to-out" conformation on the dopamine transporter; despite the extreme similarity to phenyltropanes, benztropine and others are in suchwise not considered "cocaine-like" and are instead considered atypical inhibitors insofar as they stabilize what is considered a more inward-facing (closed-to-out) conformational state. +Considering the differences between PTs and cocaine: the difference in the length of the benzoyloxy and the phenyl linkage contrasted between cocaine and phenyltropanes makes for a shorter distance between the centroid of the aromatic benzene and the bridge nitrogen of the tropane in the latter PTs. This distance being on a scale of 5.6 Å for phenyltropanes and 7.7 Å for cocaine or analogs with the benzoyloxy intact. The manner in which this sets phenyltropanes into the binding pocket at MAT is postulated as one possible explanation to account for PTs increased behavioral stimulation profile over cocaine. +Blank spacings within tables for omitted data use "no data", "?", "-" or "—" interchangeably. + +=== (4′-Monosubstituted 2,3-Thiophene phenyl)-tropanes === + +=== (3′,4′-Disubstituted phenyl)-tropanes === + +ɑas ·HCl (salt) +bas ·HCl·2 H2O (salt) +cSingh gives the reverse value with respect to i.e. 1,329 for NET & 320 for 5-HT + +ɑIC50 determined in Cynomolgous monkey caudate-putamen +bas ·HCl (salt) +cas ·HCl·2 H2O (salt) +dNEN + +=== (2′,4′-Disubstituted phenyl)-tropanes === + +=== (3′,4′,5′-Trisubstituted para-methoxyphenyl)-tropanes === + +ɑN=2 + +=== (2′,4′,5′-Trisubstituted phenyl)-tropanes === + +== 2-Carbmethoxy modified (replaced/substituted) == + +=== General 2-carbmethoxy modifications === + +==== 2β-substitutions of p-methoxy-phenyltropanes ==== + +ɑN=2 + +==== 2β-carboxy side-chained (p-chloro/iodo/methyl) phenyltropanes ==== + +ɑKi value for displacement of [3H]DA uptake. +bKi value for displacement of [3H]5-HT uptake. +cKi value for displacement of [3H]NE uptake. +d[3H]5-HT uptake to [3H]DA uptake ratio. +e[3H]NE uptake to [3H]DA uptake ratio. + +=== Carboxyaryl === + +==== 2-Phenyl-3-Phenyltropanes ==== + +=== Carboxyalkyl === + +Use of a cyclopropyl ester appears to enable better MAT retention than does the choice of isopropyl ester. +Use of a cycBu resulted in greater DAT selectivity than did the cycPr homologue. + +==== 2-Alkyl Esters & Ethers ==== + +===== Esters (2-Alkyl) ===== + +===== Ethers (2-Alkyl) ===== + +=== Carboxamides === +U.S. patent 5,736,123 + +✲RTI-183 and RTI-218 suggest possible copy-error, seeing as "CON(OMe)Me" & "CON(Me)OMe" difference between methyl & methoxy render as the same. + +==== Carboxamide linked phenyltropanes dimers ==== + +Dimers of phenyltropanes, connected in their dual form using the C2 locant as altered toward a carboxamide structural configuring (in contrast and away from the usual inherent ecgonine carbmethoxy), as per Frank Ivy Carroll's patent inclusive of such chemical compounds, possibly so patented due to being actively delayed pro-drugs in vivo. + +=== Heterocycles === +These heterocycles are sometimes referred to as the "bioisosteric equivalent" of the simpler esters from which they are derived. A potential disadvantage of leaving the ββ-ester unreacted is that in addition to being hydrolyzable, it can also epimerize to the energetically more favorable trans configuration. This can happen to cocaine also. + +Several of the oxadiazoles contain the same number and types of heteroatoms, while their respective binding potencies display 8×-15× difference. A finding that would not be accounted for by their affinity originating from hydrogen bonding. +To explore the possibility of electrostatic interactions, the use of molecular electrostatic potentials (MEP) were employed with model compound 34 (replacing the phenyltropane moiety with a methyl group). Focusing on the vicinity of the atoms @ positions A—C, the minima of electrostatic potential near atom position A (ΔVmin(A)), calculated with semi-empirical (AM1) quantum mechanics computations (superimposing the heterocyclic and phenyl rings to ascertain the least in the way of steric and conformational discrepancies) found a correlation between affinity @ DAT and ΔVmin(A): wherein the values for the latter for 32c = 0, 32g = -4, 32h = -50 & 32i = -63 kcal/mol. +In contrast to this trend, it is understood that an increasingly negative ΔVmin is correlated with an increase of strength in hydrogen bonding, which is the opposing trend for the above; this indicates that the 2β-substituents (at least for the heterocyclic class) are dominated by electrostatic factors for binding in-the-stead of the presumptive hydrogen bonding model for this substituent of the cocaine-like binding ligand. + +==== 3-Substituted-isoxazol-5-yl ==== + +==== 3-Substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole ==== + +N.B There are some alternative ways of making the tetrazole ring however; Cf. the sartan drugs synthesis schemes. Bu3SnN3 is a milder choice of reagent than hydrogen azide (cf. Irbesartan). + +=== Acyl (C2-propanoyl) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..614c784b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "List of phenyltropanes" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== 2β-Acyl-3β-naphthyl substituted ==== + +=== Ester reduction === +Note: p-fluorophenyl is weaker than the others. RTI-145 is not peroxy, it is a methyl carbonate. + +=== 2-Alkane/Alkene === + +aKi value for displacement of WIN 35428. +bIC50 value. + +=== Irreversible covalent (cf. ionic) C2 ligands === + +Irreversible (phenylisothiocyanate) binding ligand (Murthy, V.; Martin, T. J.; Kim, S.; Davies, H. M. L.; Childers, S. R. (2008). "In Vivo Characterization of a Novel Phenylisothiocyanate Tropane Analog at Monoamine Transporters in Rat Brain". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 326 (2): 587–595. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.138842. PMID 18492949. S2CID 5996473.) RTI-76: 4′-isothiocyanatophenyl (1R,2S,3S,5S)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate. Also known as: 3β-(p-chlorophenyl)tropan-2β-carboxylic acid p-isothiocyanatophenylmethyl ester. + +==== C2 Acyl, N8 phenylisothiocyanate ==== + +HD-205 (Murthy et al., 2007) +Note the contrast to the phenylisothiocyanate covalent binding site locations as compared to the one on p-Isococ, a non-phenyltropane cocaine analogue. + +=== Benztropine based (C2-position hetero-substituted) phenyltropanes === + +=== F&B series (Biotin side-chains etc.) === +One patent claims a series of compounds with biotin-related sidechains are pesticides. + +=== Miscellany (i.e. Misc./Miscellaneous) C2-substituents === + +== C2-truncated/descarboxyl (non-ecgonine w/o 2-position-replacement tropanes) == + +=== Aryl-Tropenes === +WO 2004113297, Peters, Dan; Olsen, Gunnar M. & Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard et al., "Aza-ring derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published 2004-12-29, assigned to NeuroSearch AS + +U.S. patent 2,001,047,028 + +== Enantioselective nonstandard configurations (non-2β-,3β-) == + +=== β,α Stereochemistry === + +=== α,β Stereochemistry === +CA 2112084 + +==== di-chloro; para- & meta- in tandem (α,β configured phenyltropanes) ==== +U.S. patent 2,001,047,028 + +==== fumaric acid salts (of α,β configured phenyltropanes) ==== +WO 2004072075, Peters, Dan; Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard & Olsen, Gunnar M. et al., "Novel 8-aza-bicyclo[3.2.1]octane derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published 2004-08-26, assigned to NeuroSearch AS + +== Arene equivalent alterations == + +=== η6-3β-(transition metal complexed phenyl)tropanes === + +Unlike metal complexed PTs created with the intention of making useful radioligands, 21a & 21b were produced seeing as their η6-coordinated moiety dramatically altered the electronic character and reactivity of the benzene ring, as well as such a change adding asymmetrical molecular volume to the otherwise planar arene ring unit of the molecule. (cf. the Dewar–Chatt–Duncanson model). In addition the planar dimension of the transition metal stacked arene becomes delocalized (cf. Bloom and Wheeler.). +21a was twice as potent as both cocaine and troparil in displacement of β-CFT, as well as displaying high & low affinity Ki values in the same manner as those two compounds. Whereas its inhibition of DA uptake showed it as comparably equipotent to cocaine & troparil. 21b by contrast had a one hundredfold decrease in high-affinity site binding compared to cocaine and a potency 10× less for inhibiting DA uptake. Attesting these as true examples relating useful effective applications for bioorganometallic chemistry. + +The discrepancy in binding for the two benzene metal chelates is assumed to be due to electrostatic differences rather than their respective size difference. The solid cone angles, measured by the steric parameter (i.e. θ) is θ=131° for Cr(CO)3 whereas Cp*Ru was θ=187° or only 30% larger. The tricarbonyl moiety being considered equivalent to the cyclopenta dienyl (Cp) ligand. + +ɑThe binding data fit a two-site model better than a one-site model +bThe Ki value for the one-site model was 124 ± 10 nM +cIUPAC: [η6-(2β-carbomethoxy-3β-phenyl)tropane]tricarbonylchromium +dIUPAC: [η5-(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl)]-[η6-(2β-carbomethoxy-3β-phenyl)tropane]ruthenium-(II) triflate + +=== 3-(2-thiophene) and 3-(2-furan) === + +=== Thiophenyltropanes === + +=== Diaryl === + +== 6/7-tropane position substituted == + +=== 2β-carbomethoxy 6/7 substituted === + +ɑIC50 value for displacement of [H3]mazindol. IC50 for cocaine 288 nM for displacement of [H3]mazindol + +=== 3-butyl 6/7 substituted === + +=== intermediate 6- & 7-position synthesis modified phenyltropanes === + +== 8-tropane (bridgehead) position modified == + +=== Nortropanes (N-demethylated) === + +It is well established that electrostatic potential around the para position tends to improve MAT binding. This is believed to also be the case for the meta position, although it is less studied. N-demethylation dramatically potentiates NET and SERT affinity, but the effects of this on DAT binding are insignificant. Of course, this is not always the case. For an interesting exception to this trend, see the Taxil document. There is ample evidence suggesting that N-demethylation of alkaloids occurs naturally in vivo via a biological enzyme. The fact that hydrolysis of the ester leads to inactive metabolites means that this is still the main mode of deactivation for analogues that have an easily metabolised 2-ester substituent. The attached table provides good illustration of the effect of this chemical transformation on MAT binding affinities. N.B. In the case of both nocaine and pethidine, N-demethyl compounds are more toxic and have a decreased seizure threshold. + +ɑThe N-demethylated variant of (i.e. compound code-name after dash) + +"Interest in NET selective drugs continues as evidenced by the development of atomoxetine, manifaxine, and reboxetine as new NET selective compounds for treating ADHD and other CNS disorders such as depression" (FIC, et al. 2005). + +ɑThese values determined in Cynomolgus monkey caudate-putamen +bThe radioligand used for 5-HTT was [3H]citalopram + +==== Paroxetine homologues ==== +See the N-methyl paroxetine homologues +cf. di-aryl phenyltropanes for another SSRI approximated hybrid: the fluoxetine based homologue of the phenyltropane class. + +=== N-replaced (S,O,C) === + +The eight position nitrogen has been found to not be an exclusively necessary functional anchor for binding at the MAT for phenyltropanes and related compounds. Sulfurs, oxygens, and even the removal of any heteroatom, leaving only the carbon skeleton of the structure at the bridged position, still show distinct affinity for the monoamine transporter cocaine-target site and continue to form an ionic bond with a measurable degree of reasonable efficacy. + +==== 8-oxa bridgehead replacements ==== + +==== 8-carba bridgehead replacements ==== + +=== N-alkyl === + +Bi- and tri-cyclic aza compounds and their uses. + +ɑIC50 for displacement of [3H]cocaine. IC50 for cocaine = 67.8 ± 8.7 (nM) +bIC50 values for displacement of [3H]WIN 35428 +cIC50 values for displacement of [3H]citalopram +dThe standard Ki value for the displacement of [3H]GBR 12935, [3H]paroxetine, and [3H]nisoxetine were 27 ± 2, 3 ± 0.2, and 80 ± 28 nM, respectively, for these experiments \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a1238615d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "List of phenyltropanes" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Bridged N-constrained phenyltropanes (fused/tethered) === +See: Bridged cocaine derivatives & N8 Tricyclic (2β—crossed-over) N8—to—3β replaced aryl linked (expansive front-bridged) cocaine analogues + +==== p-methyl aryl front & back N-bridged phenyltropanes ==== +U.S. patent 6,150,376 + +ɑValue for displacement of [3H]WIN 35,428 binding @ DAT +bValue for displacement of [3H]paroxetine binding to SERT +cValue for displacement of [3H]nisoxetine from NET +Fused tropane-derivatives as neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors. Singh notes that all bridged derivatives tested displayed 2.5—104 fold higher DAT affinity than cocaine. The ones 2.8—190 fold more potent at DAT also had increased potency at the other two MAT sites (NET & SERT); NET having 1.6—78× increased activity. (+)-128 additionally exhibited 100× greater potency @ SERT, whereas 132a & 133a had 4–5.2× weaker 5-HTT (i.e. SERT) activity. Front-bridged (e.g. 128 & 129) had a better 5-HT/DA reuptake ratio in favor of SERT, while the back-bridged (e.g. 130–133) preferred placement with DAT interaction. +U.S. patent 5,998,405 + +==== 3,4-Cl2 aryl front-bridged phenyltropanes ==== + +1-Chloroethyl chloroformate is used to remove N-methyl of trans-aryltropanes. +2° amine is reacted with Br(CH2)nCO2Et. +Base used to abstract proton α- to CO2Et group and complete the tricyclic ring closure step (Dieckmann cyclization). +To make a different type of analog (see Kozikowski patent above) + +Remove N-Me +Add ɣ-bromo-chloropropane +Allow for cyclization with K2CO3 base and KI cat. + +==== C2 + C3 (side-chain) fused (carboxylate & benzene conjoined) ==== + +(1R,2S,10R,12S)-15-methyl-15-azatetracyclo(10.2.1.02,10.04,9)pentadeca-4(9),5,7-trien-3-one + +==== C3 to 1′ + 2′ (ortho) tropane locant dual arene bridged ==== + +Parent compound of a series of spirocyclic cocaine benzoyl linkage modification analogs created by Suzuki coupling method of ortho-substituted arylboronic acids and an enol-triflate derived from cocaine; which technically has the three methylene length of cocaine analogues as well as the single length which defines the phenyltropane series. Note that the carbomethoxyl group is (due to constraints in synthetic processes used in the creation of this compound) alpha configured; which is not the usual, most prevalent, conformation favored for the PT cocaine-receptor binding pocket of most such sub-type of chemicals. The above and below depictions show attested compounds synthesized, additionally with variations upon the Endo–exo isomerism of their structures. + +== Cycloalkane-ring alterations of the tropane ring system == + +=== Azanonane (outer ring extended) === +3-Phenyl-9-azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane derivatives +To better elucidate the binding requirements at MAT, the methylene unit on the tropane was extended by one to create the azanonane analogs. Which are the beginning of classes of modifications that start to become effected by the concerns & influences of macrocyclic stereocontrol. +Despite the loosened flexibility of the ring system, nitrogen constrained variants (such as were created to make the bridged class of phenyltropanes) which might better fit the rigid placement necessary to suit the spatial requirements needed in the binding pocket were not synthesized. Though front-bridged types were synthesized for the piperidine homologues: the trend of equal values for either isomers of that type followed the opposing trend of a smaller and lessened plasticity of the molecule to contend with a rationale for further constraining the pharmacophore within that scope. Instead such findings lend credence to the potential for the efficacy of fusing the nitrogen on an enlarged tropane, as like upon the compounds given below. + +=== Azabornane (outer ring contracted) === +3-Phenyl-7-azabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane derivatives +Ring-contracted analogs of phenyltropanes did not permit sufficient penetration of the phenyl into the target binding site on MAT for an affinity in the efficacious range. The distance from the nitrogen to the phenyl centroid for 155a was 4.2 and 155c was 5.0 Å, respectively. (Whereas troparil was 5.6 & compound 20a 5.5 angstroms). However piperidine homologues (discussed below) had comparable potencies. + +Azabornanes with longer substitutions at the 3β-position (benzoyloxys alkylphenyls, carbamoyls etc.) or with the nitrogen in the position it would be on the piperidine homologues (i.e. arrangements of differing locations for the nitrogens being either distal or proximal within the terms required to facilitate the framework of the compound to a correlative proportion, functional for the given moiety), were not synthesized, despite conclusions that the nitrogen to phenyl length was the issue at variance enough to be the interfering factor for the proper binding of the compressed topology of the azabornane. Carroll, however, has listed benzoyloxy azabornanes in patents. + +=== Piperidine homologues (inner two-carbon bridge excised) === +Piperidine homologues had comparable affinity & potency spreads to their respective phenyltropane analogues. Without as much of a discrepancy between the differing isomers of the piperidine class with respect to affinity and binding values as had in the phenyltropanes. + +==== p-chloro & related (piperidine homologues of phenyltropanes) ==== + +Heterocyclic N-Desmethyl + +==== Naphthyl & related (piperidine homologues of phenyltropanes) ==== + +==== distal-nitrogen 'dimethylamine' (piperidine-like cyclohexyl homologues of phenyltropanes) ==== +Source: + +cf. Fencamfamine + +== Radiolabeled == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69e11049 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of phenyltropanes" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Transition metal complexes === +These compounds include transition metals in their heteroatomic conformation, unlike non-radiolabel intended chelates where their element is chosen for intrinsic affectation to binding and function, these are tagged on by a "tail" (or similar) with a sufficient spacer to remain separated from known binding properties and instead are meant to add radioactivity enough to be easily tracked via observation methods that utilize radioactivity. As for anomalies of binding within the spectrum of the under-written kinds just mentioned: other factors not otherwise considered to account for its relatively lower potency, "compound 89c" is posited to protrude forward at the aryl place on its moiety toward the MAT ligand acceptor site in a manner detrimental to its efficacy. That is considered due to the steric bulk of the eight-position "tail" chelate substituted constituent, overreaching the means by which it was intended to be isolated from binding factors upon a tail, and ultimately nonetheless, interfering with its ability to bind. However, to broach this discrepancy, decreasing of the nitrogen tether at the eight position by a single methylene unit (89d) was shown to bring the potency of the analogous compound to the expected, substantially higher, potency: The N-methyl analog of 89c having an IC50 of 1.09 ± 0.02 @ DAT & 2.47 ± 0.14 nM @ SERT; making 89c upwards of thirty-three times weaker at those MAT uptake sites. + +ɑIUPAC: [2-[[2-[[[3-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3,2,1]oct-2-yl]methyl]-(2-mercaptoethyl)amino]ethyl]amino]ethanethiolato-(3—)-N2, N2′, S2, S2′]oxo-[1''R''-(''exo'', ''exo'')]-[99mTc]technetium +bR- & S- isomer values are Ki (nM) for displacement of [125I]IPT with technetium-99m replaced by rhenium +cIC50 (nM) values for displacement of [3H]WIN 35428 with ligand tricarbonyltechnetium replaced with rhenium. (IC50 for WIN 35428 were 2.62 ± 1.06 @ high affinity binding & 139 ± 72 @ low affinity binding sites) +dKi value for displacement of [125I]IPT radioligand. + +== Select annotations of above == +Phenyltropanes can be grouped by "N substitution" "Stereochemistry" "2-substitution" & by the nature of the 3-phenyl group substituent X. +Often this has dramatic effects on selectivity, potency, and duration, also toxicity, since phenyltropanes are highly versatile. For more examples of interesting phenyltropanes, see some of the more recent patents, e.g. U.S. patent 6,329,520, U.S. patent 7,011,813, U.S. patent 6,531,483, and U.S. patent 7,291,737. +Potency in vitro should not be confused with the actual dosage, as pharmacokinetic factors can have a dramatic influence on what proportion of an administered dose actually gets to the target binding sites in the brain, and so a drug that is very potent at binding to the target may nevertheless have only moderate potency in vivo. For example, RTI-336 requires a higher dosage than cocaine. Accordingly, the active dosage of RTI-386 is exceedingly poor despite the relatively high ex vivo DAT binding affinity. + +== Sister substances == +Many molecular drug structures have exceedingly similar pharmarcology to phenyltropanes, yet by certain technicalities do not fit the phenyltropane moniker. These are namely classes of dopaminergic cocaine analogues that are in the piperidine class (a category that includes methylphenidate) or benztropine class (such as Difluoropine: which is extremely close to fitting the criteria of being a phenyltropane.) Whereas other potent DRIs are far removed from being in the phenyltropane structural family, such as Benocyclidine or Vanoxerine. +Most any variant with a tropane locant—3-β (or α) connecting linkage differing from, e.g. longer than, a single methylene unit (i.e. "phenyl"), including alkylphenyls (see the styrene analog, first image given in example below) is more correctly a "cocaine analogue" proper, and not a phenyltropane. Especially if this linkage imparts a sodium channel blocker functionality to the molecule. + +== See also == +List of cocaine analogues +List of local anesthetics +List of methylphenidate analogues + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Im-pact indices (exact locations within sources cited) & foot-notations === + +== External links == +U.S. Provisional Patent Application listing examples of compounds that are tropanes for prospective use in research +Article on cocaine analogue research Archived 2006-09-22 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6d2a91fec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "List of physical quantities" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:54.673028+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article consists of tables outlining a number of physical quantities. A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified by measurement; it has a value and units. The International System of Quantities, which underlies the International System of Units, defines seven base quantities; other quantities are generally derived quantities, which can be expressed in terms of the base quantities. +Neither the names nor the symbols used for the physical quantities are set by international standards, although ISO/IEC 80000 does list many of these without making them normative. Some quantities are known by several different names and symbols. The table typically lists the name and symbol that is most commonly used. +The final column lists some properties and characteristics that a quantity has, such as their scaling behaviour (e.g. whether the quantity is intensive or extensive), their transformation properties (i.e. whether the quantity is a scalar, vector, matrix or tensor), and whether the quantity is conserved. + + +== Scalar == + + +== Vector == + + +== Tensor == + + +== See also == + +List of photometric quantities +List of radiometric quantities +List of dimensionless quantities +List of electromagnetism quantities + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ec7cbd13b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,222 @@ +--- +title: "List of phytochemicals in food" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of phytochemicals present in foods. + +== Terpenoids (isoprenoids) == + +=== Carotenoids (tetraterpenoids) === + +==== Carotenes ==== +orange pigments + +α-Carotene – to vitamin A: carrots, pumpkins, maize, tangerine, orange +β-Carotene – to vitamin A: dark, leafy greens, red, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables. +γ-Carotene - to vitamin A +δ-Carotene +ε-carotene +Lycopene: Vietnamese Gac, tomatoes, grapefruit, watermelon, guava, apricots, carrots, autumn olive. +Neurosporene: tomato, pink grapefruit,watermelon +Phytofluene: star fruit, sweet potato, orange +Phytoene: sweet potato, orange + +==== Xanthophylls ==== +yellow pigments + +Canthaxanthin: paprika, mushrooms, crustaceans, fish and eggs . +β-Cryptoxanthin to vitamin A: mango, tangerine, orange, papaya, peaches, avocado, pea, grapefruit, kiwi +Zeaxanthin: wolfberry, spinach, kale, turnip greens, maize, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, orange +Astaxanthin: microalgae, yeast, krill, shrimp, salmon, lobsters, and some crabs +Lutein: spinach, turnip greens, romaine lettuce, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, mango, papaya, oranges, kiwi, peaches, squash, brassicas, prunes, sweet potatoes, honeydew melon, rhubarb, plum, avocado, pear, cilantro +Rubixanthin: rose hip + +=== Triterpenoids === +Saponins: soybeans, beans, other legumes, maize, alfalfa +Oleanolic acid: American pokeweed, honey mesquite, garlic, java apple, cloves, and many other Syzygium species +Ursolic acid: apples, basil, bilberries, cranberries, elder flower, peppermint, lavender, oregano, thyme, hawthorn, prunes +Betulinic acid: Ber tree, white birch, winged beans, tropical carnivorous plants Triphyophyllum peltatum, Ancistrocladus heyneanus, Diospyros leucomelas a member of the persimmon family, Tetracera boiviniana, the jambul (Syzygium formosanum), chaga (Inonotus obliquus), and many other Syzygium species +Moronic acid: Rhus javanica (a sumac), mistletoe + +=== Diterpenes === +Cafestol: Coffea arabica in unfiltered form such as French press coffee or