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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene-0.md

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+---
+title: "Addgene"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:04.870324+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Addgene is a non-profit plasmid repository. Addgene facilitates the exchange of genetic material between laboratories by offering plasmids and their associated cloning data to non-profit and academic laboratories around the world. Addgene provides a free online database of plasmid cloning information and references, including lists of commonly used vector backbones, popular lentiviral plasmids, and molecular cloning protocols.
+
+
+== History ==
+Addgene was founded in 2004 by Melina Fan, Kenneth Fan, and Benjie Chen. The repository was founded in recognition of the need for a service to support access to and sharing of DNA-based research materials among the scientific community. 
+
+
+== Operations ==
+Addgene's headquarters are located in Watertown, Massachusetts.
+Addgene accepts plasmids from researchers, then archives and distributes them on request.
+The organization covers the operating costs of maintaining and improving the collection by charging a nominal fee to scientists requesting plasmids.
+
+
+== Plasmid repository ==
+As of 2014 Addgene's repository comprised 30,000 plasmids, deposited by 1,700 labs. As of 2024, the collection had grown to a size of over 147,000 plasmids, and had provided services to over 2 million vectors to over 110 different countries.  Its plasmid collection contains plasmids used for functions such as  genome engineering (including CRISPRS), gene expression, shRNA knockdown, viral-mediated gene delivery, detection of miRNA and promoter activity. The plasmid collection includes:
+
+Genome engineering
+CRISPRs
+Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nuclease (TALEN) kits
+Zinc finger nuclease kits
+Empty backbones
+Species-specific expression
+Epitope tags
+Fusion proteins
+Selectable markers
+Fluorescent marker
+Viral vectors
+Retroviral/Lentiviral
+Adenoviral
+AAV
+cDNA expression
+shRNA expression
+
+
+== Tools and guides ==
+Molecular biology tools
+Vector Database—A curated list of over 4,000 vector backbones, including relevant cloning information and bacterial growth conditions.
+Sequence Analyzer—An Addgene software tool  for creating plasmid maps from sequences with annotated features and restriction sites.
+Molecular Biology Reference—A collection of references for molecular biology reagents, such as primers, restriction enzymes and antibiotic concentrations.
+Plasmid Cloning Guides
+Molecular Cloning Guides—References to help scientists design plasmid cloning experiments, including tutorials on restriction enzyme digestion and PCR-based cloning.
+Molecular Cloning Protocols—Specific protocols for a variety of plasmid cloning techniques, such as isolation of bacterial colonies, DNA purification by gel electrophoresis and bacterial transformation.
+
+
+== Collaborations ==
+Addgene collaborates with institutes and consortia to curate plasmid collections for specific purposes. Examples of these collaborations include special collections from the Structural Genomics Consortium, Zinc Finger Consortium, the Cell Migration Consortium, the KLF collection and The Michael J. Fox Foundation.  The plasmids are available to both academic and industry labs.
+In 2020, Addgene received funding from Fast Grants to subsidize the cost of reagents for COVID-19 research.
+
+
+== Depositors ==
+Noteworthy depositors include:
+
+13 Nobel Prize winners; John Gurdon, Shinya Yamanaka, Bruce Beutler, Mario Capecchi, Andrew Fire, Richard Axel, Eric Wieschaus, Phillip Sharp, Robert Lefkowitz, Martin Chalfie, Roger Tsien, Jennifer Doudna, and Johann Deisenhofer.
+8 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences winners; Cori Bargmann, David Botstein, Lewis C. Cantley, Hans Clevers, Titia de Lange, Bert Vogelstein, Robert Weinberg and Shinya Yamanaka.
+
+
+== Electronic Material Transfer Agreements ==
+Addgene requires Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) for all materials transferred through Addgene to protect the intellectual property of plasmid depositors. Addgene developed one of the first electronic systems for handling MTAs.  By using the standard Universal Biological Material Transfer Agreement (UBMTA) and implementing electronic signatures, Addgene's electronic MTA (eMTA) system expedites the approval process for plasmid orders.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+Addgene won awards for innovation and research including Mass Nonprofit Network Award for excellence in Innovations, Cambridge award program 2014 Award for Research & Development Laboratories, Mass Technology Leadership Award Finalist 2012.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+
+
+=== Other plasmid repositories ===
+BCCM/LMBP
+BIOSS Toolbox
+PSI DNASU
+Harvard PlasmID

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet-0.md

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+---
+title: "AgWeatherNet"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:42.548808+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+AgWeatherNet is an automated agricultural weather station network operated by Washington State University in the Pacific Northwest. It is the first and the largest agricultural weather network in the United States. Every 5 seconds, over 175 sensors (as of 2018) record air temperature, relative humidity and dew point, soil temperature at 8 inches, rainfall, wind speed, wind direction, insolation  and leaf wetness. The data is reported back from each sensor to WSU's Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center in Prosser, Washington and made available to the public on the Internet. The network can be used to predict and warn of crop hazards such as freezes (especially damaging to Washington fall crops like apples) and hailstorms.
+Sensors are located mostly in the irrigated regions of Eastern Washington like the Yakima Valley, but also cover some non-irrigated areas like the Palouse and areas of Western Washington such as the Chehalis River valley. The Oregon Hop Commission funds three sensors in northwest Oregon. Several cranberry farming concerns fund a sensor at Grayland on the Pacific Coast.
+The system began in 1988 with the name Public Agricultural Weather System (PAWS).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Agricultural experiment station"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:18.451794+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An agricultural experiment station (AES) or agricultural research station (ARS) is a scientific research center that investigates difficulties and potential improvements to food production and agribusiness. Experiment station scientists work with farmers, ranchers, suppliers, processors, and others involved in food production and agriculture.
+
+== Research ==
+Station scientists study biological, economic, and social problems of food and agriculture and related industries in each state.  They investigate such areas as crop variations, soil testing, livestock, processing and animal technology, and other advanced technology in food and agriculture.  They also work with specialists called extension agents.  These specialists help inform farmers about developments in agriculture.  Most agricultural experiment station scientists are faculty members of the land-grant universities.
+
+== Locations ==
+
+=== Canada ===
+In Canada, about 50 per cent (1988) of the experiment stations are controlled by the Canadian government. The Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa is the headquarters of the federal system. Private industries, universities, and agricultural colleges control the remainder of the stations. Each province has a number of provincial stations.  The University of Saskatchewan has extensive agricultural experimental land.
+
+=== Greece ===
+The Benaki Phytopathological Institute conducts experiments pertaining to plant health in many locations throughout the mainland, as well as in Crete and on other Greek islands.
+
+=== Iceland ===
+The Agricultural University of Iceland maintains several experiment stations throughout the country.
+
+=== Israel ===
+
+Israel host multiple agricultural stations, including the Yair Agricultural Research and Development Station in the Arava desert, the Volcani center and others. Israel is considered a global hub of water and sustainable agricultural technology.  
+
+=== India ===
+The Regional Agricultural Research Station at Lam of Guntur.
+
+=== Japan ===
+Japan has five agricultural experiment stations of Independent Administrative Institution of National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, former national stations, and many other prefectural stations all over the country.
+
+=== New Zealand ===
+New Zealand has agricultural research stations at Ruakura, Winchmore and Invermay.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+Sutton Bridge Crop Storage Research in Sutton Bridge, Lincolnshire, is a leading UK agricultural experiment station owned by the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board and operated by its Potato Council division, it engages in a wide range of research disciplines impacting upon crop storage for the British potato industry, including confidential contract research and development.
+Syngenta's largest R&D center is at Jealott's Hill in Berkshire. Before its current incarnation it belonged to Imperial Chemical Industries.
+
+=== United States ===
+The Hatch Act of 1887 authorized the establishment of agricultural experiment stations, to be affiliated with the land grant college of agriculture, in each state (7 U.S.C. 361a et seq.). The mission of the agricultural experiment stations as set out in the Hatch Act is to conduct original research, investigation, and experiments which contribute to the establishment and maintenance of the agricultural industry in the United States. Including research pertaining to agriculture in its broadest sense as well as improvement of the rural home and rural life, and the contribution by agriculture to the welfare of the consumer. Research done at these stations underpins the curriculum of the colleges, as well as the programs of the Cooperative Extension System. The United States of America has more than 600 main experiment stations and branch stations, run by about 13,000 scientists.  In some states, agricultural experiment stations are integrated into the agriculture colleges of Land Grant Universities; while in others they are administratively unique institutions. The structure of the agricultural experiment stations varies state-to-state in order to meet the unique needs of each state.  Factors such as size of the land grant university, and size and type of agriculture in a state will affect the organization and research conducted by the station.
+The United States Department of Agriculture also maintains over 90 research locations, including locations abroad.  The research stations of the USDA are divided into 5 geographic areas across the United States, each with a centrally located station.  Including: Pacific West at Albany, CA, Plains Area at Ft. Collins, CO, Southeast Area at Stoneville, MS, Midwest Area at Peoria, IL, and Northeast Area at Beltsville, MD.  Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in Beltsville,  is the largest of USDA's research locations at 6,500 acres and contains the National Agricultural Library.  
+The U.S. experiment stations are state institutions. However, the federal and state governments cooperate in funding the research done at the stations. The states provide about 60 percent (1988) of the government money. Additional income comes from grants, contracts, and the sale of products. The stations receive a total income of more than $1 billion a year.
+
+=== U. S. Virgin Islands ===
+The University of the Virgin Islands maintains an experiment station  on the island of St. Croix, working on agroforestry, aquaponics, biotechnology, forage agronomy, and tilapia farming, among other areas of research.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== France ===
+In 1786, Comte d'Angiviller, acting for King Louis XVI, acquired 366 merino sheep from Spain and began an experimental program of adapting the species to France at the farm attached to Château de Rambouillet. As a result, there is the branch of merinos called Rambouillet sheep.
+In 1836 Jean-Baptiste Boussingault established the first agricultural experiment station at Pechelbronn in Alsace.
+
+=== Germany ===
+A precursor to the agricultural experiment station was the botanical garden.  For example, Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck founded the Botanische Gärten der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn in 1818. With need for animal nutrition, scientists such as Karl Heinrich Ritthausen turned to biochemistry to investigate the comparative nutrition from grains and pulses.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-1.md

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+---
+title: "Agricultural experiment station"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:18.451794+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Möckern Agricultural Experiment Station ====
+Following the footsteps of the enlightenment rationalism and experimentalism, Germany began to see the rise of agricultural experiment stations, indicating the beginnings of an attempt to merge traditional agronomy with analytical chemistry. In 1840, Justus von Liebig, an influential German chemist and professor at the University of Giessen, published his book Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology. Liebig theorized that nitrogen and trace minerals from soil erosion were essential to plant nutrition, and, from this analytical chemistry perspective, simplified agriculture to a series of chemical reactions. While Liebig's work inspired a generation of analytical agricultural chemists interested in fundamental questions of plant nutrition, e.g., Wilhelm Knop and Julius von Sachs, founders of early German agricultural experiment stations did not solely seek to pursue questions of soil chemistry, but rather sought to bridge the gap between the two fields of agriculture and chemistry (agricultural chemistry).
+The most well-known and earliest German experimental station, or Landwirtschaftliche Versuchsstationen, established was the Möckern Agricultural Experiment Station, located near the city of Leipzig. Created on September 28, 1850, the Möckern project was spearheaded by three Saxon men: Julius Adolph Stöckhardt, a professor of agricultural chemistry; Wilhelm Crusius, German estate owner interested in scientific agriculture; and Theodor Reuning, the German agricultural minister at the time. Though all three men took interest in Liebig's scientific approach to soil chemistry, they maintained distinct agricultural and economic focus at Möckern, and rejected a purely laboratory approach to agriculture. Unlike Liebig, Stöckhardt sought the integration of chemistry with agriculturists, rather than a specialization of chemists to come in and do the work. As a landowner who employed chemists, Crusius saw the value of chemical agriculture in economic terms to increase profit, while Reuning's support for Möckern Station represented the beginnings of governmental interest and funding of agricultural experimental stations.
+Under Crusius, the Möckern Station submitted a Letter of Purpose in a government application. It specified that the Möckern Station belonging to the Leipzig Economic Society would devote itself to the advancement of agriculture via scientific investigation, through cooperation between practical farmers and scientific professionals. They listed six main research objectives, summarized below: 
+
+Investigation into conditions of plant growth, mainly that of soil, manure, and fertilization.
+Analysis of plant fodder and its effects on animal products.
+Meteorological observations.
+Cultivation and valuation of rare plants.
+Agricultural technology testing of implements and machines.
+Research and creation of agricultural metrics, such as relative values of fodder.
+
+=== Japan ===
+Hokkaido Development Commission founded the very first agricultural experiment station of the country in Sapporo in 1871, under the advice of O-yatoi gaikokujin (hired foreign experts).
+The first national agricultural experiment station was founded in 1893 in Tokyo, Sendai, Kanazawa, Osaka, Hiroshima, Tokushima, and Kumamoto under the Edict No.18.
+And, 1899 act for prefectural agricultural experiment stations supported prefectural movement to establish agricultural experiment stations all over Japan.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+John Bennet Lawes, with the help of Joseph Henry Gilbert, established one of the oldest agricultural experiment stations in the world: Rothamsted Experimental Station, located at Harpenden in Hertfordshire, England, was founded in 1843. This establishment was where Ronald Fisher was inspired to important advances in the theory of statistical inference and genetics. Another important agricultural experiment station was founded in 1903 and closed in 2003: Long Ashton Research Station.
+
+=== United States ===
+The movement to establish agricultural experiment stations in the US can be credited to Samuel William Johnson who taught the first course in biochemistry. The development was recounted by William Cumming Rose:
+
+In 1875, through Johnson's influence, the Connecticut Legislature made a small appropriation to aid the cost of a two year program of agricultural experimentation, to be conducted by Wilbur Olin Atwater at Wesleyan University, in Middletown, Connecticut. Atwater had received the Ph. D. under Johnson's direction... Two years later, the State Legislature approved the establishment of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station on a permanent basis, and Johnson became its first director... At the start, it was housed in two rooms on the lower floor of Sheffield Hall of Yale University. Later,... moved to a building of its own on Huntington Street in New Haven.
+The Bussey Institution at Harvard University (since 1871) and the Houghton Farm at Cornwall, New York (1876–88), were privately endowed stations. By 1887 fourteen states had definite organizations and in thirteen others the colleges conducted equivalent work.
+Federal aid for state experiment stations began with the Hatch Act of 1887. The Hatch Act authorized direct payment of federal grant funds to each state to establish an agricultural experiment station "under direction of" its land-grant college. Land-grant colleges had been established under the Morrill Act of 1862. The aid was increased by the Adams Act (1906) and the Purnell Act (1925). The provisions of the original Hatch Act and of later legislation providing increasing funds were combined in the Hatch Act of 1955.
+The McIntire–Stennis Act of 1962 authorized forestry research studies at experiment stations.
+
+== See also ==
+New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
+Moray (Inca ruin)
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Dictionary of American History by James Truslow Adams, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940
+
+== External links ==
+
+Japan National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Agumbe Rainforest Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:28.284682+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Agumbe Rainforest Research Station (ARRS) is a field based conservation and research organisation situated inside the Agumbe Reserved Forest at Agumbe in the central Western Ghats of southern India.  The  Agumbe Reserved Forests receives an annual rainfall in excess of 7,000 mm (280 in) and is at an elevation of about 823 m (2,700 ft) above sea level. It forms a part of the Malnad-Kodagu corridor, which also includes the Someshwara, Mookambika, Bhadra, and Sharavati Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kudremukh National Park, and various other forest tracts and reserve forests around Kundapur, Shankaranarayana, Hosanagara, Sringeri, and Thirthahalli.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+ARRS was founded in 2005, by leading Indian herpetologist Romulus Whitaker. Whitaker saw his very first king cobra (Ophiophagus Kaalinga) here in 1971. He was also extremely taken by the reverence the people in the region showed for snakes, which was a major factor that drove him to establish a research station in Agumbe (Karnataka ). The land is a revenue land was legally procured, the construction and activities are eco friendly and pose no disturbance to the wildlife.
+
+
+== Activities ==
+ARRS managed the world's first radio-telemetry project on the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah, Ophiophagus kalinga), which is also the first radio-telemetry study done on any snake in India. Insight gained from this ecological study is being put into practice into king cobra management in the region. ARRS researchers have witnessed various unique behaviors among the species including a male king cobra killing a possibly pregnant female, a rare behavior even among mammals.
+ARRS conducts and facilitates a wide variety of research projects, ranging from rainforest ecology, behavioral and population ecology, phenology, geoinformatics and socio economics. Apart from research, ARRS focuses on education and outreach in the local community, schools and colleges. A well-developed volunteer and research intern programme makes the research station an ideal location for those interested in field based research and conservation The research station encourages and provides facilities for graduate and PHD students to conduct projects.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Madras Crocodile Bank Trust
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alert, Nunavut"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alert, in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada, is the northernmost continuously inhabited place in the world. The location is on Ellesmere Island (in the Queen Elizabeth Islands) at latitude 82°30'05" north, 817 km (508 mi) from the North Pole. It takes its name from the Royal Navy vessel HMS Alert, which wintered 10 km (6.2 mi) east of the present station off what is now Cape Sheridan in 1875–1876.
+All Alert residents are temporary, typically serving three- to six-month tours of duty there. They staff a military signals intelligence radio receiving facility at Canadian Forces Station Alert (CFS Alert, which includes Alert Airport), as well as the Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory, a co-located weather station and monitoring observatory, both operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC).
+In the 2021 census, the permanent population was recorded as 0.
+
+== History ==
+Alert is named after HMS Alert, a British ship that wintered about 10 km (6.2 mi) away in 1875–76. The ship's captain, George Nares, and his crew were the first recorded Europeans to reach the northern end of Ellesmere Island. Over the following decades, several other expeditions passed through the area, most notably Robert Peary during his expedition to reach the North Pole in 1909.
+
+=== Post-World War II (1945–1970) ===
+Shortly after the end of World War II, Charles J. Hubbard of the United States Weather Bureau aroused interest in the United States and Canada for the establishment of a network of Arctic stations. His plan, in broad perspective, envisaged the establishment of two main stations, one in Greenland and the other on the archipelago, which could be reached by sea supply. These main stations would then serve as advance bases from which a number of smaller stations would be established by air. The immediate plans contemplated the establishment of weather stations only, but it was thought that a system of weather stations would also provide a nucleus of transportation, communications, and settlements, which would greatly aid programs of research in many other fields of science. It was recognized that ultimate action would depend on international cooperation, since the land masses involved were under Canadian and Danish control.
+
+Following negotiations between the United States and Canadian governments, a group of five weather stations was established, known as the Joint Arctic Weather Stations (JAWS). On the Canadian side, the stations were to be operated by the Department of Transport (DOT). The locations for each station were surveyed in 1946, and a cache of supplies was dropped at Alert in 1948 by USS Edisto. Alert was the last of the five to be settled when the first twelve personnel (eight permanent staff and four to assist with construction) arrived on April 9, 1950. Construction began immediately, with the first priority being the creation of an ice runway on Alert Inlet before work began on the permanent all-season runway on Cape Belknap. Until its completion, supplies were parachuted in.
+On July 30, 1950, nine crew members of an Avro Lancaster aircraft, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), died  in a crash while making an airdrop of supplies to the station.
+The last United States personnel were withdrawn on October 31, 1970, and the following year operation of the weather station was transferred to the newly created Department of the Environment, with the Department of Transport retaining control of airfield operations for several more years.
+
+=== Recent history (1971–present) ===

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+---
+title: "Alert, Nunavut"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In April 1971, a party of federal and Northwest Territories (NWT) government officials arrived in Alert in an attempt to reach the North Pole. Alert had been the embarkation point for many North Pole expeditions that relied on weather information supplied by the weather station there. The 1971 expedition was led by Stu Hodgson, former Commissioner of the Northwest Territories, and included in his party were representatives of the prime minister's office, the Canadian Armed Forces, the federal Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, as well as a large media group including Pat Carney of Gemini Productions, Ed Ogle of Time magazine, Val Wake of CBC News, and a television crew from California. While waiting in Alert for a weather window to fly to the pole, the party's television crew spent a lot of time filming at the weather station. The military was unhappy about the film crew working on the station, but the weather station was seen as being a sort of no-man's land. The commissioner's party made two attempts to reach the pole and failed. Some of the incidents surrounding this event are recounted in Val Wake's memoir My Voyage around Spray with Apologies to Captain Joshua Slocum.
+In August 1975, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and his then three-year-old son, future prime minister Justin Trudeau, visited the station and nearby Ward Hunt Island. In August 1986, the Government of Canada opened Alert Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network.
+By the 1990s, the original buildings of the weather station had fallen into disrepair and were burned in the summer of 1996, leaving only the hydrogen shed and a wooden outhouse. The weather station and observatory offices were moved to Polaris Hall.
+In early April 2006, the Roly McLenahan Torch that was used to light the flame at Whitehorse, Yukon, for the Canada Winter Games, passed through Alert. While the Canada Games torch was supposed to pass over the North Pole, bad weather prevented a Canadian military Twin Otter from making the trip. The torch did not travel outside Alert that weekend (April 9–12). In August 2006, Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, made a visit to Alert as part of his campaign to promote Canadian sovereignty in the north.
+On November 8, 2009, the 2010 Winter Olympics torch relay arrived at Alert via airplane from Churchill, Manitoba, reaching its most northerly point on land. The next day it travelled to Iqaluit, Nunavusiaat, and Tassossuaq, Greenland.
+On January 19 and 20, 2015, Governor General David Johnston flew into Alert on a C-17 Globemaster transport from CFB Trenton. He toured Alert, received an overview of its operations, met with civilian and military personnel and presided over a change-of-command.
+
+=== Aircraft crashes ===
+Since Alert has not been regularly accessible by icebreakers due to heavy ice conditions in the Lincoln Sea, resupply is provided by Royal Canadian Air Force transport aircraft which land at the adjacent Alert Airport. Difficult conditions at such a remote northern location have resulted in several incidents, two of which have involved fatalities:
+
+On July 31, 1950, around 17:00 GMT, an RCAF Lancaster 965 from 405 Squadron Greenwood crashed during the establishment of the JAWS weather station when a parachute for resupplies being airdropped became entangled on the tail of the aircraft. The nine crew members were killed. An attempt was made to recover their bodies; an RCAF Canso was dispatched and the flying boat landed in Dumbell Bay on August 7. The bodies of the Canadian crew were brought aboard in wooden coffins made from packing crates—the family of Colonel C.J. Hubbard of the United States Weather Bureau requested his remains be buried at Alert—but the combination of the extra weight and a tail wind resulted in an aborted takeoff. The Canso struck ground at the narrow point of Dumbell Bay, damaging the tail section and rendering it useless. Following this, it was decided to bury the crew's remains west of the airstrip, and a military funeral was held the same day. The arrival of the United States Coast Guard icebreaker Eastwind allowed repairs to be made to the Canso. The wreckage of the Lancaster is still visible 500 m (1,600 ft) southwest of the CE building.
+On October 11, 1952, a Douglas C-54 Skymaster, flown by the United States Military Air Transport Service,  crashed on landing at Alert, while carrying a load of aviation fuel. The four crew members survived the crash; the aircraft was destroyed. The wreckage was pushed to the south side of the runway, where it remains today. Because of the high visibility of the wreckage due to its location at the runway, it is often mistaken for the RCAF Lancaster.
+On October 30, 1991, a Lockheed C-130 Hercules, part of Operation Boxtop, crashed about 20 km (12 mi) from the airfield, killing four of the 18 passengers and crew on impact. Pilot John Couch died of exposure following the crash. Couch was conducting a visual approach and descended into a hill due to a mistake regarding the plane's true location. A blizzard and the local terrain hampered rescue efforts by personnel from CFS Alert; United States Air Force (USAF) personnel from Thule Air Base 700 km (430 mi) south; 435 Transport and Rescue Squadron from CFB Winnipeg, and 440 Transport and Rescue Squadron, from CFB Namao outside Edmonton (both squadrons are part of 17 Wing Winnipeg); 424 Squadron from CFB Trenton, Ontario; and 413 Transport and Rescue Squadron from CFB Greenwood, Nova Scotia. The crash investigation recommended all C-130s be retrofitted with ground proximity detectors. The crash and rescue efforts were the basis of the film Ordeal in the Arctic (1993).
+
+== Canadian Forces Station Alert ==

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+---
+title: "Alert, Nunavut"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Since the beginning of the JAWS project, the Canadian Armed Forces had been interested in the establishment at Alert for several reasons: the JAWS facility extended Canadian sovereignty over a large uninhabited area which Canada claimed as its sovereign territory, and its proximity to the Soviet Union made it of strategic importance. Alert is closer to Moscow (c. 4,000 km (2,500 mi)) than it is to Ottawa (c. 4,150 km (2,580 mi)). Thus, the possibility of utilizing the site for the purpose of intercepting radio signals was deemed to warrant a military presence.
+In 1950, Alert Airport was established. It is the only airport serving the settlement and is presently part of CFS Alert. In 1956, the RCAF, which was expanding its presence throughout the high Arctic with the construction of the Distant Early Warning Line radar network, established a building uphill from the DOT's JAWS station to house "High Arctic Long Range Communications Research", or signals intelligence operations.
+In 1957, Alert Wireless Station was conceived as an intercept facility to be jointly staffed by personnel from the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and the RCAF. Five additional buildings were constructed: a mess, three barracks/accommodations buildings, and a power house and vehicle maintenance building, in addition to the existing operations building, built in 1956. The operations building housed the radio intercept and cryptographic equipment. On September 1, 1958, control of the station was transferred from the air force to the army, and it officially began operations.
+The following decade saw a dramatic expansion of the station, with a correspondingly greater number of personnel stationed there. The February 1, 1968, unification of the RCN, RCAF, and Canadian Army to form the Canadian Armed Forces saw Alert Wireless Station change its name to Canadian Forces Station Alert (CFS Alert). Its personnel were no longer drawn from only the air force or navy, but primarily from the Canadian Forces Communications Command.
+
+At its peak, CFS Alert had upwards of 215 personnel posted at any one time. The station became a key asset in the global ECHELON network of the AUSCANNZUKUS intelligence sharing alliance, also known as "Five Eyes", with Alert being privy to many secret Soviet communications regarding land-based and sea-based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) test launches and many operational military deployments.
+The first military women to serve in Alert arrived in 1980 as part of the Canadian Forces' Women In Non-Traditional Roles study. After its completion in 1983, women were fully authorized to serve in all roles. The first female commanding officer was Major Cathy Cowan, who took command in January 1996. The first female Station Warrant Officer (SWO), MWO Renee Hansen, was appointed in December 2017.
+Budget cuts to the Department of National Defence (DND) and Canadian Armed Forces in 1994 and modernization of communications equipment saw CFS Alert downsized to approximately 74 personnel by 1997–1998, when most radio-intercept operations were remotely controlled by personnel at CFS Leitrim. The remaining personnel are responsible for airfield operations, construction/engineering, food service, and logistical/administrative support. As of 2024, there are about 55 people stationed at CFS Alert, and they consist of military personnel, ECCC and other civilian employees.
+Only six persons are now responsible for actual operations, and control of the facility was passed to DND's Information Management Group following the disbanding of CF Communications Command with force restructuring and cutbacks in the mid-1990s.
+With Canada's commitment to the global war on terrorism following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in New York City and Arlington County, Virginia, CFS Alert has received renewed and increased funding to expand its SIGINT capabilities. On April 1, 2009, the RCAF officially took responsibility for CFS Alert from Canadian Forces Information Operations Group (CFIOG).
+
+=== Civilian contractor ===
+On April 13, 2006, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that the heating costs for the station had risen, as a consequence of which the military proposed to cut back on support trade positions by using private contractors. By 2008, maintenance operations on the station—including food and housekeeping services, vehicle maintenance, powerplant operation, and heating, electrical, and plumbing—had been transferred to a civilian contractor.  The contract was initially awarded to Canadian Base Operators (CBO), a subsidiary of Black & McDonald.  In 2012, the contract was won by Nasittuq, a subsidiary of ATCO.
+
+=== Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory ===
+
+In 1975, technicians employed by the weather station began collecting flask samples for a greenhouse gas monitoring program. In 1980, this grew to include the weekly collection of filter-based aerosol samples for the Canadian Arctic Aerosol Sampling Network (CAASN).
+By 1984, the number of ongoing monitoring programs and the amount of experimental research had outgrown the abilities of the weather station to maintain, and plans were made for the construction of a permanent observatory. This observatory, 400 m (1,300 ft) southwest of Lancaster Hall (more commonly known as the far transmitter building), was opened August 29, 1986. Originally known as the Alert Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (BAPMoN) Observatory, it was subsequently renamed the Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory in honour of the Environment Canada researcher who provided the impetus for its construction. The observatory employs two technicians who reside at CFS Alert, an operator and an assistant operator (normally a university co-op student). It is managed by Environment and Climate Change Canada.
+
+== Demographics ==
+
+While Alert has no permanent residents, it has been continuously inhabited since April 1950. This population, while initially small, grew to upwards of 250 in the 1970s and 1980s, before being downsized in the 1990s when information gathering operations were relayed to CFS Leitrim near Ottawa for collation, reducing the on-site staff considerably. Its current population ranges from a winter minimum of 65 to a summer maximum of 110, plus a variety of short-term visitors, who can swell the total to 150 or more. Alert’s temporary population typically consist of both military personnel and civilians, both making up an almost one-to-one ratio in Alert.
+
+== Geography ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-3.md

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+---
+title: "Alert, Nunavut"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alert is 12 km (7.5 mi) west of Cape Sheridan, the northeastern tip of Ellesmere Island, on the shore of the ice-covered Lincoln Sea. Alert lies just 817 km (508 mi) from the North Pole; the nearest Canadian city is Iqaluit, the capital of the territory of Nunavut, 2,092 km (1,300 mi) distant.
+The settlement is surrounded by rugged hills and valleys. The shore is composed primarily of slate and shale. Argillite and greywacke also occur. Some of these rocks are calcareous. The sea is covered with sea ice for most of the year but the ice pack does move out in the summer, leaving open water. Evaporation rates are also very low, as average monthly temperatures are above freezing only in July and August.
+Other places on Ellesmere Island are the weather station at Eureka (480 km (300 mi)) and the Inuit community of Grise Fiord, 800 km (500 mi), to the southwest and south, respectively. Siorapaluk (540 km (340 mi) to the south) is the nearest populated place in Greenland. Hans Island which from 2023 has a land border with Greenland, a territory of Denmark, is located 197 km (122 mi) to the south.
+
+== Climate ==
+
+Alert has a polar climate, technically a tundra climate (ET) with characteristics of an ice cap climate (EF). There is complete snow cover for at least 10 months of the year on average and snow from one year persists into the next year in protected areas, but enough melts to prevent glaciation. The warmest month, July, has an average temperature of 3.4 °C (38.1 °F), with only July and August averaging above freezing, and those are also the months where well over 90 per cent of the rainfall, which averages only 17.4 mm (0.69 in) per year, occurs. Rain is rare in June and September and virtually unheard of during the remaining eight months of the year. Alert is the fourth-driest locality in Nunavut and averaging only 158.3 mm (6.23 in) of precipitation per year, the vast majority of this occurring as snow. The heaviest snowfalls occur during July to October, and Alert sees relatively little snowfall during the winter months. September is usually the month with the heaviest snowfall. The relative humidity is so low that door handles are covered in electrical tape to prevent static electricity. February is the coldest month of the year with a mean temperature of −33.2 °C (−27.8 °F). The yearly mean, −17.7 °C (0.1 °F), is the second-coldest in Nunavut after Eureka. Snowfall can occur during any month of the year, and the typical year sees no more than five days in a row without frost. Average highs rise above freezing only in mid-June and drop below freezing at the end of August.
+Being far north of the Arctic Circle, Alert experiences polar night from October 14 to February 28, and midnight sun from April 7 to September 4. There are two relatively short periods of twilight from about February 13 to March 22 and the second from September 19 to October 22. Nautical twilight lasts from October 29 to February 11.
+Astronomical twilight, where 24 hours are in effect completely dark with only a marginal astronomical twilight, occurs from November 19 to January 22.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Station Nord, Greenland, the second-northernmost permanent settlement in the world
+Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, the northernmost settlement/town in the world with a permanent population of civilians
+Puerto Williams, Chile, the southernmost settlement on Earth
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Royal Canadian Air Force page on CFS Alert

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alfred Faure"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:29.459309+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alfred-Faure or Port Alfred is a permanent French scientific station on Île de la Possession (Possession Island) of the subantarctic Crozet Archipelago of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in the South Indian Ocean.
+
+
+== Research station ==
+The station is located at the eastern end of the island on a plateau 143 m (460 ft) above sea level. Depending on the season, there are 15 to 60 personnel living and working at the base. Their scientific work includes meteorological, seismic, biological and geological research. It was first established during the austral summer of 1963–1964, replacing a temporary scientific base built in 1961. The new station was named after Alfred Faure, the site's leader in the early 1960s. Alfred-Faure is visited a few times a year by the Marion Dufresne, an oceanographic research vessel which delivers supplies and rotating crews of scientists. There is a 1.6 km road that connects the research station to the coast.
+
+
+== Climate ==
+Alfred Faure Station has a very mild tundra climate (Koppen ET) with cool to cold summers and cold (but still averaging above freezing) winters. Due to its oceanic location near the subpolar low, it has a very cloudy and rainy climate with just 600 hours of bright sunshine per year (one of the lowest in the world) and over 70 inches (1750 mm) of rain a year. Similar to other subpolar oceanic islands in the southern hemisphere it is also very windy (especially because of the ocean being effectively flat terrain). 
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Virtual Map of Ile de la Possession

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alice Holt Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:30.643113+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Alice Holt Research Station is one of two British forestry research institutes, and is located in north-east Hampshire.
+
+
+== History ==
+It was established as a Forestry Research Station in 1946 by the Forestry Commission near Wrecclesham. The forest estate had 1,225,000 acres.
+By the late 1950s it had an international reputation. A £134,000 extension was opened in the summer of 1959, which enable the Commission to have its central seed store at the site for varieties such as Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, Corsican pine, and Norway spruce. The store was mostly for conifers, keeping seeds up to four years. and also acorns had been stored up to three years.
+More laboratories were added in the late 1970s.
+
+
+=== Research ===
+In 1948, it began experimenting with Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dawn redwood, with a view to produce timber.
+In the late 1950s, its scientists were among the first people to investigate biological data with computers, when they discovered why the Douglas-fir did not grow well in south-east England, which they found was due to temperature and rooting depth. It was through computers that many solutions were found. The station found a new way to determine daily tree growth with vernier scales. Computers investigated ways to classify trees by leaf character. It notably conducted research into eucalyptus and poplar trees.
+In April 1973, it found that Dutch elm disease had been imported on Rock Elm logs from North America. The disease had first appeared in 1965. The disease had originally been shipped to the North America from Britain in the 1930s. The disease in Britain had then become less known. There were outbreaks of the disease in 1965 in north Gloucestershire and in 1967 in south Essex. Two scientists at the station discovered two strains of the disease. The areas affected were southern Hampshire, north-west Kent, the Severn valley, and Ipswich. The scientists realised that these outbreaks could have been prevented by controlling imports of logs. It had been assumed that as Britain had the disease in the 1930s that trees would not be affected. By 1984 Dutch elm disease had reached Scotland. Other diseases of trees to be controlled were Oak wilt and Chestnut blight.
+In 1973, it looked at ways to control the grey squirrel.
+
+
+=== Chief Research Officers ===
+Professor Malcolm Laurie, 1946 - October 1959
+Tom Peace, October 1959 -
+David Burdekin
+Alan Fletcher
+Prof Julian Evans, 1984-1997
+Dr Peter Freer-Smith, 1998-2009
+
+
+=== Chief Scientists ===
+Prof Peter Freer-Smith, 2009-2017
+Prof Chris Quine, 2018-2025
+Prof Bianca Ambrose-Oji, June 2025
+
+
+== Structure ==
+It is situated next to Birdworld in the Alice Holt Forest in East Hampshire off the A325, east of Bentley railway station on the Alton Line, which follows the River Wey. The nearest inhabitation is Rowledge in Surrey, on the Hampshire boundary. Although now in Hampshire, similar to Birdworld, the site is in the religious parish of Rowledge in Surrey.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Forest Research Archived 31 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-0.md

