From fd5265de8432b392a4f9301559f9b6e2c778274c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 02:06:19 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 4387 new, 2966 updated, 7537 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 70283264 -> 70365184 bytes data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene-0.md | 86 +++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet-0.md | 20 ++ .../wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-0.md | 59 ++++ .../wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-1.md | 50 +++ .../Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station-0.md | 31 ++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-0.md | 25 ++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-1.md | 25 ++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-2.md | 34 ++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-3.md | 35 ++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure-0.md | 26 ++ .../wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station-0.md | 50 +++ .../wiki/Anechoic_chamber-0.md | 35 ++ .../wiki/Anechoic_chamber-1.md | 112 +++++++ .../Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station-0.md | 59 ++++ 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z67`cr&8$?WUvp?%dJo(8N>$+}I=RaJX~e~Gz)pB8WTms~b$Q+R8Zk8H`qP@ICx?k^ z5Cu29|6V4i*Qxco@0uY(+slubV6cEOywKAX%jJ(!3Ds3y)s1N07FBPz3YNUZp|1P> zLnI1a*f-G9@b%0qzJ=xJaLfz%>ae#p&^aA$t+nRC*h$%Ia*(E6p=%MUHG~gcLBME! zI_bc&0;u6hAtt$1!Tl@8!%c)M3u`-s5@TCyvMo|WaI-j1dp%gRp%k%z6rordWC#>} z_I;&hCKcgQBziSTR7@^e1oVczJuQTOc6p=$%8KO>9FQASSq$eS4#^ba0v=1G1`E^W z#!`yAxPb!K`JFg1kud>&z3I*`CUmhF`cK+F&mv;pG*{MIH z`m;-a#`I^m{_N48y}{$1m-hw#<|ki|4xZogcsoKywe9hr{__A}$G#pLJU_7hC&I$L QH?TrH9{T2Z@Ppj{1vtn{{r~^~ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e12dad096 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "Addgene" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addgene" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:04.870324+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Addgene is a non-profit plasmid repository. Addgene facilitates the exchange of genetic material between laboratories by offering plasmids and their associated cloning data to non-profit and academic laboratories around the world. Addgene provides a free online database of plasmid cloning information and references, including lists of commonly used vector backbones, popular lentiviral plasmids, and molecular cloning protocols. + + +== History == +Addgene was founded in 2004 by Melina Fan, Kenneth Fan, and Benjie Chen. The repository was founded in recognition of the need for a service to support access to and sharing of DNA-based research materials among the scientific community. + + +== Operations == +Addgene's headquarters are located in Watertown, Massachusetts. +Addgene accepts plasmids from researchers, then archives and distributes them on request. +The organization covers the operating costs of maintaining and improving the collection by charging a nominal fee to scientists requesting plasmids. + + +== Plasmid repository == +As of 2014 Addgene's repository comprised 30,000 plasmids, deposited by 1,700 labs. As of 2024, the collection had grown to a size of over 147,000 plasmids, and had provided services to over 2 million vectors to over 110 different countries. Its plasmid collection contains plasmids used for functions such as genome engineering (including CRISPRS), gene expression, shRNA knockdown, viral-mediated gene delivery, detection of miRNA and promoter activity. The plasmid collection includes: + +Genome engineering +CRISPRs +Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nuclease (TALEN) kits +Zinc finger nuclease kits +Empty backbones +Species-specific expression +Epitope tags +Fusion proteins +Selectable markers +Fluorescent marker +Viral vectors +Retroviral/Lentiviral +Adenoviral +AAV +cDNA expression +shRNA expression + + +== Tools and guides == +Molecular biology tools +Vector Database—A curated list of over 4,000 vector backbones, including relevant cloning information and bacterial growth conditions. +Sequence Analyzer—An Addgene software tool for creating plasmid maps from sequences with annotated features and restriction sites. +Molecular Biology Reference—A collection of references for molecular biology reagents, such as primers, restriction enzymes and antibiotic concentrations. +Plasmid Cloning Guides +Molecular Cloning Guides—References to help scientists design plasmid cloning experiments, including tutorials on restriction enzyme digestion and PCR-based cloning. +Molecular Cloning Protocols—Specific protocols for a variety of plasmid cloning techniques, such as isolation of bacterial colonies, DNA purification by gel electrophoresis and bacterial transformation. + + +== Collaborations == +Addgene collaborates with institutes and consortia to curate plasmid collections for specific purposes. Examples of these collaborations include special collections from the Structural Genomics Consortium, Zinc Finger Consortium, the Cell Migration Consortium, the KLF collection and The Michael J. Fox Foundation. The plasmids are available to both academic and industry labs. +In 2020, Addgene received funding from Fast Grants to subsidize the cost of reagents for COVID-19 research. + + +== Depositors == +Noteworthy depositors include: + +13 Nobel Prize winners; John Gurdon, Shinya Yamanaka, Bruce Beutler, Mario Capecchi, Andrew Fire, Richard Axel, Eric Wieschaus, Phillip Sharp, Robert Lefkowitz, Martin Chalfie, Roger Tsien, Jennifer Doudna, and Johann Deisenhofer. +8 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences winners; Cori Bargmann, David Botstein, Lewis C. Cantley, Hans Clevers, Titia de Lange, Bert Vogelstein, Robert Weinberg and Shinya Yamanaka. + + +== Electronic Material Transfer Agreements == +Addgene requires Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) for all materials transferred through Addgene to protect the intellectual property of plasmid depositors. Addgene developed one of the first electronic systems for handling MTAs. By using the standard Universal Biological Material Transfer Agreement (UBMTA) and implementing electronic signatures, Addgene's electronic MTA (eMTA) system expedites the approval process for plasmid orders. + + +== Awards == +Addgene won awards for innovation and research including Mass Nonprofit Network Award for excellence in Innovations, Cambridge award program 2014 Award for Research & Development Laboratories, Mass Technology Leadership Award Finalist 2012. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website + + +=== Other plasmid repositories === +BCCM/LMBP +BIOSS Toolbox +PSI DNASU +Harvard PlasmID \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..51d209fcc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "AgWeatherNet" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgWeatherNet" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:42.548808+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +AgWeatherNet is an automated agricultural weather station network operated by Washington State University in the Pacific Northwest. It is the first and the largest agricultural weather network in the United States. Every 5 seconds, over 175 sensors (as of 2018) record air temperature, relative humidity and dew point, soil temperature at 8 inches, rainfall, wind speed, wind direction, insolation and leaf wetness. The data is reported back from each sensor to WSU's Irrigated Agriculture Research and Extension Center in Prosser, Washington and made available to the public on the Internet. The network can be used to predict and warn of crop hazards such as freezes (especially damaging to Washington fall crops like apples) and hailstorms. +Sensors are located mostly in the irrigated regions of Eastern Washington like the Yakima Valley, but also cover some non-irrigated areas like the Palouse and areas of Western Washington such as the Chehalis River valley. The Oregon Hop Commission funds three sensors in northwest Oregon. Several cranberry farming concerns fund a sensor at Grayland on the Pacific Coast. +The system began in 1988 with the name Public Agricultural Weather System (PAWS). + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6fb3488d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Agricultural experiment station" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:18.451794+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An agricultural experiment station (AES) or agricultural research station (ARS) is a scientific research center that investigates difficulties and potential improvements to food production and agribusiness. Experiment station scientists work with farmers, ranchers, suppliers, processors, and others involved in food production and agriculture. + +== Research == +Station scientists study biological, economic, and social problems of food and agriculture and related industries in each state. They investigate such areas as crop variations, soil testing, livestock, processing and animal technology, and other advanced technology in food and agriculture. They also work with specialists called extension agents. These specialists help inform farmers about developments in agriculture. Most agricultural experiment station scientists are faculty members of the land-grant universities. + +== Locations == + +=== Canada === +In Canada, about 50 per cent (1988) of the experiment stations are controlled by the Canadian government. The Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa is the headquarters of the federal system. Private industries, universities, and agricultural colleges control the remainder of the stations. Each province has a number of provincial stations. The University of Saskatchewan has extensive agricultural experimental land. + +=== Greece === +The Benaki Phytopathological Institute conducts experiments pertaining to plant health in many locations throughout the mainland, as well as in Crete and on other Greek islands. + +=== Iceland === +The Agricultural University of Iceland maintains several experiment stations throughout the country. + +=== Israel === + +Israel host multiple agricultural stations, including the Yair Agricultural Research and Development Station in the Arava desert, the Volcani center and others. Israel is considered a global hub of water and sustainable agricultural technology. + +=== India === +The Regional Agricultural Research Station at Lam of Guntur. + +=== Japan === +Japan has five agricultural experiment stations of Independent Administrative Institution of National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, former national stations, and many other prefectural stations all over the country. + +=== New Zealand === +New Zealand has agricultural research stations at Ruakura, Winchmore and Invermay. + +=== United Kingdom === +Sutton Bridge Crop Storage Research in Sutton Bridge, Lincolnshire, is a leading UK agricultural experiment station owned by the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board and operated by its Potato Council division, it engages in a wide range of research disciplines impacting upon crop storage for the British potato industry, including confidential contract research and development. +Syngenta's largest R&D center is at Jealott's Hill in Berkshire. Before its current incarnation it belonged to Imperial Chemical Industries. + +=== United States === +The Hatch Act of 1887 authorized the establishment of agricultural experiment stations, to be affiliated with the land grant college of agriculture, in each state (7 U.S.C. 361a et seq.). The mission of the agricultural experiment stations as set out in the Hatch Act is to conduct original research, investigation, and experiments which contribute to the establishment and maintenance of the agricultural industry in the United States. Including research pertaining to agriculture in its broadest sense as well as improvement of the rural home and rural life, and the contribution by agriculture to the welfare of the consumer. Research done at these stations underpins the curriculum of the colleges, as well as the programs of the Cooperative Extension System. The United States of America has more than 600 main experiment stations and branch stations, run by about 13,000 scientists. In some states, agricultural experiment stations are integrated into the agriculture colleges of Land Grant Universities; while in others they are administratively unique institutions. The structure of the agricultural experiment stations varies state-to-state in order to meet the unique needs of each state. Factors such as size of the land grant university, and size and type of agriculture in a state will affect the organization and research conducted by the station. +The United States Department of Agriculture also maintains over 90 research locations, including locations abroad. The research stations of the USDA are divided into 5 geographic areas across the United States, each with a centrally located station. Including: Pacific West at Albany, CA, Plains Area at Ft. Collins, CO, Southeast Area at Stoneville, MS, Midwest Area at Peoria, IL, and Northeast Area at Beltsville, MD. Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in Beltsville, is the largest of USDA's research locations at 6,500 acres and contains the National Agricultural Library. +The U.S. experiment stations are state institutions. However, the federal and state governments cooperate in funding the research done at the stations. The states provide about 60 percent (1988) of the government money. Additional income comes from grants, contracts, and the sale of products. The stations receive a total income of more than $1 billion a year. + +=== U. S. Virgin Islands === +The University of the Virgin Islands maintains an experiment station on the island of St. Croix, working on agroforestry, aquaponics, biotechnology, forage agronomy, and tilapia farming, among other areas of research. + +== History == + +=== France === +In 1786, Comte d'Angiviller, acting for King Louis XVI, acquired 366 merino sheep from Spain and began an experimental program of adapting the species to France at the farm attached to Château de Rambouillet. As a result, there is the branch of merinos called Rambouillet sheep. +In 1836 Jean-Baptiste Boussingault established the first agricultural experiment station at Pechelbronn in Alsace. + +=== Germany === +A precursor to the agricultural experiment station was the botanical garden. For example, Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck founded the Botanische Gärten der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn in 1818. With need for animal nutrition, scientists such as Karl Heinrich Ritthausen turned to biochemistry to investigate the comparative nutrition from grains and pulses. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..16e36ed62 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Agricultural experiment station" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_experiment_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:18.451794+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Möckern Agricultural Experiment Station ==== +Following the footsteps of the enlightenment rationalism and experimentalism, Germany began to see the rise of agricultural experiment stations, indicating the beginnings of an attempt to merge traditional agronomy with analytical chemistry. In 1840, Justus von Liebig, an influential German chemist and professor at the University of Giessen, published his book Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology. Liebig theorized that nitrogen and trace minerals from soil erosion were essential to plant nutrition, and, from this analytical chemistry perspective, simplified agriculture to a series of chemical reactions. While Liebig's work inspired a generation of analytical agricultural chemists interested in fundamental questions of plant nutrition, e.g., Wilhelm Knop and Julius von Sachs, founders of early German agricultural experiment stations did not solely seek to pursue questions of soil chemistry, but rather sought to bridge the gap between the two fields of agriculture and chemistry (agricultural chemistry). +The most well-known and earliest German experimental station, or Landwirtschaftliche Versuchsstationen, established was the Möckern Agricultural Experiment Station, located near the city of Leipzig. Created on September 28, 1850, the Möckern project was spearheaded by three Saxon men: Julius Adolph Stöckhardt, a professor of agricultural chemistry; Wilhelm Crusius, German estate owner interested in scientific agriculture; and Theodor Reuning, the German agricultural minister at the time. Though all three men took interest in Liebig's scientific approach to soil chemistry, they maintained distinct agricultural and economic focus at Möckern, and rejected a purely laboratory approach to agriculture. Unlike Liebig, Stöckhardt sought the integration of chemistry with agriculturists, rather than a specialization of chemists to come in and do the work. As a landowner who employed chemists, Crusius saw the value of chemical agriculture in economic terms to increase profit, while Reuning's support for Möckern Station represented the beginnings of governmental interest and funding of agricultural experimental stations. +Under Crusius, the Möckern Station submitted a Letter of Purpose in a government application. It specified that the Möckern Station belonging to the Leipzig Economic Society would devote itself to the advancement of agriculture via scientific investigation, through cooperation between practical farmers and scientific professionals. They listed six main research objectives, summarized below: + +Investigation into conditions of plant growth, mainly that of soil, manure, and fertilization. +Analysis of plant fodder and its effects on animal products. +Meteorological observations. +Cultivation and valuation of rare plants. +Agricultural technology testing of implements and machines. +Research and creation of agricultural metrics, such as relative values of fodder. + +=== Japan === +Hokkaido Development Commission founded the very first agricultural experiment station of the country in Sapporo in 1871, under the advice of O-yatoi gaikokujin (hired foreign experts). +The first national agricultural experiment station was founded in 1893 in Tokyo, Sendai, Kanazawa, Osaka, Hiroshima, Tokushima, and Kumamoto under the Edict No.18. +And, 1899 act for prefectural agricultural experiment stations supported prefectural movement to establish agricultural experiment stations all over Japan. + +=== United Kingdom === +John Bennet Lawes, with the help of Joseph Henry Gilbert, established one of the oldest agricultural experiment stations in the world: Rothamsted Experimental Station, located at Harpenden in Hertfordshire, England, was founded in 1843. This establishment was where Ronald Fisher was inspired to important advances in the theory of statistical inference and genetics. Another important agricultural experiment station was founded in 1903 and closed in 2003: Long Ashton Research Station. + +=== United States === +The movement to establish agricultural experiment stations in the US can be credited to Samuel William Johnson who taught the first course in biochemistry. The development was recounted by William Cumming Rose: + +In 1875, through Johnson's influence, the Connecticut Legislature made a small appropriation to aid the cost of a two year program of agricultural experimentation, to be conducted by Wilbur Olin Atwater at Wesleyan University, in Middletown, Connecticut. Atwater had received the Ph. D. under Johnson's direction... Two years later, the State Legislature approved the establishment of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station on a permanent basis, and Johnson became its first director... At the start, it was housed in two rooms on the lower floor of Sheffield Hall of Yale University. Later,... moved to a building of its own on Huntington Street in New Haven. +The Bussey Institution at Harvard University (since 1871) and the Houghton Farm at Cornwall, New York (1876–88), were privately endowed stations. By 1887 fourteen states had definite organizations and in thirteen others the colleges conducted equivalent work. +Federal aid for state experiment stations began with the Hatch Act of 1887. The Hatch Act authorized direct payment of federal grant funds to each state to establish an agricultural experiment station "under direction of" its land-grant college. Land-grant colleges had been established under the Morrill Act of 1862. The aid was increased by the Adams Act (1906) and the Purnell Act (1925). The provisions of the original Hatch Act and of later legislation providing increasing funds were combined in the Hatch Act of 1955. +The McIntire–Stennis Act of 1962 authorized forestry research studies at experiment stations. + +== See also == +New York State Agricultural Experiment Station +Moray (Inca ruin) + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Dictionary of American History by James Truslow Adams, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940 + +== External links == + +Japan National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..528ec0511 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Agumbe Rainforest Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:28.284682+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Agumbe Rainforest Research Station (ARRS) is a field based conservation and research organisation situated inside the Agumbe Reserved Forest at Agumbe in the central Western Ghats of southern India. The Agumbe Reserved Forests receives an annual rainfall in excess of 7,000 mm (280 in) and is at an elevation of about 823 m (2,700 ft) above sea level. It forms a part of the Malnad-Kodagu corridor, which also includes the Someshwara, Mookambika, Bhadra, and Sharavati Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kudremukh National Park, and various other forest tracts and reserve forests around Kundapur, Shankaranarayana, Hosanagara, Sringeri, and Thirthahalli. + + +== History == + +ARRS was founded in 2005, by leading Indian herpetologist Romulus Whitaker. Whitaker saw his very first king cobra (Ophiophagus Kaalinga) here in 1971. He was also extremely taken by the reverence the people in the region showed for snakes, which was a major factor that drove him to establish a research station in Agumbe (Karnataka ). The land is a revenue land was legally procured, the construction and activities are eco friendly and pose no disturbance to the wildlife. + + +== Activities == +ARRS managed the world's first radio-telemetry project on the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah, Ophiophagus kalinga), which is also the first radio-telemetry study done on any snake in India. Insight gained from this ecological study is being put into practice into king cobra management in the region. ARRS researchers have witnessed various unique behaviors among the species including a male king cobra killing a possibly pregnant female, a rare behavior even among mammals. +ARRS conducts and facilitates a wide variety of research projects, ranging from rainforest ecology, behavioral and population ecology, phenology, geoinformatics and socio economics. Apart from research, ARRS focuses on education and outreach in the local community, schools and colleges. A well-developed volunteer and research intern programme makes the research station an ideal location for those interested in field based research and conservation The research station encourages and provides facilities for graduate and PHD students to conduct projects. + + +== See also == +Madras Crocodile Bank Trust + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ea6d5b07 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Alert, Nunavut" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Alert, in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada, is the northernmost continuously inhabited place in the world. The location is on Ellesmere Island (in the Queen Elizabeth Islands) at latitude 82°30'05" north, 817 km (508 mi) from the North Pole. It takes its name from the Royal Navy vessel HMS Alert, which wintered 10 km (6.2 mi) east of the present station off what is now Cape Sheridan in 1875–1876. +All Alert residents are temporary, typically serving three- to six-month tours of duty there. They staff a military signals intelligence radio receiving facility at Canadian Forces Station Alert (CFS Alert, which includes Alert Airport), as well as the Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory, a co-located weather station and monitoring observatory, both operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). +In the 2021 census, the permanent population was recorded as 0. + +== History == +Alert is named after HMS Alert, a British ship that wintered about 10 km (6.2 mi) away in 1875–76. The ship's captain, George Nares, and his crew were the first recorded Europeans to reach the northern end of Ellesmere Island. Over the following decades, several other expeditions passed through the area, most notably Robert Peary during his expedition to reach the North Pole in 1909. + +=== Post-World War II (1945–1970) === +Shortly after the end of World War II, Charles J. Hubbard of the United States Weather Bureau aroused interest in the United States and Canada for the establishment of a network of Arctic stations. His plan, in broad perspective, envisaged the establishment of two main stations, one in Greenland and the other on the archipelago, which could be reached by sea supply. These main stations would then serve as advance bases from which a number of smaller stations would be established by air. The immediate plans contemplated the establishment of weather stations only, but it was thought that a system of weather stations would also provide a nucleus of transportation, communications, and settlements, which would greatly aid programs of research in many other fields of science. It was recognized that ultimate action would depend on international cooperation, since the land masses involved were under Canadian and Danish control. + +Following negotiations between the United States and Canadian governments, a group of five weather stations was established, known as the Joint Arctic Weather Stations (JAWS). On the Canadian side, the stations were to be operated by the Department of Transport (DOT). The locations for each station were surveyed in 1946, and a cache of supplies was dropped at Alert in 1948 by USS Edisto. Alert was the last of the five to be settled when the first twelve personnel (eight permanent staff and four to assist with construction) arrived on April 9, 1950. Construction began immediately, with the first priority being the creation of an ice runway on Alert Inlet before work began on the permanent all-season runway on Cape Belknap. Until its completion, supplies were parachuted in. +On July 30, 1950, nine crew members of an Avro Lancaster aircraft, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), died in a crash while making an airdrop of supplies to the station. +The last United States personnel were withdrawn on October 31, 1970, and the following year operation of the weather station was transferred to the newly created Department of the Environment, with the Department of Transport retaining control of airfield operations for several more years. + +=== Recent history (1971–present) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..07bb837af --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Alert, Nunavut" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In April 1971, a party of federal and Northwest Territories (NWT) government officials arrived in Alert in an attempt to reach the North Pole. Alert had been the embarkation point for many North Pole expeditions that relied on weather information supplied by the weather station there. The 1971 expedition was led by Stu Hodgson, former Commissioner of the Northwest Territories, and included in his party were representatives of the prime minister's office, the Canadian Armed Forces, the federal Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, as well as a large media group including Pat Carney of Gemini Productions, Ed Ogle of Time magazine, Val Wake of CBC News, and a television crew from California. While waiting in Alert for a weather window to fly to the pole, the party's television crew spent a lot of time filming at the weather station. The military was unhappy about the film crew working on the station, but the weather station was seen as being a sort of no-man's land. The commissioner's party made two attempts to reach the pole and failed. Some of the incidents surrounding this event are recounted in Val Wake's memoir My Voyage around Spray with Apologies to Captain Joshua Slocum. +In August 1975, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and his then three-year-old son, future prime minister Justin Trudeau, visited the station and nearby Ward Hunt Island. In August 1986, the Government of Canada opened Alert Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network. +By the 1990s, the original buildings of the weather station had fallen into disrepair and were burned in the summer of 1996, leaving only the hydrogen shed and a wooden outhouse. The weather station and observatory offices were moved to Polaris Hall. +In early April 2006, the Roly McLenahan Torch that was used to light the flame at Whitehorse, Yukon, for the Canada Winter Games, passed through Alert. While the Canada Games torch was supposed to pass over the North Pole, bad weather prevented a Canadian military Twin Otter from making the trip. The torch did not travel outside Alert that weekend (April 9–12). In August 2006, Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, made a visit to Alert as part of his campaign to promote Canadian sovereignty in the north. +On November 8, 2009, the 2010 Winter Olympics torch relay arrived at Alert via airplane from Churchill, Manitoba, reaching its most northerly point on land. The next day it travelled to Iqaluit, Nunavusiaat, and Tassossuaq, Greenland. +On January 19 and 20, 2015, Governor General David Johnston flew into Alert on a C-17 Globemaster transport from CFB Trenton. He toured Alert, received an overview of its operations, met with civilian and military personnel and presided over a change-of-command. + +=== Aircraft crashes === +Since Alert has not been regularly accessible by icebreakers due to heavy ice conditions in the Lincoln Sea, resupply is provided by Royal Canadian Air Force transport aircraft which land at the adjacent Alert Airport. Difficult conditions at such a remote northern location have resulted in several incidents, two of which have involved fatalities: + +On July 31, 1950, around 17:00 GMT, an RCAF Lancaster 965 from 405 Squadron Greenwood crashed during the establishment of the JAWS weather station when a parachute for resupplies being airdropped became entangled on the tail of the aircraft. The nine crew members were killed. An attempt was made to recover their bodies; an RCAF Canso was dispatched and the flying boat landed in Dumbell Bay on August 7. The bodies of the Canadian crew were brought aboard in wooden coffins made from packing crates—the family of Colonel C.J. Hubbard of the United States Weather Bureau requested his remains be buried at Alert—but the combination of the extra weight and a tail wind resulted in an aborted takeoff. The Canso struck ground at the narrow point of Dumbell Bay, damaging the tail section and rendering it useless. Following this, it was decided to bury the crew's remains west of the airstrip, and a military funeral was held the same day. The arrival of the United States Coast Guard icebreaker Eastwind allowed repairs to be made to the Canso. The wreckage of the Lancaster is still visible 500 m (1,600 ft) southwest of the CE building. +On October 11, 1952, a Douglas C-54 Skymaster, flown by the United States Military Air Transport Service, crashed on landing at Alert, while carrying a load of aviation fuel. The four crew members survived the crash; the aircraft was destroyed. The wreckage was pushed to the south side of the runway, where it remains today. Because of the high visibility of the wreckage due to its location at the runway, it is often mistaken for the RCAF Lancaster. +On October 30, 1991, a Lockheed C-130 Hercules, part of Operation Boxtop, crashed about 20 km (12 mi) from the airfield, killing four of the 18 passengers and crew on impact. Pilot John Couch died of exposure following the crash. Couch was conducting a visual approach and descended into a hill due to a mistake regarding the plane's true location. A blizzard and the local terrain hampered rescue efforts by personnel from CFS Alert; United States Air Force (USAF) personnel from Thule Air Base 700 km (430 mi) south; 435 Transport and Rescue Squadron from CFB Winnipeg, and 440 Transport and Rescue Squadron, from CFB Namao outside Edmonton (both squadrons are part of 17 Wing Winnipeg); 424 Squadron from CFB Trenton, Ontario; and 413 Transport and Rescue Squadron from CFB Greenwood, Nova Scotia. The crash investigation recommended all C-130s be retrofitted with ground proximity detectors. The crash and rescue efforts were the basis of the film Ordeal in the Arctic (1993). + +== Canadian Forces Station Alert == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db76c7583 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Alert, Nunavut" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Since the beginning of the JAWS project, the Canadian Armed Forces had been interested in the establishment at Alert for several reasons: the JAWS facility extended Canadian sovereignty over a large uninhabited area which Canada claimed as its sovereign territory, and its proximity to the Soviet Union made it of strategic importance. Alert is closer to Moscow (c. 4,000 km (2,500 mi)) than it is to Ottawa (c. 4,150 km (2,580 mi)). Thus, the possibility of utilizing the site for the purpose of intercepting radio signals was deemed to warrant a military presence. +In 1950, Alert Airport was established. It is the only airport serving the settlement and is presently part of CFS Alert. In 1956, the RCAF, which was expanding its presence throughout the high Arctic with the construction of the Distant Early Warning Line radar network, established a building uphill from the DOT's JAWS station to house "High Arctic Long Range Communications Research", or signals intelligence operations. +In 1957, Alert Wireless Station was conceived as an intercept facility to be jointly staffed by personnel from the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and the RCAF. Five additional buildings were constructed: a mess, three barracks/accommodations buildings, and a power house and vehicle maintenance building, in addition to the existing operations building, built in 1956. The operations building housed the radio intercept and cryptographic equipment. On September 1, 1958, control of the station was transferred from the air force to the army, and it officially began operations. +The following decade saw a dramatic expansion of the station, with a correspondingly greater number of personnel stationed there. The February 1, 1968, unification of the RCN, RCAF, and Canadian Army to form the Canadian Armed Forces saw Alert Wireless Station change its name to Canadian Forces Station Alert (CFS Alert). Its personnel were no longer drawn from only the air force or navy, but primarily from the Canadian Forces Communications Command. + +At its peak, CFS Alert had upwards of 215 personnel posted at any one time. The station became a key asset in the global ECHELON network of the AUSCANNZUKUS intelligence sharing alliance, also known as "Five Eyes", with Alert being privy to many secret Soviet communications regarding land-based and sea-based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) test launches and many operational military deployments. +The first military women to serve in Alert arrived in 1980 as part of the Canadian Forces' Women In Non-Traditional Roles study. After its completion in 1983, women were fully authorized to serve in all roles. The first female commanding officer was Major Cathy Cowan, who took command in January 1996. The first female Station Warrant Officer (SWO), MWO Renee Hansen, was appointed in December 2017. +Budget cuts to the Department of National Defence (DND) and Canadian Armed Forces in 1994 and modernization of communications equipment saw CFS Alert downsized to approximately 74 personnel by 1997–1998, when most radio-intercept operations were remotely controlled by personnel at CFS Leitrim. The remaining personnel are responsible for airfield operations, construction/engineering, food service, and logistical/administrative support. As of 2024, there are about 55 people stationed at CFS Alert, and they consist of military personnel, ECCC and other civilian employees. +Only six persons are now responsible for actual operations, and control of the facility was passed to DND's Information Management Group following the disbanding of CF Communications Command with force restructuring and cutbacks in the mid-1990s. +With Canada's commitment to the global war on terrorism following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in New York City and Arlington County, Virginia, CFS Alert has received renewed and increased funding to expand its SIGINT capabilities. On April 1, 2009, the RCAF officially took responsibility for CFS Alert from Canadian Forces Information Operations Group (CFIOG). + +=== Civilian contractor === +On April 13, 2006, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that the heating costs for the station had risen, as a consequence of which the military proposed to cut back on support trade positions by using private contractors. By 2008, maintenance operations on the station—including food and housekeeping services, vehicle maintenance, powerplant operation, and heating, electrical, and plumbing—had been transferred to a civilian contractor. The contract was initially awarded to Canadian Base Operators (CBO), a subsidiary of Black & McDonald. In 2012, the contract was won by Nasittuq, a subsidiary of ATCO. + +=== Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory === + +In 1975, technicians employed by the weather station began collecting flask samples for a greenhouse gas monitoring program. In 1980, this grew to include the weekly collection of filter-based aerosol samples for the Canadian Arctic Aerosol Sampling Network (CAASN). +By 1984, the number of ongoing monitoring programs and the amount of experimental research had outgrown the abilities of the weather station to maintain, and plans were made for the construction of a permanent observatory. This observatory, 400 m (1,300 ft) southwest of Lancaster Hall (more commonly known as the far transmitter building), was opened August 29, 1986. Originally known as the Alert Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (BAPMoN) Observatory, it was subsequently renamed the Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory in honour of the Environment Canada researcher who provided the impetus for its construction. The observatory employs two technicians who reside at CFS Alert, an operator and an assistant operator (normally a university co-op student). It is managed by Environment and Climate Change Canada. + +== Demographics == + +While Alert has no permanent residents, it has been continuously inhabited since April 1950. This population, while initially small, grew to upwards of 250 in the 1970s and 1980s, before being downsized in the 1990s when information gathering operations were relayed to CFS Leitrim near Ottawa for collation, reducing the on-site staff considerably. Its current population ranges from a winter minimum of 65 to a summer maximum of 110, plus a variety of short-term visitors, who can swell the total to 150 or more. Alert’s temporary population typically consist of both military personnel and civilians, both making up an almost one-to-one ratio in Alert. + +== Geography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dcfb7d0f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Alert, Nunavut" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert,_Nunavut" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:43.799308+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Alert is 12 km (7.5 mi) west of Cape Sheridan, the northeastern tip of Ellesmere Island, on the shore of the ice-covered Lincoln Sea. Alert lies just 817 km (508 mi) from the North Pole; the nearest Canadian city is Iqaluit, the capital of the territory of Nunavut, 2,092 km (1,300 mi) distant. +The settlement is surrounded by rugged hills and valleys. The shore is composed primarily of slate and shale. Argillite and greywacke also occur. Some of these rocks are calcareous. The sea is covered with sea ice for most of the year but the ice pack does move out in the summer, leaving open water. Evaporation rates are also very low, as average monthly temperatures are above freezing only in July and August. +Other places on Ellesmere Island are the weather station at Eureka (480 km (300 mi)) and the Inuit community of Grise Fiord, 800 km (500 mi), to the southwest and south, respectively. Siorapaluk (540 km (340 mi) to the south) is the nearest populated place in Greenland. Hans Island which from 2023 has a land border with Greenland, a territory of Denmark, is located 197 km (122 mi) to the south. + +== Climate == + +Alert has a polar climate, technically a tundra climate (ET) with characteristics of an ice cap climate (EF). There is complete snow cover for at least 10 months of the year on average and snow from one year persists into the next year in protected areas, but enough melts to prevent glaciation. The warmest month, July, has an average temperature of 3.4 °C (38.1 °F), with only July and August averaging above freezing, and those are also the months where well over 90 per cent of the rainfall, which averages only 17.4 mm (0.69 in) per year, occurs. Rain is rare in June and September and virtually unheard of during the remaining eight months of the year. Alert is the fourth-driest locality in Nunavut and averaging only 158.3 mm (6.23 in) of precipitation per year, the vast majority of this occurring as snow. The heaviest snowfalls occur during July to October, and Alert sees relatively little snowfall during the winter months. September is usually the month with the heaviest snowfall. The relative humidity is so low that door handles are covered in electrical tape to prevent static electricity. February is the coldest month of the year with a mean temperature of −33.2 °C (−27.8 °F). The yearly mean, −17.7 °C (0.1 °F), is the second-coldest in Nunavut after Eureka. Snowfall can occur during any month of the year, and the typical year sees no more than five days in a row without frost. Average highs rise above freezing only in mid-June and drop below freezing at the end of August. +Being far north of the Arctic Circle, Alert experiences polar night from October 14 to February 28, and midnight sun from April 7 to September 4. There are two relatively short periods of twilight from about February 13 to March 22 and the second from September 19 to October 22. Nautical twilight lasts from October 29 to February 11. +Astronomical twilight, where 24 hours are in effect completely dark with only a marginal astronomical twilight, occurs from November 19 to January 22. + +== See also == + +Station Nord, Greenland, the second-northernmost permanent settlement in the world +Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, the northernmost settlement/town in the world with a permanent population of civilians +Puerto Williams, Chile, the southernmost settlement on Earth + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Further reading == + +== External links == + +Royal Canadian Air Force page on CFS Alert \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b236045a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Alfred Faure" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:29.459309+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Alfred-Faure or Port Alfred is a permanent French scientific station on Île de la Possession (Possession Island) of the subantarctic Crozet Archipelago of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in the South Indian Ocean. + + +== Research station == +The station is located at the eastern end of the island on a plateau 143 m (460 ft) above sea level. Depending on the season, there are 15 to 60 personnel living and working at the base. Their scientific work includes meteorological, seismic, biological and geological research. It was first established during the austral summer of 1963–1964, replacing a temporary scientific base built in 1961. The new station was named after Alfred Faure, the site's leader in the early 1960s. Alfred-Faure is visited a few times a year by the Marion Dufresne, an oceanographic research vessel which delivers supplies and rotating crews of scientists. There is a 1.6 km road that connects the research station to the coast. + + +== Climate == +Alfred Faure Station has a very mild tundra climate (Koppen ET) with cool to cold summers and cold (but still averaging above freezing) winters. Due to its oceanic location near the subpolar low, it has a very cloudy and rainy climate with just 600 hours of bright sunshine per year (one of the lowest in the world) and over 70 inches (1750 mm) of rain a year. Similar to other subpolar oceanic islands in the southern hemisphere it is also very windy (especially because of the ocean being effectively flat terrain). + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Virtual Map of Ile de la Possession \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e4d62672 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Alice Holt Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:30.643113+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Alice Holt Research Station is one of two British forestry research institutes, and is located in north-east Hampshire. + + +== History == +It was established as a Forestry Research Station in 1946 by the Forestry Commission near Wrecclesham. The forest estate had 1,225,000 acres. +By the late 1950s it had an international reputation. A £134,000 extension was opened in the summer of 1959, which enable the Commission to have its central seed store at the site for varieties such as Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, Corsican pine, and Norway spruce. The store was mostly for conifers, keeping seeds up to four years. and also acorns had been stored up to three years. +More laboratories were added in the late 1970s. + + +=== Research === +In 1948, it began experimenting with Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dawn redwood, with a view to produce timber. +In the late 1950s, its scientists were among the first people to investigate biological data with computers, when they discovered why the Douglas-fir did not grow well in south-east England, which they found was due to temperature and rooting depth. It was through computers that many solutions were found. The station found a new way to determine daily tree growth with vernier scales. Computers investigated ways to classify trees by leaf character. It notably conducted research into eucalyptus and poplar trees. +In April 1973, it found that Dutch elm disease had been imported on Rock Elm logs from North America. The disease had first appeared in 1965. The disease had originally been shipped to the North America from Britain in the 1930s. The disease in Britain had then become less known. There were outbreaks of the disease in 1965 in north Gloucestershire and in 1967 in south Essex. Two scientists at the station discovered two strains of the disease. The areas affected were southern Hampshire, north-west Kent, the Severn valley, and Ipswich. The scientists realised that these outbreaks could have been prevented by controlling imports of logs. It had been assumed that as Britain had the disease in the 1930s that trees would not be affected. By 1984 Dutch elm disease had reached Scotland. Other diseases of trees to be controlled were Oak wilt and Chestnut blight. +In 1973, it looked at ways to control the grey squirrel. + + +=== Chief Research Officers === +Professor Malcolm Laurie, 1946 - October 1959 +Tom Peace, October 1959 - +David Burdekin +Alan Fletcher +Prof Julian Evans, 1984-1997 +Dr Peter Freer-Smith, 1998-2009 + + +=== Chief Scientists === +Prof Peter Freer-Smith, 2009-2017 +Prof Chris Quine, 2018-2025 +Prof Bianca Ambrose-Oji, June 2025 + + +== Structure == +It is situated next to Birdworld in the Alice Holt Forest in East Hampshire off the A325, east of Bentley railway station on the Alton Line, which follows the River Wey. The nearest inhabitation is Rowledge in Surrey, on the Hampshire boundary. Although now in Hampshire, similar to Birdworld, the site is in the religious parish of Rowledge in Surrey. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Forest Research Archived 31 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..caa9bd625 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Anechoic chamber" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:19.715865+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An anechoic chamber (an-echoic meaning "non-reflective" or "without echoes") is a room designed to stop reflections or echoes of either sound or electromagnetic waves. They are also often isolated from energy entering from their surroundings. This combination means that a person or detector exclusively hears direct sounds (no reflected sounds), in effect simulating being outside in a free field. +Anechoic chambers, a term coined by American acoustics expert Leo Beranek, were initially exclusively used to refer to acoustic anechoic chambers. Recently, the term has been extended to radio frequency (RF) anechoic chambers, which eliminate reflection and external noise caused by electromagnetic waves. +Anechoic chambers range from small compartments the size of household microwave ovens to ones as large as aircraft hangars. The size of the chamber depends on the size of the objects and frequency ranges being tested. + +== Acoustic anechoic chambers == + +The requirement for what was subsequently called an anechoic chamber originated to allow testing of loudspeakers that generated such intense sound levels that they could not be tested outdoors in inhabited areas. +Anechoic chambers are commonly used in acoustics to conduct experiments in nominally "free field" conditions, free field meaning that there are no reflected signals. All sound energy will be traveling away from the source with almost none reflected back. Common anechoic chamber experiments include measuring the transfer function of a loudspeaker or the directivity of noise radiation from industrial machinery. In general, the interior of an anechoic chamber can be very quiet, with typical noise levels in the 10–20 dBA range. In 2005, the best anechoic chamber measured at −9.4 dBA. In 2015, an anechoic chamber on the campus of Microsoft broke the world record with a measurement of −20.6 dBA. The human ear can typically detect sounds above 0 dBA, so a human in such a chamber would perceive the surroundings as devoid of sound. Anecdotally, some people may not like such silence and can become disoriented. +The mechanism by which anechoic chambers minimize the reflection of sound waves impinging onto their walls is as follows: In the included figure, an incident sound wave I is about to impinge onto a wall of an anechoic chamber. This wall is composed of a series of wedges W with height H. After the impingement, the incident wave I is reflected as a series of waves R which in turn "bounce up-and-down" in the gap of air A (bounded by dotted lines) between the wedges W. Such bouncing may produce (at least temporarily) a standing wave pattern in A. During this process, the acoustic energy of the waves R gets dissipated via the air's molecular viscosity, in particular near the corner C. In addition, with the use of foam materials to fabricate the wedges, another dissipation mechanism happens during the wave/wall interactions. As a result, the component of the reflected waves R along the direction of I that escapes the gaps A (and goes back to the source of sound), denoted R', is notably reduced. Even though this explanation is two-dimensional, it is representative and applicable to the actual three-dimensional wedge structures used in anechoic chambers. + +=== Semi-anechoic and hemi-anechoic chambers === +Full anechoic chambers aim to absorb energy in all directions. To do this, all surfaces, including the floor, need to be covered in correctly shaped wedges. A mesh grille is usually installed above the floor to provide a surface to walk on and place equipment. This mesh floor is typically placed at the same floor level as the rest of the building, meaning the chamber itself extends below floor level. This mesh floor is damped and floating on absorbent buffers to isolate it from outside vibration or electromagnetic signals. +In contrast, semi-anechoic or hemi-anechoic chambers have a solid floor that acts as a work surface for supporting heavy items, such as cars, washing machines, or industrial machinery, which could not be supported by the mesh grille in a full anechoic chamber. Recording studios are often semi-anechoic. +The distinction between "semi-anechoic" and "hemi-anechoic" is unclear. In some uses they are synonyms, or only one term is used. Other uses distinguish one as having an ideally reflective floor (creating free-field conditions with a single reflective surface) and the other as simply having a flat untreated floor. Still other uses distinguish them by size and performance, with one being likely an existing room retrofitted with acoustic treatment, and the other a purpose-built room which is likely larger and has better anechoic performance. + +== Radio-frequency anechoic chambers == + +The internal appearance of the radio frequency (RF) anechoic chamber is sometimes similar to that of an acoustic anechoic chamber; however, the interior surfaces of the RF anechoic chamber are covered with radiation absorbent material (RAM) instead of acoustically absorbent material. Uses for RF anechoic chambers include testing antennas and radars, and they are typically used to house the antennas for performing measurements of antenna radiation patterns and electromagnetic interference. +Performance expectations (gain, efficiency, pattern characteristics, etc.) constitute primary challenges in designing stand alone or embedded antennas. Designs are becoming ever more complex with a single device incorporating multiple technologies such as cellular, WiFi, Bluetooth, LTE, MIMO, RFID and GPS. + +=== Radiation-absorbent material === + +RAM is designed and shaped to absorb incident RF radiation (also known as non-ionising radiation) as effectively as possible, from as many incident directions as possible. The more effective the RAM, the lower the resulting level of reflected RF radiation. Many measurements in electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and antenna radiation patterns require that spurious signals arising from the test setup, including reflections, are negligible to avoid the risk of causing measurement errors and ambiguities. + +=== Effectiveness over frequency === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6c0c8000 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +--- +title: "Anechoic chamber" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:19.715865+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Waves of higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and are higher in energy, while waves of lower frequencies have longer wavelengths and are lower in energy, according to the relationship + + + + λ + = + v + + / + + f + + + {\displaystyle \lambda =v/f} + + where lambda represents wavelength, v is phase velocity of wave, and + + + + f + + + {\displaystyle f} + + is frequency. To shield for a specific wavelength, the cone must be of appropriate size to absorb that wavelength. The performance quality of an RF anechoic chamber is determined by its lowest test frequency of operation, at which measured reflections from the internal surfaces will be the most significant compared to higher frequencies. Pyramidal RAM is at its most absorptive when the incident wave is at normal incidence to the internal chamber surface and the pyramid height is approximately equal to + + + + λ + + / + + 4 + + + {\displaystyle \lambda /4} + +, where + + + + λ + + + {\displaystyle \lambda } + + is the free space wavelength. Accordingly, increasing the pyramid height of the RAM for the same (square) base size improves the effectiveness of the chamber at low frequencies but results in increased cost and a reduced unobstructed working volume that is available inside a chamber of defined size. + +=== Installation into a screened room === +An RF anechoic chamber is usually built into a screened room, designed using the Faraday cage principle. This is because most of the RF tests that require an anechoic chamber to minimize reflections from the inner surfaces also require the properties of a screened room to attenuate unwanted signals penetrating inwards and causing interference to the equipment under test and prevent leakage from tests penetrating outside. + +=== Chamber size and commissioning === +At lower radiated frequencies, far-field measurement can require a large and expensive chamber. Sometimes, for example for radar cross-section measurements, it is possible to scale down the object under test and reduce the chamber size, provided that the wavelength of the test frequency is scaled down in direct proportion by testing at a higher frequency. +RF anechoic chambers are normally designed to meet the electrical requirements of one or more accredited standards. For example, the aircraft industry may test equipment for aircraft according to company specifications or military specifications such as MIL-STD 461E. Once built, acceptance tests are performed during commissioning to verify that the standard(s) are in fact met. Provided they are, a certificate will be issued to that effect. The chamber will need to be periodically retested. + +=== Operational use === +Test and supporting equipment configurations to be used within anechoic chambers must expose as few metallic (conductive) surfaces as possible, as these risk causing unwanted reflections. Often this is achieved by using non-conductive plastic or wooden structures for supporting the equipment under test. Where metallic surfaces are unavoidable, they may be covered with pieces of RAM after setting up to minimize such reflection as far as possible. +A careful assessment may be required as to whether the test equipment (as opposed to the equipment under test) should be placed inside or outside the chamber. Typically most of it is located in a separate screened room attached to the main test chamber, in order to shield it from both external interference and from the radiation within the chamber. Mains power and test signal cabling into the test chamber require high quality filtering. +Fiber optic cables are sometimes used for the signal cabling, as they are immune to ordinary RFI and also cause little reflection inside the chamber. + +=== Health and safety risks associated with RF anechoic chamber === +The following health and safety risks are associated with RF anechoic chambers: + +RF radiation hazard +Fire hazard +Trapped personnel +Personnel are not normally permitted inside the chamber during a measurement as this not only can cause unwanted reflections from the human body but may also be a radiation hazard to the personnel concerned if tests are being performed at high RF powers. Such risks are from RF or non-ionizing radiation and not from the higher energy ionizing radiation. +As RAM is highly absorptive of RF radiation, incident radiation will generate heat within the RAM. If this cannot be dissipated adequately there is a risk that hot spots may develop and the RAM temperature may rise to the point of combustion. This can be a risk if a transmitting antenna inadvertently gets too close to the RAM. Even for quite modest transmitting power levels, high gain antennas can concentrate the power sufficiently to cause high power flux near their apertures. Although recently manufactured RAM is normally treated with a fire retardant to reduce such risks, they are difficult to eliminate. + +== See also == +Soundproofing +Vibration isolation +Buffer (disambiguation) +Damped wave +Damping ratio +Damper (disambiguation) +Electromagnetic reverberation chamber +Reverberation room +Sensory deprivation +GTEM cell + +== References == + +== External links == + +360-degree video of an anechoic chamber +Pictures and description of an acoustic anechoic chamber Archived 4 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine +Anechoic Chambers, Past and Present +How RF Anechoic Chambers Work Archived 17 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine +Video tour of an EMC/RF Test facility. Including the largest anechoic test chamber in the southern hemisphere +Some examples +Antenna Testing For An Anechoic Chamber +Millimeter Wave Inc's Radio/MM Wave anechoic chamber Archived 21 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine +Bell Labs' Murray Hill anechoic chamber +Anechoic chamber for millimeter wave designs Archived 22 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine +"Acoustics Anechoic Chamber". The UK's National Measurement Laboratory. National Physical Laboratory. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 22 February 2011. +Anechoic chambers at Apple Inc. campus used to test their mobile device products, via WaybackMachine +Photos from building an anechoic chamber in CTU, Prague +Sound examples +The sound of clothes inside an anechoic chamber +Hallucinations in anechoic chambers: the science behind the claim +Listen to a subdued balloon burst in an anechoic chamber \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d81d170bc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:31.856347+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station was founded in 1943 by Artem and Abraham Alikhanians (Abram Alikhanov), during World War II, to study cosmic ray and particle physics. It is located on Mount Aragats in Armenia, at an elevation of 3,200 meters, near Kari Lake. + + +== History == + +Research on cosmic rays at Aragats started with a 1934 study by the Leningrad Physical-Technical Institute, focusing on how cosmic rays differ from East to West. Norair Kocharian from Yerevan State University later added to this research. These early findings led Artem and Abraham Alikhanians to set up a more detailed study in 1942. the station has been operational with minimal interruption since establishment. +Since it was set up, the Aragats station has made contributions to studying cosmic rays including the fields of High-Energy Particle Physics, Astrophysics, and Space Weather. +In its early stages, the station used mass spectrometry to study the properties of charged particles, contributed by the Alikhanyan brothers. This work, which took about 15 years, helped improve methods for analyzing masses and identifying cosmic ray protons. The idea of 'varitrons,' proposed during this time, aroused discussions in the science community about elementary particles, even though not all findings were confirmed. This discussion helped establish Aragats as a location for cosmic ray research + + +=== The period from 1958 to 1970 === +From 1958 to 1970, progress was made in cosmic ray research through calorimetric methods. Naum Grigorov and his team, working with the Yerevan Physics Institute, installed an ionization calorimeter, leading to research into hadron-nuclei interactions. Following experiments like PION and MUON used advanced detectors and early computers for data gathering and analysis. + + +=== 1980s === +In the 1980s, the ANI experiment was planned to analyze Extensive Air Showers (EASs) using large detectors to study a wide range of cosmic ray types and energies. However, the dissolution of the USSR posed challenges to its full execution. Despite such, the MAKET-ANI and GAMMA projects published in high-energy cosmic ray research + + +== Aragats Space Environmental Center (ASEC) == + +In 2000, the Aragats Space Environmental Center (ASEC) was established, aimed to enhance research in solar physics and space weather. ASEC employs neutron monitors and scintillation detectors to track cosmic ray fluxes and create early warning systems for solar energetic particle events. With the launch of the SEVAN detector network in 2007, the station improved its detection ability on particle acceleration and movement in the solar corona and interplanetary space. +The network's initial setups were in Croatia, Bulgaria, and India. Expansion continued with the installation of SEVAN detectors in Slovakia, Germany (Hamburg and Berlin), Czech Republic, and atop Zugspitze in 2023. +Recent developments 2008-2025 +Since 2010, significantly enlarged facilities on Aragats continuously monitor fluxes of charged and neutral particles, electrical and geomagnetic fields, lightning location, meteorological parameters, and skies above the station. Later, similar monitoring centers were established in 2 sites on the slopes of Mt. Aragats and Yerevan (Chilingarian et al., 2024a), making Aragats a major center for the interdisciplinary research of cosmic rays and geophysics phenomena. Among the most significant discoveries of last years was the measurement of electron and gamma-ray energy spectra of thunderstorm ground enhancements (TGEs), the key evidence of developing relativistic runaway electron avalanches (RREA) in the thunderous atmosphere (Chilingarian et al., 2024b, Starr, 2024). +The largest TGEs registered in Armenia, at Mt. Musala (Bulgaria), Mt. Lomnicky Stit (Slovakia), and Mt. Milesovka in the Czech Republic, and recent measurements at Zugspitze prove that TGE is a universal characteristic of thunderstorms worldwide (Kwan, 2024a), significantly influencing terrestrial climate and operation of the global electric circuit (GEC). The measured energy spectra allow us to gain insight into the thundercloud's charge structure and clarify the role of the lower positively charged region (LPCR) in developing the lightning initiation (Chilingarian et al., 2024c). +Other discoveries made on Aragats include the registration of the atmospheric neutrons observed during thunderstorms, originating from the photonuclear reactions of the RREA gamma rays; the discovery of the Radon circulation effect; the uncovering of the muon stopping effect and abrupt enhancement of positron flux; the estimation of the largest electric voltage (potential difference) at mountain peaks; and the observation of transient luminous events (TLEs) in the lower atmosphere.¬¬¬ +Interdisciplinary research at Aragats reveals the synergy of atmospheric and Galactic particle accelerators, enhancing our understanding of cosmic ray phenomena (Kwan, 2024b). A recent study (Chilingarian and Zazyan, 2024) reveals that atmospheric electron accelerators impact energy measurements of the highest energy cosmic rays. Consequently, examining the atmospheric conditions for each ultra-high-energy (UHE) event is essential to accurately identify true sources of PeV energy gamma rays, marking an exciting convergence of space and atmospheric sciences. +Data from local and international networks are available online through free-access databases and Mendeley datasets (Chilingarian et al., 2024d). +References +Chilingarian A., Karapetyan T., Sargsyan B., Y.Khanikyanc, and S.Chilingaryan (2024a) Measurements of Particle Fluxes, Electric Fields, and Lightning Occurrences at the Aragats Space-Environmental Center (ASEC), Pure and Applied Geophysics 181, 1963. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-024-03481-5 +Chilingarian A., Sargsyan B., Karapetyan T. et al.(2024b), Extreme thunderstorm ground enhancements registered on Aragats in 2023, Physical Review D 110, 063043. +Chilingarian A., B. Sargsyan, Zazyan M. (2024c) An Enormous Increase in Atmospheric Positron Flux during a Summer Thunderstorm on Mount Aragats, Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 222, 111819. doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2024.111819 +A. Chilingarian, M. Zazyan, Overestimation of Astrophysical Gamma-Ray Energies During Thunderstorms: Synergy of Galactic and Atmospheric Accelerators, Astrophysical Journal Letters 975 (issue 2), L39. DOI: 10.3847/2041-8213/ad85e1 +Jacklin Kwan (2024a)Physics World, https://physicsworld.com/a/mountaintop-observations-of-gamma-ray-glow-could-shed-light-on-origins-of-lightning/ +Michelle Star (2024) Overlooked Weather Phenomenon Produces Gamma Rays in Our Atmosphere, Science alert, https://www.sciencealert.com/overlooked-weather-phenomenon-produces-gamma-rays-in-our-atmosphere +Jacklin Kwan (2024b), Could thunderstorms be exaggerating the strength of mysterious gamma rays from outer space? Science, December 20, 2024. +Chilingarian A., Karapetyan T., B. Sargsyan B., et al. (2024d) Dataset on extreme thunderstorm ground enhancements registered on Aragats in 2023, Data in Brief, 54, 110554. doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2024.110554 + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +A. Alikhanyan National Laboratory (YerPhI) +https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/feb/07/cosmic-ray-research-station-mount-aragats-photo-essay +https://www.rferl.org/a/armenia-mountaintop-research-facility-that-was-once-weapons-development-lab/30391548.html +The Times +http://www.crdfriends.org/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat_Botanical_Garden-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat_Botanical_Garden-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34be598f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat_Botanical_Garden-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Ashgabat Botanical Garden" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashgabat_Botanical_Garden" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:42.185051+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Ashgabat Botanical Garden in Ashgabat is the oldest botanical garden in Turkmenistan. The name Ashgabat literally means "city of love or city of devotion." Turkmenistan is found in the Central Asia. It is bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north and east, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest and the Caspian Sea to the west. Entrance to the botanical garden is located in the eastern side of Ashgabat on the territory of the academic sciences of Turkmenistan between streets 2029 and Tagta. +Founded on 1 October 1929, Ashgabat covers approximately 18 hectares, and exhibits more than 500 different species of plants from around the world. The park is divided into several climatic zones, is decorated with sculptures and gazebos, and has greenhouses. + + +== Overwiew == +In 1892, the Ashgabat Specialized Botanical Station was organized. The Garden School was then formed, which laid the foundation for the future garden. +The official founding of the Ashgabat Botanical Garden is considered to be October 1, 1929, although floristic studies on its territory were carried out long before this date. After the opening, work began on the selection and testing of flower-decorative and wood-shrub plants. +The first site, where the most decorative plants of the natural flora of Turkmenistan were collected, was laid in 1935. The responsibility of the first scientists and researchers fell to develop a garden layout, plant plantations, identify the first scientific areas, equip greenhouses. +In 1951, the garden was placed under the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR. +In August 2019, the Botanical Garden was transferred to the Turkmen Agricultural University, after which it was closed for reconstruction. + + +== Exposure garden == +An extensive botanical collection has been collected in the garden, representing a wide range of world-famous species of world flora that grow in a company selected regionally on specially created sites. Here, for each plant, seeds are collected annually, and in the fall planting and sowing. The garden has more than 30 30 varieties introduced to industrial floriculture. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21a1c21cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Australian Grains Genebank" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:06.035847+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Australian Grains Genebank (AGG) is a national center for storing genetic material for plant breeding and research. The Genebank is in a collaboration with the Australian Seed Bank Partnership on an Australian Crop Wild Relatives project. It is located at Grains Innovation Park, in Horsham, Victoria, Australia. + +== Objectives and challenges == +The Australian Grains Genebank (AGG) aims to collect and conserve the seeds of Australian crop wild species, that are not yet adequately represented in existing collections. 40 key species of crop wild, 32 of which are endemic to Australia, have been identified as being crucial to increasing Australia's stock of grain crops. Seeds of crop wild relatives (CWR) will be available to plant breeders and researchers in order to develop the plant varieties of the future. The seeds will be stored not only in the Australian Grains Genebank but also in the Australian Seed Bank Partnership member seed banks. +This project will enable research into new plant varieties, that are vital to Australia's agricultural future. Progress can be made in understanding the genetic material contained in the crops. +One of the main objectives of the Australian Grains Genebank is helping the research; for this reason, this institution distributes about 25,000 packets of seeds to scientists in Australia and overseas. Therefore, they can evaluate this material for characteristics that could be used to breed more productive grain crops. These characteristics include the resistance to heat, frost, drought, pests and diseases. +Another fact about Australian Grains Genebank is that it uses a DNA-based soil testing service, to assist grain growers in predicting the losses from various diseases before a crop is planted. Growers have the option of changing cultivars or modifying cropping programs, in situations where the risk of crop loss is high. The service was launched in 1997 and the initial focus was on grain and barley, but pathogens of rotation crops are now included. + +== Facilities == +In 2009 the Victorian Government provided $3 million to Sally Norton, leader of the Australian Grains Genebank to make the bank, also promising $600,000 per year for the next five years toward operating costs. The bank was officially opened in March, 2014. The budget is provided by the Government of Victoria and the Grains Research and Development Corporation, a corporation that is supported by the Government of Australia. +The AGG is a national seed store bank completed by H2o architects, on the Wimmera flatland at the edge of Horsham, Victoria, for the Victorian Department of Environment and Primary Industries. The facility has more than 2.7 kilometres of space to give a secure store for seed specimens. The building is also used for seed development, seed requests and contains a packaging and receiving area, administration areas, drying facilities, freezers working at -20 degrees Celsius and a multipurpose national reception area, or lobby, to accommodate visiting groups. +A double skin freezer design has an inner esky box of isolated panels, used for storing seeds and contained within an outer wood clad weather protecting cover. This design makes certain that the freezers work with less charge, reduce the energy consumption and operating costs of the facility. Efficiency is reached with a robust and environmentally responsible mechanical system. +The building has a strong presence and provides innovation in design, technology and materials. The exterior layer is very similar to a pergola, with thousands of timber slats, each one 120 centimetres long, creating the top layer. + +== Storage conditions and regeneration == + +The Horsham bank is the biggest of its kind and is designed for long-term storage. The material they conserve includes released crop varieties, breeding materials, and crop wild relatives. It serves not only producers but also processors, marketers, breeders and regional farming communities. Peter Walsh, the Victorian Minister of Agriculture, explained that the bank could contain about 300 million seeds from all around the globe. The bank has the capacity to hold 200,000 packets of seeds and more than 200 different crop species. In 2017 the collection held about 138,016 different seeds (or assessions), and it is growing about 3000 seeds each year. +The most representative crop names stored are: + +Wheat with 42,624 different species coming from different areas of the world, mainly from Europe, Australia and Africa. +Barley with 19,062 different types, mainly from Europe and Central Asia. +Chickpea with 9,771 different breeds, coming from Australia, Africa, Europe and Asia Minor. +Pea with about 7,558 different categories, principally coming from Europe, the United States, South America and Australia. +Lentil with 5,061 different species, coming from Asia Minor, Central Asia, Europe and Africa. +The seed drying room operates at 15 degrees Celsius and 15% of humidity. Seeds remain in this room form four to six weeks to dry down to around 6% seed moisture before being sealed into foil packets and placed under long-term storage at -20 degrees Celsius. +AGG routinely conduct seed viability monitoring tests because seeds lose their ability to germinate, even under long-term conditions. Once seed germination drops below 85%, and the seed quantity they have in the store is below 500 seeds, the genebank regenerates the seed. They regenerate around 4000 different samples per year under field and greenhouse environments. When they regenerate seeds, they consider the biology of the plants to ensure the right soil mix, temperatures, control pollination for outcrossing species. + +== Longevity == +In order to keep the seeds safe, they are stored in 2.7 kilometres of shelf space at -20 degrees Celsius (-4 degrees Fahrenheit) with very low moisture. The seeds can remain viable for 50 or 100 years (depending on the kind of seed), preserving, in this way, the genetic materials. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ebea6099 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Australian Grains Genebank" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:06.035847+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The primary reason for the bank to be created was the extreme temperatures in the area, up to 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit) in the summertime. Because of that, they had to ensure the protection of the grains all year around. +The longevity of seeds differs; some keep well for decades, crops are grown out regularly and new grains assembled to increase the collection. A database carries the information about the origin and characteristics of each seed line (none genetically modified) and features of seed viability and the quantity held. +Seeds are placed in controlled maturing environments with high temperatures and a certain humidity (RH; 45 °C and 60% RH). The Lithium chloride (LiCl) helps to obtain the right RH environment. +The seed survival curve, that can be acquired from the germination test, is compared with the longevity of ‘marker’ species aged under the same conditions. From here, longevity categories can be distinguished: this is most important for alpine seeds, as recent proofs show that grains from cooler and wetter habitats are shorter lived than seeds from warmer ones. +Longevity checks can also indicate how seeds should be conserved. + +== Australian Seed Bank Partnership == +The main goal of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership is to save about 1700 native species of plant and ecological communities facing extinction due to habitat loss, and the fragmentation and degradation of invasive species. To accomplish this objective, the partnership maintains a safe and sustainable environment, and collects and stores seeds to help research on the subject. + +The Australian Grains Genebank is one of the most important members of the Australian Seed Bank Partnership, which is an alliance between 12 organizations that are trying to deal with the multitude of threats facing Australian biodiversity by working together. The partnership consists of nine seeds banks, that are storing and conserving seeds, and three flora-focused organizations, that have the mission not only to fulfill the gap between policymakers, researcher, and seed collectors, but also to manage the on-ground conservation and restoration activities. +The activities related to the Australian Seed Bank Partnership consist of four simple concepts: collecting, research, supporting restoration and sharing knowledge. + +Collecting: the process of collection and conservation of the native seeds is carried out by organizations, non-profit institutions and community groups, that are working together to provide a future-proof insurance policy for Australian's unique seed flora, which is particularly important in time of environmental stress. One of the main activities, in the field of collecting and storing seeds, involves the coordination of seasonal seeds collecting fields trips. Some experts, in fact, follow a rigid protocol to recognize, collect, clean and store seeds. The experts have also the important task of recording the information (such as the time of the year the seed has been collected, the associated vegetation and the soil type in the seed-collecting region) and the principal characteristics of the seed. Those information are considered fundamental to the seed banks' future rule in conservation. +Research: to keep the collected seeds available for a long time and under controlled conditions, the research process is a central concept. To store a seed properly the researcher must establish what is required by each category or type of seed (for example if they require a specific temperature or if it needs light and moisture cues to germinate). +Supporting Restoration: one of the most important activities in which the Australian Seed Bank Partnership is involved, is the recording of all the data about Australian native crops. This process is considered that important because it informs the restoration of plant communities and landscapes. In order to achieve this objective, the Australian Seed Bank Partnership applies the scientific knowledge to the field and shares it with the restoration community. This institution, thanks to this process, has already saved a lot of Australian native plants, discovered new species and rediscovered species that they thought to be extinct in the wild. +Sharing knowledge: The Australian Seed Bank Partnership shares his knowledge among all the existing Australian conservation seed banks, restoration practitioners, and community groups. By sharing this knowledge, they hope to build a greater understanding of seed science in Australia. +The Australian Grains Genebank is related to the Australian Seed Bank Partnership. They are actually collaborating on an Australian Crop Wild Relatives project. Through this project, these two institutions are trying to store all the Australian crop wild relatives, that are not yet represented in the ex-suit collection. The 32 wild crop species will be stored and preserved on the facilities of the Australian Grains Genebank. This project is considered really important, because saving and storing the wild crops will enable researchers into new plant varieties, that will be important for the future and the development of the Australian agriculture. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Sustainablelivingsystems.org: "A Typology of Community Seed Banks" +Business Plan of Australian Seed Bank Partnership 2011-2020 +Annual Report of Australian Seed Bank Partnership 2015-2016 +Crop Trust \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_PlantBank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_PlantBank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bde927fa9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_PlantBank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Australian PlantBank" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_PlantBank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:07.266885+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Australian PlantBank is a seed bank located in the Australian Botanic Gardens, Mount Annan. The seedbank is part of the Millennium Seed Bank Project. The SeedBank replaced the former NSW Seedbank as part of an upgrade. + + +== History == +The former NSW Seedbank was established in 1986 and originally collected wild seed for the Gardens. The former seedbank went through an extensive upgrade in 1999 and ensured that the seeds were of high quality. The biggest and latest update was in 2013, where the NSW Seedbank turned into the Australian PlantBank. +In 2014 the new building, designed by BVN, received the National Award for Public Architecture from the Australian Institute of Architects. + + +== Opening ceremony == +The opening ceremony for the Australian PlantBank was held on 11 October 2013. The seedbank was officially opened by Her Excellency Professor Marie Bashir. Other attendees included: + +The Honourable Robyn Parker MP, Minister for Environment and Heritage +Mr Ken Boundy, Chair, Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust + + +== References == + + +== External links == +PlantBank opening ceremony official party + gallery \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccaro,_Nova_Scotia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccaro,_Nova_Scotia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a32a381b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccaro,_Nova_Scotia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Baccaro, Nova Scotia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baccaro,_Nova_Scotia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:45.063593+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Baccaro ( BAK-ə-roh) is a community in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located in the Barrington Municipal District. +The community's name comes from "baccolaos," the Basque word for cod-fish. Baccaro Point has a weather station (Station ID WCP). It is mainland Nova Scotia's southernmost point. There are a few islands, however; such as Cape Sable Island, that are further south. + + +== See also == +List of communities in Nova Scotia + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Baccaro Point - Hourly Forecast - Environment Canada \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium-0.md index 437ba4756..f5a7b678f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:07.733172+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:53.020003+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..77384e0c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Banff International Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:33.052268+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Banff International Research Station (BIRS) for Mathematical Innovation and Discovery was established in 2003. It provides an independent research institute for the mathematical sciences in North America, a counterpart to the Oberwolfach Research Institute for Mathematics in Europe. The research station, commonly known by its acronym, "BIRS", hosts over 2000 international scientists each year to undertake research collaboration in the mathematical sciences. + + +== Research activities == +The research that takes place at the Banff International Research Station is either in pure mathematics, applied mathematics, or in other areas of science where they intersect with mathematics. + +"BIRS embraces all aspects of the mathematical, computational and statistical sciences from the most fundamental challenges of pure and applied mathematics, theoretical and applied computer science, statistics, and mathematical physics, to financial and industrial mathematics, as well as the mathematics of information technology, and the life sciences." + +There is a wide range of research publications citing lectures, meetings and reports from BIRS. + + +== Research program == +The Banff International Research Station hosts five types of meetings: + +5-Day Workshops: These make up the core program at BIRS, with up to 42 participants per workshop, 48 weeks per year. Some workshops have only 21 participants, and they share a week at BIRS, running concurrently. +2-Day Workshops: Weekend workshops, typically consisting of 25 people, and typically from the surrounding areas in Alberta and British Columbia. +Focused Research Groups: Up to 8 people from different institutions meet for 1–2 weeks, to work on a specific problem or finish up major projects. +Research in Teams: 2–4 people from different institutions meet for 1–2 weeks to concentrate on their research. +Summer Schools and Training Camps: instructional meetings for up to 40 students for up to 14 days. +The core program of 5-day workshops is created two years in advance. Every summer, BIRS issues a Call for Proposals, soliciting applications for workshops from the global scientific community. Each year, it gets more competitive to get a space in the 48 available weeks at BIRS: 79 proposals were received for the 2003 program, and 168 were received for the 2014 program. An extensive peer-review process by international experts culminates in the selection of the scientific program for a given year. +Summer schools and training camps must apply through the same process as 5-day workshops. An example of a summer school is the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) training camp, to prepare high school students for competing at the IMO. The other types of meetings are far less competitive, and may be applied for at any time, through the BIRS website. + + +== Meeting facilities == +The Banff International Research Station occupies two buildings on the campus of the Banff Centre, in Banff National Park. One of the buildings, Corbett Hall, is a residence building that provides bedrooms, a common lounge area, a small library, and space for small teams of people to work. The other building, TransCanada PipeLines Pavilion, hosts administrative offices, two lecture rooms, and a series of smaller rooms for break-out sessions and research teams. As part of the Banff Centre campus, BIRS researchers have full access to all of its amenities and services. +The idea behind this choice of location for a research facility is to create an atmosphere where scientists can remove themselves from day-to-day life, and immerse themselves in their research. + + +== Automated lecture capture == +In 2012, the Banff International Research Station installed a fully automated lecture capture system. It provides live video streaming and video recording of the lectures that take place in its main lecture room. Video recordings are automatically posted on the BIRS website within a few minutes after a lecture ends. Use of the system is opt-in, decided by the individual lecturers at the time of their lecture, via a touchscreen panel in the lecture room. The automated system at BIRS employs high quality cameras to ensure that mathematics written on chalkboards can be seen clearly. Embedded microphones and audio processing systems capture both the lecturer and questions from the audience. +Recent research videos recorded at BIRS are also available in the iTunes podcast directory. + + +== Funding == +The Banff International Research Station is funded by four governments: + +The federal government of Canada, through the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) +The provincial government of Alberta, through Alberta Science and Research Authority (ASRA) +The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) +Mexico's National Science and Technology Council, (CONACYT) + + +== See also == +BIRS Founding Director (2001), Nassif Ghoussoub +BIRS Scientific Director (2001-2003), Robert Moody +BIRS Scientific Director (2004-2020), Nassif Ghoussoub +BIRS Scientific Director (2020-2025), Malabika Pramanik +The Banff Centre +Banff, Alberta +Pacific Institute for the Mathematical Sciences +Mathematical Sciences Research Institute +Comments from BIRS researchers + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80b40d174 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Bangkok Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:54.181476+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Bangkok Planetarium (Thai: ท้องฟ้าจำลองกรุงเทพ, RTGS: Thong Fa Chamlong Krung Thep) is the oldest planetarium in Thailand and Southeast Asia. It is located on Sukhumvit Road in Bangkok as part of the Science Centre for Education, which is operated by the Department of Non-Formal Education of the Ministry of Education.The complex was built to educate the youth and general public about science and astronomy. +Construction of the planetarium began in 1962 with a budget of twelve million baht and it opened on 18 August 1964. The planetarium dome is 20.60 metres in diameter and 13 metres high, and holds 450 seats. The planetarium uses a Mark IV Zeiss projector, which was the first installation of a large planetarium projector in Southeast Asia. Apart from the theatre itself, the building also features permanent exhibitions on astronomy, aimed at young audiences. +The planetarium underwent extensive renovations in 2015, including the installation of two new Christie Boxer 4K30 projectors alongside the old Mark IV, which helped reignite interest in the previously ailing museum. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..35873023a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Bear pit" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:09.511026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A bear pit is an enclosure historically used to display bears, typically for entertainment and especially bear-baiting. The pit area was normally surrounded by a high fence, above which the spectators would look down on the bears. +The most traditional form of maintaining bears in captivity is keeping them in pits, although many zoos have replaced these by more elaborate and spacious enclosures that attempt to replicate their natural habitats, for the benefit of the animals and the visitors. + + +== History == +Bear pits originated as a place to keep bears used in bear-baiting. These pits were temporary structures, typically used just once. After the sport's popularity waned, bear pits continued to exist as a way to display bears for the public to see, and often, feed. In contrast to the ones used in baiting, these pits were permanent structures built with sturdy materials; the pit in Rosherville Gardens, for example, was made of brick. Bear pits peaked in popularity during the Victorian era, when the public developed a general fascination with exotic animals. +Several violent incidents were known to occur in British bear pits. The public generally saw captive bears as "clownish" and thus feared them little. A bear escaped a pit in the Orangery at Wakefield in 1844, killing a woman and badly mauling another before it was shot dead. At the London Zoo in 1867, a man climbed into a bear pit to retrieve his hat, and was attacked by a bear, but was rescued by a zookeeper. There are rumors of captive bears eating children during this time period, but they have never been confirmed. + + +== Modern day == +Bear pits have largely fallen out of favor, as many zoos now try to make their animals' accommodations more natural. Zoo visitors tend to view animals in natural settings as "active", and those in more artificial settings as "passive". Animal rights groups, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, oppose the existence of bear pits as cruel, claiming that bears cannot get enrichment from such constructions, and seek to close the few that remain. +A short-lived American alternative to bear pits was Edmund Heller's bear exhibit at the Washington Park Zoo. Heller attempted to simulate nature by mixing different species (namely polar, black and grizzly bears, as well as wolves) in the same enclosure. This proved disastrous, as polar bears would drag black bears into the water, drown them, and then eat them. Mixing different species is generally not practiced today. +The Bärengraben of Bern, Switzerland was built in 1857. It allowed visitors to feed the bears, which resided in a concrete pit. In the early 1990s, a swimming pool and softer gravel ground were added to it, but complaints were still made. Eventually, in 2002, a contest was held to design a new bear facility. In 2009, a much larger enclosure called the Bären Park (Bear Park) was opened next to the old bear pit. The old pit still stands, but no longer contains any animals. +Another modern bear pit is the Three Bears General Store in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. Attached to a shop, the pit features live bears in a concrete pit that visitors can feed. The exhibit has been criticized as cruel by animal rights activists. + + +== In culture == +As part of a project commissioned by the Orangery, site of the fatal 1844 mauling, artist Rebecca Chesney created a series of portraits of those involved in the attack. +In the young adult novel series Seekers, about anthropomorphic bears, Lusa, one of the protagonists, grew up in what she calls the "bear bowl" in the Greater Vancouver Zoo. The book depicts the zoo as a safe place in comparison to the wild, where Lusa eventually escapes to, yet also portrays it as restraining and a poor fit for Lusa's adventurous spirit. +The phrase "bear pit" has entered the common vernacular. In Scotland, the phrase bear pit is used to describe bars or public houses that are known to have a violent reputation. Another meaning of "bear pit" is for an unusually aggressive political arena, in which direct, heated attacks are common. The term bear pit is also used to describe a tournament or sparring format, sometimes also referred to as "king of the hill". + + +== See also == +Berenkuil (traffic) +Menagerie +Zoo + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Sheffield Botanical Gardens Bear Pit +Bear parc in Bern \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Island,_Nova_Scotia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Island,_Nova_Scotia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7fc07b924 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Island,_Nova_Scotia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Beaver Island, Nova Scotia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Island,_Nova_Scotia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:46.284167+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Beaver Island is an island community of the Halifax Regional Municipality in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. The weather station code is CWBV; due to its exposed location, Beaver Island can receive very powerful winds, especially from offshore. Since 1846 there has been a lighthouse on the island. + + +== Climate == + + +== References == +Beaver Island Lighthouse +NSLPS \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7170be14 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Behavioral enrichment" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Behavioral enrichment is an animal husbandry principle that seeks to enhance the quality of captive animal care by identifying and providing the environmental stimuli necessary for optimal psychological and physiological well-being. Enrichment can either be active or passive, depending on whether it requires direct contact between the animal and the enrichment. A variety of enrichment techniques are used to create desired outcomes similar to an animal's individual and species' history. Each of the techniques used is intended to stimulate the animal's senses similarly to how they would be activated in the wild. Provided enrichment may be seen in the form of auditory, olfactory, habitat factors, food, research projects, training, and objects. + +== Purpose == +Environmental enrichment can improve the overall welfare of animals in captivity and create a habitat similar to what they would experience in their wild environment. It aims to maintain an animal's physical and psychological health by increasing the range or number of species-specific behaviors, increasing positive interaction with the captive environment, preventing or reducing the frequency of abnormal behaviors, such as stereotypies, and increasing the individual's ability to cope with the challenges of captivity. Stereotypies are seen in captive animals due to stress and boredom. This includes pacing, self-harm, over-grooming, head-weaving, etc. +Environmental enrichment can be offered to any animal in captivity, including: + +Animals in zoos and related facilities +Animals in sanctuaries +Animals in shelters and adoption centers +Animals used for research +Animals used for companionship, e.g. dogs, cats, rabbits, etc. +Environmental enrichment can be beneficial to a wide range of vertebrates and invertebrates such as land mammals, marine mammals, and amphibians. In the United States, specific regulations (Animal Welfare Act of 1966) must be followed for enrichment plans in order to guarantee, regulate, and provide appropriate living environments and stimulation for animals in captivity. Moreover, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (also known as the AZA), requires that animal husbandry and welfare be a main concern for those caring for animals in captivity. + +== Passive enrichment == +Passive enrichment provides sensory stimulation but no direct contact or control. This type of enrichment is commonly used for its potential to benefit several animals simultaneously as well as requiring limited direct animal contact. + +=== Visual enrichment === +Visual enrichment is typically provided by changing the layout of an animal's holding area. The type of visual enrichment can vary, from something as simple as adding pictures on walls to videotapes and television. Visual enrichment such as television can especially benefit animals housed in single cages. +Mirrors are also a potential form of enrichment, specifically for animals that display an understanding of self-recognition, such as non-human primates. In addition to using mirrors to reflect the animal's own image, mirrors can also be angled so the animal is able to see normally out-of-sight areas of the holding area. +Enclosures in modern zoos are often designed to facilitate environmental enrichment. For example, the Denver Zoo's exhibit Predator Ridge allows different African carnivores to be rotated among several enclosures, providing the animals with a differently sized environment. + +=== Auditory enrichment === +In the wild, animals are exposed to a variety of sounds that they normally do not encounter in captivity. Auditory enrichment can be used to mimic the animal's natural habitat. Types of nature-based auditory enrichment include rain forest sounds and con-specific vocalizations. +The most common form of auditory enrichment is music, whose principal stems primarily from its benefit to humans. The benefits of classical music have been widely studied in animals, from sows to non-human primates. Studies have also looked at various other genres, such as pop and rock, but their ability to provide effective enrichment remains inconclusive. Most types of music that are selected for enrichment are based on human preferences, causing anthropomorphic biases that may not translate to other animals. Therefore, music that is specifically attuned to the animal's auditory senses could be beneficial. Species-specific sounds require further research to find what pitch, frequency, and range is most suitable for the animal. + +== Active enrichment == +Active enrichment often requires the animal to perform some sort of physical activity as well as direct interaction with the enrichment