Turkish coffee/Greek coffee + +=== Monoterpenes === +Limonene: oils of citrus, cherries, spearmint, dill, garlic, celery, maize, rosemary, ginger, basil +Perillyl alcohol: citrus oils, hops, caraway, mints +Thujones: oils of Thyme, Oregano, Sage, Mugwort, Juniper + +=== Steroids === +Phytosterols: almonds, cashews, peanuts, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, whole wheat, maize, soybeans, many vegetable oils +Campesterol: buckwheat +β-Sitosterol: avocado, rice bran, wheat germ, corn oils, fennel, peanuts, soybeans, hawthorn, basil, buckwheat +gamma sitosterol +Stigmasterol: buckwheat + +== Phenolic compounds == + +=== Natural monophenols === +Apiole: parsley, celery leaf +Carnosol: rosemary, sage +Carvacrol: oregano, thyme, pepperwort, wild bergamot +Dillapiole: dill, fennel root + +=== Polyphenols === + +==== Flavonoids ==== +red, blue, purple pigments + +Flavonols +Quercetin: red and yellow onions, tea, wine, apples, cranberries, buckwheat, beans, lovage +Kaempferol: tea, strawberries, gooseberries, cranberries, grapefruit, apples, peas, brassicates (broccoli, kale, brussels sprouts, cabbage), chives, spinach, endive, leek, tomatoes +Myricetin: grapes, red wine, berries, walnuts +Fisetin: strawberries, cucumbers +Rutin: citrus fruits, oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit, berries, peaches, apples, pagoda tree fruits, asparagus, buckwheat, parsley, tomatoes, apricots, rhubarb, tea +Isorhamnetin: red turnip, goldenrod, mustard leaf, ginkgo biloba, onion +Flavanones +Hesperidin: citrus fruits +Naringenin: citrus fruits +Silybin: milk thistle +Eriodictyol: citrus fruits +Flavones +Acacetin: Robinia pseudoacacia, Turnera diffusa +Apigenin: chamomile, celery, parsley +Chrysin: Passiflora caerulea, Pleurotus ostreatus, Oroxylum indicum +Diosmetin: Vicia +Tangeritin: tangerine and other citrus peels +Luteolin: beets, artichokes, celery, carrots, celeriac, rutabaga, parsley, mint, chamomile, lemongrass, chrysanthemum +Flavan-3-ols (flavanols) +Catechins: white tea, green tea, black tea, grapes, wine, apple juice, cocoa, lentils, black-eyed peas +(+)-Catechin +(+)-Gallocatechin +(−)-Epicatechin +(−)-Epigallocatechin +(−)-Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG): green tea +(−)-Epicatechin 3-gallate +Theaflavin: black tea +Theaflavin-3-gallate: black tea +Thearubigins: black tea +Proanthocyanidins +Flavanonols +Anthocyanidins (flavonals) and Anthocyanins red wine, many red, purple or blue fruits and vegetables +Pelargonidin: bilberry, raspberry, strawberry +Peonidin: bilberry, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, peach +Cyanidin: red apple & pear, bilberry, blackcurrant, blackberry, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, peach, plum, hawthorn, loganberry, cocoa +Delphinidin: bilberry, blackcurrant, blueberry, eggplant +Malvidin: malve, bilberry, blueberry +Petunidin +Phycocyanin: spirulina + +==== Isoflavonoids ==== +Isoflavones (phytoestrogens) use the 3-phenylchromen-4-one skeleton (with no hydroxyl group substitution on carbon at position 2) +Daidzein (formononetin): soy, alfalfa sprouts, red clover, chickpeas, peanuts, kudzu, other legumes +Genistein (biochanin A): soy, alfalfa sprouts, red clover, chickpeas, peanuts, other legumes +Glycitein: soy +Isoflavanes +Isoflavandiols +Isoflavenes +Pterocarpans or Coumestans (phytoestrogens) +Coumestrol: red clover, alfalfa sprouts, soy, peas, brussels sprouts + +==== Aurones ==== + +==== Chalconoids ==== + +==== Flavonolignans ==== +Silymarin: artichokes, milk thistle + +==== Lignans ==== +Phytoestrogens: seeds (flax, sesame, pumpkin, sunflower, poppy), whole grains (rye, oats, barley), bran (wheat, oat, rye), fruits (particularly berries) and vegetables + +Matairesinol: flax seed, sesame seed, rye bran and meal, oat bran, poppy seed, strawberries, blackcurrants, broccoli +Secoisolariciresinol: flax seeds, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, pumpkin, strawberries, blueberries, cranberries, zucchini, blackcurrant, carrots +Pinoresinol and lariciresinol: sesame seed, Brassica vegetables + +==== Stilbenoids ==== +Resveratrol: grape (skins and seeds, grape wine), nuts, peanuts, Japanese Knotweed root +Pterostilbene: grapes, blueberries +Pinosylvin + +==== Curcuminoids ==== +Curcumin (Oxidizes to vanillin): turmeric, mustard + +==== Tannins ==== + +===== Hydrolyzable tannins ===== +Ellagitannins +Punicalagins: tea, berries +Castalagins +Vescalagins: oak wood +Castalins +Casuarictins +Grandinins +Punicalins +Roburin As +Tellimagrandin IIs +Terflavin Bs +Gallotannins +Digalloyl glucose +1,3,6-Trigalloyl glucose + +===== Condensed tannins ===== +Proanthocyanidins: horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum, cranberry juice, peanut skin, grape +Polyflavonoid tannins +Catechol-type tannins +Pyrocatecollic type tannins +Flavolans + +===== Phlorotannins ===== +extracted from brown alga species (Ecklonia cava, Sargassum mcclurei), sea oak (Eisenia bicyclis, Fucus vesiculosus) + +===== Flavono-ellagitannins ===== +Extracted from Mongolian Oak (Quercus mongolica) + +=== Aromatic acid === + +==== Phenolic acids ==== +Salicylic acid: peppermint, licorice, peanut, wheat +Gallic acid: tea, mango, strawberries, rhubarb, soy +Ellagic acid: walnuts, strawberries, cranberries, blackberries, guava, grapes + +==== Hydroxycinnamic acids ==== +Caffeic acid: burdock, hawthorn, artichoke, pear, basil, thyme, oregano, apple, olive oil +Chlorogenic acid: echinacea, strawberries, pineapple, coffee, sunflower, blueberries +Cinnamic acid: cinnamon, aloe +Ferulic acid: oats, rice, artichoke, orange, pineapple, apple, peanut, açaí oil +Coumarin: citrus fruits, maize + +=== Phenylethanoids === +Tyrosol: olive oil +Hydroxytyrosol: olive oil +Oleocanthal: olive oil +Oleuropein: olive oil + +=== Others === +Capsaicin: chilli peppers +Gingerol: ginger +Alkylresorcinols: wholegrain wheat, rye and barley +Piperine: black pepper + +== Glucosinolates == + +=== The precursor to isothiocyanates === +Sinigrin (the precursor to allyl isothiocyanate): broccoli family, brussels sprouts, black mustard +Glucotropaeolin (the precursor to benzyl isothiocyanate) +Gluconasturtiin (the precursor to phenethyl isothiocyanate) +Glucoraphanin (the precursor to sulforaphane) brassicas: broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, cabbages + +=== Aglycone derivatives === +Dithiolthiones (isothiocyanates) +Sulforaphane: brassicas (broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, cabbages) +Allyl isothiocyanate +Phenethyl Isothiocyanate +Benzyl Isothiocyanate +Oxazolidine-2-thiones +Nitriles +Thiocyanates \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..090de5363 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "List of phytochemicals in food" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Organosulfides/ Organosulfur compounds === +Polysulfides (allium compounds): garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots +Sulfides +Diallyl disulfide garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots +Alliin garlic +Allyl isothiocyanate: horseradish, mustard, wasabi +Syn-propanethial-S-oxide: cut onions + +=== Indoles === +Indole-3-carbinol: cabbage, kale, brussels sprouts, rutabaga, mustard greens, broccoli +3,3'-Diindolylmethane or DIM: broccoli family, brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale +Indole-3-acetic acid: Commonly occurring plant hormone, a part of the auxin family. + +== Betalains == +Betacyanins beets, chard, Amaranthus tricolor +betanin +isobetanin +probetanin +neobetanin +Betaxanthins (non glycosidic versions) +Indicaxanthin: beets, sicilian prickly pear +Vulgaxanthin: beets + +== Chlorophylls == +Chlorophyllin: Dark green leafy vegetables like spinach + +== Other organic acids == +Saturated cyclic acids +Phytic acid: (inositol hexaphosphate) cereals, nuts, sesame seeds, soybeans, wheat, pumpkin, beans, almonds +Quinic acid +Oxalic acid: orange, spinach, rhubarb, tea and coffee, banana, ginger, almond, sweet potato, bell pepper +Tartaric acid: apricots, apples, sunflower, avocado, grapes, tamarind +Anacardic acid: cashews, mangoes +Malic acid: apples +Caftaric acid: grapes +Coutaric acid: grapes +Fertaric acid + +== Amines == +Betanin: beetroot + +== Carbohydrates == + +=== Monosaccharides === +Hexose: wheat, barley +Pentose: rye, oat + +=== Polysaccharides === +Beta-glucan +Chitin: fungi includes other edible mushrooms +Lentinan: fruit body of shiitake (Lentinula edodes mycelium (LEM)) and other edible mushrooms +Fructan +Inulins: diverse plants, e.g. topinambour, chicory +Lignin: stones of fruits, vegetables (filaments of the garden bean), cereals +Pectins: fruit skin (mainly apple and, quince), vegetables + +== Protease inhibitors == +Protease inhibitors: soybean, seeds, legumes, potatoes, eggs, cereals + +== See also == +Nutrient +Essential nutrient +List of macronutrients +List of micronutrients +List of food additives +Underweight + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4a4686a89 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "List of progestogens" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:57.264255+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of progestogens that are or that have been used in clinical or veterinary medicine. They are steroids and include derivatives of progesterone and testosterone. + + +== Progesterone derivatives == + + +=== Retroprogesterone derivatives === + +Although an active progestogen, retroprogesterone is not medically used. + + +=== 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone derivatives === + +17α-hydroxyprogesterone is inactive as a progestogen and is not used medically. +The 19-norprogesterone derivatives gestonorone caproate (gestronol hexanoate), nomegestrol acetate, segesterone acetate (nestorone, elcometrine), and norgestomet are also derivatives of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (see below). + + +=== 17α-Methylprogesterone derivatives === + +Although an active progestogen, 17α-methylprogesterone is not medically used. +The 19-norprogesterone derivatives demegestone, promegestone, and trimegestone are also derivatives of 17α-methylprogesterone (see below). + + +=== Other 17α-substituted progesterone derivatives === + + +=== 19-Norprogesterone derivatives === + +Although an active progestogen, 19-norprogesterone is not medically used. + + +== Testosterone derivatives == + +Testosterone itself does not have significant progestogenic activity. Testosterone is instead classified as an anabolic-androgenic steroid and is included here purely because it is the parent structure of this group of progestins. + + +=== 17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives === + + +=== 19-Nortestosterone derivatives === + +While nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) does have significant progestogenic activity, it is not used as a progestogen. It is instead classified as an androgenic-anabolic steroid and is included here purely because it is an important parent structure of this group of progestins. + + +=== 17α-Ethynyl-19-nortestosterone derivatives === + + +==== Estranes ==== + + +==== 18-Methylestranes (13β-ethylgonanes) ==== + + +=== Other 17α-substituted 19-nortestosterone derivatives === + + +== Spirolactone derivatives == + +Although an active progestogen, SC-5233 (spirolactone) is not medically used. + + +== See also == +List of steroids +List of progestogen esters + + +== Notes == +? = Chemical names that are unverified. + + +== Further reading == +McRobb L, Handelsman DJ, Kazlauskas R, Wilkinson S, McLeod MD, Heather AK (2008). "Structure-activity relationships of synthetic progestins in a yeast-based in vitro androgen bioassay". J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 110 (1–2): 39–47. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2007.10.008. PMID 18395441. S2CID 5612000. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f506d77db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "List of publications in chemistry" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:58.574449+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of publications in chemistry, organized by field. +Some factors that correlate with publication notability include: + +Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic. +Breakthrough – A publication that changed scientific knowledge significantly. +Influence – A publication that has significantly influenced the world or has had a massive impact on the teaching of chemistry. + +== Foundations == + +=== The Sceptical Chymist === +Boyle, Robert (1979) [1661]. The Sceptical Chymist. London; New York: J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; E.P. Dutton & Co. OCLC 3165496. +Description: Boyle, in the form of a dialogue, argued that chemical theories should be firmly grounded in experiment before their acceptance, and for the foundation of chemistry as a science separate from medicine and alchemy. +Importance: Topic Creator, Influence. Boyle, in this book, became the first to argue that experiment should form the basis of all theory, a common practice in chemistry today. He also expounded on a rudimentary atomic theory and the existence of chemical elements beyond the classic earth, fire, air, and water. He is seen as the father of chemistry, and this is his most celebrated book, with continued relevance to the present day. + +=== Traité Élémentaire de Chimie === +Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (available in English as Elementary Treatise of Chemistry) - Antoine Lavoisier, 1789 +Description: This book was intended as an introduction to new theories in chemistry and as such, was one of the first Chemistry textbooks. +Importance: Introduction, Influence. Aside from being one of the first chemistry textbooks, the book was one of the first to state the law of conservation of mass, define a chemical element, and contain a list of known elements. + +=== Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique === +Guyton de Morveau, L. B.; Lavoisier, A. L.; Berthollet, C. L.; de Fourcroy, A. F. +Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, Paris, 1787, available in English as Chymical Nomenclature. +Some details and a picture available at IUPAC nomenclature#History +Description: This publication laid out a logical system for naming chemical substances (mainly chemical elements and inorganic compounds). +Importance: Prior to this publication, a multitude of names were often used for the same substance. This publication led to an international consensus on how to name chemical substances. + +=== A New System of Chemical Philosophy === +A New System of Chemical Philosophy - John Dalton, 1808–1827 +Description: This book explained Dalton's theory of atoms and its applications to chemistry. +Importance: The book was one of the first to describe a modern atomic theory, a theory that lies at the basis of modern chemistry. It is the first to introduce a table of atomic and molecular weights. Surprisingly, given the period in which the book was written, of the five properties of atoms that Dalton listed, only two have been shown to be incorrect. + +=== The Dependence Between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements === +The Dependence Between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements - Dmitri Mendeleev +Zeitschrift für Chemie 12, 405–406 (1869) +Online version +Description and Importance: In this paper the periodic table was introduced. +Notice that the table in the above link is the original one. Since then the table structure was slightly changed and new elements were added to it. + +== Organic chemistry == + +=== Science of Synthesis: Houben–Weyl Methods of Molecular Transformations === +Volume titles are here [1] +Thieme: Stuttgart, 48 volumes, 2000–2009 (print and electronic version available) +Description: Contains synthetic models selected by world-renowned experts, with full experimental procedures and background information. Considers methods from journals, books, and patent literature from the early 19th century up to the present day and presents important synthetic methods for all classes of compounds. Critically evaluates the preparative applicability and significance of the synthetic methods. +Importance: A reference publication. + +=== March's Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure === +Michael B. Smith, Jerry March +Wiley-Interscience, 5th edition, 2001, ISBN 0-471-58589-0 +Wiley-Interscience, 6th edition, 2007, ISBN 978-0-471-72091-1 +Description: A comprehensive reference for organic chemistry with over 25,000 references. +Importance: A reference publication. + +=== The Logic of Chemical Synthesis === +Elias James Corey, Xue-Min Cheng +Wiley-Interscience, 1995, ISBN 0-471-11594-0 +Description: Describes the logic underlying the rational design of complex organic synthesis. +Importance: Breakthrough, Influence + +=== Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis === +Theodora Greene, Peter G. M. Wuts +Wiley-Interscience, 1st edition, 1981 +Wiley-Interscience, 2nd edition, 1991 +Wiley-Interscience, 3rd edition, 1999, ISBN 0-471-16019-9 +Wiley-Interscience, 4th edition, 2007, ISBN 0-471-69754-0 +Wiley-Interscience, 5th edition, 2014, ISBN 9781118057483 +Description: A comprehensive reference for the usage of protecting groups in organic synthesis. +Importance: A reference publication. + +=== Comprehensive Organic Transformations === +Richard C. Larock +Wiley-VCH +1st edition: +2nd edition: 1999, ISBN 0-471-19031-4 +Description: A standard reference for the practicing organic chemist. These books are just enormous lists of key references indexed by functional group transformations. +Importance: A reference publication. + +=== Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds === +Ernest L. Eliel +1st edition: 1962 +Current edition: renamed Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds, 1994 (by Eliel and Samuel H. Wilen) +Description: Systematic and complete exposition of all aspects of organic stereochemistry +Importance: Standard advanced text for organic stereochemistry. + +=== The Conservation of Orbital Symmetry === +Robert Burns Woodward and Roald Hoffmann +Verlag Chemie Academic Press +1st edition: 1970 +Description: This book summarizes a series of publications (the first in 1965) by the Nobel Prize winning authors where they describe the mechanism of a series of pericyclic reactions based upon the conservation of orbital symmetry leading to what are now called the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. +Importance: The concepts outlined in this text changed the field of organic chemistry and ushered in the frontier molecular orbital theory approach toward understanding reactions. + +=== Classics in Total Synthesis === +K.C. Nicolaou and E.J. Sorensen +Current edition: 1996 +Description. The synthesis of famous molecules. +Importance. A standard postgraduate text book for the study of total synthesis and a valuable reference work for experts. "..destined to become a classic itself". + +== Inorganic chemistry == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..035c93d5f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "List of publications in chemistry" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:58.574449+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chemical Applications of Group Theory === +F. Albert Cotton +Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1st Ed. 1963, 3rd Ed. 1990. +Description: Explains the use of symmetry groups in describing molecular symmetry and its role in determining molecular properties. +Importance: Significant influence by introducing group theory to a much wider group of chemists. + +=== Advanced Inorganic Chemistry === +F. Albert Cotton and Geoffrey Wilkinson +Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1st Ed. 1962, 6th Ed. 1999 +Description: A classic general textbook for an undergraduate +course in inorganic chemistry +Importance: This book is not only a good introduction to the subject, it was very different from earlier texts and "led to a +fundamental shift in the way in which inorganic chemistry was studied". It seemed to be symbolic of the renaissance in inorganic chemistry starting in the 1950s. Every new text in inorganic chemistry since this text has had to respond to it. + +=== Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry === +F. Sherwood Taylor and H. M. N. H. Irving +Heinemann, 1st Ed 1931, 10th Ed. 1960 +Description: Unique very advanced and comprehensive coverage of every element known at the time by chapter describing all known compounds yet discovered or synthesised. +Approaches chemistry as the study of elements and compounds without the later emphasis on bond theory and analysis. +Importance: Inspired and instructed generations of English speaking scientists and students. + +=== Chemistry of the Elements === +N. N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw +Heinemann (later Elsevier), 1st Ed 1984, 2nd Ed 1997 +Description: Unique comprehensive descriptive coverage of all the elements and their compounds, with a strong focus on 'real life' and industrial applications. +Importance: The most comprehensive one-volume text on inorganic chemistry available; a worthy successor to Taylor and Irving (see above). + +== Physical chemistry == + +=== Physical Chemistry (Atkins and de Paula) === +P. W. Atkins +Oxford University Press, 1st Ed. 1978, 10th Ed. 2014 (with Julio de Paula from 7th Ed. 2002) +Description: A classic general textbook for an undergraduate course in physical chemistry +Importance: This book is not only a good introduction to the subject, it was very different from earlier texts and altered the way physical chemistry was taught. The first edition was very widely used where English is the language of instruction. Other texts had to respond to the lead from Atkins. The current edition is the 10th edition. + +=== Physical Chemistry (Berry, Rice and Ross) === +R. Stephen Berry, Stuart A. Rice, and John Ross +Oxford University Press, 1st Ed. 1980, 2nd Ed. 2000 +Description: An encyclopedic text and reference suitable for advanced undergraduate or graduate study. +Importance: This massive text by outstanding research workers begins with simple systems and proceeds logically to the more complex phenomena of physical chemistry. The original literature is cited extensively, making the work useful as a reference as well as a textbook. Many topics of current research are treated. Its advanced and exhaustive coverage of the field, together with extensive coverage of modern topics, eclipses the former champion, the text by E. A. Moelwyn-Hughes. + +=== Methods in Physical Chemistry (Schäfer, Schmidt) === +Rolf Schäfer, Peter C. Schmidt +Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2012 +Description: A broad overview of commonly used methods in physical chemistry and their practical aspects. +Importance: This book is designed for students, supporting them in the master and doctoral theses. + +== Biochemistry == + +=== "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" === +James D. Watson and Francis Crick +Nature 171, 737–738 (1953) © Macmillan Publishers Ltd. +Downloadable PDF +Description: In this paper the structure of DNA was proposed. It consisted of a double helix with a phosphate backbone, unlike Linus Pauling and R.B. Corey's double helix where the backbone consisted of the bases. They conclude with the sly remark: "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material." +Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence + +=== "The Structure of the Potassium Channel: Molecular Basis of K+ Conduction and Selectivity" === +Declan A. Doyle, João Morais Cabral, Richard A. Pfuetzner, Anling Kuo, Jacqueline M. Gulbis, Steven L. Cohen, Brian T. Chait and Roderick MacKinnon +Science 280(5360), 69–77 (1998) © American Association for the Advancement of Science +Online version +Description: The structure of the potassium channel is determined by X-ray crystallography. Access to the structure provided answers to central questions in biology, regarding the movement of ions across the cell membrane. In particular, the structure revealed the mechanism with by which these channels move potassium ions both quickly and selectively, reliably preventing similarly sized sodium ions from passing through. +Importance Breakthrough, Influence + +== Analytical chemistry == + +=== Statistics for Experimenters: An Introduction to Design, Data Analysis, and Model Building === +George E.P. Box, J. Stuart Hunter & William G. Hunter +John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1st Edition 1978, 2nd Edition 2005 (ISBN 978-0-471-71813-0) +Description: Starting with examples comparing two sets of experimental data, this text explains variance and the calculation of standard deviations, degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis and the "Student's" t-Test by William J. Gosset. Further chapters discuss the importance of randomization and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) using F distributions before delving into the use of statistically designed experiments including block and factorial designs. The book finishes with least squares regression analysis along with response surface and mechanistic modeling. +Importance: Although almost devoid of classical chemistry, this is the definitive text for any experimentalist. This is particularly true for any chemist measuring or studying the properties or effects of chemical compounds, mixtures or other substances. +Though chemical examples were few, it should be mentioned that co-author William G. Hunter, George Box's protégé, had a Bachelor's and a master's degree in Chemical Engineering with the book written in such a manner that its concepts would easily apply to chemical investigations. + +== Polymer chemistry == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f65449f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +--- +title: "List of publications in chemistry" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:58.574449+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Principles of Polymer Chemistry === +Flory, Paul J. (1953) +Cornell University Press. 