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+---
+title: "Anechoic chamber"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:19.715865+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An anechoic chamber (an-echoic meaning "non-reflective" or "without echoes") is a room designed to stop reflections or echoes of either sound or electromagnetic waves. They are also often isolated from energy entering from their surroundings. This combination means that a person or detector exclusively hears direct sounds (no reflected sounds), in effect simulating being outside in a free field.
+Anechoic chambers, a term coined by American acoustics expert Leo Beranek, were initially exclusively used to refer to acoustic anechoic chambers. Recently, the term has been extended to radio frequency (RF) anechoic chambers, which eliminate reflection and external noise caused by electromagnetic waves.
+Anechoic chambers range from small compartments the size of household microwave ovens to ones as large as aircraft hangars. The size of the chamber depends on the size of the objects and frequency ranges being tested.
+
+== Acoustic anechoic chambers ==
+
+The requirement for what was subsequently called an anechoic chamber originated to allow testing of loudspeakers that generated such intense sound levels that they could not be tested outdoors in inhabited areas.
+Anechoic chambers are commonly used in acoustics to conduct experiments in nominally "free field" conditions, free field meaning that there are no reflected signals. All sound energy will be traveling away from the source with almost none reflected back. Common anechoic chamber experiments include measuring the transfer function of a loudspeaker or the directivity of noise radiation from industrial machinery. In general, the interior of an anechoic chamber can be very quiet, with typical noise levels in the 10–20 dBA range. In 2005, the best anechoic chamber measured at −9.4 dBA.  In 2015, an anechoic chamber on the campus of Microsoft broke the world record with a measurement of −20.6 dBA. The human ear can typically detect sounds above 0 dBA, so a human in such a chamber would perceive the surroundings as devoid of sound.  Anecdotally, some people may not like such silence and can become disoriented.
+The mechanism by which anechoic chambers minimize the reflection of sound waves impinging onto their walls is as follows: In the included figure, an incident sound wave I is about to impinge onto a wall of an anechoic chamber.  This wall is composed of a series of wedges W with height H.  After the impingement, the incident wave I is reflected as a series of waves R which in turn "bounce up-and-down" in the gap of air A (bounded by dotted lines) between the wedges W.  Such bouncing may produce (at least temporarily) a standing wave pattern in A.  During this process, the acoustic energy of the waves R gets dissipated via the air's molecular viscosity, in particular near the corner C.  In addition, with the use of foam materials to fabricate the wedges, another dissipation mechanism happens during the wave/wall interactions.  As a result, the component of the reflected waves R along the direction of I that escapes the gaps A (and goes back to the source of sound), denoted R', is notably reduced. Even though this explanation is two-dimensional, it is representative and applicable to the actual three-dimensional wedge structures used in anechoic chambers.
+
+=== Semi-anechoic and hemi-anechoic chambers ===
+Full anechoic chambers aim to absorb energy in all directions. To do this, all surfaces, including the floor, need to be covered in correctly shaped wedges. A mesh grille is usually installed above the floor to provide a surface to walk on and place equipment. This mesh floor is typically placed at the same floor level as the rest of the building, meaning the chamber itself extends below floor level. This mesh floor is damped and floating on absorbent buffers to isolate it from outside vibration or electromagnetic signals.
+In contrast, semi-anechoic or hemi-anechoic chambers have a solid floor that acts as a work surface for supporting heavy items, such as cars, washing machines, or industrial machinery, which could not be supported by the mesh grille in a full anechoic chamber. Recording studios are often semi-anechoic.
+The distinction between "semi-anechoic" and "hemi-anechoic" is unclear. In some uses they are synonyms, or only one term is used. Other uses distinguish one as having an ideally reflective floor (creating free-field conditions with a single reflective surface) and the other as simply having a flat untreated floor. Still other uses distinguish them by size and performance, with one being likely an existing room retrofitted with acoustic treatment, and the other a purpose-built room which is likely larger and has better anechoic performance.
+
+== Radio-frequency anechoic chambers ==
+
+The internal appearance of the radio frequency (RF) anechoic chamber is sometimes similar to that of an acoustic anechoic chamber; however, the interior surfaces of the RF anechoic chamber are covered with radiation absorbent material (RAM) instead of acoustically absorbent material. Uses for RF anechoic chambers include testing antennas and radars, and they are typically used to house the antennas for performing measurements of antenna radiation patterns and  electromagnetic interference.
+Performance expectations (gain, efficiency, pattern characteristics, etc.) constitute primary challenges in designing stand alone or embedded antennas. Designs are becoming ever more complex with a single device incorporating multiple technologies such as cellular, WiFi, Bluetooth, LTE, MIMO, RFID and GPS.
+
+=== Radiation-absorbent material ===
+
+RAM is designed and shaped to absorb incident RF radiation (also known as non-ionising radiation) as effectively as possible, from as many incident directions as possible. The more effective the RAM, the lower the resulting level of reflected RF radiation. Many measurements in electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and antenna radiation patterns require that spurious signals arising from the test setup, including reflections, are negligible to avoid the risk of causing measurement errors and ambiguities.
+
+=== Effectiveness over frequency ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-1.md

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+---
+title: "Anechoic chamber"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:19.715865+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Waves of higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and are higher in energy, while waves of lower frequencies have longer wavelengths and are lower in energy, according to the relationship 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+        =
+        v
+        
+          /
+        
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda =v/f}
+  
+ where lambda represents wavelength, v is phase velocity of wave, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        f
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle f}
+  
+ is frequency. To shield for a specific wavelength, the cone must be of appropriate size to absorb that wavelength. The performance quality of an RF anechoic chamber is determined by its lowest test frequency of operation, at which measured reflections from the internal surfaces will be the most significant compared to higher frequencies. Pyramidal RAM is at its most absorptive when the incident wave is at normal incidence to the internal chamber surface and the pyramid height is approximately equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+        
+          /
+        
+        4
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda /4}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        λ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \lambda }
+  
+ is the free space wavelength. Accordingly, increasing the pyramid height of the RAM for the same (square) base size improves the effectiveness of the chamber at low frequencies but results in increased cost and a reduced unobstructed working volume that is available inside a chamber of defined size.
+
+=== Installation into a screened room ===
+An RF anechoic chamber is usually built into a screened room, designed using the Faraday cage principle. This is because most of the RF tests that require an anechoic chamber to minimize reflections from the inner surfaces also require the properties of a screened room to attenuate unwanted signals penetrating inwards and causing interference to the equipment under test and prevent leakage from tests penetrating outside.
+
+=== Chamber size and commissioning ===
+At lower radiated frequencies, far-field measurement can require a large and expensive chamber. Sometimes, for example for radar cross-section measurements, it is possible to scale down the object under test and reduce the chamber size, provided that the wavelength of the test frequency is scaled down in direct proportion by testing at a higher frequency.
+RF anechoic chambers are normally designed to meet the electrical requirements of one or more accredited standards. For example, the aircraft industry may test equipment for aircraft according to company specifications or military specifications such as MIL-STD 461E. Once built, acceptance tests are performed during commissioning to verify that the standard(s) are in fact met. Provided they are, a certificate will be issued to that effect. The chamber will need to be periodically retested.
+
+=== Operational use ===
+Test and supporting equipment configurations to be used within anechoic chambers must expose as few metallic (conductive) surfaces as possible, as these risk causing unwanted reflections. Often this is achieved by using non-conductive plastic or wooden structures for supporting the equipment under test. Where metallic surfaces are unavoidable, they may be covered with pieces of RAM after setting up to minimize such reflection as far as possible.
+A careful assessment may be required as to whether the test equipment (as opposed to the equipment under test) should be placed inside or outside the chamber. Typically most of it is located in a separate screened room attached to the main test chamber, in order to shield it from both external interference and from the radiation within the chamber. Mains power and test signal cabling into the test chamber require high quality filtering.
+Fiber optic cables are sometimes used for the signal cabling, as they are immune to ordinary RFI and also cause little reflection inside the chamber.
+
+=== Health and safety risks associated with RF anechoic chamber ===
+The following health and safety risks are associated with RF anechoic chambers:
+
+RF radiation hazard
+Fire hazard
+Trapped personnel
+Personnel are not normally permitted inside the chamber during a measurement as this not only can cause unwanted reflections from the human body but may also be a radiation hazard to the personnel concerned if tests are being performed at high RF powers. Such risks are from RF or non-ionizing radiation and not from the higher energy ionizing radiation.
+As RAM is highly absorptive of RF radiation, incident radiation will generate heat within the RAM. If this cannot be dissipated adequately there is a risk that hot spots may develop and the RAM temperature may rise to the point of combustion. This can be a risk if a transmitting antenna inadvertently gets too close to the RAM. Even for quite modest transmitting power levels, high gain antennas can concentrate the power sufficiently to cause high power flux near their apertures. Although recently manufactured RAM is normally treated with a fire retardant to reduce such risks, they are difficult to eliminate.
+
+== See also ==
+Soundproofing
+Vibration isolation
+Buffer (disambiguation)
+Damped wave
+Damping ratio
+Damper (disambiguation)
+Electromagnetic reverberation chamber
+Reverberation room
+Sensory deprivation
+GTEM cell
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+360-degree video of an anechoic chamber
+Pictures and description of an acoustic anechoic chamber Archived 4 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
+Anechoic Chambers, Past and Present
+How RF Anechoic Chambers Work  Archived 17 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine
+Video tour of an EMC/RF Test facility. Including the largest anechoic test chamber in the southern hemisphere
+Some examples
+Antenna Testing For An Anechoic Chamber
+Millimeter Wave Inc's Radio/MM Wave anechoic chamber Archived 21 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine
+Bell Labs' Murray Hill anechoic chamber
+Anechoic chamber for millimeter wave designs Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
+"Acoustics Anechoic Chamber". The UK's National Measurement Laboratory. National Physical Laboratory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
+Anechoic chambers at Apple Inc. campus used to test their mobile device products, via WaybackMachine
+Photos from building an anechoic chamber in CTU, Prague
+Sound examples
+The sound of clothes inside an anechoic chamber
+Hallucinations in anechoic chambers: the science behind the claim
+Listen to a subdued balloon burst in an anechoic chamber

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:31.856347+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station was founded in 1943 by Artem and Abraham Alikhanians (Abram Alikhanov), during World War II, to study cosmic ray and particle physics. It is located on Mount Aragats in Armenia, at an elevation of 3,200 meters, near Kari Lake. 
+
+
+== History ==
+
+Research on cosmic rays at Aragats started with a 1934 study by the Leningrad Physical-Technical Institute, focusing on how cosmic rays differ from East to West. Norair Kocharian from Yerevan State University later added to this research. These early findings led Artem and Abraham Alikhanians to set up a more detailed study in 1942. the station has been operational with minimal interruption since establishment.
+Since it was set up, the Aragats station has made contributions to studying cosmic rays including the fields of High-Energy Particle Physics, Astrophysics, and Space Weather. 
+In its early stages, the station used mass spectrometry to study the properties of charged particles, contributed by the Alikhanyan brothers. This work, which took about 15 years, helped improve methods for analyzing masses and identifying cosmic ray protons. The idea of 'varitrons,' proposed during this time, aroused discussions in the science community about elementary particles, even though not all findings were confirmed. This discussion helped establish Aragats as a location for cosmic ray research
+
+
+=== The period from 1958 to 1970 ===
+From 1958 to 1970, progress was made in cosmic ray research through calorimetric methods. Naum Grigorov and his team, working with the Yerevan Physics Institute, installed an ionization calorimeter, leading to research into hadron-nuclei interactions. Following experiments like PION and MUON used advanced detectors and early computers for data gathering and analysis.
+
+
+=== 1980s ===
+In the 1980s, the ANI experiment was planned to analyze Extensive Air Showers (EASs) using large detectors to study a wide range of cosmic ray types and energies. However, the dissolution of the USSR posed challenges to its full execution. Despite such, the MAKET-ANI and GAMMA projects published in high-energy cosmic ray research
+
+
+== Aragats Space Environmental Center (ASEC) ==
+
+In 2000, the Aragats Space Environmental Center (ASEC) was established, aimed to enhance research in solar physics and space weather. ASEC employs neutron monitors and scintillation detectors to track cosmic ray fluxes and create early warning systems for solar energetic particle events. With the launch of the SEVAN detector network in 2007, the station improved its detection ability on particle acceleration and movement in the solar corona and interplanetary space. 
+The network's initial setups were in Croatia, Bulgaria, and India. Expansion continued with the installation of SEVAN detectors in Slovakia, Germany (Hamburg and Berlin), Czech Republic, and atop Zugspitze in 2023.
+Recent developments 2008-2025
+Since 2010, significantly enlarged facilities on Aragats continuously monitor fluxes of charged and neutral particles, electrical and geomagnetic fields, lightning location, meteorological parameters, and skies above the station. Later, similar monitoring centers were established in 2 sites on the slopes of Mt. Aragats and Yerevan (Chilingarian et al., 2024a), making Aragats a major center for the interdisciplinary research of cosmic rays and geophysics phenomena. Among the most significant discoveries of last years was the measurement of electron and gamma-ray energy spectra of thunderstorm ground enhancements (TGEs), the key evidence of developing relativistic runaway electron avalanches (RREA) in the thunderous atmosphere (Chilingarian et al., 2024b, Starr, 2024).
+The largest TGEs registered in Armenia, at Mt. Musala (Bulgaria), Mt. Lomnicky Stit (Slovakia), and Mt. Milesovka in the Czech Republic, and recent measurements at Zugspitze prove that TGE is a universal characteristic of thunderstorms worldwide (Kwan, 2024a), significantly influencing terrestrial climate and operation of the global electric circuit (GEC). The measured energy spectra allow us to gain insight into the thundercloud's charge structure and clarify the role of the lower positively charged region (LPCR) in developing the lightning initiation (Chilingarian et al., 2024c). 
+Other discoveries made on Aragats include the registration of the atmospheric neutrons observed during thunderstorms, originating from the photonuclear reactions of the RREA gamma rays; the discovery of the Radon circulation effect; the uncovering of the muon stopping effect and abrupt enhancement of positron flux; the estimation of the largest electric voltage (potential difference) at mountain peaks; and the observation of transient luminous events (TLEs) in the lower atmosphere.¬¬¬
+Interdisciplinary research at Aragats reveals the synergy of atmospheric and Galactic particle accelerators, enhancing our understanding of cosmic ray phenomena (Kwan, 2024b). A recent study (Chilingarian and Zazyan, 2024) reveals that atmospheric electron accelerators impact energy measurements of the highest energy cosmic rays. Consequently, examining the atmospheric conditions for each ultra-high-energy (UHE) event is essential to accurately identify true sources of PeV energy gamma rays, marking an exciting convergence of space and atmospheric sciences.
+Data from local and international networks are available online through free-access databases and Mendeley datasets (Chilingarian et al., 2024d). 
+References
+Chilingarian A., Karapetyan T., Sargsyan B., Y.Khanikyanc, and S.Chilingaryan (2024a) Measurements of Particle Fluxes, Electric Fields, and Lightning Occurrences at the Aragats Space-Environmental Center (ASEC), Pure and Applied Geophysics 181, 1963. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-024-03481-5 
+Chilingarian A., Sargsyan B., Karapetyan T. et al.(2024b), Extreme thunderstorm ground enhancements registered on Aragats in 2023, Physical Review D 110, 063043.
+Chilingarian A., B. Sargsyan, Zazyan M. (2024c) An Enormous Increase in Atmospheric Positron Flux during a Summer Thunderstorm on Mount Aragats, Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 222, 111819. doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2024.111819
+A. Chilingarian, M. Zazyan, Overestimation of Astrophysical Gamma-Ray Energies During Thunderstorms: Synergy of Galactic and Atmospheric Accelerators, Astrophysical Journal Letters 975 (issue 2), L39. DOI: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad85e1
+Jacklin Kwan (2024a)Physics World, https://physicsworld.com/a/mountaintop-observations-of-gamma-ray-glow-could-shed-light-on-origins-of-lightning/
+Michelle Star (2024) Overlooked Weather Phenomenon Produces Gamma Rays in Our Atmosphere, Science alert, https://www.sciencealert.com/overlooked-weather-phenomenon-produces-gamma-rays-in-our-atmosphere
+Jacklin Kwan (2024b), Could thunderstorms be exaggerating the strength of mysterious gamma rays from outer space? Science, December 20, 2024.
+Chilingarian A., Karapetyan T., B. Sargsyan  B., et al. (2024d) Dataset on extreme thunderstorm ground enhancements registered on Aragats in 2023, Data in Brief, 54, 110554. doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2024.110554
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+A. Alikhanyan National Laboratory (YerPhI)
+https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/feb/07/cosmic-ray-research-station-mount-aragats-photo-essay
+https://www.rferl.org/a/armenia-mountaintop-research-facility-that-was-once-weapons-development-lab/30391548.html
+The Times
+http://www.crdfriends.org/

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat_Botanical_Garden-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ashgabat Botanical Garden"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat_Botanical_Garden"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:42.185051+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Ashgabat Botanical Garden in Ashgabat is the oldest botanical garden in Turkmenistan. The name Ashgabat literally means "city of love or city of devotion." Turkmenistan is found in the Central Asia. It is bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north and east, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest and the Caspian Sea to the west. Entrance to the botanical garden is located in the eastern side of Ashgabat on the territory of the academic sciences of Turkmenistan between streets 2029 and Tagta. 
+Founded on 1 October 1929, Ashgabat  covers approximately 18 hectares,  and exhibits more than 500 different species of plants from around the world. The park is divided into several climatic zones, is decorated with sculptures and gazebos, and has greenhouses.
+
+
+== Overwiew ==
+In 1892, the Ashgabat Specialized Botanical Station was organized. The Garden School was then formed, which laid the foundation for the future garden.
+The official founding of the Ashgabat Botanical Garden is considered to be October 1, 1929, although floristic studies on its territory were carried out long before this date. After the opening, work began on the selection and testing of flower-decorative and wood-shrub plants.
+The first site, where the most decorative plants of the natural flora of Turkmenistan were collected, was laid in 1935. The responsibility of the first scientists and researchers fell to develop a garden layout, plant plantations, identify the first scientific areas, equip greenhouses.
+In 1951, the garden was placed under the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR.
+In August 2019, the Botanical Garden was transferred to the  Turkmen Agricultural University, after which it was closed for reconstruction.
+
+
+== Exposure garden ==
+An extensive botanical collection has been collected in the garden, representing a wide range of world-famous species of world flora that grow in a company selected regionally on specially created sites. Here, for each plant, seeds are collected annually, and in the fall planting and sowing. The garden has more than 30 30 varieties introduced to industrial floriculture.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-0.md

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+---
+title: "Australian Grains Genebank"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:06.035847+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Australian Grains Genebank (AGG) is a national center for storing genetic material for plant breeding and research. The Genebank is in a collaboration with the Australian Seed Bank Partnership on an Australian Crop Wild Relatives project. It is located at Grains Innovation Park, in Horsham, Victoria, Australia.
+
+== Objectives and challenges ==
+The Australian Grains Genebank (AGG) aims to collect and conserve the seeds of Australian crop wild species, that are not yet adequately represented in existing collections. 40 key species of crop wild, 32 of which are endemic to Australia, have been identified as being crucial to increasing Australia's stock of grain crops. Seeds of crop wild relatives (CWR) will be available to plant breeders and researchers in order to develop the plant varieties of the future. The seeds will be stored not only in the Australian Grains Genebank but also in the Australian Seed Bank Partnership member seed banks.
+This project will enable research into new plant varieties, that are vital to Australia's agricultural future. Progress can be made in understanding the genetic material contained in the crops.
+One of the main objectives of the Australian Grains Genebank is helping the research; for this reason, this institution distributes about 25,000 packets of seeds to scientists in Australia and overseas. Therefore, they can evaluate this material for characteristics that could be used to breed more productive grain crops. These characteristics include the resistance to heat, frost, drought, pests and diseases.
+Another fact about Australian Grains Genebank is that it uses a DNA-based soil testing service, to assist grain growers in predicting the losses from various diseases before a crop is planted. Growers have the option of changing cultivars or modifying cropping programs, in situations where the risk of crop loss is high. The service was launched in 1997 and the initial focus was on grain and barley, but pathogens of rotation crops are now included.
+
+== Facilities ==
+In 2009 the Victorian Government provided $3 million to Sally Norton, leader of the Australian Grains Genebank to make the bank, also promising $600,000 per year for the next five years toward operating costs. The bank was officially opened in March, 2014. The budget is provided by the Government of Victoria and the Grains Research and Development Corporation, a corporation that is supported by the Government of Australia.
+The AGG is a national seed store bank completed by H2o architects, on the Wimmera flatland at the edge of Horsham, Victoria, for the Victorian Department of Environment and Primary Industries. The facility has more than 2.7 kilometres of space to give a secure store for seed specimens. The building is also used for seed development, seed requests and contains a packaging and receiving area, administration areas, drying facilities, freezers working at -20 degrees Celsius and a multipurpose national reception area, or lobby, to accommodate visiting groups.
+A double skin freezer design has an inner esky box of isolated panels, used for storing seeds and contained within an outer wood clad weather protecting cover. This design makes certain that the freezers work with less charge, reduce the energy consumption and operating costs of the facility. Efficiency is reached with a robust and environmentally responsible mechanical system.
+The building has a strong presence and provides innovation in design, technology and materials. The exterior layer is very similar to a pergola, with thousands of timber slats, each one 120 centimetres long, creating the top layer.
+
+== Storage conditions and regeneration ==
+
+The Horsham bank is the biggest of its kind and is designed for long-term storage. The material they conserve includes released crop varieties, breeding materials, and crop wild relatives. It serves not only producers but also processors, marketers, breeders and regional farming communities. Peter Walsh, the Victorian Minister of Agriculture, explained that the bank could contain about 300 million seeds from all around the globe. The bank has the capacity to hold 200,000 packets of seeds and more than 200 different crop species. In 2017 the collection held about 138,016 different seeds (or assessions), and it is growing about 3000 seeds each year.
+The most representative crop names stored are:
+
+Wheat with 42,624 different species coming from different areas of the world, mainly from Europe, Australia and Africa.
+Barley with 19,062 different types, mainly from Europe and Central Asia.
+Chickpea with 9,771 different breeds, coming from Australia, Africa, Europe and Asia Minor.
+Pea with about 7,558 different categories, principally coming from Europe, the United States, South America and Australia.
+Lentil with 5,061 different species, coming from Asia Minor, Central Asia, Europe and Africa.
+The seed drying room operates at 15 degrees Celsius and 15% of humidity. Seeds remain in this room form four to six weeks to dry down to around 6% seed moisture before being sealed into foil packets and placed under long-term storage at -20 degrees Celsius.
+AGG routinely conduct seed viability monitoring tests because seeds lose their ability to germinate, even under long-term conditions. Once seed germination drops below 85%, and the seed quantity they have in the store is below 500 seeds, the genebank regenerates the seed. They regenerate around 4000 different samples per year under field and greenhouse environments. When they regenerate seeds, they consider the biology of the plants to ensure the right soil mix, temperatures, control pollination for outcrossing species.
+
+== Longevity ==
+In order to keep the seeds safe, they are stored in 2.7 kilometres of shelf space at -20 degrees Celsius (-4 degrees Fahrenheit) with very low moisture. The seeds can remain viable for 50 or 100 years (depending on the kind of seed), preserving, in this way, the genetic materials.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-1.md

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+---
+title: "Australian Grains Genebank"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:06.035847+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The primary reason for the bank to be created was the extreme temperatures in the area, up to 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit) in the summertime. Because of that, they had to ensure the protection of the grains all year around.
+The longevity of seeds differs; some keep well for decades, crops are grown out regularly and new grains assembled to increase the collection. A database carries the information about the origin and characteristics of each seed line (none genetically modified) and features of seed viability and the quantity held.
+Seeds are placed in controlled maturing environments with high temperatures and a certain humidity (RH; 45 °C and 60% RH). The Lithium chloride (LiCl) helps to obtain the right RH environment.
+The seed survival curve, that can be acquired from the germination test, is compared with the longevity of ‘marker’ species aged under the same conditions. From here, longevity categories can be distinguished: this is most important for alpine seeds, as recent proofs show that grains from cooler and wetter habitats are shorter lived than seeds from warmer ones.
+Longevity checks can also indicate how seeds should be conserved.
+
+== Australian Seed Bank Partnership ==
+The main goal of the  Australian Seed Bank Partnership is to save about 1700 native species of plant and ecological communities facing extinction due to habitat loss, and the fragmentation and degradation of invasive species. To accomplish this objective, the partnership maintains a safe and sustainable environment, and collects and stores seeds to help research on the subject.
+
+The Australian Grains Genebank is one of the most important members of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership, which is an alliance between 12 organizations that are trying to deal with the multitude of threats facing Australian biodiversity by working together. The partnership consists of nine seeds banks, that are storing and conserving seeds, and three flora-focused organizations, that have the mission not only to fulfill the gap between policymakers, researcher, and seed collectors, but also to manage the on-ground conservation and restoration activities.
+The activities related to the Australian Seed Bank Partnership consist of four simple concepts: collecting, research, supporting restoration and sharing knowledge.
+
+Collecting: the process of collection and conservation of the native seeds is carried out by organizations, non-profit institutions and community groups, that are working together to provide a future-proof insurance policy for Australian's unique seed flora, which is particularly important in time of environmental stress. One of the main activities, in the field of collecting and storing seeds, involves the coordination of seasonal seeds collecting fields trips. Some experts, in fact, follow a rigid protocol to recognize, collect, clean and store seeds. The experts have also the important task of recording the information (such as the time of the year the seed has been collected, the associated vegetation and the soil type in the seed-collecting region) and the principal characteristics of the seed. Those information are considered fundamental to the seed banks' future rule in conservation.
+Research: to keep the collected seeds available for a long time and under controlled conditions, the research process is a central concept. To store a seed properly the researcher must establish what is required by each category or type of seed (for example if they require a specific temperature or if it needs light and moisture cues to germinate).
+Supporting Restoration: one of the most important activities in which the Australian Seed Bank Partnership is involved, is the recording of all the data about Australian native crops. This process is considered that important because it informs the restoration of plant communities and landscapes. In order to achieve this objective, the Australian Seed Bank Partnership applies the scientific knowledge to the field and shares it with the restoration community. This institution, thanks to this process, has already saved a lot of Australian native plants, discovered new species and rediscovered species that they thought to be extinct in the wild.
+Sharing knowledge: The Australian Seed Bank Partnership shares his knowledge among all the existing Australian conservation seed banks, restoration practitioners, and community groups. By sharing this knowledge, they hope to build a greater understanding of seed science in Australia.
+The Australian Grains Genebank is related to the Australian Seed Bank Partnership. They are actually collaborating on an Australian Crop Wild Relatives project. Through this project, these two institutions are trying to store all the Australian crop wild relatives, that are not yet represented in the ex-suit collection. The 32 wild crop species will be stored and preserved on the facilities of the Australian Grains Genebank. This project is considered really important, because saving and storing the wild crops will enable researchers into new plant varieties, that will be important for the future and the development of the Australian agriculture.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Sustainablelivingsystems.org: "A Typology of Community Seed Banks"
+Business Plan of Australian Seed Bank Partnership 2011-2020
+Annual Report of Australian Seed Bank Partnership 2015-2016
+Crop Trust

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_PlantBank-0.md

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+---
+title: "Australian PlantBank"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_PlantBank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:07.266885+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Australian PlantBank is a seed bank located in the Australian Botanic Gardens, Mount Annan. The seedbank is part of the Millennium Seed Bank Project. The SeedBank replaced the former NSW Seedbank as part of an upgrade.
+
+
+== History ==
+The former NSW Seedbank was established in 1986 and originally collected wild seed for the Gardens. The former seedbank went through an extensive upgrade in 1999 and ensured that the seeds were of high quality. The biggest and latest update was in 2013, where the NSW Seedbank turned into the Australian PlantBank.
+In 2014 the new building, designed by BVN, received the National Award for Public Architecture from the Australian Institute of Architects.
+
+
+== Opening ceremony ==
+The opening ceremony for the Australian PlantBank was held on 11 October 2013. The seedbank was officially opened by Her Excellency Professor Marie Bashir. Other attendees included:
+
+The Honourable Robyn Parker MP, Minister for Environment and Heritage
+Mr Ken Boundy, Chair, Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+PlantBank opening ceremony official party + gallery

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccaro,_Nova_Scotia-0.md

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+---
+title: "Baccaro, Nova Scotia"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccaro,_Nova_Scotia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:45.063593+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Baccaro  ( BAK-ə-roh) is a community in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located in the Barrington Municipal District.
+The community's name comes from "baccolaos," the Basque word for cod-fish. Baccaro Point has a weather station (Station ID WCP). It is mainland Nova Scotia's southernmost point. There are a few islands, however; such as Cape Sable Island, that are further south.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of communities in Nova Scotia
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Baccaro Point - Hourly Forecast - Environment Canada

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:07.733172+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:53.020003+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Banff International Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:33.052268+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Banff International Research Station (BIRS) for Mathematical Innovation and Discovery was established in 2003. It provides an independent research institute for the mathematical sciences in North America, a counterpart to the Oberwolfach Research Institute for Mathematics in Europe.  The research station, commonly known by its acronym, "BIRS", hosts over 2000 international scientists each year to undertake research collaboration in the mathematical sciences.
+
+
+== Research activities ==
+The research that takes place at the Banff International Research Station is either in pure mathematics, applied mathematics, or in other areas of science where they intersect with mathematics.
+
+"BIRS embraces all aspects of the mathematical, computational and statistical sciences from the most fundamental challenges of pure and applied mathematics, theoretical and applied computer science, statistics, and mathematical physics, to financial and industrial mathematics, as well as the mathematics of information technology, and the life sciences." 
+
+There is a wide range of research publications citing lectures, meetings and reports from BIRS.
+
+
+== Research program ==
+The Banff International Research Station hosts five types of meetings:
+
+5-Day Workshops: These make up the core program at BIRS, with up to 42 participants per workshop, 48 weeks per year. Some workshops have only 21 participants, and they share a week at BIRS, running concurrently.
+2-Day Workshops: Weekend workshops, typically consisting of 25 people, and typically from the surrounding areas in Alberta and British Columbia.
+Focused Research Groups:  Up to 8 people from different institutions meet for 1–2 weeks, to work on a specific problem or finish up major projects.
+Research in Teams:  2–4 people from different institutions meet for 1–2 weeks to concentrate on their research.
+Summer Schools and Training Camps: instructional meetings for up to 40 students for up to 14 days.
+The core program of 5-day workshops is created two years in advance. Every summer, BIRS issues a Call for Proposals, soliciting applications for workshops from the global scientific community. Each year, it gets more competitive to get a space in the 48 available weeks at BIRS: 79 proposals were received for the 2003 program, and 168 were received for the 2014 program. An extensive peer-review process by international experts culminates in the selection of the scientific program for a given year.
+Summer schools and training camps must apply through the same process as 5-day workshops. An example of a summer school is the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) training camp, to prepare high school students for competing at the IMO. The other types of meetings are far less competitive, and may be applied for at any time, through the BIRS website.
+
+
+== Meeting facilities ==
+The Banff International Research Station occupies two buildings on the campus of the Banff Centre, in Banff National Park. One of the buildings, Corbett Hall, is a residence building that provides bedrooms, a common lounge area, a small library, and space for small teams of people to work. The other building, TransCanada PipeLines Pavilion, hosts administrative offices, two lecture rooms, and a series of smaller rooms for break-out sessions and research teams.  As part of the Banff Centre campus, BIRS researchers have full access to all of its amenities and services.
+The idea behind this choice of location for a research facility is to create an atmosphere where scientists can remove themselves from day-to-day life, and immerse themselves in their research.
+
+
+== Automated lecture capture ==
+In 2012, the Banff International Research Station installed a fully automated lecture capture system.  It provides live video streaming and video recording of the lectures that take place in its main lecture room. Video recordings are automatically posted on the BIRS website within a few minutes after a lecture ends. Use of the system is opt-in, decided by the individual lecturers at the time of their lecture, via a touchscreen panel in the lecture room. The automated system at BIRS employs high quality cameras to ensure that mathematics written on chalkboards can be seen clearly. Embedded microphones and audio processing systems capture both the lecturer and questions from the audience.
+Recent research videos recorded at BIRS are also available in the iTunes podcast directory.
+
+
+== Funding ==
+The Banff International Research Station is funded by four governments:
+
+The federal government of Canada, through the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC)
+The provincial government of Alberta, through Alberta Science and Research Authority (ASRA)
+The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF)
+Mexico's National Science and Technology Council, (CONACYT)
+
+
+== See also ==
+BIRS Founding Director (2001), Nassif Ghoussoub
+BIRS Scientific Director (2001-2003), Robert Moody
+BIRS Scientific Director (2004-2020), Nassif Ghoussoub
+BIRS Scientific Director (2020-2025), Malabika Pramanik
+The Banff Centre
+Banff, Alberta
+Pacific Institute for the Mathematical Sciences
+Mathematical Sciences Research Institute
+Comments from BIRS researchers
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Planetarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Bangkok Planetarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Planetarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:54.181476+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Bangkok Planetarium (Thai: ท้องฟ้าจำลองกรุงเทพ, RTGS: Thong Fa Chamlong Krung Thep) is the oldest planetarium in Thailand and Southeast Asia. It is located on Sukhumvit Road in Bangkok as part of the Science Centre for Education, which is operated by the Department of Non-Formal Education of the Ministry of Education.The complex was built to educate the youth and general public about science and astronomy.
+Construction of the planetarium began in 1962 with a budget of twelve million baht and it opened on 18 August 1964. The planetarium dome is 20.60 metres in diameter and 13 metres high, and holds 450 seats. The planetarium uses a Mark IV Zeiss projector, which was the first installation of a large planetarium projector in Southeast Asia. Apart from the theatre itself, the building also features permanent exhibitions on astronomy, aimed at young audiences.
+The planetarium underwent extensive renovations in 2015, including the installation of two new Christie Boxer 4K30 projectors alongside the old Mark IV, which helped reignite interest in the previously ailing museum.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+---
+title: "Bear pit"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:09.511026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A bear pit is an enclosure historically used to display bears, typically for entertainment and especially bear-baiting. The pit area was normally surrounded by a high fence, above which the spectators would look down on the bears.
+The most traditional form of maintaining bears in captivity is keeping them in pits, although many zoos have replaced these by more elaborate and spacious enclosures that attempt to replicate their natural habitats, for the benefit of the animals and the visitors.
+
+
+== History ==
+Bear pits originated as a place to keep bears used in bear-baiting. These pits were temporary structures, typically used just once. After the sport's popularity waned, bear pits continued to exist as a way to display bears for the public to see, and often, feed. In contrast to the ones used in baiting, these pits were permanent structures built with sturdy materials; the pit in Rosherville Gardens, for example, was made of brick. Bear pits peaked in popularity during the Victorian era, when the public developed a general fascination with exotic animals.
+Several violent incidents were known to occur in British bear pits. The public generally saw captive bears as "clownish" and thus feared them little. A bear escaped a pit in the Orangery at Wakefield in 1844, killing a woman and badly mauling another before it was shot dead. At the London Zoo in 1867, a man climbed into a bear pit to retrieve his hat, and was attacked by a bear, but was rescued by a zookeeper. There are rumors of captive bears eating children during this time period, but they have never been confirmed.
+
+
+== Modern day ==
+Bear pits have largely fallen out of favor, as many zoos now try to make their animals' accommodations more natural. Zoo visitors tend to view animals in natural settings as "active", and those in more artificial settings as "passive". Animal rights groups, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, oppose the existence of bear pits as cruel, claiming that bears cannot get enrichment from such constructions, and seek to close the few that remain.
+A short-lived American alternative to bear pits was Edmund Heller's bear exhibit at the Washington Park Zoo. Heller attempted to simulate nature by mixing different species (namely polar, black and grizzly bears, as well as wolves) in the same enclosure. This proved disastrous, as polar bears would drag black bears into the water, drown them, and then eat them. Mixing different species is generally not practiced today.
+The Bärengraben of Bern, Switzerland was built in 1857. It allowed visitors to feed the bears, which resided in a concrete pit. In the early 1990s, a swimming pool and softer gravel ground were added to it, but complaints were still made. Eventually, in 2002, a contest was held to design a new bear facility. In 2009, a much larger enclosure called the Bären Park (Bear Park) was opened next to the old bear pit. The old pit still stands, but no longer contains any animals.
+Another modern bear pit is the Three Bears General Store in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. Attached to a shop, the pit features live bears in a concrete pit that visitors can feed. The exhibit has been criticized as cruel by animal rights activists.
+
+
+== In culture ==
+As part of a project commissioned by the Orangery, site of the fatal 1844 mauling, artist Rebecca Chesney created a series of portraits of those involved in the attack.
+In the young adult novel series Seekers, about anthropomorphic bears, Lusa, one of the protagonists, grew up in what she calls the "bear bowl" in the Greater Vancouver Zoo. The book depicts the zoo as a safe place in comparison to the wild, where Lusa eventually escapes to, yet also portrays it as restraining and a poor fit for Lusa's adventurous spirit.
+The phrase "bear pit" has entered the common vernacular. In Scotland, the phrase bear pit is used to describe bars or public houses that are known to have a violent reputation.  Another meaning of "bear pit" is for an unusually aggressive political arena, in which direct, heated attacks are common. The term bear pit is also used to describe a tournament or sparring format, sometimes also referred to as "king of the hill".
+
+
+== See also ==
+Berenkuil (traffic)
+Menagerie
+Zoo
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Sheffield Botanical Gardens Bear Pit
+Bear parc in Bern

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Island,_Nova_Scotia-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Beaver Island, Nova Scotia"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Island,_Nova_Scotia"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:46.284167+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Beaver Island is an island community of the Halifax Regional Municipality in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. The weather station code is CWBV; due to its exposed location, Beaver Island can receive very powerful winds, especially from offshore. Since 1846 there has been a lighthouse on the island.
+
+
+== Climate ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Beaver Island Lighthouse
+NSLPS