object. Active enrichment items can temporarily reduce stereotypic behaviors as their beneficial effects are usually limited to the short periods of active use. + +=== Food-based enrichment === +Food-based enrichment is meant to mimic what a captive animal would do in the wild for food. This is extremely important because in the wild, animals are adapted to work hard for what they eat. A lot of time and energy is spent finding food, which is why this tactic is used to make it more challenging for the animal rather than just feeding it simple food. Feeding enrichment techniques causes the animal to indulge in natural, active behaviors that allow for more stimulation and prevents boredom. This form of enrichment forms active behaviors that can also help with not only a captive animal's mental health, but the animal's physical health. +For example, food can be hidden and spread across an enclosure making the animal actively search for it. Other common manipulable tactile objects include rubber toys stuffed with treats. Instead of providing the food directly, foraging devices are useful in increasing the amount of searching and foraging of food, comparable to the amount of time they would spend in the wild. Most food-based enrichment occurs in the context of searching for food, such as cracking open a nut or digging holes in tree trunks for worms. + +=== Structural enrichment === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..113e09ff1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Behavioral enrichment" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Structural Enrichment is when objects are added to an enclosure to mimic an animal's natural habitat. These objects can be switched out occasionally or kept permanently. The environment of captive animals should be switched frequently since their environment in the wild would bring on new objects and exploration. Research into what constitutes the most beneficial and appropriate forms of enrichment must be used when considering the provision of enrichment options, especially for species where natural-like settings may be difficult to achieve. The animal should never become too familiar with their environment because that can cause boredom, no stimulation or stereotypical behavior. Examples of this could be swings or climbing structures. Stones have also been shown to encourage exploratory behavior in Japanese macaques. Interaction with the stones exhibited behaviors such as gathering, rolling in hands, rubbing, and carrying. +Other common forms include cardboard, forage, and even the texture of the food (i.e. hard, smooth, cold, warm). + +=== Olfactory enrichment === +Olfactory enrichment can stimulate naturalistic behavior, enhance exploration, and reduce inactive behaviors. Olfactory enrichment can be utilized by itself, paired with novel toys, or paired with food-based enrichment. This type of enrichment is most commonly used with species that commonly utilize their olfactory senses in the wild. Although highly beneficial, it is important for researchers to analyze the long-term effects of certain odors on captive animals. Odors can be scattered on a novel toy such as a ball or semi-randomly throughout an enclosure. Various forms of odors can include catnip, odor of conspecific, perfume, feces of a prey species, or spices. + +=== Cognitive enrichment === +Cognitive enrichment is defined as, improving animal welfare by providing opportunities for captive animals to use cognitive skills for problem solving and providing limited control over some aspects of its environment. In the wild, animals deal with ecological challenges in order to acquire the resources, such as food and shelter, that they require to survive. These challenges arise from interactions with other animals, or through changes to their environment that require the individuals to exercise their cognitive ability and to improve their behavioral strategies. Therefore, these challenges act as an important problem-solving element in the animals' day-to-day lives, and in-turn, increases their overall fitness. The animal anticipates positive benefits from a challenging situation which can directly affect its emotional processes. Cognitive enrichment should be provided in addition to a diverse environment that is already structurally and socially enriched; it goes beyond the basic needs of the animals. + +=== Social enrichment === +Social enrichment can either involve housing a group of conspecifics or animals of different species that would naturally encounter each other in the wild. Social animals in particular (i.e. most primates, lions, flamingos, etc.), benefit from social enrichment because it has the positive effect of creating confidence in the group. Social enrichment can encourage social behaviors that are seen in the wild, including feeding, foraging, defense, territoriality, reproduction, and courtship. + +=== Human-interaction enrichment === +The most common form of human-interaction enrichment is training. The human and animal interaction during training builds trust, and increases the animal's cooperation during clinical and research procedures. In addition, training sessions have been shown to benefit the welfare of both individually housed animals and communally housed animals by providing cognitive stimulation, increasing social play, decreasing inactivity, and mitigating social aggression during feeding. + +== Assessing the success == +A range of methods can be used to assess which environmental enrichment should be provided. These are based on the premises that captive animals should perform behaviors in a similar way to those in the ethogram of their ancestral species, animals should be allowed to perform the activities or interactions they prefer, i.e. preference test studies, and animals should be allowed to perform those activities for which they are highly motivated, i.e. motivation studies. +Environmental enrichment is a way to ensure that an animals natural and instinctual behaviors are kept and able to be passed and taught from one generation to the next. Enrichment techniques that encourage species specific behaviors, like those that are discovered in the wild, have been studied and found to help the process of reintroduction of endangered species into their natural habitats, as well as helping to create offspring with natural traits and behaviors. +The main way the success of environmental enrichment can be measured is by recognizing the behavioral changes that occur from the techniques used to shape desired behaviors of the animal compared to the behaviors of those found in the wild. Other ways that the success of environmental enrichment can be assessed quantitatively by a range of behavioral and physiological indicators of animal welfare. In addition to those listed above, behavioral indicators include the occurrence of abnormal behaviours (e.g. stereotypies), cognitive bias studies, and the effects of frustration. Physiological indicators include heart rate, corticosteroids, immune function, neurobiology, eggshell quality and thermography. +It is very difficult for zookeepers to measure the effectiveness of enrichment in terms of the stress due to the fact that animals that are found in zoos are oftentimes on display and presented with very abnormal conditions that can cause uneasiness and stress. Measuring enrichment in terms of reproduction is easier because of our ability to record offspring numbers and fertility. By making necessary environment changes and providing mental stimulation, animals in captivity have been seen to reproduce at a more similar rate to their wild ancestors in comparison to those provided with less behavioral and environmental enrichment. + +== Issues and concerns == + +=== Habituation === +Although environmental enrichment can provide sensory and social stimulations, it can also have limited efficacy if not changed frequently. Animals can become habituated to environmental enrichments, showing positive behaviors at onset of exposure and progressively declining with time. Environmental enrichments are effective primarily because it offers novelty stimuli, making the animal's daily routines less predictable, as would be in the wild. Therefore, maintaining novelty is important for the efficacy of the enrichment. Frequently changing the type of environmental enrichment will help prevent habituation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab4ffb1f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Behavioral enrichment" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Training === +Usage of more highly advanced enrichment devices, such as computerized devices, requires training. This can lead to issues as training often consists of food as a reward. While food encourages the animal to participate with the device, the animal could associate the device with food. As a result, the interaction with the enrichment would bring about behaviors that are associated with training instead of the desired playful and voluntary behaviors. + +=== Time and resources === +The process of producing and providing environmental enrichment usually require a large allocation of time and resources. In a survey, "time taken by animal care staff to complete other tasks" was the most significant factor influencing environmental enrichment provisions and scheduling. Therefore, it is important to develop appropriate environmental enrichment programs that can be effectively carried out with the size of staff and time available. + +== See also == +Socialization + +== References == + +== External links == + +Laboratory Animal Refinement Database +Animals in Laboratories (awionline.org) +3R Research Foundation Switzerland (forschung3R.ch) +Environmental Enrichment, Animal Welfare Information Center +The Shape of Enrichment selected articles on enrichment for zoo animals. +Environmental Enrichment for Pet Cats (ASPCA) +Environmental Enrichment for Pet Dogs(ASPCA) +Environmental Enrichment for Horses(ASPCA) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Co-ordinated_Collections_of_Micro-organisms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Co-ordinated_Collections_of_Micro-organisms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fda75b8e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Co-ordinated_Collections_of_Micro-organisms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "Belgian Co-ordinated Collections of Micro-organisms" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Co-ordinated_Collections_of_Micro-organisms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:08.449277+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms (BCCM) is a Belgian government funded consortium of seven scientific institutions, who manage and exploit a collection of microbial and genetic resources. The consortium comprises more than 269,000 publicly available strains of bacteria including mycobacteria and cyanobacteria, filamentous fungi, yeasts, diatoms and plasmids. +BCCM is embedded in international initiatives such as the World Federation of Culture Collections (WFCC) and operates in compliance with the rules of the Nagoya Protocol. + + +== History == +In 1983 the Belgian Council of Ministers decided to bring the microbial resources and the expertise available in different Belgian institutes together in a network of culture collections: with this the consortium of Belgian Coordinated Collections of Microorganisms (BCCM) saw the light of day. +In 1983, the BCCM consortium consisted of the microbial collections of one public scientific institution and two universities: + +the collection of medical yeasts and fungi of the Mycology Laboratory of Sciensano (former Scientific Institute of Public Health) (BCCM/IHEM) +the collection of filamentous fungi, yeasts and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi of the Université catholique de Louvain (BCCM/MUCL) +the bacteria collection of the Laboratory for Microbiology of the Faculty of Sciences of the Ghent University (BCCM/LMG). +In 1990 the plasmid collection of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Ghent University was added to the consortium (BCCM/GeneCorner). +In 2011, 3 additional dedicated collections were included in the BCCM consortium: + +the diatom collection of the Laboratory for Protistology & Aquatic Ecology of Ghent University (BCCM/DCG) +the mycobacteria collection of the Institute of Tropical Medicine in Antwerp (BCCM/ITM) +the cyanobacteria collection of the Centre for Protein Engineering of the University of Liège (BCCM/ULC). + + +== Collection == + +Microorganisms are an important raw material in biotechnology. The properties of bacteria, fungi, yeasts and diatoms are used in countless industrial applications and processes. Consider, for example, fermentation processes and the use of probiotics in foods, the production of antibiotics in medicine, the use of microorganisms as growth promoting elements in agriculture, as bioremediators on polluted sites, etc. +Moreover, the properties of numerous microbial species are still unknown. Therefore public culture collections truly are a treasure trove of biological material, which can be explored through screening projects, for example. + + +== Services == +BCCM operates under a multi-site ISO 9001 quality management system +Public collection +The BCCM collections gather biological resources from all over the world, from samples constructed or isolated by the collections themselves or from samples provided by other scientists. +These well-documented and authenticated strains of bacteria, filamentous and yeasts fungi (including the most important test and control strains), diatoms, plasmids and DNA libraries are made publicly available and are distributed worldwide. +Strains for educational purposes are also available. +Safe deposits +Resources in the safe deposit collection are not catalogued, and are only available to the depositor, or to third parties with the written authorisation of the depositor. +Patent deposits +Under a Belgian Government initiative the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has recognised the BCCM consortium as an International Depositary under the Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of Deposit of Microorganisms for Patent Procedure. The BCCM contributes to the innovation process by accepting and storing deposits of the biological materials referred to in patent applications. +Therefore, the BCCM collections can accept as patent deposits under the Budapest Treaty: + +all bacterial strains, except pathogens belonging to a hazard group higher than group 2 (BCCM/LMG) +filamentous fungi and yeasts, non-pathogenic to humans and animals, representing a wide species diversity from natural and industrial sources as well as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi preserved by in-vitro cultivation (BCCM/MUCL) +filamentous fungi and yeasts, including pathogens that cause mycosis in man and animals (BCCM/IHEM) +human and animal cell lines, including hybridomas (BCCM/GeneCorner) +genetic material in a host or in the form of isolated material (e.g. plasmids, oncogenes, RNA) (BCCM/GeneCorner) +Other services +Next to its collections of biological materials, BCCM also offers expertise in: + +Identification : molecular biology – physiology – morphology – taxonomy +Screenings (e.g. genomic) for properties of interest +Industrial products and processes: quality – monitoring – biosafety +Food and agricultural products and processes: quality – safety – monitoring +Bio-assays : resistance – inhibition +Tailor-made approaches + + +== Research == +Research projects autonomously developed by BCCM staff or in collaboration with research groups of the host laboratories are focussed among others on: + +biodiversity and taxonomy +preservation of genetic resources +bioprospecting +bioassays for antibacterial activity screening +food bacteriology +population genetics +microbial interactions +molecular basis of genetic resources + + +== See also == +American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) +Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) +Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen +European Culture Collections' Organisation +World Federation for Culture Collections + + +== Sources == +Belgian Co-ordinated Collections of Micro-organisms - BCCM +Belgian Coordinated Collections of Micro-organisms (Dutch) +Biological Resource Centre (French) + + +== External links == +BCCM +BELSPO +BCCM/GeneCorner \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Meteorological_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Meteorological_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0b03f3da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Meteorological_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Belgrade Meteorological Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Meteorological_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:47.563288+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Meteorology was first practiced in Serbia when meteorological data was gathered, monitored and recorded on a daily basis, in 1848, in Belgrade. Daily, meteorological forecasts started in 1892. The first meteorologist was Vladimir Jakšić. +While the first meteorological observation post was in a nearby private house, a meteorological observation station (Serbian Meteorološka opservatorija) building was built in 1891 by architect Dimitrije T. Leko, on Vračar's plateau, in Savinac (recognized also as Englezovac, named after Francis Mackenzie). + + +== External links == + +Belgrade Meteorological Station (in English) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..acf00f7b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Belgrade Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:55.367437+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Belgrade Planetarium (Serbian: Београдски планетаријум, Beogradski planetarijum) is one of two planetariums in Serbia. It is located in Belgrade and is operated by the Astronomical Society Ruđer Bošković. Before 1967 it was known as the "Turkish bath in Lower Town". + + +== Location == +The planetarium is located in the Lower Town of the Belgrade Fortress. It is situated on the plateau below the Danube slope of the hill, in the immediate vicinity of the remains of the medieval Lower town's Eastern Gate complex. + + +== History == +The edifice was originally built as the Turkish bath (hamam). It was constructed between 1860 and 1867, when Ottomans left the fortress, though the exact date is unknown. During the World War I it was used as the military bath. The building was almost demolished as the result of the 1944 explosion in the nearby Eastern Gate of the fortress. +After the city Institute for the protection of the cultural monuments was founded, the Institute initiated the reconstruction of the hamam in 1962, citing the building's "undisputed monumental properties". The reconstruction was finished in 1964 and the venue remained unused until 1967. The original idea was for the facility to be adapted into the lapidarium. It was to become an exhibition space for the stone objects – monuments, epitaphs, sarcophagi, statues, etc. The plan was scrapped at one point and it was decided to turn it into the planetarium. +In order for the building to function as the planetarium, in the halovat, a central section of the hamam, an independent circular structure was constructed. It hosts the projector and the vault of the dome is used as the screen. The planetarium of the Astronomical Society Ruđer Bošković was installed in 1967–1968. +The planetarium's instrument, little Zeiss's planetarium ZKP-2 (Zeiss Kleines Planetarium-2), was purchased at the Belgrade Fair of technology in 1966 thanks to Josip Broz Tito, after an initiative of the members of the Society. Unofficially, it started working in 1969, and officially in the 1970. +The planetarium's hall has a diameter of 8 m (26 ft) and 80 seats. The 1960s drawings of the panorama of Belgrade are preserved. During the festivities which marked the 50 years of the planetarium in 2019, the facility was renewed with the new projector which would allow the video wall projections. Also the planetarium was partially renovated as the lead roof panels deteriorated in time. +Though one of the most modern planetariums in the Southeast Europe at the time, by 2019 it became and "oldtimer" among such facilities. Though open for visitors and regularly used for lectures, the planetarium was not maintained properly, and by 2022 visibly deteriorated. + + +== Characteristics == +At the entrance into the planetarium is the sculpture titled "The man at the end of the second millennium". It is work of sculptor Zoran Kuzmanović. In 2019, it was estimated that over half a million visitors came to the planetarium in the 50 years since it was open. The venue occasionally hosts artistic and cultural gathering, unrelated to the astronomy. +The main visitors to the planetarium are students of Belgrade primary and high schools. Following periodic activities of the Society are taking place in the Planetarium: + +Astronomy courses for beginners (spring and autumn; in spring of 2007, the eightieth course was held) +Belgrade Astronomical weekend +Summer astronomy meetings + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +ASRB: Planetarium Archived 2011-09-08 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0595fc98f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Bely Rast High Voltage Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:34.229690+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bely Rast High Voltage Research Station (Russian: Белый Раст) is a facility for the development of high voltage equipment in Russia, situated at Bely Rast, Moscow Oblast near the eponymous station of the Greater Ring of the Moscow Railway. Built in 1966, the equipment of the 750 kV- and 1150 kV-lines in Russia and other parts of the former Soviet Union were first developed and tested at this facility, as well as the equipment for the never completed HVDC Ekibastuz–Centre. The facility also has an unused 1150 kV AC and a 1500 kV DC line. The DC line was the prototype of the never finished HVDC Ekibastuz–Centre. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Wikimap of Bely Rast Research Station \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioshelter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioshelter-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3150d6b84 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioshelter-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Bioshelter" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioshelter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:43.400872+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A bioshelter is a solar greenhouse managed as an indoor ecosystem. The word bioshelter was coined by the New Alchemy Institute and solar designers Sean Wellesley-Miller and Day Chahroudi. The term was created to distinguish their work in greenhouse design and management from twentieth century petro-chemical fuelled monoculture greenhouses. + + +== Overview == +New Alchemy's pioneering work in ecological design is documented in their published Journals and Reports. In 1976 the Alchemists built the Cape Cod Ark bioshelter and her sister The Prince Edward Island Ark. For the next 15 years the New Alchemy Institute studied and reported on the use of these prototype food producing ecosystems. + + +== Architecture == +A bioshelter (life-shelter) involves two fields of knowledge and design. The first is architecture designed to nurture an ecosystem within. A bioshelter structure uses glazing to contain and protect the living biology inside, control air exchange and absorb energy. The building exchanges nutrients, gases and energy with the surrounding environment, produces crops, and recycles waste organic material into the soil. Solar energy is stored as heat energy in thermal mass such as water, stone, masonry, soil and plant biomass. + + +== Biology == +The second is the biology inside the bioshelter. Earle Barnhart of the New Alchemy Institute has compared a bioshelter to a contained ecosystem. Solar heat is absorbed and stored in thermal mass to moderate air temperatures and provide heat for later use. Water moves from rainfall to fishponds to soil to plants and finally to water vapor. Year-round habitat is provided for beneficial insects . Ecological relationships between pests and their predators reduce the number of pests. Gases are exchanged among the animals, insects, micro-organisms, soil and plants. Nutrient cycles are developed between fish, plant & soil. Within the bioshelter are a variety of microclimates. The south areas receive the most direct sunlight. The east and west areas can be shaded for a portion of the day. Higher levels in a growing space will be warmer. A well-designed bioshelter, managed by human intelligence, can shelter a community of people, food crops, edible fish, and a diverse ecosystem of plants, animals and soil life. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +New Alchemy Institute +DIY Greenhouse Kits \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8f4ea5159 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Bocas del Toro Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:35.751351+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Bocas del Toro Research Station (BRS) is a field station of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) on Panama’s western Caribbean coast, is a platform for both marine and terrestrial biodiversity research. The station hosts a diverse group of scientists from more than 20 countries, every year. +Activities at the station contribute to the Smithsonian Institution’s primary mission: the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Visiting scientists are engaged in research on the biodiversity, ecology, paleontology and archaeology of the Bocas del Toro region. Educational and outreach activities range from hosting K-12 school groups, to specialized training for international graduate students. +Founded in 1998, the BRS campus has provided field accommodation since 2002 and a fully operational research laboratory since 2003. The facilities now include a running seawater system, a new dock, boat ramp, and additional support facilities, as well as two houses to accommodate visiting researchers. The BRS is arguably the preeminent field station in the Caribbean. +Visiting scientists hold lectures that are open to the public. + + +== Outreach, education, and training == +Outreach and education at the Bocas del Toro Research Station spans a range of programs targeting K-12 students, university undergraduates, graduate students and young professionals. K-12 education includes visits to local schools, some of which are in remote mountainous locations, and student visits to the BRS. The station also offers a training workshop for local K-12 teachers every year, an organized beach clean-up for Earth day, and other activities for local residents. +They hold an annual Environmental Fair. + + +== Biodiversity database == +The Bocas biodiversity database provides a list of plants and animals that are known to occur in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, the Bahía Almirante, Laguna de Chiriquí, and the surrounding mainland. Users can search for a particular term or browse the database by group. Some photographs, videos, maps and audio recordings are available. + + +== Facts and statistics == +Location: Isla Colon, Bocas del Toro Province, Panama +Campus Size: 6 Hectares +Date of Purchase: 1998 +Staff: 12 permanent staff +Director: Dr. Rachel Collin +Capacity: 28 resident scientists and 15 off campus researchers +Annual Visitors: 325 scientific visitors work at the BRS every year +Publications: 200 peer-review publications have been generated from work at the BRS since 1998 +Undergraduate Education: 9 undergraduate institutions including Princeton, Harvard, and Duke Universities teach undergraduate field classes at the BRS +Outreach: 3000 members of the public participate in the BRS outreach activities every year +Earth Day: Over 2 tons of garbage are collected from local beaches during the BRS beach clean-up each year + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Collin R. 2005. "Ecological monitoring and biodiversity surveys at the Smithsonian Tropical Researcj Institute's Bocas del Toro Research Station". Caribbean Journal of Science 41: 367-374. + + +== External links == +Home page of STRI's Bocas del Toro Research Station +Videoclips highlighting the Bocas del Toro Research Station and research +"Dispatch from Panama: Bocas del Toro", Smithsonian Magazine, September 15, 2009 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Beacon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Beacon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d3e5a869 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Beacon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Border Beacon" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Beacon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:50.446674+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Border Beacon (Mid-Canada Line Site 212) was a United States Air Force military installation in Labrador, located approximately 190 km (120 mi) west of the Town of Hopedale. Border Beacon was a bistatic radar Doppler Detection Station on the Mid-Canada Line system of early-warning radar stations. +Opened in 1957, and fully operational in 1958, Border Beacon was in operation for eight years. The eastern portion of the Mid-Canada Line was shut down in 1965 and the site was closed. + + +== Transport Canada == +The Government of Canada took possession of the Border Beacon site from the US in 1965 and transformed it into a weather station. Transport Canada operated the weather station until it closed in the 1970s. + + +== Accidents and incidents == +On 10 January 1986, a de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver (C-GUBD) of Goose Bay Air Services departed CFB Goose Bay and crashed at Border Beacon due to unknown circumstances. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5748c80f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Bornö Marine Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:36.924104+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bornö Marine Research Station, owned by the Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies, is located at Holma on the island Stora Bornö in Gullmarsfjorden, about 100 km (62 mi) north of Gothenburg, Sweden. It was built in 1902 by Otto Pettersson and Gustaf Ekman, both pioneers of Swedish marine research. The island has been considered by many Swedes to be the birthplace of Swedish oceanography. + + +== Description == +The station grounds, covering 19,000 m2 (200,000 sq ft), are a nature reserve. It is currently owned and operated by a foundation named the Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies and provides educational facilities for the University of Gothenburg. It is also available to let to companies or organizations for field courses, research, instrument development or national and international meetings. +The upper floors contain eight bedrooms housing 15 beds, as well as two kitchens. On the ground floor are four office spaces and a lecture hall with accommodations for 25 people. + + +== History == +The station was originally built in response to the agreements of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) signed in Copenhagen in 1902 between Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and the United Kingdom. +It was built with funding from Pettersson and Ekman, on Pettersson's land, and then rented to the Swedish Hydrographic Biological Commission (SHBK) to conduct studies on oceans and climate. In 1931, Pettersson's son Hans, who was a professor at the University of Gothenburg expanded the research on the island and then in 1932 the SHBK was able to purchase the island for the government. +Beginning in 1908, Otto Pettersson collected daily records on the temperature and salinity of the waters at the Bornö Station. With few interruptions, mostly during World War I and World War II, these daily observations continued until the 1980s. Petterson also discovered internal tidal waves by studying variations of the boundary surfaces between the brackish and ocean waters, which led him to develop a photographic current meter. When his son took over the investigations at the institute in the 1930s, he began to focus on the radioactive dating of sediments and forged research collaborations with the scientists at the Institute for Radium Research of Vienna. + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Fonselius, Stig (2001). "History of Hydrographic Research in Sweden" (PDF). Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Biology and Ecology. 50 (2). Tallinn, Estonia: Estonian Academy Publishers: 110–129. doi:10.3176/biol.ecol.2001.2.04. ISSN 1406-0914. +Leppäranta, Matti; Myrberg, Kai (2009). Physical Oceanography of the Baltic Sea. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-79703-6. +Rentetzi, Maria (September 2004). "Gender, Politics, and Radioactivity Research in Interwar Vienna The Case of the Institute for Radium Research". Isis. 95 (3). Chicago, Illinois: History of Science Society, University of Chicago Press: 359–93. doi:10.1086/428960. JSTOR 10.1086/428960. PMID 15747771. S2CID 6024845. + + +== External links == +Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies, official site with photograph \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a66863523 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Captivity (animal)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:11.938921+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Animal captivity is the confinement of domestic and wild animals. More specifically, animals that are held by humans and prevented from escaping are said to be in captivity. The term animal captivity is usually applied to wild animals that are held in confinement, but this term may also be used generally to describe the keeping of domesticated animals such as livestock or pets. This may include, for example, animals in farms, private homes, zoos, aquariums, public aquariums and laboratories. Animal captivity may be categorized according to the particular motives, objectives, and conditions of the confinement. + +== History == + +All throughout history, domestic animals like pets and livestock were kept in captivity and tended by humans. However, pets and livestock were not the only animals to be put in captivity and receive human care because wild animals had this as well. Despite the fact that wild animals have been harbored by humans for thousands of years, this captivity has not always come close to present zoos. Some were failed domestication attempts. Furthermore, the wealthy, predominantly the aristocrats and kings, collected wild animals for various reasons. The affluent built the first zoos as personal collections to demonstrate their dominance and wealth. These private collections of animals were known as menageries. Contrary to domestication, the ferociousness and natural behaviour of the wild animals were preserved and exhibited. Today, zoos claim to have other reasons for keeping animals under human care: conservation, education and science. + +== Behavior of animals in captivity == +Captive animals, especially those not domesticated, sometimes can develop abnormal behaviours. +One type of abnormal behaviour is stereotypical behaviors, i.e. repetitive and apparently purposeless motor behaviors. Examples of stereotypical behaviours include pacing, self-injury, route tracing and excessive self-grooming. These behaviors are associated with stress and lack of stimulation. +Many who keep animals in captivity attempt to prevent or decrease stereotypical behavior by introducing stimuli, a process known as environmental enrichment. The goals of environmental enrichment are to make environments more complex and fluid, offer more engaging and complex processes, and give animals more chances to make decisions. Techniques that are commonly used to provide environmental enrichment include social, occupation, physical, sensory, and nutritional. +Another type of abnormal behavior shown in captive animals is self-injurious behavior (SIB). Self-injurious behavior indicates any activity that involves biting, scratching, hitting, hair plucking, or eye poke that may result in injuring oneself. Although its reported incidence is low, self-injurious behavior is observed across a range of primate species, especially when they experience social isolation in infancy. Self-bite involves biting one's own body—typically the arms, legs, shoulders, or genitals. Threat bite involves biting one's own body—typically the hand, wrist, or forearm—while staring at the observer, conspecific, or mirror in a threatening manner. Self-hit involves striking oneself on any part of the body. Eye poking is a behavior (widely observed in primates) that presses the knuckle or finger into the orbital space above the eye socket. Hair plucking is a jerking motion applied to one's own hair with hands or teeth, thus resulting in its excessive removal. +The proximal causes of self-injurious behavior have been widely studied in captive primates; either social or nonsocial factors can trigger this type of behavior. Social factors include changes in group composition, stress, separation from the group, approaches by or aggression from members of other groups, conspecific male individuals nearby, separation from females, and removal from the group. Social isolation, particularly disruptions of early mother-rearing experiences, is an important risk factor. Studies have suggested that, although mother-reared rhesus macaques still exhibit some self-injurious behaviors, nursery-reared rhesus macaques are much more likely to self-abuse than mother-reared ones. +Nonsocial factors include the presence of a small cut, a wound or irritant, cold weather, human contact, and frequent zoo visitors. For example, a study has shown that zoo visitors density positively correlates with the number of gorillas banging on the barrier, and that low zoo visitors density caused gorillas to behave in a more relaxed way. Captive animals often cannot escape the attention and disruption caused by the general public, and the stress resulting from this lack of environmental control may lead to an increased rate of self-injurious behaviors. +There are studies that suggest the many abnormal captive behaviors, including self-injurious behavior, can be successfully treated by pair housing. Pair housing provides a previously single-housed animal with a same-sex social partner. This method is especially effective with primates, which are widely known to be social animals. Social companionship provided by pair housing encourages social interaction, thus reducing abnormal and anxiety-related behavior in captive animals as well as increasing their locomotion. + +== Why animals are placed in captivity == +Wild animals may be placed in captivity for conservation, studies, exotic pet trade, and farming. Places of captivity that are connected with the AZA, (Association of Zoos and Aquariums), may hold animals' captive as a means to save them from extinction. For example, the AZA SAFE, (Save Animals From Extinction), promotes well-being and care of animals, conservation, and additional disciplines in order to protect and aid the wildlife. The organization focuses on creating recovery plans, cooperation between AZA workers, and advancement of conservation. Furthermore, the AZA and the zoos and aquariums accredited with the AZA use the help of educators, veterinarians, and people doing research. With their assistance, zoos and aquariums are able to have the proper necessities needed in recovery programs to prevent animals from going extinct. + +Annually, it is subjected that thousands of wild animals end up in captivity due to the wild animal trade. These animals can be held in captivity because of the overabundance of their population in roadside zoos. Additional reasons as to why animals may end up in captivity is because animals are captured from their original habitat, come from animal breeders, or come from the black market. When wild animals are captured and held in captivity, then they may be sold in pet stores, auction sales, or the World Wide Web. + +== Zoos' impact on animal captivity == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e58aeb81 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Captivity (animal)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:11.938921+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Zoos are known as a place where visitors come in to see wild animals. This means zoos may keep animals in confinement. For example, zoos may keep animals captive as a means to save them from going extinct. More specifically, in 2020 the Science Advances published a study where they concluded that the work and population of human beings has affected the growth of animals going extinct around the world. The uproar of animals going extinct has caused zoos to use their captive breeding programs on endangered animals in an effort to create a stronger population. It is said that zoos are responsible for reducing the number of animals on the endangered species list and from extinction. +Zoos could also be known as a place where animals are put into after they are taken out of their natural habitat. When animals are pulled out from their native habitat and taken to a location they are unfamiliar with, then it is said that animals may experience shock and poor mental health. Furthermore, some wild animals have died inside zoos due to the shock of being placed in an unknown setting. To be more specific, this can also mean that taking animals away from their native habitat can possibly disrupt their way of living. + +== List of wild animals in America commonly held in captivity == + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Pet-Abuse.com +World Association of Zoos and Aquaria +New York Zoos and Aquarium +WSPA international website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc2a93910 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Cass Field Station" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:38.165499+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cass Field Station is a biological and geological research facility operated by the University of Canterbury located near the railway settlement of Cass, in the Canterbury high-country of New Zealand. It was founded in 1914 as the Cass Mountain Biological Station and was operated for many years by the university's Department of Botany. A significant body of research generated by the station has tracked biological change in the area for over 100 years. + +== History == +In 1873 the Canterbury Provincial Government endowed what was then known as Canterbury College with land in the Cass region to create a source of income. By the early 20th century, botanist Leonard Cockayne felt the need for a high-country research station and approached Charles Chilton, Professor of Biology at Canterbury College, and Geology lecturer Robert Speight. The original site selected in 1908 was Broken River, the terminus of the railway line from Christchurch, after which passengers switched to coaches to cross Arthur's Pass and reach the West Coast. By 1910 the railroad had extended to the railway camp of Cass, so the Canterbury College Board selected 10 acres of land there adjacent to Lake Sarah as the site for a research station. In April 1910 £200 was allocated for a building, which was constructed by the Public Works Department in 1912. +It was March 1914 before the field station was used for its intended purpose, by Charles Chilton. The facility and surrounding areas were officially opened on 29 July 1914 as the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, and Chilton led the first field trip there with six students in November. +In 1915 Charles E. Foweraker undertook the first Honours research project to be based at the field station. His photographs of the area are valuable sources of information for vegetation change over the succeeding century. Later that year, Chilton led two field excursions of women students to Cass, and published the first of seven "Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass". He argued for the need for a completely fenced-off botanical reserve and setting up a station to observe the effects of tussock burning, a common farming practice. + +In 1917 agricultural scientist Frederick Hilgendorf installed a rain gauge and set up small. fenced-off exclusion plots to observe the effects of sheep grazing on native vegetation. He also began an insect collection from Cass. Entomologist Robert Tillyard visited Cass in 1920 to collect insects and described a new species of bush dragonfly Uropetala chiltoni from the area, named after Chilton. By 1927 the field station had hosted 18 student field trips – typically four students, a leader and an assistant – and four visits by other scientific groups. A bridge across Grasmere Stream suitable for motor cars was built in 1934. By the 1930s Foweraker was leading longer and more extensive botanical collecting expeditions to Mount Horrible and the Cass and Hawdon riverbeds, and Edward Percival was running 10-day advanced zoology field courses, which continued until 1945. +In the 1950s William Philipson began regular week-long trips for 2nd and 3rd year botany students, which focused on plant systematics and ecology. +A modern automatic weather station was installed next to the new building in 1997, along with a freshwater ecology building next to Grasmere Stream and a set of artificial ponds. In 2001 management of the field station shifted from the Department of Plant and Microbial Sciences to Facilities Management. A track was built across the Sugarloaf Saddle in 2012 thanks to the help of the University Tramping Club and BioSoc, and a high elevation weather station, Sugarbaby, was installed on top of Mount Sugar Loaf the following year. + +On December 2–6, 2014, the University of Canterbury celebrated 100 years of teaching and research at Cass Field Station. + +== Facilities == +The initial plan for the field station was a single building with a living room, two bunkrooms, and a laboratory; a simpler version was constructed without a laboratory and just a single fireplace. In 1929 the building was extended, adding a laboratory, a coal stove, hot water and a bathroom. Electricity, supplied by the Railway Department, was not connected until 1937, and a toilet (emptying into Grasmere Stream) in 1939. + +In May 1936 the artist Rita Angus, accompanied by painters Louise Henderson and Julia Scarvell, visited Cass. Angus, then going by her married name Rita Cook, made preliminary sketches and studies for several works, including Cass, the iconic painting depicting the Cass railway station. She also painted the watercolour Mountain Biological Field Station, Cass, which depicts the original building with its laboratory extension and a steam train passing in the background. + +The field station was expanded in 1959 at a cost of £2300, adding a building connected to the old building with a passageway. This added two shower rooms, a hot water boiler, two bunk rooms and a living room. The old toilet was replaced in 1968 with a septic tank, and a new bridge was built. +Increased numbers of undergraduates in the 1960s put a strain on the facilities, so the University Grants Committee agreed to supply $75,000, supplemented in 1974 with $25,000, for an additional building. Over 1975–1977 this new building, called the Teaching Flat, was constructed to the north of the original field station. It contained sleeping, living, cooking and eating space for 43 people. At the same time, the old building was refurbished with a dedicated teaching lab, offices, and research lab facilities. The first student field trip to use it was in 1978, and through the 1980s a wider range of students were able to undertake course visits to Cass. The old building was closed to overnight use in 2013 for not meeting fire regulations, but it still functions as a lab and teaching space. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4fc615536 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Cass Field Station" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:38.165499+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Research == +As early as 1926 the Dutch geneticist J.P. Lotsy stressed the importance of hybrid plant collections from Cass and their potential use in evolutionary studies. Cockayne, in 1927, agreed that the area's polymorphic plant hybrids had value for evolutionary theory, and Swedish lichenologist G.E. Du Rietz also recognised the important role of Cass Station for plant research. +In 1958 Philipson and Garth Brownlie published The Flora of Cass, which included articles on history, geology, soils, climate and vegetation over time. Cass: History and Science in the Cass District, Canterbury, New Zealand, a more comprehensive collection of articles by a wide range of authors, was compiled by Colin Burrows and published in 1977. +In 1976–8 American botanist Richard Primack conducted research on flower pollination at Cass and two nearby sites (and also Aoraki / Mt Cook), collecting and interpreting data on flower visits by insects. +In 2001 the Fulbright Scholar Scott Wissinger studied the freshwater invertebrate communities of lakes and tarns in and around Cass. Jason Tylianakis in 2008 began a study investigating the effects of climate change on tussocks and their associated invertebrates with a large soil warming experiment. + +== Publications == +The following is a selection of research publications based on work done at the Cass Field Station. + +Chilton, Charles (1914). "Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass. No. 1.—Introduction and General Description of Station". Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 47: 331–335 – via Papers Past. +Cockayne, L.; Foweraker, C. E. (1916) "Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station. No. 4 – the principal plant associations in the immediate vicinity of the station." Transactions of the New Zealand Institute 48: 166–186 +William Philipson; Garth Brownlie (1958), The Flora of Cass: a list of species (excluding fungi) known from the vicinity of the Mountain Biology Station of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, Christchurch: University of Canterbury Department of Botany, Wikidata Q124309027 +Colin Burrows, ed. (1977), Cass: history and science in the Cass district, Canterbury, New Zealand, Christchurch: University of Canterbury Department of Botany, Wikidata Q117789333 +Michael Winterbourn; J. S. Rounick; B. Cowie (1981). "Are New Zealand stream ecosystems really different?". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 15 (3): 321–328. doi:10.1080/00288330.1981.9515927. ISSN 0028-8330. Wikidata Q124312976. +James S. Rounick; Michael Winterbourn; Graeme L. Lyon (August 1982). "Differential Utilization of Allochthonous and Autochthonous Inputs by Aquatic Invertebrates in Some New Zealand Streams: A Stable Carbon Isotope Study". Oikos. 39 (2): 191. doi:10.2307/3544485. ISSN 0030-1299. Wikidata Q124312979. +Laura Young; David Norton; Michelle Lambert (2016). "One hundred years of vegetation change at Cass, eastern South Island high country". New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 40 (3): 289–301. doi:10.20417/NZJECOL.40.38. ISSN 0110-6465. Wikidata Q124309018. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9bac41668 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Central Sierra Field Research Stations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:39.350468+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS is a regional group of University of California, Berkeley field research & education reserves located on both sides of the crest of the Sierra Nevada range, north of Lake Tahoe in California. +Several of the University of California Natural Reserve System—UCNRS reserves in the Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS lie within the headwaters of the North Fork of the American River. + + +== History == +On September 26, 2006, a consortium of land owners & managers including: the North Fork Association, Chickering Partnership, United States Forest Service Tahoe National Forest, Pacific Southwest Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service, and the Regents of the University of California signed a Conservation and Research Agreement addressing future cooperative management of the approximately 19,670 acres (79.6 km2) of public & private lands in this watershed. + + +== Field research stations & education reserves == +Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS entities include: + +Sagehen Creek Field Station +Central Sierra Snow Laboratory +Onion Creek Experimental Watershed +North Fork Association Lands +Chickering American River Reserve +Sagehen Creek Field Station serves as the hub of this network, offering accessible accommodations, classrooms, support and resources — which are unavailable at the other, sometimes remote CSFRS reserves. +Digital elevation models & other GIS datasets for the CSFRS are available. + + +== Contacts == +For information regarding research & education access to the CSFRS reserves, publications, theses, and additional data — please contact the individual Reserve Managers through their web-sites (when available), or contact the Station Manager at Sagehen Creek Field Station. + + +== References == + +Sagehen Creek Field Station. +Central Sierra Snow Lab +Onion Creek Experimental Watershed +Chickering American Reserve +Berkeley Natural History Museums +Berkeley Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research +California Biodiversity Center +Pacific Southwest Research Station +Tahoe National Forest +Sagehen Experimental Forest + + +== External links == +Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived 2011-07-18) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Pacific_Crops_and_Trees-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Pacific_Crops_and_Trees-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d881fdd13 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Pacific_Crops_and_Trees-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Pacific_Crops_and_Trees" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:09.627311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Pacific Community's Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT), formerly known as the Regional Germplasm Centre (RGC), is a propagation material vault operated by the Pacific Community (SPC)'s Land Resources Division. Its purpose is to preserve resources including crops, and other plants of the Pacific region. The vault is in Fiji, and it replaced many local seed vaults of the Pacific that had trouble with maintenance. +This center is vested in using cutting edge plant cryopreservation, and propagation methods. + + +== See also == +Germplasm +International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture +Svalbard Global Seed Vault +Seed saving + + +== References == + +Vulnerability of Pacific crops addressed by CePaCT, Scoop Media, July 2012 +SPC works on crops, Fiji Times Online, July 2010, archived from the original on 2010-07-15, retrieved 2013-06-22 +Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees, SPC Land Resources Division +Moorhead, Anne (March 2010), Agrobiodiversity challenges in the Pacific, New Agriculturalist +Net, Scidev, Plant bank to preserve biodiversity of Pacific crops, SciDevNet \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Botanic_Garden-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Botanic_Garden-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c0e04234 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Botanic_Garden-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Chicago Botanic Garden" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Botanic_Garden" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:10.842361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Chicago Botanic Garden is a 385-acre (156 ha) botanical garden situated on nine islands in the northern Cook County Forest Preserves within the nominal geographical boundaries of Glencoe, Illinois. It features 27 display gardens and five natural habitats including Mary Mix McDonald Woods, Barbara Brown Nature Reserve, Dixon Prairie, the Skokie River Corridor, and the Lakes and Shorelines. The garden is open every day of the year. An admissions fee was first charged in 2022. +The Garden is owned by the Forest Preserve District of Cook County and managed by the Chicago Horticultural Society. It opened to the public in 1972, and is home to the Joseph Regenstein Jr. School which offers educational classes and certificate programs, and participates with the botany staff in research and conservation programs. +The Chicago Botanic Garden is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums and is a member of the American Public Gardens Association. + + +== Architecture == +The architectural design for the Chicago Botanic Garden began with the creation of the master plan by John O. Simonds and Geoffrey Rausch. Several famous buildings have been designed by well-known architects since 1976. + +1976: Education Center, Edward Larabee Barnes +1982: Japanese Garden, Koichi Kawana +1983: Heritage Garden, Geoffrey Rausch +2004: Esplanade, Dan Kiley +2009: Conservation Science Center, Booth Hansen + + +== Conservation == + +The Chicago Botanic Garden opened the Daniel F. and Ada L. Rice Plant Conservation Science Center on its ground on September 23, 2009. In September 2010, the Plant Conservation Science Center earned a Gold LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating from the U.S. Green Building Council for its sustainable design. The building features a green roof garden. +Scientists working at the Chicago Botanic Garden contribute to rare plant species conservation research and are active in regional, national and international organizations that promote plant conservation. The garden is a partner in the Seeds of Success project, a branch of the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership managed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The goal is to collect 10,000 seeds from each of 1,500 native species of the Midwest for conservation and restoration efforts. The garden also leads the Plants of Concern initiative to monitor rare species in northeastern and southern Illinois. + + +== Sustainability == +The first generation of sustainable gardens at the Chicago Botanic Garden were the victory gardens of World Wars I and II. Today's gardens incorporate food and paper scrap composting, sustainable irrigation, and a minimal use of fertilizer and pesticides. The Chicago Botanic Garden also encourages others to garden sustainably by composting food waste, installing backyard rain barrels, using native plants, removing invasive species, and establishing perennials. The Windy City Harvest program offers workshops in sustainable urban horticulture and urban agriculture. +In 2010, the Corporate Roundtable on Sustainability was established to encourage companies to act sustainably. + + +== Honors and awards == +In 2006, the Chicago Botanic Garden received the Award for Garden Excellence, given yearly by the APGA and Horticulture magazine to a public garden that exemplifies the highest standards of horticultural practices and has shown a commitment to supporting and demonstrating best gardening practices. +In 2012, the Chicago Botanic Garden was chosen as one of 10 "Great Place" (Public Space) for providing food locally, excellence in design, education and outreach, and sustainability by the American Planning Association, which selects "Great Places" in the United States annually to highlight good places for people to work and to live, representing a "true sense of place, cultural and historical interest". + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +American Garden Rose Selections +List of botanical gardens in the United States +List of Museums and Cultural Institutions in Chicago +North American Plant Collections Consortium + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Bucksten, Denys (January 27, 2014). "Chicago Botanic Garden hits 1-million visitor milestone". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 24, 2017. +Hageman, William (February 1, 2013). "'Bonsai: A Patient Art' displays the treasures of the Chicago Botanic Garden". Book Review. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved October 24, 2017. +"In the news: Botanic Garden". Collection of articles. Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved October 24, 2017. +https://web.archive.org/web/20130413112334/http://deerfield.suntimes.com/news/10256211-418/chicago-botanic-garden-has-a-good-year.html +https://web.archive.org/web/20130225055047/http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/travel/tourism-leisure/gardens-parks/chicago-botanic-garden-PLCUL000132.topic + + +== External links == + +Official website +Forest Preserve District of Cook County \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Museum_(Cairo)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Museum_(Cairo)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e372697ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Museum_(Cairo)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Child Museum (Cairo)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Museum_(Cairo)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:56.776084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Children's Civilization and Creativity Center (Arabic: متحف الطفل بالقاهرة) is a children's museum in Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt, established in 1986. It was renovated twice in 1996 and in 2012. It is a large museum and cultural center covering 4,000 square meters in a 14 Feddan, 14.3 acre landscape. It was built by the Heliopolis Society for the benefit of all the children of Egypt. This work involved contributions from Egyptian and international museums and institutions. +The museum was designed by experts from Egypt, UK and the USA and built by museum specialists from all over the world who have contributed to the museum to assist children and young adults to learn through hands on exhibits, inter-actives, computer games, and a spectacular dome show exhibit that takes the visitor through the history of science in Egypt. +In May 2012 it won the UK's Museum and Heritage International Award. + + +== Exterior == + +The entrance to the museum is from Sharia Abo Bakr El Seddik, opposite the tram station at Haroun El Rashid. The entrance is marked by the spectacular Space Pyramidion structure of planet spheres circling a pyramid that celebrates the cultures of Egypt ancient and modern. The visit to the museum begins with a journey down the Nile valley through time and space, it provides a living experience of how the Nile has changed and formed the landscape of modern Egypt. The journey begins at the fountain symbolic of the source of the Nile in Nubia, the rocks are carved with the dinosaurs and Basilosaurus that once lived and swam where modern Egypt is today. Their descendants, the Hippo and the Crocodile, greet the visitors, as the journey continues down the Nile path into the early period of the Nile's settlement by man, when the river banks were still humid jungle and elephants still wandered beside the Nile. Next the path leads onto the beginning of the drying out of the Nile Valley, when savannah formed on either bank, and lions, giraffes and gazelles appeared along the river bank. Continuing, the Nile path reaches the Pharaonic period, the surrounding landscape becomes desert, an oasis forms a small side garden with a desert encampment, while along the Nile, an Egyptian garden with 'T' basins filled with lotus and papyrus celebrates the diverse species cultivated. The path leads on past the medieval Nile village to the modern landscape of Heliopolis where the new museum building and the cinema are situated. Finally, on passing the museum the path finally leads to the Delta landscape, with the Alexandria seaside resort, and a covered Roman theatre for outdoor performances. The landscape path passes through a shady garden of mature trees, and both calms and stimulates the imagination of the visitor in anticipation for entering the new learning areas of the museum. The garden has a living display of birds, butterflies and fishes, and an outdoor excavation area. A large cafeteria allows for the schools, family groups and visitors to refresh themselves and so stay for the whole day. Outdoor classroom spaces provide for creativity and musical activities, while the cinema provides 3D learning films, and conference facilities, as well as book shop and learning materials supplies for the schools. + + +== Interior == +The Interior exhibition is divided into four, each on a separate floor connected by the central spiral staircase - the Time Stair - that provides a path from the roof to the basement. +The four themes are; +Where am I from? - explore the archaeology and history of Egypt, explores the pyramids, visits Tutankamen's tomb, and trains the visitor in mummy examination, modern excavation and underwater exploration in Alexandria +Who am I? - discover the development of Egyptian civilisation along the Nile divided into the three seasons of flood, sowing and harvest. +Why is Egypt like it is today? - examine the development of modern Egypt, in a panorama of Egyptian landscapes and their environmental issues, and how modern citizens can contribute today. +What is the future of Egypt? - Looks at the history of science in Egypt, through both a static hands on exhibition that looks at stars, ships, astrolabes, telescopes, airplanes and space travel, and also an immersive 4D experience dome show, in which the pioneers of Egypt appear to tell the history of science and encourage visitors to participate in the future. +The museum is open every day except Friday from 9 - 2. + + +== See also == +List of museums in Egypt + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Hospital_Oakland_Research_Institute-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Hospital_Oakland_Research_Institute-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bc998e4a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Hospital_Oakland_Research_Institute-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Hospital_Oakland_Research_Institute" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:12.031658+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute (CHORI) was a biomedical research institute affiliated with California’s pediatric medical center, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland. UCSF assumed building operations in 2020 and it is now called the Martin Luther King Research Building. +CHORI was based in Oakland, California, and housed a 100,000-square-foot (9,300 m2) biomedical research facility. It included eight research centers that focused on research on cancer, critical care medicine, genetics, immunobiology and vaccine development, blood and marrow transplantation and cellular therapies, nutrition and metabolism, prevention of obesity, cardiovascular disease and diabetes, sickle cell disease and thalassemia. +The National Institutes of Health was CHORI's primary funding source. + + +== Research centers == +Center for Cancer +Center for Critical Care Medicine +Center for Genetics +Center for Immunobiology & Vaccine Development +The Jordan Family Center for Blood and Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapies Research +Center for Nutrition & Metabolism +Center for Prevention of Obesity, Cardiovascular Disease & Diabetes +Center for Sickle Cell Disease & Thalassemia + + +== Research services == +BACPAC Resource Center +Cell Sorting +Elemental Analysis +Genetic Testing +Mass Spectrometry +Microscope Imaging +Molecular Diagnostics +Sibling Donor Cord Blood + + +== Research applications == +CHORI’s translational research applications included providing cures for blood diseases, developing new vaccines for infectious diseases, and discovering new treatment protocols for previously fatal or debilitating conditions such as cancers, sickle cell disease and thalassemia, diabetes, asthma, HIV/AIDS, pediatric obesity, nutritional deficiencies, birth defects, hemophilia and cystic fibrosis. CHORI was also a teaching institute with educational programs for high school, college, doctoral and post-doctoral students. + + +== Research achievements == +CHORI was a leading center for the use of cord blood and bone marrow transplantation in children with sickle cell anemia and thalassemia, and offered the only not-for-profit Sibling Donor Cord Blood Program in the world. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +"The Legacy of UCSF’s MLK Building: A Bridge Between Black History and Modern Research"(video) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_GeneBank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_GeneBank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..794501935 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_GeneBank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "China National GeneBank" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_GeneBank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:13.191644+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +China National GeneBank or CNGB (Chinese: 国家基因库) is China's first national-level gene storage bank, approved and funded by the Chinese government. Based in the Dapeng Peninsula of Shenzhen, CNGB's mission is to support public welfare, life science research and innovation, as well as industry incubation, through effective bioresource conservation, digitalization and utilization. +In 2011 the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and Ministry of Health and Family Planning approved the establishment of the Centre, entrusting BGI with its construction in a public-private partnership. After 5-years of development the first phase of the centre opened in September 2016, spanning more than 47,500 square meters and including a biorepository, a bioinformatics data center and a living biobank. The Centre also has a Synthetic Biology platform collaborating with Australia's Macquarie University and Harvard on metabolic engineering and the development of high-density DNA storage technology. + + +== See also == +Australia Bioinformatics Resource +Australian Grains Genebank +DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ) +European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI) +National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) +Svalbard Global Seed Vault +Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (Expasy) +Ruili Botanical Garden + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official site +Official site (English) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Planetarium_of_Lecco-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Planetarium_of_Lecco-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..959baa3ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Planetarium_of_Lecco-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Civic Planetarium of Lecco" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Planetarium_of_Lecco" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:57.906271+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Civic Planetarium of Lecco (Planetario civico di Lecco or Planetario Città di Lecco), also known as the City Planetarium, is located within Palazzo Belgioioso in Lecco, Italy. Planetarium is part of Natural History Museum of Lecco. +The purpose of the planetarium is to be a place for specialists and people interested in astronomy in the region. It organizes meetings and lessons in which experiences and expertise are shared. + + +== Description == +The Amateur Astronomers Group "DEEP SPACE Lecco" helps manage the observatory. The instrument consists of a projector and an aluminum dome, which acts as a screen. It can be used to simulate the movement of celestial bodies on the sky. The dome is eight meters in diameter and can seat sixty observers. Often the shows are accompanied by a lecturer. +The planetarium accelerates the movement of the moon and stars in order to allow observation of processes that normally take days or months. The Planetarium building consists of various rooms: the ticket office, a library for members, a room dedicated to the exhibition of astronomical instruments and a media room used for conferences. +The astronomical dome in the Planetarium was inaugurated on September 19, 2011. The small dome on the roof of the building comes from Canada and inside there is a Celestron C11 telescope, a catadioptric remotely controlled Schmidt-Cassegrain, so they can observe the whole sky even in the conference room. +As of July 2016 the director of the planetarium is Erasmo Bardelli. The ticket costs 3 euros. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +http://www.deepspace.it/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_frame-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_frame-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5274b6936 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_frame-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Cold frame" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_frame" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:44.585765+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In agriculture and gardening, a cold frame is a transparent-roofed enclosure, built low to the ground, used to protect plants from adverse weather, primarily excessive cold or wet. The transparent top admits sunlight and prevents heat escape via convection that would otherwise occur, particularly at night. Essentially, a cold frame functions as a miniature greenhouse to extend the growing season. +Historically, cold frames were built to be used in addition to a heated greenhouse. The name itself exemplifies the distinction between the warm greenhouse and the unheated cold frame. They were frequently built as part of the greenhouse's foundation brickwork along the southern wall (in northern latitudes). This allowed seeds to be germinated in the greenhouse and then easily moved to the attached cold frame to be "hardened-off" before final planting outside. Cold frames are similar to some enclosed hotbeds, also called hotboxes. The difference is in the amount of heat generated inside. This is parallel to the way that some greenhouses are called "hothouses" to emphasize their higher temperature, achieved either by the solar effects alone or by auxiliary heating via a heater or HVAC system of some kind. +Cold frames are found in home gardens and in vegetable farming. They create microclimates that provide several degrees of air and soil temperature insulation, and shelter from wind. In cold-winter regions, these characteristics allow plants to be started earlier in the spring, and to survive longer into the fall and winter. They are most often used for growing seedlings that are later transplanted into open ground, and can also be a permanent home to cold-hardy vegetables grown for autumn and winter harvest. + + +== Construction == +Cold frame construction is a common home or farm building project, although kits and commercial systems are available. A traditional plan makes use of old glass windows: a wooden frame is built, about one to two feet tall, and the window placed on top. The roof is often sloped towards the winter sun to capture more light, and to improve runoff of water, and hinged for easy access. Clear plastic, rigid or sheeting, can be used in place of glass. An electric heating cable, available for this purpose, can be placed in the soil to provide additional heat. + + +== Uses == +Cold frames can be used to extend the growing season for many food and ornamental crops, primarily by providing increased warmth in early spring. This means that it's possible to harvest vegetable crops ahead of their normal season when they are extremely expensive to buy. Some crops suitable for growing in a cold frame include lettuces, parsley, salad onions, spinach, radishes and turnips etc. One vegetable crop can occupy the whole of a cold frame or a combination of crops can be grown so that they mature in rotation in order to get a wide range of different vegetables throughout the year from a single cold frame. + + +== Bulb frame == +A "bulb frame" is a specialized kind of cold frame, designed for growing hardy or almost hardy ornamental bulbous plants, particularly in climates with wet winters. Typically it is raised further above ground level than a normal cold frame, so that the plants can be seen better when in flower. They are often used for the cultivation of winter-growing bulbs which flower in the autumn or spring. The covers are used in winter to provide some protection from very bad weather, while allowing good ventilation. Then in the summer, the covers provide dry, warm conditions which many such bulbs need. + + +== See also == + +Gardening in Alaska +Greenhouse +High tunnel + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6476927e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Collaboratory" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A collaboratory, as defined by William Wulf in 1989, is a “center without walls, in which the nation’s researchers can perform their research without regard to physical location, interacting with colleagues, accessing instrumentation, sharing data and computational resources, [and] accessing information in digital libraries” (Wulf, 1989). +Bly (1998) refines the definition to “a system which combines the interests of the scientific community at large with those of the computer science and engineering community to create integrated, tool-oriented computing and communication systems to support scientific collaboration” (Bly, 1998, p. 31). +Rosenberg (1991) considers a collaboratory as being an experimental and empirical research environment in which scientists work and communicate with each other to design systems, participate in collaborative science, and conduct experiments to evaluate and improve systems. +A simplified form of these definitions would describe the collaboratory as being an environment where participants make use of computing and communication technologies to access shared instruments and data, as well as to communicate with others. +However, a wide-ranging definition is provided by Cogburn (2003) who states that “a collaboratory is more than an elaborate collection of information and communications technologies; it is a new networked organizational form that also includes social processes; collaboration techniques; formal and informal communication; and agreement on norms, principles, values, and rules” (Cogburn, 2003, p. 86). +This concept has a lot in common with the notions of Interlock research, Information Routing Group and Interlock diagrams introduced in 1984. + +== Other meaning == +The word “collaboratory” is also used to describe an open space, creative process where a group of people work together to generate solutions to complex problems. +This meaning of the word originates from the visioning work of a large group of people – including scholars, artists, consultant, students, activists, and other professionals – who worked together on the 50+20 initiative aiming at transforming management education. +In this context, by fusing two elements, “collaboration” and “laboratory”, the word “collaboratory” suggests the construction of a space where people explore collaborative innovations. +It is, as defined by Dr. Katrin Muff, “an open space for all stakeholders where action learning and action research join forces, and students, educators, and researchers work with members of all facets of society to address current dilemmas.” +The concept of the collaboratory as a creative group process and its application are further developed in the book “The Collaboratory: A co-creative stakeholder engagement process for solving complex problems”. +Examples of collaboratory events are provided on the website of the Collaboratory community as well as by Business School Lausanne- a Swiss business school that has adopted the collaboratory method to harness collective intelligence. + +== Background == +Problems of geographic separation are especially present in large research projects. The time and cost for traveling, the difficulties in keeping contact with other scientists, the control of experimental apparatus, the distribution of information, and the large number of participants in a research project are just a few of the issues researchers are faced with. +Therefore, collaboratories have been put into operation in response to these concerns and restrictions. However, the development and implementation proves to be not so inexpensive. From 1992 to 2000 financial budgets for scientific research and development of collaboratories ranged from US$447,000 to US$10,890,000 and the total use ranged from 17 to 215 users per collaboratory (Sonnenwald, 2003). Particularly higher costs occurred when software packages were not available for purchase and direct integration into the collaboratory or when requirements and expectations were not met. +Chin and Lansing (2004) state that the research and development of scientific collaboratories had, thus far, a tool-centric approach. The main goal was to provide tools for shared access and manipulation of specific software systems or scientific instruments. Such an emphasis on tools was necessary in the early development years of scientific collaboratories due to the lack of basic collaboration tools (e.g. text chat, synchronous audio or videoconferencing) to support rudimentary levels of communication and interaction. Today, however, such tools are available in off-the-shelf software packages such as Microsoft NetMeeting, IBM Lotus Sametime, Mbone Videoconferencing (Chin and Lansing, 2004). Therefore, the design of collaboratories may now move beyond developing general communication mechanisms to evaluating and supporting the very nature of collaboration in the scientific context (Chin & Lansing, 2004). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8baca076c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Collaboratory" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== The evolution of the collaboratory === +As stated in Chapter 4 of the 50+20 "Management Education for the World" book, "the term collaboratory was first introduced in the late 1980s to address problems of geographic separation in large research projects related to travel time and cost, difficulties in keeping contact with other scientists, control of experimental apparatus, distribution of information, and the large number of participants. In their first decade of use, collaboratories were seen as complex and expensive information and communication technology (ICT) solutions supporting 15 to 200 users per project, with budgets ranging from 0.5 to 10 million USD. At that time, collaboratories were designed from an ICT perspective to serve the interests of the scientific community with tool-oriented computing requirements, creating an environment that enabled systems design and participation in collaborative science and experiments. +The introduction of a user-centered approach provided a first evolutionary step in the design philosophy of the collaboratory, allowing rapid prototyping and development circles. Over the past decade the concept of the collaboratory expanded beyond that of an elaborate ICT solution, evolving into a “new networked organizational form that also includes social processes, collaboration techniques, formal and informal communication, and agreement on norms, principles, values, and rules”. The collaboratory shifted from being a tool-centric to a data-centric approach, enabling data sharing beyond a common repository for storing and retrieving shared data sets. These developments have led to the evolution of the collaboratory towards a globally distributed knowledge work that produces intangible goods and services capable of being both developed and distributed around the world using traditional ICT networks. +Initially, the collaboratory was used in scientific research projects with variable degrees of success. In recent years, collaboratory models have been applied to areas beyond scientific research and the national context. The wide acceptance of collaborative technologies in many parts of the world opens promising opportunities for international cooperation in critical areas where societal stakeholders are unable to work out solutions in isolation, providing a platform for large multidisciplinary teams to work on complex global challenges. +The emergence of open-source technology transformed the collaboratory into its next evolution. The term open-source was adopted by a group of people in the free software movement in Palo Alto in 1998 in reaction to the source code release of the Netscape Navigator browser. Beyond providing a pragmatic methodology for free distribution and access to an end product's design and implementation details, open-source represents a paradigm shift in the philosophy of collaboration. The collaboratory has proven to be a viable solution for the creation of a virtual organization. Increasingly, however, there is a need to expand this virtual space into the real world. We propose another paradigm shift, moving the collaboratory beyond its existing ICT framework to a methodology of collaboration beyond the tool- and data-centric approaches, and towards an issue-centered approach that is transdisciplinary in nature." + +== Characteristics and considerations == +A distinctive characteristic of collaboratories is that they focus on data collection and analysis. Hence the interest to apply collaborative technologies to support data sharing as opposed to tool sharing. Chin and Lansing (2004) explore the shift of collaboratory development from traditional tool-centric approaches to more data-centric ones, to effectively support data sharing. This means more than just providing a common repository for storing and retrieving shared data sets. Collaboration, Chin and Lansing (2004) state, is driven both by the need to share data and to share knowledge about data. Shared data is only useful if sufficient context is provided about the data such that collaborators may comprehend and effectively apply it. It is therefore imperative, according to Chin and Lansing (2004), to know and understand how data sets relate to aspects of overall data space, applications, experiments, projects, and the scientific community, identifying the critical features or properties among which we can mention: + +General data set properties (owner, creation data, size, format); +Experimental properties (conditions of the scientific experiment that generated that data); +Data provenance (relationship with previous versions); +Integration (relationship of data subsets within the full data set); +Analysis and interpretation (notes, experiences, interpretations, and knowledge produced) +Scientific organization (scientific classification or hierarchy); +Task (research task that generated or applies the data set); +Experimental process (relationship of data and tasks to the overall process); +User community (application of data set to different users). +Henline (1998) argues that communication about experimental data is another important characteristic of a collaboratory. By focusing attention on the dynamics of information exchange, the study of Zebrafish Information Network Project (Henline, 1998) concluded that the key challenges in creating a collaboratory may be social rather than technical. “A successful system must respect existing social conventions while encouraging the development of analogous mechanisms within the new electronic forum” (Henline, 1998, p. 69). Similar observations were made in the Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) case study (Cogburn, 2003). The author (Cogburn, 2003) is investigating a collaboratory established for researchers in education and other related domains from United States of America and southern Africa. The main finding was that there have been important intellectual contributions on both sides, although the context was that of a developed country working together with a developing one and there have been social as well as cultural barriers. He further develops the idea that a successful CSCL would need to draw the best lessons learned on both sides in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW). +Sonnenwald (2003) conducted seventeen interviews with scientists and revealed important considerations. Scientists expect a collaboratory to “support their strategic plans; facilitate management of the scientific process; have a positive or neutral impact on scientific outcomes; provide advantages and disadvantages for scientific task execution; and provide personal conveniences when collaborating across distances” (Sonnenwald, 2003, p. 68). Many scientists looked at the collaboratory as means to achieve strategic goals that were organizational and personal in nature. Other scientists anticipated that the scientific process would speed up when they had access to the collaboratory. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a89c8e9da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Collaboratory" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Design philosophy == +Finholt (1995), based on the case studies of the Upper Atmospheric Research Collaboratory (UARC) and the Medical Collaboratory, establishes a design philosophy: a collaboratory project must be dedicated to a user-centered design (UCD) approach. This means a commitment to develop software in programming environments that allow rapid prototyping, rapid development cycles (Finholt, 1995). A consequence of the user-centered design in the collaboratory is that the system developers must be able to distinguish when a particular system or modification has positive impact on users’ work practices. An important part of obtaining this understanding is producing an accurate picture of how work is done prior to the introduction of technology. Finholt (1995) explains that behavioral scientists had the task of understanding the actual work settings for which new information technologies were developed. The goal of a user-centered design effort was to inject those observations back into the design process to provide a baseline for evaluating future changes and to illuminate productive directions for prototype development (Finholt, 1995). +A similar viewpoint is expressed by Cogburn (2003) who relates the collaboratory to a globally distributed knowledge work, stating that human-computer interaction (HCI) and user-centered design (UCD) principles are critical for organizations to take advantage of the opportunities of globalization and the emergence of an Information society. He (Cogburn, 2003) refers to distributed knowledge work as being a set of “economic activities that produce intangible goods and services […], capable of being both developed and distributed around the world using the global information and communication networks” (Cogburn, 2003, p. 81). Through the use of these global information and communications networks, organizations are able to take part in globally disarticulated production, which means they can locate their research and development facilities almost anywhere in the world, and engineers can collaborate across time zones, institutions and national boundaries. + +== Evaluation == +Meeting expectations is a factor that influences adoption of innovations, including scientific collaboratories. Some of the collaboratories implemented thus far have not been entirely successful. The Mathematics and Computer Science Division of Argonne National Laboratory, Waterfall Glen collaboratory (Henline, 1998) is an illustrative example. This collaboratory had its shares of problems. There have been the occasional technical and social disasters, but most importantly it did not meet all of the collaboration and interaction requirements. +The vast majority of the evaluations performed thus far are concentrating mainly on the usage statistics (e.g. total number of members, hours of use, amount of data communicated) or on the immediate role in the production of traditional scientific outcomes (e.g. publications and patents). Sonnenwald (2003), however, argues that we should rather look for longer-term and intangible measures such as new and continued relationship among scientists, and subsequent, longer-term creation of new knowledge. +Regardless of the criteria used for evaluation, we must focus on understanding the expectations and requirements defined for a collaboratory. Without such understanding a collaboratory runs the risk of not being adopted. + +== Success factors == +Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002) ascertain some of the success factors of a collaboratory. They are: collaboration readiness, collaboration infrastructure readiness, and collaboration technology readiness. +Collaboration readiness is the most basic pre-requisite for an effective collaboratory, according to Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002). Often the critical component to collaboration readiness is based on the concept of “working together in order to achieve a science goal” (Olson, Teasley, Bietz, & Cogburn, 2002, p. 46). Incentives to collaborate, shared principles of collaboration, and experience with the elements of collaboration are also crucial. Successful interaction between users requires a certain amount of common ground. Interactions require a high degree of trust or negotiation, especially when they involve areas where there is a cultural difference. “Ethical norms tend to be culturally specific, and negotiations about ethical issues require high levels of trust” (Olson, Teasley, Bietz, & Cogburn, 2002, p. 49). +When analyzing the collaboration infrastructure readiness Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002) state that modern collaboration tools require adequate infrastructure to operate properly. Many off-the-shelf applications will run effectively only on state-of-the-art workstations. An important piece of the infrastructure is the technical support necessary to ensure version control, to get participants registered, and to recover in case of disaster. Communications cost is another element which can be critical for collaboration infrastructure readiness (Olson, Teasley, Bietz, & Cogburn, 2002). Pricing structures for network connectivity can affect the choices that users will make and therefore have an effect on the collaboratory's final design and implementation. +Collaboration technology readiness, according to Olson, Teasley, Bietz, and Cogburn (2002), refers to the fact that collaboration does not involve only technology and infrastructure, but also requires a considerable investment in training. Thus, it is essential to assess the state of technology readiness in the community to ensure success. If the level is too primitive more training is required to bring the users’ knowledge up-to-date. + +== Examples == + +=== Biological Sciences Collaboratory === + +A comprehensively described example of a collaboratory, the Biological Sciences Collaboratory (BSC) at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (Chin & Lansing, 2004), enables the sharing and analysis of biological data through metadata capture, electronic laboratory notebooks, data organization views, data provenance tracking, analysis notes, task management, and scientific workflow management. BSC supports various data formats, has data translation capabilities, and can interact and exchange data with other sources (external databases, for example). It offers subscription capabilities (to allow certain individuals to access data) and verification of identities, establishes and manages permissions and privileges, and has data encryption capabilities (to ensure secure data transmission) as part of its security package. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a085c648e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Collaboratory" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +BSC also provides a data provenance tool and a data organization tool. These tools allow a hierarchical tree to display the historical lineage of a data set. From this tree-view the scientist may select a particular node (or an entire branch) to access a specific version of the data set (Chin & Lansing, 2004). +The task management provided by BSC allows users to define and track tasks related to a specific experiment or project. Tasks can have deadlines assigned, levels of priority, and dependencies. Tasks can also be queried and various reports produced. Related to task management, BSC provides workflow management to capture, manage, and supply standard paths of analyses. The scientific workflow may be viewed as process templates that captures and semi-automate the steps of an analysis process and its encompassing data sets and tools (Chin & Lansing, 2004). +BSC provides project collaboration by allowing scientists to define and manage members of their group. Security and authentication mechanisms are therefore applied to limit access to project data and applications. Monitoring capability allows for members to identify other members that are online working on the project (Chin & Lansing, 2004). +BSC offers community collaboration capabilities: scientists may publish their data sets to a larger community through the data portal. Notifications are in place for scientists interested in a particular set of data - when that data changes, the scientists get notification via email (Chin & Lansing, 2004). + +=== Diesel Combustion Collaboratory === +Pancerella, Rahn, and Yang (1999) analyzed the Diesel Combustion Collaboratory (DCC) which was a problem-solving environment for combustion research. The main goal of DCC was to make the information exchange for the combustion researchers more efficient. Researchers would collaborate over the Internet using various DCC tools. These tools included “a distributed execution management system for running combustion models on widely distributed computers (distributed computing), including supercomputers; web accessible data archiving capabilities for sharing graphical experimental or modeling data; electronic notebooks and shared workspaces for facilitating collaboration; visualization of combustion data; and videoconferencing and data conferencing among researchers at remote sites” (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999, p. 1). +The collaboratory design team defined the requirements to be (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999): + +Ability share graphical data easily; +Ability to discuss modeling strategies and exchange model descriptions; +Archiving collaborative information; +Ability to run combustion models at widely separated locations; +Ability to analyze experimental data and modeling results in a web-accessible format; +Videoconference and group meetings capabilities. +Each of these requirements had to be done securely and efficiently across the Internet. Resources availability was a major concern because many of the chemistry simulations could run for hours or even days on high-end workstations and produce Kilobytes to Megabytes of data sets. These data sets had to be visualized using simultaneous 2-D plots of multiple variables (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). +The deployment of the DCC was done in a phased approach. The first phase was based on iterative development, testing, and deployment of individual collaboratory tools. Once collaboratory team members had adequately tested each new tool, it was deployed to combustion researchers. The deployment of the infrastructure (videoconferencing tools, multicast routing capabilities, and data archives) was done in parallel (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). The next phase was to implement full security in the collaboratory. The primary focus was on two-way synchronous and multi-way asynchronous collaborations (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). The challenge was to balance the increased access to data that was needed with the security requirements. The final phase was the broadening of the target research to multiple projects including a broader range of collaborators. +The collaboratory team found that the highest impact was perceived by the geographically separated scientists that truly depended on each other to achieve their goals. One of the team's major challenges was to overcome the technological and social barriers in order to meet all of the objectives (Pancerella, Rahn, & Yang, 1999). User openness and low maintenance security collaboratories are hard to achieve, therefore user feedback and evaluation are constantly required. + +=== Other collaboratories === +Other collaboratories that have been implemented and can be further investigated are: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebf9fc669 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Collaboratory" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) is an international center for research and education in biology, biomedicine and ecology. +Biological Collaborative Research Environment (BioCoRE) developed at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign – a collaboration tool for biologists (Chin and Lansing, 2004); +The CTQ Collaboratory, a virtual community of teacher leaders and those who value teacher leadership, run by the Center for Teaching Quality, a national education nonprofit (Berry, Byrd, & Wieder, 2013); +HASTAC (Humanities, Arts, Science, and Technology Alliance and Collaboratory), founded in 2002 by Cathy N. Davidson, then Vice Provost for Interdisciplinary Studies at Duke University and David Theo Goldberg, Director of the University of California Humanities Research Institute (UCHRI), after contacting scholars across the humanities (including digital humanities), social sciences, media studies, the arts, and technology sectors who shared these convictions and wanted to envision a new kind of organization—an academic social network—that would allow anyone to join and would offer any member of the community to contribute. They began working with a team of developers at Stanford University to code and design a participatory, community site, originally a display website and a Wiki for open contribution and as a community-based publishing and networking platform. +Molecular Interactive Collaborative Environment (MICE) developed at the San Diego Supercomputer Center – provides collaborative access and manipulation of complex, three-dimensional molecular models as captured in various scientific visualization programs (Chin and Lansing, 2004); +Molecular Modeling Collaboratory (MMC) developed at University of California, San Francisco – allows remote biologists to share and interactively manipulate three-dimensional molecular models in applications such as drug design and protein engineering (Chin and Lansing, 2004); +Collaboratory for Microscopic Digital Anatomy (CMDA) – a computational environment to provide biomedical scientists remote access to a specialized research electron microscope (Henline, 1998); +The Collaboratory for Strategic Partnerships and Applied Research at Messiah College - an organization of Christian students, educators, and professionals affiliated with Messiah College, aspiring to fulfill Biblical mandates to foster justice, empower the poor, reconcile adversaries, and care for the earth, in the context of academic engagement. +Waterfall Glen – a multi-user object-oriented (MOO) collaboratory at Argonne National Laboratory (Henline, 1998); +The International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) – a scientific collaboratory for the development of advanced measures of personality and other individual differences (Henline, 1998); +TANGO – a set of collaborative applications for education and distance learning, command and control, health care, and computer steering (Henline, 1998). +Special consideration should be attributed to TANGO (Henline, 1998) because it is a step forward in implementing collaboratories, as it has distance learning and health care as main domains of operation. Henline (1998) mentions that the collaboratory has been successfully used to implement applications for distance learning, command and control center, telemedical bridge, and a remote consulting tool suite. + +Collaborative architecture and Interactive architecture, the work of Adam Somlai-Fischer and Usman Haque. +The Internet & Society Collaboratory supported by Google in Germany + +== Summary == +To date, most collaboratories have been applied largely in scientific research projects, with various degrees of success and failure. Recently, however, collaboratory models have been applied to additional areas of scientific research in both national and international contexts. As a result, a substantial knowledge base has emerged helping us in understanding their development and application in science and industry (Cogburn, 2003). Extending the collaboratory concept to include both social and behavioral research as well as more scientists from the developing world could potentially strengthen the concept and provide opportunities of learning more about the social and technical factors that support a distributed knowledge network (Cogburn, 2003). +The use of collaborative technologies to support geographically distributed scientific research is gaining wide acceptance in many parts of the world. Such collaboratories hold great promise for international cooperation in critical areas of scientific research and not only. As the frontiers of knowledge are pushed back the problems get more and more difficult, often requiring large multidisciplinary teams to make progress. The collaboratory is emerging as a viable solution, using communication and computing technologies to relax the constraints of distance and time, creating an instance of a virtual organization. The collaboratory is both an opportunity with very useful properties, but also a challenge to human organizational practices (Olson, 2002). + +== See also == +Information and communication technologies +Human–computer interaction +User-centered design +Participatory design + +== Footnotes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a7fe80ab9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Collaboratory" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:22.295395+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== References == +Berry, B., Byrd, A., & Wieder, A. (2013). Teacherpreneurs: Innovative teachers who lead but don't leave. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. +Bly, S. (1998). Special section on collaboratories, Interactions, 5(3), 31, New York: ACM Press. +Bos, N., Zimmerman, A., Olson, J., Yew, J., Yerkie, J., Dahl, E. and Olson, G. (2007), From Shared Databases to Communities of Practice: A Taxonomy of Collaboratories. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12: 652–672. +Chin, G., Jr., & Lansing, C. S. (2004). Capturing and supporting contexts for scientific data sharing via the biological sciences collaboratory, Proceedings of the 2004 ACM conference on computer supported cooperative work, 409-418, New York: ACM Press. +Cogburn, D. L. (2003). HCI in the so-called developing world: what's in it for everyone, Interactions, 10(2), 80-87, New York: ACM Press. +Cosley, D., Frankowsky, D., Kiesler, S., Terveen, L., & Riedl, J. (2005). How oversight improves member-maintained communities, Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems, 11-20. +Finholt, T. A. (1995). Evaluation of electronic work: research on collaboratories at the University of Michigan, ACM SIGOIS Bulletin, 16(2), 49–51. +Finholt, T.A. Collaboratories. (2002). In B. Cronin (Ed.), Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (pp. 74–107), 36. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Information Science. +Finholt, T.A., & Olson, G.M. (1997). From laboratories to collaboratories: A new organizational form for scientific collaboration. Psychological Science, 8, 28-36. +Henline, P. (1998). Eight collaboratory summaries, Interactions, 5(3), 66–72, New York: ACM Press. +Olson, G.M. (2004). Collaboratories. In W.S. Bainbridge (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing. +Olson, G.M., Teasley, S., Bietz, M. J., & Cogburn, D. L. (2002). Collaboratories to support distributed science: the example of international HIV/AIDS research, Proceedings of the 2002 annual research conference of the South African institute of computer scientists and information technologists on enablement through technology, 44–51. +Olson, G.M., Zimmerman, A., & Bos, N. (Eds.) (2008). Scientific collaboration on the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. +Pancerella, C.M., Rahn, L. A., Yang, C. L. (1999). The diesel combustion collaboratory: combustion researchers collaborating over the internet, Proceedings of the 1999 ACM/IEEE conference on supercomputing, New York: ACM Press. +Rosenberg, L. C. (1991). Update on National Science Foundation funding of the “collaboratory”, Communications of the ACM, 34(12), 83, New York: ACM Press. +Sonnenwald, D.H. (2003). Expectations for a scientific collaboratory: A case study, Proceedings of the 2003 international ACM SIGGROUP conference on supporting group work, 68–74, New York: ACM Press. +Sonnenwald, D.H., Whitton, M.C., & Maglaughlin, K.L. (2003). Scientific collaboratories: evaluating their potential, Interactions, 10(4), 9–10, New York: ACM Press. +Wulf, W. (1989, March). The national collaboratory. In Towards a national collaboratory. Unpublished report of a National Science Foundation invitational workshop, Rockefeller University, New York. +Wulf, W. (1993) The collaboratory opportunity. Science, 261, 854-855. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d012ddcb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Columbus (ISS module)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:23.544776+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Columbus is a science laboratory module that forms part of the International Space Station (ISS) and represents the European Space Agency's (ESA) largest single contribution to the station. It was constructed in Turin, Italy, by Alcatel Alenia Space (now Thales Alenia Space) with functional equipment and software designed by EADS (now Airbus Defence and Space) in Bremen, Germany. The module was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on 7 February 2008, during mission STS-122. Columbus is operated by the Columbus Control Centre at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich. In 2008, ESA estimated the total cost of Columbus—including construction, ten years of operations, scientific experiments, and supporting ground infrastructure—at approximately €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion). + +== History == + +=== Background === + +The structure used for Columbus is based on the MPLM module built for NASA by Thales Alenia Space. In 2000 the pre-integrated module (structure including harness and tubing) was delivered to Bremen in Germany by the Co-prime contractor Alenia. The final integration and system testing was performed by the overall prime contractor EADS Astrium Space Transportation, after that the initial Payload was integrated and the overall complement checked-out. +The final schedule was much longer than originally planned due to development problems (several caused by the complex responsibility splitting between the Co-prime and the Overall prime contractor) and design changes introduced by ESA but being affordable due to the Shuttle problems delaying the Columbus launch for several years. The main design change was the addition of the External Payload Facility (EPF), which was driven by the different European Payload organizations being more interested in outer space than internal experiments. Also the addition of a terminal for direct communications to/from ground, which could have been used also as back-up for the ISS system, was studied but not implemented for cost reasons. + +=== Construction === +ESA chose EADS Astrium Space Transportation as prime contractor for Columbus overall design, verification and integration. The Columbus structure, the micro-meteorite protection system, the active and passive thermal control, the environmental control, the harness and all the related ground support equipment were designed and qualified by Alcatel Alenia Space in Turin, Italy as defined by the PICA – Principle (for definition see History below); the related hardware was pre-integrated and sent as PICA in September 2001 to Bremen. The lab was built and qualified on system level at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany. + +=== Launch campaign === +Columbus was launched under the ESA–NASA ISS bartering system. Under this arrangement, the ESA agreed to provide NASA with the fully integrated Harmony and Tranquility node modules, along with additional equipment and parts, in exchange for the launch of Columbus and its initial payload aboard the Space Shuttle. This barter allowed ESA to secure launch services without a direct financial transaction, and enabling those funds to remain within ESA member states. +On 27 May 2006 Columbus was flown from Bremen to the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) at the Kennedy Space Center on board an Airbus Beluga oversized cargo aircraft. In November 2007, Columbus was moved out of the SSPF and loaded into the payload bay of the Atlantis orbiter for launch on ISS assembly flight 1E (STS-122). +During cryo-filling of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen prior to the first launch attempt on 6 December 2007, two of four liquid hydrogen ECO sensors failed a test. Mission rules called for at least three of the four sensors to be in working order for a launch attempt to proceed. As a result of the failure, the launch was postponeded, initially for 24 hours. This was later revised into a 72-hour delay, resulting in a next launch attempt set for Sunday, 9 December 2007. This launch attempt was scrubbed when one of the ECO sensors again failed during fuelling. The ECO sensors' external connector was changed on the Space Shuttle external tank, causing a two-month delay in the launch. Columbus was finally launched successfully on the third attempt at 2:45pm EST, 7 February 2008. + +=== Berthing === +Once in space, the station's Canadarm2 removed Columbus from the docked shuttle's cargo bay and attached it to the starboard berth of Harmony on 11 February 2008. + +== Description == +The laboratory is a cylindrical module, made from stainless steel, kevlar and hardened aluminum, with two end cones. It is 4.477 m (14 ft 8.3 in) in external diameter and 6.871 m (22 ft 6.5 in) in overall length, excluding the projecting external experiment racks. Its shape is very similar to that of the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs), since both were designed to fit in the cargo bay of a Space Shuttle orbiter. The starboard end cone contains most of the laboratory's on-board computers. The port end cone contains the Common Berthing Mechanism. + +Length: 7 m (23 ft) +Diameter: 4.5 m (15 ft) +Total mass: 10,300 kg (22,708 lb) +Total payload mass 2,500 kg (5,512 lb) +Total on-orbit mass 12,800 kg (28,219 lb) +Construction details: +Wall thickness 4mm +welded end cones +materials : Stainless steel, kevlar, aluminium + +== Research activities and payloads == + +Activities in the lab are controlled on the ground by the Columbus Control Center (at DLR Oberpfaffenhofen in Germany) and by the associated User Support Operations Centres throughout Europe. +The laboratory can accommodate ten active International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs) for science payloads. Agreements with NASA allocate to ESA 51% usage of the Columbus Laboratory. ESA is thus allocated five active rack locations, with the other five being allocated to NASA. Four active rack locations are on the forward side of the deck, four on the aft side, and two are in overhead locations. Three of the deck racks are filled with life support and cooling systems. The remaining deck rack and the two remaining overhead racks are storage racks. +The following European ISPRs have been initially installed inside Columbus: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6ae42015f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Columbus (ISS module)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:23.544776+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL) +European Physiology Modules (EPM) +Biolab +European Drawer Rack (EDR) +European Drawer Rack Mark II (EDR2) +European Stowage Rack +In addition, four un-pressurized payload platforms can be attached outside the starboard cone, on the Columbus External Payload Facility (CEPF). Each external payload is mounted on an adaptor able to accommodate small instruments and experiments totalling up to 230 kilograms (507 lb). The first external payloads were mounted on Columbus by crew members of the mission STS-122 mission. Some of the external payloads are: + +European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) platform, which accommodates nine instruments: TRIBOLAB, PLEGPAY, MEDET, EUFIDE, DEBIE-2, FIPEX, EUTEMP, EXPOSE, DOSTEL, and the Earth Viewing Camera. +Solar Monitoring Observatory (SOLAR) +MISSE-6 (NASA payload) +In 2014 the ISS-RapidScat instrument was installed, which was operated until late 2016. ISS-RapidScat was transported to ISS by the SpaceX CRS-4 spaceflight. +Atmosphere-Space Interaction Monitor (ASIM), installed April 2018 +Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES), installed April 2025 +Columbus Ka-band Terminal (COLKa), a communications terminal utilizing the European Data Relay System (EDRS), installed January 2021 +Planned additional external payloads: + +EXPORT + +== See also == +List of European Space Agency programmes and missions +European Transportation Carrier (ISS Facility) (ETC) +Columbus – External Payload Facility (Columbus-EPF) +Bartolomeo facility + +== References == + +== External links == + +ESA: Columbus Laboratory +ESA: Technical specifications of the Columbus Laboratory +ESA: Columbus structure completed +"A new European science laboratory in Earth orbit" (PDF). October 2007. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2ee2cbc8c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Comoé National Park Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:40.555472+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Comoé National Park Research Station, located in the Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, was founded by Professor Karl Eduard Linsenmair, a German biologist, in 1989/90. +The research station was forced to close after the outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War in 2002. After the end of the Second Ivorian Civil War in 2011 repairs at the station began and in 2014 the station had achieved again its full working capacity. The focus of the field based research is on conservation, tropical ecology and behaviour. + + +== History == +In 1989/90 a first research camp was realized with substantial funding provided by the Volkswagen Stiftung, the University of Würzburg and the respective Ministry (Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Bildung und Kultus, Wissenschaft und Kunst). A successful application for a research grant by Linsenmair at the Fritz Thyssen Foundation led to the expansion and transformation into a permanent station, after various bureaucratic hurdles in Germany and Côte d'Ivoire, which delayed the construction of the field station approximately 8 years. Construction started in 2000 and in early 2002 all guesthouses and other buildings apart from the lab were finished and a move from the camp to the new station was possible. +The outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War, in September 2002, resulted in the loss of the entire removable and demountable equipment and the closure of the station. Due to the positive development in the country after the Second Ivorian Civil War, the rehabilitation of the station started in 2012 with remaining funds from the Fritz Thyssen Foundation and the University of Würzburg. With the construction of the solar plant, in December 2014, the rehabilitation was finished and the station had achieved its full working capacity again, making it one of the most modern field research stations in Africa. + + +== Research == +The Research of the station focuses on various fields of conservation, tropical ecology and behaviour, e.g. ecophysiology, chemical and evolutionary ecology. In its first 2 decades before the civil war over 20 international research institutions conducted projects at the station with over 100 scientists contributing to the over 200 papers published in peer-reviewed journals. Far more students participated in field courses, collecting data for more than 40 diploma, masters, bachelors and Ph.D. theses. + + +=== Research Cooperations === +Research institutions currently working at the station are: + +University of Würzburg, Germany +University of Freiburg, Germany +University of Rostock, Germany +Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Germany +Université d'Abobo-Adjamé, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire +University of Groningen, Netherlands +The research station is also a base for the longterm and large scale monitoring program in the BMBF's WASCAL project (West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use) and was one of the headquarters for the BIOTA West project focused in Côte d'Ivoire until the outbreak of the civil war. It also works closely together with the park management (OIPR, Office Ivorien des Parcs et Reserves) on matters of conservation. + + +== Facilities == +The facilities of the research station allow for completely autonomous working conditions 24 hours a day and include: + +A 750 sqm large climatised laboratory +A refectory, consisting of a kitchen and a large dining area +A 36kWP Solar power station and a 30kWP backup Generator +A watertower pumping water from groundwater level (80 m deep) +14 houses able to hold 15 researchers for long-term research and up to 30 for short trips/excursions +A garage offering space for up to four land cruisers, motorbikes, bicycles and rudimentary repairs + + +== Further Information == +Homepage of the Comoé National Park Research Station + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-0.md index da12764c2..60f4f8a26 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:26.975715+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:45.863056+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-1.md index 5c36d0c7c..2607aca0f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:26.975715+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:45.863056+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md index 3ed4ffa8c..416b52c41 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:34:58.242022+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:24.757709+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CosmoCaixa_Barcelona-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CosmoCaixa_Barcelona-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..30363376c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CosmoCaixa_Barcelona-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "CosmoCaixa Barcelona" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CosmoCaixa_Barcelona" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:59.100768+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +CosmoCaixa Barcelona (Catalan pronunciation: [ˌkɔzmuˈkaʃə βəɾsəˈlonə]) is a science museum located in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It features a variety of permanent and temporary exhibitions devoted to the environment, nature, science, and space. The museum is sponsored by "La Caixa" banking foundation. +Formerly known as the Science Museum of Barcelona, it closed for renovations in 1998 and reopened in 2004 under its current name. It has interactive exhibitions such as touch and play for small children, planetarium, bookstore, gift shop, library, teaching center and café. Entry to the museum is free for children under the age of sixteen. Adults can visit the museum with a regular ticket. + + +== Building == +The building was built between 1904 and 1909 by Josep Domènech i Estapà to serve as an asylum for the blind which closed in 1979. The building was renovated, retaining the original facade, and an expansion took place bringing the building to four times its original size. An expansion of the building took place in 2004. CosmoCaixa has a large spiral walkway that takes visitors from the basement to the fifth floor. The centerpiece of the walkway is an Amazonian tree. + + +== Exhibitions == +CosmoCaixa has permanent and temporary exhibitions. It also houses a planetarium and has a free public square that allows the public to experience natural science through interactive exhibitions. Entry tickets to the Planetarium are four euros for both adults and students. Tickets can also be bought at the museum on the first floor. + + +=== Flooded Forest === +A flooded forest which allows visitors to experience wet and dry environs of an Amazon rainforest. Ceiba trees are reproduced based on molds created by museum staff in Pará, Brazil. More than a hundred living species are represented including birds, insects, frogs, piranhas, capybaras, and alligators. + + +=== Geological Wall === +Large cuts of geological formations are displayed along a wall showing erosion, volcanism, faults, sedimentation and related processes. The cuts of rock on display are primarily from Catalonia including potassium salt from Súria, sandstone from Berga and Mallorca, volcanic materials from Zona Volcànica de la Garrotxa Natural Park, and limestone from Besalú. + + +=== The Universe Hall === +The Universe's Hall, which is the main space in the museum, shows a tour starting with the Big Bang to the most actuality themes, including modern medicine, wastes and robotics, throw the human evolution and other shapes of evolution and science. They all are shown by interactive modules that make easier their comprehension. + + +=== Clik and Creactivity === +One of three interactive based exhibitions for young children, Clik and Flash uses games to encourage children to learn about science. The space is split into two rooms; Clik uses play, observation and deduction through smell, touch and sight and Creactivity uses technology to showcase exploration, environments, construction and electricity. + + +=== Touch, touch! === +Touch, touch! houses living creatures from around the world and the Mediterranean. Museum staff and scientists present animals and plants from three environments. + + +=== Bubble Planetarium === +An astronomy based exhibition for children ages 3–8. + + +== Past exhibitions - historical spaces == + + +=== Touch, touch! === +Touch, touch! houses living creatures from around the world and the Mediterranean. Museum staff and scientists present animals and plants from three environments. + + +=== The Hall of Matter === +The Hall of Matter covers evolution starting with the Big Bang. It is broken into four sections: the origin of matter, the first living organism, the conquest of "symbolic intelligence", and the birth of civilization. The exhibit touches on gravitational wave, chaos theory, biology, mobility, neurons, intelligence and human evolution. + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +CaixaForum Barcelona +Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona +Jorge Wagensberg Lubinski + + +== References == + + +== External links == +History of CosmoCaixa (German) + Media related to CosmoCaixa Barcelona at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonova-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonova-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c5bd98cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonova-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Cosmonova" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonova" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:00.302528+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cosmonova is an IMAX Dome cinema and planetarium located in an annex of the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, Sweden. Cosmonova premiered over three nights starting on 13 October 1992, with the first public showing on 16 October. It was the first ever dedicated IMAX installation in Sweden (and third in the Nordic countries after Tietomaa Science Centre in Oulu, Finland and Tycho Brahe Planetarium in Copenhagen, Denmark) and is also the largest planetarium in Sweden. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallmann_Laboratory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallmann_Laboratory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d065203e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallmann_Laboratory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Dallmann Laboratory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallmann_Laboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:25.980505+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Dallmann Laboratory is an on-site summer laboratory on King George Island, South Shetland Islands, at the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, adjacent to the Argentinian Carlini Base with shared logistics. It is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in cooperation with the Netherlands and Instituto Antártico Argentino. It is named after the polar sea explorer Eduard Dallmann. +It was inaugurated on 20 January 1994, has an area of 250 m2 (2,700 sq ft) and was built in mainland Argentina, disassembled, shipped to Potter Cove, and reassembled at the base. +The lab has three modules for bedrooms, bathroom and living-dining room, two modules for laboratories and one for the engine room and dive locker. It also has four containers for laboratory and aquarium use donated by Germany. +It has twelve workstations with laboratories, workshop, storage, aquariums and a base for research divers. It is equipped with several scientific instruments and vehicles provided by Germany: lyophilizer, stereo microscopes, freezers, a small hyperbaric chamber for transport, scuba diving equipment, aquariums, a rigid hull boat and a Kässbohrer tracked vehicle. +Multidisciplinary joint research programs are carried out in the fields of biology; coastal and terrestrial ecology; terrestrial wildlife (mostly Elephant Seals); pollution effects on birds and fish populations; oceanography; coastal geology; geosciences; etc. The station's research examines the composition and stability of algae and animal communities. Findings about the food relationships, and the physiology of the species give scientists insights into the development of the polar ecosystems facing global environmental changes. +Instituto Antártico Argentino, the Netherlands Geosciences Foundation and the Alfred Wegener Institute signed an agreement to provide a biological purification plant ceded by the Netherlands. It consists of a scrubber tank, a treatment and sludge drying plant, as well as facilities and equipment for process control and monitoring, and a set of basic spare parts and fuel reserves. + + +== History == +Potter Cove in the southwestern region of King George Island was chosen around 1953 to house an Argentine naval station to support amphibious aircraft. +The station was established on November 21, 1953 and was temporarily named Refugio Potter and then Caleta Potter Naval Station. In the summer campaign from 1953 to 1954 the accommodation was occupied by only three men. The station was renamed Teniente Jubany during the 1954-1955 campaign after naval aviator Jose Isidro Jubany, who died in service on September 14, 1948. +During the summer campaign of 1957–58, two groups of scientists from the Instituto Antártico Argentino conducted geological surveys in the region, collecting petrographic and paleontological samples to study local geological upwellings. The leaders of the two groups were Dr Otto Schneider and Osvaldo C. Schauer respectively. +In 1982, the facilities were transferred to Instituto Antártico Argentino and the station was raised to base status, and inaugurated as such on 12 February. +In 1990, the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany began talks with Instituto Antártico Argentino, which was looking at installing on-site laboratories and aquariums with modern equipment for scientific research. Dallmann Laboratory was then inaugurated on January 20, 1994. +In 1994, the LAJUB laboratory for greenhouse effect research was set up in collaboration with the Institute for Atmospheric Physics (IFA), Italy. +On March 5, 2012, the base was renamed Base Carlini by Executive Decree 309/2012 to honor the late explorer Alejandro Ricardo Carlini. +On December 8, 2013, Metallica held a concert at the base under a small, purpose-built dome without amplification due to environmental concerns, which was streamed worldwide. + + +== External links == + +"Dallmann-Labor an der Carlini-Station". Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research. 2015-06-23. Retrieved 2021-01-20. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0125bfbf3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Destiny (ISS module)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:27.216198+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Destiny module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the International Space Station (ISS). It was berthed to the forward port of the Unity module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001. Destiny is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974. +The Boeing Company began construction of the 14,515-kilogram (32,000 lb) research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Destiny was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on February 7, 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-98. +Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields. Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science. + +== Launch and installation == + +Destiny was launched to ISS aboard the Space Shuttle mission STS-98. It launched into Earth orbit on February 7, 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis. On February 10, 2001, at 9:50 am CST, the installation of Destiny began. First, the Shuttle SRMSS (Canadarm) was used to remove Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 (PMA 2) from Unity node's forward port to make room for the new module. PMA-2 was temporarily stowed on the forward berthing ring of the Z1 truss. Destiny was "grabbed" by the robotic arm at 11:23, lifted out of Atlantis' cargo bay, and berthed to the forward port of Unity. Two days later, PMA-2 was moved to its semi-permanent location on the forward port of Destiny. Several years later, on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was attached to the forward port of the Destiny laboratory, and PMA 2 was again relocated to the forward port of Harmony. +The addition of Destiny increased the habitable volume by 3,800 cubic feet, an increase of 41 percent. + +== Laboratory structure == + +The U.S. laboratory module is 28 feet (8.5 m) long and 14 feet (4.3 m) wide. It is made from aluminum and stainless steel, and comprises three cylindrical sections and two endcones that contain the hatch openings through which astronauts enter and exit the module. The aft port of Destiny is connected to the forward port of Unity, and the forward port of Destiny is connected to the aft port of Harmony. The ends are colored blue and white respectively for the crew to navigate easily. A 20-inch (510 mm)-diameter window is located on one side of the center module segment. +Each of the two berthing ports on Destiny contains a hatch. Both hatches are normally open, and remain open unless a situation arises requiring a module to be isolated. Each hatch has a window. The hatches can be opened or closed from either side. The hatches have a pressure interlock feature, which prevents the hatch from being opened if there is a negative pressure across the hatch (higher pressure on the outside of the hatch). The hatch openings are a square-like six sided shape - which is associated to that module. +Destiny has a 20-inch (510 mm) optically pure, telescope-quality glass window located in an open rack bay used primarily for Earth science observations. Station crewmembers use very high quality video and still cameras at the window to record Earth's changing landscapes. A window shutter protects the window from potential micrometeoroid and orbital debris strikes during the life of the ISS. The crew manually opens the shutter to use the window. +Imagery captured from Destiny's window has given geologists and meteorologists the chance to study floods, avalanches, fires and ocean events such as plankton blooms in a way never seen before, as well as given international scientists the opportunity to study features such as glaciers, coral reefs, urban growth and wild fires. + +=== Specifications === + +Length: 8.53 metres (28.0 ft) +Diameter: 4.27 metres (14.0 ft) +Mass: 14,520 kilograms (32,010 lb) +Pressurized Volume: 106 cubic metres (3,700 cu ft) + +== Equipment == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71eea55be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Destiny (ISS module)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:27.216198+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +As with the European and Japanese laboratories of the station, payloads inside Destiny are configured around International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs), that can be removed or reconfigured for various experiments and equipment. Made out of a graphite composite shell, each rack weighs about 1,200 pounds (540 kg), and is about 73 inches (1,900 mm) high, and 42 inches (1,100 mm) wide. The eight rack bays are equipped with curtains that provide around 290 cubic feet (8.2 m3) of temporary stowage space when not occupied by experiments. +Destiny arrived at the station pre-configured with five racks housing electrical and life support systems that provide electrical power, cooling water, air revitalization, and temperature and humidity control. Seven additional racks were flown to Destiny in the Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module by STS-102, and ten more were delivered on subsequent missions. Destiny can hold up to 13 payload racks with experiments in human life science, materials research, Earth observations and commercial applications. The laboratory has a total of 24 racks inside the laboratory, six on each side. +Internal to the laboratory are racks, rack stand-offs, and vestibule jumpers. The lab racks house the system hardware in removable modular units. The stand-offs provide space for electrical connections, data management systems cabling for computers, air conditioning ducts, thermal control tubes and more, all of which support the space station's equipment racks. The racks interface to the piping and wiring in the standoff via outlets and ports located in the standoffs at the base end of each rack location. +Jumpers in the vestibule, the area between Unity and Destiny, connect the piping and wiring between the two. Grounding straps between Unity and Destiny will be installed. One side of the grounding strap will be connected to the Active Common Berthing Mechanism (ACBM) on Unity, while the other end will be connected to the Passive Common Berthing Mechanism (PCBM) on Destiny. +Some of the mechanisms on Destiny are the CBMs (passive and active), hatches, and the laboratory window shutter. The ACBM is in the forward port of the laboratory. It is attached to the Harmony node. The PCBM on Destiny is located in the laboratory's aft port. The ACBM in Unity's forward port is latched to the laboratory's PCBM to berth Destiny to Unity. + +=== Science equipment === + +Destiny also contains the Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI), transported to the Space Station on STS-121. The freezer is used both to store samples and reagents on the station, and to transport them to and from the space station in a temperature controlled environment. +Currently installed at the main observation window of Destiny is the Agricultural Camera (AgCam). It is a multi-spectral imaging system built and primarily operated by students and faculty at the University of North Dakota. Its purpose is to take frequent images, in visible and infrared light, of vegetated areas on the Earth and promises to deliver a greater effectiveness for in-season agriculture applications research and operational decision support than current satellite systems such as Landsat. + +== Veggie == +In 2016 the ISS crew operated Veg-03 experiment. In November they harvested a crop of edible romaine lettuce which contributed to the crew's meal. Also samples of cabbage are returned to Earth for testing as part of the experiment. This uses the Veggie experiment module in Destiny, which can provide light and nutrients for plant growth experiments. + +== Destiny nadir window == +The nadir window is formally known as the U.S. Laboratory Science Window, has the "...highest quality optics ever flown on a human occupied spacecraft...", according to NASA, and can support taking Earth observations/images. In 2010 a research facility was brought to the station, called WORF, and the first photo with it was taken in January 2011. WORF was delivered by ISS Flight 19A (which was STS-131) . + +=== WORF === + +In 2010 the WORF was brought to ISS aboard STS-131 and installed. This is a facility that uses the Destiny nadir window to support various types of photography and observation. WORF, which stands for Window Observational Research Facility is constructed based on International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) and EXPRESS Rack program technology. The first photo taken by WORF was on January 21, 2011, with Ag Cam. +The name WORF is an allusion to Worf, the fictional character of the same name who appeared in the science fiction television and film franchise Star Trek. A special mission patch for WORF was issued that featured text written in the Klingon language. Another cross-over of the Star Trek franchise and space exploration was the naming of Space Shuttle Enterprise. +A similar window is Nauka module's porthole window. + +== In media == +The module Destiny is featured in the 2013 film Gravity. +The module, identified as "the 2001 module Destiny", was originally intended to be the small section of Alpha (the future name of the ISS) used as a throne at the end of the 2017 film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets and covers this role in the novelization, but, in the final shooting of the film, it was replaced by the Apollo command and service module Destiny 2005, modified with artificial gravity and a speakerphone-like radio system. + +== See also == + +After its installation, habitation and use of Destiny is similar to ISS history as an integrated part of that Space station: + +List of ISS Expeditions +List of International Space Station crew +List of International Space Station visitors +List of human spaceflights to the ISS + +== References == + +== External links == + +NASA - Destiny Archived July 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digistar_Users_Group-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digistar_Users_Group-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0df431600 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digistar_Users_Group-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Digistar Users Group" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digistar_Users_Group" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:01.499885+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Digistar Users Group (DUG) is an international association of facilities that own Evans & Sutherland (E&S) Digistar systems. + + +== History == +The Digistar Users Group began in the mid-1980s as an informal gathering of planetarians. The first gathering took place in St. Louis, Missouri (USA). At the time, there were only five Digistar systems worldwide. Today, there are more than 250 Digistar-equipped planetaria on six continents. The current Digistar product line includes Digistar II, Digistar 3, Digistar 4, Digistar 5 and Digistar 6 in various configurations appropriate for domes of nearly any size. + + +== Membership == +Membership in the Digistar Users Group is voluntary; membership is restricted to facilities (such as science centers, planetariums, schools, universities and other organizations) that own or have a signed contract to purchase a Digistar system. Membership is by institution only. Institutions become members upon payment of annual membership dues. +Membership in DUG is required in order to access the DUG show/model library, past newsletters, meeting notes, standards documents, charter and standing rules, and other content. Membership is currently, in 2025, $40(US) per year, payable to the DUG Treasurer. Evans & Sutherland pays the first year dues for new Digistar installations. After that time, it is the site's responsibility to maintain contact with the organization and keep membership active. + + +== Governance == +The Digistar Users Group Executive Committee has five positions: President, President Elect, Past President, Secretary, and Treasurer. While ownership of Digistar system is required for membership, the DUG organization operates independently of system manufacturer E&S. Elected positions may not be held by employees of Evans & Sutherland or commercial members, but any member of DUG may be appointed to a standing committee. The official DUG website lists current officers and posts. + + +== Activities == +The Digistar Users Group provides a forum for discussion regarding the Digistar computer graphics projection systems and issues of interest to the facilities that own Digistar systems. DUG also provides an avenue for exchange of sequences, models and other products created for Digistar environments. Digistar Users Group maintains a dialogue with Evans & Sutherland on matters of service, improvements and other areas of interest to Digistar users. +DUG maintains an electronic library of content freely-shared among active DUG members, an on-line forum, and a secure website. A regular newsletter is published for members. +One of the primary activities of the Digistar Users Group is the annual conference, which offers the opportunity for users to meet, exchange production techniques, discuss planetarium operations concerns, interact with Evans & Sutherland representatives, learn system maintenance techniques, and suggest ideas for new Digistar features. Other activities include participation in IPS technology and standards efforts and ongoing member communication and peer assistance. + + +== Digistar Facilities == +Today there are Digistar systems in almost any venue imaginable, including planetariums, colleges, universities, K-12 schools, science centers, museums, entertainment destinations and other locations. On its website, E&S includes a partial list of Digistar Installations Archived 2012-01-03 at the Wayback Machine. + + +== Digistar Users Group Website == +DUG maintains a web site at digistardomes.org. Some parts of the website are open to the public while other parts are members only. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7532da4aa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Do not feed the animals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:13.143029+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The prohibition "do not feed the animals" reflects a policy forbidding the artificial feeding of wild or feral animals. Signs displaying this message are commonly found in zoos, circuses, animal theme parks, aquariums, national parks, parks, public spaces, farms, and other places where people come into contact with wildlife. In some cases there are laws to enforce such no-feeding policies. +Feeding wild animals can significantly change their behavior. Feeding or leaving unattended food to large animals, such as bears, can lead them to aggressively seek out food from people, sometimes resulting in injury. Feeding can also alter animal behavior so that animals routinely travel in larger groups, which can make disease transmission between animals more likely. In public spaces, the congregation of animals caused by feeding can result in them being considered pests. Food given to animals may not be healthy for them artificial feeding can result in, for example, vitamin deficiencies and dietary mineral deficiencies; zoos have strict dietary controls in place for animals. Outside zoos, a concern is that the increase in local concentrated wildlife population due to artificial feeding can promote the transfer of disease among animals or between animals and humans. + + +== National and state parks == + +In national parks and state parks, feeding animals can result in malnourishment due to inappropriate diet and in disruption of natural hunting or food-gathering behavior. It can also be dangerous to the people doing the feeding. +In the US, early 20th century park management actually encouraged animal feeding. For example, "the feeding of squirrels had been seen as a way to civilize the parks and rechannel the energies of young boys from aggression and vandalism toward compassion and charity." Park rangers once fed bears in front of crowds of tourists. However, with a greater awareness of ecological and other issues, such pro-feeding policies are now viewed as detrimental, and US national parks now actively discourage animal feeding. +In Canadian national parks, it is illegal to disturb or feed wildlife, and Parks Canada advises visitors not to leave out "food attractants" such as dirty dishes. Road salt and roadkill may also act as food attractants, and removing roadkill is considered good park management. + + +== Marine parks == + +Tourism operators often provide food to attract marine wildlife such as sharks to areas where they can be more easily viewed. Such a practice is controversial, however, because it can create a dependency on artificial feeding, habituate animals to feeding locations, increase inter-species and intra-species aggression, and increase the spread of disease. In Australia's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, shark feeding is prohibited. In Hawaiian waters, shark feeding is permitted only in connection with traditional Hawaiian cultural or religious activities. +The feeding of wild dolphins for tourist purposes is also controversial, and is prohibited in the US because it can alter natural hunting behaviour, disrupt social interaction, encourage the dolphins to approach or ingest dangerous objects, and endanger the person doing the feeding. At Monkey Mia in Western Australia, dolphin feeding is permitted under Department of Environment and Conservation supervision. + + +== Backyards == +Similar issues to those in national and state parks also apply in suburban and rural backyards. Artificial feeding of coyotes, deer, and other wildlife is discouraged. Feeding deer, for example, may contribute to the spread of bovine tuberculosis. The feeding of birds with bird feeders is an exception, at least in the US, even though it can sometimes contribute to spreading disease. In Australia, artificial bird feeding is viewed more negatively. Instead, growing native plants that can act as a natural food source for birds is recommended. Similar suggestions have been made in the US. + + +== Public spaces == + +Feral pigeons are often found in urban public spaces. They are often considered environmental pests, and can transmit diseases such as psittacosis. Deliberate feeding of feral pigeons, though popular, contributes to these problems. +Ducks are also commonly fed in public spaces. In an early 1970s US study, 67% of people visiting urban parks did so to feed ducks. However, such feeding may contribute to water pollution and to over-population of the birds, as well as delaying winter migration to an extent that may be dangerous for the birds. Feeding foods such as white bread to ducks and geese can result in bone deformities. Like pigeons, ducks may also congregate in large numbers where feeding takes place, resulting in aggression towards humans who don't have food to hand as well as towards other individuals in the group. Ducks can also be messy animals, and the cleanup of an area where they congregate is time-consuming. + + +== Zoos == + +Zoos generally discourage visitors from giving any food to the animals. Some zoos, particularly petting zoos, do the opposite and actively encourage people to get involved with the feeding of the animals. This, however, is strictly monitored and usually involves set food available from the zookeepers or vending machines, as well as a careful choice of which animals to feed, and the provision of hand-washing facilities to avoid spreading disease. Domestic animals such as sheep and goats are often permitted to be fed, as are giraffes. + + +== Traditions of feeding the animals == +Some people oppose such laws claiming that animals such as pigeons can be an amenity for people who do not have company such as friends or family, and say that the laws prohibiting feeding animals in urban places must change. In some countries, such as Greece, feeding the pigeons in cities is a widespread practice. Cultural hostility to feeding animals in cities and laws that ban the practice raise concerns about how humans relate to other living beings in the urban environment. In some areas, feeding animals in a sustainable manner has been encouraged, as without supplementation of food from humans in addition to their natural supply, some animals, especially waterfowl such as ducks, geese and swans, have become malnourished and underweight. +Politicians have also protested laws that ban feeding feral pigeons in cities. Feral pigeons in cities existed for thousands of years but only recently in some countries humans started seeing them as a nuisance and became hostile to them. In India, feeding feral animals in cities is considered a noble act. Academicians say that how humans treat animals is related to how humans treat each other and thus raise concerns about the cultural shift from seeing feral city pigeons as harmless in the 1800s to seeing them an undesirable in some countries in the 2000s. + + +== Sign gallery == + + +== See also == +Protected area + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragão_do_Mar_Center_of_Art_and_Culture-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragão_do_Mar_Center_of_Art_and_Culture-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d5faff300 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragão_do_Mar_Center_of_Art_and_Culture-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragão_do_Mar_Center_of_Art_and_Culture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:02.731522+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Dragão do Mar Center of Art And Culture (in Portuguese: Centro Dragão do Mar de Arte e Cultura) is a government funded cultural center in Fortaleza, Ceará in Brazil. The center contains facilities for exhibitions, a theatre, a library, a cinema and a planetarium. +The center was inaugurated in April 1999, and has an overall area of 33 000 m2. The name "Dragão do Mar" is in honour of Francisco José do Nascimento, a hero of the abolitionist movement in Ceará, who in 1881 refused to transport slaves to be sold further south in the country. + + +== Cultural Places == + +The Dragão do Mar Center of Art And Culture congregates many spaces destinated to the realization of the most different activities, where the urban leisure, the production and diffusion of art and culture are the main focus. +On your almost 30 thousand square meters of area, includes spaces like Cearense Culture Memorial, the Contemporary Art Museum of Ceará, the Menezes Pimentel Public Library, a modern theater room, two cinema rooms, the Rubens de Azevedo Planetarium, the Sérgio Mota Open Theatre, an auditorium and classrooms. + +Menezes Pimentel Public Library: located on leisure and culture complex of the Dragão do Mar Center of Art and Culture, makes possible the entrance of the visitors by two ways, one by the Presidente Castelo Branco Avenue and the other by the main entrance of Dragão do Mar Center. An important research source for students, teachers and researchers, the Public Library Menezes Pimentel have a quantity composed by 70 thousand books and 40 thousand titles. It makes use of the fourth bigger quantity of Rare Titles of the country, where the 19th century newspaper collection and the 15th century book collection takes place. +Cearense Culture Memorial The folk history, art and culture of Ceará could be saw in this equipment with 800 square meters, divided in six rooms. +Contemporary Art Museum of Ceará: it occupies the place of two floors and have 700 square meters of area. +Rubens de Azevedo Planetarium : built with German technology, is one of the most modern in the world, is the only one in Brazil that project the rainbow by 20 multimedia projectors. Have place for 90 people shows three sessions by day, propitiating big shows on the detailed observation of the stars, planets and galaxies. + + +== Location == +The address of the center is Dragão do Mar street, 81, Praia de Iracema. + + +== Architecture == + +The architecture of the Dragão do Mar Center is distinguished by its bold lines, created by architects Delberg Ponce de Leon and Fausto Nilo. Built in a former portuary area, the cultural center is surrounded by bars, restaurants and theaters. With its bold lines, it contrasts with the houses built in the early 20th century. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Centro Dragão do Mar de Arte e Cultura (In Portuguese) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eismitte-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eismitte-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..091b5f53c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eismitte-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Eismitte" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eismitte" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:52.817692+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Eismitte, also called Mid-Ice in English, was a meteorological station established, in the middle of the Greenland Ice Sheet, by the 1930-31 German Greenland Expedition. The venture took place from July 1930 until August 1931, and established three Arctic stations on the same parallel. The expedition leader, German scientist Alfred Wegener, died during a trip back from Eismitte, in early November 1930. The station was abandoned on 1 August 1931. + + +== Location == +The name "Eismitte" means Ice-Middle in German, and the campsite was located 402 kilometers (250 mi) from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,010 metres (9,880 ft). The coldest temperature recorded at the site was −64.8 °C (−84.6 °F) on 20 March 1931, while the warmest temperature noted was −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) on 9 July 1931. For the 12-month period beginning 1 August 1930 and ending 5 August 1931, the warmest month, July, had a mean monthly temperature of −12.3 °C (9.9 °F). while the coldest month, February, averaged −47.2 °C (−53.0 °F). Over the same period a total of 110 millimetres (4.3 in) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded, with most of it being received in Winter. At the latitude of the camp, the sun does not set between 13 May and 30 July each year, and does not rise between 23 November and 20 January. + + +== Wintering == +Ernst Sorge was a member of Alfred Wegener's expedition. Together with Johannes Georgi he stayed in Eismitte from July 1930 to August 1931. Fritz Loewe stayed from October 1930 to May 1931. Sorge hand-dug a 15 m deep pit adjacent to his subterranean snow cave, which served as living quarters during the seven-month-long overwintering. Sorge systematically and quantitatively studied the near-surface snow/firn strata from inside his pit. After examination of the structural features and measurement of continuous density and other physical properties within the pit profile, he determined the characteristics of the individual limits of annual snow accumulation. This research validated the feasibility of measuring the preserved annual snow accumulation cycles, like measuring frozen precipitation in a rain gauge. + + +== Climate == +Eismitte is one of the coldest locations in the Northern Hemisphere, with an annual mean temperature of −30.0 °C (−22 °F) having been recorded during the period of the expedition that established it. Eismitte has a polar ice cap climate. The weather station was run for approximately one year; the weather record thus is very sparse. The Summit Camp station slightly to the north has a similar climate with a much longer period of record. + + +== See also == +North Ice +NEEM Camp +Camp Century +Cartographic expeditions to Greenland +Pole of inaccessibility + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Hourly meteorological observations at station Eismitte by Johannes Georgi (doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.604003). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estufa_Fria-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estufa_Fria-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f88523ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estufa_Fria-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Estufa Fria" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estufa_Fria" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:47.101960+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Estufa Fria ([iʃˈtufɐ ˈfɾi.ɐ]; lit. "Cold Greenhouse") is a greenhouse with three distinct gardens located in Edward VII Park between the streets Alameda Engenheiro Edgar Cardoso and Alameda Cardeal Cerejeira in Lisbon, Portugal. + + +== History == +The Estufa Fria opened in 1933. Portuguese architect Raul Carapinha conceived and designed the project. It was built near an old basalt mine which had been abandoned after a spring was discovered nearby. The greenhouse was remodeled concurrently with Edward VII Park in 1945 by Portuguese architect Francisco Keil do Amaral. The greenhouse's existing entrance porch, a lake near the entrance, and a large visitor "living room" called "the ship" or "the vessel" (Portuguese: nave) were built during this time. + + +== Expansion == +In 1975 the Estufa Quente and Estufa Doce sections opened, expanding the botanical collection to include plants from tropical and equatorial regions. On 29 April 2009 the original Estufa Fria closed due to the risk of collapse of its steel structure. It reopened in April 2011 after two years of renovation work. + + +== Description == +Measuring 1.5 hectares (3.7 acres) in area, the Estufa Fria consists of three parts: + +Cold Greenhouse (Estufa Fria) +Hot Greenhouse (Estufa Quente) +Sweet Greenhouse (Estufa Doce). +The term "cold greenhouse" comes from the original building's lack of mechanical heating; instead, wooden slats regulate sunlight and protect the plants from excessively hot or cold temperatures. The Cold Greenhouse is the largest of the three, measuring about 8,100 square metres (87,000 sq ft) in area. It is home to azalea and camellia species from around the world. +The Estufa Quente occupies about 3,000 square metres (32,000 sq ft) and is home to tropical species such as coffee and mangifera. The Estufa Doce contains cacti and other succulent plants, such as aloe. +The entire greenhouse complex features small lakes, waterfalls, and sculptures. Some of the sculptures are by noted twentieth-century Portuguese sculptors, including Domingos de Castro Gentil Soares Branco, Leopoldo de Almeida, and Pedro Anjos Teixeira. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Lisbon Town Hall: Estufa Fria Archived 2020-05-02 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka,_Nunavut-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka,_Nunavut-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d359c14e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka,_Nunavut-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Eureka, Nunavut" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eureka,_Nunavut" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:54.095576+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Eureka is a small research base on Fosheim Peninsula, Ellesmere Island, Qikiqtaaluk Region, in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. It is located on the north side of Slidre Fiord, which enters Eureka Sound farther west. It is the third-northernmost permanent research community in the world. The only two farther north are Alert, which is also on Ellesmere Island, and Nord, in Greenland. Eureka has the lowest average annual temperature and the lowest amount of precipitation of any weather station in Canada. +Eureka's postal code is X0A 0G0 and the area code is 867. + + +== Divisions == +The base consists of three areas: + +the Eureka Aerodrome, which includes "Fort Eureka" (the quarters for military personnel maintaining the island's communications equipment) +the Environment and Climate Change Canada Weather Station +the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL), formerly the Arctic Stratospheric Ozone Observatory (AStrO) +PEARL is operated by a consortium of Canadian university researchers and government agencies known as the Canadian Network for Detection of Atmospheric Change. PEARL announced it would cease full-time year-round operation as of April 30, 2012, due to lack of funding, but this decision was reversed in May 2013 with the announcement of new funds. + + +== History == +Eureka was founded on April 7, 1947, as part of an initiative to set up a network of Arctic weather stations. On this date, 100 t (98 long tons; 110 short tons) of supplies were airlifted to a promising spot on Ellesmere Island, and five prefabricated Jamesway huts were constructed. Regular weather observations began on January 1, 1948. The station has expanded over the years. At its peak, in the 1970s, at least fifteen staff were on site; in 2005, it reported a permanent population of zero with at least eight staff on a continuous rotational basis. +Several generations of buildings have been developed. The latest operations centre, with work areas and staff quarters in one large structure, was completed in 2005. + + +== Location and accessibility == + +The complex is powered by diesel generators. The station is supplied once every six weeks with fresh food and mail by air, and annually in the late summer, a supply ship from Montreal brings heavy supplies. On July 3, 2009, a Danish Challenger 604 MMA jet landed at Eureka's aerodrome. +The jet is a military observation aircraft based on the Challenger executive jet. This jet visited Eureka on a familiarization trip, in order to prepare for the possibility of Danish aircraft assisting in search and rescue missions over Canadian territory. The Canadian American Strategic Review noted critically that the first jet to fly a mission to Eureka was not Canadian. +At Eureka's latitude, a geosynchronous communications satellite, if due south, would require an antenna to be pointed nearly horizontally; satellites farther east or west along that orbit would be below the horizon. Telephone access and television broadcasts arrived in 1982 when Operation Hurricane resulted in the establishment of a satellite receiving station at nearby Skull Point, which has an open view to the south. The low-power Channel 9 TV transmitter at Skull Point was the world's northernmost TV station at the time. In the 1980s, TV audio was often connected to the telephone to feed CBC-TV news to CHAR-FM in isolated CFS Alert. More recently, CANDAC has installed what is likely the world's most northerly geosynchronous satellite ground-station to provide Internet-based communications to PEARL. +Other inhabited places on Ellesmere Island include Alert and Grise Fiord. + + +== Flora and fauna == +Eureka has been described as "The Garden Spot of the Arctic" due to the flora and fauna abundant around the Eureka area, more so than anywhere else in the High Arctic. Fauna include polar bears, muskox, Arctic wolves, Arctic foxes, Arctic hares, and lemmings. In addition, summer nesting geese, ducks, owls, loons, ravens, gulls and many other smaller birds nest, raise their young, and return south in August. + + +== Climate == +Eureka experiences a polar climate (ET). The settlement sees the midnight sun between April 10 and August 29, with no sunlight at all between mid-October and late February. Eureka has the lowest average annual temperature and least precipitation of any weather station in Canada with an annual mean temperature of −18.1 °C (−0.6 °F). In fact, that is even colder than the Siberian "poles of cold", Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon with an average annual temperature of −13.7 °C (7.3 °F) and −14.9 °C (5.2 °F) respectively. Although the latter two have colder winter (December, January, February) temperatures than Eureka (−35.2 °C (−31.4 °F), −43.5 °C (−46.3 °F), and −44.3 °C (−47.7 °F) respectively). Average winter temperatures are almost comparable to those found in northeastern Siberia. However, summers are slightly warmer than other places in the Arctic Archipelago because Eureka is somewhat landlocked, being near the centre of Ellesmere Island. Even so, since record keeping began, the temperature has never exceeded 20.9 °C (69.6 °F), first reached on July 14, 2009. Although a polar desert, evaporation is also very low, which allows the limited moisture to be made available for plants and wildlife. Its frost-free season averages 56 days, much longer than many other places nearby. + + +== See also == +List of research stations in the Arctic + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == + + +== External links == + Media related to Eureka, Nunavut at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ecf8df219 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Ex situ conservation" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ex situ conservation (lit. 'off-site conservation') is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety, or breed of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. For example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective animal and within the care of humans, such as a zoological park or wildlife sanctuary. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include alteration of living environments, reproductive patterns, access to resources, and protection from predation and mortality. +Ex situ management can occur within or outside a species' natural geographic range. Individuals maintained ex situ exist outside an ecological niche. This means that they are not under the same selection pressures as wild populations, and they may undergo artificial selection if maintained ex situ for multiple generations. +Agricultural biodiversity is also conserved in ex situ collections. This is primarily in the form of gene banks where samples are stored in order to conserve the genetic resources of major crops plants and their wild relatives. + +== Facilities == + +=== Botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums === +Botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums are the most conventional sites for ex situ conservation, housing whole, protected specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild. These facilities provide not only housing and care for specimens of endangered species, but also have an educational value. They inform the public of the threatened status of endangered species and of those factors which cause the threat, with the hope of creating public interest in stopping and reversing those factors which jeopardize a species' survival in the first place. They are the most publicly visited ex situ conservation sites, with the WZCS (World Zoo Conservation Strategy) estimating that the 1,100 organized zoos in the world receive more than 600 million visitors annually. Globally there is an estimated total of 2,107 aquaria and zoos in 125 countries. Additionally many private collectors or other not-for-profit groups hold animals and they engage in conservation or reintroduction efforts. In United States, there are approximately 2,000 botanical gardens in 148 counties cultivating or storing an estimated 80,000 taxa of plants in 2004. + +== Techniques for plants == + +=== Cryopreservation === + +Plant cryopreservation consist of the storage of seeds, pollen, tissue, or embryos in liquid nitrogen. This method can be used for virtually indefinite storage of material without deterioration over a much greater time-period relative to all other methods of ex situ conservation. Cryopreservation is also used for the conservation of livestock genetics through cryoconservation of animal genetic resources. Technical limitations prevent the cryopreservation of many species, but cryobiology is a field of active research, and many studies concerning plants are underway. + +=== Seed banking === + +The storage of seeds in a temperature and moisture controlled environment. This technique is used for taxa with orthodox seeds that tolerate desiccation. Seed bank facilities vary from sealed boxes to climate controlled walk-in freezers or vaults. Taxa with recalcitrant seeds that do not tolerate desiccation are typically not held in seed banks for extended periods of time. + +=== Field gene banking === + +An extensive open-air planting used maintain genetic diversity of wild, agricultural, or forestry species. Typically species that are either difficult or impossible to conserve in seed banks are conserved in field gene banks. Field gene banks may also be used grow and select progeny of species stored by other ex situ techniques. + +=== Cultivation collections === +Plants under horticultural care in a constructed landscape, typically a botanic garden or arboreta. This technique is similar to a field gene bank in that plants are maintained in the ambient environment, but the collections are typically not as genetically diverse or extensive. These collections are susceptible to hybridization, artificial selection, genetic drift, and disease transmission. Species that cannot be conserved by other ex situ techniques are often included in cultivated collections. + +=== Inter situ === +Plants are under horticulture care, but the environment is managed to near natural conditions. This occurs with either restored or semi-natural environments. This technique is primarily used for taxa that are rare or in areas where habitat has been severely degraded. + +=== Tissue culture (storage and propagation) === +Somatic tissue can be stored in vitro for short periods of time. This is done in a light and temperature controlled environment that regulates the growth of cells. As an ex situ conservation technique tissue culture is primary used for clonal propagation of vegetative tissue or immature seeds. This allows for the proliferation of clonal plants from a relatively small amount of parent tissue. + +== Techniques for animals == + +Endangered animal species and breeds are preserved using similar techniques. Animal species can be preserved in genebanks, which consist of cryogenic facilities used to store living sperm, eggs, or embryos. For example, the Zoological Society of San Diego has established a "frozen zoo" to store such samples using cryopreservation techniques from more than 355 species, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. +A potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been carried out for the Spanish ibex. +Another promising technique is isochoric vitrification, where a zygote or mature animal is frozen in vitrification solution and, when slowly thawed using a laser, produces viable organisms. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..05e001a1a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Ex situ conservation" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Genetic management of captive populations == +Captive populations are subject to problems such as inbreeding depression, loss of genetic diversity and adaptations to captivity. It is important to manage captive populations in a way that minimizes these issues so that the individuals to be introduced will resemble the original founders as closely as possible, which will increase the chances of successful reintroductions. During the initial growth phase, the population size is rapidly expanded until a target population size is reached. The target population size is the number of individuals that are required to maintain appropriate levels of genetic diversity, which is generally considered to be 90% of the current genetic diversity after 100 years. The number of individuals required to meet this goal varies based on potential growth rate, effective size, current genetic diversity, and generation time. Once the target population size is reached, the focus shifts to maintaining the population and avoiding genetic issues within the captive population. + +=== Minimizing mean kinship === +Managing populations based on minimizing mean kinship values is often an effective way to increase genetic diversity and to avoid inbreeding within captive populations. Kinship is the probability that two alleles will be identical by descent when one allele is taken randomly from each mating individual. The mean kinship value is the average kinship value between a given individual and every other member of the population. Mean kinship values can help determine which individuals should be mated. In choosing individuals for breeding, it is important to choose individuals with the lowest mean kinship values because these individuals are least related to the rest of the population and have the least common alleles. This ensures that rarer alleles are passed on, which helps to increase genetic diversity. It is also important to avoid mating two individuals with very different mean kinship values because such pairings propagate both the rare alleles that are present in the individual with the low mean kinship value as well as the common alleles that are present in the individual with the high mean kinship value. This genetic management technique requires that ancestry is known, so in circumstances where ancestry is unknown, it might be necessary to use molecular genetics such as microsatellite data to help resolve unknowns. + +=== Avoiding loss of genetic diversity === +Genetic diversity is often lost within captive populations due to the founder effect and subsequent small population sizes. Minimizing the loss of genetic diversity within the captive population is an important component of ex situ conservation and is critical for successful reintroductions and the long term success of the species, since more diverse populations have higher adaptive potential. The loss of genetic diversity due to the founder effect can be minimized by ensuring that the founder population is large enough and genetically representative of the wild population. This is often difficult because removing large numbers of individuals from the wild populations may further reduce the genetic diversity of a species that is already of conservation concern. An alternative to this is collecting sperm from wild individuals and using this via artificial insemination to bring in fresh genetic material. Maximizing the captive population size and the effective population size can decrease the loss of genetic diversity by minimizing the random loss of alleles due to genetic drift. Minimizing the number of generations in captivity is another effective method for reducing the loss of genetic diversity in captive populations. + +=== Avoiding adaptations to captivity === +Selection favors different traits in captive populations than it does in wild populations, so this may result in adaptations that are beneficial in captivity but are deleterious in the wild. This reduces the success of re-introductions, so it is important to manage captive populations in order to reduce adaptations to captivity. Adaptations to captivity can be reduced by minimizing the number of generations in captivity and by maximizing the number of migrants from wild populations. Minimizing selection on captive populations by creating an environment that is similar to their natural environment is another method of reducing adaptations to captivity, but it is important to find a balance between an environment that minimizes adaptation to captivity and an environment that permits adequate reproduction. Adaptations to captivity can also be reduced by managing the captive population as a series of population fragments. In this management strategy, the captive population is split into several sub-populations or fragments which are maintained separately. Smaller populations have lower adaptive potentials, so the population fragments are less likely to accumulate adaptations associated with captivity. The fragments are maintained separately until inbreeding becomes a concern. Immigrants are then exchanged between the fragments to reduce inbreeding, and then the fragments are managed separately again. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d68e9ec5c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Ex situ conservation" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Managing genetic disorders === +Genetic disorders are often an issue within captive populations due to the fact that the populations are usually established from a small number of founders. In large, outbreeding populations, the frequencies of most deleterious alleles are relatively low, but when a population undergoes a bottleneck during the founding of a captive population, previously rare alleles may survive and increase in number. Further inbreeding within the captive population may also increase the likelihood that deleterious alleles will be expressed due to increasing homozygosity within the population. The high occurrence of genetic disorders within a captive population can threaten both the survival of the captive population and its eventual reintroduction back into the wild. If the genetic disorder is dominant, it may be possible to eliminate the disease completely in a single generation by avoiding breeding of the affected individuals. However, if the genetic disorder is recessive, it may not be possible to completely eliminate the allele due to its presence in unaffected heterozygotes. In this case, the best option is to attempt to minimize the frequency of the allele by selectively choosing mating pairs. In the process of eliminating genetic disorders, it is important to consider that when certain individuals are prevented from breeding, alleles and therefore genetic diversity are removed from the population; if these alleles are not present in other individuals, they may be lost completely. Preventing certain individuals from the breeding also reduces the effective population size, which is associated with problems such as the loss of genetic diversity and increased inbreeding. + +== Examples == +Showy Indian clover, Trifolium amoenum, is an example of a species that was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered in 1993 in the form of a single plant at a site in western Sonoma County. Seeds were harvested and the species grown in ex situ facilities. +The Wollemi pine is another example of a plant that is being preserved via ex situ conservation, as they are being grown in nurseries to be sold to the general public. +The Orange-bellied parrot, with a wild population of 14 birds as of early February 2017, are being bred in a captive breeding program. The captive population consists of around 300 birds. + +== Drawbacks == + +Ex situ conservation, while helpful in humankind's efforts to sustain and protect our environment, is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. It is to be used as a last resort, or as a supplement to in situ conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire genetic variation of a species, its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements which, over time, might help a species adapt to its changing surroundings. Instead, ex situ conservation removes the species from its natural ecological contexts, preserving it under semi-isolated conditions whereby natural evolution and adaptation processes are either temporarily halted or altered by introducing the specimen to an unnatural habitat. In the case of cryogenic storage methods, the preserved specimen's adaptation processes are (quite literally) frozen altogether. The downside to this is that, when re-released, the species may lack the genetic adaptations and mutations which would allow it to thrive in its ever-changing natural habitat. +Furthermore, ex situ conservation techniques are often costly, with cryogenic storage being economically infeasible in most cases since species stored in this manner cannot provide a profit but instead slowly drain the financial resources of the government or organization determined to operate them. Seedbanks are ineffective for certain plant genera with recalcitrant seeds that do not remain fertile for long periods of time. Diseases and pests foreign to the species, to which the species has no natural defense, may also cripple crops of protected plants in ex situ plantations and in animals living in ex situ breeding grounds. These factors, combined with the specific environmental needs of many species, some of which are nearly impossible to recreate by man, make ex situ conservation impossible for a great number of the world's endangered flora and fauna. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Engels, J.M.M.; L. Visser, eds. (2003). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. 174 p. +FAO. (2007). The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources and the Interlaken Declaration. Rome. +FAO. (2015). The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Archived 18 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine Rome. +Guerrant, Edward O.; Havens, Kayri; Maunder, Mike, eds. (2004). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild. Island Press. +Kameswara, N.; J. Hanson; M. E. Dulloo; K. Ghosh; A. Nowell; M. Larinde. Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks. Bioversity International, CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), FAO, ILRI. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. 147 p. +Koo, B.; Pardey, P. G.; Wright, B. D.; et al. (2004). Saving Seeds. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. + +== External links == +Cloning to revive extinct species, May 28, 2002, Grant Holloway, CNN +Reproductive Technologies and Conservation of Endangered Cats +Louisiana's frozen ark +ONLINE BOOK: In situ conservation of livestock and poultry, 1992, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the United Nations Environment Programme +"The Challenges of Ex situ Orchid Conservation", Orchid Conservation Coalition +Botanic Gardens Conservation International – international organisation supporting ex situ conservation of priority plant species +Domestic Animal Diversity Information System +Implementing the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6ffcab0d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "Extinct in the wild" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:15.585025+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A species that is extinct in the wild (EW) is one that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as only consisting of living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. Classification requires exhaustive surveys conducted within the species' known habitat with consideration given to seasonality, time of day, and life cycle. Once a species is classified as EW, the only way for it to be downgraded is through reintroduction. +Not all EW species are rare. An example is the Brugmansia genus, where all seven species are widely cultivated, but none are found in the wild. + +== Examples == + +Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct in the wild include (in alphabetical order): + +Abutilon pitcairnense (last surviving plant destroyed in 2005) +Alagoas curassow (last unconfirmed sighting reported in the late 1980s, listed extinct in the wild since 1994) +Corypha taliera (last tree cut down in 1979) +Christmas Island blue-tailed skink (listed extinct in the wild since 2014) +Dabry's sturgeon (listed extinct in the wild since 2022) +Escarpment cycad (listed extinct in the wild since 2006) +Franklinia alatamaha (last seen in 1803, listed extinct in the wild since 1998) +Golden skiffia (listed extinct in the wild since 1996) +Guam kingfisher (listed extinct in the wild since 1986) +Hawaiian crow or ʻalalā (last seen in 2002, listed as extinct in the wild since 2004) Small groups have since been released in 2017 and 2018. +Kihansi spray toad (listed extinct in the wild since 2009) +La Palma pupfish (last seen in 1994, listed extinct in the wild since 1996) +Lister's gecko (listed extinct in the wild since 2014) +Oahu deceptor bush cricket (listed extinct in the wild since 1996) +Panamanian golden frog (possibly extinct in the wild) +Père David's deer (listed extinct in the wild since 2008. However, reintroduction from captive populations began in 1985, with 53 wild herds of varying sizes being recorded in 2003) +Partula species (listed extinct in the wild in the 1990s): +Niho tree snail +Miracle Partula +Moorean Smooth Partula +Sutural Partula +Rose-tipped Partula +Garrett's Partula +Raiatea ground Partula +Pink Partula +Variable Partula +Simandoa conserfariam +Socorro dove (listed extinct in the wild since 1994) +Socorro isopod (last seen in 1988, listed as extinct in the wild since August 1996) +South China tiger (since 2008 IUCN Red List lists as critically endangered; possibly extinct in the wild) +Spix's macaw (listed extinct in the wild since June 2019) +Wyoming toad (listed extinct in the wild since 1991, although 853 have been released into the wild since 1995, leading to a population of around 1,500 in 2017) + +== Conservation == + +=== Species reintroduction === + +Reintroduction is the deliberate release of individuals into the wild, from captivity or from other areas where the species survives. However, it may be difficult to reintroduce EW species into the wild, even if their natural habitats were restored, because survival techniques, which are often passed from parents to offspring during parenting, may have been lost. Reintroduction efforts, also referred to as translocation, are complex and a common source of complication is how animals behave upon release. Climate suitability has been shown to influence reintroduction outcomes as well. Though many efforts translocate populations to historic ranges, climate change may be causing those previously inhabited areas to no longer be suitable for the species. + +The Przewalski's horse was downgraded from EW to Endangered in 2011 after decades of reintroduction efforts. In China, they are still classified as EW since they are given supplemental feed over the winter to aid survival. Of the 2500 living, about 1360 are in the wild, and all 2500 are descended from 12 wild-caught ancestors, causing an inbreeding depression that contributes to factors, such as shorter lifespans and high mortality, that impede conservation. + +Northern white rhinos have been extinct in the wild since 2007, and only two females remain in captivity. The San Diego Zoo Global is planning to save the species by using living cells from 12 rhinos that have been cryopreserved, turning them into stem cell lines, using in vitro fertilization to create embryos, and then having Southern white rhinos serve as surrogates. Currently, there have been no successful embryo transfers in rhinos. It is estimated to take at least 40 years for the target of 25–40 northern white rhinos to be reached. +Some people critique efforts to save species with such small populations due to the possibility of inbreeding as it can reduce the population growth rate. Small effective population sizes are another critique. Effective population size is a measurement of the loss of genetic diversity. Multiple populations have been found to have an effective population size below conservation goals. Additionally, monitoring effective population size and using it to aid estimations of the success of conservation efforts has been shown to provide a better overview of determining population trends when compared to population size. + +=== IUCN Green Status of Species === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db25aa030 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Extinct in the wild" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:15.585025+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The IUCN developed a system of classifying species recovery efforts in 2012 entitled the Green Status. The species recovery score is a 0%–100% scale, with 0% being the species is extinct or extinct in the wild and 100% being fully recovered. In addition, the Green Status also classifies previous and future conservation impacts with the Green Scores of Conservation Dependency, Conservation Gain, Conservation Legacy, and Recovery Potential. +For a species to receive a score of 100% and be considered fully recovered, three requirements must be met: the species must be present in all areas of both its current and historical range, it is viable in all areas of the range, and performs its ecological niche across the full range. Given the lofty standards, many species are not expected to meet the criteria and it is not a goal of this system. Land use changes have cumulated in many species losing habitat. +Green Scores are snapshots in time to assess a species' current status and how conservation efforts have influenced their status. It is also predictive as it can project how the status would change if conservation efforts ceased or continued. Conservation Legacy assess how previous conservation work has changed or maintained a species' status. The score ranges from high to low with low meaning conservation efforts were ineffective or did not occur. Conservation Dependency is the estimate of a species' status in 10 years if conservation efforts halted. High dependency means the species would have a lower status and low dependency equates to the status not changing. Conservation Gain is the flip side. It projects a species' status in 10 years if conservation efforts continue. Both dependence and gain are considered short-term measures. The long-term measure is Recovery Potential, which is how much of the range is estimated to be able to house ecologically functional populations. + +=== Flagship species === + +The Pinta Island tortoise (Geochelone nigra abingdoni) had only one living individual, named Lonesome George, until his death in June 2012. The tortoise was believed to be extinct in the mid-20th century, until Hungarian malacologist József Vágvölgyi spotted Lonesome George on the Galapagos island of Pinta on 1 December 1971. Since then, Lonesome George has been a powerful symbol for conservation efforts in general and for the Galapagos Islands in particular. With his death on 24 June 2012, the subspecies is again believed to be extinct. With the discovery of 17 hybrid Pinta tortoises located at nearby Wolf Volcano, a plan has been made to attempt to breed the subspecies back into a pure state. + +== See also == +IUCN Red List extinct in the wild species for a list by taxonomy +Category:IUCN Red List extinct in the wild species for an alphabetical list +Ex situ conservation +Extinction +Ecological extinction +Lists of extinct species +Local extinction +Nature conservation +Wildlife conservation + +== References == + +== External links == +List of Extinct in the Wild species as identified by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsterbo_Lighthouse-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsterbo_Lighthouse-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4aea98295 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsterbo_Lighthouse-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Falsterbo Lighthouse" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsterbo_Lighthouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:55.318216+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Falsterbo Lighthouse (Swedish: Falsterbo fyr) . To the north-east of the lighthouse is the city of Skanör-Falsterbo, to the south-east of the lighthouse are some of the finest sandy beaches in Sweden and surrounding the lighthouse is the golf course of the Falsterbo Golf Club. + + +== History == +The sea route past the Falsterbo Headland has always been dangerous, because of the moving sand banks hidden under the sea. In 1230 the Dominikans from Lübeck sent a letter to the Danish king Valdemar with a request that a "mark" should be built to warn seafarers. There is no evidence that it was ever built. Most likely is that a prominent house at Falsterbo and The Church of Santa Maria were used as seamarks. +In 1636, a lever light known as a "swape" light was built nearby at Kolabacken. An iron basket full of burning coal was hoisted up and down by a balanced bar, hence the light was moving and easier to detect. The coal fire was intensely red and could not be mistaken for a star or ship lantern. The remains of the beacon are still visible as a small hillock of ashes and coal, "Coal Hill" (Swedish: Kolabacken). Towards the end of the 18th century the lever light was moved to the site of the present lighthouse, closer to the new shoreline. +The lighthouse was built in 1793-96 and the "light" was a coal fire at the top. In 1842-43 the uppermost crenellated parts were replaced with the present lantern. Coal was replaced with rapeseed oil. The oil was very inflammable and the lighthouse keepers had to watch the lamp all night. To make a periodic light; a screen was moved around the lantern by heavy weights. Around 1850 a house for the keeper was built next to the lighthouse. At the end of the 19th century another house was built for the assistants to the lighthouse keeper. +Also when the oil was replaced with paraffin and, later gas, the screen still had to be moved around. When electric light was installed in 1935 the screen was removed and so were most of the staff. Only one lighthouse keeper remained. In 1972 the lighthouse was automated and the last keeper retired. +The lighthouse is 25 metres (82 ft) high and 12 metres (39 ft) broad. Nowadays it has no importance as a navigation mark and therefore the light is not very strong (ca. 4000 candela). It was totally turned off 1990–93. The interval of the light is intermittent: 4 seconds on, 1 second off, repeated. + + +== Present activities == +Even though the lighthouse is managing itself nowadays, there are still many activities around it. Falsterbo is one of twenty synoptic weather stations in Sweden still staffed. Every three hours weather data (wind, temperature, air pressure, visibility, cloud cover etc.) are reported to the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. In earlier days the weather observations were carried out by the lighthouse keepers. +The lighthouse garden is the ringing site of the Falsterbo Bird Observatory. Falsterbo is a premier site in Europe to watch autumn bird migration. Several millions of birds pass every autumn en route to wintering areas in Africa or southern Europe. Annually, about 25,000 small birds are trapped and ringed. +Every year on the last Sunday of August it is "Lighthouse Day". Then the lighthouse is open to the public. Visitors are shown not only the lighthouse itself but also bird ringing and the weather station. + + +== References == + +Rowlett, Russ. "Lighthouses of Sweden: Halland". The Lighthouse Directory. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 8 September 2008. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnsbu-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnsbu-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3404d2705 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnsbu-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Finnsbu" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnsbu" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:56.595467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Finnsbu was a Norwegian hunting, meteorological and radio station (Finnsbu Radio/LMX) located on the King Frederick VI Coast, Southeastern Greenland. +Administratively the area were the hut stood belongs now to the Sermersooq municipality. +The station was located on the shore of Graah Fjord, in the much indented coast of southern Thorland. Finnsbu was part of a sovereignty claims staked by Norway in Southeast Greenland between 60°30'N —just north of Nanuuseq, and 63°40'N —just south of Odinland. + + +== History == + +In 1931 Norway sent two expeditions to establish hunting, meteorological and radio stations in Southeast Greenland. Finn Devold (1902 - 1977), Hallvard Devold's brother, on ship Heimen from Tromsø, led the bigger party of six hunters to establish a Norwegian station. Initially Devold went to Timmiarmiut Fjord, but then he moved north to Skjoldungen District and built the hut by a good harbor in southern Thorland, naming it Finnsbu after his own name. Devold's team built two other main stations, as well as a number of smaller huts in the same region. +The other expedition, led by Ole Mortensen, went initially to Storfjord (Kangerlussuaq Fjord) on ship Signalhorn and built a hut there. Since hunting there was poor, Mortensen moved with his men south to Lindenow Fjord, where a station named Moreton was built which was later moved by Gunnar Horn to neighboring Nanuuseq Fjord and renamed Torgilsbu. +On 12 July 1932 Devold was required by the Norwegian government to formally hoist the Norwegian flag at Finnsbu. An expedition sent by the government led by Gunnar Horn on ship Veslemari visited Finnsbu on 17 August the same year. Together with Torgilsbu further south, Finnsbu became part of the Norwegian contribution to the International Polar Year 1932–33. In July 1933 Finnsbu station sent meteorological data to the Decennial Air Cruise squadron of Italian seaplanes led by Italo Balbo. +Following the 1933 resolution of the Permanent Court of International Justice rejecting Norway's claims in Greenland Finnsbu was abandoned. Relief ship Signalhorn evacuated the staff of the stations in the Storfjord and Skjoldungen area and brought them back to Norway in August 1933. Torgilsbu, however, remained in operation until 1940. +Currently there is a tide gauge in the location of the former Norwegian settlement. + + +== Bibliography == +Spencer Apollonio, Lands That Hold One Spellbound: A Story of East Greenland, 2008 + + +== See also == +Erik the Red's Land + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Norwegian Polar Year and Radio Stations in East Greenland, 1932–33 +Anders Christian Feyling, Torgilsbu 1933-34: dagbok ført av radiostasjonens bestyrer +The World at War - Greenland 1721 - 1953 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiske_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiske_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..98a1e3b4d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiske_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Fiske Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiske_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:03.986309+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fiske Planetarium (est. 1975) is one of the largest planetariums in the United States. They offer fulldome films, live talks, laser and liquid sky music shows, as well as public gatherings for astronomical and NASA-related events. It is a constituent of the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder. +The planetarium utilizes an geodesic dome with an interior diameter of 65 feet, making it as the largest planetarium between Chicago and Los Angeles. Its theater is currently equipped with a Megastar IIA projector alongside Sky Skan's Digital Sky 2, an 8k digital hybrid projection system capable of projecting approximately 59 million pixels. They can currently seat up to 200 guests in their theater. + + +== History == +Fiske was founded in 1975 with a donation from University of Colorado alumni, Wallace Franz Fiske (class of 1917). The donation was made to CU upon his death in 1966, in the amount of $1.13 million. While a quarter of this amount was dedicated to the university's music department, the remaining amount was "to build and equip a planetarium for the University of Colorado." By the time the university's astronomers decided to act on the donation in 1971, their share had grown to $1.61 million. + +Gerrit Verschuur was brought on as Fiske's first director in 1971. James Sharp, an engineer from Strasenburgh Planetarium, oversaw the building design, organized the planetarium staff, and built auxiliary systems for Fiske. The planetarium was dedicated on Sept 19th, 1975, with doors opening to the public the following day. Opening shows included "Stardeath", a short film about supernovae written by Verschuur, and "Quaking Aspens", a visual art program by photographer Gary Metz. Fiske is a sister-facility to Sommers-Bausch Observatory. +In 1976, Fiske hosted the International Society of Planetarium Educators (now the International Planetarium Society) Conference. That same year, Fiske began programming laser shows in the theater, providing an intermittent revenue stream as well as technical training for undergraduates. In 1983, university “Science Discovery” classes started to be offered at Fiske. +In 2003, there was a major flood of the planetarium caused by a broken water main. While the projection system survived, the majority of the theater was ruined, resulting in the installation of new carpet and chairs. +In 2004, Fiske completed its first planetarium show for international distribution titled “Deep Impact: Rendezvous with a Comet”, funded by NASA in association with Ball Aerospace, JPL, and the University of Maryland. Fiske has continued to create fulldome films in the decades since. +In 2007, a Science On a Sphere exhibit was installed in the planetarium's lobby. In 2013, Fiske underwent a major upgrade in which the facility retired their 38-year-old, Zeiss Mark VI Star projector. Nicknamed Fritz after the West German engineer who oversaw its installation, it is currently on display in the lobby. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +The Colorado Engineer. University of Colorado College of Engineering. 1976. pp. 20, 40. Retrieved July 9, 2016. +Danilov, V.J. (1990). America's Science Museums. Greenwood Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-313-25865-7. Retrieved July 9, 2016. +"Fiske Planetarium flies into the digital age" Archived September 22, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. University of Colorado News Center. +Gibbs, M.G.; Barnes, J.; Manning, J.G.; Partridge, B. (2008). Preparing for the 2009 International Year of Astronomy. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 344–346. ISBN 978-1-58381-672-1. Retrieved July 9, 2016. +Verschuur, G. L.; Sharp, J. H. (September 1975). "The Fiske Planetarium in Boulder". Sky & Telescope. 50: 140. Bibcode:1975S&T....50..140V.