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| Glossary of geography terms (N–Z) | 14/21 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z) | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T08:06:30.234613+00:00 | kb-cron |
spatiomap A map that is not merely a diagrammatic representation of a place but is based on an aerial orthophotograph, such that the map includes actual imagery of ground-level features which are often omitted from conventional maps. Spatiomaps are usually created by overlaying annotations directly upon an orthophoto, such as a north arrow or compass rose, a scale bar, political boundaries and labels, or other cartographical information. They are useful when reliable data from ground-based surveys are missing for a particular geographical area or when accurate maps must be produced very quickly, especially during disaster relief efforts where a natural disaster has dramatically changed ground-level detail but new surveys have not yet been conducted.
spirit level
spit Also sandspit. A type of bar or shoal extending from a beach into an ocean or lake and which develops by the deposition of sediment as a result of longshore drift. Spits form where the shoreline sharply changes direction, such as at a headland, and often develop a "hooked" or recurve shape at their distal ends.
spot elevation Also spot height. A point on a map or chart whose height or elevation above a specified reference datum (often mean sea level) is explicitly annotated, usually by a numerical elevation value printed immediately adjacent to a dot or sawbuck indicating the point itself. Topographic maps often include spot elevations, wherever practicable, for the summits of hills, mountains, plateaus, and buttes; mountain passes; forks and intersections of roads, trails, and waterways; water surfaces of lakes and ponds; notable low points such as the local elevational minimum of a basin; very large flat areas; and any other point which may be of interest to the map user.
spreading ridge See mid-ocean ridge.
spring Any location where groundwater naturally emerges from an underground aquifer to the Earth's surface.
spur A lateral ridge or other salient landform protruding from the side of a hill, mountain, or the main crest of a ridge and typically surrounded on at least three sides by steep hillsides.
stack Also sea stack. A coastal landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock above the surface of the sea and formed by erosion due to wave action. See also pinnacle.
stage Also stream stage or river stage. In hydrology, the height of the surface of a stream or river at a particular location and a particular point in time, with respect to a reference height such as its bed or a position on its banks, and used especially to monitor seasonal changes in discharge and flooding.
stand An area of vegetation dominated by a single plant species, e.g. a stand of oak trees.
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) A statistical unit used in the United States consisting of one or more counties that focus on one or more central cities larger than a specified size, or with a total population larger than a specified size.
state A compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory. See country.
stateless society A society that is not governed by a state; there is little concentration of authority. Most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power, and they are generally not permanent positions, and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small.
steilhang A steep mountainside, hillside, or escarpment, especially one with an average incline between 30 and 60 degrees from the horizontal. The term is used primarily in the German-speaking world.
steppe An ecoregion characterized by expansive grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes.
stopbank See levee.
stoss An adjective describing the side of a hill or ridge that faces the direction from which an advancing glacier or ice sheet is moving or has moved; i.e. facing upstream or "up-ice" with respect to the glacier, and therefore most exposed to its abrasive action. The opposite side, facing downstream or away from the glacier, is known as the lee.
strait See channel.
strandline A beach or shoreline, especially a former or relict one, now elevated above the present water level, which appears as a bench or other visible demarcation lining the length of the shore at a common elevation. See also high water mark.
strath A large river valley, typically wider and shallower than a glen. The term is used primarily in Scotland, Australia, and Canada.
stratovolcano Also composite volcano. A steep-sided volcano built by lava flows and tephra deposits.
stream A natural body of water in which surface water flows between the banks of a channel. Long, large streams are called rivers.
stream order Also waterbody order. The hierarchical classification of all of the branching streams comprising a river system or watershed, usually by assigning an ordinal number to each individual tributary indicating the magnitude of its channel and/or its position within the overall drainage sequence. Several different numbering methods are in common usage. In the Strahler system, the outermost tributaries (i.e. near the sources) are designated first-order streams, and at least two streams of any given order must combine to form a stream of the next higher order, e.g. two first-order streams unite to form a second-order stream, two-second-order streams join to form a third-order stream, and so on until the largest channel or main stem, terminating at the mouth, is reached.
streambed Also riverbed or simply bed. The bottom of the channel of a stream or river, usually covered with rocks, sand, or debris and totally devoid of terrestrial vegetation if the stream has flowed recently. The bed is generally considered the part of the channel up to the normal water line, whereas the bank is the part above the water line.
strike The direction of the line of intersection between an imaginary horizontal plane and the plane of a geological stratum, fault, or hillslope. Strike is usually combined with dip in describing the orientation of a geographical surface.