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-0.md

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+---
+title: "Behavioral enrichment"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Behavioral enrichment is an animal husbandry principle that seeks to enhance the quality of captive animal care by identifying and providing the environmental stimuli necessary for optimal psychological and physiological well-being. Enrichment can either be active or passive, depending on whether it requires direct contact between the animal and the enrichment. A variety of enrichment techniques are used to create desired outcomes similar to an animal's individual and species' history. Each of the techniques used is intended to stimulate the animal's senses similarly to how they would be activated in the wild. Provided enrichment may be seen in the form of auditory, olfactory, habitat factors, food, research projects, training, and objects.
+
+== Purpose ==
+Environmental enrichment can improve the overall welfare of animals in captivity and create a habitat similar to what they would experience in their wild environment. It aims to maintain an animal's physical and psychological health by increasing the range or number of species-specific behaviors, increasing positive interaction with the captive environment, preventing or reducing the frequency of abnormal behaviors, such as stereotypies, and increasing the individual's ability to cope with the challenges of captivity. Stereotypies are seen in captive animals due to stress and boredom. This includes pacing, self-harm, over-grooming, head-weaving, etc.
+Environmental enrichment can be offered to any animal in captivity, including:
+
+Animals in zoos and related facilities
+Animals in sanctuaries
+Animals in shelters and adoption centers
+Animals used for research
+Animals used for companionship, e.g. dogs, cats, rabbits, etc.
+Environmental enrichment can be beneficial to a wide range of vertebrates and invertebrates such as land mammals, marine mammals, and amphibians. In the United States, specific regulations (Animal Welfare Act of 1966) must be followed for enrichment plans in order to guarantee, regulate, and provide appropriate living environments and stimulation for animals in captivity. Moreover, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (also known as the AZA), requires that animal husbandry and welfare be a main concern for those caring for animals in captivity.
+
+== Passive enrichment ==
+Passive enrichment provides sensory stimulation but no direct contact or control. This type of enrichment is commonly used for its potential to benefit several animals simultaneously as well as requiring limited direct animal contact.
+
+=== Visual enrichment ===
+Visual enrichment is typically provided by changing the layout of an animal's holding area. The type of visual enrichment can vary, from something as simple as adding pictures on walls to videotapes and television. Visual enrichment such as television can especially benefit animals housed in single cages.
+Mirrors are also a potential form of enrichment, specifically for animals that display an understanding of self-recognition, such as non-human primates. In addition to using mirrors to reflect the animal's own image, mirrors can also be angled so the animal is able to see normally out-of-sight areas of the holding area.
+Enclosures in modern zoos are often designed to facilitate environmental enrichment. For example, the Denver Zoo's exhibit Predator Ridge allows different African carnivores to be rotated among several enclosures, providing the animals with a differently sized environment.
+
+=== Auditory enrichment ===
+In the wild, animals are exposed to a variety of sounds that they normally do not encounter in captivity. Auditory enrichment can be used to mimic the animal's natural habitat. Types of nature-based auditory enrichment include rain forest sounds and con-specific vocalizations.
+The most common form of auditory enrichment is music, whose principal stems primarily from its benefit to humans. The benefits of classical music have been widely studied in animals, from sows to non-human primates. Studies have also looked at various other genres, such as pop and rock, but their ability to provide effective enrichment remains inconclusive. Most types of music that are selected for enrichment are based on human preferences, causing anthropomorphic biases that may not translate to other animals. Therefore, music that is specifically attuned to the animal's auditory senses could be beneficial. Species-specific sounds require further research to find what pitch, frequency, and range is most suitable for the animal.
+
+== Active enrichment ==
+Active enrichment often requires the animal to perform some sort of physical activity as well as direct interaction with the enrichment object. Active enrichment items can temporarily reduce stereotypic behaviors as their beneficial effects are usually limited to the short periods of active use.
+
+=== Food-based enrichment ===
+Food-based enrichment is meant to mimic what a captive animal would do in the wild for food. This is extremely important because in the wild, animals are adapted to work hard for what they eat. A lot of time and energy is spent finding food, which is why this tactic is used to make it more challenging for the animal rather than just feeding it simple food. Feeding enrichment techniques causes the animal to indulge in natural, active behaviors that allow for more stimulation and prevents boredom. This form of enrichment forms active behaviors that can also help with not only a captive animal's mental health, but the animal's physical health. 
+For example, food can be hidden and spread across an enclosure making the animal actively search for it. Other common manipulable tactile objects include rubber toys stuffed with treats. Instead of providing the food directly, foraging devices are useful in increasing the amount of searching and foraging of food, comparable to the amount of time they would spend in the wild. Most food-based enrichment occurs in the context of searching for food, such as cracking open a nut or digging holes in tree trunks for worms.
+
+=== Structural enrichment ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-1.md

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+---
+title: "Behavioral enrichment"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Structural Enrichment is when objects are added to an enclosure to mimic an animal's natural habitat. These objects can be switched out occasionally or kept permanently. The environment of captive animals should be switched frequently since their environment in the wild would bring on new objects and exploration. Research into what constitutes the most beneficial and appropriate forms of enrichment must be used when considering the provision of enrichment options, especially for species where natural-like settings may be difficult to achieve. The animal should never become too familiar with their environment because that can cause boredom, no stimulation or stereotypical behavior. Examples of this could be swings or climbing structures. Stones have also been shown to encourage exploratory behavior in Japanese macaques. Interaction with the stones exhibited behaviors such as gathering, rolling in hands, rubbing, and carrying.
+Other common forms include cardboard, forage, and even the texture of the food (i.e. hard, smooth, cold, warm).
+
+=== Olfactory enrichment ===
+Olfactory enrichment can stimulate naturalistic behavior, enhance exploration, and reduce inactive behaviors. Olfactory enrichment can be utilized by itself, paired with novel toys, or paired with food-based enrichment. This type of enrichment is most commonly used with species that commonly utilize their olfactory senses in the wild. Although highly beneficial, it is important for researchers to analyze the long-term effects of certain odors on captive animals. Odors can be scattered on a novel toy such as a ball or semi-randomly throughout an enclosure. Various forms of odors can include catnip, odor of conspecific, perfume, feces of a prey species, or spices. 
+
+=== Cognitive enrichment ===
+Cognitive enrichment is defined as, improving animal welfare by providing opportunities for captive animals to use cognitive skills for problem solving and providing limited control over some aspects of its environment. In the wild, animals deal with ecological challenges in order to acquire the resources, such as food and shelter, that they require to survive. These challenges arise from interactions with other animals, or through changes to their environment that require the individuals to exercise their cognitive ability and to improve their behavioral strategies. Therefore, these challenges act as an important problem-solving element in the animals' day-to-day lives, and in-turn, increases their overall fitness. The animal anticipates positive benefits from a challenging situation which can directly affect its emotional processes. Cognitive enrichment should be provided in addition to a diverse environment that is already structurally and socially enriched; it goes beyond the basic needs of the animals. 
+
+=== Social enrichment ===
+Social enrichment can either involve housing a group of conspecifics or animals of different species that would naturally encounter each other in the wild. Social animals in particular (i.e. most primates, lions, flamingos, etc.), benefit from social enrichment because it has the positive effect of creating confidence in the group. Social enrichment can encourage social behaviors that are seen in the wild, including feeding, foraging, defense, territoriality, reproduction, and courtship.
+
+=== Human-interaction enrichment ===
+The most common form of human-interaction enrichment is training. The human and animal interaction during training builds trust, and increases the animal's cooperation during clinical and research procedures. In addition, training sessions have been shown to benefit the welfare of both individually housed animals and communally housed animals by providing cognitive stimulation, increasing social play, decreasing inactivity, and mitigating social aggression during feeding.
+
+== Assessing the success ==
+A range of methods can be used to assess which environmental enrichment should be provided.  These are based on the premises that captive animals should perform behaviors in a similar way to those in the ethogram of their ancestral species, animals should be allowed to perform the activities or interactions they prefer, i.e. preference test studies, and animals should be allowed to perform  those activities for which they are highly motivated, i.e. motivation studies.
+Environmental enrichment is a way to ensure that an animals natural and instinctual behaviors are kept and able to be passed and taught from one generation to the next. Enrichment techniques that encourage species specific behaviors, like those that are discovered in the wild, have been studied and found to help the process of reintroduction of endangered species into their natural habitats, as well as helping to create offspring with natural traits and behaviors.
+The main way the success of environmental enrichment can be measured is by recognizing the behavioral changes that occur from the techniques used to shape desired behaviors of the animal compared to the behaviors of those found in the wild. Other ways that the success of environmental enrichment can be assessed quantitatively by a range of behavioral and physiological indicators of animal welfare.  In addition to those listed above, behavioral indicators include the occurrence of abnormal behaviours (e.g. stereotypies), cognitive bias studies, and the effects of frustration. Physiological indicators include heart rate, corticosteroids, immune function, neurobiology, eggshell quality and thermography.
+It is very difficult for zookeepers to measure the effectiveness of enrichment in terms of the stress due to the fact that animals that are found in zoos are oftentimes on display and presented with very abnormal conditions that can cause uneasiness and stress. Measuring enrichment in terms of reproduction is easier because of our ability to record offspring numbers and fertility. By making necessary environment changes and providing mental stimulation, animals in captivity have been seen to reproduce at a more similar rate to their wild ancestors in comparison to those provided with less behavioral and environmental enrichment.
+
+== Issues and concerns ==
+
+=== Habituation ===
+Although environmental enrichment can provide sensory and social stimulations, it can also have limited efficacy if not changed frequently. Animals can become habituated to environmental enrichments, showing positive behaviors at onset of exposure and progressively declining with time. Environmental enrichments are effective primarily because it offers novelty stimuli, making the animal's daily routines less predictable, as would be in the wild. Therefore, maintaining novelty is important for the efficacy of the enrichment. Frequently changing the type of environmental enrichment will help prevent habituation.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-2.md

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+---
+title: "Behavioral enrichment"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Training ===
+Usage of more highly advanced enrichment devices, such as computerized devices, requires training. This can lead to issues as training often consists of food as a reward. While food encourages the animal to participate with the device, the animal could associate the device with food. As a result, the interaction with the enrichment would bring about behaviors that are associated with training instead of the desired playful and voluntary behaviors.
+
+=== Time and resources ===
+The process of producing and providing environmental enrichment usually require a large allocation of time and resources. In a survey, "time taken by animal care staff to complete other tasks" was the most significant factor influencing environmental enrichment provisions and scheduling. Therefore, it is important to develop appropriate environmental enrichment programs that can be effectively carried out with the size of staff and time available.
+
+== See also ==
+Socialization
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Laboratory Animal Refinement Database
+Animals in Laboratories (awionline.org)
+3R Research Foundation Switzerland (forschung3R.ch)
+Environmental Enrichment, Animal Welfare Information Center
+The Shape of Enrichment selected articles on enrichment for zoo animals.
+Environmental Enrichment for Pet Cats  (ASPCA)
+Environmental Enrichment for Pet Dogs(ASPCA)
+Environmental Enrichment for Horses(ASPCA)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Co-ordinated_Collections_of_Micro-organisms-0.md

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+---
+title: "Belgian Co-ordinated Collections of Micro-organisms"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Co-ordinated_Collections_of_Micro-organisms"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:08.449277+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms (BCCM) is a Belgian government funded consortium of seven scientific institutions, who manage and exploit a collection of microbial and genetic resources. The consortium comprises more than 269,000 publicly available strains of bacteria including mycobacteria and cyanobacteria, filamentous fungi, yeasts, diatoms and plasmids.
+BCCM is embedded in international initiatives such as the World Federation of Culture Collections (WFCC) and operates in compliance with the rules of the Nagoya Protocol.
+
+
+== History ==
+In 1983 the Belgian Council of Ministers decided to bring the microbial resources and the expertise available in different Belgian institutes together in a network of culture collections: with this the consortium of Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms (BCCM) saw the light of day. 
+In 1983, the BCCM consortium consisted of the microbial collections of one public scientific institution and two universities:
+
+the collection of medical yeasts and fungi of the Mycology Laboratory of Sciensano (former Scientific Institute of Public Health) (BCCM/IHEM)
+the collection of filamentous fungi, yeasts and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi of the Université catholique de Louvain (BCCM/MUCL)
+the bacteria collection of the Laboratory for Microbiology of the Faculty of Sciences of the Ghent University (BCCM/LMG).
+In 1990 the plasmid collection of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Ghent University was added to the consortium (BCCM/GeneCorner).
+In 2011, 3 additional dedicated collections were included in the BCCM consortium:
+
+the diatom collection of the Laboratory for Protistology & Aquatic Ecology of Ghent University (BCCM/DCG)
+the mycobacteria collection of the Institute of Tropical Medicine in Antwerp (BCCM/ITM)
+the cyanobacteria collection of the Centre for Protein Engineering of the University of Liège (BCCM/ULC).
+
+
+== Collection ==
+
+Microorganisms are an important raw material in biotechnology. The properties of bacteria, fungi, yeasts and diatoms are used in countless industrial applications and processes. Consider, for example, fermentation processes and the use of probiotics in foods, the production of antibiotics in medicine, the use of microorganisms as growth promoting elements in agriculture, as bioremediators on polluted sites, etc.
+Moreover, the properties of numerous microbial species are still unknown. Therefore public culture collections  truly are a treasure trove of biological material, which can be explored through screening projects, for example.
+
+
+== Services ==
+BCCM operates under a multi-site ISO 9001 quality management system
+Public collection
+The BCCM collections gather biological resources from all over the world, from samples constructed or isolated by the collections themselves or from samples provided by other scientists.
+These well-documented and authenticated strains of bacteria, filamentous and yeasts fungi (including the most important test and control strains), diatoms, plasmids and DNA libraries are made publicly available and are distributed worldwide.
+Strains for educational purposes are also available.
+Safe deposits
+Resources in the safe deposit collection are not catalogued, and are only available to the depositor, or to third parties with the written authorisation of the depositor.
+Patent deposits
+Under a Belgian Government initiative the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has recognised the BCCM consortium as an International Depositary under the Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of Deposit of Microorganisms for Patent Procedure. The BCCM contributes to the innovation process by accepting and storing deposits of the biological materials referred to in patent applications. 
+Therefore, the BCCM collections can accept as patent deposits under the Budapest Treaty:
+
+all bacterial strains, except pathogens belonging to a hazard group higher than group 2 (BCCM/LMG)
+filamentous fungi and yeasts, non-pathogenic to humans and animals, representing a wide species diversity from natural and industrial sources as well as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi preserved by in-vitro cultivation (BCCM/MUCL)
+filamentous fungi and yeasts, including pathogens that cause mycosis in man and animals (BCCM/IHEM)
+human and animal cell lines, including hybridomas (BCCM/GeneCorner)
+genetic material in a host or in the form of isolated material (e.g. plasmids, oncogenes, RNA) (BCCM/GeneCorner)
+Other services
+Next to its collections of biological materials, BCCM also offers expertise in:
+
+Identification : molecular biology – physiology – morphology – taxonomy
+Screenings (e.g. genomic) for properties of interest
+Industrial products and processes: quality – monitoring – biosafety
+Food and agricultural products and processes: quality – safety – monitoring
+Bio-assays : resistance – inhibition
+Tailor-made approaches
+
+
+== Research ==
+Research projects autonomously developed by BCCM staff or in collaboration with research groups of the host laboratories are focussed among others on:
+
+biodiversity and taxonomy
+preservation of genetic resources
+bioprospecting
+bioassays for antibacterial activity screening
+food bacteriology
+population genetics
+microbial interactions
+molecular basis of genetic resources
+
+
+== See also ==
+American Type Culture Collection (ATCC)
+Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO)
+Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen
+European Culture Collections' Organisation
+World Federation for Culture Collections
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Belgian Co-ordinated Collections of Micro-organisms - BCCM
+Belgian Coordinated Collections of Micro-organisms (Dutch)
+Biological Resource Centre (French)
+
+
+== External links ==
+BCCM
+BELSPO
+BCCM/GeneCorner

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Meteorological_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Belgrade Meteorological Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Meteorological_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:47.563288+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Meteorology was first practiced in Serbia when meteorological data was gathered, monitored and recorded on a daily basis, in 1848,  in Belgrade. Daily, meteorological forecasts started in 1892. The first meteorologist was Vladimir Jakšić. 
+While the first meteorological observation post was in a nearby private house, a meteorological observation station (Serbian Meteorološka opservatorija) building was built in 1891 by architect Dimitrije T. Leko, on Vračar's plateau, in Savinac  (recognized also as Englezovac, named after Francis Mackenzie).
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Belgrade Meteorological Station (in English)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Planetarium-0.md

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+---
+title: "Belgrade Planetarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Planetarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:55.367437+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Belgrade Planetarium (Serbian: Београдски планетаријум, Beogradski planetarijum) is one of two planetariums in Serbia. It is located in Belgrade and is operated by the Astronomical Society Ruđer Bošković. Before 1967 it was known as the "Turkish bath in Lower Town".
+
+
+== Location ==
+The planetarium is located in the Lower Town of the Belgrade Fortress. It is situated on the plateau below the Danube slope of the hill, in the immediate vicinity of the remains of the medieval Lower town's Eastern Gate complex.
+
+
+== History ==
+The edifice was originally built as the Turkish bath (hamam). It was constructed between 1860 and 1867, when Ottomans left the fortress, though the exact date is unknown. During the World War I it was used as the military bath. The building was almost demolished as the result of the 1944 explosion in the nearby Eastern Gate of the fortress.
+After the city Institute for the protection of the cultural monuments was founded, the Institute initiated the reconstruction of the hamam in 1962, citing the building's "undisputed monumental properties". The reconstruction was finished in 1964 and the venue remained unused until 1967. The original idea was for the facility to be adapted into the lapidarium. It was to become an exhibition space for the stone objects – monuments, epitaphs, sarcophagi, statues, etc. The plan was scrapped at one point and it was decided to turn it into the planetarium.
+In order for the building to function as the planetarium, in the halovat, a central section of the hamam, an independent circular structure was constructed. It hosts the projector and the vault of the dome is used as the screen. The planetarium of the Astronomical Society Ruđer Bošković was installed in 1967–1968.
+The planetarium's instrument, little Zeiss's planetarium ZKP-2 (Zeiss Kleines Planetarium-2), was purchased at the Belgrade Fair of technology in 1966 thanks to Josip Broz Tito, after an initiative of the members of the Society. Unofficially, it started working in 1969, and officially in the 1970.
+The planetarium's hall has a diameter of 8 m (26 ft) and 80 seats. The 1960s drawings of the panorama of Belgrade are preserved. During the festivities which marked the 50 years of the planetarium in 2019, the facility was renewed with the new projector which would allow the video wall projections. Also the planetarium was partially renovated as the lead roof panels deteriorated in time.
+Though one of the most modern planetariums in the Southeast Europe at the time, by 2019 it became and "oldtimer" among such facilities. Though open for visitors and regularly used for lectures, the planetarium was not maintained properly, and by 2022 visibly deteriorated.
+
+
+== Characteristics ==
+At the entrance into the planetarium is the sculpture titled "The man at the end of the second millennium". It is work of sculptor Zoran Kuzmanović. In 2019, it was estimated that over half a million visitors came to the planetarium in the 50 years since it was open. The venue occasionally hosts artistic and cultural gathering, unrelated to the astronomy.
+The main visitors to the planetarium are students of Belgrade primary and high schools. Following periodic activities of the Society are taking place in the Planetarium:
+
+Astronomy courses for beginners (spring and autumn; in spring of 2007, the eightieth course was held)
+Belgrade Astronomical weekend
+Summer astronomy meetings
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+ASRB: Planetarium Archived 2011-09-08 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Bely Rast High Voltage Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:34.229690+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bely Rast High Voltage Research Station (Russian: Белый Раст) is a facility for the development of high voltage equipment in Russia, situated at Bely Rast, Moscow Oblast near the eponymous station of the Greater Ring of the Moscow Railway.  Built in 1966, the equipment of the 750 kV- and 1150 kV-lines in Russia and other parts of the former Soviet Union were first developed and tested at this facility, as well as the equipment for the never completed HVDC Ekibastuz–Centre. The facility also has an unused 1150 kV AC and a 1500 kV DC line. The DC line was the prototype of the never finished HVDC Ekibastuz–Centre.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Wikimap of Bely Rast Research Station

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioshelter-0.md

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+---
+title: "Bioshelter"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioshelter"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:43.400872+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A bioshelter is a solar greenhouse managed as an indoor ecosystem.  The word bioshelter was coined by the New Alchemy Institute and solar designers Sean Wellesley-Miller and Day Chahroudi. The term was created to distinguish their work in greenhouse design and management from twentieth century petro-chemical fuelled monoculture greenhouses. 
+
+
+== Overview ==
+New Alchemy's pioneering work in ecological design is documented in their published Journals and Reports. In 1976 the Alchemists built the Cape Cod Ark bioshelter and her sister The Prince Edward Island Ark.  For the next 15 years the New Alchemy Institute studied and reported on the use of these prototype food producing ecosystems.
+
+
+== Architecture ==
+A bioshelter (life-shelter) involves two fields of knowledge and design. The first is architecture designed to nurture an ecosystem within. A bioshelter structure uses glazing to contain and protect the living biology inside, control air exchange and absorb energy.  The building exchanges nutrients, gases and energy with the surrounding environment, produces crops, and recycles waste organic material into the soil. Solar energy is stored as heat energy in thermal mass such as water, stone, masonry, soil and plant biomass.    
+
+
+== Biology ==
+The second is the biology inside the bioshelter. Earle Barnhart of the New Alchemy Institute has compared a bioshelter to a contained ecosystem.   Solar heat is absorbed and stored in thermal mass to moderate air temperatures and provide heat for later use.  Water moves from rainfall to fishponds to soil to plants and finally to water vapor. Year-round habitat is provided for beneficial insects . Ecological relationships between pests and their predators reduce the number of pests. Gases are exchanged among the animals, insects, micro-organisms, soil and plants. Nutrient cycles are developed between fish, plant & soil. Within the bioshelter are a variety of microclimates.  The south areas receive the most direct sunlight.  The east and west areas can be shaded for a portion of the day. Higher levels in a growing space will be warmer. A well-designed bioshelter, managed by human intelligence, can shelter a community of people, food crops, edible fish, and a diverse ecosystem of plants, animals and soil life.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+New Alchemy Institute
+DIY Greenhouse Kits

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+---
+title: "Bocas del Toro Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:35.751351+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Bocas del Toro Research Station  (BRS) is a field station of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) on Panama’s western Caribbean coast, is a platform for both marine and terrestrial biodiversity research. The station hosts a diverse group of scientists from more than 20 countries, every year.
+Activities at the station contribute to the Smithsonian Institution’s primary mission: the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Visiting scientists are engaged in research on the biodiversity, ecology, paleontology and archaeology of the Bocas del Toro region. Educational and outreach activities range from hosting K-12 school groups, to specialized training for international graduate students.
+Founded in 1998, the BRS campus has provided field accommodation since 2002 and a fully operational research laboratory since 2003. The facilities now include a running seawater system, a new dock, boat ramp, and additional support facilities, as well as two houses to accommodate visiting researchers. The BRS is arguably the preeminent field station in the Caribbean.
+Visiting scientists hold lectures that are open to the public.
+
+
+== Outreach, education, and training ==
+Outreach and education at the Bocas del Toro Research Station spans a range of programs targeting K-12 students, university undergraduates, graduate students and young professionals. K-12 education includes visits to local schools, some of which are in remote mountainous locations, and student visits to the BRS. The station also offers a training workshop for local K-12 teachers every year, an organized beach clean-up for Earth day, and other activities for local residents.
+They hold an annual Environmental Fair.
+
+
+== Biodiversity database ==
+The Bocas biodiversity database  provides a list of plants and animals that are known to occur in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, the Bahía Almirante, Laguna de Chiriquí, and the surrounding mainland. Users can search for a particular term or browse the database by group.  Some photographs, videos, maps and audio recordings are available.
+
+
+== Facts and statistics ==
+Location: Isla Colon, Bocas del Toro Province, Panama
+Campus Size:  6 Hectares
+Date of Purchase:  1998
+Staff:  12 permanent staff
+Director:  Dr. Rachel Collin
+Capacity:  28 resident scientists and 15 off campus researchers
+Annual Visitors:  325 scientific visitors work at the BRS every year
+Publications:  200 peer-review publications have been generated from work at the BRS since 1998
+Undergraduate Education:  9 undergraduate institutions including Princeton, Harvard, and Duke Universities teach undergraduate field classes at the BRS
+Outreach:  3000 members of the public participate in the BRS outreach activities every year
+Earth Day:  Over 2 tons of garbage are collected from local beaches during the BRS beach clean-up each year
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Collin R. 2005. "Ecological monitoring and biodiversity surveys at the Smithsonian Tropical Researcj Institute's Bocas del Toro Research Station". Caribbean Journal of Science 41: 367-374.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Home page of STRI's Bocas del Toro Research Station
+Videoclips highlighting the Bocas del Toro Research Station and research
+"Dispatch from Panama: Bocas del Toro", Smithsonian Magazine, September 15, 2009

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Beacon-0.md

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+---
+title: "Border Beacon"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Beacon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:50.446674+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Border Beacon (Mid-Canada Line Site 212) was a United States Air Force military installation in Labrador, located approximately 190 km (120 mi) west of the Town of Hopedale. Border Beacon was a bistatic radar Doppler Detection Station on the Mid-Canada Line system of early-warning radar stations.
+Opened in 1957, and fully operational in 1958, Border Beacon was in operation for eight years. The eastern portion of the Mid-Canada Line was shut down in 1965 and the site was closed.
+
+
+== Transport Canada ==
+The Government of Canada took possession of the Border Beacon site from the US in 1965 and transformed it into a weather station. Transport Canada operated the weather station until it closed in the 1970s.
+
+
+== Accidents and incidents ==
+On 10 January 1986, a de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver (C-GUBD) of Goose Bay Air Services departed CFB Goose Bay and crashed at Border Beacon due to unknown circumstances.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Bornö Marine Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:36.924104+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bornö Marine Research Station, owned by the Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies, is located at Holma on the island Stora Bornö in Gullmarsfjorden, about 100 km (62 mi) north of Gothenburg, Sweden. It was built in 1902 by Otto Pettersson and Gustaf Ekman, both pioneers of Swedish marine research. The island has been considered by many Swedes to be the birthplace of Swedish oceanography.
+
+
+== Description ==
+The station grounds, covering 19,000 m2 (200,000 sq ft), are a nature reserve. It is currently owned and operated by a foundation named the Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies and provides educational facilities for the University of Gothenburg. It is also available to let to companies or organizations for field courses, research, instrument development or national and international meetings.
+The upper floors contain eight bedrooms housing 15 beds, as well as two kitchens. On the ground floor are four office spaces and a lecture hall with accommodations for 25 people.
+
+
+== History ==
+The station was originally built in response to the agreements of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) signed in Copenhagen in 1902 between Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
+It was built with funding from Pettersson and Ekman, on Pettersson's land, and then rented to the Swedish Hydrographic Biological Commission (SHBK) to conduct studies on oceans and climate. In 1931, Pettersson's son Hans, who was a professor at the University of Gothenburg expanded the research on the island and then in 1932 the SHBK was able to purchase the island for the government.
+Beginning in 1908, Otto Pettersson collected daily records on the temperature and salinity of the waters at the Bornö Station. With few interruptions, mostly during World War I and World War II, these daily observations continued until the 1980s. Petterson also discovered internal tidal waves by studying variations of the boundary surfaces between the brackish and ocean waters, which led him to develop a photographic current meter. When his son took over the investigations at the institute in the 1930s, he began to focus on the radioactive dating of sediments and forged research collaborations with the scientists at the Institute for Radium Research of Vienna.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Fonselius, Stig (2001). "History of Hydrographic Research in Sweden" (PDF). Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Biology and Ecology. 50 (2). Tallinn, Estonia: Estonian Academy Publishers: 110–129. doi:10.3176/biol.ecol.2001.2.04. ISSN 1406-0914.
+Leppäranta, Matti; Myrberg, Kai (2009). Physical Oceanography of the Baltic Sea. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-79703-6.
+Rentetzi, Maria (September 2004). "Gender, Politics, and Radioactivity Research in Interwar Vienna The Case of the Institute for Radium Research". Isis. 95 (3). Chicago, Illinois: History of Science Society, University of Chicago Press: 359–93. doi:10.1086/428960. JSTOR 10.1086/428960. PMID 15747771. S2CID 6024845.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies, official site with photograph

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Captivity (animal)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:11.938921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Animal captivity is the confinement of domestic and wild animals. More specifically, animals that are held by humans and prevented from escaping are said to be in captivity. The term animal captivity is usually applied to wild animals that are held in confinement, but this term may also be used generally to describe the keeping of domesticated animals such as livestock or pets. This may include, for example, animals in farms, private homes, zoos, aquariums, public aquariums and laboratories. Animal captivity may be categorized according to the particular motives, objectives, and conditions of the confinement.
+
+== History ==
+
+All throughout history, domestic animals like pets and livestock were kept in captivity and tended by humans. However, pets and livestock were not the only animals to be put in captivity and receive human care because wild animals had this as well. Despite the fact that wild animals have been harbored by humans for thousands of years, this captivity has not always come close to present zoos. Some were failed domestication attempts. Furthermore, the wealthy, predominantly the aristocrats and kings, collected wild animals for various reasons. The affluent built the first zoos as personal collections to demonstrate their dominance and wealth. These private collections of animals were known as menageries. Contrary to domestication, the ferociousness and natural behaviour of the wild animals were preserved and exhibited. Today, zoos claim to have other reasons for keeping animals under human care: conservation, education and science.
+
+== Behavior of animals in captivity ==
+Captive animals, especially those not domesticated, sometimes can develop abnormal behaviours.
+One type of abnormal behaviour is stereotypical behaviors, i.e. repetitive and apparently purposeless motor behaviors. Examples of stereotypical behaviours include pacing, self-injury, route tracing and excessive self-grooming. These behaviors are associated with stress and lack of stimulation.
+Many who keep animals in captivity attempt to prevent or decrease stereotypical behavior by introducing stimuli, a process known as environmental enrichment. The goals of environmental enrichment are to make environments more complex and fluid, offer more engaging and complex processes, and give animals more chances to make decisions. Techniques that are commonly used to provide environmental enrichment include social, occupation, physical, sensory, and nutritional.
+Another type of abnormal behavior shown in captive animals is self-injurious behavior (SIB). Self-injurious behavior indicates any activity that involves biting, scratching, hitting, hair plucking, or eye poke that may result in injuring oneself. Although its reported incidence is low, self-injurious behavior is observed across a range of primate species, especially when they experience social isolation in infancy. Self-bite involves biting one's own body—typically the arms, legs, shoulders, or genitals. Threat bite involves biting one's own body—typically the hand, wrist, or forearm—while staring at the observer, conspecific, or mirror in a threatening manner. Self-hit involves striking oneself on any part of the body. Eye poking is a behavior (widely observed in primates) that presses the knuckle or finger into the orbital space above the eye socket. Hair plucking is a jerking motion applied to one's own hair with hands or teeth, thus resulting in its excessive removal.
+The proximal causes of self-injurious behavior have been widely studied in captive primates; either social or nonsocial factors can trigger this type of behavior. Social factors include changes in group composition, stress, separation from the group, approaches by or aggression from members of other groups, conspecific male individuals nearby, separation from females, and removal from the group. Social isolation, particularly disruptions of early mother-rearing experiences, is an important risk factor. Studies have suggested that, although mother-reared rhesus macaques still exhibit some self-injurious behaviors, nursery-reared rhesus macaques are much more likely to self-abuse than mother-reared ones.
+Nonsocial factors include the presence of a small cut, a wound or irritant, cold weather, human contact, and frequent zoo visitors. For example, a study has shown that zoo visitors density positively correlates with the number of gorillas banging on the barrier, and that low zoo visitors density caused gorillas to behave in a more relaxed way. Captive animals often cannot escape the attention and disruption caused by the general public, and the stress resulting from this lack of environmental control may lead to an increased rate of self-injurious behaviors.
+There are studies that suggest the many abnormal captive behaviors, including self-injurious behavior, can be successfully treated by pair housing. Pair housing provides a previously single-housed animal with a same-sex social partner. This method is especially effective with primates, which are widely known to be social animals. Social companionship provided by pair housing encourages social interaction, thus reducing abnormal and anxiety-related behavior in captive animals as well as increasing their locomotion.
+
+== Why animals are placed in captivity ==
+Wild animals may be placed in captivity for conservation, studies, exotic pet trade, and farming. Places of captivity that are connected with the AZA, (Association of Zoos and Aquariums), may hold animals' captive as a means to save them from extinction. For example, the AZA SAFE, (Save Animals From Extinction), promotes well-being and care of animals, conservation, and additional disciplines in order to protect and aid the wildlife. The organization focuses on creating recovery plans, cooperation between AZA workers, and advancement of conservation. Furthermore, the AZA and the zoos and aquariums accredited with the AZA use the help of educators, veterinarians, and people doing research. With their assistance, zoos and aquariums are able to have the proper necessities needed in recovery programs to prevent animals from going extinct.
+
+Annually, it is subjected that thousands of wild animals end up in captivity due to the wild animal trade. These animals can be held in captivity because of the overabundance of their population in roadside zoos. Additional reasons as to why animals may end up in captivity is because animals are captured from their original habitat, come from animal breeders, or come from the black market. When wild animals are captured and held in captivity, then they may be sold in pet stores, auction sales, or the World Wide Web.
+
+== Zoos' impact on animal captivity ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-1.md

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+---
+title: "Captivity (animal)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:11.938921+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Zoos are known as a place where visitors come in to see wild animals. This means zoos may keep animals in confinement. For example, zoos may keep animals captive as a means to save them from going extinct. More specifically, in 2020 the Science Advances published a study where they concluded that the work and population of human beings has affected the growth of animals going extinct around the world. The uproar of animals going extinct has caused zoos to use their captive breeding programs on endangered animals in an effort to create a stronger population. It is said that zoos are responsible for reducing the number of animals on the endangered species list and from extinction.
+Zoos could also be known as a place where animals are put into after they are taken out of their natural habitat. When animals are pulled out from their native habitat and taken to a location they are unfamiliar with, then it is said that animals may experience shock and poor mental health. Furthermore, some wild animals have died inside zoos due to the shock of being placed in an unknown setting. To be more specific, this can also mean that taking animals away from their native habitat can possibly disrupt their way of living.
+
+== List of wild animals in America commonly held in captivity ==
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Pet-Abuse.com
+World Association of Zoos and Aquaria
+New York Zoos and Aquarium
+WSPA international website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cass Field Station"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:38.165499+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cass Field Station is a biological and geological research facility operated by the University of Canterbury located near the railway settlement of Cass, in the Canterbury high-country of New Zealand. It was founded in 1914 as the Cass Mountain Biological Station and was operated for many years by the university's Department of Botany. A significant body of research generated by the station has tracked biological change in the area for over 100 years.
+
+== History ==
+In 1873 the Canterbury Provincial Government endowed what was then known as Canterbury College with land in the Cass region to create a source of income. By the early 20th century, botanist Leonard Cockayne felt the need for a high-country research station and approached Charles Chilton, Professor of Biology at Canterbury College, and Geology lecturer Robert Speight. The original site selected in 1908 was Broken River, the terminus of the railway line from Christchurch, after which passengers switched to coaches to cross Arthur's Pass and reach the West Coast. By 1910 the railroad had extended to the railway camp of Cass, so the Canterbury College Board selected 10 acres of land there adjacent to Lake Sarah as the site for a research station. In April 1910 £200 was allocated for a building, which was constructed by the Public Works Department in 1912.
+It was March 1914 before the field station was used for its intended purpose, by Charles Chilton. The facility and surrounding areas were officially opened on 29 July 1914 as the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, and Chilton led the first field trip there with six students in November.
+In 1915 Charles E. Foweraker undertook the first Honours research project to be based at the field station. His photographs of the area are valuable sources of information for vegetation change over the succeeding century. Later that year, Chilton led two field excursions of women students to Cass, and published the first of seven "Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass". He argued for the need for a completely fenced-off botanical reserve and setting up a station to observe the effects of tussock burning, a common farming practice.
+
+In 1917 agricultural scientist Frederick Hilgendorf installed a rain gauge and set up small. fenced-off exclusion plots to observe the effects of sheep grazing on native vegetation. He also began an insect collection from Cass. Entomologist Robert Tillyard visited Cass in 1920 to collect insects and described a new species of bush dragonfly Uropetala chiltoni from the area, named after Chilton. By 1927 the field station had hosted 18 student field trips – typically four students, a leader and an assistant – and four visits by other scientific groups. A bridge across Grasmere Stream suitable for motor cars was built in 1934. By the 1930s Foweraker was leading longer and more extensive botanical collecting expeditions to Mount Horrible and the Cass and Hawdon riverbeds, and Edward Percival was running 10-day advanced zoology field courses, which continued until 1945.
+In the 1950s William Philipson began regular week-long trips for 2nd and 3rd year botany students, which focused on plant systematics and ecology.
+A modern automatic weather station was installed next to the new building in 1997, along with a freshwater ecology building next to Grasmere Stream and a set of artificial ponds. In 2001 management of the field station shifted from the Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences to Facilities Management. A track was built across the Sugarloaf Saddle in 2012 thanks to the help of the University Tramping Club and BioSoc, and a high elevation weather station, Sugarbaby, was installed on top of Mount Sugar Loaf the following year.
+
+On December 2–6, 2014, the University of Canterbury celebrated 100 years of teaching and research at Cass Field Station. 
+
+== Facilities ==
+The initial plan for the field station was a single building with a living room, two bunkrooms, and a laboratory; a simpler version was constructed without a laboratory and just a single fireplace. In 1929 the building was extended, adding a laboratory, a coal stove, hot water and a bathroom. Electricity, supplied by the Railway Department, was not connected until 1937, and a toilet (emptying into Grasmere Stream) in 1939.
+
+In May 1936 the artist Rita Angus, accompanied by painters Louise Henderson and Julia Scarvell, visited Cass. Angus, then going by her married name Rita Cook, made preliminary sketches and studies for several works, including Cass, the iconic painting depicting the Cass railway station. She also painted the watercolour Mountain Biological Field Station, Cass, which depicts the original building with its laboratory extension and a steam train passing in the background.
+
+The field station was expanded in 1959 at a cost of £2300, adding a building connected to the old building with a passageway. This added two shower rooms, a hot water boiler, two bunk rooms and a living room. The old toilet was replaced in 1968 with a septic tank, and a new bridge was built.
+Increased numbers of undergraduates in the 1960s put a strain on the facilities, so the University Grants Committee agreed to supply $75,000, supplemented in 1974 with $25,000, for an additional building. Over 1975–1977 this new building, called the Teaching Flat, was constructed to the north of the original field station. It contained sleeping, living, cooking and eating space for 43 people. At the same time, the old building was refurbished with a dedicated teaching lab, offices, and research lab facilities. The first student field trip to use it was in 1978, and through the 1980s a wider range of students were able to undertake course visits to Cass. The old building was closed to overnight use in 2013 for not meeting fire regulations, but it still functions as a lab and teaching space.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-1.md