1953, ISBN 0-8014-0134-8. +Description: Discusses structure and stereochemistry of synthetic polymers, polymerization kinetics, behaviour of polymers in solution, chain dimensions. +Importance: First major text on polymer chemistry; presents both organic and physical chemistry aspects. Written by a chemist who made major contributions to the physical chemistry of polymers, for which he won the Nobel prize in 1974. + +== Environmental chemistry == + +=== Aquatic Chemistry, Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters === +Stumm, Werner and James J. Morgan. +John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1st Edition 1970, 3rd Edition 1996, ISBN 0-471-51185-4. +Description. This book covers the full spectrum of the discipline including acid/base equilibria, carbonate chemistry, mass transfer, complexation, sorption phenomenon, oxidation/reduction, colloid chemistry, and flocculation/coagulation. The authors generally present the material using a ground up approach that emphasizes fundamental principles of thermodynamics and kinetics. +Importance. The publication is one of the most widely cited texts in environmental chemistry. In 1999, Stumm and Morgan received the Stockholm Water Prize for their contributions in the field. The citation specifically mentioned Aquatic Chemistry where it was described as a "seminal book" that is "used in education all over the world". + +=== "Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorine atom-catalysed destruction of ozone" === +Mario J. Molina and F. S. Rowland, Nature 249, 810–812 (1974) +Description: This paper warned of the danger of ozone depletion due to man-made chlorofluorocarbons. The main atmospheric sink for these compounds was identified as ultraviolet photolysis, liberating chlorine atoms which catalyze the destruction of stratospheric ozone and have the potential to significantly deplete the ozone layer. +Importance: Influence, as described in the presentation speech for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995: “The findings presented by this year's laureates in chemistry have had an enormous political and industrial impact. This was because they clearly identified unacceptable environmental hazards in a large, economically important sector.” [2] + +== Chemical thermodynamics == + +=== "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" === +Gibbs, Willard +Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. III, pp. 108–248, 1876; pp. 343–524, 1878. +Description: Paper applied the thermodynamic theory of steam engines to atomic level chemical reactions; i.e., it established equilibrium criteria necessary to predict the thermodynamic tendency of chemical reactions at constant temperature and pressure. +Importance: Topic creator; historian Bill Bryson states, in his A Short History of Nearly Everything, that Gibbs’ Equilibrium paper is "the Principia of thermodynamics". In addition, this paper, in many ways, functions as the mathematical foundation of physical chemistry. + +== Electrochemistry == + +=== Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications === +Allen J. Bard, Larry R. Faulkner +John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, 2000, ISBN 0-471-04372-9 +Description: The defining reference for electrochemistry, coupling thousands of electroanalytical methods with the theory behind them. +Importance: A reference publication. + +== Theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry and computational chemistry == + +=== Valence and the structure of atoms and molecules === +Gilbert N. Lewis +New York, The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., 1923. +Description: Discusses ionic and covalent bonding (polar and non-polar). +Importance: The book that introduced the modern concept of the covalent bond as the sharing of electron pairs, and tried to reconcile the chemist's empirical view of the atom with the physicist's and spectroscopist's quantum mechanical view. It could be considered a precursor to Pauling's books. + +=== Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry === +Linus Pauling, E. Bright Wilson +New York, London, McGraw-Hill book company, 1935. +Description: A classic and excellent introduction to quantum mechanics. +Importance: One of the earliest books that introduced quantum mechanics to chemists. It remains well loved by many to this day. + +=== Valence === +C. A Coulson +Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1952. +The latest edition is called Coulson's Valence, 3rd Edition, Roy McWeeny, Oxford University Press, 1980 +Description: A classic introduction to valence and the theory of chemical binding. +Importance: This book is credited with causing the expansion of interest in molecular orbital theory from the 1950s. + +=== The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals; An Introduction to Modern Structural Chemistry === +Linus Pauling +Ithaca, N.Y., London, Cornell University Press; H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1940. +Description: A classic that was the first general book to introduce quantum mechanics to chemists. +Importance: Probably more than any other book, introduced quantum mechanics and, in particular, valence bond theory to experimental chemists. + +=== Density-Functional Theory of Atoms and Molecules === +R. G. Parr and W. Yang, +Oxford University Press, New York, 1989. +Description: A very thorough and scholarly account of density functional theory. +Importance: This is a good introduction to the subject, but has particular significance in the way it describes how the theory throws new light on old chemical concepts such as electronegativity. + +=== Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics === +Roberto Car and Michele Parrinello, +Phys. Rev. Lett. 55, 2471 (1985) +Description: Unified Approach for Molecular Dynamics and Density Functional Theory. +Importance: First demonstration of ab-initio molecular dynamics, where the forces are computed on-the-fly by means of quantum mechanical electronic structure calculations. + +== Supramolecular chemistry == + +=== Supramolecular Chemistry – Concepts and Perspectives === +Jean-Marie Lehn +ISBN 3-527-29311-6, VCH, +Description: Comprehensive textbook written by topic creator. +Importance: Most-popular textbook on subject (according to Amazon.com). Lehn coined the term "supermolecule" in '73, developed the concept of supramolecular chemistry in '78, and won the Nobel Prize for his supramolecular chemistry work in ’87. + +=== Supramolecular Medicinal Chemistry === +Michael J. Zaworotko +Brian D. Moulton +Description: Selected articles: +"Supramolecular Medicinal Chemistry: Mixed-Ligand Coordination Complexes".Mol. Pharmaceutics, 2007, 4 (3), pp 373–385;"Pharmaceutical co-crystals".Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2006, 95 (3), pp 499–516;"Crystal engineering of pharmaceutical co-crystals from polymorphic active pharmaceutical ingredients". Chem. Commun., 2005, pp 4601 – 4603; "Recent advances of discrete coordination complexes and coordination polymers in drug delivery". Coord. Chem. Rev., 2011, 255, pp 1623–1641. +Importance: Breakthrough, Influence + +== Medicinal chemistry == + +=== The Practice of Medicinal Chemistry === +Camille Georges Wermuth editor +Academic Press, 1996, ISBN 0-12-744640-0 +2nd edition, Academic Press, 2003, ISBN 0-12-744481-5 +Description: A great overview of the theory, methodology, and techniques of drug design. +Importance: Introduction, Influence + +== See also == + +List of scientific journals +List of scientific journals in chemistry + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d4d3b80d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "List of purification methods in chemistry" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:59.757286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification process are termed isolate. The following list of chemical purification methods should not be considered exhaustive. + +Affinity purification purifies proteins by retaining them on a column through their affinity to antibodies, enzymes, or receptors that have been immobilised on the column. +Filtration is a mechanical method to separate solids from liquids or gases by passing the feed stream through a porous sheet such as a cloth or membrane, which retains the solids and allows the liquid to pass through. +Centrifugation is a process that uses an electric motor to spin a vessel of fluid at high speed to make heavier components settle to the bottom of the vessel. +Evaporation removes volatile liquids from non-volatile solutes, which cannot be done through filtration due to the small size of the substances. +Liquid–liquid extraction removes an impurity or recovers a desired product by dissolving the crude material in a solvent in which other components of the feed material are soluble. +Crystallization separates a product from a liquid feed stream, often in extremely pure form, by cooling the feed stream or adding precipitants that lower the solubility of the desired product so that it forms crystals. The pure solid crystals are then separated from the remaining liquor by filtration or centrifugation. +Recrystallization: In analytical and synthetic chemistry work, purchased reagents of doubtful purity may be recrystallised, e.g. dissolved in a very pure solvent, and then crystallized, and the crystals recovered, in order to improve and/or verify their purity. +Trituration removes highly soluble impurities from usually solid insoluble material by rinsing it with an appropriate solvent. +Adsorption removes a soluble impurity from a feed stream by trapping it on the surface of a solid material, such as activated carbon, that forms strong non-covalent chemical bonds with the impurity. +Chromatography employs continuous adsorption and desorption on a packed bed of a solid to purify multiple components of a single feed stream. In a laboratory setting, mixture of dissolved materials are typically fed using a solvent into a column packed with an appropriate adsorbent, and due to different affinities for solvent (moving phase) versus adsorbent (stationary phase) the components in the original mixture pass through the column in the moving phase at different rates, which thus allows to selectively collect desired materials out of the initial mixture. +Smelting produces metals from raw ore, and involves adding chemicals to the ore and heating it up to the melting point of the metal. +Refining is used primarily in the petroleum industry, whereby crude oil is heated and separated into stages according to the condensation points of the various elements. +Distillation, widely used in petroleum refining and in purification of ethanol separates volatile liquids on the basis of their relative volatilities. There are several type of distillation: simple distillation, steam distillation etc. +Water purification combines a number of methods to produce potable or drinking water. +Downstream processing refers to purification of chemicals, pharmaceuticals and food ingredients produced by fermentation or synthesized by plant and animal tissues, for example antibiotics, citric acid, vitamin E, and insulin. +Fractionation refers to a purification strategy in which some relatively inefficient purification method is repeatedly applied to isolate the desired substance in progressively greater purity. +Electrolysis refers to the breakdown of substances using an electric current. This removes impurities in a substance that an electric current is run through +Sublimation is the process of changing of any substance (usually on heating) from a solid to a gas (or from gas to a solid) without passing through liquid phase. In terms of purification - material is heated, often under vacuum, and the vapors of the material are then condensed back to a solid on a cooler surface. The process thus in its essence is similar to distillation, however the material which is condensed on the cooler surface then has to be removed mechanically, thus requiring different laboratory equipment. +Bioleaching is the extraction of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms. +Separation process +From Crystallization + +Plasma-chemical purification... + + +== References == + + +== External links == +www.zuiveringstechnieken.nl/purification-techniques Useful information about various purification techniques \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1cc52e752 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "List of reagents" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:01.186595+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of inorganic and organic reagents commonly used in chemistry. + + +== Synopsis == +Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs." Some reagents are just a single element. However, most processes require reagents made of chemical compounds. Some of the most common ones used widely for specific reactive functions are listed below, but is by no means exhaustive. + + +== Reagent Compounds == + + +== See also == +Reagent +Limiting reagent +Category: Reagents for organic chemistry + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45a5bc5df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "List of refrigerants" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:02.795048+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of refrigerants, sorted by their ASHRAE-designated numbers, commonly known as R numbers. Many modern refrigerants are human-made halogenated gases, especially fluorinated gases and chlorinated gases, that are frequently referred to as Freon (a registered trademark of Chemours). +Freons are responsible for the formation of the ozone hole. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol are international agreements that oblige signatory countries to limit the emission of ozone-depleting gases. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol furthermore obliges signatory countries to limit the emission of gases with high global warming potential. + + +== Numbering scheme == +According to ASHRAE standard 34, the R-number of a chemical refrigerant is assigned systematically according to its molecular structure and has between two and four digits. If there are carbon-carbon multiple bonds, there are four digits in all: the number of these bonds is the first digit and the number of carbon atoms minus one (C − 1) is next. If there is more than one carbon atom but no multiple bonds, there are three digits, and the number of carbon atoms minus one is the first digit. If there is only one carbon atom, then there are only two digits. The last two digits are always the number of hydrogen atoms plus one (H + 1), followed by the number of fluorine atoms. Any other atoms attached to the carbons are assumed to be chlorine atoms. For example, R-22 has one carbon atom (1 − 1 = 0), one hydrogen atom (1 + 1 = 2), two fluorine atoms (2), and one chlorine atom (4 − 2 − 1 = 1), so it is chlorodifluoromethane, while R-134 has two carbon atoms (2 − 1 = 1), two hydrogen atoms (2 + 1 = 3), four fluorine atoms (4), and no chlorine atoms (6 − 2 − 4 = 0), so it is one of the tetrafluoroethanes. This basic scheme is modified as follows: + +Capital letters "B" and "I" are suffixed, together with atom counts, if chlorine atoms have been replaced with bromine or iodine. +If there are two carbons, the isomer without suffix is the most symmetrical; after this, lower-case suffixed letters "a", "b", ..., are added, moving forwards through the alphabet as symmetry decreases. +If there are more than two carbons, a more complex system of suffixed letters and possibly numbers is used to distinguish isomers, when necessary. +The suffixes "(Z)" and "(E)" may be used to differentiate (Z)- and (E)- (cis- and trans-) isomers. +For larger molecules, numerical "digits" exceeding 9 may occur; in this case, these numbers are separated by dashes. +For a cyclic carbon skeleton, the prefixed capital letter "C" is used. +For an oxygen-containing refrigerant (an ether), the prefixed capital letter "E" is used. +There are separate numbering schemes for zeotropic and azeotropic blends, organic chemicals which don't fit into the scheme above, and inorganic chemicals: + +Zeotropic blends are numbered starting with 400. Suffixed capital letters "A", "B", ... may be used to distinguish different blends with the same constitutents. +Azeotropic blends are numbered similarly to zeotropic blends, but starting with 500. +Other organic chemicals may be numbered starting with 600. Suffixed lowercase letters "a", "b", ..., may be used to distinguish isomers. +Inorganic chemicals are given numbers equalling 700 plus their molecular weight, if the weight is less than 100, or 7000 plus the molecular weight otherwise. Suffixed capital letters "A", "B", ... may be used to distinguish different chemicals with the same molecular weight. + + +== Columns == +The table is sortable by each of the following refrigerant properties (scroll right or reduce magnification to view more properties): + +Type/prefix (see legends) +ASHRAE number +IUPAC chemical name +molecular formula +CAS registry number / blend name +Atmospheric lifetime in years +Semi-empirical ozone depletion potential, ODP (normalized to be 1 for R-11) +Net global warming potential, GWP, over a 100-year time horizon (normalized to be 1 for R-744, carbon dioxide) +Occupational exposure limit/permissible exposure limit in parts per million (volume per volume) over a time-weighted average (TWA) concentration for a normal eight-hour work day and a 40-hour work week +ASHRAE 34 safety group in toxicity & flammability (in air @ 60 °C, 101.3 kPa) classing (see legends) +Refrigerant concentration limit / immediately dangerous to life or health in parts per million (volume per volume) and grams per cubic meter +Molecular mass in daltons +Normal boiling points for pure substances, bubble and dew points for zeotropic blends, or normal boiling point and azeotropic temperature for the azeotropic blends, at 101325 Pa (1 atmosphere) and in degrees Celsius +Critical temperature in degrees Celsius +Absolute critical pressure in kilopascals +Since over 100000 refrigerant blends are possible, this list should only have notable refrigerants and refrigerant blends. + + +== List == + + +== Type and flammability == + +Compounds used as refrigerants may be described using either the appropriate prefix above or with the prefixes "R-" or "refrigerant". Thus, CFC-12 may also be written as R-12 or Refrigerant 12.An alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated compound containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. + +Educated estimates + + +== See also == +Haloalkane +Refrigerant + + +== References == + + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..98c382aa6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of saturated fatty acids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:05.181126+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Saturated fatty acids are fatty acids that make up saturated fats. + + +== Straight-chain == +Saturated straight-chain fatty acids: + + +== Branched-chain == +Saturated branched-chain fatty acids: + + +== See also == +List of unsaturated fatty acids +Carboxylic acid +List of carboxylic acids +Dicarboxylic acid \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments-0.md index beb80bf8b..b459c0dac 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:57:43.874208+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:07.070283+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dcdc9b71f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:14.007543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States may refer to: + +List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States +List of estrogens available in the United States +List of progestogens available in the United States + + +== See also == +List of combined sex-hormonal preparations +List of steroids +List of steroid esters + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7bc07a39 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "List of steroid abbreviations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:22.145662+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The steroid hormones are referred to by various abbreviations in the biological literature. The purpose of this list is to give commonly used abbreviations for steroid hormones, with supporting references to the literature. + + +== Table of abbreviations == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7dfe4bbc3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of steroid esters" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:23.375391+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of steroid esters may refer to: + +List of androgen esters – androgen esters +List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters +List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters +List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters + + +== See also == +List of steroids +List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States +List of combined sex-hormonal preparations + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60a34cd58 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of steroidal antiandrogens" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:24.645895+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of steroidal antiandrogens. + + +== Progesterone derivatives == +11α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 11α-hydroxyprogesterone +Chlormadinone acetate = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-δ6-progesterone +Clometerone (L-38000) = 6α-chloro-16α-methylprogesterone +Cyproterone (SH-80881) = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-hydroxyprogesterone +Cyproterone acetate = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-acetoxyprogesterone +Edogestrone (PH-218) = 17α-acetoxy-3,3-ethylenedioxy-6-methylpregn-5-en-20-one +Medrogestone = 6,17α-dimethyl-δ6-progesterone +Megestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methylprogesterone +Nomegestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methyl-19-norprogesterone +Osaterone acetate (TZP-4238) = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-2-oxa-δ6-progesterone + + +== Testosterone derivatives == +Abiraterone (CB-7598) = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol +Abiraterone acetate = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol acetate +Benorterone (SKF-7690, FC-612) = 17α-methyl-B-nortestosterone +BOMT (Ro 7-2340) = 6α-bromo-4-oxa-17α-methyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone +Delanterone (GBR-21162) = 17β-dehydroxy-1α-methyl-δ16-testosterone +Dienogest = 17α-cyanomethyl-19-nor-δ9(10)-testosterone +Epitestosterone = 17α-epitestosterone +Galeterone (TOK-001, VN/124-1) = 17-(1H-benzimidazol-1-yl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol +Metogest (SC-14207) = 16,16-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone +Mifepristone = 11β-[p-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-17-(1-propynyl)-δ9-19-nortestosterone +Oxendolone (TSAA-291) = 16β-ethyl-19-nortestosterone +Rosterolone (SH-434, 17α-propylmesterolone) = 1α-methyl-17α-propyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone +Topterone (WIN-17665) = 17α-propyltestosterone +Trimethyltrienolone (R-2956, RU-2956) = 2α,2β,17α-trimethyl-19-nor-δ9,11-testosterone +Zanoterone (WIN-49596) = (5α,17α)-1'-(methylsulfonyl)-1'-H-pregn-20-yno[3,2-c]pyrazol-17-ol + + +== Spirolactone derivatives == + +SC-5233 (spirolactone) = 17α-(2-carboxyethyl)testosterone γ-lactone +SC-8109 = 19-norspirolactone +Canrenone (aldadiene) = Δ6-spirolactone +Dicirenone (SC-26304) = 7α-carboxyisopropylspirolactone +Drospirenone = 6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone +Mespirenone (ZK-94679) = Δ1-7α-acetylthio-15β,16β-methylenespirolactone +Mexrenone (ZK-32055, SC-25152) = 7α-(methoxycarbonyl)spirolactone +Prorenone (SC-23133) = 6α,7α-methylenespirolactone +Spironolactone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone +Spirorenone (ZK-35973) = Δ1-6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone +Spiroxasone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone with the ketone group removed from the C17α spirolactone ring + + +== Cortisol derivatives == +9,11-Dehydrocortexolone 17α-butyrate (CB-03-04) = 17α-(butyryloxy)-9,11-didehydrodeoxycorticosterone +Clascoterone (CB-03-01; cortexolone 17α-propionate, 11-deoxycortisol 17α-propionate) = 17α-(propionyloxy)deoxycorticosterone + + +== Others == +Guggulsterone = pregna-4,17-diene-3,16-dione +Nordinone = 11α-hydroxy-17,17-dimethyl-18-norandrosta-4,13-dien-3-one + + +== See also == +List of steroids \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..175d03006 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "List of steroids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:26.110615+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of steroids may refer to: + +List of androgens/anabolic steroids – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids +List of androgens/anabolic steroids (alternate) – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids +List of steroidal antiandrogens – steroidal antiandrogens +List of estrogens – estrogens +List of progestogens – progestogens +List of corticosteroids – corticosteroids, including both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids +List of neurosteroids – excitatory, inhibitory, mixed, neurotrophic, antineurotrophic, and other neurosteroids, as well as pheromones and pherines +List of steroidogenesis inhibitors – steroidogenesis inhibitors, or inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis and metabolism +As well as lists of steroid esters, including: + +List of androgen esters – androgen esters +List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters +List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters +List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters + + +== See also == +List of steroid esters +List of steroid medications available in the United States \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a1d269305 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "List of stoffs" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:28.497127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +During World War II, Germany fielded many aircraft and rockets whose fuels, and oxidizers, were designated (letter)-Stoff (pronounced [ʃtɔf]). The following list of stoffs refers to the World War II aerospace meanings if not noted otherwise. + + +== Meaning of stoff == +The German word Stoff (plural Stoffe), like the English word stuff, derives from Old French estoffe, however the meanings are somewhat different. Stoff has a fairly broad range of meanings, including "chemical substance" or "matter", "fuel" and "cloth", depending on the context. The German names of the common elements hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are Wasserstoff, Sauerstoff and Stickstoff ("hydrogen" being a scientific Greek neologism for "constituent of water", "oxygen" for "constituent of acids", "nitrogen" for "constituent of nitre", i.e. saltpeter - although the German root stick- is derived from ersticken, "to smother, suffocate", referring to its property of not supporting combustion and respiration). Stoff was used in chemical code names in both world wars. Some code names were reused between the wars and had different meanings at different times; for example, T-Stoff meant a rocket propellant in World War II, but a tear gas (xylyl bromide) in World War I. + + +== List == + +A-Stoff (World War I): chloroacetone (tear gas) +A-Stoff (World War II): liquid oxygen (LOX) +B-Stoff (short for Brennstoff, literally, "fuel"): the 75% ethanol / 25% water fuel used in the V-2 ballistic rocket The word was also used for hydrazine, or a mixture of hydrazine in methyl alcohol, (used in the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet rocket powered fighter aircraft). +Bn-Stoff (World War I): bromomethyl ethyl ketone, homomartonite (tear gas) +Br-Stoff: Ligroin extracted from crude gasoline +C-Stoff: 57% methanol / 30% hydrazine / 13% water / small amount of Catalyst 431 potassium-cuprous cyanide coordination complex +F-Stoff: titanium tetrachloride (smoke producing compound) +K-Stoff (World War I): mixture of chloromethyl chloroformate and dimethyl chloroformate (tear gas) +M-Stoff: methanol +N-Stoff: chlorine trifluoride +P-Stoff: Compressed nitrogen or compressed air used for preparing a V-2 missile for launch from its Meillerwagen transporter/erector trailer +R-Stoff or Tonka: 57% xylidine / 43% triethylamine +S-Stoff: 90% nitric acid / 10% sulfuric acid or 96% nitric acid / 4% ferric chloride (The ferric chloride acted as a catalyst.) +SV-Stoff or Salbei (sage): 94% nitric acid / 6% dinitrogen tetroxide or 85% nitric acid / 15% sulfuric acid +T-Stoff (World War I): xylyl bromide tear gas +T-Stoff (World War II): 80% concentrated hydrogen peroxide / small amounts of 8-Hydroxyquinoline / 20% water used as hypergolic oxidizer with C-Stoff for the HWK 109-509 A through C rocket engines, or as monopropellant or power source with Z-Stoff for the HWK 109-500 Starthilfe RATO and HWK 109-507 ASM rocket booster pods +U-Stoff: dinitrogen tetroxide +X-Stoff: tetranitromethane +XU-Stoff: 70% (by weight) X-Stoff (tetranitromethane) / 30% (by weight) U-Stoff (dinitrogen tetroxide) +Z-Stoff: calcium permanganate / sodium permanganate / water + + +== References == + + +== External links == +www.warbirdsresourcegroup.org — Fuels used by German rocket engines +Die Tarnnummern des Reichsluftfahrtministeriums(in German) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b84dc23cf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "List of straight-chain alkanes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:25.517634+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of straight-chain alkanes, the total number of isomers of each (including branched chains), and their common names, sorted by number of carbon atoms. + + +== See also == +Higher alkane +List of compounds with carbon numbers 50+ + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..36d6ba420 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "List of subviral agents" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:12.423484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Subviral agents are pathogenic entities that can cause disease, but lack various fundamental properties of viruses. Subviral agents consist of satellites, viroids, prions, defective interfering particles, viriforms, and, most recently, obelisks. + + +== See also == +List of prions +Virus classification + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8561d0b79 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "List of synthetic polymers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:34.096439+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Some familiar household synthetic polymers include: Nylons in textiles and fabrics, Teflon in non-stick pans, Bakelite for electrical switches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, etc. The common PET bottles are made of a synthetic polymer, polyethylene terephthalate. The plastic kits and covers are mostly made of synthetic polymers like polythene, and tires are manufactured from polybutadienes. However, due to the environmental issues created by these synthetic polymers which are mostly non-biodegradable and often synthesized from petroleum, alternatives like bioplastics are also being considered. They are however expensive when compared to the synthetic polymers. + + +== Inorganic polymers == + +Polysiloxane +Polyphosphazene +Polyborazyline + + +== Organic polymers == +The eight most common types of synthetic organic polymers, which are commonly found in households are: + +Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) +High-density polyethylene (HDPE) +Polypropylene (PP) +Polyethylene (PE) +Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) +Polystyrene (PS) +Nylon, nylon 6, nylon 6,6 +Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) +Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) + + +== Brand names == +These polymers are often better known through their brand names, for instance: + + +== Summary Chart == + + +== Plastic identification codes == + + +== See also == +Polymerization +RAFT (chemistry) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4e10b040 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsaturated fatty acids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:31.224086+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== Fatty acid molecular species == + + +=== Mono-unsaturated fatty acid === +The following fatty acids have one unsaturated bond. + + +== See also == +List of saturated fatty acids +Carboxylic acid +List of carboxylic acids +Dicarboxylic acid + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1759d8eee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsolved problems in biology" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article lists notable unsolved problems in biology. + +== General biology == + +=== Evolution and origins of life === +Origin of life. Exactly how, where, and when did life on Earth originate? Which, if any, of the many hypotheses is correct? What were the metabolic pathways used by the earliest life forms? How did genetic code originate? What was the molecular mechanism that allows the association of the amino acids with their triplet codons? What were the biochemical paths from individual bio-building blocks like amino acids or nucleic acids to functional polymers such as proteins and DNA? +Origin of sexual reproduction. What were the fundamental selective forces responsible for the origin of sexual reproduction? +Maintenance of sexual reproduction. What are the fundamental selective forces maintaining sexual reproduction? +Origins of viruses (Virus World). Exactly how and when did different groups of viruses originate? +Morphology problem. How are neural tissues formed in specific ways in different species? The formation of neural tissues in a certain way is necessary for the formation of certain goal-directed behavior for certain species. Developmental psychobiology posed this question since the lack of knowledge about the precise coordination of all cells, even those not related anatomically, in space and time during the embryonic period does not allow us to understand what forces at the cellular level coordinate four very general classes of tissue deformation, namely: tissue folding and invagination, tissue flow and extension, tissue hollowing, and, finally, tissue branching. +Development and evolution of the brain. How and why did the brain evolve? What are the molecular determinants of individual brain development? +Origin of Eukaryotes (Symbiogenesis). How and why did cells combine to form the eukaryotic cell? Did one or more random events lead to the first eukaryotic cells, or can the formation of eukaryotic cells be explained by physical and biological principles? How did the mitochondria's mitosis cycle come in sync with its host cell? Did the mitochondria or the nucleus develop first in eukaryotes? +Last universal common ancestor. What were the characteristics of the Last Universal Common Ancestor of Archaea and Bacteria? +The lipid divide: How did archaea end up using membrane glycerophospholipids of the opposite chirality compared to bacteria? Why do eukaryotes have bacteria-type membrane lipids? + +=== Biochemistry and cell biology === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bf9c4fad6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsolved problems in biology" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Biological homochirality. What is the origin of homochirality in living organisms? In biological organisms, amino acids appear almost exclusively in the left-handed form and sugars in the right-handed form. Homochirality is an obvious characteristic of life on Earth, yet extraterrestrial samples contain largely racemic compounds. It is not known whether homochirality existed before life, whether the building blocks of life must have this particular chirality, or whether life must be homochiral at all. +What do all the unknown proteins do? Two decades since the first eukaryotes were sequenced, the "biological role" of around 20% of proteins are still unknown. Many of these proteins are conserved across most eukaryotic species and some are conserved in bacteria, indicating a role fundamental for life. +Determinants of cell size. How do cells determine what size to grow to before dividing? +Golgi apparatus. In cell theory, what is the exact transport mechanism by which proteins travel through the Golgi apparatus? +Mechanism of action of drugs. The mechanisms of action of many drugs including lithium, thalidomide, and ketamine are not completely understood. +Protein folding. What is the folding code? What is the folding mechanism? Can the native structure of a protein be predicted from its amino acid sequence? Is it possible to predict the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of a polypeptide sequence based solely on the sequence and environmental information? +Prediction of native structure has turned out to be the easiest of the questions, as the variety of known structures have allowed the development of prediction methods such as Rosetta (since 1998) and the AlphaFold neural network of 2020. AlphaFold is capable of predicting a protein's final shape based solely on its amino-acid chain with an accuracy of around 90% on a test sample of proteins used by the team. Accurate prediction of quaternary structure was achieved by AlphaFold3 in 2024. +Inverse protein-folding problem (protein design): Is it possible to design a polypeptide sequence which will adopt a given structure under certain environmental conditions? This turned out to be tractable given a good structural prediction method, starting with the success of the small globular protein Top7 from the Rosetta team in 2002. The use of structure-prediction neural networks afforded even more complex designs. Large language models trained on protein sequences seem to learn a "grammar"; they represent yet another approach to the protein-design problem. +The success of prediction and design methods still skip over how proteins end up in the final shape (folding mechanism and kinetics; protein dynamics). Wet lab methods of the 2020s allow for microsecond-level changes to be observed and quantified. 2020s molecular dynamics techniques can be used to simulate the folding behavior at the atomic level to this same timescale, though a specialized computer is needed for the simulation to finish in a reasonable amount of time. See also Folding@home. +The study of intrinsically disordered proteins is also not as advanced as the study of globular proteins: some sequences do not fold into a fixed shape yet still have a function. +Enzyme kinetics: Why do some enzymes exhibit faster-than-diffusion kinetics? +RNA folding problem: Is it possible to accurately predict the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of a polyribonucleic acid sequence based on its sequence and environment? +Protein design: Is it possible to design highly active enzymes de novo for any desired reaction? +Biosynthesis: Can desired molecules, natural products or otherwise, be produced in high yield through biosynthetic pathway manipulation? +What is the mechanism of allosteric transitions of proteins? The concerted and sequential models have been hypothesised but neither has been verified. +What are the endogenous ligands of orphan receptors? +What substance is endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor? +Mechanism of Golgi's method: Why does this specific method stain nerve tissues? Why does it only color a random portion of the cells? + +=== Other === +Why does biological aging occur? There are a number of hypotheses as to why senescence occurs including those that it is programmed by gene expression changes and that it is the accumulative damage of biological structures, particularly damage to DNA. +How do organs grow to the correct shape and size? How are the final shape and size of organs so reliably formed? These processes are in part controlled by the Hippo signaling pathway. +Can developing biological systems tell the time? To an extent, this appears to be the case, as shown by the CLOCK gene. +Star jelly. A complete explanation about its origins is still lacking. +Forest rings. The origin of forest rings is not known, despite several mechanisms for their creation having been proposed. Such hypotheses include radially growing fungus, buried kimberlite pipes, trapped gas pockets, and meteorite impact craters. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63f0f30cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsolved problems in biology" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Human biology == +Handedness: It is unclear how handedness develops, what purpose it serves, why right-handedness is far more common, and why left-handedness exists. +Laughter: While it is generally accepted that laughing evolved as a form of social communication, the exact neurobiological process that leads humans to laugh is not well understood. +Yawning: It is yet to be established what the biological or social purpose of yawning is. +Heritable components of homosexuality: How to reconcile evolution with the heritable components of human homosexuality? Homosexuality is prevalent across human societies, past and present. These facts constitute an evolutionary puzzle. +Decline in average human body temperature since the 19th century: Medical data suggests that the average body temperature has declined 0.6 °C since the 19th century. The cause is unclear although it has been suggested that it has some relation with reduced inflammation from reduced exposure to microorganisms. +Why are there blood types? It is unclear what the origin and purpose of having blood types is. It is thought that O blood may be an adaptation to malaria and that different blood types respond to different diseases but this hypothesis has yet to be proven. Why did these antigens develop in the first place? What accounts for the differences in blood type? How ancient are the differences in blood types? What accounts for the large number of rare non ABO blood types? What role do blood types have in fighting disease? +Photic sneeze effect: What causes the photic sneeze effect? Why is it so common yet not universal? +Human sex pheromones: There is contradictory evidence on the existence of human pheromones. Do they actually exist, and if so, how do they affect behavior? +Existence of the Grafenberg spot (G-spot): Does the G-spot actually exist? If so is it present in all women? What exactly is it? +Extinction of archaic humans: Why did archaic human species such as Neanderthals become extinct, leaving Homo sapiens the only surviving species of humans? +Love: When did pair bonding evolve? Is pair bonding an antecedent to romantic love, or have there been other steps in the evolution of pair bonds in humans (e.g. a seasonal bond)? A theory exists that romantic love evolved by co-opting the systems for mother-infant bonding, but this does not explain when or why (under what selection pressure) romantic love evolved. + +=== Neuroscience and cognition === + +==== Neurophysiology ==== +Neuroplasticity: How plastic is the mature brain? +General anaesthetic: What is the mechanism by which general anesthetics work? +Neuropsychiatric diseases: What are the neural bases (causes) of mental diseases like psychotic disorders (e.g. mania, schizophrenia), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, or addiction? Is it possible to recover loss of sensory or motor function? +Neural computation: What are all the different types of neuron and what do they do in the brain? + +==== Cognition and psychology ==== +Cognition and decisions: How and where does the brain evaluate reward value and effort (cost) to modulate behavior? How does previous experience alter perception and behavior? What are the genetic and environmental contributions to brain function? +Computational neuroscience: How important is the precise timing of action potentials for information processing in the neocortex? Is there a canonical computation performed by cortical columns? How is information in the brain processed by the collective dynamics of large neuronal circuits? What level of simplification is suitable for a description of information processing in the brain? What is the neural code? +Computational theory of mind: What are the limits of understanding thinking as a form of computing? +Consciousness: What is the brain basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention? What is the precise mechanism behind how phenomenal binding occurs? Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"? If so, how is it solved? What, if any, is the function of consciousness, and what is the mechanism behind the function of consciousness? +Free will: Do humans or other organisms possess free will? Particularly studied by the neuroscience of free will. +Language: How is it implemented neurally? What is the basis of semantic meaning? +Learning and memory: Where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again? How can learning be improved? What is the difference between explicit and implicit memories? What molecule is responsible for synaptic tagging? +The emergence and evolution of intelligence: What are the laws and mechanisms of new idea emergence (insight, creativity synthesis, intuition, decision-making, eureka); development (evolution) of an individual mind in ontogenesis, etc.? +Perception: How does the brain transfer sensory information into coherent, private percepts? What are the rules by which perception is organized? What are the features/objects that constitute our perceptual experience of internal and external events? How are the senses integrated? What is the relationship between subjective experience and the physical world? + +== Non-human biology == + +=== Ecology, evolution, and paleontology === +Unsolved problems relating to the interactions between organisms and their distribution in the environment include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b38bea36 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsolved problems in biology" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Paradox of the plankton. The high diversity of phytoplankton seems to violate the competitive exclusion principle. +Ediacaran biota. How should Ediacaran biota be classified? Even what kingdom they belong to is unclear. Why were they so decisively displaced by Cambrian biota? +Cambrian explosion. What is the cause of the apparent rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian, resulting in the emergence of almost all modern animal phyla? +Darwin's abominable mystery of botany/plants. What is the exact evolutionary history of flowers and what is the cause of the apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record? +Adult form of Facetotecta. The adult form of this animal has never been encountered in the water, and it remains a mystery what it grows into. +Origin of snakes. Did snakes evolve from burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards? There is evidence for both hypotheses. +Origin of turtles. Did turtles evolve from anapsids or diapsids? There is evidence for both hypotheses. +Paleodictyon: What is the origin of this trace fossil and its modern counterparts? Despite many theories proposed, no evidence has been found to confirm any of them. +Francevillian biota: were they early multicellular organisms? +Snowball Earth: what was the effect of Cryogenian glaciations on the origin and evolution of early animals? +Eocyathispongia: is it an early sponge? Did it have choanocytes? +Vernanimalcula guizhouena: is this fossil organism an early bilaterian? +Tullimonstrum: a taxonomic position of this fossil organism is unknown. +Adult form of Planctosphaera pelagica, a hemichordate known, as of 2023, only by its tornaria larvae. Due to differences between larvae of acorn worms and that of Planctosphaera pelagica, Planctosphaera is sometimes given its own class. +Xenacoelomorpha: are they deuterostomes, forming a clade Xenambulacraria together with echinoderms and hemichordates, or rather primitive bilaterians and a sister group to Nephrozoa? +Jennaria pulchra: the taxonomic position of this animal is unknown and more research is needed to establish it. +Nervous system of Lobatocerebrida. Why do these simple unsegmented annelids, which are unselective deposit feeders and lack sense organs, have a relatively complex brain? +Diurodrilus: is it an unusual annelid? What are the origins of morphological similarities between Diurodrilus and micrognathozoan Limnognathia maerski? +Taxonomic position of pentastomids. Are they a sister group to Argulidae or an ancient lineage of Panarthropoda? +Taxonomic position of Tricholepidion gertschi: is it a member of the order Zygentoma (silverfishes) or an independent ancient lineage of insects? +How will organisms respond to complex, novel environments? Climate change is of significant relevance. +What is the relative importance of variability, across scales, and its mechanisms? +Why does intragenotypic variability persist? Striking phenotypic differences exist even among individuals with identical genotypes, and environments. +What determines population density? There is disagreement over which regulatory mechanisms of population are density-dependent, or density-independent. +Why are all leaves the size they are, and not an order of magnitude larger or smaller? How is the upper limit on leaf size set? +Persistence paradox: why does the evolution of novel species almost never lead to the extinction of resident species? +Is the ecosystem a superorganism, or a collection of organisms? Could the Earth be a superorganism, or a unit of selection? +Why do Pogonomyrmex badius colonies cover the surface of their nests with a circular region of charcoal pieces? + +=== Ethology === +Unsolved problems relating to the behaviour of animals include: + +Homing. A satisfactory explanation for the neurobiological mechanisms that allow homing in animals has yet to be found. +Flocking (behavior). How flocks of birds and bats coordinate their movements so quickly is not fully understood. Nor is the purpose of large flocks like those of starlings which seem to invite predators rather than protect them. +Butterfly migration. How do the descendants of monarch butterfly all over Canada and the US eventually, after migrating for several generations, manage to return to a few relatively small overwintering spots? +Blue whale. There is not much data on the sexuality of the blue whale. +Gall-inducing insects. At least seven groups of insects, in six orders, have independently evolved the gall-inducing habit. Several adaptation hypotheses have been proposed, but it is largely unknown why this habit evolved and how gall-inducing insects induce gall formation in plants; chemical, mechanical, and viral triggers have been discussed. + +=== Non-human organs and biomolecules === +Unsolved problems relating to the structure and function of non-human organs, processes and biomolecules include: + +Korarchaeota (archaea). The metabolic processes of this phylum of archaea are so far unclear. +Glycogen body. The function of this structure in the spinal cord of birds is not known. +Arthropod head problem. A long-standing zoological dispute concerning the segmental composition of the heads of the various arthropod groups, and how they are evolutionarily related to each other. +Ovaries of basking sharks. Only the right ovary in female basking sharks appears to function. The reason is unknown. +Brightly colored bird eggs. It is unknown what evolutionary process would lead birds to having brightly colored eggs given the increased visibility to predators. +Stegosaur osteoderms/scutes. There is a long-standing debate over whether the primary function of the osteoderms/scutes of stegosaurs is protection from predators, sexual display, species recognition, thermoregulation, or other functions. +Function of vanadocytes, a type of blood cells found in some tunicates. Vacuoles of vanadocytes are notable for high levels of the metal vanadium and their low pH. +Metabolism in Henneguya zschokkei, a species of myxozoan. This species of cnidarian was found to lack mitochondria and, therefore, is incapable of aerobic respiration. +Mitochondria in loriciferans living in anoxic conditions. It is unknown whether members of the phylum Loricifera adapted to life in anoxic conditions in the L'Atalante basin, like Spinoloricus cinziae, have mitochondria. + +== Artificial life == +Unsolved problems in artificial life include: + +How does life arise from the non-living? +What are the potentials and limits of living systems? +How is life related to mind, machines, and culture? + +== See also == +Unsolved problems in medicine +List of unsolved problems in neuroscience +Biological dark matter + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md index 4f3447daa..db255e7a6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:33:37.212681+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:32.399241+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c1ba6108 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "List of vegetable oils" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care. + +== Definition == +The term "vegetable oil" can be narrowly defined as referring only to substances that are liquid at room temperature, or broadly defined without regard to a substance's state (liquid or solid) at a given temperature. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, some do not qualify as vegetable oils according to all understandings of the term. + +== Classification == +Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways. For instance, by their use or by the method used to extract them. In this article, vegetable oils are grouped in common classes of use. + +=== Extraction method === +There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant may be placed under pressure to extract the oil, giving an expressed (or pressed) oil. The oils included in this list are of this type. Oils may also be extracted from plants by dissolving parts of plants in water or another solvent. The solution may be separated from the plant material and concentrated, giving an extracted or leached oil. The mixture may also be separated by distilling the oil away from the plant material. Oils extracted by this latter method are called essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed or leached vegetable oils. Finally, macerated oils are made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil, a process called liquid–liquid extraction. + +=== Sources and Uses === +Most, but not all vegetable oils are extracted from the fruits or seeds of plants. For instance, palm oil is extracted from palm fruits, while soybean oil is extracted from soybean seeds. +Vegetable oils may also be classified by grouping oils extracted from similar plants, such as "nut oils". +Although most plants contain some oil, only the oil from certain major oil crops complemented by a few dozen minor oil crops is widely used and traded. + +=== Use === +Oils from plants are used for several different purposes. Edible vegetable oils may be used for cooking, or as food additives. Many vegetable oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, for instance as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some may be also used for cosmetics, medical purposes, wood finishing, oil painting and other industrial purposes. + +== Edible oils == + +=== Major oils === +These oils make up a significant fraction of worldwide edible oil production. All are also used as fuel oils. + +Coconut oil, a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well. Extracted from the kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm. Common in the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids dominant. +Corn oil, one of the principal oils sold as salad and cooking oil. +Cottonseed oil, used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially. +Olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. +Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil. Popular in West African and Brazilian cuisine. Also used to make biofuel. +Peanut oil (Ground nut oil), a clear oil with some applications as a salad dressing, and, due to its high smoke point, especially used for frying. +Rapeseed oil, including Canola oil, the most sold cooking oil all around the world; used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially. Also used in fuel industry as bio-fuel. +Safflower oil, until the 1960s used in the paint industry, now mostly as a cooking oil. +Sesame oil, cold pressed as light cooking oil, hot pressed for a darker and stronger flavor. +Soybean oil, produced as a byproduct of processing soy meal. +Sunflower oil, a common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel. + +=== Nut oils === + +Nut oils are generally used in cooking, for their flavor. Most are quite costly, because of the difficulty of extracting the oil. + +Almond oil, used as an edible oil, but primarily in the manufacture of cosmetics. +Beech nut oil, from Fagus sylvatica nuts, is a well-regarded edible oil in Europe, used for salads and cooking. +Brazil nut oil contains 75% unsaturated fatty acids composed mainly of oleic and linolenic acids, as well as the phytosterol, beta-sitosterol, and fat-soluble vitamin E. Extra virgin oil can be obtained during the first pressing of the nuts, possibly for use as a substitute for olive oil due to its mild, pleasant flavor. +Cashew oil, somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting dental cavities. +Jamaican cobnut oil, a sweet, fine-flavored oil pressed from the seeds of Omphalea triandra in the tropical Americas. It is also reported to be used as a lubricant. +Hazelnut oil, mainly used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its slight astringent nature. +Macadamia oil, with a mild nutty flavor and a high smoke point. +Mongongo nut oil (or manketti oil), from the seeds of the Schinziophyton rautanenii, a tree which grows in South Africa. High in vitamin E. Also used in skin care. +Pecan oil, valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil. +Pine nut oil, sold as a gourmet cooking oil, and of potential medicinal interest as an appetite suppressant. +Pistachio oil, a strongly flavored oil with a distinctive green color. +Walnut oil, used for its flavor, also used by Renaissance painters in oil paints. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..72cab601f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "List of vegetable oils" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Citrus oils === +A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil, are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils. The seeds of many if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils. + +Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi). Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be suitable for making soap. +Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold pressed essential oils. Used as a flavoring agent and in aromatherapy. +Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. + +=== Oils from melon and gourd seeds === + +Members of the Cucurbitaceae include gourds, melons, pumpkins, and squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food. + +Bitter gourd oil, from the seeds of Momordica charantia. High in α-Eleostearic acid. Of current research interest for its potential anti-carcinogenic properties. +Bottle gourd oil, extracted from the seeds of the Lagenaria siceraria, widely grown in tropical regions. Used as an edible oil. +Buffalo gourd oil, from the seeds of the Cucurbita foetidissima, a vine with a rank odor, native to southwest North America. +Butternut squash seed oil, from the seeds of Cucurbita moschata, has a nutty flavor that is used for salad dressings, marinades, and sautéeing. +Egusi seed oil, from the seeds of Melothria sphaerocarpa (syn. Cucumeropsis mannii), is particularly rich in linoleic acid. +Pumpkin seed oil, a specialty cooking oil, produced in Austria, Slovenia and Croatia. Used mostly in salad dressings. Recent research has generated interest in pumpkin seed oil to treat certain prostate medical conditions. +Watermelon seed oil, pressed from the seeds of Citrullus vulgaris. Traditionally used in cooking in West Africa. + +=== Food supplements === +A number of oils are used as food supplements (or "nutraceuticals"), for their nutrient content or purported medicinal effect. Borage seed oil, blackcurrant seed oil, and evening primrose oil all have a significant amount of gamma-Linolenic acid (GLA) (about 23%, 15–20% and 7–10%, respectively), and it is this that has drawn the interest of researchers. + +Açaí oil, from the fruit of several species of the Açaí palm (Euterpe) grown in the Amazon region. +Black seed oil, pressed from Nigella sativa seeds, has a long history of medicinal use, including in ancient Greek, Asian, and Islamic medicine, as well as being a topic of current medical research. +Blackcurrant seed oil, from the seeds of Ribes nigrum, used as a food supplement. High in gamma-Linolenic, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. +Borage seed oil, from the seeds of Borago officinalis. +Evening primrose oil, from the seeds of Oenothera biennis, the most important plant source of gamma-Linolenic acid, particularly because it does not contain alpha-Linolenic acid. +Flaxseed oil (called linseed oil when used as a drying oil), from the seeds of Linum usitatissimum. High in omega-3 and lignans, which can be used medicinally. A good dietary equivalent to fish oil. Easily turns rancid. + +=== Other edible oils === + +Amaranth oil, from the seeds of grain amaranth species, including Amaranthus cruentus and Amaranthus hypochondriacus, high in squalene and unsaturated fatty acids. +Apricot oil, similar to almond oil, which it resembles. Used in cosmetics. +Apple seed oil, high in linoleic acid. +Argan oil, from the seeds of the Argania spinosa, is a food oil from Morocco developed through a women's cooperative founded in the 1990s, that has also attracted recent attention in Europe. +Avocado oil, an edible oil used primarily in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Unusually high smoke point of 510 °F (266 °C). +Babassu oil, from the seeds of the Attalea speciosa, is similar to, and used as a substitute for, coconut oil. +Ben oil, extracted from the seeds of the Moringa oleifera. High in behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for biofuel. +Borneo tallow nut oil, extracted from the fruit of species of genus Shorea. Used as a substitute for cocoa butter, and to make soap, candles, cosmetics and medicines in places where the tree is common. +Cape chestnut oil, also called yangu oil, is a popular oil in Africa for skin care. +Carob pod oil (Algaroba oil), from carob, with an exceptionally high essential fatty acid content. +Cocoa butter, from the cacao plant, is used in the manufacture of chocolate, as well as in some ointments and cosmetics; sometimes known as theobroma oil +Cocklebur oil, from species of genus Xanthium, with similar properties to poppyseed oil, similar in taste and smell to sunflower oil. +Cohune oil, from the Attalea cohune (cohune palm) used as a lubricant, for cooking, soapmaking and as a lamp oil. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b079a4412 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "List of vegetable oils" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Coriander seed oil, from coriander seeds, used in a wide variety of flavoring applications, including gin and seasoning blends. Recent research has shown promise for use in killing food-borne bacteria, such as E. coli. +Date seed oil, extracted from date pits. Its low extraction rate and lack of other distinguishing characteristics make it an unlikely candidate for major use. +Dika oil, from Irvingia gabonensis seeds, native to West Africa. Used to make margarine, soap and pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped. +False flax oil made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. One of the earliest oil crops, dating back to the 6th millennium B.C. Produced in modern times in Central and Eastern Europe; fell out of production in the 1940s. Considered promising as a food or fuel oil. +Grape seed oil, a cooking and salad oil, also sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor. +Hemp oil, a high quality food oil also used to make paints, varnishes, resins and soft soaps. +Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of Ceiba pentandra, used as an edible oil, and in soap production. +Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of Hibiscus cannabinus. An edible oil similar to cottonseed oil, with a long history of use. +Lallemantia oil, from the seeds of Lallemantia iberica, discovered at archaeological sites in northern Greece. +Mafura oil, extracted from the seeds of Trichilia emetica. Used as an edible oil in Ethiopia. Mafura butter, extracted as part of the same process when extracting the oil, is not edible, and is used in soap and candle making, as a body ointment, as fuel, and medicinally. +Marula oil, extracted from the kernel of Sclerocarya birrea. Used as an edible oil with a light, nutty flavor. Also used in soaps. Fatty acid composition is similar to that of olive oil. +Meadowfoam seed oil, highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications. +Mustard oil (pressed), used in India as a cooking oil. Also used as a massage oil. +Niger seed oil is obtained from the edible seeds of the Niger plant, which belongs to the genus Guizotia of the family Asteraceae. The botanical name of the plant is Guizotia abyssinica. Cultivation for the plant originated in the Ethiopian Highlands, and has since spread from Malawi to India. + +Nutmeg butter, extracted by expression from the fruit of cogeners of genus Myristica. Nutmeg butter has a large amount of trimyristin. Nutmeg oil, by contrast, is an essential oil, extracted by steam distillation. +Okra seed oil, from Abelmoschus esculentus. Composed predominantly of oleic and linoleic acids. The greenish yellow edible oil has a pleasant taste and odor. +Papaya seed oil, high in omega-3 and omega-6, similar in composition to olive oil. Not to be confused with papaya oil produced by maceration. +Perilla seed oil, high in omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes in Asian herbal medicine, in skin care products and as a drying oil. +Persimmon seed oil, extracted from the seeds of Diospyros virginiana. Dark, reddish-brown color, similar in taste to olive oil. Nearly equal content of oleic and linoleic acids. +Pequi oil, extracted from the seeds of Caryocar brasiliense. Used in Brazil as a highly prized cooking oil. +Pili nut oil, extracted from the seeds of Canarium ovatum. Used in the Philippines as an edible oil, as well as for a lamp oil. +Pomegranate seed oil, from Punica granatum seeds, is very high in punicic acid (which takes its name from pomegranates). A topic of current medical research for treating and preventing cancer. +Poppyseed oil, long used for cooking, in paints, varnishes, and soaps. +Pracaxi oil, extracted from the seeds of Pentaclethra macroloba. Similar to peanut oil, but has a high concentration of behenic acid (19%). + +Prune kernel oil, marketed as a gourmet cooking oil Similar in composition to peach kernel oil. +Quinoa oil, similar in composition and use to corn oil. +Ramtil oil, pressed from the seeds of the one of several species of genus Guizotia abyssinica (Niger pea) in India and Ethiopia. +Rice bran oil is a highly stable cooking and salad oil, suitable for high-temperature cooking. It also has potential as a biofuel. +Royle oil, pressed from the seeds of Prinsepia utilis, a wild, edible oil shrub that grows in the higher Himalayas. Used medicinally in Nepal. + +Sacha inchi oil, from the Peruvian Amazon. High in behenic, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. +Sapote oil, used as a cooking oil in Guatemala. +Seje oil, from the seeds of Jessenia bataua. Used in South America as an edible oil, similar to olive oil, as well as for soaps and in the cosmetics industry. +Shea butter, much of which is produced by African women. Used primarily in skin care products and as a substitute for cocoa butter in confections and cosmetics. +Taramira oil, from the seeds of the arugula (Eruca sativa), grown in West Asia and Northern India. Used as a (pungent) edible oil after aging to remove acridity. +Tea seed oil (Camellia oil), widely used in southern China as a cooking oil. Also used in making soaps, hair oils and a variety of other products. +Thistle oil, pressed from the seeds of Silybum marianum. A good potential source of special fatty acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, phenol compounds and natural anti-oxidants, as well as for generally improving the nutritional value of foods. +Tigernut oil (or nut-sedge oil) is pressed from the tuber of Cyperus esculentus. It has properties similar to soybean, sunflower and rapeseed oils. It is used in cooking and making soap and has potential as a biodiesel fuel. +Tobacco seed oil, from the seeds of Nicotiana tabacum and other Nicotiana species. Edible if purified. +Tomato seed oil is a potentially valuable by-product, as a cooking oil, from the waste seeds generated from processing tomatoes. +Wheat germ oil, used nutritionally and in cosmetic preparations, high in vitamin E and octacosanol. + +== Oils used for biofuel == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4321d7889 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "List of vegetable oils" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A number of oils are used for biofuel (biodiesel and Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. Other oils are used only as biofuel. +Although diesel engines were invented, in part, with vegetable oil in mind, diesel fuel is almost exclusively petroleum-based. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on: + +Suitability as a fuel, based on flash point, energy content, viscosity, combustion products and other factors +Cost, based in part on yield, effort required to grow and harvest, and post-harvest processing cost + +=== Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel === +The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes – all but tung oil are edible – but have been considered for use as biofuel. + +Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic viscosity may be an issue. +Coconut oil (copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts. +Colza oil, from Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (turnip) is closely related to rapeseed (or canola) oil. It is a major source of biodiesel in Germany. +Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of maize as a crop. +Cottonseed oil, the subject of study for cost-effectiveness as a biodiesel feedstock. +False flax oil, from Camelina sativa, used in Europe in oil lamps until the 18th century. +Hemp oil, relatively low in emissions. Production is problematic in some countries because of its association with marijuana. +Mustard oil, shown to be comparable to Canola oil as a biofuel. +Palm oil, very popular for biofuel, but the environmental impact from growing large quantities of oil palms has recently called the use of palm oil into question. +Peanut oil, used in one of the first demonstrations of the Diesel engine in 1900. +Radish oil. Wild radish contains up to 48% oil, making it appealing as a fuel. +Rapeseed oil, the most common base oil used in Europe in biodiesel production. +Ramtil oil, used for lighting in India. +Rice bran oil, appealing because of lower cost than many other vegetable oils. Widely grown in Asia. +Safflower oil, explored recently as a biofuel in Montana. +Salicornia oil, from the seeds of Salicornia bigelovii, a halophyte (salt-loving plant) native to Mexico. +Soybean oil, not economical as a fuel crop, but appealing as a byproduct of soybean crops for other uses. +Sunflower oil, suitable as a fuel, but not necessarily cost effective. +Tigernut oil has been described by researchers in China as having "great potential as a biodiesel fuel." +Tung oil, referenced in several lists of vegetable oils that are suitable for biodiesel. Several factories in China produce biodiesel from tung oil. + +=== Inedible oils used only or primarily as biofuel === + +These oils are extracted from plants that are cultivated solely for producing oil-based biofuel. These, plus the major oils described above, have received much more attention as fuel oils than other plant oils. + +Copaiba, an oleoresin tapped from species of genus Copaifera. Used in Brazil as a cosmetic product and a major source of biodiesel. +Jatropha oil, widely used in India as a fuel oil. Has attracted strong proponents for use as a biofuel. +Jojoba oil, from the Simmondsia chinensis, a desert shrub. +Milk bush, popularized by chemist Melvin Calvin in the 1950s. Researched in the 1980s by Petrobras, the Brazilian national petroleum company. +Nahor oil, pressed from the kernels of Mesua ferrea, is used in India as a lamp oil. +Paradise oil, from the seeds of Simarouba glauca, has received interest in India as a feed stock for biodiesel. +Petroleum nut oil, from the Petroleum nut (Pittosporum resiniferum) native to the Philippines. The Philippine government once explored the use of the petroleum nut as a biofuel. +Pongamia oil (also known as Honge oil), extracted from Millettia pinnata and pioneered as a biofuel by Udipi Shrinivasa in Bangalore, India. + +== Drying oils == + +Drying oils are vegetable oils that dry to a hard finish at normal room temperature. Such oils are used as the basis of oil paints, and in other paint and wood finishing applications. In addition to the oils listed here, walnut, sunflower and safflower oil are also considered to be drying oils. + +Dammar oil, from the Canarium strictum, used in paint as an oil drying agent. Can also be used as a lamp oil. +Linseed oil's properties as a polymer make it highly suitable for wood finishing, for use in oil paints, as a plasticizer and hardener in putty and in making linoleum. When used in food or medicinally, linseed oil is called flaxseed oil. +Poppyseed oil, similar in usage to linseed oil but with better color stability. +Stillingia oil (also called Chinese vegetable tallow oil), obtained by solvent from the seeds of Sapium sebiferum. Used as a drying agent in paints and varnishes. +Tung oil, used as an industrial lubricant and highly effective drying agent. Also used as a substitute for linseed oil. +Vernonia oil is produced from the seeds of the Vernonia galamensis. It is composed of 73–80% vernolic acid, which can be used to make epoxies for manufacturing adhesives, varnishes and paints, and industrial coatings. + +== Other oils == +A number of pressed vegetable oils are either not edible, or not used as an edible oil. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a2033b371 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "List of vegetable oils" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Amur cork tree fruit oil, pressed from the fruit of the Phellodendron amurense. It has been studied for insecticidal use. +Artichoke oil, extracted from the seeds of the artichoke fruit, is an unsaturated semi-drying oil with potential applications in making soap, shampoo, alkyd resin and shoe polish. +Astrocaryum murumuru butter is employed in lotions, creams, soaps hair conditioners, facial masks, shampoo, oils and emulsions, skin moisturizer, products for the nutrition of the hair and restore damaged hair, depilatory waxes. +Balanos oil, pressed from the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, was used in ancient Egypt as the base for perfumes. +Bladderpod oil, pressed from the seeds of Physaria fendleri, native to North America. Rich in lesquerolic acid, which is chemically similar to the ricinoleic acid found in castor oil. Many industrial uses. Possible substitute for castor oil as it requires much less moisture than castor beans. +Brucea javanica oil, extracted from the seeds of the Brucea javanica. The oil has been shown to be effective in treating certain cancers. +Burdock oil (Bur oil) extracted from the root of the burdock. Used as an herbal remedy for scalp conditions. +Buriti oil, extracted from the Mauritia flexuosa fruit, is high in carotenoids and monounsaturated fatty acids, and of consequent nutritional interest. It is also used in the cosmetics industry. +Candlenut oil (Kukui nut oil), produced in Hawai'i, used primarily for skin care products. +Carrot seed oil (pressed), from carrot seeds, used in skin care products. +Castor oil, with many industrial and medicinal uses. Castor beans are also a source of the toxin ricin. +Chaulmoogra oil, from the seeds of Hydnocarpus wightiana, used for many centuries, internally and externally, to treat leprosy. Also used to treat secondary syphilis, rheumatism, scrofula, and in phthisis. +Crambe oil, extracted from the seeds of the Crambe abyssinica. High in erucic acid, used as an industrial lubricant, a corrosion inhibitor, and as an ingredient in the manufacture of synthetic rubber. +Croton oil (tiglium oil) is pressed from the seeds of Croton tiglium. Highly toxic, it was formerly used as a drastic purgative. +Cuphea oil, from a number of species of genre Cuphea. Of interest as sources of medium chain triglycerides. +Cupuaçu butter is closely analogous to cocoa, and is used to make white chocolate. +Honesty oil, from the seeds of Lunaria annua, which contain 30–40% oil. The oil is particularly rich in long chain fatty acids, including erucic and nervonic acid, making it suitable for certain industrial purposes. +Illipe butter, from the nuts of Shorea stenoptera (now Rubroshorea stenoptera). Similar to cocoa butter, but with a higher melting point. Used in cosmetics. +Jojoba oil, used in cosmetics as an alternative to whale oil spermaceti. +Mango oil, pressed from the stones of the mango fruit, is high in stearic acid, and can be used for making soap. +Mowrah butter, from the seeds of the Madhuca latifolia and Madhuca longifolia, both native to India. Crude Mowrah butter is used as a fat for spinning wool, for making candles and soap. The refined fat is used as an edible fat and vegetable ghee in India. +Neem oil, from Azadirachta indica, a brownish-green oil with a high sulfur content, used in cosmetics, for medicinal purposes, and as an insecticide. +Ojon oil extracted from the nut of the American palm (Elaeis oleifera). Oil extracted from both the nut and husk is also used as an edible oil in Central and South America. Commercialized by a Canadian businessman in the 1990s. +Passiflora edulis Passion fruit oil is extracted from the seeds and composed mainly of linoleic acid (62%) with smaller amounts of oleic acid (20%) and palmitic acid (7%). It has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food. +Rose hip seed oil, used primarily in skin care products, particularly for aging or damaged skin. +Rubber seed oil, pressed from the seeds of the Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), has received attention as a potential use of what otherwise would be a waste product from making rubber. It has been explored as a drying oil in Nigeria, as a diesel fuel in India and as food for livestock in Cambodia and Vietnam. +Sea buckthorn oil, derived from Hippophae rhamnoides, produced in northern China, used primarily medicinally. +Sea rocket seed oil, from the halophyte Cakile maritima, native to north Africa, is high in erucic acid, and therefore has potential industrial applications. +Snowball seed oil (Viburnum oil), from Viburnum opulus seeds. High in tocopherol, carotenoides and unsaturated fatty acids. Used medicinally. +Tall oil, produced as a byproduct of wood pulp manufacture. A further byproduct called tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) is a cheap source of oleic acid. +Tamanu or foraha oil from the Calophyllum tacamahaca, is important in Polynesian culture, and, although very expensive, is used for skin care. +Tonka bean oil (Cumaru oil), popular ingredient in cologne, used medicinally in Brazil. +Tucumã butter is extracted from both the pulp and seed of the fruit of Astrocaryum vulgare, a South American oil palm. The pulp oil is used as a skin conditioner. The seed oil is sold for use as a cooking oil and for making soap due to its high lauric acid content. +Ucuhuba seed oil, extracted from the seeds of Virola surinamensis, is unusually high in myristic acid. + +== See also == + +Carrier oil discusses the use of (pressed) vegetable oils, mixed with essential oils +Fatty acid discusses the components of most vegetable fats and oils +International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients explains naming conventions for oils used in cosmetics and soaps +List of essential oils + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8609c36fb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "List of vegetable oils" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Further reading == +"Fats and Cholesterol: Out with the Bad, In with the Good". The Nutrition Source. Harvard School of Public Health. Retrieved 2011-10-22. +"Bulk Oil Trading". Retrieved 2006-07-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) An older version of this site was very helpful in making this list more comprehensive. +"Vegetable Oil Yields and Characteristics". Retrieved 2011-10-24. Compiles useful information on vegetable oils from a number of sources. +"Castor Oil". Archived from the original on 2006-07-15. Retrieved 2006-07-25. The site contains a large set of resources on castor oil and many other oils, particularly those used to make biodiesel. +Botanical Garden of Indian Republic (BGIR) (April 5, 2004). "Database of Oil Yielding Plants" (PDF). Botanical Survey of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2010-10-19. List of about 300 plants that grow in India, and that yield oil. Also includes common names in languages spoken in India. +Macmillan, H.F. (1989). "Oils and Vegetable Fats". Handbook of Tropical Plants. Herbdata New Zealand. ISBN 978-81-7041-177-2. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Old reference with basic information on an unusually large variety of plant oils. +Ashurst, P. R. (1999). Food Flavorings. Springer. ISBN 978-0-8342-1621-1. Retrieved 2014-10-05. Comprehensive information on cooking oils that are used for flavoring foods. +Duke, James A. (1982). Handbook of Energy Crops. Purdue University Center for New Crops. Retrieved 2011-11-19. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5efeebba3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,163 @@ +--- +title: "List of viscosities" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:35.037462+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Dynamic viscosity is a material property which describes the resistance of a fluid to shearing flows. It corresponds roughly to the intuitive notion of a fluid's 'thickness'. For instance, honey has +a much higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is measured using a viscometer. Measured values span several orders +of magnitude. Of all fluids, gases have the lowest viscosities, and thick liquids have the highest. There is evidence of solid flow as result of Brownian motion in condition of extremes such as high temperature, high pressure, and extremely long time scales as theorized for the motion of the Earth's solid metal core. +The values listed in this article are representative estimates only, as they do not account for measurement uncertainties, variability in material definitions, or non-Newtonian behavior. +Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by fluid mass density. This page lists only dynamic viscosity. + + +== Units and conversion factors == +For dynamic viscosity, the SI unit is Pascal-second. In engineering, the unit is usually Poise or centiPoise, with 1 Poise = 0.1 Pascal-second, and 1 centiPoise = 0.01 Poise. +For kinematic viscosity, the SI unit is m^2/s. In engineering, the unit is usually Stoke or centiStoke, with 1 Stoke = 0.0001 m^2/s, and 1 centiStoke = 0.01 Stoke. +For liquid, the dynamic viscosity is usually in the range of 0.001 to 1 Pascal-second, or 1 to 1000 centiPoise. The density is usually on the order of 1000 kg/m^3, i.e. that of water. Consequently, if a liquid has dynamic viscosity of n centiPoise, and its density is not too different from that of water, then its kinematic viscosity is around n centiStokes. +For gas, the dynamic viscosity is usually in the range of 10 to 20 microPascal-seconds, or 0.01 to 0.02 centiPoise. The density is usually on the order of 0.5 to 5 kg/m^3. Consequently, its kinematic viscosity is around 2 to 40 centiStokes. + + +== Viscosities at or near standard conditions == +Here "standard conditions" refers to temperatures of 25 °C and pressures of 1 atmosphere. Where data points are unavailable for 25 °C or 1 atmosphere, values are given at a nearby temperature/pressure. +The temperatures corresponding to each data point are stated explicitly. By contrast, pressure is omitted since gaseous viscosity depends only weakly on it. + + +=== Gases === + + +==== Noble gases ==== +The simple structure of noble gas atoms makes them amenable to accurate theoretical treatment. For this reason, measured viscosities of the noble gases serve as important tests of the kinetic-molecular theory of transport processes in gases (see Chapman–Enskog theory). One of the key predictions of the theory is the following relationship between viscosity + + + + μ + + + {\displaystyle \mu } + +, thermal conductivity + + + + k + + + {\displaystyle k} + +, and specific heat + + + + + c + + v + + + + + {\displaystyle c_{v}} + +: + + + + + k + = + f + μ + + c + + v + + + + + {\displaystyle k=f\mu c_{v}} + + +where + + + + f + + + {\displaystyle f} + + is a constant which in general depends on the details of intermolecular interactions, but for spherically symmetric species is very close to + + + + 2.5 + + + {\displaystyle 2.5} + +. +This prediction is reasonably well-verified by experiments, as the following table shows. Indeed, the relation provides a viable means for obtaining thermal conductivities of gases since these are more difficult to measure directly than viscosity. + + +==== Diatomic elements ==== + + +==== Hydrocarbons ==== + + +==== Organohalides ==== + + +==== Other gases ==== + + +=== Liquids === + + +==== n-Alkanes ==== +Substances composed of longer molecules tend to have larger viscosities due to the increased contact of molecules across layers of flow. This effect can be observed for the n-alkanes and 1-chloroalkanes tabulated below. More dramatically, a long-chain hydrocarbon like squalane (C30H62) has a viscosity an order of magnitude larger than the shorter n-alkanes (roughly 31 mPa·s at 25 °C). This is also the reason oils tend to be highly viscous, since they are usually composed of long-chain hydrocarbons. + + +==== 1-Chloroalkanes ==== + + +==== Other halocarbons ==== + + +==== Alkenes ==== + + +==== Other liquids ==== + + +=== Aqueous solutions === +The viscosity of an aqueous solution can either increase or decrease with concentration depending on the solute and the range of concentration. For instance, the table below shows that viscosity increases monotonically with concentration for sodium chloride and calcium chloride, but decreases for potassium iodide and cesium chloride (the latter up to 30% mass percentage, after which viscosity increases). +The increase in viscosity for sucrose solutions is particularly dramatic, and explains in part the common experience of sugar water being "sticky". + + +=== Substances of variable composition === + + +== Viscosities under nonstandard conditions == + + +=== Gases === + +All values are given at 1 bar (approximately equal to atmospheric pressure). + + +=== Liquids (including liquid metals) === + +In the following table, the temperature is given in kelvins. + + +=== Solids === + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4a570cd41 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "List of water-miscible solvents" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:36.279272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following compounds are liquid at room temperature and are completely miscible with water; they are often used as solvents. Many of them are hygroscopic. + + +== Organic compounds == + + +== Inorganic compounds == + + +== See also == +Category:Alcohol solvents + + +== External links == +Solvent miscibility table [1] +Diethylenetriamine [2] +Hydrazine [3] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a9a101c7e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "List of yttrium compounds" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:38.884803+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of yttrium compounds shows compounds of yttrium. Inclusion criteria: those that have applications, academic significance, single crystal structures or have their own Wikipedia articles. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f9d766af9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "List of β-lactam antibiotics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:34.236379+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of common β-lactam antibiotics—both administered drugs and those not in clinical use—organized by structural class. Antibiotics are listed alphabetically within their class or subclass by their nonproprietary name. If an antibiotic is a combination drug, both ingredients will be listed. + + +== Penams == + + +=== Narrow-spectrum === + + +==== β-lactamase-sensitive ==== + + +==== β-lactamase-resistant ==== + + +=== Broad spectrum === + + +=== Extended spectrum (Antipseudomonal) === + + +==== Carboxypenicillins ==== + + +==== Ureidopenicillins ==== + + +== Cephems == + + +=== First generation (moderate spectrum) === + + +=== Second generation (moderate spectrum) === +cefuroxime, cefaclor, cefprozil + + +==== With anti-Haemophilus activity ==== + + +==== With anti-anaerobic activity ==== + + +=== Third generation (broad spectrum) === + + +=== Fourth generation (broad spectrum) === +(With β-lactamase stability and enhanced activity against Gram-positive bacteria and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) + + +=== Fifth generation* (broad spectrum) === +(activity against MRSA and variably VRE. *Not universally accepted nomenclature. NO Antipseudomonal activity, mostly ceftriaxone coverage with additional MRSA and some VRE) + + +== Carbapenems and penems == +(Broadest spectrum of β-lactam antibiotics) + + +== Monobactams == + + +== β-lactamase inhibitors == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md index eafa7cbf8..eacf07c43 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:36.809335+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:40.586169+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md index bfd585cdc..12c3d3724 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:59.503336+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:36.910699+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..994e98b2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of chemistry" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline acts as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: +Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. + +== Summary == +Chemistry can be described as all of the following: + +An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. +A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals. +A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method. +A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. +A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biochemistry. + +== Branches == +Physical chemistry – study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. +Chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes. +Chemical physics – investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes. +Electrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (the electrode: a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. +Femtochemistry – area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond). +Geochemistry – chemical study of the mechanisms behind major systems studied in geology. +Photochemistry – study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. +Quantum chemistry – branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. +Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids. +Spectroscopy – study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. +Stereochemistry – study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules +Surface science – study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces. +Thermochemistry – the branch of chemistry that studies the relation between chemical action and the amount of heat absorbed or generated. +Calorimetry – the study of heat changes in physical and chemical processes. +Organic chemistry (outline) – study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. +Biochemistry – study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics. +Neurochemistry – study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. +Molecular biochemistry and genetic engineering – an area of biochemistry and molecular biology that studies the genes, their heritage and their expression. +Bioorganic chemistry – combines organic chemistry and biochemistry toward biology. +Biophysical chemistry – is a physical science that uses the concepts of physics and physical chemistry for the study of biological systems. +Medicinal chemistry – discipline which applies chemistry for medical or drug related purposes. +Organometallic chemistry – is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin. +Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. +Inorganic chemistry – study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. +Bioinorganic chemistry – is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. +Cluster chemistry – focuses on crystalline materials most often existing on the 0–2 nanometer scale and characterizing their crystal structures and understanding their role in the nucleation and growth mechanisms of larger materials. +Nuclear chemistry – study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. +Analytical chemistry – analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. +Other \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c589d2b09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of chemistry" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. +Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. +Computational chemistry – is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems. +Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. +Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. +Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. +Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. +Polymer chemistry – multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. +Wet chemistry – is a form of analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze materials usually in liquid phase. +Agrochemistry – study and application of both chemistry and biochemistry for agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and environmental monitoring and remediation. +Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science which studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets. +Chemical biology – scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology and involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to analyze and manipulation of biological systems. +Chemo-informatics – use of computer and informational techniques applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. +Flow chemistry – study of chemical reactions in continuous flow, not as stationary batches, in industry and macro processing equipment. +Immunohistochemistry – involves the process of detecting antigens (e.g., proteins) in cells of a tissue section by exploiting the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in biological tissues. +Immunochemistry – is a branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. +Chemical oceanography – study of ocean chemistry: the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. +Mathematical chemistry – area of study engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry. It concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. +Mechanochemistry – coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena on a molecular scale. +Molecular biology – study of interactions between the various systems of a cell. It overlaps with biochemistry. +Petrochemistry – study of the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. +Phytochemistry – study of phytochemicals which come from plants. +Radiochemistry – chemistry of radioactive materials. +Sonochemistry – study of effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. +Synthetic chemistry – study of chemical synthesis. + +== History == +History of chemistry \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dfe214132 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of chemistry" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Precursors to chemistry +Alchemy (outline) +History of alchemy +History of the branches of chemistry +History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions +History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines +History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examination of the role of metals in biology. History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components of the immune system. History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). History of natural product chemistry – history of the scientific study of chemical compounds or substances produced by living organisms—history of chemical compounds found in nature that usually have a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. History of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses of Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. History of flavor chemistry – history of the use of chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. History of flow chemistry – history of chemical reactions run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry +History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions +History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology +History of ocean chemistry – history of the study the chemistry of marine environments, including the influences of different variables. History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth +History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth +History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes. History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. History of femtochemistry – history of the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7ad4cf7e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of chemistry" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +History of thermochemistry – history of the study of energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids +History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry: +History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics and engineering. History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy +History of surface science – history of the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. History of chemicals +History of chemical elements - The concept of an "element" as an indivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions. History of carbon +History of hydrogen +Timeline of hydrogen technologies +History of oxygen +History of chemical products +History of aspirin +History of cosmetics +History of gunpowder +History of pharmaceutical drugs +History of vitamins +History of chemical processes +History of manufactured gas +History of the Haber process +History of the chemical industry +History of the petroleum industry +History of the pharmaceutical industry +History of the periodic table \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d70536bd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,138 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of chemistry" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Chemicals == +Dictionary of chemical formulas +List of biomolecules +List of inorganic compounds +Periodic table + +== Atomic theory == +Atomic theory + +Atomic models +Atomism – natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. +Plum pudding model +Rutherford model +Bohr model + +== Thermochemistry == +Thermochemistry + +=== Terminology === +Thermochemistry +Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. +Exothermic – a process or reaction in which the system releases energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow. +Endothermic – a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow. +Thermochemical equation +Enthalpy change – internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure. +Enthalpy of reaction +Temperature – an objective comparative measure of heat. +Calorimeter – an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. +Heat – A form of energy associated with the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules and capable of being transmitted through solid and fluid media by conduction, through fluid media by convection, and through empty space by radiation. +Joule – a unit of energy. +Calorie +Specific heat +Specific heat capacity +Latent heat +Heat of fusion +Heat of vaporization +Collision theory +Activation energy +Activated complex +Reaction rate +Catalyst + +=== Thermochemical equations === +Chemical equations that include the heat involved in a reaction, either on the reactant side or the product side. +Examples: +H2O(l) + 240kJ → H2O(g) +N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 + 92kJ +Joule (J) + +== Chemists == +For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists +Amedeo Avogadro +Elias James Corey +Marie Curie +John Dalton +Humphry Davy +George Eastman +Michael Faraday +Rosalind Franklin +Eleuthère Irénée du Pont +Dmitriy Mendeleyev +Alfred Nobel +Wilhelm Ostwald +Louis Pasteur +Linus Pauling +Joseph Priestley +Robert Burns Woodward +Karl Ziegler +Ahmed Zewail + +== Chemistry literature == +Scientific literature +Scientific journal +Academic journal +List of important publications in chemistry +List of scientific journals in chemistry +List of science magazines +Scientific American + +== Lists == + +Chemical elements data references +List of chemical elements – atomic mass, atomic number, symbol, name +List of minerals – Minerals +Electron configurations of the elements (data page) – electron configuration, electrons per shell +Densities of the elements (data page) – density (solid, liquid, gas) +Electron affinity (data page) – electron affinity +Melting points of the elements (data page) – melting point +Boiling points of the elements (data page) – boiling point +Critical points of the elements (data page) – critical point +Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) – heat of fusion +Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) – heat of vaporization +Heat capacities of the elements (data page) – heat capacity +Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) – vapor pressure +Electronegativities of the elements (data page) – electronegativity (Pauling scale) +Ionization energies of the elements (data page) – ionization energies (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol) +Atomic radii of the elements (data page) – atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius +Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) – electrical resistivity +Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) – thermal conductivity +Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) – thermal expansion +Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) – speed of sound +Elastic properties of the elements (data page) – Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus +Hardnesses of the elements (data page) – Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness +Abundances of the elements (data page) – Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and solar system +List of oxidation states of the elements – oxidation states +List of compounds +List of CAS numbers by chemical compound +List of Extremely Hazardous Substances +List of inorganic compounds +List of organic compounds +List of alkanes +List of alloys +Other +List of thermal conductivities +List of purification methods in chemistry +List of unsolved problems in chemistry + +== See also == +Outline of biochemistry +Outline of physics + +== References == + +== External links == +International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Archived 2007-10-31 at the Wayback Machine +IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page, see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms +Interactive Mind Map of Chemistry +/ Chemical energetics Archived 2018-01-27 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e3d5ac75 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,229 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of organic chemistry" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:48.210958+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic chemistry: +Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. + + +== General topics == +History of organic chemistry +IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry +Organic reaction +Organic compound +Organic synthesis +Retrosynthetic analysis + + +== Current trends == +Current trends in organic chemistry include (as of 2020): + +Biocatalysis +Catalysis +Chemosensors +Chiral synthesis +Flow chemistry +Green chemistry +Mechanochemistry +Photoredox catalysis + + +== Concepts == +Acids and bases +Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory +Acid dissociation constants +Lewis acids and bases +Chemoselectivity +Molecular structure +Aromaticity +Chemical bonding +Covalent bonding +Lewis model +Molecule shapes +Bond angles +Resonance structures +Conjugated systems +Functional groups +Stereochemistry +Conformational isomerism +Diastereomer +Stereoisomerism +Chirality +Optical activity +Enantiomers +Regioselectivity +Stereoselectivity +Spectroscopy +Infrared spectroscopy +Mass