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+---
+title: "Cass Field Station"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:38.165499+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Research ==
+As early as 1926 the Dutch geneticist J.P. Lotsy stressed the importance of hybrid plant collections from Cass and their potential use in evolutionary studies. Cockayne, in 1927, agreed that the area's polymorphic plant hybrids had value for evolutionary theory, and Swedish lichenologist G.E. Du Rietz also recognised the important role of Cass Station for plant research.
+In 1958 Philipson and Garth Brownlie published The Flora of Cass, which included articles on history, geology, soils, climate and vegetation over time. Cass: History and Science in the Cass District, Canterbury, New Zealand, a more comprehensive collection of articles by a wide range of authors, was compiled by Colin Burrows and published in 1977.
+In 1976–8 American botanist Richard Primack conducted research on flower pollination at Cass and two nearby sites (and also Aoraki / Mt Cook), collecting and interpreting data on flower visits by insects.
+In 2001 the Fulbright Scholar Scott Wissinger studied the freshwater invertebrate communities of lakes and tarns in and around Cass. Jason Tylianakis in 2008 began a study investigating the effects of climate change on tussocks and their associated invertebrates with a large soil warming experiment.
+
+== Publications ==
+The following is a selection of research publications based on work done at the Cass Field Station.
+
+Chilton, Charles (1914). "Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass. No. 1.—Introduction and General Description of Station". Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 47: 331–335 – via Papers Past.
+Cockayne, L.; Foweraker, C. E. (1916) "Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station. No. 4 – the  principal plant associations in the immediate vicinity of the station." Transactions of the New Zealand Institute 48:  166–186
+William Philipson; Garth Brownlie (1958), The Flora of Cass: a list of species (excluding fungi) known from the vicinity of the Mountain Biology Station of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, Christchurch: University of Canterbury Department of Botany, Wikidata Q124309027
+Colin Burrows, ed. (1977), Cass: history and science in the Cass district, Canterbury, New Zealand, Christchurch: University of Canterbury Department of Botany, Wikidata Q117789333
+Michael Winterbourn; J. S. Rounick; B. Cowie (1981). "Are New Zealand stream ecosystems really different?". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 15 (3): 321–328. doi:10.1080/00288330.1981.9515927. ISSN 0028-8330. Wikidata Q124312976.
+James S. Rounick; Michael Winterbourn; Graeme L. Lyon (August 1982). "Differential Utilization of Allochthonous and Autochthonous Inputs by Aquatic Invertebrates in Some New Zealand Streams: A Stable Carbon Isotope Study". Oikos. 39 (2): 191. doi:10.2307/3544485. ISSN 0030-1299. Wikidata Q124312979.
+Laura Young; David Norton; Michelle Lambert (2016). "One hundred years of vegetation change at Cass, eastern South Island high country". New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 40 (3): 289–301. doi:10.20417/NZJECOL.40.38. ISSN 0110-6465. Wikidata Q124309018.
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations-0.md

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+---
+title: "Central Sierra Field Research Stations"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:39.350468+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS  is a regional group of University of California, Berkeley field research & education reserves located on both sides of the crest of the Sierra Nevada range, north of Lake Tahoe in California.
+Several of the University of California Natural Reserve System—UCNRS reserves in the Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS lie within the headwaters of the North Fork of the American River.
+
+
+== History ==
+On September 26, 2006, a consortium of land owners & managers including: the North Fork Association, Chickering Partnership, United States Forest Service Tahoe National Forest, Pacific Southwest Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service, and the Regents of the University of California signed a Conservation and Research Agreement addressing future cooperative management of the approximately 19,670 acres (79.6 km2) of public & private lands in this watershed.
+
+
+== Field research stations & education reserves ==
+Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS entities include:
+
+Sagehen Creek Field Station
+Central Sierra Snow Laboratory
+Onion Creek Experimental Watershed
+North Fork Association Lands
+Chickering American River Reserve
+Sagehen Creek Field Station serves as the hub of this network, offering accessible accommodations, classrooms, support and resources — which are unavailable at the other, sometimes remote CSFRS reserves.
+Digital elevation models & other GIS datasets for the CSFRS are available.
+
+
+== Contacts ==
+For information regarding research & education access to the CSFRS reserves, publications, theses, and additional data — please contact the individual Reserve Managers through their web-sites (when available), or contact the Station Manager at Sagehen Creek Field Station.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Sagehen Creek Field Station.
+Central Sierra Snow Lab
+Onion Creek Experimental Watershed
+Chickering American Reserve
+Berkeley Natural History Museums
+Berkeley Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research
+California Biodiversity Center
+Pacific Southwest Research Station
+Tahoe National Forest
+Sagehen Experimental Forest
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived 2011-07-18)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Pacific_Crops_and_Trees-0.md

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+---
+title: "Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Pacific_Crops_and_Trees"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:09.627311+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Pacific Community's Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT), formerly known as the Regional Germplasm Centre (RGC), is a propagation material vault operated by the Pacific Community (SPC)'s Land Resources Division. Its purpose is to preserve resources including crops, and other plants of the Pacific region. The vault is in Fiji, and it replaced many local seed vaults of the Pacific that had trouble with maintenance.
+This center is vested in using cutting edge plant cryopreservation, and propagation methods.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Germplasm
+International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
+Svalbard Global Seed Vault
+Seed saving
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Vulnerability of Pacific crops addressed by CePaCT, Scoop Media, July 2012
+SPC works on crops, Fiji Times Online, July 2010, archived from the original on 2010-07-15, retrieved 2013-06-22
+Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees, SPC Land Resources Division
+Moorhead, Anne (March 2010), Agrobiodiversity challenges in the Pacific, New Agriculturalist
+Net, Scidev, Plant bank to preserve biodiversity of Pacific crops, SciDevNet

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Botanic_Garden-0.md

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+---
+title: "Chicago Botanic Garden"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Botanic_Garden"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:10.842361+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Chicago Botanic Garden is a 385-acre (156 ha) botanical garden situated on nine islands in the northern Cook County Forest Preserves within the nominal geographical boundaries of Glencoe, Illinois. It features 27 display gardens and five natural habitats including Mary Mix McDonald Woods, Barbara Brown Nature Reserve, Dixon Prairie, the Skokie River Corridor, and the Lakes and Shorelines. The garden is open every day of the year. An admissions fee was first charged in 2022.
+The Garden is owned by the Forest Preserve District of Cook County and managed by the Chicago Horticultural Society. It opened to the public in 1972, and is home to the Joseph Regenstein Jr. School which offers educational classes and certificate programs, and participates with the botany staff in research and conservation programs.
+The Chicago Botanic Garden is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums and is a member of the American Public Gardens Association.
+
+
+== Architecture ==
+The architectural design for the Chicago Botanic Garden began with the creation of the master plan by John O. Simonds and Geoffrey Rausch. Several famous buildings have been designed by well-known architects since 1976.
+
+1976: Education Center, Edward Larabee Barnes
+1982: Japanese Garden, Koichi Kawana
+1983: Heritage Garden, Geoffrey Rausch
+2004: Esplanade, Dan Kiley
+2009: Conservation Science Center, Booth Hansen
+
+
+== Conservation ==
+
+The Chicago Botanic Garden opened the Daniel F. and Ada L. Rice Plant Conservation Science Center on its ground on September 23, 2009. In September 2010, the Plant Conservation Science Center earned a Gold LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating from the U.S. Green Building Council for its sustainable design. The building features a green roof garden.
+Scientists working at the Chicago Botanic Garden contribute to rare plant species conservation research and are active in regional, national and international organizations that promote plant conservation. The garden is a partner in the Seeds of Success project, a branch of the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership managed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The goal is to collect 10,000 seeds from each of 1,500 native species of the Midwest for conservation and restoration efforts. The garden also leads the Plants of Concern initiative to monitor rare species in northeastern and southern Illinois.
+
+
+== Sustainability ==
+The first generation of sustainable gardens at the Chicago Botanic Garden were the victory gardens of World Wars I and II. Today's gardens incorporate food and paper scrap composting, sustainable irrigation, and a minimal use of fertilizer and pesticides. The Chicago Botanic Garden also encourages others to garden sustainably by composting food waste, installing backyard rain barrels, using native plants, removing invasive species, and establishing perennials. The Windy City Harvest program offers workshops in sustainable urban horticulture and urban agriculture.
+In 2010, the Corporate Roundtable on Sustainability was established to encourage companies to act sustainably.
+
+
+== Honors and awards ==
+In 2006, the Chicago Botanic Garden received the Award for Garden Excellence, given yearly by the APGA and Horticulture magazine to a public garden that exemplifies the highest standards of horticultural practices and has shown a commitment to supporting and demonstrating best gardening practices.
+In 2012, the Chicago Botanic Garden was chosen as one of 10 "Great Place" (Public Space) for providing food locally, excellence in design, education and outreach, and sustainability by the American Planning Association, which selects "Great Places" in the United States annually to highlight good places for people to work and to live, representing a "true sense of place, cultural and historical interest".
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+American Garden Rose Selections
+List of botanical gardens in the United States
+List of Museums and Cultural Institutions in Chicago
+North American Plant Collections Consortium
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bucksten, Denys (January 27, 2014). "Chicago Botanic Garden hits 1-million visitor milestone". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
+Hageman, William (February 1, 2013). "'Bonsai: A Patient Art' displays the treasures of the Chicago Botanic Garden". Book Review. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
+"In the news: Botanic Garden". Collection of articles. Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
+https://web.archive.org/web/20130413112334/http://deerfield.suntimes.com/news/10256211-418/chicago-botanic-garden-has-a-good-year.html
+https://web.archive.org/web/20130225055047/http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/travel/tourism-leisure/gardens-parks/chicago-botanic-garden-PLCUL000132.topic
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website
+Forest Preserve District of Cook County

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Museum_(Cairo)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Child Museum (Cairo)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Museum_(Cairo)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:56.776084+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Children's Civilization and Creativity Center (Arabic: متحف الطفل بالقاهرة) is a children's museum in Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt, established in 1986. It was renovated twice in 1996 and in 2012. It is a large museum and cultural center covering 4,000 square meters in a 14 Feddan, 14.3 acre landscape. It was built by the Heliopolis Society for the benefit of all the children of Egypt. This work involved contributions from Egyptian and international museums and institutions.
+The museum was designed by experts from Egypt, UK and the USA and built by museum specialists from all over the world who have contributed to the museum to assist children and young adults to learn through hands on exhibits, inter-actives, computer games, and a spectacular dome show exhibit that takes the visitor through the history of science in Egypt.
+In May 2012 it won the UK's Museum and Heritage International Award.
+
+
+== Exterior ==
+
+The entrance to the museum is from Sharia Abo Bakr El Seddik, opposite the tram station at Haroun El Rashid. The entrance is marked by the spectacular Space Pyramidion structure of planet spheres circling a pyramid that celebrates the cultures of Egypt ancient and modern. The visit to the museum begins with a journey down the Nile valley through time and space, it provides a living experience of how the Nile has changed and formed the landscape of modern Egypt. The journey begins at the fountain symbolic of the source of the Nile in Nubia, the rocks are carved with the dinosaurs and Basilosaurus that once lived and swam where modern Egypt is today. Their descendants, the Hippo and the Crocodile, greet the visitors, as the journey continues down the Nile path into the early period of the Nile's settlement by man, when the river banks were still humid jungle and elephants still wandered beside the Nile. Next the path leads onto the beginning of the drying out of the Nile Valley, when savannah formed on either bank, and lions, giraffes and gazelles appeared along the river bank. Continuing, the Nile path reaches the Pharaonic period, the surrounding landscape becomes desert, an oasis forms a small side garden with a desert encampment, while along the Nile, an Egyptian garden with 'T' basins filled with lotus and papyrus celebrates the diverse species cultivated. The path leads on past the medieval Nile village to the modern landscape of Heliopolis where the new museum building and the cinema are situated. Finally, on passing the museum the path finally leads to the Delta landscape, with the Alexandria seaside resort, and a covered Roman theatre for outdoor performances. The landscape path passes through a shady garden of mature trees, and both calms and stimulates the imagination of the visitor in anticipation for entering the new learning areas of the museum. The garden has a living display of birds, butterflies and fishes, and an outdoor excavation area. A large cafeteria allows for the schools, family groups and visitors to refresh themselves and so stay for the whole day. Outdoor classroom spaces provide for creativity and musical activities, while the cinema provides 3D learning films, and conference facilities, as well as book shop and learning materials supplies for the schools.
+
+
+== Interior ==
+The Interior exhibition is divided into four, each on a separate floor connected by the central spiral staircase - the Time Stair - that provides a path from the roof to the basement.
+The four themes are;
+Where am I from? - explore the archaeology and history of Egypt, explores the pyramids, visits Tutankamen's tomb, and trains the visitor in mummy examination, modern excavation and underwater exploration in Alexandria
+Who am I? - discover the development of Egyptian civilisation along the Nile divided into the three seasons of flood, sowing and harvest.
+Why is Egypt like it is today? - examine the development of modern Egypt, in a panorama of Egyptian landscapes and their environmental issues, and how modern citizens can contribute today.
+What is the future of Egypt? - Looks at the history of science in Egypt, through both a static hands on exhibition that looks at stars, ships, astrolabes, telescopes, airplanes and space travel, and also an immersive 4D experience dome show, in which the pioneers of Egypt appear to tell the history of science and encourage visitors to participate in the future.
+The museum is open every day except Friday from 9 - 2.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of museums in Egypt
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Hospital_Oakland_Research_Institute-0.md

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+---
+title: "Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Hospital_Oakland_Research_Institute"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:12.031658+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute (CHORI) was a biomedical research institute affiliated with California’s pediatric medical center, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland. UCSF assumed building operations in 2020 and it is now called the Martin Luther King Research Building.
+CHORI was based in Oakland, California, and housed a 100,000-square-foot (9,300 m2) biomedical research facility. It included eight research centers that focused on research on cancer, critical care medicine, genetics, immunobiology and vaccine development, blood and marrow transplantation and cellular therapies, nutrition and metabolism, prevention of obesity, cardiovascular disease and diabetes, sickle cell disease and thalassemia.
+The National Institutes of Health was CHORI's primary funding source.
+
+
+== Research centers ==
+Center for Cancer
+Center for Critical Care Medicine
+Center for Genetics
+Center for Immunobiology & Vaccine Development
+The Jordan Family Center for Blood and Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapies Research
+Center for Nutrition & Metabolism
+Center for Prevention of Obesity, Cardiovascular Disease & Diabetes
+Center for Sickle Cell Disease & Thalassemia
+
+
+== Research services ==
+BACPAC Resource Center
+Cell Sorting
+Elemental Analysis
+Genetic Testing
+Mass Spectrometry
+Microscope Imaging
+Molecular Diagnostics
+Sibling Donor Cord Blood
+
+
+== Research applications ==
+CHORI’s translational research applications included providing cures for blood diseases, developing new vaccines for infectious diseases, and discovering new treatment protocols for previously fatal or debilitating conditions such as cancers, sickle cell disease and thalassemia, diabetes, asthma, HIV/AIDS, pediatric obesity, nutritional deficiencies, birth defects, hemophilia and cystic fibrosis. CHORI was also a teaching institute with educational programs for high school, college, doctoral and post-doctoral students.
+
+
+== Research achievements ==
+CHORI was a leading center for the use of cord blood and bone marrow transplantation in children with sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, and offered the only not-for-profit Sibling Donor Cord Blood Program in the world.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"The Legacy of UCSF’s MLK Building: A Bridge Between Black History and Modern Research"(video)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_GeneBank-0.md

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+---
+title: "China National GeneBank"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_GeneBank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:13.191644+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+China National GeneBank or CNGB (Chinese: 国家基因库) is China's first national-level gene storage bank, approved and funded by the Chinese government. Based in the Dapeng Peninsula of Shenzhen, CNGB's mission is to support public welfare, life science research and innovation, as well as industry incubation, through effective bioresource conservation, digitalization and utilization.
+In 2011 the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and Ministry of Health and Family Planning approved the establishment of the Centre, entrusting BGI with its construction in a public-private partnership. After 5-years of development the first phase of the centre opened in September 2016, spanning more than 47,500 square meters and including a biorepository, a bioinformatics data center and a living biobank. The Centre also has a Synthetic Biology platform collaborating with Australia's Macquarie University and Harvard  on metabolic engineering and the development of high-density DNA storage technology.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Australia Bioinformatics Resource
+Australian Grains Genebank
+DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ)
+European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI)
+National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
+Svalbard Global Seed Vault
+Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (Expasy)
+Ruili Botanical Garden
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official site
+Official site (English)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Planetarium_of_Lecco-0.md

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+---
+title: "Civic Planetarium of Lecco"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Planetarium_of_Lecco"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:57.906271+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Civic Planetarium of Lecco (Planetario civico di Lecco or Planetario Città di Lecco), also known as the City Planetarium, is located within Palazzo Belgioioso in Lecco, Italy. Planetarium is part of Natural History Museum of Lecco.
+The purpose of the planetarium is to be a place for specialists and people interested in astronomy in the region. It organizes meetings and lessons in which experiences and expertise are shared.
+
+
+== Description ==
+The Amateur Astronomers Group "DEEP SPACE Lecco" helps manage the observatory. The instrument consists of a projector and an aluminum dome, which acts as a screen. It can be used to simulate the movement of celestial bodies on the sky. The dome is eight meters in diameter and can seat sixty observers. Often the shows are accompanied by a lecturer.
+The planetarium accelerates the movement of the moon and stars in order to allow observation of processes that normally take days or months. The Planetarium building consists of various rooms: the ticket office, a library for members, a room dedicated to the exhibition of astronomical instruments and a media room used for conferences.
+The astronomical dome in the Planetarium was inaugurated on September 19, 2011. The small dome on the roof of the building comes from Canada and inside there is a Celestron C11 telescope, a catadioptric remotely controlled Schmidt-Cassegrain, so they can observe the whole sky even in the conference room.
+As of July 2016 the director of the planetarium is Erasmo Bardelli. The ticket costs 3 euros.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+http://www.deepspace.it/

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_frame-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cold frame"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_frame"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:44.585765+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In agriculture and gardening, a cold frame is a transparent-roofed enclosure, built low to the ground, used to protect plants from adverse weather, primarily excessive cold or wet. The transparent top admits sunlight and prevents heat escape via convection that would otherwise occur, particularly at night. Essentially, a cold frame functions as a miniature greenhouse to extend the growing season.
+Historically, cold frames were built to be used in addition to a heated greenhouse. The name itself exemplifies the distinction between the warm greenhouse and the unheated cold frame. They were frequently built as part of the greenhouse's foundation brickwork along the southern wall (in northern latitudes). This allowed seeds to be germinated in the greenhouse and then easily moved to the attached cold frame to be "hardened-off" before final planting outside. Cold frames are similar to some enclosed hotbeds, also called hotboxes. The difference is in the amount of heat generated inside. This is parallel to the way that some greenhouses are called "hothouses" to emphasize their higher temperature, achieved either by the solar effects alone or by auxiliary heating via a heater or HVAC system of some kind.
+Cold frames are found in home gardens and in vegetable farming. They create microclimates that provide several degrees of air and soil temperature insulation, and shelter from wind. In cold-winter regions, these characteristics allow plants to be started earlier in the spring, and to survive longer into the fall and winter. They are most often used for growing seedlings that are later transplanted into open ground, and can also be a permanent home to cold-hardy vegetables grown for autumn and winter harvest.
+
+
+== Construction ==
+Cold frame construction is a common home or farm building project, although kits and commercial systems are available. A traditional plan makes use of old glass windows: a wooden frame is built, about one to two feet tall, and the window placed on top. The roof is often sloped towards the winter sun to capture more light, and to improve runoff of water, and hinged for easy access. Clear plastic, rigid or sheeting, can be used in place of glass. An electric heating cable, available for this purpose, can be placed in the soil to provide additional heat.
+
+
+== Uses ==
+Cold frames can be used to extend the growing season for many food and ornamental crops, primarily by providing increased warmth in early spring. This means that it's possible to harvest vegetable crops ahead of their normal season when they are extremely expensive to buy. Some crops suitable for growing in a cold frame include lettuces, parsley, salad onions, spinach, radishes and turnips etc. One vegetable crop can occupy the whole of a cold frame or a combination of crops can be grown so that they mature in rotation in order to get a wide range of different vegetables throughout the year from a single cold frame.
+
+
+== Bulb frame ==
+A "bulb frame" is a specialized kind of cold frame, designed for growing hardy or almost hardy ornamental bulbous plants, particularly in climates with wet winters. Typically it is raised further above ground level than a normal cold frame, so that the plants can be seen better when in flower. They are often used for the cultivation of winter-growing bulbs which flower in the autumn or spring. The covers are used in winter to provide some protection from very bad weather, while allowing good ventilation. Then in the summer, the covers provide dry, warm conditions which many such bulbs need.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Gardening in Alaska
+Greenhouse
+High tunnel
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-0.md

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+---
+title: "Collaboratory"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A collaboratory, as defined by William Wulf in 1989, is a “center without walls, in which the nation’s researchers can perform their research without regard to physical location, interacting with colleagues, accessing instrumentation, sharing data and computational resources, [and] accessing information in digital libraries” (Wulf, 1989).
+Bly (1998) refines the definition to “a system which combines the interests of the scientific community at large with those of the computer science and engineering community to create integrated, tool-oriented computing and communication systems to support scientific collaboration” (Bly, 1998, p. 31).
+Rosenberg (1991) considers a collaboratory as being an experimental and empirical research environment in which scientists work and communicate with each other to design systems, participate in collaborative science, and conduct experiments to evaluate and improve systems.
+A simplified form of these definitions would describe the collaboratory as being an environment where participants make use of computing and communication technologies to access shared instruments and data, as well as to communicate with others.
+However, a wide-ranging definition is provided by Cogburn (2003) who states that “a collaboratory is more than an elaborate collection of information and communications technologies; it is a new networked organizational form that also includes social processes; collaboration techniques; formal and informal communication; and agreement on norms, principles, values, and rules” (Cogburn, 2003, p. 86).
+This concept has a lot in common with the notions of Interlock research, Information Routing Group and Interlock diagrams introduced in 1984.
+
+== Other meaning ==
+The word “collaboratory” is also used to describe an open space, creative process where a group of people work together to generate solutions to complex problems.
+This meaning of the word originates from the visioning work of a large group of people – including scholars, artists, consultant, students, activists, and other professionals – who worked together on the 50+20 initiative aiming at transforming management education.
+In this context, by fusing two elements, “collaboration” and “laboratory”, the word “collaboratory” suggests the construction of a space where people explore collaborative innovations. 
+It is, as defined by Dr. Katrin Muff, “an open space for all stakeholders where action learning and action research join forces, and students, educators, and researchers work with members of all facets of society to address current dilemmas.”
+The concept of the collaboratory as a creative group process and its application are further developed in the book “The Collaboratory: A co-creative stakeholder engagement process for solving complex problems”.
+Examples of collaboratory events are provided on the website of the Collaboratory community as well as by Business School Lausanne- a Swiss business school that has adopted the collaboratory method to harness collective intelligence.
+
+== Background ==
+Problems of geographic separation are especially present in large research projects. The time and cost for traveling, the difficulties in keeping contact with other scientists, the control of experimental apparatus, the distribution of information, and the large number of participants in a research project are just a few of the issues researchers are faced with.
+Therefore, collaboratories have been put into operation in response to these concerns and restrictions. However, the development and implementation proves to be not so inexpensive. From 1992 to 2000 financial budgets for scientific research and development of collaboratories ranged from US$447,000 to US$10,890,000 and the total use ranged from 17 to 215 users per collaboratory (Sonnenwald, 2003). Particularly higher costs occurred when software packages were not available for purchase and direct integration into the collaboratory or when requirements and expectations were not met.
+Chin and Lansing (2004) state that the research and development of scientific collaboratories had, thus far, a tool-centric approach. The main goal was to provide tools for shared access and manipulation of specific software systems or scientific instruments. Such an emphasis on tools was necessary in the early development years of scientific collaboratories due to the lack of basic collaboration tools (e.g. text chat, synchronous audio or videoconferencing) to support rudimentary levels of communication and interaction. Today, however, such tools are available in off-the-shelf software packages such as Microsoft NetMeeting, IBM Lotus Sametime, Mbone Videoconferencing (Chin and Lansing, 2004). Therefore, the design of collaboratories may now move beyond developing general communication mechanisms to evaluating and supporting the very nature of collaboration in the scientific context (Chin & Lansing, 2004).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-1.md

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+---
+title: "Collaboratory"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== The evolution of the collaboratory ===
+As stated in Chapter 4 of the 50+20 "Management Education for the World" book, "the term collaboratory was first introduced in the late 1980s to address problems of geographic separation in large research projects related to travel time and cost, difficulties in keeping contact with other scientists, control of experimental apparatus, distribution of information, and the large number of participants. In their first decade of use, collaboratories were seen as complex and expensive information and communication technology (ICT) solutions supporting 15 to 200 users per project, with budgets ranging from 0.5 to 10 million USD. At that time, collaboratories were designed from an ICT perspective to serve the interests of the scientific community with tool-oriented computing requirements, creating an environment that enabled systems design and participation in collaborative science and experiments.
+The introduction of a user-centered approach provided a first evolutionary step in the design philosophy of the collaboratory, allowing rapid prototyping and development circles. Over the past decade the concept of the collaboratory expanded beyond that of an elaborate ICT solution, evolving into a “new networked organizational form that also includes social processes, collaboration techniques, formal and informal communication, and agreement on norms, principles, values, and rules”. The collaboratory shifted from being a tool-centric to a data-centric approach, enabling data sharing beyond a common repository for storing and retrieving shared data sets. These developments have led to the evolution of the collaboratory towards a globally distributed knowledge work that produces intangible goods and services capable of being both developed and distributed around the world using traditional ICT networks.
+Initially, the collaboratory was used in scientific research projects with variable degrees of success. In recent years, collaboratory models have been applied to areas beyond scientific research and the national context. The wide acceptance of collaborative technologies in many parts of the world opens promising opportunities for international cooperation in critical areas where societal stakeholders are unable to work out solutions in isolation, providing a platform for large multidisciplinary teams to work on complex global challenges.
+The emergence of open-source technology transformed the collaboratory into its next evolution. The term open-source was adopted by a group of people in the free software movement in Palo Alto in 1998 in reaction to the source code release of the Netscape Navigator browser. Beyond providing a pragmatic methodology for free distribution and access to an end product's design and implementation details, open-source represents a paradigm shift in the philosophy of collaboration. The collaboratory has proven to be a viable solution for the creation of a virtual organization. Increasingly, however, there is a need to expand this virtual space into the real world. We propose another paradigm shift, moving the collaboratory beyond its existing ICT framework to a methodology of collaboration beyond the tool- and data-centric approaches, and towards an issue-centered approach that is transdisciplinary in nature."
+
+== Characteristics and considerations ==
+A distinctive characteristic of collaboratories is that they focus on data collection and analysis. Hence the interest to apply collaborative technologies to support data sharing as opposed to tool sharing. Chin and Lansing (2004) explore the shift of collaboratory development from traditional tool-centric approaches to more data-centric ones, to effectively support data sharing. This means more than just providing a common repository for storing and retrieving shared data sets. Collaboration, Chin and Lansing (2004) state, is driven both by the need to share data and to share knowledge about data. Shared data is only useful if sufficient context is provided about the data such that collaborators may comprehend and effectively apply it. It is therefore imperative, according to Chin and Lansing (2004), to know and understand how data sets relate to aspects of overall data space, applications, experiments, projects, and the scientific community, identifying the critical features or properties among which we can mention:
+
+General data set properties (owner, creation data, size, format);
+Experimental properties (conditions of the scientific experiment that generated that data);
+Data provenance (relationship with previous versions);
+Integration (relationship of data subsets within the full data set);
+Analysis and interpretation (notes, experiences, interpretations, and knowledge produced)
+Scientific organization (scientific classification or hierarchy);
+Task (research task that generated or applies the data set);
+Experimental process (relationship of data and tasks to the overall process);
+User community (application of data set to different users).
+Henline (1998) argues that communication about experimental data is another important characteristic of a collaboratory. By focusing attention on the dynamics of information exchange, the study of Zebrafish Information Network Project (Henline, 1998) concluded that the key challenges in creating a collaboratory may be social rather than technical. “A successful system must respect existing social conventions while encouraging the development of analogous mechanisms within the new electronic forum” (Henline, 1998, p. 69). Similar observations were made in the Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) case study (Cogburn, 2003). The author (Cogburn, 2003) is investigating a collaboratory established for researchers in education and other related domains from United States of America and southern Africa. The main finding was that there have been important intellectual contributions on both sides, although the context was that of a developed country working together with a developing one and there have been social as well as cultural barriers. He further develops the idea that a successful CSCL would need to draw the best lessons learned on both sides in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW).
+Sonnenwald (2003) conducted seventeen interviews with scientists and revealed important considerations. Scientists expect a collaboratory to “support their strategic plans; facilitate management of the scientific process; have a positive or neutral impact on scientific outcomes; provide advantages and disadvantages for scientific task execution; and provide personal conveniences when collaborating across distances” (Sonnenwald, 2003, p. 68). Many scientists looked at the collaboratory as means to achieve strategic goals that were organizational and personal in nature. Other scientists anticipated that the scientific process would speed up when they had access to the collaboratory.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-2.md

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+---
+title: "Collaboratory"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Design philosophy ==
+Finholt (1995), based on the case studies of the Upper Atmospheric Research Collaboratory (UARC) and the Medical Collaboratory, establishes a design philosophy: a collaboratory project must be dedicated to a user-centered design (UCD) approach. This means a commitment to develop software in programming environments that allow rapid prototyping, rapid development cycles (Finholt, 1995). A consequence of the user-centered design in the collaboratory is that the system developers must be able to distinguish when a particular system or modification has positive impact on users’ work practices. An important part of obtaining this understanding is producing an accurate picture of how work is done prior to the introduction of technology. Finholt (1995) explains that behavioral scientists had the task of understanding the actual work settings for which new information technologies were developed. The goal of a user-centered design effort was to inject those observations back into the design process to provide a baseline for evaluating future changes and to illuminate productive directions for prototype development (Finholt, 1995).
+A similar viewpoint is expressed by Cogburn (2003) who relates the collaboratory to a globally distributed knowledge work, stating that human-computer interaction (HCI) and user-centered design (UCD) principles are critical for organizations to take advantage of the opportunities of globalization and the emergence of an Information society. He (Cogburn, 2003) refers to distributed knowledge work as being a set of “economic activities that produce intangible goods and services […], capable of being both developed and distributed around the world using the global information and communication networks” (Cogburn, 2003, p. 81). Through the use of these global information and communications networks, organizations are able to take part in globally disarticulated production, which means they can locate their research and development facilities almost anywhere in the world, and engineers can collaborate across time zones, institutions and national boundaries.
+
+== Evaluation ==
+Meeting expectations is a factor that influences adoption of innovations, including scientific collaboratories. Some of the collaboratories implemented thus far have not been entirely successful. The Mathematics and Computer Science Division of Argonne National Laboratory, Waterfall Glen collaboratory (Henline, 1998) is an illustrative example. This collaboratory had its shares of problems. There have been the occasional technical and social disasters, but most importantly it did not meet all of the collaboration and interaction requirements.
+The vast majority of the evaluations performed thus far are concentrating mainly on the usage statistics (e.g. total number of members, hours of use, amount of data communicated) or on the immediate role in the production of traditional scientific outcomes (e.g. publications and patents). Sonnenwald (2003), however, argues that we should rather look for longer-term and intangible measures such as new and continued relationship among scientists, and subsequent, longer-term creation of new knowledge.
+Regardless of the criteria used for evaluation, we must focus on understanding the expectations and requirements defined for a collaboratory. Without such understanding a collaboratory runs the risk of not being adopted.
+
+== Success factors ==
+Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002) ascertain some of the success factors of a collaboratory. They are: collaboration readiness, collaboration infrastructure readiness, and collaboration technology readiness.
+Collaboration readiness is the most basic pre-requisite for an effective collaboratory, according to Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002). Often the critical component to collaboration readiness is based on the concept of “working together in order to achieve a science goal” (Olson, Teasley, Bietz, & Cogburn, 2002, p. 46). Incentives to collaborate, shared principles of collaboration, and experience with the elements of collaboration are also crucial. Successful interaction between users requires a certain amount of common ground. Interactions require a high degree of trust or negotiation, especially when they involve areas where there is a cultural difference. “Ethical norms tend to be culturally specific, and negotiations about ethical issues require high levels of trust” (Olson, Teasley, Bietz, & Cogburn, 2002, p. 49).
+When analyzing the collaboration infrastructure readiness Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002) state that modern collaboration tools require adequate infrastructure to operate properly. Many off-the-shelf applications will run effectively only on state-of-the-art workstations. An important piece of the infrastructure is the technical support necessary to ensure version control, to get participants registered, and to recover in case of disaster. Communications cost is another element which can be critical for collaboration infrastructure readiness (Olson, Teasley, Bietz, & Cogburn, 2002). Pricing structures for network connectivity can affect the choices that users will make and therefore have an effect on the collaboratory's final design and implementation.
+Collaboration technology readiness, according to Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002), refers to the fact that collaboration does not involve only technology and infrastructure, but also requires a considerable investment in training. Thus, it is essential to assess the state of technology readiness in the community to ensure success. If the level is too primitive more training is required to bring the users’ knowledge up-to-date.
+
+== Examples ==
+
+=== Biological Sciences Collaboratory ===
+
+A comprehensively described example of a collaboratory, the Biological Sciences Collaboratory (BSC) at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (Chin & Lansing, 2004), enables the sharing and analysis of biological data through metadata capture, electronic laboratory notebooks, data organization views, data provenance tracking, analysis notes, task management, and scientific workflow management. BSC supports various data formats, has data translation capabilities, and can interact and exchange data with other sources (external databases, for example). It offers subscription capabilities (to allow certain individuals to access data) and verification of identities, establishes and manages permissions and privileges, and has data encryption capabilities (to ensure secure data transmission) as part of its security package.

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+---
+title: "Collaboratory"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+BSC also provides a data provenance tool and a data organization tool. These tools allow a hierarchical tree to display the historical lineage of a data set. From this tree-view the scientist may select a particular node (or an entire branch) to access a specific version of the data set (Chin & Lansing, 2004).
+The task management provided by BSC allows users to define and track tasks related to a specific experiment or project. Tasks can have deadlines assigned, levels of priority, and dependencies. Tasks can also be queried and various reports produced. Related to task management, BSC provides workflow management to capture, manage, and supply standard paths of analyses. The scientific workflow may be viewed as process templates that captures and semi-automate the steps of an analysis process and its encompassing data sets and tools (Chin & Lansing, 2004).
+BSC provides project collaboration by allowing scientists to define and manage members of their group. Security and authentication mechanisms are therefore applied to limit access to project data and applications. Monitoring capability allows for members to identify other members that are online working on the project (Chin & Lansing, 2004).
+BSC offers community collaboration capabilities: scientists may publish their data sets to a larger community through the data portal. Notifications are in place for scientists interested in a particular set of data - when that data changes, the scientists get notification via email (Chin & Lansing, 2004).
+
+=== Diesel Combustion Collaboratory ===
+Pancerella, Rahn, and Yang (1999) analyzed the Diesel Combustion Collaboratory (DCC) which was a problem-solving environment for combustion research. The main goal of DCC was to make the information exchange for the combustion researchers more efficient. Researchers would collaborate over the Internet using various DCC tools. These tools included “a distributed execution management system for running combustion models on widely distributed computers (distributed computing), including supercomputers; web accessible data archiving capabilities for sharing graphical experimental or modeling data; electronic notebooks and shared workspaces for facilitating collaboration; visualization of combustion data; and videoconferencing and data conferencing among researchers at remote sites” (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999, p. 1).
+The collaboratory design team defined the requirements to be (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999):
+
+Ability share graphical data easily;
+Ability to discuss modeling strategies and exchange model descriptions;
+Archiving collaborative information;
+Ability to run combustion models at widely separated locations;
+Ability to analyze experimental data and modeling results in a web-accessible format;
+Videoconference and group meetings capabilities.
+Each of these requirements had to be done securely and efficiently across the Internet. Resources availability was a major concern because many of the chemistry simulations could run for hours or even days on high-end workstations and produce Kilobytes to Megabytes of data sets. These data sets had to be visualized using simultaneous 2-D plots of multiple variables (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999).
+The deployment of the DCC was done in a phased approach. The first phase was based on iterative development, testing, and deployment of individual collaboratory tools. Once collaboratory team members had adequately tested each new tool, it was deployed to combustion researchers. The deployment of the infrastructure (videoconferencing tools, multicast routing capabilities, and data archives) was done in parallel (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). The next phase was to implement full security in the collaboratory. The primary focus was on two-way synchronous and multi-way asynchronous collaborations (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). The challenge was to balance the increased access to data that was needed with the security requirements. The final phase was the broadening of the target research to multiple projects including a broader range of collaborators.
+The collaboratory team found that the highest impact was perceived by the geographically separated scientists that truly depended on each other to achieve their goals. One of the team's major challenges was to overcome the technological and social barriers in order to meet all of the objectives (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). User openness and low maintenance security collaboratories are hard to achieve, therefore user feedback and evaluation are constantly required.
+
+=== Other collaboratories ===
+Other collaboratories that have been implemented and can be further investigated are:

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+---
+title: "Collaboratory"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) is an international center for research and education in biology, biomedicine and ecology.
+Biological Collaborative Research Environment (BioCoRE) developed at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign – a collaboration tool for biologists (Chin and Lansing, 2004);
+The CTQ Collaboratory, a virtual community of teacher leaders and those who value teacher leadership, run by the Center for Teaching Quality, a national education nonprofit (Berry, Byrd, & Wieder, 2013);
+HASTAC (Humanities, Arts, Science, and Technology Alliance and Collaboratory), founded in 2002 by Cathy N. Davidson, then Vice Provost for Interdisciplinary Studies at Duke University and David Theo Goldberg, Director of the University of California Humanities Research Institute (UCHRI), after contacting scholars across the humanities (including digital humanities), social sciences, media studies, the arts, and technology sectors who shared these convictions and wanted to envision a new kind of organization—an academic social network—that would allow anyone to join and would offer any member of the community to contribute. They began working with a team of developers at Stanford University to code and design a participatory, community site, originally a display website and a Wiki for open contribution and as a community-based publishing and networking platform.
+Molecular Interactive Collaborative Environment (MICE) developed at the San Diego Supercomputer Center – provides collaborative access and manipulation of complex, three-dimensional molecular models as captured in various scientific visualization programs (Chin and Lansing, 2004);
+Molecular Modeling Collaboratory (MMC) developed at University of California, San Francisco – allows remote biologists to share and interactively manipulate three-dimensional molecular models in applications such as drug design and protein engineering (Chin and Lansing, 2004);
+Collaboratory for Microscopic Digital Anatomy (CMDA) – a computational environment to provide biomedical scientists remote access to a specialized research electron microscope (Henline, 1998);
+The Collaboratory for Strategic Partnerships and Applied Research at Messiah College - an organization of Christian students, educators, and professionals affiliated with Messiah College, aspiring to fulfill Biblical mandates to foster justice, empower the poor, reconcile adversaries, and care for the earth, in the context of academic engagement.
+Waterfall Glen – a multi-user object-oriented (MOO) collaboratory at Argonne National Laboratory (Henline, 1998);
+The International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) – a scientific collaboratory for the development of advanced measures of personality and other individual differences (Henline, 1998);
+TANGO – a set of collaborative applications for education and distance learning, command and control, health care, and computer steering (Henline, 1998).
+Special consideration should be attributed to TANGO (Henline, 1998) because it is a step forward in implementing collaboratories, as it has distance learning and health care as main domains of operation. Henline (1998) mentions that the collaboratory has been successfully used to implement applications for distance learning, command and control center, telemedical bridge, and a remote consulting tool suite.
+
+Collaborative architecture and Interactive architecture, the work of Adam Somlai-Fischer and Usman Haque.
+The Internet & Society Collaboratory supported by Google in Germany
+
+== Summary ==
+To date, most collaboratories have been applied largely in scientific research projects, with various degrees of success and failure. Recently, however, collaboratory models have been applied to additional areas of scientific research in both national and international contexts. As a result, a substantial knowledge base has emerged helping us in understanding their development and application in science and industry (Cogburn, 2003). Extending the collaboratory concept to include both social and behavioral research as well as more scientists from the developing world could potentially strengthen the concept and provide opportunities of learning more about the social and technical factors that support a distributed knowledge network (Cogburn, 2003).
+The use of collaborative technologies to support geographically distributed scientific research is gaining wide acceptance in many parts of the world. Such collaboratories hold great promise for international cooperation in critical areas of scientific research and not only. As the frontiers of knowledge are pushed back the problems get more and more difficult, often requiring large multidisciplinary teams to make progress. The collaboratory is emerging as a viable solution, using communication and computing technologies to relax the constraints of distance and time, creating an instance of a virtual organization. The collaboratory is both an opportunity with very useful properties, but also a challenge to human organizational practices (Olson, 2002).
+
+== See also ==
+Information and communication technologies
+Human–computer interaction
+User-centered design
+Participatory design
+
+== Footnotes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-5.md

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+---
+title: "Collaboratory"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== References ==
+Berry, B., Byrd, A., & Wieder, A. (2013). Teacherpreneurs: Innovative teachers who lead but don't leave. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
+Bly, S. (1998). Special section on collaboratories, Interactions, 5(3), 31, New York: ACM Press.
+Bos, N., Zimmerman, A., Olson, J., Yew, J., Yerkie, J., Dahl, E. and Olson, G. (2007), From Shared Databases to Communities of Practice: A Taxonomy of Collaboratories. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12: 652–672.
+Chin, G., Jr., & Lansing, C. S. (2004). Capturing and supporting contexts for scientific data sharing via the biological sciences collaboratory, Proceedings of the 2004 ACM conference on computer supported cooperative work, 409-418, New York: ACM Press.
+Cogburn, D. L. (2003). HCI in the so-called developing world: what's in it for everyone, Interactions, 10(2), 80-87, New York: ACM Press.
+Cosley, D., Frankowsky, D., Kiesler, S., Terveen, L., & Riedl, J. (2005). How oversight improves member-maintained communities, Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems, 11-20.
+Finholt, T. A. (1995). Evaluation of electronic work: research on collaboratories at the University of Michigan, ACM SIGOIS Bulletin, 16(2), 49–51.
+Finholt, T.A. Collaboratories. (2002). In B. Cronin (Ed.), Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (pp. 74–107), 36. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Information Science.
+Finholt, T.A., & Olson, G.M. (1997). From laboratories to collaboratories: A new organizational form for scientific collaboration. Psychological Science, 8, 28-36.
+Henline, P. (1998). Eight collaboratory summaries, Interactions, 5(3), 66–72, New York: ACM Press.
+Olson, G.M. (2004). Collaboratories. In W.S. Bainbridge (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing.
+Olson, G.M., Teasley, S., Bietz, M. J., & Cogburn, D. L. (2002). Collaboratories to support distributed science: the example of international HIV/AIDS research, Proceedings of the 2002 annual research conference of the South African institute of computer scientists and information technologists on enablement through technology, 44–51.
+Olson, G.M., Zimmerman, A., & Bos, N. (Eds.) (2008). Scientific collaboration on the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
+Pancerella, C.M., Rahn, L. A., Yang, C. L. (1999). The diesel combustion collaboratory: combustion researchers collaborating over the internet, Proceedings of the 1999 ACM/IEEE conference on supercomputing, New York: ACM Press.
+Rosenberg, L. C. (1991). Update on National Science Foundation funding of the “collaboratory”, Communications of the ACM, 34(12), 83, New York: ACM Press.
+Sonnenwald, D.H. (2003). Expectations for a scientific collaboratory: A case study, Proceedings of the 2003 international ACM SIGGROUP conference on supporting group work, 68–74, New York: ACM Press.
+Sonnenwald, D.H., Whitton, M.C., & Maglaughlin, K.L. (2003). Scientific collaboratories: evaluating their potential, Interactions, 10(4), 9–10, New York: ACM Press.
+Wulf, W. (1989, March). The national collaboratory. In Towards a national collaboratory. Unpublished report of a National Science Foundation invitational workshop, Rockefeller University, New York.
+Wulf, W. (1993) The collaboratory opportunity. Science, 261, 854-855.

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+---
+title: "Columbus (ISS module)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:23.544776+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Columbus is a science laboratory module that forms part of the International Space Station (ISS) and represents the European Space Agency's (ESA) largest single contribution to the station. It was constructed in Turin, Italy, by Alcatel Alenia Space (now Thales Alenia Space) with functional equipment and software designed by EADS (now Airbus Defence and Space) in Bremen, Germany. The module was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on 7 February 2008, during mission STS-122. Columbus is operated by the Columbus Control Centre at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich. In 2008, ESA estimated the total cost of Columbus—including construction, ten years of operations, scientific experiments, and supporting ground infrastructure—at approximately €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion).
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Background ===
+
+The structure used for Columbus is based on the MPLM module built for NASA by Thales Alenia Space. In 2000 the pre-integrated module (structure including harness and tubing) was delivered to Bremen in Germany by the Co-prime contractor Alenia. The final integration and system testing was performed by the overall prime contractor EADS Astrium Space Transportation, after that the initial Payload was integrated and the overall complement checked-out.
+The final schedule was much longer than originally planned due to development problems (several caused by the complex responsibility splitting between the Co-prime and the Overall prime contractor) and design changes introduced by ESA but being affordable due to the Shuttle problems delaying the Columbus launch for several years. The main design change was the addition of the External Payload Facility (EPF), which was driven by the different European Payload organizations being more interested in outer space than internal experiments. Also the addition of a terminal for direct communications to/from ground, which could have been used also as back-up for the ISS system, was studied but not implemented for cost reasons.
+
+=== Construction ===
+ESA chose EADS Astrium Space Transportation as prime contractor for Columbus overall design, verification and integration.  The Columbus structure, the micro-meteorite protection system, the active and passive thermal control, the environmental control, the harness and all the related ground support equipment were designed and qualified by Alcatel Alenia Space in Turin, Italy as defined by the PICA – Principle (for definition see History below); the related hardware was pre-integrated and sent as PICA in September 2001 to Bremen. The lab was built and qualified on system level at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany.
+
+=== Launch campaign ===
+Columbus was launched under the ESA–NASA ISS bartering system. Under this arrangement, the ESA agreed to provide NASA with the fully integrated Harmony and Tranquility node modules, along with additional equipment and parts, in exchange for the launch of Columbus and its initial payload aboard the Space Shuttle. This barter allowed ESA to secure launch services without a direct financial transaction, and enabling those funds to remain within ESA member states.
+On 27 May 2006 Columbus was flown from Bremen to the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) at the Kennedy Space Center on board an Airbus Beluga oversized cargo aircraft. In November 2007, Columbus was moved out of the SSPF and loaded into the payload bay of the Atlantis orbiter for launch on ISS assembly flight 1E (STS-122).
+During cryo-filling of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen prior to the first launch attempt on 6 December 2007, two of four liquid hydrogen ECO sensors failed a test. Mission rules called for at least three of the four sensors to be in working order for a launch attempt to proceed. As a result of the failure, the launch was postponeded, initially for 24 hours. This was later revised into a 72-hour delay, resulting in a next launch attempt set for Sunday, 9 December 2007. This launch attempt was scrubbed when one of the ECO sensors again failed during fuelling. The ECO sensors' external connector was changed on the Space Shuttle external tank, causing a two-month delay in the launch. Columbus was finally launched successfully on the third attempt at 2:45pm EST, 7 February 2008.
+
+=== Berthing ===
+Once in space, the station's Canadarm2 removed Columbus from the docked shuttle's cargo bay and attached it to the starboard berth of Harmony on 11 February 2008.
+
+== Description ==
+The laboratory is a cylindrical module, made from stainless steel, kevlar and hardened aluminum, with two end cones. It is 4.477 m (14 ft 8.3 in) in external diameter and 6.871 m (22 ft 6.5 in) in overall length, excluding the projecting external experiment racks. Its shape is very similar to that of the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs), since both were designed to fit in the cargo bay of a Space Shuttle orbiter. The starboard end cone contains most of the laboratory's on-board computers. The port end cone contains the Common Berthing Mechanism.
+
+Length: 7 m (23 ft)
+Diameter: 4.5 m (15 ft)
+Total mass: 10,300 kg (22,708 lb)
+Total payload mass 2,500 kg (5,512 lb)
+Total on-orbit mass 12,800 kg (28,219 lb)
+Construction details:
+Wall thickness 4mm
+welded end cones
+materials : Stainless steel, kevlar, aluminium
+
+== Research activities and payloads ==
+
+Activities in the lab are controlled on the ground by the Columbus Control Center (at DLR Oberpfaffenhofen in Germany) and by the associated User Support Operations Centres throughout Europe.
+The laboratory can accommodate ten active International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs) for science payloads. Agreements with NASA allocate to ESA 51% usage of the Columbus Laboratory. ESA is thus allocated five active rack locations, with the other five being allocated to NASA. Four active rack locations are on the forward side of the deck, four on the aft side, and two are in overhead locations. Three of the deck racks are filled with life support and cooling systems. The remaining deck rack and the two remaining overhead racks are storage racks.
+The following European ISPRs have been initially installed inside Columbus:

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+---
+title: "Columbus (ISS module)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:23.544776+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL)
+European Physiology Modules (EPM)
+Biolab
+European Drawer Rack (EDR)
+European Drawer Rack Mark II (EDR2)
+European Stowage Rack
+In addition, four un-pressurized payload platforms can be attached outside the starboard cone, on the Columbus External Payload Facility (CEPF). Each external payload is mounted on an adaptor able to accommodate small instruments and experiments totalling up to 230 kilograms (507 lb). The first external payloads were mounted on Columbus by crew members of the mission STS-122 mission. Some of the external payloads are:
+
+European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) platform, which accommodates nine instruments: TRIBOLAB, PLEGPAY, MEDET, EUFIDE, DEBIE-2, FIPEX, EUTEMP, EXPOSE, DOSTEL, and the Earth Viewing Camera.
+Solar Monitoring Observatory (SOLAR)
+MISSE-6 (NASA payload)
+In 2014 the ISS-RapidScat instrument was installed, which was operated until late 2016. ISS-RapidScat was transported to ISS by the SpaceX CRS-4 spaceflight.
+Atmosphere-Space Interaction Monitor (ASIM), installed April 2018
+Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES), installed April 2025
+Columbus Ka-band Terminal (COLKa), a communications terminal utilizing the European Data Relay System (EDRS), installed January 2021
+Planned additional external payloads:
+
+EXPORT
+
+== See also ==
+List of European Space Agency programmes and missions
+European Transportation Carrier (ISS Facility) (ETC)
+Columbus – External Payload Facility (Columbus-EPF)
+Bartolomeo facility
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+ESA: Columbus Laboratory
+ESA: Technical specifications of the Columbus Laboratory
+ESA: Columbus structure completed
+"A new European science laboratory in Earth orbit" (PDF). October 2007.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Comoé National Park Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:40.555472+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Comoé National Park Research Station, located in the Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, was founded by Professor Karl Eduard Linsenmair, a German biologist, in 1989/90.
+The research station was forced to close after the outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War in 2002. After the end of the Second Ivorian Civil War in 2011 repairs at the station began and in 2014 the station had achieved again its full working capacity. The focus of the field based research is on conservation, tropical ecology and behaviour.
+
+
+== History ==
+In 1989/90 a first research camp was realized with substantial funding provided by the Volkswagen Stiftung, the University of Würzburg and the respective Ministry (Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Bildung und Kultus, Wissenschaft und Kunst). A successful application for a research grant by Linsenmair at the Fritz Thyssen Foundation led to the expansion and transformation into a permanent station, after various bureaucratic hurdles in Germany and Côte d'Ivoire, which delayed the construction of the field station approximately 8 years.  Construction started in 2000 and in early 2002 all guesthouses and other buildings apart from the lab were finished and a move from the camp to the new station was possible.
+The outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War, in September 2002, resulted in the loss of the entire removable and demountable equipment and the closure of the station. Due to the positive development in the country after the Second Ivorian Civil War, the rehabilitation of the station started in 2012 with remaining funds from the Fritz Thyssen Foundation and the University of Würzburg. With the construction of the solar plant, in December 2014, the rehabilitation was finished and the station had achieved its full working capacity again, making it one of the most modern field research stations in Africa.
+
+
+== Research ==
+The Research of the station focuses on various fields of conservation, tropical ecology and behaviour, e.g. ecophysiology, chemical and evolutionary  ecology. In its first 2 decades before the civil war over 20 international research institutions conducted projects at the station with over 100 scientists contributing to the over 200 papers published in peer-reviewed journals. Far more students participated in field courses, collecting data for more than 40 diploma, masters, bachelors and Ph.D. theses.
+
+
+=== Research Cooperations ===
+Research institutions currently working at the station are:
+
+University of Würzburg, Germany
+University of Freiburg, Germany
+University of Rostock, Germany
+Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany
+Université d'Abobo-Adjamé, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
+University of Groningen, Netherlands
+The research station is also a base for the longterm and large scale monitoring program in the BMBF's WASCAL project (West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use) and was one of the headquarters for the BIOTA West project focused in Côte d'Ivoire until the outbreak of the civil war. It also works closely together with the park management (OIPR, Office Ivorien des Parcs et Reserves) on matters of conservation.
+
+
+== Facilities ==
+The facilities of the research station allow for completely autonomous working conditions 24 hours a day and include:
+
+A 750 sqm large climatised laboratory
+A refectory, consisting of a kitchen and a large dining area
+A 36kWP Solar power station and a 30kWP backup Generator
+A watertower pumping water from groundwater level (80 m deep)
+14 houses able to hold 15 researchers for long-term research and up to 30 for short trips/excursions
+A garage offering space for up to four land cruisers, motorbikes, bicycles and rudimentary repairs
+
+
+== Further Information ==
+Homepage of the Comoé National Park Research Station
+
+
+== References ==

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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CosmoCaixa_Barcelona-0.md

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+---
+title: "CosmoCaixa Barcelona"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CosmoCaixa_Barcelona"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:59.100768+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+CosmoCaixa Barcelona (Catalan pronunciation: [ˌkɔzmuˈkaʃə βəɾsəˈlonə]) is a science museum located in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It features a variety of permanent and temporary exhibitions devoted to the environment, nature, science, and space. The museum is sponsored by "La Caixa" banking foundation.
+Formerly known as the Science Museum of Barcelona, it closed for renovations in 1998 and reopened in 2004 under its current name. It has interactive exhibitions such as touch and play for small children, planetarium, bookstore, gift shop, library, teaching center and café. Entry to the museum is free for children under the age of sixteen. Adults can visit the museum with a regular ticket.
+
+
+== Building ==
+The building was built between 1904 and 1909 by Josep Domènech i Estapà to serve as an asylum for the blind which closed in 1979. The building was renovated, retaining the original facade, and an expansion took place bringing the building to four times its original size.   An expansion of the building took place in 2004. CosmoCaixa has a large spiral walkway that takes visitors from the basement to the fifth floor. The centerpiece of the walkway is an Amazonian tree.
+
+
+== Exhibitions ==
+CosmoCaixa has permanent and temporary exhibitions. It also houses a planetarium and has a free public square that allows the public to experience natural science through interactive exhibitions. Entry tickets to the Planetarium are four euros for both adults and students. Tickets can also be bought at the museum on the first floor.
+
+
+=== Flooded Forest ===
+A flooded forest which allows visitors to experience wet and dry environs of an Amazon rainforest. Ceiba trees are reproduced based on molds created by museum staff in Pará, Brazil. More than a hundred living species are represented including birds, insects, frogs, piranhas, capybaras, and alligators.
+
+
+=== Geological Wall ===
+Large cuts of geological formations are displayed along a wall showing erosion, volcanism, faults, sedimentation and related processes. The cuts of rock on display are primarily from Catalonia including potassium salt from Súria, sandstone from Berga and Mallorca, volcanic materials from Zona Volcànica de la Garrotxa Natural Park, and limestone from Besalú.
+
+
+=== The Universe Hall ===
+The Universe's Hall, which is the main space in the museum, shows a tour starting with the Big Bang to the most actuality themes, including modern medicine, wastes and robotics, throw the human evolution and other shapes of evolution and science. They all are shown by interactive modules that make easier their comprehension.
+
+
+=== Clik and Creactivity ===
+One of three interactive based exhibitions for young children, Clik and Flash uses games to encourage children to learn about science. The space is split into two rooms; Clik uses play, observation and deduction through smell, touch and sight and Creactivity uses technology to showcase exploration, environments, construction and electricity.
+
+
+=== Touch, touch! ===
+Touch, touch! houses living creatures from around the world and the Mediterranean. Museum staff and scientists present animals and plants from three environments.
+
+
+=== Bubble Planetarium ===
+An astronomy based exhibition for children ages 3–8.
+
+
+== Past exhibitions - historical spaces ==
+
+
+=== Touch, touch! ===
+Touch, touch! houses living creatures from around the world and the Mediterranean. Museum staff and scientists present animals and plants from three environments.
+
+
+=== The Hall of Matter ===
+The Hall of Matter covers evolution starting with the Big Bang. It is broken into four sections: the origin of matter, the first living organism, the conquest of "symbolic intelligence", and the birth of civilization. The exhibit touches on gravitational wave, chaos theory, biology, mobility, neurons, intelligence and human evolution.
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+CaixaForum Barcelona
+Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona
+Jorge Wagensberg Lubinski
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+History of CosmoCaixa (German)
+ Media related to CosmoCaixa Barcelona at Wikimedia Commons

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonova-0.md

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+---
+title: "Cosmonova"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonova"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:00.302528+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cosmonova is an IMAX Dome cinema and planetarium located in an annex of the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, Sweden. Cosmonova premiered over three nights starting on 13 October 1992, with the first public showing on 16 October. It was the first ever dedicated IMAX installation in Sweden (and third in the Nordic countries after Tietomaa Science Centre in Oulu, Finland and Tycho Brahe Planetarium in Copenhagen, Denmark) and is also the largest planetarium in Sweden.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallmann_Laboratory-0.md

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+---
+title: "Dallmann Laboratory"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallmann_Laboratory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:25.980505+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Dallmann Laboratory  is an on-site summer laboratory on King George Island, South Shetland Islands, at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, adjacent to the Argentinian Carlini Base with shared logistics. It is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in cooperation with the Netherlands and Instituto Antártico Argentino. It is named after the polar sea explorer Eduard Dallmann.
+It was inaugurated on 20 January 1994, has an area of 250 m2 (2,700 sq ft) and was built in mainland Argentina, disassembled, shipped to Potter Cove, and reassembled at the base.
+The lab has three modules for bedrooms, bathroom and living-dining room, two modules for laboratories and one for the engine room and dive locker. It also has four containers for laboratory and aquarium use donated by Germany.
+It has twelve workstations with laboratories, workshop, storage, aquariums and a base for research divers. It is equipped with several scientific instruments and vehicles provided by Germany: lyophilizer, stereo microscopes, freezers, a small hyperbaric chamber for transport, scuba diving equipment, aquariums, a rigid hull boat and a Kässbohrer tracked vehicle.
+Multidisciplinary joint research programs are carried out in the fields of biology; coastal and terrestrial ecology; terrestrial wildlife (mostly Elephant Seals); pollution effects on birds and fish populations; oceanography; coastal geology; geosciences; etc. The station's research examines the composition and stability of algae and animal communities. Findings about the food relationships, and the physiology of the species give scientists insights into the development of the polar ecosystems facing global environmental changes.
+Instituto Antártico Argentino, the Netherlands Geosciences Foundation and the Alfred Wegener Institute signed an agreement to provide a biological purification plant ceded by the Netherlands. It consists of a scrubber tank, a treatment and sludge drying plant, as well as facilities and equipment for process control and monitoring, and a set of basic spare parts and fuel reserves.
+
+
+== History ==
+Potter Cove in the southwestern region of King George Island was chosen around 1953 to house an Argentine naval station to support amphibious aircraft.
+The station was established on November 21, 1953 and was temporarily named Refugio Potter and then Caleta Potter Naval Station. In the summer campaign from 1953 to 1954 the accommodation was occupied by only three men. The station was renamed Teniente Jubany during the 1954-1955 campaign after naval aviator Jose Isidro Jubany, who died in service on September 14, 1948.
+During the summer campaign of 1957–58, two groups of scientists from the Instituto Antártico Argentino conducted geological surveys in the region, collecting petrographic and paleontological samples to study local geological upwellings. The leaders of the two groups were Dr Otto Schneider and Osvaldo C. Schauer respectively.
+In 1982, the facilities were transferred to Instituto Antártico Argentino and the station was raised to base status, and inaugurated as such on 12 February.
+In 1990, the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany began talks with Instituto Antártico Argentino, which was looking at installing on-site laboratories and aquariums with modern equipment for scientific research. Dallmann Laboratory was then inaugurated on January 20, 1994.
+In 1994, the LAJUB laboratory for greenhouse effect research was set up in collaboration with the Institute for Atmospheric Physics (IFA), Italy.
+On March 5, 2012, the base was renamed Base Carlini by Executive Decree 309/2012 to honor the late explorer Alejandro Ricardo Carlini.
+On December 8, 2013, Metallica held a concert at the base under a small, purpose-built dome without amplification due to environmental concerns, which was streamed worldwide.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+"Dallmann-Labor an der Carlini-Station". Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research. 2015-06-23. Retrieved 2021-01-20.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Destiny (ISS module)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:27.216198+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Destiny module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the International Space Station (ISS). It was berthed to the forward port of the Unity module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001. Destiny is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974.
+The Boeing Company began construction of the 14,515-kilogram (32,000 lb) research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Destiny was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on February 7, 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-98.
+Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields. Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science.
+
+== Launch and installation ==
+
+Destiny was launched to ISS aboard the Space Shuttle mission STS-98. It launched into Earth orbit on February 7, 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis. On February 10, 2001, at 9:50 am CST, the installation of Destiny began. First, the Shuttle SRMSS (Canadarm) was used to remove Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 (PMA 2) from Unity node's forward port to make room for the new module. PMA-2 was temporarily stowed on the forward berthing ring of the Z1 truss. Destiny was "grabbed" by the robotic arm at 11:23, lifted out of Atlantis' cargo bay, and berthed to the forward port of Unity. Two days later, PMA-2 was moved to its semi-permanent location on the forward port of Destiny. Several years later, on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was attached to the forward port of the Destiny laboratory, and PMA 2 was again relocated to the forward port of Harmony.
+The addition of Destiny increased the habitable volume by 3,800 cubic feet, an increase of 41 percent.
+
+== Laboratory structure ==
+
+The U.S. laboratory module is 28 feet (8.5 m) long and 14 feet (4.3 m) wide. It is made from aluminum and stainless steel, and comprises three cylindrical sections and two endcones that contain the hatch openings through which astronauts enter and exit the module. The aft port of Destiny is connected to the forward port of Unity, and the forward port of Destiny is connected to the aft port of Harmony. The ends are colored blue and white respectively for the crew to navigate easily. A 20-inch (510 mm)-diameter window is located on one side of the center module segment.
+Each of the two berthing ports on Destiny contains a hatch. Both hatches are normally open, and remain open unless a situation arises requiring a module to be isolated. Each hatch has a window. The hatches can be opened or closed from either side. The hatches have a pressure interlock feature, which prevents the hatch from being opened if there is a negative pressure across the hatch (higher pressure on the outside of the hatch). The hatch openings are a square-like six sided shape - which is associated to that module.
+Destiny has a 20-inch (510 mm) optically pure, telescope-quality glass window located in an open rack bay used primarily for Earth science observations. Station crewmembers use very high quality video and still cameras at the window to record Earth's changing landscapes. A window shutter protects the window from potential micrometeoroid and orbital debris strikes during the life of the ISS. The crew manually opens the shutter to use the window.
+Imagery captured from Destiny's window has given geologists and meteorologists the chance to study floods, avalanches, fires and ocean events such as plankton blooms in a way never seen before, as well as given international scientists the opportunity to study features such as glaciers, coral reefs, urban growth and wild fires.
+
+=== Specifications ===
+
+Length: 8.53 metres (28.0 ft)
+Diameter: 4.27 metres (14.0 ft)
+Mass: 14,520 kilograms (32,010 lb)
+Pressurized Volume: 106 cubic metres (3,700 cu ft)
+
+== Equipment ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-1.md

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+---
+title: "Destiny (ISS module)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:27.216198+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+As with the European and Japanese laboratories of the station, payloads inside Destiny are configured around International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs), that can be removed or reconfigured for various experiments and equipment. Made out of a graphite composite shell, each rack weighs about 1,200 pounds (540 kg), and is about 73 inches (1,900 mm) high, and 42 inches (1,100 mm) wide. The eight rack bays are equipped with curtains that provide around 290 cubic feet (8.2 m3) of temporary stowage space when not occupied by experiments.
+Destiny arrived at the station pre-configured with five racks housing electrical and life support systems that provide electrical power, cooling water, air revitalization, and temperature and humidity control. Seven additional racks were flown to Destiny in the Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module by STS-102, and ten more were delivered on subsequent missions. Destiny can hold up to 13 payload racks with experiments in human life science, materials research, Earth observations and commercial applications. The laboratory has a total of 24 racks inside the laboratory, six on each side.
+Internal to the laboratory are racks, rack stand-offs, and vestibule jumpers. The lab racks house the system hardware in removable modular units. The stand-offs provide space for electrical connections, data management systems cabling for computers, air conditioning ducts, thermal control tubes and more, all of which support the space station's equipment racks. The racks interface to the piping and wiring in the standoff via outlets and ports located in the standoffs at the base end of each rack location.
+Jumpers in the vestibule, the area between Unity and Destiny, connect the piping and wiring between the two. Grounding straps between Unity and Destiny will be installed. One side of the grounding strap will be connected to the Active Common Berthing Mechanism (ACBM) on Unity, while the other end will be connected to the Passive Common Berthing Mechanism (PCBM) on Destiny.
+Some of the mechanisms on Destiny are the CBMs (passive and active), hatches, and the laboratory window shutter. The ACBM is in the forward port of the laboratory. It is attached to the Harmony node. The PCBM on Destiny is located in the laboratory's aft port. The ACBM in Unity's forward port is latched to the laboratory's PCBM to berth Destiny to Unity.
+
+=== Science equipment ===
+
+Destiny also contains the Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI), transported to the Space Station on STS-121. The freezer is used both to store samples and reagents on the station, and to transport them to and from the space station in a temperature controlled environment.
+Currently installed at the main observation window of Destiny is the Agricultural Camera (AgCam). It is a multi-spectral imaging system built and primarily operated by students and faculty at the University of North Dakota. Its purpose is to take frequent images, in visible and infrared light, of vegetated areas on the Earth and promises to deliver a greater effectiveness for in-season agriculture applications research and operational decision support than current satellite systems such as Landsat.
+
+== Veggie ==
+In 2016 the ISS crew operated Veg-03 experiment. In November they harvested a crop of edible romaine lettuce which contributed to the crew's meal. Also samples of cabbage are returned to Earth for testing as part of the experiment. This uses the Veggie experiment module in Destiny, which can provide light and nutrients for plant growth experiments.
+
+== Destiny nadir window ==
+The nadir window is formally known as the U.S. Laboratory Science Window, has the "...highest quality optics ever flown on a human occupied spacecraft...", according to NASA, and can support taking Earth observations/images. In 2010 a research facility was brought to the station, called WORF, and the first photo with it was taken in January 2011. WORF was delivered by ISS Flight 19A (which was STS-131) .
+
+=== WORF ===
+
+In 2010 the WORF was brought to ISS aboard STS-131 and installed. This is a facility that uses the Destiny nadir window to support various types of photography and observation. WORF, which stands for Window Observational Research Facility is constructed based on International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) and EXPRESS Rack program technology. The first photo taken by WORF was on January 21, 2011, with Ag Cam.
+The name WORF is an allusion to Worf, the fictional character of the same name who appeared in the science fiction television and film franchise Star Trek. A special mission patch for WORF was issued that featured text written in the Klingon language. Another cross-over of the Star Trek franchise and space exploration was the naming of Space Shuttle Enterprise.
+A similar window is Nauka module's porthole window.
+
+== In media ==
+The module Destiny is featured in the 2013 film Gravity.
+The module, identified as "the 2001 module Destiny", was originally intended to be the small section of Alpha (the future name of the ISS) used as a throne at the end of the 2017 film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets and covers this role in the novelization, but, in the final shooting of the film, it was replaced by the Apollo command and service module Destiny 2005, modified with artificial gravity and a speakerphone-like radio system.
+
+== See also ==
+
+After its installation, habitation and use of Destiny is similar to ISS history as an integrated part of that Space station:
+
+List of ISS Expeditions
+List of International Space Station crew
+List of International Space Station visitors
+List of human spaceflights to the ISS
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+NASA - Destiny Archived July 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digistar_Users_Group-0.md

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+---
+title: "Digistar Users Group"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digistar_Users_Group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:01.499885+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Digistar Users Group (DUG) is an international association of facilities that own Evans & Sutherland (E&S) Digistar systems.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Digistar Users Group began in the mid-1980s as an informal gathering of planetarians.  The first gathering took place in St. Louis, Missouri (USA).  At the time, there were only five Digistar systems worldwide.  Today, there are more than 250 Digistar-equipped planetaria on six continents. The current Digistar product line includes Digistar II, Digistar 3, Digistar 4, Digistar 5 and Digistar 6 in various configurations appropriate for domes of nearly any size.
+
+
+== Membership ==
+Membership in the Digistar Users Group is voluntary; membership is restricted to facilities (such as science centers, planetariums, schools, universities and other organizations) that own or have a signed contract to purchase a Digistar system.  Membership is by institution only.  Institutions become members upon payment of annual membership dues.
+Membership in DUG is required in order to access the DUG show/model library, past newsletters, meeting notes, standards documents, charter and standing rules, and other content. Membership is currently, in 2025, $40(US) per year, payable to the DUG Treasurer.  Evans & Sutherland pays the first year dues for new Digistar installations.  After that time, it is the site's responsibility to maintain contact with the organization and keep membership active.
+
+
+== Governance ==
+The Digistar Users Group Executive Committee has five positions: President, President Elect, Past President, Secretary, and Treasurer.  While ownership of Digistar system is required for membership, the DUG organization operates independently of system manufacturer E&S.  Elected positions may not be held by employees of Evans & Sutherland or commercial members, but any member of DUG may be appointed to a standing committee.  The official DUG website lists current officers and posts.
+
+
+== Activities ==
+The Digistar Users Group provides a forum for discussion regarding the Digistar computer graphics projection systems and issues of interest to the facilities that own Digistar systems.  DUG also provides an avenue for exchange of sequences, models and other products created for Digistar environments.  Digistar Users Group maintains a dialogue with Evans & Sutherland on matters of service, improvements and other areas of interest to Digistar users.
+DUG maintains an electronic library of content freely-shared among active DUG members, an on-line forum, and a secure website. A regular newsletter is published for members.
+One of the primary activities of the Digistar Users Group is the annual conference, which offers the opportunity for users to meet, exchange production techniques, discuss planetarium operations concerns, interact with Evans & Sutherland representatives, learn system maintenance techniques, and suggest ideas for new Digistar features.  Other activities include participation in IPS technology and standards efforts and ongoing member communication and peer assistance.
+
+
+== Digistar Facilities ==
+Today there are Digistar systems in almost any venue imaginable, including planetariums, colleges, universities, K-12 schools, science centers, museums, entertainment destinations and other locations.  On its website, E&S includes a partial list of  Digistar Installations Archived 2012-01-03 at the Wayback Machine.
+
+
+== Digistar Users Group Website ==
+DUG maintains a web site at digistardomes.org. Some parts of the website are open to the public while other parts are members only. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals-0.md

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+---
+title: "Do not feed the animals"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:13.143029+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The prohibition "do not feed the animals" reflects a policy forbidding the artificial feeding of wild or feral animals. Signs displaying this message are commonly found in zoos, circuses, animal theme parks, aquariums, national parks, parks, public spaces, farms, and other places where people come into contact with wildlife. In some cases there are laws to enforce such no-feeding policies.
+Feeding wild animals can significantly change their behavior. Feeding or leaving unattended food to large animals, such as bears, can lead them to aggressively seek out food from people, sometimes resulting in injury. Feeding can also alter animal behavior so that animals routinely travel in larger groups, which can make disease transmission between animals more likely. In public spaces, the congregation of animals caused by feeding can result in them being considered pests. Food given to animals may not be healthy for them artificial feeding can result in, for example, vitamin deficiencies and dietary mineral deficiencies; zoos have strict dietary controls in place for animals. Outside zoos, a concern is that the increase in local concentrated wildlife population due to artificial feeding can promote the transfer of disease among animals or between animals and humans.
+
+
+== National and state parks ==
+
+In national parks and state parks, feeding animals can result in malnourishment due to inappropriate diet and in disruption of natural hunting or food-gathering behavior. It can also be dangerous to the people doing the feeding.
+In the US, early 20th century park management actually encouraged animal feeding. For example, "the feeding of squirrels had been seen as a way to civilize the parks and rechannel the energies of young boys from aggression and vandalism toward compassion and charity." Park rangers once fed bears in front of crowds of tourists. However, with a greater awareness of ecological and other issues, such pro-feeding policies are now viewed as detrimental, and US national parks now actively discourage animal feeding.
+In Canadian national parks, it is illegal to disturb or feed wildlife, and Parks Canada advises visitors not to leave out "food attractants" such as dirty dishes. Road salt and roadkill may also act as food attractants, and removing roadkill is considered good park management.
+
+
+== Marine parks ==
+
+Tourism operators often provide food to attract marine wildlife such as sharks to areas where they can be more easily viewed. Such a practice is controversial, however, because it can create a dependency on artificial feeding, habituate animals to feeding locations, increase inter-species and intra-species aggression, and increase the spread of disease. In Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, shark feeding is prohibited. In Hawaiian waters, shark feeding is permitted only in connection with traditional Hawaiian cultural or religious activities.
+The feeding of wild dolphins for tourist purposes is also controversial, and is prohibited in the US because it can alter natural hunting behaviour, disrupt social interaction, encourage the dolphins to approach or ingest dangerous objects, and endanger the person doing the feeding. At Monkey Mia in Western Australia, dolphin feeding is permitted under Department of Environment and Conservation supervision.
+
+
+== Backyards ==
+Similar issues to those in national and state parks also apply in suburban and rural backyards. Artificial feeding of coyotes, deer, and other wildlife is discouraged. Feeding deer, for example, may contribute to the spread of bovine tuberculosis. The feeding of birds with bird feeders is an exception, at least in the US, even though it can sometimes contribute to spreading disease. In Australia, artificial bird feeding is viewed more negatively. Instead, growing native plants that can act as a natural food source for birds is recommended. Similar suggestions have been made in the US.
+
+
+== Public spaces ==
+
+Feral pigeons are often found in urban public spaces. They are often considered environmental pests, and can transmit diseases such as psittacosis. Deliberate feeding of feral pigeons, though popular, contributes to these problems.
+Ducks are also commonly fed in public spaces. In an early 1970s US study, 67% of people visiting urban parks did so to feed ducks. However, such feeding may contribute to water pollution and to over-population of the birds, as well as delaying winter migration to an extent that may be dangerous for the birds. Feeding foods such as white bread to ducks and geese can result in bone deformities. Like pigeons, ducks may also congregate in large numbers where feeding takes place, resulting in aggression towards humans who don't have food to hand as well as towards other individuals in the group. Ducks can also be messy animals, and the cleanup of an area where they congregate is time-consuming.
+
+
+== Zoos ==
+
+Zoos generally discourage visitors from giving any food to the animals. Some zoos, particularly petting zoos, do the opposite and actively encourage people to get involved with the feeding of the animals.   This, however, is strictly monitored and usually involves set food available from the zookeepers or vending machines, as well as a careful choice of which animals to feed, and the provision of hand-washing facilities to avoid spreading disease. Domestic animals such as sheep and goats are often permitted to be fed, as are giraffes.
+
+
+== Traditions of feeding the animals ==
+Some people oppose such laws claiming that animals such as pigeons can be an amenity for people who do not have company such as friends or family, and say that the laws prohibiting feeding animals in urban places must change. In some countries, such as Greece, feeding the pigeons in cities is a widespread practice. Cultural hostility to feeding animals in cities and laws that ban the practice raise concerns about how humans relate to other living beings in the urban environment. In some areas, feeding animals in a sustainable manner has been encouraged, as without supplementation of food from humans in addition to their natural supply, some animals, especially waterfowl such as ducks, geese and swans, have become malnourished and underweight.
+Politicians have also protested laws that ban feeding feral pigeons in cities. Feral pigeons in cities existed for thousands of years but only recently in some countries humans started seeing them as a nuisance and became hostile to them. In India, feeding feral animals in cities is considered a noble act. Academicians say that how humans treat animals is related to how humans treat each other and thus raise concerns about the cultural shift from seeing feral city pigeons as harmless in the 1800s to seeing them an undesirable in some countries in the 2000s.
+
+
+== Sign gallery ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Protected area
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragão_do_Mar_Center_of_Art_and_Culture-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragão_do_Mar_Center_of_Art_and_Culture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:02.731522+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Dragão do Mar Center of Art And Culture (in Portuguese: Centro Dragão do Mar de Arte e Cultura) is a government funded cultural center in Fortaleza, Ceará in Brazil. The center contains facilities for exhibitions, a theatre, a library, a cinema and a planetarium.
+The center was inaugurated in April 1999, and has an overall area of 33 000 m2. The name "Dragão do Mar" is in honour of Francisco José do Nascimento, a hero of the abolitionist movement in Ceará, who in 1881 refused to transport slaves to be sold further south in the country.
+
+
+== Cultural Places ==
+
+The Dragão do Mar Center of Art And Culture congregates many spaces destinated to the realization of the most different activities, where the urban leisure, the production and diffusion of art and culture are the main focus. 
+On your almost 30 thousand square meters of area, includes spaces like Cearense Culture Memorial, the Contemporary Art Museum of Ceará, the Menezes Pimentel Public Library, a modern theater room, two cinema rooms, the Rubens de Azevedo Planetarium, the Sérgio Mota Open Theatre, an auditorium and classrooms. 
+
+Menezes Pimentel Public Library: located on leisure and culture complex of the Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture, makes possible the entrance of the visitors by two ways, one by the Presidente Castelo Branco Avenue and the other by the main entrance of Dragão do Mar Center. An important research source for students, teachers and researchers, the Public Library Menezes Pimentel have a quantity composed by 70 thousand books and 40 thousand titles. It makes use of the fourth bigger quantity of Rare Titles of the country, where the 19th century newspaper collection and the 15th century book collection takes place.
+Cearense Culture Memorial The folk history, art and culture of Ceará could be saw in this equipment with 800 square meters, divided in six rooms.
+Contemporary Art Museum of Ceará: it occupies the place of two floors and have 700 square meters of area.
+Rubens de Azevedo Planetarium : built with German technology, is one of the most modern in the world, is the only one in Brazil that project the rainbow by 20 multimedia projectors. Have place for 90 people shows three sessions by day, propitiating big shows on the detailed observation of the stars, planets and galaxies.
+
+
+== Location ==
+The address of the center is Dragão do Mar street, 81, Praia de Iracema.
+
+
+== Architecture ==
+
+The architecture of the Dragão do Mar Center is distinguished by its bold lines, created by architects Delberg Ponce de Leon and Fausto Nilo. Built in a former portuary area, the cultural center is surrounded by bars, restaurants and theaters. With its bold lines, it contrasts with the houses built in the early 20th century.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Centro Dragão do Mar de Arte e Cultura (In Portuguese)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eismitte-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+---
+title: "Eismitte"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eismitte"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:52.817692+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Eismitte, also called Mid-Ice in English, was a meteorological station established, in the middle of the Greenland Ice Sheet, by the 1930-31 German Greenland Expedition. The venture took place from July 1930 until August 1931, and established three Arctic stations on the same parallel. The expedition leader, German scientist Alfred Wegener, died during a trip back from Eismitte, in early November 1930. The station was abandoned on 1 August 1931.
+
+
+== Location ==
+The name "Eismitte" means Ice-Middle in German, and the campsite was located 402 kilometers (250 mi) from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,010 metres (9,880 ft). The coldest temperature recorded at the site was −64.8 °C (−84.6 °F) on 20 March 1931, while the warmest temperature noted was −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) on 9 July 1931.  For the 12-month period beginning 1 August 1930 and ending 5 August 1931, the warmest month, July, had a mean monthly temperature of −12.3 °C (9.9 °F). while the coldest month, February, averaged −47.2 °C (−53.0 °F). Over the same period a total of 110 millimetres (4.3 in) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded, with most of it being received in Winter.  At the latitude of the camp, the sun does not set between 13 May and 30 July each year, and does not rise between 23 November and 20 January.
+
+
+== Wintering ==
+Ernst Sorge was a member of Alfred Wegener's expedition. Together with Johannes Georgi he stayed in Eismitte from July 1930 to August 1931. Fritz Loewe stayed from October 1930 to May 1931. Sorge hand-dug a 15 m deep pit adjacent to his subterranean snow cave, which served as living quarters during the seven-month-long overwintering. Sorge systematically and quantitatively studied the near-surface snow/firn strata from inside his pit. After examination of the structural features and  measurement of continuous density and other physical properties within the pit profile, he determined the characteristics of the individual limits of annual snow accumulation. This research validated the feasibility of measuring the preserved annual snow accumulation cycles, like measuring frozen precipitation in a rain gauge.
+
+
+== Climate ==
+Eismitte is one of the coldest locations in the Northern Hemisphere, with an annual mean temperature of −30.0 °C (−22 °F) having been recorded during the period of the expedition that established it. Eismitte has a polar ice cap climate. The weather station was run for approximately one year; the weather record thus is very sparse. The Summit Camp station slightly to the north has a similar climate with a much longer period of record.
+
+
+== See also ==
+North Ice
+NEEM Camp
+Camp Century
+Cartographic expeditions to Greenland
+Pole of inaccessibility
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Hourly meteorological observations at station Eismitte by Johannes Georgi (doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.604003).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estufa_Fria-0.md