spectrometry +NMR spectroscopy +Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy +Organometallic chemistry + + +== Chemical species == + +Acetals +Hemiacetals +Thioacetals +Ketals +Alcohols and diols +Haloalkanes +Thiols +Alkanes and cycloalkanes +Alkenes +Alkynes +Amines +Amino acids, peptides, proteins +Aromatics +Acetophenones +Anilines +Anisoles +Benzene +Benzenesulfonic acids +Benzophenones +Nitrobenzenes +Phenols +Aromatic hydrocarbons +Toluene +Xylenes +Aryl halides +Carbohydrates +Sugar +Carbonyl compounds +Acid anhydride +Acyl halides +Acyl chlorides +Aldehydes +Amides +Lactams +Carboxylic acids +Dicarbonyl +Enones +Esters +Lactones +Imides +Ketones +Enols +Enolate anions +Enamines +Ethers +Epoxides +Sulfides +Imines +Schiff bases +Ketenes +Lipids +Nitriles +Nucleic acids +Organometallic compounds +Oximes + + +== Reactions == + +Addition reaction +Aldol addition +Electrophilic addition +Michael addition +Mukaiyama aldol addition +Nucleophilic addition +Cyclization +Bergman cyclization +Nazarov cyclization reaction +Elimination reaction +Beta elimination +Cope elimination +E1cB elimination reaction +Hofmann elimination +Organic redox reaction +Cannizzaro reaction +Oxidation +Baeyer-Villiger oxidation +Corey-Kim oxidation +Dess-Martin oxidation +Fleming-Tamao oxidation +Jones oxidation +Nucleophilic epoxidation +Oppenauer oxidation +Prilezhaev reaction +Rubottom oxidation +Schmidt reaction +Swern oxidation +Wacker-Tsuji oxidation +Reduction +Birch reduction +Bouveault-Blanc reduction +CBS reduction +Clemmensen reduction +Corey-Bakshi-Shibata reduction +Corey–Itsuno reduction +Fukuyama reduction +Luche reduction +Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction +Rosenmund reduction +Staudinger reduction +Wolff-Kishner reduction +Pericyclic reaction +Cheletropic reaction +Cycloaddition +1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition +Azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition +Diels–Alder reaction +Nitrone-olefin (3+2) cycloaddition +Staudinger ketene-imine cycloaddition +Dyotropic reaction +Electrocyclic reaction +Group transfer reaction +Sigmatropic reaction +Polymerization +Cationic polymerization +Anionic polymerization +Radical polymerization +Ring-opening polymerization +Rearrangement reaction +Baker–Venkataraman rearrangement +Beckmann rearrangement +Benzilic acid rearrangement +Brook rearrangement +Claisen rearrangement +Cope rearrangement +Curtius rearrangement +Fries rearrangement +Ireland–Claisen rearrangement +Newman–Kwart rearrangement +Overman rearrangement +Oxy-Cope rearrangement +Pinacol rearrangement +1,2-Wittig rearrangement +2,3-Wittig rearrangement +Substitution reaction +Electrophilic aromatic substitution +Nucleophilic aromatic substitution +Electrophilic substitution +Nucleophilic substitution +SN1 reaction +SN2 reaction +Vicarious nucleophilic substitution + + +== See also == +Important publications in organic chemistry +List of organic reactions + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Organic Chemistry Lectures, Videos and Text +Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry +Organic Families and Their Functional Groups +Roger Frost's Organic Chemistry - multimedia teaching tools \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..585b5e69d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "Rotterdam Convention" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:04.010688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Rotterdam Convention (formally, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade) is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply. +In 2012, the Secretariats of the Basel and Stockholm conventions, as well as the UNEP-part of the Rotterdam Convention Secretariat, merged to a single Secretariat with a matrix structure serving the three conventions. The three conventions now hold back to back Conferences of the Parties as part of their joint synergies decisions. +The ninth meeting of the Rotterdam Conference was held from 29 April to 10 May 2019 in Geneva, Switzerland. + + +== Substances covered under the Convention == +The following chemicals are listed in Annex III to the convention: + +2,4,5-T and its salts and esters +Alachlor +Aldicarb +Aldrin +Asbestos – Actinolite, Anthophyllite, Amosite, Crocidolite, and Tremolite only +Benomyl (certain formulations) +Binapacryl +Captafol +Carbofuran (certain formulations) +Chlordane +Chlordimeform +Chlorobenzilate +DDT +Dieldrin +Dinitro-ortho-cresol (DNOC) and its salts +Dinoseb and its salts and esters +1,2-dibromoethane (EDB) +Endosulfan +Ethylene dichloride +Ethylene oxide +Fluoroacetamide +Hexachlorocyclohexane (mixed isomers) +Heptachlor +Hexachlorobenzene +Lindane +Mercury compounds including inorganic and organometallic mercury compounds +Methamidophos (certain formulations) +Methyl parathion (certain formulations) +Monocrotophos +Parathion +Pentachlorophenol and its salts and esters +Phosphamidon (certain formulations) +Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) +Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) +Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) +Terbufos +Tetraethyl lead +Tetramethyl lead +Thiram (certain formulations) +Toxaphene +Tributyltin compounds +Trichlorfon +Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (TRIS) + + +== Substances recommended for addition to the Convention == +The Chemical Review Committee of the Rotterdam Convention decided to recommend to the conference of the parties meeting that it consider the listing of the following chemicals in Annex III to the convention: + +Carbosulfan +Chrysotile asbestos +Fenthion (ultra low volume (ULV) formulations at or above 640 g active ingredient/L) +Liquid formulations (emulsifiable concentrate and soluble concentrate) containing paraquat dichloride at or above 276 g/L, corresponding to paraquat ion at or above 200 g/L +Acetochlor +Iprodione + + +== State parties == + +As of October 2018, the convention has 161 parties, which includes 158 UN member states, the Cook Islands, the State of Palestine, and the European Union. Non-member states include the United States. + + +== Discussion about chrysotile asbestos == +At the 2011 meeting of the Rotterdam Convention in Geneva, the Canadian delegation surprised many with a refusal to allow the addition of chrysotile asbestos fibers to the Rotterdam Convention. Hearings are scheduled in the EU in the near future to evaluate the position of Canada and decide on the possibility of a punitive course of action. +In continuing its objection, Canada is the only G8 country objecting to the listing. Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Ukraine also objected. Vietnam had also raised an objection, but missed a follow-up meeting on the issue. In taking its position, the Canadian Government contrasted with India, which withdrew its long-standing objection to the addition of chrysotile to the list just prior to the 2011 conference. (India later reversed this position in 2013.) +Numerous non-governmental organizations have publicly expressed criticism of Canada's decision to block this addition. +In September 2012, Canadian Industry minister Christian Paradis announced the Canadian government would no longer oppose inclusion of chrysotile in the convention. +Eight of the largest chrysotile producing and exporting countries opposed such a move at the Rotterdam Conference of Parties in 2015: Russia, Kazakhstan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Cuba, and Zimbabwe. + + +== See also == +Basel Convention +Stockholm Convention +Safe Planet + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official site of The Rotterdam Convention +Text of theConvention +Ratifications Archived 27 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine +The Rotterdam Convention Prior Informed Consent Procedure \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md index 73aede77e..e657652f2 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:16:19.912154+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:17.689616+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1394ab3d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,265 @@ +--- +title: "Standard electrode potential (data page)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:19.093695+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at: + +Temperature 298.15 K (25.00 °C; 77.00 °F); +Effective concentration (activity) 1 mol/L for each aqueous or amalgamated (mercury-alloyed) species; +Unit activity for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and +Absolute partial pressure 101.325 kPa (1.00000 atm; 1.01325 bar) for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current standard state (100 kPa). +Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation. +Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy + +∆G° = –zFE°, +where z electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant F is the conversion factor describing Coulombs transferred per mole electrons. For example, from + +Fe2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Fe(s) (−0.44 V), +the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe2+ ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84 907 J/(mol  e−). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆Gf°) for an Fe2+ ion, since  e− and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy. +Data from different sources may cause table inconsistencies. For example: + + + + + + + + + + + Cu + + + + + + + + + e + + − + + + + + + + + + ⇌ + + + + + + + Cu + + ( + s + ) + + + + + + + + E + + 1 + + + = + + + 0.520 + + V + + + + + + + + + Cu + + 2 + + + + + + + 2 + + + e + + − + + + + + + + + + ⇌ + + + + + + + Cu + + ( + s + ) + + + + + + + + E + + 2 + + + = + + + 0.337 + + V + + + + + + + + + Cu + + 2 + + + + + + + + e + + − + + + + + + + + + ⇌ + + + + + + + + Cu + + + + + + + + + + + + E + + 3 + + + = + + + 0.159 + + V + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{4}&{\ce {Cu+ + e-}}&{}\rightleftharpoons {}&{\ce {Cu(s)}}&\quad \quad E_{1}=+0.520{\text{ V}}\\&{\ce {Cu^2+ + 2e-}}&{}\rightleftharpoons {}&{\ce {Cu(s)}}&\quad \quad E_{2}=+0.337{\text{ V}}\\&{\ce {Cu^2+ + e-}}&{}\rightleftharpoons {}&{\ce {Cu+}}&\quad \quad E_{3}=+0.159{\text{ V}}\end{alignedat}}} + + From additivity of Gibbs energies and canceling common factors, one must have + + + + 2 + ⋅ + + E + + 2 + + + = + 1 + ⋅ + + E + + 1 + + + + + 1 + ⋅ + + E + + 3 + + + + + {\displaystyle 2\cdot E_{2}=1\cdot E_{1}+1\cdot E_{3}} + + But that equation does not hold exactly with the cited values. + + +== Table of standard electrode potentials == +Legend: (s) – solid; (l) – liquid; (g) – gas; (aq) – aqueous (default for all charged species); (Hg) – amalgam; bold – water electrolysis equations. + + +== See also == +Galvanic series lists electrode potentials in saltwater +Standard apparent reduction potentials in biochemistry at pH 7 +Reactivity series#Comparison with standard electrode potentials + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Chemistry LibreTexts (2021-04-26). "P1: Standard Reduction Potentials by Element". Chemistry LibreTexts. Retrieved 2021-11-30. +California State University, Northridge (CSUN). "Standard Reduction Potentials" (PDF). csun.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2021-11-30. +Wardman, Peter (1989). "Reduction potentials of one-electron couples involving free radicals in aqueous solution" (PDF). srd.nist.gov. p. 1637. Bibcode:1989JPCRD..18.1637W. doi:10.1063/1.555843. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2021-11-30. +http://www.jesuitnola.org/upload/clark/Refs/red_pot.htm Archived 2008-07-20 at the Wayback Machine +https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015049/http://www.fptl.ru/biblioteka/spravo4niki/handbook-of-Chemistry-and-Physics.pdf +http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/tables/electpot.html#c1 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..995b7568b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Table of explosive detonation velocities" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:29.781547+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a compilation of published detonation velocities for various high explosive compounds. Detonation velocity is the speed with which the detonation shock wave travels through the explosive. It is a key, directly measurable indicator of explosive performance, but depends on density which must always be specified, and may be too low if the test charge diameter is not large enough. Especially for little studied explosives there may be divergent published values due to charge diameter issues. In liquid explosives, like nitroglycerin, there may be two detonation velocities, one much higher than the other. The detonation velocity values presented here are typically for the highest practical density which maximizes achievable detonation velocity. +The velocity of detonation is an important indicator for overall energy and power of detonation, and in particular for the brisance or shattering effect of an explosive which is due to the detonation pressure. The pressure can be calculated using Chapman–Jouguet theory from the velocity and density. + + +== See also == +TNT equivalent +RE factor + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..312067b43 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:58:13.667157+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS (autonomic nervous system). It includes the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the visual system, the digestive system, the endocrine system, the urinary system, the reproductive system, and the integumentary system. Both effects of the sympathetic nervous system (adrenergic) and parasympathetic nervous system (muscarinic) are included. + + +== Circulatory system == + + +=== Heart === + + +=== Blood vessels === + + +=== Other === + + +== Respiratory system == + +✱ The bronchioles have no sympathetic innervation, but are instead affected by circulating adrenaline + + +== Visual system == + + +== Digestive system == + + +== Endocrine system == + + +== Urinary system == + + +== Reproductive system == + + +== Integumentary system == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..813ffa2fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,792 @@ +--- +title: "Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The values below are standard apparent reduction potentials (E°') for electro-biochemical half-reactions measured at 25 °C, 1 atmosphere and a pH of 7 in aqueous solution. +The actual physiological potential depends on the ratio of the reduced (Red) and oxidized (Ox) forms according to the Nernst equation and the thermal voltage. +When an oxidizer (Ox) accepts a number z of electrons ( e−) to be converted in its reduced form (Red), the half-reaction is expressed as: + +Ox + z  e− → Red +The reaction quotient (Qr) is the ratio of the chemical activity (ai) of the reduced form (the reductant, aRed) to the activity of the oxidized form (the oxidant, aox). It is equal to the ratio of their concentrations (Ci) only if the system is sufficiently diluted and the activity coefficients (γi) are close to unity (ai = γi Ci): + + + + + + Q + + r + + + = + + + + a + + Red + + + + a + + Ox + + + + + = + + + + C + + Red + + + + C + + Ox + + + + + + + {\displaystyle Q_{r}={\frac {a_{\text{Red}}}{a_{\text{Ox}}}}={\frac {C_{\text{Red}}}{C_{\text{Ox}}}}} + + +The Nernst equation is a function of Qr and can be written as follows: + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + + + + R + T + + + z + F + + + + ln + ⁡ + + Q + + r + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + + + + R + T + + + z + F + + + + ln + ⁡ + + + + a + + Red + + + + a + + Ox + + + + + . + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {RT}{zF}}\ln Q_{r}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {RT}{zF}}\ln {\frac {a_{\text{Red}}}{a_{\text{Ox}}}}.} + + +At chemical equilibrium, the reaction quotient Qr of the product activity (aRed) by the reagent activity (aOx) is equal to the equilibrium constant (K) of the half-reaction and in the absence of driving force (ΔG = 0) the potential (Ered) also becomes nul. +The numerically simplified form of the Nernst equation is expressed as: + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + + + + 0.059 + + V + + z + + + + log + + 10 + + + ⁡ + + + + a + + Red + + + + a + + Ox + + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.059\ V}{z}}\log _{10}{\frac {a_{\text{Red}}}{a_{\text{Ox}}}}} + + +Where + + + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }} + + is the standard reduction potential of the half-reaction expressed versus the standard reduction potential of hydrogen. For standard conditions in electrochemistry (T = 25 °C, P = 1 atm and all concentrations being fixed at 1 mol/L, or 1 M) the standard reduction potential of hydrogen + + + + + E + + red H+ + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red H+}}^{\ominus }} + + is fixed at zero by convention as it serves of reference. The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), with [ H+] = 1 M works thus at a pH = 0. +At pH = 7, when [ H+] = 10−7 M, the reduction potential + + + + + E + + red + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}} + + of  H+ differs from zero because it depends on pH. +Solving the Nernst equation for the half-reaction of reduction of two protons into hydrogen gas gives: + +2 H+ + 2 e− ⇌ H2 + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + 0.05916 + + p + H + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-0.05916\ pH} + + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + 0 + − + + ( + + 0.05916 + + + × + + + 7 + + ) + + = + − + 0.414 + + V + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=0-\left(0.05916\ {\text{×}}\ 7\right)=-0.414\ V} + + +In biochemistry and in biological fluids, at pH = 7, it is thus important to note that the reduction potential of the protons ( H+) into hydrogen gas H2 is no longer zero as with the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) at 1 M  H+ (pH = 0) in classical electrochemistry, but that + + + + + E + + red + + + = + − + 0.414 + + V + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=-0.414\mathrm {V} } + + versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). +The same also applies for the reduction potential of oxygen: + +O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− ⇌ 2 H2O +For O2, + + + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }} + + = 1.229 V, so, applying the Nernst equation for pH = 7 gives: + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + 0.05916 + + p + H + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-0.05916\ pH} + + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + 1.229 + − + + ( + + 0.05916 + + + × + + + 7 + + ) + + = + 0.815 + + V + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=1.229-\left(0.05916\ {\text{×}}\ 7\right)=0.815\ V} + + +For obtaining the values of the reduction potential at pH = 7 for the redox reactions relevant for biological systems, the same kind of conversion exercise is done using the corresponding Nernst equation expressed as a function of pH. +The conversion is simple, but care must be taken not to inadvertently mix reduction potential converted at pH = 7 with other data directly taken from tables referring to SHE (pH = 0). + +== Expression of the Nernst equation as a function of pH == + +The + + + + + E + + h + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}} + + and pH of a solution are related by the Nernst equation as commonly represented by a Pourbaix diagram ( + + + + + E + + h + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}} + + – pH plot). For a half cell equation, conventionally written as a reduction reaction (i.e., electrons accepted by an oxidant on the left side): + + + + + a + + A + + + b + + B + + + h + + + + H + + + + + + + + + z + + + e + + − + + + + + + + + + + + ↽ + + + + + − + + + + + + + + + − + + + + + ⇀ + + + + + + + + + c + + C + + + d + + D + + + {\displaystyle a\,A+b\,B+h\,{\ce {H+}}+z\,e^{-}\quad {\ce {<=>}}\quad c\,C+d\,D} + + +The half-cell standard reduction potential + + + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }} + + is given by + + + + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + ( + + volt + + ) + = + − + + + + Δ + + G + + ⊖ + + + + + z + F + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }({\text{volt}})=-{\frac {\Delta G^{\ominus }}{zF}}} + + +where + + + + Δ + + G + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle \Delta G^{\ominus }} + + is the standard Gibbs free energy change, z is the number of electrons involved, and F is Faraday's constant. The Nernst equation relates pH and + + + + + E + + h + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}} + +: + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + { + C + + } + + c + + + { + D + + } + + d + + + + + { + A + + } + + a + + + { + B + + } + + b + + + + + + ) + + − + + + + 0.05916 + + h + + z + + + + pH + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} + + +where curly braces { } indicate activities, and exponents are shown in the conventional manner.This equation is the equation of a straight line for + + + + + E + + h + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}} + + as a function of pH with a slope of + + + + − + 0.05916 + + + ( + + + h + z + + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle -0.05916\,\left({\frac {h}{z}}\right)} + + volt (pH has no units). +This equation predicts lower + + + + + E + + h + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}} + + at higher pH values. This is observed for the reduction of O2 into H2O, or OH−, and for reduction of H+ into H2. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4b36b7f1a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,1223 @@ +--- +title: "Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Formal standard reduction potential combined with the pH dependency == +To obtain the reduction potential as a function of the measured concentrations of the redox-active species in solution, it is necessary to express the activities as a function of the concentrations. + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + { + C + + } + + c + + + { + D + + } + + d + + + + + { + A + + } + + a + + + { + B + + } + + b + + + + + + ) + + − + + + + 0.05916 + + h + + z + + + + pH + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} + + +Given that the chemical activity denoted here by { } is the product of the activity coefficient γ by the concentration denoted by [ ]: ai = γi·Ci, here expressed as {X} = γx [X] and {X}x = (γx)x [X]x and replacing the logarithm of a product by the sum of the logarithms (i.e., log (a·b) = log a + log b), the log of the reaction quotient ( + + + + + Q + + r + + + + + {\displaystyle Q_{r}} + +) (without {H+} already isolated apart in the last term as h pH) expressed here above with activities { } becomes: + + + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + { + C + + } + + c + + + { + D + + } + + d + + + + + { + A + + } + + a + + + { + B + + } + + b + + + + + + ) + + = + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + ( + + + γ + + C + + + + ) + + + c + + + + + ( + + + γ + + D + + + + ) + + + d + + + + + + + ( + + + γ + + A + + + + ) + + + a + + + + + ( + + + γ + + B + + + + ) + + + b + + + + + + ) + + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + [ + C + ] + + + c + + + + + [ + D + ] + + + d + + + + + + + [ + A + ] + + + a + + + + + [ + B + ] + + + b + + + + + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle \log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)=\log \left({\frac {\left({\gamma _{\text{C}}}\right)^{c}\left({\gamma _{\text{D}}}\right)^{d}}{\left({\gamma _{\text{A}}}\right)^{a}\left({\gamma _{\text{B}}}\right)^{b}}}\right)+\log \left({\frac {\left[C\right]^{c}\left[D\right]^{d}}{\left[A\right]^{a}\left[B\right]^{b}}}\right)} + + +It allows to reorganize the Nernst equation as: + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + + + + ( + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + ( + + + γ + + C + + + + ) + + + c + + + + + ( + + + γ + + D + + + + ) + + + d + + + + + + + ( + + + γ + + A + + + + ) + + + a + + + + + ( + + + γ + + B + + + + ) + + + b + + + + + + ) + + + ) + + ⏟ + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + [ + C + ] + + + c + + + + + [ + D + ] + + + d + + + + + + + [ + A + ] + + + a + + + + + [ + B + ] + + + b + + + + + + ) + + − + + + + 0.05916 + + h + + z + + + + pH + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=\underbrace {\left(E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\left({\gamma _{\text{C}}}\right)^{c}\left({\gamma _{\text{D}}}\right)^{d}}{\left({\gamma _{\text{A}}}\right)^{a}\left({\gamma _{\text{B}}}\right)^{b}}}\right)\right)} _{E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}}-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\left[C\right]^{c}\left[D\right]^{d}}{\left[A\right]^{a}\left[B\right]^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} + + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + [ + C + ] + + + c + + + + + [ + D + ] + + + d + + + + + + + [ + A + ] + + + a + + + + + [ + B + ] + + + b + + + + + + ) + + − + + + + 0.05916 + + h + + z + + + + pH + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\left[C\right]^{c}\left[D\right]^{d}}{\left[A\right]^{a}\left[B\right]^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} + + +Where + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + is the formal standard potential independent of pH including the activity coefficients. +Combining + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + directly with the last term depending on pH gives: + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + ( + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + − + + + + 0.05916 + + h + + z + + + + pH + + + ) + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + [ + C + ] + + + c + + + + + [ + D + ] + + + d + + + + + + + [ + A + ] + + + a + + + + + [ + B + ] + + + b + + + + + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=\left(E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\left[C\right]^{c}\left[D\right]^{d}}{\left[A\right]^{a}\left[B\right]^{b}}}\right)} + + +For a pH = 7: + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + + + + ( + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + − + + + + 0.05916 + + h + + z + + + + × 7 + + + ) + + ⏟ + + + + + E + + red apparent at pH 7 + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + [ + C + ] + + + c + + + + + [ + D + ] + + + d + + + + + + + [ + A + ] + + + a + + + + + [ + B + ] + + + b + + + + + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=\underbrace {\left(E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{× 7}}\right)} _{E_{\text{red apparent at pH 7}}^{\ominus '}}-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\left[C\right]^{c}\left[D\right]^{d}}{\left[A\right]^{a}\left[B\right]^{b}}}\right)} + + +So, + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red apparent at pH 7 + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + − + + + 0.05916 + z + + + log + ⁡ + + ( + + + + + + [ + C + ] + + + c + + + + + [ + D + ] + + + d + + + + + + + [ + A + ] + + + a + + + + + [ + B + ] + + + b + + + + + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red apparent at pH 7}}^{\ominus '}-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\left[C\right]^{c}\left[D\right]^{d}}{\left[A\right]^{a}\left[B\right]^{b}}}\right)} + + +It is therefore important to know to what exact definition does refer the value of a reduction potential for a given biochemical redox process reported at pH = 7, and to correctly understand the relationship used. +Is it simply: + + + + + + E + + h + + + = + + E + + red + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}} + + calculated at pH 7 (with or without corrections for the activity coefficients), + + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + +, a formal standard reduction potential including the activity coefficients but no pH calculations, or, is it, + + + + + + E + + red apparent at pH 7 + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red apparent at pH 7}}^{\ominus '}} + +, an apparent formal standard reduction potential at pH 7 in given conditions and also depending on the ratio + + + + + + h + z + + + = + + + (number of involved protons) + (number of exchanged electrons) + + + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {h}{z}}={\frac {\text{(number of involved protons)}}{\text{(number of exchanged electrons)}}}} + +. +This requires thus to dispose of a clear definition of the considered reduction potential, and of a sufficiently detailed description of the conditions in which it is valid, along with a complete expression of the corresponding Nernst equation. Were also the reported values only derived from thermodynamic calculations, or determined from experimental measurements and under what specific conditions? Without being able to correctly answering these questions, mixing data from different sources without appropriate conversion can lead to errors and confusion. + +== Determination of the formal standard reduction potential when ⁠Cred/Cox⁠ = 1 == + +The formal standard reduction potential + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + can be defined as the measured reduction potential + + + + + E + + red + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}} + + of the half-reaction at unity concentration ratio of the oxidized and reduced species (i.e., when ⁠Cred/Cox⁠ = 1) under given conditions. +Indeed: +as, + + + + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }} + +, when + + + + + + + a + + red + + + + a + + ox + + + + + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {a_{\text{red}}}{a_{\text{ox}}}}=1} + +, \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..37a736c40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,328 @@ +--- +title: "Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + + + + + E + + red + + + = + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + +, when + + + + + + + C + + red + + + + C + + ox + + + + + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {C_{\text{red}}}{C_{\text{ox}}}}=1} + +, +because + + + + ln + ⁡ + + 1 + + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle \ln {1}=0} + +, and that the term + + + + + + + γ + + red + + + + γ + + ox + + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {\gamma _{\text{red}}}{\gamma _{\text{ox}}}}} + + is included in + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + +. +The formal reduction potential makes possible to more simply work with molar or molal concentrations in place of activities. Because molar and molal concentrations were once referred as formal concentrations, it could explain the origin of the adjective formal in the expression formal potential. +The formal potential is thus the reversible potential of an electrode at equilibrium immersed in a solution where reactants and products are at unit concentration. If any small incremental change of potential causes a change in the direction of the reaction, i.e. from reduction to oxidation or vice versa, the system is close to equilibrium, reversible and is at its formal potential. When the formal potential is measured under standard conditions (i.e. the activity of each dissolved species is 1 mol/L, T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F, Pgas = 1 bar) it becomes de facto a standard potential. According to Brown and Swift (1949), "A formal potential is defined as the potential of a half-cell, measured against the standard hydrogen electrode, when the total concentration of each oxidation state is one formal". +The activity coefficients + + + + + γ + + r + e + d + + + + + {\displaystyle \gamma _{red}} + + and + + + + + γ + + o + x + + + + + {\displaystyle \gamma _{ox}} + + are included in the formal potential + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + +, and because they depend on experimental conditions such as temperature, ionic strength, and pH, + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + cannot be referred as an immuable standard potential but needs to be systematically determined for each specific set of experimental conditions. +Formal reduction potentials are applied to simplify results interpretations and calculations of a considered system. Their relationship with the standard reduction potentials must be clearly expressed to avoid any confusion. + +== Main factors affecting the formal (or apparent) standard reduction potentials == +The main factor affecting the formal (or apparent) reduction potentials + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + in biochemical or biological processes is the pH. To determine approximate values of formal reduction potentials, neglecting in a first approach changes in activity coefficients due to ionic strength, the Nernst equation has to be applied taking care to first express the relationship as a function of pH. The second factor to be considered are the values of the concentrations taken into account in the Nernst equation. To define a formal reduction potential for a biochemical reaction, the pH value, the concentrations values and the hypotheses made on the activity coefficients must always be clearly indicated. When using, or comparing, several formal (or apparent) reduction potentials they must also be internally consistent. +Problems may occur when mixing different sources of data using different conventions or approximations (i.e., with different underlying hypotheses). When working at the frontier between inorganic and biological processes (e.g., when comparing abiotic and biotic processes in geochemistry when microbial activity could also be at work in the system), care must be taken not to inadvertently directly mix standard reduction potentials ( + + + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }} + + versus SHE, pH = 0) with formal (or apparent) reduction potentials ( + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + at pH = 7). Definitions must be clearly expressed and carefully controlled, especially if the sources of data are different and arise from different fields (e.g., picking and directly mixing data from classical electrochemistry textbooks ( + + + + + E + + red + + + ⊖ + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }} + + versus SHE, pH = 0) and microbiology textbooks ( + + + + + E + + red + + + + ⊖ + ′ + + + + + + {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} + + at pH = 7) without paying attention to the conventions on which they are based). + +== Example in biochemistry == +For example, in a two electrons couple like NAD+:NADH the reduction potential becomes ~ 30 mV (or more exactly, 59.16 mV/2 = 29.6 mV) more positive for every power of ten increase in the ratio of the oxidised to the reduced form. + +== Some important apparent potentials used in biochemistry == + +== See also == +Nernst equation +Electron bifurcation +Pourbaix diagram +Reduction potential +Dependency of reduction potential on pH +Standard electrode potential +Standard reduction potential +Standard reduction potential (data page) +Standard state + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Electrochemistry +Bard, Allen J.; Faulkner, Larry R.; White, Henry S. (2022). Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, 3rd Edition. Wiley. p. 864. ISBN 978-1-119-33406-4. Retrieved 2021-11-30. +Bio-electrochemistry +IUPAC–IUB–IUPAB Interunion Commission of Biothermodynamics (1976). "Recommendations for measurement and presentation of biochemical equilibrium data". J. Biol. Chem. 251 (22): 6879–85. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)32917-4. +Loach, Paul A. (1976). "Oxidation-reduction potentials, absorbance bands and molar absorbance of compounds used in biochemical studies" (PDF). Fasman GD, Editor. 1: 122–130. +Alberty, Robert A. (1998). "Calculation of standard transformed formation properties of biochemical reactants and standard apparent reduction potentials of half reactions". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 358 (1): 25–39. doi:10.1006/abbi.1998.0831. ISSN 0003-9861. PMID 9750161. Retrieved 2021-11-30. +Alberty, Robert A. (2001). "Standard apparent reduction potentials for biochemical half reactions as a function of pH and ionic strength". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 389 (1): 94–109. doi:10.1006/abbi.2001.2318. ISSN 0003-9861. PMID 11370677. Retrieved 2021-11-30. +Alberty, Robert A. (2004). "Standard apparent reduction potentials of biochemical half reactions and thermodynamic data on the species involved". Biophysical Chemistry. 111 (2): 115–122. doi:10.1016/j.bpc.2004.05.003. ISSN 0301-4622. PMID 15381309. +Kano, Kenji (2002). "Redox potentials of proteins and other compounds of bioelectrochemical interest in aqueous solutions". Review of Polarography. 48 (1): 29–46. doi:10.5189/revpolarography.48.29. eISSN 1884-7692. ISSN 0034-6691. Retrieved 2021-12-02. +Microbiology +Madigan, Michael T.; Martinko, John M.; Dunlap, Paul V.; Clark, David P. (2009). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (12th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-13-232460-1. +Madigan, Michael; Bender, Kelly; Buckley, Daniel; Sattley, W.; Stahl, David (2017). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (15th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-426192-8. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..19a2b1b33 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Women in chemistry" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of women chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. + +== Nobel laureates == + +Source: + +1911 – Marie Sklodowska-Curie – discovery of radium & polonium +1935 – Irène Joliot-Curie – artificial radioactivity +1964 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin – protein crystallography +2009 – Ada E. Yonath – structure & function of the ribosome +2018 – Frances Arnold – directed evolution to engineer enzymes +2020 – Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna – for CRISPR gene editing +2022 - Carolyn R. Bertozzi - for bioorthogonal chemistry +Eight women have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (listed above), awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Marie Curie was the first woman to receive the prize in 1911, which was her second Nobel Prize (she also won the prize in physics in 1903, along with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel – making her the only woman to be award two Nobel prizes). Her prize in chemistry was for her "discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element." Irene Joliot-Curie, Marie's daughter, became the second woman to be awarded this prize in 1935 for her discovery of artificial radioactivity. Dorothy Hodgkin won the prize in 1964 for the development of protein crystallography. Among her significant discoveries are the structures of penicillin and vitamin B12. Forty five years later, Ada Yonath shared the prize with Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas A. Steitz for the study of the structure and function of the ribosome. Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A Doudna won the 2020 prize in chemistry “for the development of a method for genome editing.” Charpentier and Doudna are the first women to share the Nobel Prize in chemistry. + +== Wolf laureates == +Three women have been awarded the Wolf Prize in Chemistry, they are: + +2006 – Ada Yonath "for ingenious structural discoveries of the ribosomal machinery of peptide-bond formation and the light-driven primary processes in photosynthesis. +2022 – Bonnie L. Bassler and Carolyn R. Bertozzi "for their seminal contributions to understanding the chemistry of cellular communication and inventing chemical methodologies to study the role of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in such biological processes." + +== Chemical elements == +In the periodic table of elements, two chemical elements are named after a female scientist: + +Curium (element 96), named after Marie and Pierre Curie +Meitnerium (element 109), named after Lise Meitner + +== List of women chemists == +The following list is split into the centuries when the majority of the scientist's work was performed. The scientist's listed may be born and perform work outside of the century they are listed under. + +=== 19th century === +Mary Watson (1856–1933), one of the first two female chemistry students at the University of Oxford +Margaret Seward (1864–1929), one of the first two female chemistry students at the University of Oxford; signed the 1904 petition to the Chemical Society +Vera Bogdanovskaia (1868–1897), one of the first female Russian chemists +Gerty Cori (1896–1957) Jewish Czech-American biochemist who was the first American to win a Nobel Prize in science +Margot Dorenfeldt (1895–1986) First woman to graduate from Norwegian Institute of Technology (1919) +Ida Freund (1863–1914), first woman to be a university chemistry lecturer in the United Kingdom +Ellen Gleditsch (1879–1968), Norwegian radiochemist; Norway's second female professor +Louise Hammarström (1849–1917), Swedish mineral chemist, first formally educated female Swedish chemist +Edith Humphrey (1875–1978), Inorganic chemist, probably the first British woman to gain a doctorate in chemistry +Julia Lermontova (1846–1919), Russian chemist, first Russian female doctorate in chemistry +Laura Linton (1853–1915), American chemist, teacher, and physician +Rachel Lloyd (1839–1900), First American female to earn a doctorate in chemistry, first regularly admitted female member of the American Chemical Society, studied sugar beets +Muriel Wheldale Onslow (1880–1932), British biochemist +Marie Pasteur (1826–1910), French chemist and bacteriologist +Mary Engle Pennington (1872–1952), American chemist +Agnes Pockels (1862–1935), German chemist +Anna Sundström (1785–1871), Swedish chemist +Clara Immerwahr (1870–1915), First woman to get her doctorate in chemistry in Germany +Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911), American industrial and environmental chemist +Anna Volkova (1800–1876), Russian chemist +Nadezhda Olimpievna Ziber-Shumova (died 1914), Russian chemist +Fanny Rysan Mulford Hitchcock (1851–1936), one of thirteen (American) women to graduate with a degree in chemistry in the 1800s, and the first to graduate with a doctorate in philosophy of chemistry. Her areas of focus were in entomology, fish osteology, and plant pathology. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d1dbee62 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Women in chemistry" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 20th century === +Elly Agallidis (1914–2006), Greek physical chemist +Nancy Allbritton, American analytical and biochemist +Marianne Angermann (1904-1977), German-Spanish-New Zealand biochemist +Valerie Ashby, American chemist +Barbara Askins (born 1939), American chemist +Kim K. Baldridge, American computational chemist +Alice Ball (1892–1916), American chemist +Carolyn Bertozzi (born 1966), American biochemist +Cynthia Burrows, American physical organic chemist +Asima Chatterjee (1917–2006), Indian organic chemist +Astrid Cleve (1875–1968), Swedish chemist +Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American chemist +Janine Cossy (born 1950), French organic chemist +Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934), Polish-French physicist and chemist (discoverer of polonium and radium, pioneer in radiology); Nobel laureate in physics 1903, and in chemistry 1911 +Jillian Lee Dempsey (born 1983), American chemist +Vy M. Dong, American organic chemist +Abigail Doyle (born 1980), American organic chemist +Odile Eisenstein (born 1949), French, theoretical chemist +Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist (Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988 for drug development) +Margaret Faul, Irish/American organic chemist +Mary Peters Fieser (1909–1997), American organic chemist +Marye Anne Fox (1947–2021), American physical organic chemist +Rosalind Franklin (1920–1957), British physical chemist and crystallographer +Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), American chemist +Gunda I. Georg, German-trained medicinal chemist, professor of medicinal chemistry in the US +Ellen Gleditsch (1879–1968), Norwegian radiochemist +Paula T. Hammond (1963-), American chemical engineer, MIT professor +Anna J. Harrison (1912–1998), American organic chemist +Remziye Hisar (1902–1992), Turkish chemist, first woman chemist of Turkey +Darleane C. Hoffman (1926–2025), American Nuclear chemist +Icie Hoobler (1892–1984), American biochemist +Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910–1994), British crystallographer, Nobel prize in chemistry 1964 +Donna M. Huryn, American organic chemist +Clara Immerwahr (1870–1915), German chemist +Allene Rosalind Jeanes (1906–1995), American organic chemist +Malika Jeffries-EL, American organic chemist +Irène Joliot-Curie (1897–1956), French chemist and nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1935 +Madeleine M. Joullié (born 1927), Brazilian, American organic chemist +Isabella Karle (1921–2017), American crystallographer +Joyce Jacobson Kaufman (1929–2016), American chemist, Pharmacologist +Judith Klinman (born 1941), American biochemist +Teresa Kowalska (1946-2023), Polish chemist, co-founder of Acta Chromatographia +Marisa Kozlowski, American organic chemist +Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014), American chemist, inventor of Kevlar +Kathleen Lonsdale (1903–1971), British crystallographer +Yvonne Connolly Martin (born 1936), American physical biochemist working on cheminformatics and computer-aided drug design in the US +Marie Marynard Daly (1921–2001), First African American woman to earn her PhD in the United States +Cynthia A. Maryanoff (born 1949), American organic/medicinal chemist +Maud Menten (1879–1960), Canadian biochemist +Helen Vaughn Michel (born 1932), American nuclear chemist +Alexandra Navrotsky (born 1943), American geochemist +Dorothy Virginia Nightingale (1902–2000), American organic chemist +Yolanda Ortiz (chemist) (1924–2019), Argentine chemist, environmentalist +Kathlyn Parker, American organic chemist +Emma Parmee, British-born medicinal/organic chemist +Mary Engle Pennington (1872–1952), American food chemist +Eva Philbin (1914–2005), Irish chemist +Iphigenia Photaki (1921–1983), Greek organic chemist +Darshan Ranganathan (1941–2001), Indian organic chemist +Mildred Rebstock (1919–2011), American Pharmaceutical chemist +Sibyl Martha Rock (1909–1981), American pioneer in mass spectrometry and computing +Elizabeth Rona (1890–1981), Hungarian (naturalized American) nuclear chemist and polonium expert +Mary Swartz Rose (1874–1941), Nutrition chemist +Melanie Sanford (born 1975), American organic chemist +Maxine L. Savitz, American Chemist +Patsy Sherman (1930–2008), American chemist, co-inventor of Scotchgard +Odette L. Shotwell (1922–1998), organic chemist +Jean'ne Shreeve (born 1933), American organic chemist +Dorothy Martin Simon (1919–2016), American physical chemist +Susan Solomon (born 1956), Atmospheric chemist +JoAnne Stubbe (born 1946), American biochemist +Ida Noddack Tacke (1896–1978), German chemist and physicist +Tsippy Tamiri (1952-2017), Israeli chemist +Giuliana Tesoro (1921–2002), Polymer chemist +Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013), British chemist and Prime Minister +Jean Thomas, British biochemist (chromatin) +Martha J. B. Thomas (1926–2006), Analytical chemist and chemical engineer +Ann E. Weber, American organic/medicinal chemist +Karen Wetterhahn (1948–1997), American metal toxicologist +Ruth R. Wexler (born 1955), American organic and medicinal chemist, discoverer of two marketed drugs +M. Christina White (born 1970), American organometallic chemist +Charlotte Williams, English inorganic chemist +Angela K. Wilson, American computational, theoretical, and physical chemist +Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (1921–2011), American biochemist +Jenara Vicenta Arnal Yarza (1902–1960), Spanish chemist +Jean Youatt (born 1925), Australian chemist, biochemist, and microbiologist +Ada Yonath (born 1939), Israeli crystallographer, Nobel prize in chemistry 2009 +Glaci Zancan (1935–2007), Brazilian biochemist, president of the Brazilian Society for the Progress of the Science (SBPC) from 1999 to 2003 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3a49f619e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Women in chemistry" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 21st century === +Heather C. Allen, American chemist whose research focuses air-liquid interfaces +Rommie Amaro, American chemist focusing on development of computational methods in biophysics for applications to drug discovery. +Emily Balskus, American organic and biological chemist, and microbiologist. Recipient of the 2020 Alan T. Waterman Award for her work on understanding the chemistry of metabolic processes. Professor at Harvard University. +Natalie Banerji, Swiss chemist and Professor of Chemistry at the University of Bern who studies organic and hybrid materials using ultrafast spectroscopies. +Jane P. Chang, chemical engineer, materials scientist and professor at UCLA known for her research developing advanced atomic layer deposition (ALD) and etching techniques with applications in microelectronics and energy storage devices. +Sherry Chemler, American Organic Chemist. Professor University at Buffalo. ACS Cope Scholar Award recipient (2017). +Paulette Clancy, British chemist focusing on computational and machine learning methods, particularly chemistry-informed Bayesian optimization, to model the behavior of semiconductor materials. +Sheila Hobbs DeWitt, American chemist. Chair, President, CEO, Cofounder of DeuteRx which has developed PXL065 a Deuterated drug. ACS Kathryn C. Hach Award for Entrepreneurial Success (2025). She is a pioneer of Combinatorial Chemistry. +Elena Galoppini, Italian chemist and professor at Rutgers University–Newark whose research focuses on the development of redox- and photo-active molecules to modify surfaces. +Clare Grey, British chemist pioneering the use of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to study battery technology. Awarded the Körber European Science Prize in 2021. Professor at the University of Cambridge. +Paula T. Hammond, American chemical engineer focusing on macromolecular design and synthesis of materials for drug delivery systems, particularly in relation to cancer, immunology, and immunotherapy. Professor at MIT. +Jeanne Hardy, American biophysicist and chemical biologist. Known for her work in the design of allosteric binding sites and control elements into human proteases. Professor at the University of Massachusetts. +Geraldine Harriman, American Organic Chemist. Developed Firsocostat. Chief Scientific Officer and co-founder of HotSpot. +Rachel Haurwitz, American biochemist and structural biologist. Her work regards CRISPR based technologies, she is a cofounder of Caribou Biosciences, a genome editing and cell therapy development company. +Kim Eunkyoung, South Korean materials chemist known for her work in electrochromic (EC) materials design +Katja Loos, German polymer chemist working on the design, synthesis, and characterisation of novel and sustainable polymeric materials and macromolecules. Chair of the board of the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials. Professor at the University of Groningen. +Rachel Mamlok-Naaman, Israeli chemist, specialized in chemistry education +Corine Mathonière, French materials chemist studying molecular magnetism, spin crossover molecules, and coordination chemistry +Catherine J. Murphy, American chemist +Nga Lee (Sally) Ng, atmospheric chemist studying particulates and their effects on air quality, climate, and human health +Sarah O'Connor, American plant synthetic biologist working in England +Kimberly Prather, American atmospheric chemist whose research contributed to understanding of atmospheric aerosols and their impact on air quality, climate, and human health +Gillian Reid, British inorganic chemist. President elect (2020-present) and present (2022-present) of the Royal Society of Chemistry. Professor at the University of Southampton. +Sarah E Reisman, American organic chemist +Magdalena Titirici, materials chemist focusing on sustainable materials for energy applications. Professor at Imperial College London. +Claudia Turro, American inorganic chemist who studies light-initiated reactions of metal complexes with application to disease treatment and solar energy conversion. +Seble Wagaw, American process chemist and pharma exec +Marcey Lynn Waters, American chemical biologist and supramolecular chemist +Jenny Y Yang, American chemist and clean energy researcher at UCI +Wendy Young, American medicinal chemist and pharmaceutical executive. Chair of ACS Medicinal Chemistry Division (2017). +Jaqueline Kiplinger, American chemist working at the Los Alamos National Laboratory + +== See also == +List of female mass spectrometrists +1904 petition to the Chemical Society + +== References == \ No newline at end of file