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+---
+title: "Estufa Fria"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estufa_Fria"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:47.101960+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Estufa Fria ([iʃˈtufɐ ˈfɾi.ɐ]; lit. "Cold Greenhouse") is a greenhouse with three distinct gardens located in Edward VII Park between the streets Alameda Engenheiro Edgar Cardoso and Alameda Cardeal Cerejeira in Lisbon, Portugal.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Estufa Fria opened in 1933. Portuguese architect Raul Carapinha conceived and designed the project. It was built near an old basalt mine which had been abandoned after a spring was discovered nearby. The greenhouse was remodeled concurrently with Edward VII Park in 1945 by Portuguese architect Francisco Keil do Amaral. The greenhouse's existing entrance porch, a lake near the entrance, and a large visitor "living room" called "the ship" or "the vessel" (Portuguese: nave) were built during this time.
+
+
+== Expansion ==
+In 1975 the Estufa Quente and Estufa Doce sections opened, expanding the botanical collection to include plants from tropical and equatorial regions. On 29 April 2009 the original Estufa Fria closed due to the risk of collapse of its steel structure.  It reopened in April 2011 after two years of renovation work.
+
+
+== Description ==
+Measuring 1.5 hectares (3.7 acres) in area, the Estufa Fria consists of three parts:
+
+Cold Greenhouse (Estufa Fria)
+Hot Greenhouse (Estufa Quente)
+Sweet Greenhouse (Estufa Doce).
+The term "cold greenhouse" comes from the original building's lack of mechanical heating; instead, wooden slats regulate sunlight and protect the plants from excessively hot or cold temperatures. The Cold Greenhouse is the largest of the three, measuring about 8,100 square metres (87,000 sq ft) in area. It is home to azalea and camellia species from around the world.
+The Estufa Quente occupies about 3,000 square metres (32,000 sq ft) and is home to tropical species such as coffee and mangifera. The Estufa Doce contains cacti and other succulent plants, such as aloe. 
+The entire greenhouse complex features small lakes, waterfalls, and sculptures. Some of the sculptures are by noted twentieth-century Portuguese sculptors, including Domingos de Castro Gentil Soares Branco, Leopoldo de Almeida, and Pedro Anjos Teixeira.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Lisbon Town Hall: Estufa Fria Archived 2020-05-02 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka,_Nunavut-0.md

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+---
+title: "Eureka, Nunavut"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka,_Nunavut"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:54.095576+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Eureka is a small research base on Fosheim Peninsula, Ellesmere Island, Qikiqtaaluk Region, in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. It is located on the north side of Slidre Fiord, which enters Eureka Sound farther west. It is the third-northernmost permanent research community in the world. The only two farther north are Alert, which is also on Ellesmere Island, and Nord, in Greenland. Eureka has the lowest average annual temperature and the lowest amount of precipitation of any weather station in Canada.
+Eureka's postal code is X0A 0G0 and the area code is 867.
+
+
+== Divisions ==
+The base consists of three areas:
+
+the Eureka Aerodrome, which includes "Fort Eureka" (the quarters for military personnel maintaining the island's communications equipment)
+the Environment and Climate Change Canada Weather Station
+the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL), formerly the Arctic Stratospheric Ozone Observatory (AStrO)
+PEARL is operated by a consortium of Canadian university researchers and government agencies known as the Canadian Network for Detection of Atmospheric Change. PEARL announced it would cease full-time year-round operation as of April 30, 2012, due to lack of funding, but this decision was reversed in May 2013 with the announcement of new funds.
+
+
+== History ==
+Eureka was founded on April 7, 1947, as part of an initiative to set up a network of Arctic weather stations. On this date, 100 t (98 long tons; 110 short tons) of supplies were airlifted to a promising spot on Ellesmere Island, and five prefabricated Jamesway huts were constructed. Regular weather observations began on January 1, 1948. The station has expanded over the years. At its peak, in the 1970s, at least fifteen staff were on site; in 2005, it reported a permanent population of zero with at least eight staff on a continuous rotational basis.
+Several generations of buildings have been developed. The latest operations centre, with work areas and staff quarters in one large structure, was completed in 2005.
+
+
+== Location and accessibility ==
+
+The complex is powered by diesel generators. The station is supplied once every six weeks with fresh food and mail by air, and annually in the late summer, a supply ship from Montreal brings heavy supplies. On July 3, 2009, a Danish Challenger 604 MMA jet landed at Eureka's aerodrome.
+The jet is a military observation aircraft based on the Challenger executive jet. This jet visited Eureka on a familiarization trip, in order to prepare for the possibility of Danish aircraft assisting in search and rescue missions over Canadian territory. The Canadian American Strategic Review noted critically that the first jet to fly a mission to Eureka was not Canadian.
+At Eureka's latitude, a geosynchronous communications satellite, if due south, would require an antenna to be pointed nearly horizontally; satellites farther east or west along that orbit would be below the horizon. Telephone access and television broadcasts arrived in 1982 when Operation Hurricane resulted in the establishment of a satellite receiving station at nearby Skull Point, which has an open view to the south. The low-power Channel 9 TV transmitter at Skull Point was the world's northernmost TV station at the time. In the 1980s, TV audio was often connected to the telephone to feed CBC-TV news to CHAR-FM in isolated CFS Alert. More recently, CANDAC has installed what is likely the world's most northerly geosynchronous satellite ground-station to provide Internet-based communications to PEARL.
+Other inhabited places on Ellesmere Island include Alert and Grise Fiord.
+
+
+== Flora and fauna ==
+Eureka has been described as "The Garden Spot of the Arctic" due to the flora and fauna abundant around the Eureka area, more so than anywhere else in the High Arctic. Fauna include polar bears, muskox, Arctic wolves, Arctic foxes, Arctic hares, and lemmings. In addition, summer nesting geese, ducks, owls, loons, ravens, gulls and many other smaller birds nest, raise their young, and return south in August.
+
+
+== Climate ==
+Eureka experiences a polar climate (ET). The settlement sees the midnight sun between April 10 and August 29, with no sunlight at all between mid-October and late February. Eureka has the lowest average annual temperature and least precipitation of any weather station in Canada with an annual mean temperature of −18.1 °C (−0.6 °F). In fact, that is even colder than the Siberian "poles of cold", Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon with an average annual temperature of −13.7 °C (7.3 °F) and −14.9 °C (5.2 °F) respectively. Although the latter two have colder winter (December, January, February) temperatures than Eureka (−35.2 °C (−31.4 °F), −43.5 °C (−46.3 °F), and −44.3 °C (−47.7 °F) respectively). Average winter temperatures are almost comparable to those found in northeastern Siberia. However, summers are slightly warmer than other places in the Arctic Archipelago because Eureka is somewhat landlocked, being near the centre of Ellesmere Island. Even so, since record keeping began, the temperature has never exceeded 20.9 °C (69.6 °F), first reached on July 14, 2009. Although a polar desert, evaporation is also very low, which allows the limited moisture to be made available for plants and wildlife. Its frost-free season averages 56 days, much longer than many other places nearby.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of research stations in the Arctic
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Eureka, Nunavut at Wikimedia Commons

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ex situ conservation"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ex situ conservation (lit. 'off-site conservation') is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety, or breed of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. For example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective animal and within the care of humans, such as a zoological park or wildlife sanctuary. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include alteration of living environments, reproductive patterns, access to resources, and protection from predation and mortality.
+Ex situ management can occur within or outside a species' natural geographic range. Individuals maintained ex situ exist outside an ecological niche. This means that they are not under the same selection pressures as wild populations, and they may undergo artificial selection if maintained ex situ for multiple generations.
+Agricultural biodiversity is also conserved in ex situ collections. This is primarily in the form of gene banks where samples are stored in order to conserve the genetic resources of major crops plants and their wild relatives.
+
+== Facilities ==
+
+=== Botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums ===
+Botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums are the most conventional sites for ex situ conservation, housing whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of endangered species, but also have an educational value. They inform the public of the threatened status of endangered species and of those factors which cause the threat, with the hope of creating public interest in stopping and reversing those factors which jeopardize a species' survival in the first place. They are the most publicly visited ex situ conservation sites, with the WZCS (World Zoo Conservation Strategy) estimating that the 1,100 organized zoos in the world receive more than 600 million visitors annually. Globally there is an estimated total of 2,107 aquaria and zoos in 125 countries. Additionally many private collectors or other not-for-profit groups hold animals and they engage in conservation or reintroduction efforts. In United States, there are approximately 2,000 botanical gardens in 148 counties cultivating or storing an estimated 80,000 taxa of plants in 2004.
+
+== Techniques for plants ==
+
+=== Cryopreservation ===
+
+Plant cryopreservation consist of the storage of seeds, pollen, tissue, or embryos in liquid nitrogen. This method can be used for virtually indefinite storage of material without deterioration over a much greater time-period relative to all other methods of ex situ conservation. Cryopreservation is also used for the conservation of livestock genetics through cryoconservation of animal genetic resources. Technical limitations prevent the cryopreservation of many species, but cryobiology is a field of active research, and many studies concerning plants are underway.
+
+=== Seed banking ===
+
+The storage of seeds in a temperature and moisture controlled environment. This technique is used for taxa with orthodox seeds that tolerate desiccation. Seed bank facilities vary from sealed boxes to climate controlled walk-in freezers or vaults. Taxa with recalcitrant seeds that do not tolerate desiccation are typically not held in seed banks for extended periods of time.
+
+=== Field gene banking ===
+
+An extensive open-air planting used maintain genetic diversity of wild, agricultural, or forestry species. Typically species that are either difficult or impossible to conserve in seed banks are conserved in field gene banks. Field gene banks may also be used grow and select progeny of species stored by other ex situ  techniques.
+
+=== Cultivation collections ===
+Plants under horticultural care in a constructed landscape, typically a botanic garden or arboreta. This technique is similar to a field gene bank in that plants are maintained in the ambient environment, but the collections are typically not as genetically diverse or extensive. These collections are susceptible to hybridization, artificial selection, genetic drift, and disease transmission. Species that cannot be conserved by other ex situ techniques are often included in cultivated collections.
+
+=== Inter situ ===
+Plants are under horticulture care, but the environment is managed to near natural conditions. This occurs with either restored or semi-natural environments. This technique is primarily used for taxa that are rare or in areas where habitat has been severely degraded.
+
+=== Tissue culture (storage and propagation) ===
+Somatic tissue can be stored in vitro for short periods of time. This is done in a light and temperature controlled environment that regulates the growth of cells. As an ex situ conservation technique tissue culture is primary used for clonal propagation of vegetative tissue or immature seeds. This allows for the proliferation of clonal plants from a relatively small amount of parent tissue.
+
+== Techniques for animals ==
+
+Endangered animal species and breeds are preserved using similar techniques. Animal species can be preserved in genebanks, which consist of cryogenic facilities used to store living sperm, eggs, or embryos. For example, the Zoological Society of San Diego has established a "frozen zoo" to store such samples using cryopreservation techniques from more than 355 species, including mammals, reptiles, and birds.
+A potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been carried out for the Spanish ibex.
+Another promising technique is isochoric vitrification, where a zygote or mature animal is frozen in vitrification solution and, when slowly thawed using a laser, produces viable organisms.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-1.md

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+---
+title: "Ex situ conservation"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Genetic management of captive populations ==
+Captive populations are subject to problems such as inbreeding depression, loss of genetic diversity and adaptations to captivity.  It is important to manage captive populations in a way that minimizes these issues so that the individuals to be introduced will resemble the original founders as closely as possible, which will increase the chances of successful reintroductions.  During the initial growth phase, the population size is rapidly expanded until a target population size is reached.  The target population size is the number of individuals that are required to maintain appropriate levels of genetic diversity, which is generally considered to be 90% of the current genetic diversity after 100 years. The number of individuals required to meet this goal varies based on potential growth rate, effective size, current genetic diversity, and generation time. Once the target population size is reached, the focus shifts to maintaining the population and avoiding genetic issues within the captive population.
+
+=== Minimizing mean kinship ===
+Managing populations based on minimizing mean kinship values is often an effective way to increase genetic diversity and to avoid inbreeding within captive populations.  Kinship is the probability that two alleles will be identical by descent when one allele is taken randomly from each mating individual.  The mean kinship value is the average kinship value between a given individual and every other member of the population.  Mean kinship values can help determine which individuals should be mated.  In choosing individuals for breeding, it is important to choose individuals with the lowest mean kinship values because these individuals are least related to the rest of the population and have the least common alleles.  This ensures that rarer alleles are passed on, which helps to increase genetic diversity.  It is also important to avoid mating two individuals with very different mean kinship values because such pairings propagate both the rare alleles that are present in the individual with the low mean kinship value as well as the common alleles that are present in the individual with the high mean kinship value.  This genetic management technique requires that ancestry is known, so in circumstances where ancestry is unknown, it might be necessary to use molecular genetics such as microsatellite data to help resolve unknowns.
+
+=== Avoiding loss of genetic diversity ===
+Genetic diversity is often lost within captive populations due to the founder effect and subsequent small population sizes.  Minimizing the loss of genetic diversity within the captive population is an important component of ex situ conservation and is critical for successful reintroductions and the long term success of the species, since more diverse populations have higher adaptive potential. The loss of genetic diversity due to the founder effect can be minimized by ensuring that the founder population is large enough and genetically representative of the wild population.  This is often difficult because removing large numbers of individuals from the wild populations may further reduce the genetic diversity of a species that is already of conservation concern. An alternative to this is collecting sperm from wild individuals and using this via artificial insemination to bring in fresh genetic material. Maximizing the captive population size and the effective population size can decrease the loss of genetic diversity by minimizing the random loss of alleles due to genetic drift.  Minimizing the number of generations in captivity is another effective method for reducing the loss of genetic diversity in captive populations.
+
+=== Avoiding adaptations to captivity ===
+Selection favors different traits in captive populations than it does in wild populations, so this may result in adaptations that are beneficial in captivity but are deleterious in the wild. This reduces the success of re-introductions, so it is important to manage captive populations in order to reduce adaptations to captivity.  Adaptations to captivity can be reduced by minimizing the number of generations in captivity and by maximizing the number of migrants from wild populations.  Minimizing selection on captive populations by creating an environment that is similar to their natural environment is another method of reducing adaptations to captivity, but it is important to find a balance between an environment that minimizes adaptation to captivity and an environment that permits adequate reproduction. Adaptations to captivity can also be reduced by managing the captive population as a series of population fragments.  In this management strategy, the captive population is split into several sub-populations or fragments which are maintained separately.  Smaller populations have lower adaptive potentials, so the population fragments are less likely to accumulate adaptations associated with captivity.  The fragments are maintained separately until inbreeding becomes a concern.  Immigrants are then exchanged between the fragments to reduce inbreeding, and then the fragments are managed separately again.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-2.md

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+---
+title: "Ex situ conservation"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Managing genetic disorders ===
+Genetic disorders are often an issue within captive populations due to the fact that the populations are usually established from a small number of founders.  In large, outbreeding populations, the frequencies of most deleterious alleles are relatively low, but when a population undergoes a bottleneck during the founding of a captive population, previously rare alleles may survive and increase in number. Further inbreeding within the captive population may also increase the likelihood that deleterious alleles will be expressed due to increasing homozygosity within the population. The high occurrence of genetic disorders within a captive population can threaten both the survival of the captive population and its eventual reintroduction back into the wild.  If the genetic disorder is dominant, it may be possible to eliminate the disease completely in a single generation by avoiding breeding of the affected individuals.  However, if the genetic disorder is recessive, it may not be possible to completely eliminate the allele due to its presence in unaffected heterozygotes.  In this case, the best option is to attempt to minimize the frequency of the allele by selectively choosing mating pairs.  In the process of eliminating genetic disorders, it is important to consider that when certain individuals are prevented from breeding, alleles and therefore genetic diversity are removed from the population; if these alleles are not present in other individuals, they may be lost completely. Preventing certain individuals from the breeding also reduces the effective population size, which is associated with problems such as the loss of genetic diversity and increased inbreeding.
+
+== Examples ==
+Showy Indian clover, Trifolium amoenum, is an example of a species that was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered in 1993 in the form of a single plant at a site in western Sonoma County. Seeds were harvested and the species grown in ex situ facilities.
+The Wollemi pine is another example of a plant that is being preserved via ex situ conservation, as they are being grown in nurseries to be sold to the general public.
+The Orange-bellied parrot, with a wild population of 14 birds as of early February 2017, are being bred in a captive breeding program. The captive population consists of around 300 birds.
+
+== Drawbacks ==
+
+Ex situ conservation, while helpful in humankind's efforts to sustain and protect our environment, is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. It is to be used as a last resort, or as a supplement to in situ conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire genetic variation of a species, its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements which, over time, might help a species adapt to its changing surroundings. Instead, ex situ conservation removes the species from its natural ecological contexts, preserving it under semi-isolated conditions whereby natural evolution and adaptation processes are either temporarily halted or altered by introducing the specimen to an unnatural habitat. In the case of cryogenic storage methods, the preserved specimen's adaptation processes are (quite literally) frozen altogether. The downside to this is that, when re-released, the species may lack the genetic adaptations and mutations which would allow it to thrive in its ever-changing natural habitat.
+Furthermore, ex situ conservation techniques are often costly, with cryogenic storage being economically infeasible in most cases since species stored in this manner cannot provide a profit but instead slowly drain the financial resources of the government or organization determined to operate them. Seedbanks are ineffective for certain plant genera with recalcitrant seeds that do not remain fertile for long periods of time. Diseases and pests foreign to the species, to which the species has no natural defense, may also cripple crops of protected plants in ex situ plantations and in animals living in ex situ breeding grounds. These factors, combined with the specific environmental needs of many species, some of which are nearly impossible to recreate by man, make ex situ conservation impossible for a great number of the world's endangered flora and fauna.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Engels, J.M.M.; L. Visser, eds. (2003). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. 174 p.
+FAO. (2007). The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources and the Interlaken Declaration.  Rome.
+FAO. (2015). The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Archived 18 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine  Rome.
+Guerrant, Edward O.; Havens, Kayri; Maunder, Mike, eds. (2004). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild. Island Press.
+Kameswara, N.; J. Hanson; M. E. Dulloo; K. Ghosh; A. Nowell; M. Larinde. Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks. Bioversity International, CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), FAO, ILRI. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. 147 p.
+Koo, B.; Pardey, P. G.; Wright, B. D.; et al. (2004). Saving Seeds. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008.
+
+== External links ==
+Cloning to revive extinct species, May 28, 2002, Grant Holloway, CNN
+Reproductive Technologies and Conservation of Endangered Cats
+Louisiana's frozen ark
+ONLINE BOOK: In situ conservation of livestock and poultry, 1992, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the United Nations Environment Programme
+"The Challenges of Ex situ Orchid Conservation", Orchid Conservation Coalition
+Botanic Gardens Conservation International – international organisation supporting ex situ conservation of priority plant species
+Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
+Implementing the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-0.md

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+---
+title: "Extinct in the wild"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:15.585025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A species that is extinct in the wild (EW) is one that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as only consisting of living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. Classification requires exhaustive surveys conducted within the species' known habitat with consideration given to seasonality, time of day, and life cycle. Once a species is classified as EW, the only way for it to be downgraded is through reintroduction.
+Not all EW species are rare. An example is the Brugmansia genus, where all seven species are widely cultivated, but none are found in the wild.
+
+== Examples ==
+
+Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct in the wild include (in alphabetical order):
+
+Abutilon pitcairnense (last surviving plant destroyed in 2005)
+Alagoas curassow (last unconfirmed sighting reported in the late 1980s, listed extinct in the wild since 1994)
+Corypha taliera (last tree cut down in 1979)
+Christmas Island blue-tailed skink (listed extinct in the wild since 2014)
+Dabry's sturgeon (listed extinct in the wild since 2022)
+Escarpment cycad (listed extinct in the wild since 2006)
+Franklinia alatamaha (last seen in 1803, listed extinct in the wild since 1998)
+Golden skiffia (listed extinct in the wild since 1996)
+Guam kingfisher (listed extinct in the wild since 1986)
+Hawaiian crow or ʻalalā (last seen in 2002, listed as extinct in the wild since 2004) Small groups have since been released in 2017 and 2018.
+Kihansi spray toad (listed extinct in the wild since 2009)
+La Palma pupfish (last seen in 1994, listed extinct in the wild since 1996)
+Lister's gecko (listed extinct in the wild since 2014)
+Oahu deceptor bush cricket (listed extinct in the wild since 1996)
+Panamanian golden frog (possibly extinct in the wild)
+Père David's deer (listed extinct in the wild since 2008. However, reintroduction from captive populations began in 1985, with 53 wild herds of varying sizes being recorded in 2003)
+Partula species (listed extinct in the wild in the 1990s):
+Niho tree snail
+Miracle Partula
+Moorean Smooth Partula
+Sutural Partula
+Rose-tipped Partula
+Garrett's Partula
+Raiatea ground Partula
+Pink Partula
+Variable Partula
+Simandoa conserfariam 
+Socorro dove (listed extinct in the wild since 1994)
+Socorro isopod (last seen in 1988, listed as extinct in the wild since August 1996)
+South China tiger (since 2008 IUCN Red List lists as critically endangered; possibly extinct in the wild)
+Spix's macaw (listed extinct in the wild since June 2019)
+Wyoming toad (listed extinct in the wild since 1991, although 853 have been released into the wild since 1995, leading to a population of around 1,500 in 2017)
+
+== Conservation ==
+
+=== Species reintroduction ===
+
+Reintroduction is the deliberate release of individuals into the wild, from captivity or from other areas where the species survives. However, it may be difficult to reintroduce EW species into the wild, even if their natural habitats were restored, because survival techniques, which are often passed from parents to offspring during parenting, may have been lost. Reintroduction efforts, also referred to as translocation, are complex and a common source of complication is how animals behave upon release. Climate suitability has been shown to influence reintroduction outcomes as well. Though many efforts translocate populations to historic ranges, climate change may be causing those previously inhabited areas to no longer be suitable for the species.
+
+The Przewalski's horse was downgraded from EW to Endangered in 2011 after decades of reintroduction efforts. In China, they are still classified as EW since they are given supplemental feed over the winter to aid survival. Of the 2500 living, about 1360 are in the wild, and all 2500 are descended from 12 wild-caught ancestors, causing an inbreeding depression that contributes to factors, such as shorter lifespans and high mortality, that impede conservation.
+
+Northern white rhinos have been extinct in the wild since 2007, and only two females remain in captivity. The San Diego Zoo Global is planning to save the species by using living cells from 12 rhinos that have been cryopreserved, turning them into stem cell lines, using in vitro fertilization to create embryos, and then having Southern white rhinos serve as surrogates. Currently, there have been no successful embryo transfers in rhinos. It is estimated to take at least 40 years for the target of 25–40 northern white rhinos to be reached.
+Some people critique efforts to save species with such small populations due to the possibility of inbreeding as it can reduce the population growth rate. Small effective population sizes are another critique. Effective population size is a measurement of the loss of genetic diversity. Multiple populations have been found to have an effective population size below conservation goals. Additionally, monitoring effective population size and using it to aid estimations of the success of conservation efforts has been shown to provide a better overview of determining population trends when compared to population size.
+
+=== IUCN Green Status of Species ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-1.md

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+---
+title: "Extinct in the wild"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:15.585025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The IUCN developed a system of classifying species recovery efforts in 2012 entitled the Green Status. The species recovery score is a 0%–100% scale, with 0% being the species is extinct or extinct in the wild and 100% being fully recovered. In addition, the Green Status also classifies previous and future conservation impacts with the Green Scores of Conservation Dependency, Conservation Gain, Conservation Legacy, and Recovery Potential.
+For a species to receive a score of 100% and be considered fully recovered, three requirements must be met: the species must be present in all areas of both its current and historical range, it is viable in all areas of the range, and performs its ecological niche across the full range. Given the lofty standards, many species are not expected to meet the criteria and it is not a goal of this system. Land use changes have cumulated in many species losing habitat.
+Green Scores are snapshots in time to assess a species' current status and how conservation efforts have influenced their status. It is also predictive as it can project how the status would change if conservation efforts ceased or continued. Conservation Legacy assess how previous conservation work has changed or maintained a species' status. The score ranges from high to low with low meaning conservation efforts were ineffective or did not occur. Conservation Dependency is the estimate of a species' status in 10 years if conservation efforts halted. High dependency means the species would have a lower status and low dependency equates to the status not changing. Conservation Gain is the flip side. It projects a species' status in 10 years if conservation efforts continue. Both dependence and gain are considered short-term measures. The long-term measure is Recovery Potential, which is how much of the range is estimated to be able to house ecologically functional populations. 
+
+=== Flagship species ===
+
+The Pinta Island tortoise (Geochelone nigra abingdoni) had only one living individual, named Lonesome George, until his death in June 2012. The tortoise was believed to be extinct in the mid-20th century, until Hungarian malacologist József Vágvölgyi spotted Lonesome George on the Galapagos island of Pinta on 1 December 1971. Since then, Lonesome George has been a powerful symbol for conservation efforts in general and for the Galapagos Islands in particular. With his death on 24 June 2012, the subspecies is again believed to be extinct. With the discovery of 17 hybrid Pinta tortoises located at nearby Wolf Volcano, a plan has been made to attempt to breed the subspecies back into a pure state.
+
+== See also ==
+IUCN Red List extinct in the wild species for a list by taxonomy
+Category:IUCN Red List extinct in the wild species for an alphabetical list
+Ex situ conservation
+Extinction
+Ecological extinction
+Lists of extinct species
+Local extinction
+Nature conservation
+Wildlife conservation
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+List of Extinct in the Wild species as identified by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsterbo_Lighthouse-0.md

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+---
+title: "Falsterbo Lighthouse"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsterbo_Lighthouse"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:55.318216+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Falsterbo Lighthouse (Swedish: Falsterbo fyr) .  To the north-east of the lighthouse is the city of Skanör-Falsterbo, to the south-east of the lighthouse are some of the finest sandy beaches in Sweden and surrounding the lighthouse is the golf course of the Falsterbo Golf Club.
+
+
+== History ==
+The sea route past the Falsterbo Headland has always been dangerous, because of the moving sand banks hidden under the sea. In 1230 the Dominikans from Lübeck sent a letter to the Danish king Valdemar with a request that a "mark" should be built to warn seafarers. There is no evidence that it was ever built. Most likely is that a prominent house at Falsterbo and The Church of Santa Maria were used as seamarks.
+In 1636, a lever light known as a "swape" light was built nearby at Kolabacken. An iron basket full of burning coal was hoisted up and down by a balanced bar, hence the light was moving and easier to detect. The coal fire was intensely red and could not be mistaken for a star or ship lantern. The remains of the beacon are still visible as a small hillock of ashes and coal, "Coal Hill" (Swedish: Kolabacken). Towards the end of the 18th century the lever light was moved to the site of the present lighthouse, closer to the new shoreline.
+The lighthouse was built in 1793-96 and the "light" was a coal fire at the top. In 1842-43 the uppermost crenellated parts were replaced with the present lantern. Coal was replaced with rapeseed oil. The oil was very inflammable and the lighthouse keepers had to watch the lamp all night. To make a periodic light; a screen was moved around the lantern by heavy weights. Around 1850 a house for the keeper was built next to the lighthouse. At the end of the 19th century another house was built for the assistants to the lighthouse keeper.
+Also when the oil was replaced with paraffin and, later gas, the screen still had to be moved around. When electric light was installed in 1935 the screen was removed and so were most of the staff. Only one lighthouse keeper remained. In 1972 the lighthouse was automated and the last keeper retired.
+The lighthouse is 25 metres (82 ft) high and 12 metres (39 ft) broad. Nowadays it has no importance as a navigation mark and therefore the light is not very strong (ca. 4000 candela). It was totally turned off 1990–93. The interval of the light is intermittent: 4 seconds on, 1 second off, repeated.
+
+
+== Present activities ==
+Even though the lighthouse is managing itself nowadays, there are still many activities around it. Falsterbo is one of twenty synoptic weather stations in Sweden still staffed. Every three hours weather data (wind, temperature, air pressure, visibility, cloud cover etc.) are reported to the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. In earlier days the weather observations were carried out by the lighthouse keepers.
+The lighthouse garden is the ringing site of the Falsterbo Bird Observatory. Falsterbo is a premier site in Europe to watch autumn bird migration. Several millions of birds pass every autumn en route to wintering areas in Africa or southern Europe. Annually, about 25,000 small birds are trapped and ringed.
+Every year on the last Sunday of August it is "Lighthouse Day". Then the lighthouse is open to the public. Visitors are shown not only the lighthouse itself but also bird ringing and the weather station.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Rowlett, Russ. "Lighthouses of Sweden: Halland". The Lighthouse Directory. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 8 September 2008.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnsbu-0.md

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+---
+title: "Finnsbu"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnsbu"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:56.595467+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Finnsbu was a Norwegian hunting, meteorological and radio station (Finnsbu Radio/LMX) located on the King Frederick VI Coast, Southeastern Greenland.
+Administratively the area were the hut stood belongs now to the Sermersooq municipality.
+The station was located on the shore of Graah Fjord, in the much indented coast of southern Thorland. Finnsbu was part of a sovereignty claims staked by Norway in Southeast Greenland between 60°30'N —just north of Nanuuseq, and 63°40'N —just south of Odinland.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+In 1931 Norway sent two expeditions to establish hunting, meteorological and radio stations in Southeast Greenland. Finn Devold (1902 - 1977), Hallvard Devold's brother, on ship Heimen from Tromsø, led the bigger party of six hunters to establish a Norwegian station. Initially Devold went to Timmiarmiut Fjord, but then he moved north to Skjoldungen District and built the hut by a good harbor in southern Thorland, naming it Finnsbu after his own name. Devold's team built two other main stations, as well as a number of smaller huts in the same region.
+The other expedition, led by Ole Mortensen, went initially to Storfjord (Kangerlussuaq Fjord) on ship Signalhorn and built a hut there. Since hunting there was poor, Mortensen moved with his men south to Lindenow Fjord, where a station named Moreton was built which was later moved by Gunnar Horn to neighboring Nanuuseq Fjord and renamed Torgilsbu.
+On 12 July 1932 Devold was required by the Norwegian government to formally hoist the Norwegian flag at Finnsbu. An expedition sent by the government led by Gunnar Horn on ship Veslemari visited Finnsbu on 17 August the same year. Together with Torgilsbu further south, Finnsbu became part of the Norwegian contribution to the International Polar Year 1932–33. In July 1933 Finnsbu station sent meteorological data to the Decennial Air Cruise squadron of Italian seaplanes led by Italo Balbo.
+Following the 1933 resolution of the Permanent Court of International Justice rejecting Norway's claims in Greenland Finnsbu was abandoned. Relief ship Signalhorn evacuated the staff of the stations in the Storfjord and Skjoldungen area and brought them back to Norway in August 1933. Torgilsbu, however, remained in operation until 1940.
+Currently there is a tide gauge in the location of the former Norwegian settlement.
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Spencer Apollonio, Lands That Hold One Spellbound: A Story of East Greenland, 2008
+
+
+== See also ==
+Erik the Red's Land
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Norwegian Polar Year and Radio Stations in East Greenland, 1932–33
+Anders Christian Feyling, Torgilsbu 1933-34: dagbok ført av radiostasjonens bestyrer
+The World at War - Greenland 1721 - 1953

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiske_Planetarium-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fiske Planetarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiske_Planetarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:03.986309+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fiske Planetarium (est. 1975) is one of the largest planetariums in the United States. They offer fulldome films, live talks, laser and liquid sky music shows, as well as public gatherings for astronomical and NASA-related events. It is a constituent of the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder. 
+The planetarium utilizes an geodesic dome with an interior diameter of 65 feet, making it  as the largest planetarium between Chicago and Los Angeles. Its theater is currently equipped with a Megastar IIA projector alongside Sky Skan's Digital Sky 2, an 8k digital hybrid projection system capable of projecting approximately 59 million pixels. They can currently seat up to 200 guests in their theater.
+
+
+== History ==
+Fiske was founded in 1975 with a donation from University of Colorado alumni, Wallace Franz Fiske (class of 1917). The donation was made to CU upon his death in 1966, in the amount of $1.13 million. While a quarter of this amount was dedicated to the university's music department, the remaining amount was "to build and equip a planetarium for the University of Colorado." By the time the university's astronomers decided to act on the donation in 1971, their share had grown to $1.61 million.
+
+Gerrit Verschuur was brought on as Fiske's first director in 1971. James Sharp, an engineer from Strasenburgh Planetarium, oversaw the building design, organized the planetarium staff, and built auxiliary systems for Fiske. The planetarium was dedicated on Sept 19th, 1975, with doors opening to the public the following day. Opening shows included "Stardeath", a short film about supernovae written by Verschuur, and "Quaking Aspens", a visual art program by photographer Gary Metz. Fiske is a sister-facility to Sommers-Bausch Observatory.  
+In 1976, Fiske hosted the International Society of Planetarium Educators (now the International Planetarium Society) Conference. That same year, Fiske began programming laser shows in the theater, providing an intermittent revenue stream as well as technical training for undergraduates. In 1983, university “Science Discovery” classes started to be offered at Fiske. 
+In 2003, there was a major flood of the planetarium caused by a broken water main. While the projection system survived, the majority of the theater was ruined, resulting in the installation of new carpet and chairs. 
+In 2004, Fiske completed its first planetarium show for international distribution titled “Deep Impact: Rendezvous with a Comet”, funded by NASA in association with Ball Aerospace, JPL, and the University of Maryland. Fiske has continued to create fulldome films in the decades since. 
+In 2007, a Science On a Sphere exhibit was installed in the planetarium's lobby. In 2013, Fiske underwent a major upgrade in which the facility retired their 38-year-old, Zeiss Mark VI Star projector. Nicknamed Fritz after the West German engineer who oversaw its installation, it is currently on display in the lobby. 
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+The Colorado Engineer. University of Colorado College of Engineering. 1976. pp. 20, 40. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
+Danilov, V.J. (1990). America's Science Museums. Greenwood Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-313-25865-7. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
+"Fiske Planetarium flies into the digital age" Archived September 22, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. University of Colorado News Center.
+Gibbs, M.G.; Barnes, J.; Manning, J.G.; Partridge, B. (2008). Preparing for the 2009 International Year of Astronomy. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 344–346. ISBN 978-1-58381-672-1. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
+Verschuur, G. L.; Sharp, J. H. (September 1975). "The Fiske Planetarium in Boulder". Sky & Telescope. 50: 140. Bibcode:1975S&T....50..140V.(subscription required)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fleringe"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:42.455893+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fleringe is a populated area, a socken (not to be confused with parish), on the Swedish island of Gotland. It comprises the same area as the administrative Fleringe District, established on 1 January 2016.
+
+
+== Community ==
+The name is known since 1304 as Fledynge, the first part flaidh meaning "tear or wound" is figuratively used for "hills" or "wound in the landscape", such "wounds" can be found north and northwest of the church, and the last part inge meaning "inhabitants". Fleringe is situated on the north coast of the main island, Gotland, west of Fårösund and right by Lake Bästeträsk. Fleringe is mostly forested land.
+A number of grave mounds and stone circles from the bronze age can be found at Fleringe. The medieval Fleringe Church is located in Fleringe. As of 2019, Fleringe Church belongs to Bunge-Rute-Fleringe parish in Norra Gotlands pastorat, along with the churches in Bunge and Rute .
+One of the asteroids in the Asteroid belt, 9359 Fleringe, is named after this place.
+
+
+== Limestone industry ==
+From 1650, and peaking during the 1920s, the area around Fleringe contained many industries connected to the limestone industry on Gotland. The limestone industry closed down in 1990. The old lime kiln can still be seen as a part of Bläse lime industry museum along with the old railway. One of the old limestone quarries at Ar in north Fleringe is now filled with water so clear and blue it has been named the Blue Lagoon. It is a popular destination for people on the island.
+
+
+== Lakes and research ==
+The Lake Bästeträsk is the largest lake on Gotland. The water is very clear and shallow, with an average depth of 4.5 m (15 ft).
+The long, flat stone beaches at Ar in north Fleringe makes this an ideal location for weather and fishing research. There are two research stations at Ar, Fårösund väderstation and Fiskforskningsstationen connected to Campus Gotland and Uppsala University. Sometimes these stations also hosts ornithological research.
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Westman, Anna (1988). Att bränna snö: om kvinnoliv i Fleringe (in Swedish). Lärbro: Intresseföreningen Bläse kalkbruk. SELIBR 777354.
+Pettersson, Jörgen (1987). Botanisk och ornitologisk inventering av täkt- och påverkansområde för planerat kalkbrott i sydvästra Fleringe (in Swedish). Visby: Naturvårdsfunktionen, Länsstyr. i Gotlands län. SELIBR 693128.
+Ohlsson, Erik W (2002). "Groddargården i Fleringe". Från Gutabygd. 2002: 25–34. SELIBR 9649105.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Objects from Fleringe at the Digital Museum by Nordic Museum

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:43.659927+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station is teaching and research facility, established by the UNSW Australia (UNSW), which is located in the Australian state of New South Wales. in Fowlers Gap in the far north-west of the state. The station is located about  112 kilometres (70 mi) north of Broken Hill. It occupies Western Lands Lease No. 10194, an area of 38,888 hectares (96,090 acres), and has been used by scientists in fields ranging from zoology to agriculture, palaeontology and environmental science. The facility has also hosted art and design students on field trips from the university, using purpose-built facilities, including studios. 
+
+
+== Features ==
+
+The property has been held since 1966 by the UNSW on a lease in perpetuity. It is administered by the UNSW Faculty of Science.The lease enables studies of the arid-zone environment, particularly in relation to impacts on the pastoral industry. Fowlers Gap is the only research station in the arid zone of New South Wales. Areas have been monitored and data collected continuously, in some cases for over 30 years. With a varied collection of meeting places, dormitories, cottages and camping sites it can handle reasonably large visiting groups and small conferences. Research has been conducted there by schools and units of UNSW, including Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Fine Arts, the Faculty of Built Environment, the Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering and the Centre for Remote Sensing and GIS.
+A condition of the lease is that UNSW provides facilities for any reasonable research program proposed by other university and government organisations. They include Macquarie University, University of Sydney, University of Newcastle, University of New England, the University of Adelaide, the Australian National University, Monash University, Melbourne University and La Trobe University. Two Cooperative Research Centres, Sustainable Tourism and Landscape Evolution & Mineral Exploration, have conducted research. Government organisations that have utilised the facilities include: the former Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales (now part of the Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources), NSW Agriculture (now part of the Department of Primary Industries), Queensland DPI, SA Department of Agriculture, NSW Department of Environment and Conservation and several divisions of CSIRO. Funding to support research has been provided by the University of New South Wales, Australian Research Council, Wool Research Trust Fund, Australian Wool Innovation, Meat and Livestock Australia, Rural Credits Development Fund, Water Research Foundation of Australia, Australian Housing Research Council, Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism and a number of overseas governments and universities.
+As well as research, Fowlers Gap is used extensively for teaching, largely by way of student field excursions from UNSW and other educational institutions also visit the station. The Station attracts visitors from overseas and within Australia and has been the subject of television documentaries and newspaper articles. It has abundant wildlife, grand scenery, varied geology and terrain, and a rich human history that includes significant indigenous sites, including a stone tool quarry, and artefacts from decades of scientific research. It has natural waterholes and ephemeral creeks. Several large dams provide permanent surface water even in severe droughts. Sheep grazing provides a supplementary income.
+The Station is administered by a Management Committee consisting of representatives from UNSW users, assisted by two advisory groups - the Graziers Committee, comprising a small group of pastoralists who supply support and advice at an informal level, and the Consultative Committee, an advisory group representing organisations of the pastoral industry, natural resource management agencies and CSIRO.
+
+
+== Geography ==
+
+
+=== Climate ===
+Fowlers Gap has a subtropical desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with very hot, slightly wetter summers and mild, very dry winters. Extreme temperatures ranged from 49.1 °C (120.4 °F) on 27 and 31 January 2026 to −3.6 °C (25.5 °F) on 15 July 2018. The wettest recorded day was 4 March 2020 with 120.8 mm (4.76 in) of rainfall.
+
+
+== Heritage register ==
+The Station and its records form a unique facility for research and education, recognised in May 1996 by its inclusion in the former Register of the National Estate. The statement of significance is as follows:
+
+Fowlers Gap Research Station is a significant arid zone reference area and an important research and education facility. It is the only research station in the arid zone of New South Wales and is the only research station in the winter rainfall arid zone of Australia. The invertebrate fauna of the place is better known and documented than any other range land area in New South Wales, while all other features of the natural environment have been well researched and documented. Areas within the station have been monitored, regularly photographed and data collected for over thirty years, providing an unparalleled record of environmental change and response to monitored environmental conditions in the arid zone of southern Australia. Over 100 scientists have done research and field experiments in the place, with many scientific publications resulting. Research topics are varied and relate to most aspects of the arid zone and its management.
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+www.fowlersgap.unsw.edu.au

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_Ark-0.md

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+---
+title: "Frozen Ark"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_Ark"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:44.232785+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Frozen Ark is a charitable frozen zoo project created jointly by the Zoological Society of London, the Natural History Museum and University of Nottingham. The project aims to preserve the DNA and living cells of endangered species to retain the genetic knowledge for the future. The Frozen Ark collects and stores samples taken from animals in zoos and those threatened with extinction in the wild. Its current director is Michael W. Bruford (Cardiff University). The Frozen Ark was a finalist for the Saatchi & Saatchi Award for World Changing Ideas in 2006.
+The project was founded by Ann Clarke, her husband Bryan Clarke and Dame Anne McLaren. Since Bryan Clarke's death in 2014, the Frozen Ark's interim director has been Mike Bruford.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+A video on the Frozen Ark

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-0.md

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+---
+title: "Frozen zoo"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A frozen zoo is a storage facility in which genetic materials taken from animals (e.g. DNA, sperm, eggs, embryos and live tissue) are stored at very low temperatures (−196 °C) in tanks of liquid nitrogen. Material preserved in this way can be stored indefinitely and used for artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, embryo transfer, and cloning. There are a few frozen zoos across the world that implement this technology for conservation efforts. Several different species have been introduced to this technology, including the Pyrenean ibex, Black-footed ferret, and potentially the white rhinoceros.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+The first frozen zoo was established at the San Diego Zoo by pathologist Kurt Benirschke in 1972. At the time there was no technology available to make use of the collection, but Benirschke believed such technology would be developed in the future. The frozen zoo idea was later supported in Gregory Benford's 1992 paper proposing a Library of Life. Zoos such as the San Diego Zoo and research programs such as the Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species cryopreserve genetic material in order to protect the diversity of the gene pool of endangered species, or to provide for a prospective reintroduction of such extinct species as the Tasmanian tiger and the mammoth.
+Gathering material for a frozen zoo is rendered simple by the abundance of sperm in males. Sperm can be taken from an animal following death. The production of eggs, which in females is usually low, can be increased through hormone treatment to obtain 10–20 oocytes, dependent on the species. Some frozen zoos prefer to fertilize eggs and freeze the resulting embryo, as embryos are more resilient under the cryopreservation process. Some centers also collect skin cell samples of endangered animals or extinct species. The Scripps Research Institute has successfully made skin cells into cultures of special cells called induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells). It is theoretically possible to make sperm and egg cells from these IPS cells.
+Several animals whose cells were preserved in frozen zoos have been cloned to increase the genetic diversity of endangered species, as of 2021. One attempt to clone an extinct species was made in 2003; the newborn Pyrenean ibex died of a development disorder which may have been linked to the cloning, and there are not enough genetic samples in frozen zoos to re-create a breeding Pyrenean ibex population.
+
+== Facilities ==
+The Frozen Zoo at the San Diego Zoo's Institute for Conservation Research currently stores a collection of 11,500 samples from over 1,300 species and subspecies. It has acted as a forebear to similar projects at other zoos in the United States and Europe. However, there are still less than a dozen frozen zoos worldwide.
+At the United Arab Emirates' Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW) in Sharjah, the embryos stored include the extremely endangered Gordon's wildcat (Felis silvestris gordoni) and the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) (of which there are only 50 in the wild).
+The Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species, affiliated with the University of New Orleans, is maintaining a frozen zoo. In 2000 the Center implanted a frozen-thawed embryo from the highly endangered African wildcat into the uterus of a domestic house cat, resulting in a healthy male wildcat.
+The Pan-Smithsonian Cryo-Initiative (PSCI), established in 2007 and led by the National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute (NZCBI), manages a biobank of over 1.5 million samples from 14,500 species. Its collections include a specialized Milk Repository, housing 16,000 samples from over 200 species of exotic animals. 
+In Malaysia, the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) established the country's first frozen zoo at the Institute of Planetary Survival for Sustainable Well-being (PLANETIIUM). This facility focuses on the long term preservation of cells and tissues through specialized IVF laboratories. In 2016, in collaboration with the Borneo Rhino Alliance (BORA), the institute successfully collected and stored genetic material from the last three Sumatran rhinoceroses in Malaysia. 
+The Frozen Ark is a frozen zoo established in 2004 and jointly managed by the Zoological Society of London, the London Natural History Museum, and the University of Nottingham. While the charity maintains its institutional base at the University of Nottingham, its research is now primarily conducted at Cardiff University. This organization operates as a charity with many different departments including the DNA laboratory, consortium, taxon expert groups, and the database. In the DNA laboratory, samples are contained after collection from scientists, and different research projects are conducted there. The consortium acts as a bridge to bring together different, but important, groups from zoos, aquariums, museums, and universities. The taxon expert groups monitor the major phyla and lists like the IUCN Red List. The database is the essential piece as it holds all reports and records needed to perform all of the other functions for the charity. The hope for the future is for zoos and aquariums to be able to collect samples from their threatened and/or endangered species in house to help with conservation efforts. The collection and freezing of these samples allows for the distribution of gametes among populations. Samples can be collected from living hosts and from deceased hosts as well.
+The University of Georgia's Regenerative Bioscience Center is building a frozen zoo. RBC Director Steven Stice and animal and dairy science assistant professor Franklin West created the facility with the thought of saving endangered cat species. The scientists have already extracted cells from a Sumatran tiger, which could be used for artificial insemination. Artificial insemination provides a remedy for animals who, due to anatomical or physiological reasons, are unable to reproduce in the natural way. Reproduction of stored genetic material also allows for the fostering of genetic improvements, and the prevention of inbreeding. Modern technology allows for genetic manipulation in animals without keeping them in captivity. However, the success of their restoration into the wild would require the application of new science and a sufficient amount of previously collected material.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-1.md

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+---
+title: "Frozen zoo"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Drawbacks ==
+Due to the very low temperatures required, varying levels of stress are put on the DNA samples. Spermatozoa, in particular, are stressed by temperature shock, osmotic stress, and oxidative stress with the latter being the most detrimental. When temperature shock occurs, the membrane is damaged through freezing and thawing of the sperm. Osmotic stress occurs when ice crystals form inside the nucleus during the freezing process, causing differing osmotic pressures within the cell. Oxidative stress is the result of too many reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is highly reactive and damaging to all parts of the cell. Although these stressors are present within the cell, there are solutions to each. By introducing cholesterol to the samples, temperature shock can be reduced. The use of antifreeze proteins provides one solution for osmotic stress. Oxidative stress is the most difficult to combat because of the highly reactive components of ROS, but some measures like adding certain proteins to limit freeze-thaw damage and increase the survival rate of the DNA.
+
+== Applications ==
+
+=== Gaur ===
+A gaur that died of natural causes had some skin cells frozen and added to the San Diego Frozen Zoo. Eight years later, DNA from these cells was inserted into a domestic-cow egg to create an embryo (trans-species cloning), which was then implanted in a domestic cow (Bos taurus). On 8 January 2001, the gaur, named Noah, was born in Sioux Center, Iowa. Noah was initially healthy, but the next day, he came down with clostridial enteritis, and died of dysentery within 48 hours of birth. This is not uncommon in uncloned animals, and the researchers did not think it was due to the cloning.
+
+=== Banteng ===
+The banteng was the second endangered species to be successfully cloned, and the first clone to survive beyond infancy. Scientists at Advanced Cell Technology in Worcester, Massachusetts, extracted DNA from skin cells of a dead male banteng, that were preserved in San Diego 's Frozen Zoo facility, and transferred it into eggs from domestic banteng cows, a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Thirty embryos were created and implanted in domestic banteng cows. Two were carried to term and delivered by Caesarian section. The first was born on 1 April 2003, and the second two days later. The second was euthanized, apparently suffering from large offspring syndrome (an overgrowth disorder), but the first survived and lived for seven years at the San Diego Zoo, where it died in April 2010 after it broke a leg and was euthanized.
+
+=== Przewalski's horse clone ===
+
+In 2020, the first cloned Przewalski's horse was born, the result of a collaboration between San Diego Zoo Global, ViaGen Equine and Revive & Restore. The cloning was carried out by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), whereby a viable embryo is created by transplanting the DNA-containing nucleus of a somatic cell into an immature egg cell (oocyte) that has had its own nucleus removed, producing offspring genetically identical to the somatic cell donor. Since the oocyte used was from a domestic horse, this was an example of interspecies SCNT.
+The somatic cell donor was a Przewalski's horse stallion named Kuporovic, born in the UK in 1975, and relocated three years later to the US, where he died in 1998. Due to concerns over the loss of genetic variation in the captive Przewalski's horse population, and in anticipation of the development of new cloning techniques, tissue from the stallion was cryopreserved at the San Diego Zoo's Frozen Zoo. Breeding of this individual in the 1980s had already substantially increased the genetic diversity of the captive population, after he was discovered to have more unique alleles than any other horse living at the time, including otherwise-lost genetic material from two of the original captive founders. To produce the clone, frozen skin fibroblasts were thawed, and grown in cell culture. An oocyte was collected from a domestic horse, and its nucleus replaced by a nucleus collected from a cultured Przewalski's horse fibroblast. The resulting embryo was induced to begin division and was cultured until it reached the blastocyst stage, then implanted into a domestic horse surrogate mare, which carried the embryo to term and delivered a foal with the Przewalski's horse DNA of the long-deceased stallion.
+The cloned horse was named Kurt, after Dr. Kurt Benirschke, a geneticist who developed the idea of cryopreserving genetic material from species considered to be endangered. His ideas led to the creation of the Frozen Zoo as a genetic library. There is a breeding herd in the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Once the foal matured, he was relocated to the breeding herd at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, so as to pass Kuporovic's genes into the larger captive Przewalski's horse population and increase the genetic variation of the species. In 2023, a second horse, named Ollie, was cloned from the same cell line.
+
+=== Black-footed ferret ===
+To help mitigate inbreeding depression for two endangered species, the Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), Revive & Restore facilitates on-going efforts to clone individuals from historic cell lines stored at the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Frozen Zoo. The program seeks to restore genetic variation lost from the living gene pool.
+
+On December 10, 2020, the world's first cloned black-footed ferret was born. This ferret, named Elizabeth Ann, marked the first time a U.S. endangered species was successfully cloned. 
+The cells of two 1980s wild-caught black-footed ferrets that never bred in captivity were preserved in the San Diego Wildlife Alliance Frozen Zoo. One of them was cloned to increase genetic diversity in this species in December 2020. More clones of both are planned. They will initially be bred separately from the non-cloned population.
+
+=== Pyrenean ibex ===

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+---
+title: "Frozen zoo"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Pyrenean ibex went extinct in 2000. In 2003 frozen cells from the last one (a female killed by a falling branch) were used to clone 208 embryos, of which 7 successfully implanted in goats, and one made it to term. That one ibex died of respiratory failure just after birth; quite possibly as a result of the cloning process, its lungs had not developed properly. There may not be enough individuals' cells preserved to create a breeding population. Despite the death of the ibex, DNA analysis revealed that the offspring was a legitimate clone from its last living descendent.
+
+== Potential candidates ==
+
+=== White rhinoceros ===
+Over the years, concerns over population declines of the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) have increased with the increasing value of their horns to poachers. Specifically, the population has declined nearly seventy percent from 2011 to 2019. Processes like SCNT can help aid in conservation efforts towards the revival of their population. Researchers are looking towards induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), as they hold limitless possibilities. With the lack of natural mating occurring within the species due to the limited number of them, this sub-species provides researchers the opportunity for iPSC intervention. Other methods, including artificial insemination with fresh semen (AI), have been used successfully in another sub-species, the Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). Frozen-thawed semen has been tested and has seen some successes, helping solve issues with reproduction of the species as a whole.
+
+== See also ==
+Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources
+Cryopreservation
+Ex-situ conservation
+Genetic pollution
+Genetic erosion
+Gene pool
+Endangered species
+List of conservation topics
+Extinction
+SVF Foundation
+Svalbard Global Seed Vault
+National Ice Core Laboratory
+Amphibian Ark
+Coral reef organizations
+Rosetta Project
+Colossal Biosciences
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gardens by the Bay"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:48.406877+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Gardens by the Bay is an urban park spanning 105 hectares (260 acres) in the Central Region of Singapore, adjacent to the Marina Reservoir. The park consists of three waterfront gardens: Bay South Garden in Marina South, Bay East Garden with the Founders' Memorial in Marina East and Bay Central Garden in the Downtown Core and Kallang. The largest of the gardens is the Bay South Garden at 54 hectares (130 acres) designed by Grant Associates. Its Flower Dome is the largest glass greenhouse in the world.
+Gardens by the Bay was part of the nation's plans to transform its "Garden City" to a "City in a Garden", with the aim of raising the quality of life by enhancing greenery and flora in the city. First announced by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at Singapore's National Day Rally in 2005, Gardens by the Bay was intended to be Singapore's premier urban outdoor recreation space and one of the country's national icons.
+A popular tourist attraction in Singapore, the park had 6.4 million visitors in 2014, and had had 20 million by November 2015 and over 50 million by 2018. In 2024, TripAdvisor's Traveler's Choice Awards Best Of The Best ranked it the eighth-best attraction in the world and the best in Asia.
+
+== Bay Central Garden ==
+Bay Central Garden acts as a link between Bay South and Bay East Gardens. It stands at 15 hectares (37 acres) with a 3-kilometre (1.9 mi) waterfront promenade that allows for scenic walks stretching from the city centre to the east of Singapore.
+
+== Bay East Garden ==
+
+Bay East Garden is 32 hectares (79 acres) in size and has a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) promenade frontage bordering the Marina Reservoir. An interim park was developed at Bay East Garden in support of the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics. The first phase of the garden was opened to the public in October 2011, allowing alternative access to the Marina Barrage.
+It is designed as a series of large tropical leaf-shaped gardens, each with its own specific landscaping design, character and theme. There will be five water inlets aligned with the prevailing wind direction, maximizing and extending the shoreline while allowing wind and water to penetrate the site to help cool areas of activity around them. Bay East Garden provides visitors with an unobstructed view of the city skyline. 
+In 2018, Bay East Garden was designated as the future site of the Founders' Memorial, which will open in 2027. Bay East Garden was closed in 2023 to facilitate a major redevelopment of the area, which will open in tandem with the Founders' Memorial. 
+
+== Bay South Garden ==
+Bay South Garden opened to the public on 29 June 2012. It is the largest of the three gardens at 54 hectares (130 acres) and designed to show the best of tropical horticulture and garden artistry.
+The overall concept of its master plan by Grant Associates draws inspiration from an orchid as it is representative of the tropics and of Singapore, being the country's national flower, the Vanda 'Miss Joaquim'. The orchid takes root at the waterfront (conservatories), while the leaves (landforms), shoots (paths, roads and linkways) and secondary roots (water, energy and communication lines) then form an integrated network with blooms (theme gardens and Supertrees) at key intersections.
+
+=== Conservatories ===
+
+The conservatory complex at Gardens by the Bay comprises two cooled conservatories – the Flower Dome and the Cloud Forest, situated along the edge of Marina Reservoir. The conservatories, designed by WilkinsonEyre and led by Andrew Grant of Grant Associates, are intended to be an energy-efficient showcase of sustainable building technologies and to provide an all-weather edutainment space within the Gardens. Both are very large (around 1 hectare (2.5 acres)), and the Flower Dome is the world's largest columnless glasshouse.
+The construction of glasshouses is special: having such a large glass roof without additional interior support (such as columns) and aiming to minimize the environmental footprint. Rainwater is collected from the surface and circulated in the cooling system connected to the Supertrees. The Supertrees are used to vent hot air and cool circulated water.
+
+=== Flower Dome ===
+
+The Flower Dome was the largest greenhouse in the world as listed in the 2015 Guinness Book of World Records at 1.2 hectares (3.0 acres) and replicates a cool-dry mediterranean climate. It features a changing display area, the flower field, and eight other themed gardens, namely The Baobabs, Succulent Garden, Australian Garden, South African Garden, South American Garden, Olive Grove, California Garden and the Mediterranean Garden. These eight gardens exhibit exotic flowers and plants from the Mediterranean and semi-arid regions from five continents.
+Here is the list of some plants growing in the Flower Dome:
+
+The flower displays, located predominantly in the flower field, are six to eight horticulturally-themed shows held annually. Each flower display reflects different seasons and festivals, focused on one type or a collection of plants and flowers such as dahlias, cherry blossoms, tulips, roses, and poinsettias.
+The Flower Dome also features several sculptures, such as a collection of 40 different driftwood animals by James Doran-Webb, Bruno Catalano's La Famille De Voyageurs, and Yayoi Kusama's Kei-Chan.

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+---
+title: "Gardens by the Bay"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:48.406877+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Cloud Forest ===
+The Cloud Forest is higher but slightly smaller at 0.8 hectares (2.0 acres). It replicates the cool moist conditions found in tropical mountain regions between 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) and 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level, found in South-East Asia, Central- and South America. It features a 42-metre (138 ft) "Cloud Mountain". After ascending to the top by an elevator, visitors descend the mountain via a circular path which crosses underneath the 35-metre (115 ft) waterfall multiple times.
+The "Cloud Mountain" itself is an intricate structure entirely clad in epiphytes such as orchids, ferns, spikemosses and clubmosses, bromeliads and anthuriums. The Maiden Hair Fungus inspired the design by Grant Associates and consists of many levels, each with a different theme, including The Lost World, The Cavern, The Waterfall View, The Crystal Mountain, The Cloud Forest Gallery, The Cloud Forest Theatre and The Secret Garden.
+The following is a partial list of plants growing in the Cloud Forest:
+
+In April 2022, a Māori kūwaha (meeting house) sculpture was presented to Singapore by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, of New Zealand, during her first official trip abroad since the 2020 pandemic. Symbolising strong ties and a friendship between New Zealand and Singapore, it is the work of master carvers from the New Zealand Māori Arts and Crafts Institute.
+Other sculptures in the Cloud Forest include Dale Chihuly's Ethereal White Persians, Marc Quinn's The Rush of Nature, Paul Baliker's A Matter of Time, and a series of four botanical "hybrid" sculptures by Makoto Azuma.
+
+=== Supertree Grove ===
+
+Supertrees are the 18 tree-like structures that dominate the Gardens' landscape with heights that range between 25 metres (82 ft) and 50 metres (160 ft). Grant Associates conceived and designed them with the imaginative engineering of Atelier One and Atelier Ten.  They are vertical gardens that perform a multitude of functions, which include planting, shading and working as environmental engines for the gardens.
+The Supertrees are home to enclaves of unique and exotic ferns, vines, orchids and also a vast collection of bromeliads such as Neoregelia and Tillandsia, amongst other plants. They are fitted with environmental technologies that mimic the ecological function of trees: photovoltaic cells that harness solar energy which can be used for some of the functions of the Supertrees (such as lighting), similar to how trees photosynthesize, and collection of rainwater for use in irrigation and fountain displays, similar to how trees absorb rainwater for growth. The Supertrees also serve air intake and exhaust functions as part of the conservatories' cooling systems.
+
+There is an elevated walkway, the OCBC Skyway, between two larger Supertrees for visitors to enjoy a panoramic view of the Gardens. Every night, at 7:45pm and 8:45pm, the Supertree Grove comes alive with a coordinated light and music show known as the Garden Rhapsody. The accompanying music to the show changes every month or so, with selected themes such as "A World of Wonder" and "A Night of Musical Theatre", which features excerpts/pieces from films like The Little Mermaid (1989 film) and Pinocchio (1940 film).
+The Supertree Observatory, opened on 27 December 2019, is housed inside the tallest Supertree, which is 50 metres tall. It comprises three levels, the ground floor, the Observatory Space and the Open-Air Rooftop Deck. Visitors would take the elevator up to the Observatory Space and thereafter take a flight of stairs up to the Rooftop Deck. The Observatory Space is located one level below the rooftop deck, and it consists of an indoor area with full-height glass windows and a peripheral outdoor walkway. Here, visitors can also experience a message about the effects of climate change conveyed through digital media. The Open-Air Rooftop Deck, which is an open-air observation deck on the canopy of this Supertree, offers 360-degree unblocked views of the Gardens and the Marina Bay area.
+Italy's Pavilion in Expo 2015, featured a structure called Albero Della Vita (or "Tree of Life" in Italian), which proved visually similar to Singapore's Supertrees.
+
+=== Far East Organization Children's Garden ===
+Designed by Grant Associates, which also designed Gardens by the Bay, the Children's Garden was fully funded by Far East Organization for $10 million. This attraction was opened on 21 January 2014. The children's garden is near the treehouse and the adventure trail. The adventure trail consists of trampolines, balancing beams, hanging bridges and more.
+It is open from Tuesdays to Fridays from 10 a.m. to 7 p.m. and on Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. It is closed on Mondays, or the next working day if Monday is a public holiday.
+
+=== Horticultural-themed gardens ===
+There are two distinctly different sets of horticultural-themed gardens, which centre on the horticultural heritage of the various cultural groups in Singapore and on the biology and ecology of the tropical rainforest. These gardens are an important part of the Gardens' edutainment programme, which aims to bring plant knowledge to the public.
+The Heritage Gardens emphasize the various cultural groups in Singapore, the significant role that plants play in their respective cultures, and the country's colonial history. It also focuses on economically important plants in Singapore and Southeast Asia. The four gardens are the Indian Garden, the Chinese Garden, the Malay Garden and the Colonial Garden.
+The World of Plants features a curated selection of plants that showcase the biodiversity of the tropical rainforest. It consists of six subthemes illustrated by six sub-gardens: Discovery, Web of Life, Fruits and Flowers, Understorey, World of Palms, and Secret Life of Trees.
+
+=== Bayfront Plaza and Floral Fantasy ===
+
+The Bayfront Plaza is the main entry precinct into the Gardens from Bayfront MRT station. It includes Floral Fantasy, a 1,500-square-metre (16,000 sq ft) indoor attraction consisting of four floral artistry garden landscapes and a 4D multimedia ride simulating the journey of a dragonfly's flight path through Gardens by the Bay. Other venues within the Bayfront Plaza includes an indoor events space, the Bayfront Pavilion, a cafe and a pop-up market on weekends.

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+---
+title: "Gardens by the Bay"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:48.406877+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Future Developments ==
+
+=== Wetlands By The Bay ===
+Wetlands by the Bay was announced on 4 March 2026 in Parliament by Minister of State for National Development Alvin Tan as a new attraction located in Bay South Gardens. Planned to open in stages starting from the end of 2028, it will consist of the current Kingfisher Wetlands, which would be expanded to contain over 50,000 plants of varying species, a new 1.2ha museum set up by teamLab, an international artist collective, and the current Satay by  the Bay, which will be replaced by a two-storey block. In total, Wetlands by the Bay will occupy approximately 5ha. According to Alvin Tan, the attraction will funded by Gardens by the Bay. However, the cost of the attraction was not stated.
+A new bridge, expected to open in 2027 at a cost of SG$75.7 million, will also be built to link up Bay South Garden and Bay East Garden. The bridge will be roughly 550m long and have a maximum width of 5.8m, and can be used by pedestrians, cyclists, and persons using mobility aids.
+
+== Budget ==
+The final construction cost for the project, not including the price of the land but including an access road, drainage works, and soil improvement, was within a $1.035 billion allocated budget. The annual operating cost was expected to be approximately $58 million, of which $28 million was for operation of the Conservatory buildings. The project received 1.7 million visitors between June and October 2012, who had free admission to most portions of the park but were required to purchase tickets for entering the Conservatories.
+In 2006, an international competition for the design of the park was held, attracting more than 70 entries submitted by 170 firms from 24 countries. Two British firms – Grant Associates and Gustafson Porter – were awarded the contracts for the Bay South and Bay East Gardens respectively.
+Alongside the lead designers Grant Associates, the design team for Bay South included WilkinsonEyre, Atelier Ten (environmental design consultants) and Atelier One (structural engineers). They were supported by a number of Singapore firms including CPG Consultants (architecture, civil and structural, mechanical and electrical), Meinhardt Infrastructure (civil and structural), Langdon & Seah (cost consultants) and PMLink (project management).
+
+== Transportation ==
+Gardens by the Bay is well connected by public transportation. The nearest Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) train stations are its namesake Gardens by the Bay MRT station on the Thomson–East Coast Line (TEL), as well as Bayfront MRT station on the Circle (CCL) and Downtown (DTL) lines.
+The public bus service of 400, operated by SBS Transit, also serves Gardens by the Bay.
+
+== In popular culture ==
+The planet of Xandar in the film adaptation of Guardians of the Galaxy took inspiration from the location.
+The documentary series Planet Earth II features the Supertree Grove in Episode 7, "A World of Wonder."
+The park was featured in the 2015 film Hitman: Agent 47.
+An entire mission is set within the gardens in the 2015 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops III.
+The anime series Plastic Memories features locations inspired by the supertrees in the gardens.
+The Supertree Grove in the park was featured in the 2018 film Crazy Rich Asians.
+The Singapore track in the video game Asphalt Legends Unite incorporates the Gardens by the Bay.
+Some of the illustrations for the Neom project were borrowed from the Gardens by the Bay in Singapore, leading commentators to observe that using an actual image of Singapore to represent a future construction project in Saudi Arabia is an unusual choice.
+
+== Events ==
+
+Gardens by the Bay hosts several events throughout the year, predominantly the lantern-themed Mid-Autumn Festival, Christmas Wonderland, and River Hongbao (since 2021). Dye-nosaur gardens was an immersive and educational event held at Gardens by the Bay in 2017 as part of the annual Children's Festival. This event involved several dinosaur-inspired characters found in the exhibits.
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+== See also ==
+List of parks in Singapore
+National Parks Board
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Gardens by the Bay official website
+Gardens' Youtube Channel
+Grant Associates official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gene bank"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:03.687405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A gene bank is a type of biorepository that is used across the world to store the genetic material of animals, plants, and other organisms. It preserves their genetic information in the form of reproductive material like seeds, sperm, eggs, embryos, cells and other kinds of DNA. Oftentimes, these banks house the genetic material of species that are endangered or close to extinction.They are also used for the preservation of major crop species and cultivars, in order to preserve crop diversity.This protects the organism from threats like extinction, diseases, and climate change.
+
+== Preservation methods ==
+Preservation is done via the collection and storage of reproductive material from an organism. For example, seeds and cuttings may be collected from plants, spores may be collected from fungi, and sperm and egg cells may be collected from animals. Pollen is also an essential component for the reproduction of seed plants. It contains the male genetic material for fertilization of other plants and is stored through cryopreservation. Aquatic organisms, such as coral, are preserved via the collection of fragments that are sustained alive in a carefully controlled aquatic environment.
+The collected material is oftentimes stored at a temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). It may also be stored in cryogenic conditions using liquid nitrogen. Certain gene banks, called Field gene banks, are based around the continuous cultivation of living organisms, such as certain species of plants being raised in a controlled nutrient medium, or artificially created habitats that then harbor certain species.
+The database of the largest gene banks in the world can be queried via a common website, Genesys. A number of global gene banks are coordinated by the CGIAR Genebank Platform.
+
+== Types of gene banks ==
+
+=== Seed bank ===
+Seed banks, also known as seed vaults, are large repositories where many different species of seeds are stored at freezing temperatures. They are used to preserve the genetic diversity for possible future uses. The temperature that the seeds are stored at depends on the type of seed and the length of the preservation. Short-term storage refers to seeds that are stored anywhere from 3–5 years and are typically stored at temperatures of 5 to 10 °C (41 to 50 °F). Medium term storage refers to seeds stored from 10 to 15 years and are typically stored at a temperature of  0 °C (32 °F). Seeds that are in long-term storage have been stored for 50+ years and are typically at a temperature of  −18 to −20 °C (0 to −4 °F). It is also important that when seeds are stored, the moisture content of the seeds and the surrounding medium is kept low, otherwise the seeds will not be viable after long periods in freezing temperatures. The largest seed bank in the world is the Millennium Seed Bank housed at the Wellcome Trust Millennium Building (WTMB), located on the grounds of Wakehurst Place in West Sussex, near London.
+
+=== In-Vitro bank ===
+An in vitro bank is another type of gene bank that stores plant or animal genetic material. It is a controlled, lab-based environment and not a traditional vault with dry or cytogenetic conditions similar to those seen in seed banks. In-vitro banks are responsible for storing genetic material like plant cells, embryos, and tissues. The samples are usually preserved in a nutrient medium, such as a test tube or culture dish. For example, buds, protocorm and meristematic cells are preserved through particular light and temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium, which is either a gel or in liquid form. This technique is used to preserve seedless plants and plants that reproduce asexually or require preservation as clones such as commercial cultivars. Oftentimes, these specimens require specific conditions for growth, so this bank is useful for preserving living tissues in a controlled and artificially supported environment.
+
+=== Cryobank ===
+In a cryobank, biological material such as sperm, eggs, and embryos, are preserved at very low temperatures. It is usually preserved in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of −196 °C (−320.8 °F). By freezing the seeds or embryos at this temperature, they can stay viable for at least a century. Cryobanks are often utilized for the Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources. These types of gene banks are helpful for the conservation of species facing extinction. An example of one of the largest animal cryobanks in the world is the Frozen zoo made by the San Diego Zoo, in San Diego California. The Frozen Zoo's collection contains over 10,000 living cells, oocytes, embryos, and other genetic material from thousands of species, including one extinct species. With animal cryobanks, freezing embryos is the preferred method instead of separating the egg and sperm because they are more resistant to the freezing process.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-1.md

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+---
+title: "Gene bank"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:03.687405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Storage of pollen ===
+Pollen is stored through a cryopreservation technique called vitrification. Vitrification, in this context, is based around the freezing of pollen grains without the formation of ice crystals that would heavily damage the pollen. The pollen, which is stored in liquid nitrogen, is kept at temperatures of −180 to −196 °C (−292.0 to −320.8 °F). The National Seed Storage Lab in Fort Collins, Colorado currently uses this technique to store pollen. Pollen can also be freeze dried and stored at temperatures of 5 to −18 °C (41 to 0 °F). An important element that must be considered is the levels of moisture in the pollen. If the pollen grains have a low moisture content it helps increase the length of the pollen's life. Low levels of moisture help the pollen freeze without creating ice or ice crystals, which helps preserve the life span of the pollen while it is being stored. Ideal levels of moisture content to be allowed in the pollen depends on the type of plant. The pollen from different plant species can be divided into two groups. One is binucleate pollen, which has a thicker exine and the second is trinucleate pollen, which has a thinner exine. Binucleate pollen has a higher lifespan when frozen at a low moisture level. Trinucleate pollen, however, has a higher lifespan when frozen at a high moisture level. Moisture level in the pollen can be decreased by exposing the pollen to diluted salt solutions, silica gel and dry air or by chemical treatment with vitrification solutions.
+
+=== Field gene banks ===
+
+Field gene banks are gene banks based around the management of live specimens, such as fruit trees and other plants, that require specific conditions to grow. In contrast to a seed bank, a Field gene bank focuses on the facilitation of backups of germplasm, typically in the form of seeds. Field gene banks are vulnerable to natural disasters, pests and disease. As such, they are typically used as a method of last resort if a species cannot be preserved via normal means, such as if it didn't produce seeds. This method also uses more land, energy and water than other methods, thus making it a less ideal option.
+An example of a Field gene bank includes the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) located in the Philippines. This organization contributes to the preservation of thousands of rice species by maintaining Field gene banks of the rice varieties. These rice species often have special traits such as the resistance to pests, disease, and drought. Each variety is important for the future development of new and more resilient species to address challenges around food security in countries with higher poverty and hunger concerns.
+
+=== Animal genetic resource bank ===
+In an Animal Genetic Resource bank, genetic material is stored to ensure the long term preservation and accessibility of it for possible future uses. The DNA inhabited here comes from a variety of different animal species that range from livestock and poultry to other organisms like insects and aquatic animals. More specifically, eggs, embryos, sperm, and other tissues are stored at very low temperatures using the advanced techniques of cryopreservation. These banks are crucial for guarding the genetic diversity of these populations, which is essential for the long term survival and adaptability of these populations.
+These facilities are particularly important for conserving genetic material from endangered species to support breeding programs that aim to save them. For species that risk extinction, the DNA in these banks provide a form of genetic insurance. It allows for the possibility of bringing back genetic diversity to the species if need be. Genetic material can be used to reintroduce diversity to a wild population who faces threats, such as genetic drift or inbreeding. In a situation where an animal cannot reproduce naturally due to disease or environmental changes, the genetic material can be used to assist the populations natural reproductive efforts via genetic rescue. This type of preservation allows for a wide range of management strategies for future interventions.
+
+== Facilities ==
+The Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) plant gene bank in Suva, Fiji, focuses on propagating (and re-propagating) seedlings of plants (using clippings and tissue culture, rather than as seeds), to  preserve the genetic diversity of the most important varieties of food crops of the Pacific region, such as banana, taro, breadfruit and yam.
+Gene banks are present all over the world, with differing objectives and resources. One of the largest is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
+
+== Management Systems ==
+The Federal Ex situ gene bank is another example of one of the largest germplasm collections. It is established to collect, conserve, and characterize plant genetic resources to promote conservation. The Federal Ex situ gene bank also conducts relevant research to develop new techniques for resource conservation.
+In context of the United States, the Federal Ex situ gene bank includes facilities managed by government agencies such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA helps to maintain a variety of gene banks like the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS). The NPGS serves to store genetic resources for crops and wild plants, thus providing a backup against the loss of biodiversity as well an option for breeding programs and research.
+
+== See also ==
+Sperm bank
+Ova bank
+Biobank
+Biological database
+Germplasm
+Seed bank
+Plant genetic resources
+Multi-Crop Passport Descriptor (MCPD)
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Ellis, R.H.; T.D. Hong; E.H. Roberts (1985). Handbook of Seed Technology for Genebanks Vol. II: Compendium of Specific Germination Information and Test Recommendations. IBPGR (now Bioversity International). Rome, Italy. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008.
+Engels, Jan; Visser, Bert, eds. (2003). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. 174 p.
+Kameswara, N.; J. Hanson; M. E. Dulloo; K. Ghosh; A. Nowell; M. Larinde. (2006). Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks. Bioversity International, CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), FAO, ILRI. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. 147 p.
+Koo, B.; Pardey, P. G.; Wright, B. D.; et al. (2004). Saving Seeds. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008.
+
+== External links ==
+AEGIS A European Genebank Integrated System
+The Crop Genebank Knowledge Base Archived 14 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
+Genebanks
+Genesys
+DAD-IS: Domestic Animal Diversity Information System

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gene pool"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:45.394005+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The gene pool is the set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species.
+
+
+== Description ==
+A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction, although as explained by genetic drift new genetic variants, that may cause an increase in the fitness of organisms, are more likely to fix in the population if it is rather small.
+When all individuals in a population are identical with regard to a particular phenotypic trait, the population is said to be 'monomorphic'. When the individuals show several variants of a particular trait they are said to be polymorphic.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Russian geneticist Alexander Sergeevich Serebrovsky first formulated the concept in the 1920s as genofond (gene fund), a word that was imported to the United States from the Soviet Union by Theodosius Dobzhansky, who translated it into English as "gene pool."
+
+
+== Gene pool concept in crop breeding ==
+Harlan and de Wet (1971) proposed classifying each crop and its related species by gene pools rather than by formal taxonomy.
+
+Primary gene pool (GP-1): Members of this gene pool are probably in the same "species" (in conventional biological usage) and can intermate freely. Harlan and de Wet wrote, "Among forms of this gene pool, crossing is easy; hybrids are generally fertile with good chromosome pairing; gene segregation is approximately normal and gene transfer is generally easy.". They also advised subdividing each crop gene pool in two:
+Subspecies A: Cultivated races
+Subspecies B: Spontaneous races (wild or weedy)
+Secondary gene pool (GP-2): Members of this pool are probably normally classified as different species than the crop species under consideration (the primary gene pool). However, these species are closely related and can cross and produce at least some fertile hybrids. As would be expected by members of different species, there are some reproductive barriers between members of the primary and secondary gene pools:
+hybrids may be weak
+hybrids may be partially sterile
+chromosomes may pair poorly or not at all
+recovery of desired phenotypes may be difficult in subsequent generations
+However, "The gene pool is available to be utilized, however, if the plant breeder or geneticist is willing to put out the effort required."
+Tertiary gene pool (GP-3): Members of this gene pool are more distantly related to the members of the primary gene pool. The primary and tertiary gene pools can be intermated, but gene transfer between them is impossible without the use of "rather extreme or radical measures"  such as:
+embryo rescue (or embryo culture, a form of plant organ culture)
+induced polyploidy (chromosome doubling)
+bridging crosses (e.g., with members of the secondary gene pool).
+
+
+== Gene pool centres ==
+Gene pool centres refers to areas on the earth where important crop plants and domestic animals originated. They have an extraordinary range of the wild counterparts of cultivated plant species and useful tropical plants.
+Gene pool centres also contain different sub tropical and temperate region species.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Biodiversity
+Conservation biology
+Extinction vortex
+Founder effect
+Gene flow
+Genetic drift
+Small population size
+Australian Grains Genebank
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm-0.md

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+---
+title: "Germplasm"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:46.591561+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Germplasm refers to genetic resources such as seeds, tissues, and DNA sequences that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, conservation efforts, agriculture, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks. Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity, food security, and conservation efforts.
+In the United States, germplasm resources are regulated by the National Genetic Resources Program (NGRP), created by the U.S. congress in 1990. In addition the web server The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) provides information about germplasms as they pertain to agriculture production.
+
+
+== Regulation ==
+In the United States, germplasm resources are regulated by the National Genetic Resources Program (NGRP), created by the U.S. congress in 1990. In addition the web server The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) provides information about germplasms as they pertain to agriculture production.
+Specifically for plants, there is the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) which holds > 450,000 accessions with 10,000 species of the 85 most commonly grown crops. Many accessions held are international species, and NPGS distributes germplasm resources internationally.
+As genetic information moves largely online there is a transition in germplasm information from a physical location (seed banks, cryopreserving) to online platforms containing genetic sequences. In addition there are issues in the collection germplasm information and where they are shared. Historically some germplasm information had been collected in developing countries and then shared to researchers who then sell the donor country the original germplasm that they altered. There is a lack of compensation to the donor countries and this is an issue. 
+
+
+== Storage methods ==
+Effective Germplasm work includes the collection, storage, analysis, documentation, and exchange of genetic information. This information can be stored as accessions, which is DNA sequence information, or live cells/tissues that can be preserved. However, only about 5% of current germplasm resources are living samples. For live cells/tissues, germplasm resources can be stored ex situ in seed banks, botanic gardens, or through cryopreservation. Cryopreservation is the process of storing germplasm at very low temperatures, such as liquid nitrogen. This process ensures that cells do not degrade and keeps the germplasm intact. In addition, resources can be stored in situ such as the natural area the species was found.
+
+
+== Conservation efforts ==
+About 10,000 years ago is when humans began to domesticate plant species for the purpose of food, seeds, and vegetation.  Since then, agriculture has been a staple for human civilizations and plant breeding has allowed more genetic diversity and a more diverse gene pool.  Germplasm resources allow for more genetic assets to be used and integrated for agricultural systems for plant breeding and bringing about new varieties. In addition, researchers are looking at crop wild relatives (CWRs) that could expand gene pools of crop species and provide more ability to select target traits.
+Furthermore, we are currently facing a biodiversity crisis event that is caused by human activities and industrialization. Many plants and animals have gone extinct due to losing their habitat, their habitat being degraded with contaminants, and climate change. Germplasm resources are a way to conserve the pre-existing biological diversity and to possibly regenerate habitats. By storing this genetic information there is data about what species are present including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi and what a complete ecosystem in specific areas look like.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture
+Conservation biology
+Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources
+Forest genetic resources
+International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
+Plant genetic resources
+Seed saving
+Germ plasm
+
+
+== References ==
+Day-Rubenstein, K and Heisey, P. 2003. Plant Genetic Resources: New Rules for International Exchange
+Carmen De Vicente, Maria (2005). Issues on gene flow and germplasm management. Bioversity International. ISBN 9789290436935. Archived from the original on May 3, 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2007. 63 p.
+Economic Research Service. Global resources and productivity: questions and answers
+Engels, Jan (2003). Engels, Jan; Visser, L (eds.). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. Bioversity International. ISBN 9789290435822. Archived from the original on May 25, 2007. 174 p.
+SeedQuest Primer Germplasm Resources
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Bioversity International
+Bioversity International: Germplasm Collection
+Bioversity International: Germplasm Databases
+Bioversity International: Germplasm Documentation - overview
+Bioversity International: Germplasm Health
+DAD-IS: Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
+USDA-ARS Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Planetarium-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ghana Planetarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Planetarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:05.164919+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Ghana Planetarium was located behind the Ghana Police Headquarters in Cantonments, Accra. It was open throughout the year. 
+The planetarium of Accra was founded by Dr. Jacob and Jane Ashong and was constructed from their pension in 2009. It was officially opened on Thursday January 22, 2009 by the British High Commissioner, Nicholas Westcott. Also attending were The British Council Director, The French Ambassador and the Chief of Nungua and his entourage.
+In February 2023, the planetarium had to close to the public, due to a change in land ownership. Shortly after, the staff posted an update that they were working on finding a new location. In the meantime, they have plans to develop a "travelling planetarium." 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Weather_Station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Giles Weather Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Weather_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:57.875648+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Giles Weather Station (also referred to as Giles Meteorological Station or Giles) is located in the locality of Warakurna, Western Australia near the Northern Territory border, about 750 kilometres (470 mi) west-south-west of Alice Springs and 330 kilometres (210 mi) west of Uluru. It is the only staffed regional weather station in mainland Australia, having previously been the only one within an area of about 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) by 2008, and is situated mid-continent and near the core of the subtropical jetstream.  This means it plays an important role as a weather and climate observatory for the country, particularly eastern and southeastern Australia, and particularly for rainfall predictions. The station is on the Great Central Road in the locality of Warakurna and the nearest township is the Warakurna Aboriginal settlement (population 180), 5 kilometres (3 mi) North. Giles is within the Shire of Ngaanyatjarraku and is in the foothills of the Rawlinson Ranges.
+
+
+== Operation and facilities ==
+A staff of three operates the remote station on four-monthly tours. As of 2026, the station reports its weather using Australian Central Standard Time in line with South Australia, including daylight saving. Giles Airport, a 1,600-metre (5,200 ft) airstrip services the station and the Warakurna community.
+Tourists are invited to watch the daily release of the weather balloon at 7AM Australian Western Standard Time to see the release process and learn more about their work, before the balloon is launched fifteen minutes later. Additionally there is a museum that visitors can browse, a remnant of the Blue Streak Rocket and Len Beadell's grader on display.
+
+
+== History ==
+Giles is named after English explorer Ernest Giles, the first European to travel through the area in 1874.
+Surveyor and roadbuilder Len Beadell, who worked for the Weapons Research Establishment (now known as the Defence Science and Technology Group), selected the site for a meteorological station in December 1955.  It was needed to forecast weather conditions suitable for nuclear weapons testing at Emu Field and Maralinga. The location was strongly opposed by Walter MacDougall since it lay on tribal land. Beadell surveyed and built Giles Airport, and chose the name Giles during construction of the Gunbarrel Highway which links Carnegie Station and Giles. Beadell's grader, which is estimated to have travelled over 30,000 kilometres (19,000 miles) in the course of making the roads, was retired in 1963 and is preserved on display at Giles.
+Later, the weather station provided support for rocket testing programs at Woomera, as Giles was close to the centre-line of fire from the launch site. Wreckage from the first Blue Streak missile, launched from Woomera on 5 June 1964, is on display at the station.
+Docker River, 100 kilometres (62 miles) north-east and just across the state border in the Northern Territory, was established by the government as an aboriginal settlement for local people in the 1960s. Overcrowding there and at Warburton created a need for a new community which became Warakurna in the mid-1970s.
+In 1972, control of the station was transferred from the Department of Defence to the Bureau of Meteorology.
+A Landline story in 2018 stated that Giles would soon become the last mainland regional weather station to be permanently staffed, with all the others being automated. This was set to be the case by the end of 2023.
+
+
+== Climate ==
+Giles Weather Station has a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with very hot summers with irregular rainfall and mild, dry winters. Giles has high insolation, with 194.3 clear days and 3491.4 sunshine hours annually. Rainfall is highly variable; recorded annual values have ranged from 38.0 millimetres (1.50 in) in 1961 to 843.4 millimetres (33.20 in) in 2001. The periodic southward movement of the monsoon trough and ex-tropical cyclones cause heavy rain events in the wetter months from November to March. Dry spells often occur, particularly in winter; the longest period without rain was 156 days from 18 April to 20 September 1961.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Gazetteer of Australia
+Giles: Australia's most remote weather station

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-0.md

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+---
+title: "Good laboratory practice"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) establish rules and criteria for a quality system that oversees the organizational processes and conditions in which non-clinical (non-pharmaceutical) health and environmental safety–or simply  toxicology–studies are planned, conducted, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. These principles apply to the toxicity testing of chemicals in commerce, to ensure the quality and integrity of the safety data submitted by manufacturers to regulatory authorities globally.
+
+== History ==
+The historical events leading to the proposal of the Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations are crucial for understanding why these regulations are important to improve the quality and integrity of chemical safety data. They were developed in response to concerns about the reliability of toxicity data from industry. The GLP regulations aim to standardize procedures and practices to ensure accurate, reliable, and traceable safety data.
+GLP was first introduced in New Zealand and Denmark in 1972, but only as quality standards for re-agents and lab materials (first created in Australia due to being isolated from western labs by the Japanese blockade of WW2); the US FDA heard about them from NZ at an international conference just as the below IBT scandal broke).
+During the 1960s and 1970s, a growing concern for environmental issues and health impacts of chemicals was one factor in increased federal regulation, particularly in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors, leading to more stringent product testing requirements and the development of inspection programs targeting laboratories conducting animal research in developed countries. These initiatives, initiated in the US by the Office of New Drugs and the Office of Marketed Drugs in 1969 and later expanded with the Office of Compliance, included inspections of facilities with questionable study validity or misconduct tips, revealing significant quality control issues and deficiencies in animal toxicological testing standards and data reporting.
+Industrial BioTest Labs (IBT) was the most notable whistleblower case where thousands of safety tests for chemical manufacturers were either falsely claimed to have been performed or were of such poor quality that police investigators could not determine the extent of the work completed, despite superficially delivering test results as specified in their contracts with the manufacturers.  IBT, a contract laboratory based in Northbrook, Illinois, conducted research for the United States government and various chemical and pharmaceutical companies, both from the U.S. and abroad, and submitted toxicology data to several federal agencies, covering a wide range of products including drugs, insecticides, herbicides, food additives, pesticides, cosmetics, and cleaning products.
+These issues were aired in hearings at the US Congress, which pressured the FDA to propose draft Regulations on GLP on November 19, 1976, and establishment of the Final Rule in June 1979 which became effective on June 20, 1979. Proposed amendments were introduced on October 29, 1984. The GLP amendment Final Rule was published on September 4, 1987 and became effective on October 5, 1987.
+Many of the fraudulent safety data concerned chemicals overseen by the new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), so their GLP rule was developed simultaneously with FDA, the EPA issuing its draft GLP regulations in 1979 and 1980, publishing the Final Rules in two separate parts (40 CFR 160 and 40 CFR 792) in 1983.
+GLP requires not only that the methods of safety tests be transparent, but that they be so detailed that a different laboratory using it will get the same result.  Considering that Japan, Netherlands, US and others had at same time as GLP begun requiring demonstrations of safety before chemicals gained access markets; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development decided that multinational companies needed globally uniform regulation of chemicals, such that a toxicity test performed in one country could be accepted by another.  OECD was thus happy to add the new USA GLP requirement into their new, globally-required test methods, called ‘OECD Test Guidelines’ (see below OECD section).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-1.md

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+---
+title: "Good laboratory practice"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== US Food and Drug Administration ==
+(21 CFR Part 58)
+The FDA requires nonclinical laboratory studies on new drugs, food additives, and chemicals to assess their safety and potential effectiveness in humans in compliance with 21 CFR Part 58, Good Laboratory Practice for Nonclinical Studies under the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act and Public Health Service Act. These regulations set the standards for conducting experimental laboratory studies that support or are intended to support applications for research or marketing permits for products such as food additives, drugs, medical devices, or biological products. Conducting these studies with rigorous adherence to scientific principles and quality control is crucial, as the decisions based on their outcomes directly affect human health and safety. By adhering to the requirements outlined in 21 CFR Part 58, laboratories conducting laboratory studies can ensure that the data generated are of high quality, reliable, and suitable for submission to the Agency as part of product approval processes.
+Compliance with GLP regulations helps to protect the safety and welfare of humans and animals involved in studies and contributes to the overall integrity of scientific research in the development of FDA-regulated products. GLP compliance inspections are assessed and performed under the Agency's Bioresearch Monitoring (BIMO) program and carried out by trained BIMO inspectors. Serious noncompliance is dealt with by procedures ranging from study rejection to laboratory disqualification.
+Since June 20, 1979, the FDA has received many questions about Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations (21 CFR 58). The responses to these inquiries are stored in the Dockets Management Branch (HFA-305) and shared with the Agency's Bioresearch Monitoring (BIMO) program managers and district offices to ensure consistency. Consequently, the US FDA published the 1981 Questions & Answers - Good Laboratory Practice Regulations document to consolidate and clarify these responses. This Q&A document categorizes responses by specific GLP provisions to make them more useful for both the FDA headquarters and field offices.
+The FDA has signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland to enhance cooperation on good laboratory practice (GLP) for nonclinical laboratory studies supporting product approvals, aiming to facilitate information exchange and inspections for regulatory oversight.
+Proposed amendments were published in the Federal Register on August 24, 2016, which aimed to require a comprehensive quality system approach known as a GLP Quality System to enhance the current quality system approach for nonclinical laboratory studies. This system would be mandatory for safety and toxicity studies that support or are intended to support applications or submissions for products regulated by the FDA. Proposed modifications to the GLP Quality System include additional responsibilities for testing facility management and SOP maintenance, along with expanded definitions applicable to all nonclinical laboratory studies, aiming to enhance roles and functions aligned with the revised testing facility definition and to establish a framework for improving data reliability in regulatory decision-making.
+
+== U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ==
+Source:
+The EPA's Good Laboratory Practice Standards (GLPS) compliance monitoring program guarantees the accuracy and reliability of test data submitted to the Agency to support pesticide product registration under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), section 5 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), and in accordance with testing consent agreements and rules issued under section 4 of TSCA. The Agency utilizes data obtained from laboratory inspections and audits to oversee the use of pesticides and industrial chemicals.
+40 CFR Part 160, Good Laboratory Practice Standards pertains specifically to the Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards for pesticide chemicals. It establishes the requirements for conducting studies and generating data used for the registration of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). This regulation applies primarily to studies conducted to support the registration or re-registration of pesticide products under FIFRA. It includes studies related to human health and environmental effects of pesticides. It focuses specifically on studies related to pesticide products, including toxicity studies, residue chemistry studies, environmental fate studies, and other types of studies required for pesticide registration. It operates within the context of pesticide regulation under FIFRA, which is specific to the registration and use of pesticides in the United States.
+40 CFR Part 792, Good Laboratory Practice Standards, covers the broader application of GLP standards for nonclinical laboratory studies conducted for assessing the safety or efficacy of chemical substances, including pesticides, under various regulatory programs overseen by the EPA. This regulation applies to nonclinical laboratory studies conducted for various purposes beyond pesticides, encompassing studies related to chemicals, drugs, food additives, and other substances regulated by the EPA. This part has a broader scope and is applicable to a wider range of substances and regulatory programs. It covers a more diverse range of nonclinical studies, including those related to chemical substances other than pesticides. This could include studies conducted for assessing the safety of industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food additives, and other substances subject to EPA regulation. It operates across various regulatory programs within the EPA, reflecting a broader framework for ensuring the quality and reliability of nonclinical study data used in regulatory decision-making.
+While both 40 CFR Part 160 and 40 CFR Part 792 address GLP standards for laboratory studies, they differ significantly in terms of scope, applicability, and the specific regulatory context in which they operate. Part 160 is tailored to pesticide registration under FIFRA, whereas Part 792 is a more comprehensive framework applicable to a wider range of laboratory studies conducted for regulatory purposes across different EPA programs.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-2.md

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+---
+title: "Good laboratory practice"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== European Union ==
+Source:
+The Principles of GLP help ensure the quality and accuracy of data in chemical testing, and help prevent scientific fraud, as adopted by the European Union (EU).  European GLP Regulations and Directives also apply to European Economic Area (EEA) member states which include Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. GLP principles govern the laboratory safety testing of substances in various products, mandated by product-specific legislation in the EU/EEA.
+Directive 2004/9/EC mandates EU/EEA countries to designate GLP inspection authorities and includes requirements for reporting and mutual acceptance of data within the internal market. Annex I of the Directive incorporates OECD Revised Guides for Compliance Monitoring Procedures for GLP, along with OECD Guidance for the Conduct of Test Facility Inspections and Study Audits. It ensures compliance with these guidelines during laboratory inspections and study audits. This directive replaced Directive 88/320/EEC as of 11 March 2004.
+Directive 2004/10/EC, the second core EU GLP Directive, harmonizes laws and administrative provisions for applying GLP principles and verifying their implementation in chemical substance tests. It includes GLP principles in Annex I and requires EU/EEA countries to ensure that laboratories conducting safety studies on chemical products comply with OECD GLP principles. It replaces Directive 87/18/EEC.
+The Clinical Trials Facilitation Group (CTFG) of the Heads of Medicines Agency issued a Q&A document in 2017 addressing Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) requirements within the context of clinical trials for human medicines. This document aims to provide clarification and guidance on GLP principles applicable to non-clinical safety studies conducted as part of clinical trial applications.
+In March 2024, the Clinical Trials Coordination Group (CTCG) of the Heads of Medicines Agencies released a new recommendation paper on the principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) for clinical trial applications governed by the EU Clinical Trials Regulation (Regulation (EU) No 536/2014). This paper was developed in collaboration with relevant groups from the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the European Commission (EC) to clarify the applicable regulatory requirements and ensure transparency regarding the level of information required about GLP status in Clinical Trial Applications. This will assist researchers and sponsors in understanding what is expected and how to include the necessary information to support their applications.
+GLP supports the sharing of test data between countries, which helps avoid repeated testing, benefits animal welfare, and saves money for businesses and governments. Having common GLP standards also makes it easier to share information and prevents trade barriers, while helping to protect human health and the environment. The EU has established Mutual Recognition Agreements for GLP with Israel, Japan, and Switzerland.
+
+== Key role for the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ==
+Source:
+USA's new GLP rule was adopted into the new toxicity test methods (called the Test Guidelines, TG) that the OECD created. The OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) cover the testing of chemicals or chemical products in non-clinical settings, either in laboratory conditions or environmental settings, such as greenhouses and field experiments. These principles exclude studies involving human subjects. Depending on the location or governing rules in an OECD-member country, the OECD Principles of GLP might also extend to non-clinical safety testing of other regulated items, like medical devices.
+Examples studies conducted under GLP in OECD-member countries include:
+
+Physical-chemical testing;
+Toxicity studies;
+Mutagenicity studies;
+Environmental toxicity studies on aquatic and terrestrial organisms;
+Studies on behavior in water, soil, and air; bioaccumulation;
+Studies to determine pesticide residues in food or animal feedstuffs;
+Studies on effects on mesocosms and natural ecosystems;
+Analytical and clinical chemistry testing.
+Safety testing data must be submitted to regulatory authorities for product marketing authorization. During the review process, the submitted data undergoes verification to ensure compliance with GLP standards. Additionally, the GLP compliance status of the testing facility where the study was conducted is assessed by referring to inspection information from national GLP compliance monitoring programs.
+OECD member countries where non-clinical health and environmental safety testing follows the OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) have established national GLP Compliance Monitoring Programs (CMP) responsible for overseeing GLP compliance of test facilities within their jurisdictions. These CMPs verify GLP compliance through inspections of test facilities and audits of GLP studies. Test facilities that undergo periodic inspections by a CMP and are found to operate in accordance with GLP principles are recognized as GLP compliant.
+In OECD-member countries, testing facilities seeking recognition as GLP compliant can apply to the national CMP. The CMP then conducts inspections to assess if the test facility adheres to the OECD Principles of GLP. In other countries, CMPs have the authority to inspect any test facility that claims to conduct studies according to GLP standards.

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+---
+title: "Good laboratory practice"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== OECD's Mutual Acceptance of Data (MAD) ==
+Sources:
+The chemicals industry, which includes industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, biocides, food and feed additives, and cosmetics, ranks as one of the largest industrial sectors in the world. Harmonizing national approaches (the OECD's key mission) to chemical regulation offers several benefits: it streamlines requirements for industry, provides governments with a common framework for collaboration, and reduces trade barriers. Simultaneously, the OECD adopted 1) the Mutual Acceptance of Data (MAD) Directive system; and 2) the OECD Guidelines for Testing Chemicals and OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP), to be required by regulators globally (and to which the MAD Directive applies). These two simultaneous acts were instrumental in achieving this global harmonization.
+The MAD system aims to avoid conflicting or redundant national regulations, foster cooperation among national authorities, and eliminate trade barriers. Under this system, OECD countries and full adherents agree that safety tests conducted according to OECD Test Guidelines and Good Laboratory Practice in one country should be accepted by others for assessment purposes—a principle known as "tested once, accepted for assessment everywhere." This approach saves the chemicals industry from the expense of duplicative testing for products marketed in multiple countries. Crucially, though a receiving government must accept a TG-performed study, it retains the discretion to rely on other data (e.g. on the toxicity findings of publicly-funded academics, whose methods are very heterogeneous, but who test, and often find, toxicity at much lower doses that industry's TG studies); or, a nation may interpret the accepted study's results according to its own criteria.
+According to OECD Council Decision C(97)186/Final, chemical testing data generated in any OECD member country following OECD Test Guidelines and GLP principles is recognized by other OECD member countries, such as Australia, Canada, Korea, and the USA. This recognition also extends to some non-OECD countries that fully adhere to the mutual acceptance of data (MAD) under OECD Council Decision C(97)114/Final, including Brazil, India, Malaysia, Singapore, and South Africa, as well as Argentina for industrial chemicals, pesticides, and biocides only.
+In June 2004, the US FDA published a comparison chart of FDA and EPA Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations alongside OECD Principles for GLP, aiding in understanding the key differences and similarities in GLP standards across these regulatory bodies.
+Note, unlike many countries, the US EPA names its mandated use of the OECD TG, ‘the EPA Test Methods’.
+
+== See also ==
+Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)
+GxP
+Good clinical practice
+Good Automated Manufacturing Practice
+Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine
+International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation
+International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC)
+Drug development
+ISO 15189
+Verification and Validation
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Webster, Gregory K.; Kott, L; Maloney, T; et al. (2005). "JALA Tutorial: Considerations When Implementing Automated Methods into GxP Laboratories". Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation. 10 (3). Elsevier: 182–191. doi:10.1016/j.jala.2005.03.003.
+
+== External links ==
+Comparison of difference versions of GLP (Comparison OECD, FDA and EPA GLP)
+Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 (Food and Drugs) Part 58 (Good Laboratory Practice for Nonclinical Laboratory Studies) (USA)
+Good Laboratory Practice (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)
+OECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring
+Belgian Monitoring Authority for GLP Archived 2019-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
+TECHNOXMART Archived 2019-12-23 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-0.md

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+---
+title: "Greenhouse"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:41.007301+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In horticulture, a greenhouse is a structure designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of the environment inside it with a view to growing plants.
+There are different types of greenhouses, but they all have large areas covered with transparent materials that let sunlight enter and that inhibit the loss of the sun's heat. The most common materials used in modern greenhouses for walls and roofs are rigid plastics made of polycarbonate, plastic film made of polyethylene, or glass panes. When sunlight shines into a greenhouse the temperature inside increases, providing a sheltered environment for plants to grow — even in cold weather.
+The terms greenhouse, glasshouse, and hothouse often refer interchangeably to buildings used for cultivating plants. The specific term used depends on the material and on the heating-system used in the building. Nowadays, greenhouses are more commonly constructed with a variety of materials, such as wood and polyethylene plastic. A glasshouse, on the other hand, is a traditional type of greenhouse which uses glass panes that allow light to enter. The term hothouse indicates the use of artificial heating. However, both heated and unheated structures can generally class as greenhouses. 
+
+The word "vinery", when referring to a site for growing grapevines,
+may reference either a hothouse or a glasshouse.
+Greenhouses can range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings and colossal glasshouses. The smallest example is a miniature greenhouse known as a cold frame, typically used at home (compare  cloche). Large commercial greenhouses are high-tech production-facilities used to grow vegetables, flowers or fruits. Such glass greenhouses may feature extensive equipment, including screening, heating, cooling, and lighting installations, sometimes controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth. Different techniques manage growing conditions (including air temperature, relative humidity and vapour-pressure deficit) in order to provide the optimum environment for cultivation of a specific crop.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Roman Empire ===
+Before the development of greenhouses, agricultural practices were constrained to weather conditions. According to the climatic zone of communities, people were limited to a select range of species and time of the year in which they could grow plants. Yet around 30 CE, the Roman Empire built the first recorded attempt of an artificial environment. Due to emperor Tiberius's declining health, the royal physicians recommended that the emperor eat one cucumber a day. Cucumbers, however, are quite tender plants and do not grow easily year-round. Therefore, the Romans designed an artificial environment, like a greenhouse, to have cucumbers available for the emperor all year. Cucumbers were planted in wheeled carts which were put in the sun daily, then taken inside to keep them warm at night. The cucumbers were stored under frames or in cucumber houses glazed with either oiled cloth known as specularia or with sheets of selenite (a.k.a. lapis specularis), according to the description by Pliny the Elder.
+
+=== 15th-century Korea ===
+The next biggest breakthrough in greenhouse design came from Korea in the 15th century during the Joseon dynasty. In the 1450s, Soon ui Jeon described the first artificially heated greenhouse in his manuscript called Sangayorok. Soon ui Jeon was a physician to the royal family, and Sangayorok was intended to provide the nobility with important agricultural and housekeeping knowledge. Within the section of agricultural techniques, Soon ui Jeon wrote how to build a greenhouse that was able to cultivate vegetables and other plants in the winter. The Korean design adds an ondol system to the structure. An ondol is a Korean heating system used in domestic spaces, which runs a flue pipe from a heat source underneath the flooring. In addition to the ondol, a cauldron filled with water was also heated to create steam and increase the temperature and humidity in the greenhouse. These Korean greenhouses were the first active greenhouses that controlled temperature, rather than only relying on energy from the sun. The design still included passive heating methods, such as semi-transparent oiled hanji windows to capture light and cob walls to retain heat, but the furnace provided extra control over the artificial environment. The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty confirm that greenhouse-like structures incorporating ondol were constructed to provide heat for mandarin orange trees during the winter of 1438.
+
+=== 17th century ===
+The concept of greenhouses also appeared in the Netherlands and then England in the 17th century, along with the plants. Some of these early attempts required enormous amounts of work to close up at night or to winterize. There were serious problems with providing adequate and balanced heat in these early greenhouses. The first 'stove' (heated) greenhouse in the UK was completed at Chelsea Physic Garden by 1681. Today, the Netherlands has many of the largest greenhouses in the world, some of them so vast that they are able to produce millions of vegetables every year.
+
+Experimentation with greenhouse design continued during the 17th century in Europe, as technology produced better glass and construction techniques improved. The greenhouse at the Palace of Versailles was an example of their size and elaborateness; it was more than 150 metres (490 ft) long, 13 metres (43 ft) wide, and 14 metres (46 ft) high.
+
+=== 18th century ===
+Andrew Faneuil, a prosperous Boston merchant, built the first American greenhouse in 1737.
+
+When returning to Mount Vernon after the war, George Washington learned of the greenhouse built at the Carroll estate of Mount Clare (Maryland).   It was designed by Margaret Tilghman Carroll, an industrious gardener who cultivated citrus trees in this orangery.
+In 1784 Washington wrote requesting details about the design of her greenhouse, and she complied.  Washington wrote:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-1.md

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+---
+title: "Greenhouse"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:41.007301+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+I shall essay the finishing of my greenhouse this fall, but find that neither myself, nor any person about me is so well skilled in the internal constructions as to proceed without a probability at least of running into errors. Shall I for this reason, ask the favor of you to give me a short description of the Green-house at Mrs. Carrolls? I am persuaded, now that I planned mine on too contracted a scale. My house is (of Brick) 40 feet by 24, in the outer dimensions …
+
+=== 19th century ===
+
+The French botanist Charles Lucien Bonaparte is often credited with building the first practical modern greenhouse in Leiden, Holland, during the 1800s to grow medicinal tropical plants.
+Originally only on the estates of the rich, the growth of the science of botany caused greenhouses to spread to the universities. The French called their first greenhouses orangeries, since they were used to protect orange trees from freezing. As pineapples became popular, pineries, or pineapple pits, were built.
+
+=== 19th-century England ===
+
+The largest glasshouses yet conceived were constructed in England during the Victorian era. As a direct result of colonial expansion, the purpose of glasshouses changed from agriculture to horticulture. The accelerated transfer of plants and horticultural knowledge between colonies contributed to the Victorian fascination with 'exotic' plants and environments. Glasshouses became spectacles to entertain the general public. The curated environments in glasshouses aimed to capture "the Western imagination of an idealised landscape" and support the fantasy of the cultural 'other'. As a consequence, the collection of plants are believed to be true reflections of the world, yet are actually stereotypical arrangements of 'exotic' plants to symbolize exactly where British colonies are and how far their authority reaches. To uphold British hegemony, glasshouses became arguments of colonial power which flaunt the "absolute control of colonized environments and flora...[using plants] as a symbol of British Imperial power.
+A prominent design from the 19th century were glasshouses with sufficient height for sizeable trees, called palm houses. These were normally in public gardens or parks and exemplified the 19th-century development of glass and iron architecture. This technology was widely used in railway stations, markets, exhibition halls, and other large buildings that needed large, open internal area. One of the earliest examples of a palm house is in the Belfast Botanic Gardens. Designed by Charles Lanyon, the building was completed in 1840. It was constructed by iron-maker Richard Turner, who would later build the Palm House, Kew Gardens at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, in 1848. This came shortly after the Chatsworth Great Conservatory (1837–40) and shortly before The Crystal Palace (1851), both designed by Joseph Paxton, and both now lost.
+
+Other large greenhouses built in the 19th century included the New York Crystal Palace, Munich's Glaspalast and the Royal Greenhouses of Laeken (1874–1895) for King Leopold II of Belgium. In Japan, the first greenhouse was built in 1880 by Samuel Cocking, a British merchant who exported herbs.
+
+=== 20th century ===
+
+In the 20th century, the geodesic dome was added to the many types of greenhouses. Notable examples are the Eden Project in Cornwall, The Rodale Institute in Pennsylvania, the Climatron at the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky. The pyramid is another popular shape for large, high greenhouses; there are several pyramidal greenhouses at the Muttart Conservatory in Alberta (c. 1976).
+Greenhouse structures adapted in the 1960s when wider sheets of polyethylene (polythene) film became widely available. Hoop houses were made by several companies and were also frequently made by the growers themselves. Constructed of aluminum extrusions, special galvanized steel tubing, or even just lengths of steel or PVC water pipe, construction costs were greatly reduced. This resulted in many more greenhouses being constructed on smaller farms and garden centers. Polyethylene film durability increased greatly when more effective UV-inhibitors were developed and added in the 1970s; these extended the usable life of the film from one or two years up to three and eventually four or more years.
+Gutter-connected greenhouses became more prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s. These greenhouses have two or more bays connected by a common wall, or row of support posts. Heating inputs were reduced as the ratio of floor area to exterior wall area was increased substantially. Gutter-connected greenhouses are now commonly used both in production and in situations where plants are grown and sold to the public as well. Gutter-connected greenhouses are commonly covered with structured polycarbonate materials, or a double layer of polyethylene film with air blown between to provide increased heating efficiencies.
+
+== Theory of operation ==
+The warmer temperature in a greenhouse occurs because incident solar radiation passes through the transparent roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer. These in turn warm up the surrounding air within the greenhouse. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, the warmed air cannot escape via convection due to the presence of roof and walls, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises.
+Window glasses are practically transparent for short-wave infra-red radiation emitted by the sun, but almost opaque for long-wave radiation emitted by objects in the room.
+Quantitative studies suggest that the effect of infrared radiative cooling is not negligibly small, and may have economic implications in a heated greenhouse. Analysis of issues of near-infrared radiation in a greenhouse with screens of a high coefficient of reflection concluded that installation of such screens reduced heat demand by about 8%, and application of dyes to transparent surfaces was suggested. Such as, using techniques that apply coatings which convert ultraviolet wavelengths into red light, improving photosynthetic efficiency and increasing crop yields.
+Composite less-reflective glass, or less effective but cheaper anti-reflective coated simple glass, also produced savings.