(subscription required) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad6da70fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Fleringe" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:42.455893+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fleringe is a populated area, a socken (not to be confused with parish), on the Swedish island of Gotland. It comprises the same area as the administrative Fleringe District, established on 1 January 2016. + + +== Community == +The name is known since 1304 as Fledynge, the first part flaidh meaning "tear or wound" is figuratively used for "hills" or "wound in the landscape", such "wounds" can be found north and northwest of the church, and the last part inge meaning "inhabitants". Fleringe is situated on the north coast of the main island, Gotland, west of Fårösund and right by Lake Bästeträsk. Fleringe is mostly forested land. +A number of grave mounds and stone circles from the bronze age can be found at Fleringe. The medieval Fleringe Church is located in Fleringe. As of 2019, Fleringe Church belongs to Bunge-Rute-Fleringe parish in Norra Gotlands pastorat, along with the churches in Bunge and Rute . +One of the asteroids in the Asteroid belt, 9359 Fleringe, is named after this place. + + +== Limestone industry == +From 1650, and peaking during the 1920s, the area around Fleringe contained many industries connected to the limestone industry on Gotland. The limestone industry closed down in 1990. The old lime kiln can still be seen as a part of Bläse lime industry museum along with the old railway. One of the old limestone quarries at Ar in north Fleringe is now filled with water so clear and blue it has been named the Blue Lagoon. It is a popular destination for people on the island. + + +== Lakes and research == +The Lake Bästeträsk is the largest lake on Gotland. The water is very clear and shallow, with an average depth of 4.5 m (15 ft). +The long, flat stone beaches at Ar in north Fleringe makes this an ideal location for weather and fishing research. There are two research stations at Ar, Fårösund väderstation and Fiskforskningsstationen connected to Campus Gotland and Uppsala University. Sometimes these stations also hosts ornithological research. + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Westman, Anna (1988). Att bränna snö: om kvinnoliv i Fleringe (in Swedish). Lärbro: Intresseföreningen Bläse kalkbruk. SELIBR 777354. +Pettersson, Jörgen (1987). Botanisk och ornitologisk inventering av täkt- och påverkansområde för planerat kalkbrott i sydvästra Fleringe (in Swedish). Visby: Naturvårdsfunktionen, Länsstyr. i Gotlands län. SELIBR 693128. +Ohlsson, Erik W (2002). "Groddargården i Fleringe". Från Gutabygd. 2002: 25–34. SELIBR 9649105. + + +== External links == + +Objects from Fleringe at the Digital Museum by Nordic Museum \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..12c5e90cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:43.659927+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station is teaching and research facility, established by the UNSW Australia (UNSW), which is located in the Australian state of New South Wales. in Fowlers Gap in the far north-west of the state. The station is located about 112 kilometres (70 mi) north of Broken Hill. It occupies Western Lands Lease No. 10194, an area of 38,888 hectares (96,090 acres), and has been used by scientists in fields ranging from zoology to agriculture, palaeontology and environmental science. The facility has also hosted art and design students on field trips from the university, using purpose-built facilities, including studios. + + +== Features == + +The property has been held since 1966 by the UNSW on a lease in perpetuity. It is administered by the UNSW Faculty of Science.The lease enables studies of the arid-zone environment, particularly in relation to impacts on the pastoral industry. Fowlers Gap is the only research station in the arid zone of New South Wales. Areas have been monitored and data collected continuously, in some cases for over 30 years. With a varied collection of meeting places, dormitories, cottages and camping sites it can handle reasonably large visiting groups and small conferences. Research has been conducted there by schools and units of UNSW, including Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Fine Arts, the Faculty of Built Environment, the Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering and the Centre for Remote Sensing and GIS. +A condition of the lease is that UNSW provides facilities for any reasonable research program proposed by other university and government organisations. They include Macquarie University, University of Sydney, University of Newcastle, University of New England, the University of Adelaide, the Australian National University, Monash University, Melbourne University and La Trobe University. Two Cooperative Research Centres, Sustainable Tourism and Landscape Evolution & Mineral Exploration, have conducted research. Government organisations that have utilised the facilities include: the former Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales (now part of the Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources), NSW Agriculture (now part of the Department of Primary Industries), Queensland DPI, SA Department of Agriculture, NSW Department of Environment and Conservation and several divisions of CSIRO. Funding to support research has been provided by the University of New South Wales, Australian Research Council, Wool Research Trust Fund, Australian Wool Innovation, Meat and Livestock Australia, Rural Credits Development Fund, Water Research Foundation of Australia, Australian Housing Research Council, Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism and a number of overseas governments and universities. +As well as research, Fowlers Gap is used extensively for teaching, largely by way of student field excursions from UNSW and other educational institutions also visit the station. The Station attracts visitors from overseas and within Australia and has been the subject of television documentaries and newspaper articles. It has abundant wildlife, grand scenery, varied geology and terrain, and a rich human history that includes significant indigenous sites, including a stone tool quarry, and artefacts from decades of scientific research. It has natural waterholes and ephemeral creeks. Several large dams provide permanent surface water even in severe droughts. Sheep grazing provides a supplementary income. +The Station is administered by a Management Committee consisting of representatives from UNSW users, assisted by two advisory groups - the Graziers Committee, comprising a small group of pastoralists who supply support and advice at an informal level, and the Consultative Committee, an advisory group representing organisations of the pastoral industry, natural resource management agencies and CSIRO. + + +== Geography == + + +=== Climate === +Fowlers Gap has a subtropical desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with very hot, slightly wetter summers and mild, very dry winters. Extreme temperatures ranged from 49.1 °C (120.4 °F) on 27 and 31 January 2026 to −3.6 °C (25.5 °F) on 15 July 2018. The wettest recorded day was 4 March 2020 with 120.8 mm (4.76 in) of rainfall. + + +== Heritage register == +The Station and its records form a unique facility for research and education, recognised in May 1996 by its inclusion in the former Register of the National Estate. The statement of significance is as follows: + +Fowlers Gap Research Station is a significant arid zone reference area and an important research and education facility. It is the only research station in the arid zone of New South Wales and is the only research station in the winter rainfall arid zone of Australia. The invertebrate fauna of the place is better known and documented than any other range land area in New South Wales, while all other features of the natural environment have been well researched and documented. Areas within the station have been monitored, regularly photographed and data collected for over thirty years, providing an unparalleled record of environmental change and response to monitored environmental conditions in the arid zone of southern Australia. Over 100 scientists have done research and field experiments in the place, with many scientific publications resulting. Research topics are varied and relate to most aspects of the arid zone and its management. + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +www.fowlersgap.unsw.edu.au \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_Ark-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_Ark-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7cb63ad33 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_Ark-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Frozen Ark" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_Ark" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:44.232785+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Frozen Ark is a charitable frozen zoo project created jointly by the Zoological Society of London, the Natural History Museum and University of Nottingham. The project aims to preserve the DNA and living cells of endangered species to retain the genetic knowledge for the future. The Frozen Ark collects and stores samples taken from animals in zoos and those threatened with extinction in the wild. Its current director is Michael W. Bruford (Cardiff University). The Frozen Ark was a finalist for the Saatchi & Saatchi Award for World Changing Ideas in 2006. +The project was founded by Ann Clarke, her husband Bryan Clarke and Dame Anne McLaren. Since Bryan Clarke's death in 2014, the Frozen Ark's interim director has been Mike Bruford. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +A video on the Frozen Ark \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c6c83f1a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Frozen zoo" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A frozen zoo is a storage facility in which genetic materials taken from animals (e.g. DNA, sperm, eggs, embryos and live tissue) are stored at very low temperatures (−196 °C) in tanks of liquid nitrogen. Material preserved in this way can be stored indefinitely and used for artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, embryo transfer, and cloning. There are a few frozen zoos across the world that implement this technology for conservation efforts. Several different species have been introduced to this technology, including the Pyrenean ibex, Black-footed ferret, and potentially the white rhinoceros. + +== Overview == + +The first frozen zoo was established at the San Diego Zoo by pathologist Kurt Benirschke in 1972. At the time there was no technology available to make use of the collection, but Benirschke believed such technology would be developed in the future. The frozen zoo idea was later supported in Gregory Benford's 1992 paper proposing a Library of Life. Zoos such as the San Diego Zoo and research programs such as the Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species cryopreserve genetic material in order to protect the diversity of the gene pool of endangered species, or to provide for a prospective reintroduction of such extinct species as the Tasmanian tiger and the mammoth. +Gathering material for a frozen zoo is rendered simple by the abundance of sperm in males. Sperm can be taken from an animal following death. The production of eggs, which in females is usually low, can be increased through hormone treatment to obtain 10–20 oocytes, dependent on the species. Some frozen zoos prefer to fertilize eggs and freeze the resulting embryo, as embryos are more resilient under the cryopreservation process. Some centers also collect skin cell samples of endangered animals or extinct species. The Scripps Research Institute has successfully made skin cells into cultures of special cells called induced pluripotent stem cells (IPS cells). It is theoretically possible to make sperm and egg cells from these IPS cells. +Several animals whose cells were preserved in frozen zoos have been cloned to increase the genetic diversity of endangered species, as of 2021. One attempt to clone an extinct species was made in 2003; the newborn Pyrenean ibex died of a development disorder which may have been linked to the cloning, and there are not enough genetic samples in frozen zoos to re-create a breeding Pyrenean ibex population. + +== Facilities == +The Frozen Zoo at the San Diego Zoo's Institute for Conservation Research currently stores a collection of 11,500 samples from over 1,300 species and subspecies. It has acted as a forebear to similar projects at other zoos in the United States and Europe. However, there are still less than a dozen frozen zoos worldwide. +At the United Arab Emirates' Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW) in Sharjah, the embryos stored include the extremely endangered Gordon's wildcat (Felis silvestris gordoni) and the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) (of which there are only 50 in the wild). +The Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species, affiliated with the University of New Orleans, is maintaining a frozen zoo. In 2000 the Center implanted a frozen-thawed embryo from the highly endangered African wildcat into the uterus of a domestic house cat, resulting in a healthy male wildcat. +The Pan-Smithsonian Cryo-Initiative (PSCI), established in 2007 and led by the National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute (NZCBI), manages a biobank of over 1.5 million samples from 14,500 species. Its collections include a specialized Milk Repository, housing 16,000 samples from over 200 species of exotic animals. +In Malaysia, the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) established the country's first frozen zoo at the Institute of Planetary Survival for Sustainable Well-being (PLANETIIUM). This facility focuses on the long term preservation of cells and tissues through specialized IVF laboratories. In 2016, in collaboration with the Borneo Rhino Alliance (BORA), the institute successfully collected and stored genetic material from the last three Sumatran rhinoceroses in Malaysia. +The Frozen Ark is a frozen zoo established in 2004 and jointly managed by the Zoological Society of London, the London Natural History Museum, and the University of Nottingham. While the charity maintains its institutional base at the University of Nottingham, its research is now primarily conducted at Cardiff University. This organization operates as a charity with many different departments including the DNA laboratory, consortium, taxon expert groups, and the database. In the DNA laboratory, samples are contained after collection from scientists, and different research projects are conducted there. The consortium acts as a bridge to bring together different, but important, groups from zoos, aquariums, museums, and universities. The taxon expert groups monitor the major phyla and lists like the IUCN Red List. The database is the essential piece as it holds all reports and records needed to perform all of the other functions for the charity. The hope for the future is for zoos and aquariums to be able to collect samples from their threatened and/or endangered species in house to help with conservation efforts. The collection and freezing of these samples allows for the distribution of gametes among populations. Samples can be collected from living hosts and from deceased hosts as well. +The University of Georgia's Regenerative Bioscience Center is building a frozen zoo. RBC Director Steven Stice and animal and dairy science assistant professor Franklin West created the facility with the thought of saving endangered cat species. The scientists have already extracted cells from a Sumatran tiger, which could be used for artificial insemination. Artificial insemination provides a remedy for animals who, due to anatomical or physiological reasons, are unable to reproduce in the natural way. Reproduction of stored genetic material also allows for the fostering of genetic improvements, and the prevention of inbreeding. Modern technology allows for genetic manipulation in animals without keeping them in captivity. However, the success of their restoration into the wild would require the application of new science and a sufficient amount of previously collected material. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aeefa134b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Frozen zoo" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Drawbacks == +Due to the very low temperatures required, varying levels of stress are put on the DNA samples. Spermatozoa, in particular, are stressed by temperature shock, osmotic stress, and oxidative stress with the latter being the most detrimental. When temperature shock occurs, the membrane is damaged through freezing and thawing of the sperm. Osmotic stress occurs when ice crystals form inside the nucleus during the freezing process, causing differing osmotic pressures within the cell. Oxidative stress is the result of too many reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is highly reactive and damaging to all parts of the cell. Although these stressors are present within the cell, there are solutions to each. By introducing cholesterol to the samples, temperature shock can be reduced. The use of antifreeze proteins provides one solution for osmotic stress. Oxidative stress is the most difficult to combat because of the highly reactive components of ROS, but some measures like adding certain proteins to limit freeze-thaw damage and increase the survival rate of the DNA. + +== Applications == + +=== Gaur === +A gaur that died of natural causes had some skin cells frozen and added to the San Diego Frozen Zoo. Eight years later, DNA from these cells was inserted into a domestic-cow egg to create an embryo (trans-species cloning), which was then implanted in a domestic cow (Bos taurus). On 8 January 2001, the gaur, named Noah, was born in Sioux Center, Iowa. Noah was initially healthy, but the next day, he came down with clostridial enteritis, and died of dysentery within 48 hours of birth. This is not uncommon in uncloned animals, and the researchers did not think it was due to the cloning. + +=== Banteng === +The banteng was the second endangered species to be successfully cloned, and the first clone to survive beyond infancy. Scientists at Advanced Cell Technology in Worcester, Massachusetts, extracted DNA from skin cells of a dead male banteng, that were preserved in San Diego 's Frozen Zoo facility, and transferred it into eggs from domestic banteng cows, a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Thirty embryos were created and implanted in domestic banteng cows. Two were carried to term and delivered by Caesarian section. The first was born on 1 April 2003, and the second two days later. The second was euthanized, apparently suffering from large offspring syndrome (an overgrowth disorder), but the first survived and lived for seven years at the San Diego Zoo, where it died in April 2010 after it broke a leg and was euthanized. + +=== Przewalski's horse clone === + +In 2020, the first cloned Przewalski's horse was born, the result of a collaboration between San Diego Zoo Global, ViaGen Equine and Revive & Restore. The cloning was carried out by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), whereby a viable embryo is created by transplanting the DNA-containing nucleus of a somatic cell into an immature egg cell (oocyte) that has had its own nucleus removed, producing offspring genetically identical to the somatic cell donor. Since the oocyte used was from a domestic horse, this was an example of interspecies SCNT. +The somatic cell donor was a Przewalski's horse stallion named Kuporovic, born in the UK in 1975, and relocated three years later to the US, where he died in 1998. Due to concerns over the loss of genetic variation in the captive Przewalski's horse population, and in anticipation of the development of new cloning techniques, tissue from the stallion was cryopreserved at the San Diego Zoo's Frozen Zoo. Breeding of this individual in the 1980s had already substantially increased the genetic diversity of the captive population, after he was discovered to have more unique alleles than any other horse living at the time, including otherwise-lost genetic material from two of the original captive founders. To produce the clone, frozen skin fibroblasts were thawed, and grown in cell culture. An oocyte was collected from a domestic horse, and its nucleus replaced by a nucleus collected from a cultured Przewalski's horse fibroblast. The resulting embryo was induced to begin division and was cultured until it reached the blastocyst stage, then implanted into a domestic horse surrogate mare, which carried the embryo to term and delivered a foal with the Przewalski's horse DNA of the long-deceased stallion. +The cloned horse was named Kurt, after Dr. Kurt Benirschke, a geneticist who developed the idea of cryopreserving genetic material from species considered to be endangered. His ideas led to the creation of the Frozen Zoo as a genetic library. There is a breeding herd in the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Once the foal matured, he was relocated to the breeding herd at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, so as to pass Kuporovic's genes into the larger captive Przewalski's horse population and increase the genetic variation of the species. In 2023, a second horse, named Ollie, was cloned from the same cell line. + +=== Black-footed ferret === +To help mitigate inbreeding depression for two endangered species, the Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), Revive & Restore facilitates on-going efforts to clone individuals from historic cell lines stored at the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Frozen Zoo. The program seeks to restore genetic variation lost from the living gene pool. + +On December 10, 2020, the world's first cloned black-footed ferret was born. This ferret, named Elizabeth Ann, marked the first time a U.S. endangered species was successfully cloned. +The cells of two 1980s wild-caught black-footed ferrets that never bred in captivity were preserved in the San Diego Wildlife Alliance Frozen Zoo. One of them was cloned to increase genetic diversity in this species in December 2020. More clones of both are planned. They will initially be bred separately from the non-cloned population. + +=== Pyrenean ibex === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b38e9ffcb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Frozen zoo" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Pyrenean ibex went extinct in 2000. In 2003 frozen cells from the last one (a female killed by a falling branch) were used to clone 208 embryos, of which 7 successfully implanted in goats, and one made it to term. That one ibex died of respiratory failure just after birth; quite possibly as a result of the cloning process, its lungs had not developed properly. There may not be enough individuals' cells preserved to create a breeding population. Despite the death of the ibex, DNA analysis revealed that the offspring was a legitimate clone from its last living descendent. + +== Potential candidates == + +=== White rhinoceros === +Over the years, concerns over population declines of the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) have increased with the increasing value of their horns to poachers. Specifically, the population has declined nearly seventy percent from 2011 to 2019. Processes like SCNT can help aid in conservation efforts towards the revival of their population. Researchers are looking towards induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), as they hold limitless possibilities. With the lack of natural mating occurring within the species due to the limited number of them, this sub-species provides researchers the opportunity for iPSC intervention. Other methods, including artificial insemination with fresh semen (AI), have been used successfully in another sub-species, the Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). Frozen-thawed semen has been tested and has seen some successes, helping solve issues with reproduction of the species as a whole. + +== See also == +Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources +Cryopreservation +Ex-situ conservation +Genetic pollution +Genetic erosion +Gene pool +Endangered species +List of conservation topics +Extinction +SVF Foundation +Svalbard Global Seed Vault +National Ice Core Laboratory +Amphibian Ark +Coral reef organizations +Rosetta Project +Colossal Biosciences + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..150499a81 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Gardens by the Bay" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:48.406877+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Gardens by the Bay is an urban park spanning 105 hectares (260 acres) in the Central Region of Singapore, adjacent to the Marina Reservoir. The park consists of three waterfront gardens: Bay South Garden in Marina South, Bay East Garden with the Founders' Memorial in Marina East and Bay Central Garden in the Downtown Core and Kallang. The largest of the gardens is the Bay South Garden at 54 hectares (130 acres) designed by Grant Associates. Its Flower Dome is the largest glass greenhouse in the world. +Gardens by the Bay was part of the nation's plans to transform its "Garden City" to a "City in a Garden", with the aim of raising the quality of life by enhancing greenery and flora in the city. First announced by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at Singapore's National Day Rally in 2005, Gardens by the Bay was intended to be Singapore's premier urban outdoor recreation space and one of the country's national icons. +A popular tourist attraction in Singapore, the park had 6.4 million visitors in 2014, and had had 20 million by November 2015 and over 50 million by 2018. In 2024, TripAdvisor's Traveler's Choice Awards Best Of The Best ranked it the eighth-best attraction in the world and the best in Asia. + +== Bay Central Garden == +Bay Central Garden acts as a link between Bay South and Bay East Gardens. It stands at 15 hectares (37 acres) with a 3-kilometre (1.9 mi) waterfront promenade that allows for scenic walks stretching from the city centre to the east of Singapore. + +== Bay East Garden == + +Bay East Garden is 32 hectares (79 acres) in size and has a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) promenade frontage bordering the Marina Reservoir. An interim park was developed at Bay East Garden in support of the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics. The first phase of the garden was opened to the public in October 2011, allowing alternative access to the Marina Barrage. +It is designed as a series of large tropical leaf-shaped gardens, each with its own specific landscaping design, character and theme. There will be five water inlets aligned with the prevailing wind direction, maximizing and extending the shoreline while allowing wind and water to penetrate the site to help cool areas of activity around them. Bay East Garden provides visitors with an unobstructed view of the city skyline. +In 2018, Bay East Garden was designated as the future site of the Founders' Memorial, which will open in 2027. Bay East Garden was closed in 2023 to facilitate a major redevelopment of the area, which will open in tandem with the Founders' Memorial. + +== Bay South Garden == +Bay South Garden opened to the public on 29 June 2012. It is the largest of the three gardens at 54 hectares (130 acres) and designed to show the best of tropical horticulture and garden artistry. +The overall concept of its master plan by Grant Associates draws inspiration from an orchid as it is representative of the tropics and of Singapore, being the country's national flower, the Vanda 'Miss Joaquim'. The orchid takes root at the waterfront (conservatories), while the leaves (landforms), shoots (paths, roads and linkways) and secondary roots (water, energy and communication lines) then form an integrated network with blooms (theme gardens and Supertrees) at key intersections. + +=== Conservatories === + +The conservatory complex at Gardens by the Bay comprises two cooled conservatories – the Flower Dome and the Cloud Forest, situated along the edge of Marina Reservoir. The conservatories, designed by WilkinsonEyre and led by Andrew Grant of Grant Associates, are intended to be an energy-efficient showcase of sustainable building technologies and to provide an all-weather edutainment space within the Gardens. Both are very large (around 1 hectare (2.5 acres)), and the Flower Dome is the world's largest columnless glasshouse. +The construction of glasshouses is special: having such a large glass roof without additional interior support (such as columns) and aiming to minimize the environmental footprint. Rainwater is collected from the surface and circulated in the cooling system connected to the Supertrees. The Supertrees are used to vent hot air and cool circulated water. + +=== Flower Dome === + +The Flower Dome was the largest greenhouse in the world as listed in the 2015 Guinness Book of World Records at 1.2 hectares (3.0 acres) and replicates a cool-dry mediterranean climate. It features a changing display area, the flower field, and eight other themed gardens, namely The Baobabs, Succulent Garden, Australian Garden, South African Garden, South American Garden, Olive Grove, California Garden and the Mediterranean Garden. These eight gardens exhibit exotic flowers and plants from the Mediterranean and semi-arid regions from five continents. +Here is the list of some plants growing in the Flower Dome: + +The flower displays, located predominantly in the flower field, are six to eight horticulturally-themed shows held annually. Each flower display reflects different seasons and festivals, focused on one type or a collection of plants and flowers such as dahlias, cherry blossoms, tulips, roses, and poinsettias. +The Flower Dome also features several sculptures, such as a collection of 40 different driftwood animals by James Doran-Webb, Bruno Catalano's La Famille De Voyageurs, and Yayoi Kusama's Kei-Chan. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1aebef356 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Gardens by the Bay" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:48.406877+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cloud Forest === +The Cloud Forest is higher but slightly smaller at 0.8 hectares (2.0 acres). It replicates the cool moist conditions found in tropical mountain regions between 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) and 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above sea level, found in South-East Asia, Central- and South America. It features a 42-metre (138 ft) "Cloud Mountain". After ascending to the top by an elevator, visitors descend the mountain via a circular path which crosses underneath the 35-metre (115 ft) waterfall multiple times. +The "Cloud Mountain" itself is an intricate structure entirely clad in epiphytes such as orchids, ferns, spikemosses and clubmosses, bromeliads and anthuriums. The Maiden Hair Fungus inspired the design by Grant Associates and consists of many levels, each with a different theme, including The Lost World, The Cavern, The Waterfall View, The Crystal Mountain, The Cloud Forest Gallery, The Cloud Forest Theatre and The Secret Garden. +The following is a partial list of plants growing in the Cloud Forest: + +In April 2022, a Māori kūwaha (meeting house) sculpture was presented to Singapore by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, of New Zealand, during her first official trip abroad since the 2020 pandemic. Symbolising strong ties and a friendship between New Zealand and Singapore, it is the work of master carvers from the New Zealand Māori Arts and Crafts Institute. +Other sculptures in the Cloud Forest include Dale Chihuly's Ethereal White Persians, Marc Quinn's The Rush of Nature, Paul Baliker's A Matter of Time, and a series of four botanical "hybrid" sculptures by Makoto Azuma. + +=== Supertree Grove === + +Supertrees are the 18 tree-like structures that dominate the Gardens' landscape with heights that range between 25 metres (82 ft) and 50 metres (160 ft). Grant Associates conceived and designed them with the imaginative engineering of Atelier One and Atelier Ten. They are vertical gardens that perform a multitude of functions, which include planting, shading and working as environmental engines for the gardens. +The Supertrees are home to enclaves of unique and exotic ferns, vines, orchids and also a vast collection of bromeliads such as Neoregelia and Tillandsia, amongst other plants. They are fitted with environmental technologies that mimic the ecological function of trees: photovoltaic cells that harness solar energy which can be used for some of the functions of the Supertrees (such as lighting), similar to how trees photosynthesize, and collection of rainwater for use in irrigation and fountain displays, similar to how trees absorb rainwater for growth. The Supertrees also serve air intake and exhaust functions as part of the conservatories' cooling systems. + +There is an elevated walkway, the OCBC Skyway, between two larger Supertrees for visitors to enjoy a panoramic view of the Gardens. Every night, at 7:45pm and 8:45pm, the Supertree Grove comes alive with a coordinated light and music show known as the Garden Rhapsody. The accompanying music to the show changes every month or so, with selected themes such as "A World of Wonder" and "A Night of Musical Theatre", which features excerpts/pieces from films like The Little Mermaid (1989 film) and Pinocchio (1940 film). +The Supertree Observatory, opened on 27 December 2019, is housed inside the tallest Supertree, which is 50 metres tall. It comprises three levels, the ground floor, the Observatory Space and the Open-Air Rooftop Deck. Visitors would take the elevator up to the Observatory Space and thereafter take a flight of stairs up to the Rooftop Deck. The Observatory Space is located one level below the rooftop deck, and it consists of an indoor area with full-height glass windows and a peripheral outdoor walkway. Here, visitors can also experience a message about the effects of climate change conveyed through digital media. The Open-Air Rooftop Deck, which is an open-air observation deck on the canopy of this Supertree, offers 360-degree unblocked views of the Gardens and the Marina Bay area. +Italy's Pavilion in Expo 2015, featured a structure called Albero Della Vita (or "Tree of Life" in Italian), which proved visually similar to Singapore's Supertrees. + +=== Far East Organization Children's Garden === +Designed by Grant Associates, which also designed Gardens by the Bay, the Children's Garden was fully funded by Far East Organization for $10 million. This attraction was opened on 21 January 2014. The children's garden is near the treehouse and the adventure trail. The adventure trail consists of trampolines, balancing beams, hanging bridges and more. +It is open from Tuesdays to Fridays from 10 a.m. to 7 p.m. and on Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. It is closed on Mondays, or the next working day if Monday is a public holiday. + +=== Horticultural-themed gardens === +There are two distinctly different sets of horticultural-themed gardens, which centre on the horticultural heritage of the various cultural groups in Singapore and on the biology and ecology of the tropical rainforest. These gardens are an important part of the Gardens' edutainment programme, which aims to bring plant knowledge to the public. +The Heritage Gardens emphasize the various cultural groups in Singapore, the significant role that plants play in their respective cultures, and the country's colonial history. It also focuses on economically important plants in Singapore and Southeast Asia. The four gardens are the Indian Garden, the Chinese Garden, the Malay Garden and the Colonial Garden. +The World of Plants features a curated selection of plants that showcase the biodiversity of the tropical rainforest. It consists of six subthemes illustrated by six sub-gardens: Discovery, Web of Life, Fruits and Flowers, Understorey, World of Palms, and Secret Life of Trees. + +=== Bayfront Plaza and Floral Fantasy === + +The Bayfront Plaza is the main entry precinct into the Gardens from Bayfront MRT station. It includes Floral Fantasy, a 1,500-square-metre (16,000 sq ft) indoor attraction consisting of four floral artistry garden landscapes and a 4D multimedia ride simulating the journey of a dragonfly's flight path through Gardens by the Bay. Other venues within the Bayfront Plaza includes an indoor events space, the Bayfront Pavilion, a cafe and a pop-up market on weekends. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..09875a9b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Gardens by the Bay" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_by_the_Bay" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:48.406877+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Future Developments == + +=== Wetlands By The Bay === +Wetlands by the Bay was announced on 4 March 2026 in Parliament by Minister of State for National Development Alvin Tan as a new attraction located in Bay South Gardens. Planned to open in stages starting from the end of 2028, it will consist of the current Kingfisher Wetlands, which would be expanded to contain over 50,000 plants of varying species, a new 1.2ha museum set up by teamLab, an international artist collective, and the current Satay by the Bay, which will be replaced by a two-storey block. In total, Wetlands by the Bay will occupy approximately 5ha. According to Alvin Tan, the attraction will funded by Gardens by the Bay. However, the cost of the attraction was not stated. +A new bridge, expected to open in 2027 at a cost of SG$75.7 million, will also be built to link up Bay South Garden and Bay East Garden. The bridge will be roughly 550m long and have a maximum width of 5.8m, and can be used by pedestrians, cyclists, and persons using mobility aids. + +== Budget == +The final construction cost for the project, not including the price of the land but including an access road, drainage works, and soil improvement, was within a $1.035 billion allocated budget. The annual operating cost was expected to be approximately $58 million, of which $28 million was for operation of the Conservatory buildings. The project received 1.7 million visitors between June and October 2012, who had free admission to most portions of the park but were required to purchase tickets for entering the Conservatories. +In 2006, an international competition for the design of the park was held, attracting more than 70 entries submitted by 170 firms from 24 countries. Two British firms – Grant Associates and Gustafson Porter – were awarded the contracts for the Bay South and Bay East Gardens respectively. +Alongside the lead designers Grant Associates, the design team for Bay South included WilkinsonEyre, Atelier Ten (environmental design consultants) and Atelier One (structural engineers). They were supported by a number of Singapore firms including CPG Consultants (architecture, civil and structural, mechanical and electrical), Meinhardt Infrastructure (civil and structural), Langdon & Seah (cost consultants) and PMLink (project management). + +== Transportation == +Gardens by the Bay is well connected by public transportation. The nearest Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) train stations are its namesake Gardens by the Bay MRT station on the Thomson–East Coast Line (TEL), as well as Bayfront MRT station on the Circle (CCL) and Downtown (DTL) lines. +The public bus service of 400, operated by SBS Transit, also serves Gardens by the Bay. + +== In popular culture == +The planet of Xandar in the film adaptation of Guardians of the Galaxy took inspiration from the location. +The documentary series Planet Earth II features the Supertree Grove in Episode 7, "A World of Wonder." +The park was featured in the 2015 film Hitman: Agent 47. +An entire mission is set within the gardens in the 2015 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops III. +The anime series Plastic Memories features locations inspired by the supertrees in the gardens. +The Supertree Grove in the park was featured in the 2018 film Crazy Rich Asians. +The Singapore track in the video game Asphalt Legends Unite incorporates the Gardens by the Bay. +Some of the illustrations for the Neom project were borrowed from the Gardens by the Bay in Singapore, leading commentators to observe that using an actual image of Singapore to represent a future construction project in Saudi Arabia is an unusual choice. + +== Events == + +Gardens by the Bay hosts several events throughout the year, predominantly the lantern-themed Mid-Autumn Festival, Christmas Wonderland, and River Hongbao (since 2021). Dye-nosaur gardens was an immersive and educational event held at Gardens by the Bay in 2017 as part of the annual Children's Festival. This event involved several dinosaur-inspired characters found in the exhibits. + +== Gallery == + +== See also == +List of parks in Singapore +National Parks Board + +== References == + +== External links == + +Gardens by the Bay official website +Gardens' Youtube Channel +Grant Associates official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9b04a9dae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Gene bank" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:03.687405+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A gene bank is a type of biorepository that is used across the world to store the genetic material of animals, plants, and other organisms. It preserves their genetic information in the form of reproductive material like seeds, sperm, eggs, embryos, cells and other kinds of DNA. Oftentimes, these banks house the genetic material of species that are endangered or close to extinction.They are also used for the preservation of major crop species and cultivars, in order to preserve crop diversity.This protects the organism from threats like extinction, diseases, and climate change. + +== Preservation methods == +Preservation is done via the collection and storage of reproductive material from an organism. For example, seeds and cuttings may be collected from plants, spores may be collected from fungi, and sperm and egg cells may be collected from animals. Pollen is also an essential component for the reproduction of seed plants. It contains the male genetic material for fertilization of other plants and is stored through cryopreservation. Aquatic organisms, such as coral, are preserved via the collection of fragments that are sustained alive in a carefully controlled aquatic environment. +The collected material is oftentimes stored at a temperature below 0 °C (32 °F). It may also be stored in cryogenic conditions using liquid nitrogen. Certain gene banks, called Field gene banks, are based around the continuous cultivation of living organisms, such as certain species of plants being raised in a controlled nutrient medium, or artificially created habitats that then harbor certain species. +The database of the largest gene banks in the world can be queried via a common website, Genesys. A number of global gene banks are coordinated by the CGIAR Genebank Platform. + +== Types of gene banks == + +=== Seed bank === +Seed banks, also known as seed vaults, are large repositories where many different species of seeds are stored at freezing temperatures. They are used to preserve the genetic diversity for possible future uses. The temperature that the seeds are stored at depends on the type of seed and the length of the preservation. Short-term storage refers to seeds that are stored anywhere from 3–5 years and are typically stored at temperatures of 5 to 10 °C (41 to 50 °F). Medium term storage refers to seeds stored from 10 to 15 years and are typically stored at a temperature of 0 °C (32 °F). Seeds that are in long-term storage have been stored for 50+ years and are typically at a temperature of −18 to −20 °C (0 to −4 °F). It is also important that when seeds are stored, the moisture content of the seeds and the surrounding medium is kept low, otherwise the seeds will not be viable after long periods in freezing temperatures. The largest seed bank in the world is the Millennium Seed Bank housed at the Wellcome Trust Millennium Building (WTMB), located on the grounds of Wakehurst Place in West Sussex, near London. + +=== In-Vitro bank === +An in vitro bank is another type of gene bank that stores plant or animal genetic material. It is a controlled, lab-based environment and not a traditional vault with dry or cytogenetic conditions similar to those seen in seed banks. In-vitro banks are responsible for storing genetic material like plant cells, embryos, and tissues. The samples are usually preserved in a nutrient medium, such as a test tube or culture dish. For example, buds, protocorm and meristematic cells are preserved through particular light and temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium, which is either a gel or in liquid form. This technique is used to preserve seedless plants and plants that reproduce asexually or require preservation as clones such as commercial cultivars. Oftentimes, these specimens require specific conditions for growth, so this bank is useful for preserving living tissues in a controlled and artificially supported environment. + +=== Cryobank === +In a cryobank, biological material such as sperm, eggs, and embryos, are preserved at very low temperatures. It is usually preserved in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of −196 °C (−320.8 °F). By freezing the seeds or embryos at this temperature, they can stay viable for at least a century. Cryobanks are often utilized for the Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources. These types of gene banks are helpful for the conservation of species facing extinction. An example of one of the largest animal cryobanks in the world is the Frozen zoo made by the San Diego Zoo, in San Diego California. The Frozen Zoo's collection contains over 10,000 living cells, oocytes, embryos, and other genetic material from thousands of species, including one extinct species. With animal cryobanks, freezing embryos is the preferred method instead of separating the egg and sperm because they are more resistant to the freezing process. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..967839faf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Gene bank" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:03.687405+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Storage of pollen === +Pollen is stored through a cryopreservation technique called vitrification. Vitrification, in this context, is based around the freezing of pollen grains without the formation of ice crystals that would heavily damage the pollen. The pollen, which is stored in liquid nitrogen, is kept at temperatures of −180 to −196 °C (−292.0 to −320.8 °F). The National Seed Storage Lab in Fort Collins, Colorado currently uses this technique to store pollen. Pollen can also be freeze dried and stored at temperatures of 5 to −18 °C (41 to 0 °F). An important element that must be considered is the levels of moisture in the pollen. If the pollen grains have a low moisture content it helps increase the length of the pollen's life. Low levels of moisture help the pollen freeze without creating ice or ice crystals, which helps preserve the life span of the pollen while it is being stored. Ideal levels of moisture content to be allowed in the pollen depends on the type of plant. The pollen from different plant species can be divided into two groups. One is binucleate pollen, which has a thicker exine and the second is trinucleate pollen, which has a thinner exine. Binucleate pollen has a higher lifespan when frozen at a low moisture level. Trinucleate pollen, however, has a higher lifespan when frozen at a high moisture level. Moisture level in the pollen can be decreased by exposing the pollen to diluted salt solutions, silica gel and dry air or by chemical treatment with vitrification solutions. + +=== Field gene banks === + +Field gene banks are gene banks based around the management of live specimens, such as fruit trees and other plants, that require specific conditions to grow. In contrast to a seed bank, a Field gene bank focuses on the facilitation of backups of germplasm, typically in the form of seeds. Field gene banks are vulnerable to natural disasters, pests and disease. As such, they are typically used as a method of last resort if a species cannot be preserved via normal means, such as if it didn't produce seeds. This method also uses more land, energy and water than other methods, thus making it a less ideal option. +An example of a Field gene bank includes the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) located in the Philippines. This organization contributes to the preservation of thousands of rice species by maintaining Field gene banks of the rice varieties. These rice species often have special traits such as the resistance to pests, disease, and drought. Each variety is important for the future development of new and more resilient species to address challenges around food security in countries with higher poverty and hunger concerns. + +=== Animal genetic resource bank === +In an Animal Genetic Resource bank, genetic material is stored to ensure the long term preservation and accessibility of it for possible future uses. The DNA inhabited here comes from a variety of different animal species that range from livestock and poultry to other organisms like insects and aquatic animals. More specifically, eggs, embryos, sperm, and other tissues are stored at very low temperatures using the advanced techniques of cryopreservation. These banks are crucial for guarding the genetic diversity of these populations, which is essential for the long term survival and adaptability of these populations. +These facilities are particularly important for conserving genetic material from endangered species to support breeding programs that aim to save them. For species that risk extinction, the DNA in these banks provide a form of genetic insurance. It allows for the possibility of bringing back genetic diversity to the species if need be. Genetic material can be used to reintroduce diversity to a wild population who faces threats, such as genetic drift or inbreeding. In a situation where an animal cannot reproduce naturally due to disease or environmental changes, the genetic material can be used to assist the populations natural reproductive efforts via genetic rescue. This type of preservation allows for a wide range of management strategies for future interventions. + +== Facilities == +The Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) plant gene bank in Suva, Fiji, focuses on propagating (and re-propagating) seedlings of plants (using clippings and tissue culture, rather than as seeds), to preserve the genetic diversity of the most important varieties of food crops of the Pacific region, such as banana, taro, breadfruit and yam. +Gene banks are present all over the world, with differing objectives and resources. One of the largest is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. + +== Management Systems == +The Federal Ex situ gene bank is another example of one of the largest germplasm collections. It is established to collect, conserve, and characterize plant genetic resources to promote conservation. The Federal Ex situ gene bank also conducts relevant research to develop new techniques for resource conservation. +In context of the United States, the Federal Ex situ gene bank includes facilities managed by government agencies such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA helps to maintain a variety of gene banks like the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS). The NPGS serves to store genetic resources for crops and wild plants, thus providing a backup against the loss of biodiversity as well an option for breeding programs and research. + +== See also == +Sperm bank +Ova bank +Biobank +Biological database +Germplasm +Seed bank +Plant genetic resources +Multi-Crop Passport Descriptor (MCPD) + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Ellis, R.H.; T.D. Hong; E.H. Roberts (1985). Handbook of Seed Technology for Genebanks Vol. II: Compendium of Specific Germination Information and Test Recommendations. IBPGR (now Bioversity International). Rome, Italy. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. +Engels, Jan; Visser, Bert, eds. (2003). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. 174 p. +Kameswara, N.; J. Hanson; M. E. Dulloo; K. Ghosh; A. Nowell; M. Larinde. (2006). Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks. Bioversity International, CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), FAO, ILRI. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. 147 p. +Koo, B.; Pardey, P. G.; Wright, B. D.; et al. (2004). Saving Seeds. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. + +== External links == +AEGIS A European Genebank Integrated System +The Crop Genebank Knowledge Base Archived 14 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine +Genebanks +Genesys +DAD-IS: Domestic Animal Diversity Information System \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc73293f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Gene pool" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:45.394005+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The gene pool is the set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species. + + +== Description == +A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction, although as explained by genetic drift new genetic variants, that may cause an increase in the fitness of organisms, are more likely to fix in the population if it is rather small. +When all individuals in a population are identical with regard to a particular phenotypic trait, the population is said to be 'monomorphic'. When the individuals show several variants of a particular trait they are said to be polymorphic. + + +== History == +The Russian geneticist Alexander Sergeevich Serebrovsky first formulated the concept in the 1920s as genofond (gene fund), a word that was imported to the United States from the Soviet Union by Theodosius Dobzhansky, who translated it into English as "gene pool." + + +== Gene pool concept in crop breeding == +Harlan and de Wet (1971) proposed classifying each crop and its related species by gene pools rather than by formal taxonomy. + +Primary gene pool (GP-1): Members of this gene pool are probably in the same "species" (in conventional biological usage) and can intermate freely. Harlan and de Wet wrote, "Among forms of this gene pool, crossing is easy; hybrids are generally fertile with good chromosome pairing; gene segregation is approximately normal and gene transfer is generally easy.". They also advised subdividing each crop gene pool in two: +Subspecies A: Cultivated races +Subspecies B: Spontaneous races (wild or weedy) +Secondary gene pool (GP-2): Members of this pool are probably normally classified as different species than the crop species under consideration (the primary gene pool). However, these species are closely related and can cross and produce at least some fertile hybrids. As would be expected by members of different species, there are some reproductive barriers between members of the primary and secondary gene pools: +hybrids may be weak +hybrids may be partially sterile +chromosomes may pair poorly or not at all +recovery of desired phenotypes may be difficult in subsequent generations +However, "The gene pool is available to be utilized, however, if the plant breeder or geneticist is willing to put out the effort required." +Tertiary gene pool (GP-3): Members of this gene pool are more distantly related to the members of the primary gene pool. The primary and tertiary gene pools can be intermated, but gene transfer between them is impossible without the use of "rather extreme or radical measures" such as: +embryo rescue (or embryo culture, a form of plant organ culture) +induced polyploidy (chromosome doubling) +bridging crosses (e.g., with members of the secondary gene pool). + + +== Gene pool centres == +Gene pool centres refers to areas on the earth where important crop plants and domestic animals originated. They have an extraordinary range of the wild counterparts of cultivated plant species and useful tropical plants. +Gene pool centres also contain different sub tropical and temperate region species. + + +== See also == + +Biodiversity +Conservation biology +Extinction vortex +Founder effect +Gene flow +Genetic drift +Small population size +Australian Grains Genebank + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e9c6fea0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Germplasm" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:46.591561+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Germplasm refers to genetic resources such as seeds, tissues, and DNA sequences that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, conservation efforts, agriculture, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks. Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity, food security, and conservation efforts. +In the United States, germplasm resources are regulated by the National Genetic Resources Program (NGRP), created by the U.S. congress in 1990. In addition the web server The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) provides information about germplasms as they pertain to agriculture production. + + +== Regulation == +In the United States, germplasm resources are regulated by the National Genetic Resources Program (NGRP), created by the U.S. congress in 1990. In addition the web server The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) provides information about germplasms as they pertain to agriculture production. +Specifically for plants, there is the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) which holds > 450,000 accessions with 10,000 species of the 85 most commonly grown crops. Many accessions held are international species, and NPGS distributes germplasm resources internationally. +As genetic information moves largely online there is a transition in germplasm information from a physical location (seed banks, cryopreserving) to online platforms containing genetic sequences. In addition there are issues in the collection germplasm information and where they are shared. Historically some germplasm information had been collected in developing countries and then shared to researchers who then sell the donor country the original germplasm that they altered. There is a lack of compensation to the donor countries and this is an issue. + + +== Storage methods == +Effective Germplasm work includes the collection, storage, analysis, documentation, and exchange of genetic information. This information can be stored as accessions, which is DNA sequence information, or live cells/tissues that can be preserved. However, only about 5% of current germplasm resources are living samples. For live cells/tissues, germplasm resources can be stored ex situ in seed banks, botanic gardens, or through cryopreservation. Cryopreservation is the process of storing germplasm at very low temperatures, such as liquid nitrogen. This process ensures that cells do not degrade and keeps the germplasm intact. In addition, resources can be stored in situ such as the natural area the species was found. + + +== Conservation efforts == +About 10,000 years ago is when humans began to domesticate plant species for the purpose of food, seeds, and vegetation. Since then, agriculture has been a staple for human civilizations and plant breeding has allowed more genetic diversity and a more diverse gene pool. Germplasm resources allow for more genetic assets to be used and integrated for agricultural systems for plant breeding and bringing about new varieties. In addition, researchers are looking at crop wild relatives (CWRs) that could expand gene pools of crop species and provide more ability to select target traits. +Furthermore, we are currently facing a biodiversity crisis event that is caused by human activities and industrialization. Many plants and animals have gone extinct due to losing their habitat, their habitat being degraded with contaminants, and climate change. Germplasm resources are a way to conserve the pre-existing biological diversity and to possibly regenerate habitats. By storing this genetic information there is data about what species are present including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi and what a complete ecosystem in specific areas look like. + + +== See also == +Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture +Conservation biology +Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources +Forest genetic resources +International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture +Plant genetic resources +Seed saving +Germ plasm + + +== References == +Day-Rubenstein, K and Heisey, P. 2003. Plant Genetic Resources: New Rules for International Exchange +Carmen De Vicente, Maria (2005). Issues on gene flow and germplasm management. Bioversity International. ISBN 9789290436935. Archived from the original on May 3, 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2007. 63 p. +Economic Research Service. Global resources and productivity: questions and answers +Engels, Jan (2003). Engels, Jan; Visser, L (eds.). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. Bioversity International. ISBN 9789290435822. Archived from the original on May 25, 2007. 174 p. +SeedQuest Primer Germplasm Resources + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Bioversity International +Bioversity International: Germplasm Collection +Bioversity International: Germplasm Databases +Bioversity International: Germplasm Documentation - overview +Bioversity International: Germplasm Health +DAD-IS: Domestic Animal Diversity Information System +USDA-ARS Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8b4c588e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Ghana Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:05.164919+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Ghana Planetarium was located behind the Ghana Police Headquarters in Cantonments, Accra. It was open throughout the year. +The planetarium of Accra was founded by Dr. Jacob and Jane Ashong and was constructed from their pension in 2009. It was officially opened on Thursday January 22, 2009 by the British High Commissioner, Nicholas Westcott. Also attending were The British Council Director, The French Ambassador and the Chief of Nungua and his entourage. +In February 2023, the planetarium had to close to the public, due to a change in land ownership. Shortly after, the staff posted an update that they were working on finding a new location. In the meantime, they have plans to develop a "travelling planetarium." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Weather_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Weather_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1354d4ad7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Weather_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Giles Weather Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Weather_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:57.875648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Giles Weather Station (also referred to as Giles Meteorological Station or Giles) is located in the locality of Warakurna, Western Australia near the Northern Territory border, about 750 kilometres (470 mi) west-south-west of Alice Springs and 330 kilometres (210 mi) west of Uluru. It is the only staffed regional weather station in mainland Australia, having previously been the only one within an area of about 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) by 2008, and is situated mid-continent and near the core of the subtropical jetstream. This means it plays an important role as a weather and climate observatory for the country, particularly eastern and southeastern Australia, and particularly for rainfall predictions. The station is on the Great Central Road in the locality of Warakurna and the nearest township is the Warakurna Aboriginal settlement (population 180), 5 kilometres (3 mi) North. Giles is within the Shire of Ngaanyatjarraku and is in the foothills of the Rawlinson Ranges. + + +== Operation and facilities == +A staff of three operates the remote station on four-monthly tours. As of 2026, the station reports its weather using Australian Central Standard Time in line with South Australia, including daylight saving. Giles Airport, a 1,600-metre (5,200 ft) airstrip services the station and the Warakurna community. +Tourists are invited to watch the daily release of the weather balloon at 7AM Australian Western Standard Time to see the release process and learn more about their work, before the balloon is launched fifteen minutes later. Additionally there is a museum that visitors can browse, a remnant of the Blue Streak Rocket and Len Beadell's grader on display. + + +== History == +Giles is named after English explorer Ernest Giles, the first European to travel through the area in 1874. +Surveyor and roadbuilder Len Beadell, who worked for the Weapons Research Establishment (now known as the Defence Science and Technology Group), selected the site for a meteorological station in December 1955. It was needed to forecast weather conditions suitable for nuclear weapons testing at Emu Field and Maralinga. The location was strongly opposed by Walter MacDougall since it lay on tribal land. Beadell surveyed and built Giles Airport, and chose the name Giles during construction of the Gunbarrel Highway which links Carnegie Station and Giles. Beadell's grader, which is estimated to have travelled over 30,000 kilometres (19,000 miles) in the course of making the roads, was retired in 1963 and is preserved on display at Giles. +Later, the weather station provided support for rocket testing programs at Woomera, as Giles was close to the centre-line of fire from the launch site. Wreckage from the first Blue Streak missile, launched from Woomera on 5 June 1964, is on display at the station. +Docker River, 100 kilometres (62 miles) north-east and just across the state border in the Northern Territory, was established by the government as an aboriginal settlement for local people in the 1960s. Overcrowding there and at Warburton created a need for a new community which became Warakurna in the mid-1970s. +In 1972, control of the station was transferred from the Department of Defence to the Bureau of Meteorology. +A Landline story in 2018 stated that Giles would soon become the last mainland regional weather station to be permanently staffed, with all the others being automated. This was set to be the case by the end of 2023. + + +== Climate == +Giles Weather Station has a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with very hot summers with irregular rainfall and mild, dry winters. Giles has high insolation, with 194.3 clear days and 3491.4 sunshine hours annually. Rainfall is highly variable; recorded annual values have ranged from 38.0 millimetres (1.50 in) in 1961 to 843.4 millimetres (33.20 in) in 2001. The periodic southward movement of the monsoon trough and ex-tropical cyclones cause heavy rain events in the wetter months from November to March. Dry spells often occur, particularly in winter; the longest period without rain was 156 days from 18 April to 20 September 1961. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Gazetteer of Australia +Giles: Australia's most remote weather station \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..14dce83c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Good laboratory practice" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) establish rules and criteria for a quality system that oversees the organizational processes and conditions in which non-clinical (non-pharmaceutical) health and environmental safety–or simply toxicology–studies are planned, conducted, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. These principles apply to the toxicity testing of chemicals in commerce, to ensure the quality and integrity of the safety data submitted by manufacturers to regulatory authorities globally. + +== History == +The historical events leading to the proposal of the Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations are crucial for understanding why these regulations are important to improve the quality and integrity of chemical safety data. They were developed in response to concerns about the reliability of toxicity data from industry. The GLP regulations aim to standardize procedures and practices to ensure accurate, reliable, and traceable safety data. +GLP was first introduced in New Zealand and Denmark in 1972, but only as quality standards for re-agents and lab materials (first created in Australia due to being isolated from western labs by the Japanese blockade of WW2); the US FDA heard about them from NZ at an international conference just as the below IBT scandal broke). +During the 1960s and 1970s, a growing concern for environmental issues and health impacts of chemicals was one factor in increased federal regulation, particularly in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors, leading to more stringent product testing requirements and the development of inspection programs targeting laboratories conducting animal research in developed countries. These initiatives, initiated in the US by the Office of New Drugs and the Office of Marketed Drugs in 1969 and later expanded with the Office of Compliance, included inspections of facilities with questionable study validity or misconduct tips, revealing significant quality control issues and deficiencies in animal toxicological testing standards and data reporting. +Industrial BioTest Labs (IBT) was the most notable whistleblower case where thousands of safety tests for chemical manufacturers were either falsely claimed to have been performed or were of such poor quality that police investigators could not determine the extent of the work completed, despite superficially delivering test results as specified in their contracts with the manufacturers. IBT, a contract laboratory based in Northbrook, Illinois, conducted research for the United States government and various chemical and pharmaceutical companies, both from the U.S. and abroad, and submitted toxicology data to several federal agencies, covering a wide range of products including drugs, insecticides, herbicides, food additives, pesticides, cosmetics, and cleaning products. +These issues were aired in hearings at the US Congress, which pressured the FDA to propose draft Regulations on GLP on November 19, 1976, and establishment of the Final Rule in June 1979 which became effective on June 20, 1979. Proposed amendments were introduced on October 29, 1984. The GLP amendment Final Rule was published on September 4, 1987 and became effective on October 5, 1987. +Many of the fraudulent safety data concerned chemicals overseen by the new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), so their GLP rule was developed simultaneously with FDA, the EPA issuing its draft GLP regulations in 1979 and 1980, publishing the Final Rules in two separate parts (40 CFR 160 and 40 CFR 792) in 1983. +GLP requires not only that the methods of safety tests be transparent, but that they be so detailed that a different laboratory using it will get the same result. Considering that Japan, Netherlands, US and others had at same time as GLP begun requiring demonstrations of safety before chemicals gained access markets; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development decided that multinational companies needed globally uniform regulation of chemicals, such that a toxicity test performed in one country could be accepted by another. OECD was thus happy to add the new USA GLP requirement into their new, globally-required test methods, called ‘OECD Test Guidelines’ (see below OECD section). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..466b95d68 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Good laboratory practice" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== US Food and Drug Administration == +(21 CFR Part 58) +The FDA requires nonclinical laboratory studies on new drugs, food additives, and chemicals to assess their safety and potential effectiveness in humans in compliance with 21 CFR Part 58, Good Laboratory Practice for Nonclinical Studies under the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act and Public Health Service Act. These regulations set the standards for conducting experimental laboratory studies that support or are intended to support applications for research or marketing permits for products such as food additives, drugs, medical devices, or biological products. Conducting these studies with rigorous adherence to scientific principles and quality control is crucial, as the decisions based on their outcomes directly affect human health and safety. By adhering to the requirements outlined in 21 CFR Part 58, laboratories conducting laboratory studies can ensure that the data generated are of high quality, reliable, and suitable for submission to the Agency as part of product approval processes. +Compliance with GLP regulations helps to protect the safety and welfare of humans and animals involved in studies and contributes to the overall integrity of scientific research in the development of FDA-regulated products. GLP compliance inspections are assessed and performed under the Agency's Bioresearch Monitoring (BIMO) program and carried out by trained BIMO inspectors. Serious noncompliance is dealt with by procedures ranging from study rejection to laboratory disqualification. +Since June 20, 1979, the FDA has received many questions about Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations (21 CFR 58). The responses to these inquiries are stored in the Dockets Management Branch (HFA-305) and shared with the Agency's Bioresearch Monitoring (BIMO) program managers and district offices to ensure consistency. Consequently, the US FDA published the 1981 Questions & Answers - Good Laboratory Practice Regulations document to consolidate and clarify these responses. This Q&A document categorizes responses by specific GLP provisions to make them more useful for both the FDA headquarters and field offices. +The FDA has signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland to enhance cooperation on good laboratory practice (GLP) for nonclinical laboratory studies supporting product approvals, aiming to facilitate information exchange and inspections for regulatory oversight. +Proposed amendments were published in the Federal Register on August 24, 2016, which aimed to require a comprehensive quality system approach known as a GLP Quality System to enhance the current quality system approach for nonclinical laboratory studies. This system would be mandatory for safety and toxicity studies that support or are intended to support applications or submissions for products regulated by the FDA. Proposed modifications to the GLP Quality System include additional responsibilities for testing facility management and SOP maintenance, along with expanded definitions applicable to all nonclinical laboratory studies, aiming to enhance roles and functions aligned with the revised testing facility definition and to establish a framework for improving data reliability in regulatory decision-making. + +== U.S. Environmental Protection Agency == +Source: +The EPA's Good Laboratory Practice Standards (GLPS) compliance monitoring program guarantees the accuracy and reliability of test data submitted to the Agency to support pesticide product registration under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), section 5 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), and in accordance with testing consent agreements and rules issued under section 4 of TSCA. The Agency utilizes data obtained from laboratory inspections and audits to oversee the use of pesticides and industrial chemicals. +40 CFR Part 160, Good Laboratory Practice Standards pertains specifically to the Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards for pesticide chemicals. It establishes the requirements for conducting studies and generating data used for the registration of pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). This regulation applies primarily to studies conducted to support the registration or re-registration of pesticide products under FIFRA. It includes studies related to human health and environmental effects of pesticides. It focuses specifically on studies related to pesticide products, including toxicity studies, residue chemistry studies, environmental fate studies, and other types of studies required for pesticide registration. It operates within the context of pesticide regulation under FIFRA, which is specific to the registration and use of pesticides in the United States. +40 CFR Part 792, Good Laboratory Practice Standards, covers the broader application of GLP standards for nonclinical laboratory studies conducted for assessing the safety or efficacy of chemical substances, including pesticides, under various regulatory programs overseen by the EPA. This regulation applies to nonclinical laboratory studies conducted for various purposes beyond pesticides, encompassing studies related to chemicals, drugs, food additives, and other substances regulated by the EPA. This part has a broader scope and is applicable to a wider range of substances and regulatory programs. It covers a more diverse range of nonclinical studies, including those related to chemical substances other than pesticides. This could include studies conducted for assessing the safety of industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food additives, and other substances subject to EPA regulation. It operates across various regulatory programs within the EPA, reflecting a broader framework for ensuring the quality and reliability of nonclinical study data used in regulatory decision-making. +While both 40 CFR Part 160 and 40 CFR Part 792 address GLP standards for laboratory studies, they differ significantly in terms of scope, applicability, and the specific regulatory context in which they operate. Part 160 is tailored to pesticide registration under FIFRA, whereas Part 792 is a more comprehensive framework applicable to a wider range of laboratory studies conducted for regulatory purposes across different EPA programs. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1edaf048 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Good laboratory practice" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== European Union == +Source: +The Principles of GLP help ensure the quality and accuracy of data in chemical testing, and help prevent scientific fraud, as adopted by the European Union (EU). European GLP Regulations and Directives also apply to European Economic Area (EEA) member states which include Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. GLP principles govern the laboratory safety testing of substances in various products, mandated by product-specific legislation in the EU/EEA. +Directive 2004/9/EC mandates EU/EEA countries to designate GLP inspection authorities and includes requirements for reporting and mutual acceptance of data within the internal market. Annex I of the Directive incorporates OECD Revised Guides for Compliance Monitoring Procedures for GLP, along with OECD Guidance for the Conduct of Test Facility Inspections and Study Audits. It ensures compliance with these guidelines during laboratory inspections and study audits. This directive replaced Directive 88/320/EEC as of 11 March 2004. +Directive 2004/10/EC, the second core EU GLP Directive, harmonizes laws and administrative provisions for applying GLP principles and verifying their implementation in chemical substance tests. It includes GLP principles in Annex I and requires EU/EEA countries to ensure that laboratories conducting safety studies on chemical products comply with OECD GLP principles. It replaces Directive 87/18/EEC. +The Clinical Trials Facilitation Group (CTFG) of the Heads of Medicines Agency issued a Q&A document in 2017 addressing Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) requirements within the context of clinical trials for human medicines. This document aims to provide clarification and guidance on GLP principles applicable to non-clinical safety studies conducted as part of clinical trial applications. +In March 2024, the Clinical Trials Coordination Group (CTCG) of the Heads of Medicines Agencies released a new recommendation paper on the principles of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) for clinical trial applications governed by the EU Clinical Trials Regulation (Regulation (EU) No 536/2014). This paper was developed in collaboration with relevant groups from the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the European Commission (EC) to clarify the applicable regulatory requirements and ensure transparency regarding the level of information required about GLP status in Clinical Trial Applications. This will assist researchers and sponsors in understanding what is expected and how to include the necessary information to support their applications. +GLP supports the sharing of test data between countries, which helps avoid repeated testing, benefits animal welfare, and saves money for businesses and governments. Having common GLP standards also makes it easier to share information and prevents trade barriers, while helping to protect human health and the environment. The EU has established Mutual Recognition Agreements for GLP with Israel, Japan, and Switzerland. + +== Key role for the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development == +Source: +USA's new GLP rule was adopted into the new toxicity test methods (called the Test Guidelines, TG) that the OECD created. The OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) cover the testing of chemicals or chemical products in non-clinical settings, either in laboratory conditions or environmental settings, such as greenhouses and field experiments. These principles exclude studies involving human subjects. Depending on the location or governing rules in an OECD-member country, the OECD Principles of GLP might also extend to non-clinical safety testing of other regulated items, like medical devices. +Examples studies conducted under GLP in OECD-member countries include: + +Physical-chemical testing; +Toxicity studies; +Mutagenicity studies; +Environmental toxicity studies on aquatic and terrestrial organisms; +Studies on behavior in water, soil, and air; bioaccumulation; +Studies to determine pesticide residues in food or animal feedstuffs; +Studies on effects on mesocosms and natural ecosystems; +Analytical and clinical chemistry testing. +Safety testing data must be submitted to regulatory authorities for product marketing authorization. During the review process, the submitted data undergoes verification to ensure compliance with GLP standards. Additionally, the GLP compliance status of the testing facility where the study was conducted is assessed by referring to inspection information from national GLP compliance monitoring programs. +OECD member countries where non-clinical health and environmental safety testing follows the OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) have established national GLP Compliance Monitoring Programs (CMP) responsible for overseeing GLP compliance of test facilities within their jurisdictions. These CMPs verify GLP compliance through inspections of test facilities and audits of GLP studies. Test facilities that undergo periodic inspections by a CMP and are found to operate in accordance with GLP principles are recognized as GLP compliant. +In OECD-member countries, testing facilities seeking recognition as GLP compliant can apply to the national CMP. The CMP then conducts inspections to assess if the test facility adheres to the OECD Principles of GLP. In other countries, CMPs have the authority to inspect any test facility that claims to conduct studies according to GLP standards. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e7ae2ba8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Good laboratory practice" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_laboratory_practice" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:28.428083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== OECD's Mutual Acceptance of Data (MAD) == +Sources: +The chemicals industry, which includes industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, biocides, food and feed additives, and cosmetics, ranks as one of the largest industrial sectors in the world. Harmonizing national approaches (the OECD's key mission) to chemical regulation offers several benefits: it streamlines requirements for industry, provides governments with a common framework for collaboration, and reduces trade barriers. Simultaneously, the OECD adopted 1) the Mutual Acceptance of Data (MAD) Directive system; and 2) the OECD Guidelines for Testing Chemicals and OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP), to be required by regulators globally (and to which the MAD Directive applies). These two simultaneous acts were instrumental in achieving this global harmonization. +The MAD system aims to avoid conflicting or redundant national regulations, foster cooperation among national authorities, and eliminate trade barriers. Under this system, OECD countries and full adherents agree that safety tests conducted according to OECD Test Guidelines and Good Laboratory Practice in one country should be accepted by others for assessment purposes—a principle known as "tested once, accepted for assessment everywhere." This approach saves the chemicals industry from the expense of duplicative testing for products marketed in multiple countries. Crucially, though a receiving government must accept a TG-performed study, it retains the discretion to rely on other data (e.g. on the toxicity findings of publicly-funded academics, whose methods are very heterogeneous, but who test, and often find, toxicity at much lower doses that industry's TG studies); or, a nation may interpret the accepted study's results according to its own criteria. +According to OECD Council Decision C(97)186/Final, chemical testing data generated in any OECD member country following OECD Test Guidelines and GLP principles is recognized by other OECD member countries, such as Australia, Canada, Korea, and the USA. This recognition also extends to some non-OECD countries that fully adhere to the mutual acceptance of data (MAD) under OECD Council Decision C(97)114/Final, including Brazil, India, Malaysia, Singapore, and South Africa, as well as Argentina for industrial chemicals, pesticides, and biocides only. +In June 2004, the US FDA published a comparison chart of FDA and EPA Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) regulations alongside OECD Principles for GLP, aiding in understanding the key differences and similarities in GLP standards across these regulatory bodies. +Note, unlike many countries, the US EPA names its mandated use of the OECD TG, ‘the EPA Test Methods’. + +== See also == +Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) +GxP +Good clinical practice +Good Automated Manufacturing Practice +Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine +International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation +International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC) +Drug development +ISO 15189 +Verification and Validation + +== Notes and references == + +== Further reading == +Webster, Gregory K.; Kott, L; Maloney, T; et al. (2005). "JALA Tutorial: Considerations When Implementing Automated Methods into GxP Laboratories". Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation. 10 (3). Elsevier: 182–191. doi:10.1016/j.jala.2005.03.003. + +== External links == +Comparison of difference versions of GLP (Comparison OECD, FDA and EPA GLP) +Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 (Food and Drugs) Part 58 (Good Laboratory Practice for Nonclinical Laboratory Studies) (USA) +Good Laboratory Practice (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) +OECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring +Belgian Monitoring Authority for GLP Archived 2019-09-10 at the Wayback Machine +TECHNOXMART Archived 2019-12-23 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d19a36b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Greenhouse" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:41.007301+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In horticulture, a greenhouse is a structure designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of the environment inside it with a view to growing plants. +There are different types of greenhouses, but they all have large areas covered with transparent materials that let sunlight enter and that inhibit the loss of the sun's heat. The most common materials used in modern greenhouses for walls and roofs are rigid plastics made of polycarbonate, plastic film made of polyethylene, or glass panes. When sunlight shines into a greenhouse the temperature inside increases, providing a sheltered environment for plants to grow — even in cold weather. +The terms greenhouse, glasshouse, and hothouse often refer interchangeably to buildings used for cultivating plants. The specific term used depends on the material and on the heating-system used in the building. Nowadays, greenhouses are more commonly constructed with a variety of materials, such as wood and polyethylene plastic. A glasshouse, on the other hand, is a traditional type of greenhouse which uses glass panes that allow light to enter. The term hothouse indicates the use of artificial heating. However, both heated and unheated structures can generally class as greenhouses. + +The word "vinery", when referring to a site for growing grapevines, +may reference either a hothouse or a glasshouse. +Greenhouses can range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings and colossal glasshouses. The smallest example is a miniature greenhouse known as a cold frame, typically used at home (compare cloche). Large commercial greenhouses are high-tech production-facilities used to grow vegetables, flowers or fruits. Such glass greenhouses may feature extensive equipment, including screening, heating, cooling, and lighting installations, sometimes controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth. Different techniques manage growing conditions (including air temperature, relative humidity and vapour-pressure deficit) in order to provide the optimum environment for cultivation of a specific crop. + +== History == + +=== Roman Empire === +Before the development of greenhouses, agricultural practices were constrained to weather conditions. According to the climatic zone of communities, people were limited to a select range of species and time of the year in which they could grow plants. Yet around 30 CE, the Roman Empire built the first recorded attempt of an artificial environment. Due to emperor Tiberius's declining health, the royal physicians recommended that the emperor eat one cucumber a day. Cucumbers, however, are quite tender plants and do not grow easily year-round. Therefore, the Romans designed an artificial environment, like a greenhouse, to have cucumbers available for the emperor all year. Cucumbers were planted in wheeled carts which were put in the sun daily, then taken inside to keep them warm at night. The cucumbers were stored under frames or in cucumber houses glazed with either oiled cloth known as specularia or with sheets of selenite (a.k.a. lapis specularis), according to the description by Pliny the Elder. + +=== 15th-century Korea === +The next biggest breakthrough in greenhouse design came from Korea in the 15th century during the Joseon dynasty. In the 1450s, Soon ui Jeon described the first artificially heated greenhouse in his manuscript called Sangayorok. Soon ui Jeon was a physician to the royal family, and Sangayorok was intended to provide the nobility with important agricultural and housekeeping knowledge. Within the section of agricultural techniques, Soon ui Jeon wrote how to build a greenhouse that was able to cultivate vegetables and other plants in the winter. The Korean design adds an ondol system to the structure. An ondol is a Korean heating system used in domestic spaces, which runs a flue pipe from a heat source underneath the flooring. In addition to the ondol, a cauldron filled with water was also heated to create steam and increase the temperature and humidity in the greenhouse. These Korean greenhouses were the first active greenhouses that controlled temperature, rather than only relying on energy from the sun. The design still included passive heating methods, such as semi-transparent oiled hanji windows to capture light and cob walls to retain heat, but the furnace provided extra control over the artificial environment. The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty confirm that greenhouse-like structures incorporating ondol were constructed to provide heat for mandarin orange trees during the winter of 1438. + +=== 17th century === +The concept of greenhouses also appeared in the Netherlands and then England in the 17th century, along with the plants. Some of these early attempts required enormous amounts of work to close up at night or to winterize. There were serious problems with providing adequate and balanced heat in these early greenhouses. The first 'stove' (heated) greenhouse in the UK was completed at Chelsea Physic Garden by 1681. Today, the Netherlands has many of the largest greenhouses in the world, some of them so vast that they are able to produce millions of vegetables every year. + +Experimentation with greenhouse design continued during the 17th century in Europe, as technology produced better glass and construction techniques improved. The greenhouse at the Palace of Versailles was an example of their size and elaborateness; it was more than 150 metres (490 ft) long, 13 metres (43 ft) wide, and 14 metres (46 ft) high. + +=== 18th century === +Andrew Faneuil, a prosperous Boston merchant, built the first American greenhouse in 1737. + +When returning to Mount Vernon after the war, George Washington learned of the greenhouse built at the Carroll estate of Mount Clare (Maryland). It was designed by Margaret Tilghman Carroll, an industrious gardener who cultivated citrus trees in this orangery. +In 1784 Washington wrote requesting details about the design of her greenhouse, and she complied. Washington wrote: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5929aa5a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Greenhouse" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:41.007301+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +I shall essay the finishing of my greenhouse this fall, but find that neither myself, nor any person about me is so well skilled in the internal constructions as to proceed without a probability at least of running into errors. Shall I for this reason, ask the favor of you to give me a short description of the Green-house at Mrs. Carrolls? I am persuaded, now that I planned mine on too contracted a scale. My house is (of Brick) 40 feet by 24, in the outer dimensions … + +=== 19th century === + +The French botanist Charles Lucien Bonaparte is often credited with building the first practical modern greenhouse in Leiden, Holland, during the 1800s to grow medicinal tropical plants. +Originally only on the estates of the rich, the growth of the science of botany caused greenhouses to spread to the universities. The French called their first greenhouses orangeries, since they were used to protect orange trees from freezing. As pineapples became popular, pineries, or pineapple pits, were built. + +=== 19th-century England === + +The largest glasshouses yet conceived were constructed in England during the Victorian era. As a direct result of colonial expansion, the purpose of glasshouses changed from agriculture to horticulture. The accelerated transfer of plants and horticultural knowledge between colonies contributed to the Victorian fascination with 'exotic' plants and environments. Glasshouses became spectacles to entertain the general public. The curated environments in glasshouses aimed to capture "the Western imagination of an idealised landscape" and support the fantasy of the cultural 'other'. As a consequence, the collection of plants are believed to be true reflections of the world, yet are actually stereotypical arrangements of 'exotic' plants to symbolize exactly where British colonies are and how far their authority reaches. To uphold British hegemony, glasshouses became arguments of colonial power which flaunt the "absolute control of colonized environments and flora...[using plants] as a symbol of British Imperial power. +A prominent design from the 19th century were glasshouses with sufficient height for sizeable trees, called palm houses. These were normally in public gardens or parks and exemplified the 19th-century development of glass and iron architecture. This technology was widely used in railway stations, markets, exhibition halls, and other large buildings that needed large, open internal area. One of the earliest examples of a palm house is in the Belfast Botanic Gardens. Designed by Charles Lanyon, the building was completed in 1840. It was constructed by iron-maker Richard Turner, who would later build the Palm House, Kew Gardens at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, in 1848. This came shortly after the Chatsworth Great Conservatory (1837–40) and shortly before The Crystal Palace (1851), both designed by Joseph Paxton, and both now lost. + +Other large greenhouses built in the 19th century included the New York Crystal Palace, Munich's Glaspalast and the Royal Greenhouses of Laeken (1874–1895) for King Leopold II of Belgium. In Japan, the first greenhouse was built in 1880 by Samuel Cocking, a British merchant who exported herbs. + +=== 20th century === + +In the 20th century, the geodesic dome was added to the many types of greenhouses. Notable examples are the Eden Project in Cornwall, The Rodale Institute in Pennsylvania, the Climatron at the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Missouri, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky. The pyramid is another popular shape for large, high greenhouses; there are several pyramidal greenhouses at the Muttart Conservatory in Alberta (c. 1976). +Greenhouse structures adapted in the 1960s when wider sheets of polyethylene (polythene) film became widely available. Hoop houses were made by several companies and were also frequently made by the growers themselves. Constructed of aluminum extrusions, special galvanized steel tubing, or even just lengths of steel or PVC water pipe, construction costs were greatly reduced. This resulted in many more greenhouses being constructed on smaller farms and garden centers. Polyethylene film durability increased greatly when more effective UV-inhibitors were developed and added in the 1970s; these extended the usable life of the film from one or two years up to three and eventually four or more years. +Gutter-connected greenhouses became more prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s. These greenhouses have two or more bays connected by a common wall, or row of support posts. Heating inputs were reduced as the ratio of floor area to exterior wall area was increased substantially. Gutter-connected greenhouses are now commonly used both in production and in situations where plants are grown and sold to the public as well. Gutter-connected greenhouses are commonly covered with structured polycarbonate materials, or a double layer of polyethylene film with air blown between to provide increased heating efficiencies. + +== Theory of operation == +The warmer temperature in a greenhouse occurs because incident solar radiation passes through the transparent roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer. These in turn warm up the surrounding air within the greenhouse. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, the warmed air cannot escape via convection due to the presence of roof and walls, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. +Window glasses are practically transparent for short-wave infra-red radiation emitted by the sun, but almost opaque for long-wave radiation emitted by objects in the room. +Quantitative studies suggest that the effect of infrared radiative cooling is not negligibly small, and may have economic implications in a heated greenhouse. Analysis of issues of near-infrared radiation in a greenhouse with screens of a high coefficient of reflection concluded that installation of such screens reduced heat demand by about 8%, and application of dyes to transparent surfaces was suggested. Such as, using techniques that apply coatings which convert ultraviolet wavelengths into red light, improving photosynthetic efficiency and increasing crop yields. +Composite less-reflective glass, or less effective but cheaper anti-reflective coated simple glass, also produced savings. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7522b5228 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Greenhouse" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:41.007301+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ventilation === +Ventilation is one of the most important components in a successful greenhouse. If there is no proper ventilation, greenhouses and their growing plants can become prone to problems. The main purposes of ventilation is to regulate the temperature and humidity to the optimal level, and to ensure movement of air and thus prevent the build-up of plant pathogens (such as Botrytis cinerea) that prefer still air conditions. Ventilation also ensures a supply of fresh air for photosynthesis and plant respiration, and may enable important pollinators to access the greenhouse crop. +Ventilation can be achieved via the use of vents – often controlled automatically via a computer – and recirculation fans. + +=== Heating === + +Heating or electricity is one of the most considerable costs in the operation of greenhouses across the globe, especially in colder climates. The main problem with heating a greenhouse as opposed to a building that has solid opaque walls is the amount of heat lost through the greenhouse covering. Since the coverings need to allow light to filter into the structure, they conversely cannot insulate very well. With traditional plastic greenhouse coverings having an R-value of around 2, a great amount of money is therefore spent to continually replace the heat lost. Most greenhouses, when supplemental heat is needed use natural gas or electric furnaces. +Passive heating methods exist which seek heat using low energy input. Solar energy can be captured from periods of relative abundance (day time/summer), and released to boost the temperature during cooler periods (night time/winter). Waste heat from livestock can be used to heat greenhouses, e.g., placing a chicken coop inside a greenhouse recovers the heat generated by the chickens, which would otherwise be wasted. Some greenhouses also rely on geothermal heating. + +=== Cooling === +Cooling is typically done by opening windows in the greenhouse when it gets too warm for the plants inside it. This can be done manually, or in an automated manner. Window actuators can open windows due to temperature difference or can be opened by electronic controllers. Electronic controllers are often used to monitor the temperature and adjusts the furnace operation to the conditions. This can be as simple as a basic thermostat, but can be more complicated in larger greenhouse operations. +For very hot situations, a shade house providing cooling by shade may be used. + +=== Lighting === +During the day, light enters the greenhouse via the windows and is used by the plants. Some greenhouses are also equipped with grow lights (often LED lights) which are switched on at night to increase the amount of light the plants get, hereby increasing the yield with certain crops. + +=== Carbon dioxide enrichment === + +The benefits of carbon dioxide enrichment to about 1100 parts per million in greenhouse cultivation to enhance plant growth has been known for nearly 100 years. After the development of equipment for the controlled serial enrichment of carbon dioxide, the technique was established on a broad scale in the Netherlands. Secondary metabolites, e.g., cardiac glycosides in Digitalis lanata, are produced in higher amounts by greenhouse cultivation at enhanced temperature and at enhanced carbon dioxide concentration. Carbon dioxide enrichment can also reduce greenhouse water usage by a significant fraction by mitigating the total air-flow needed to supply adequate carbon for plant growth and thereby reducing the quantity of water lost to evaporation. Commercial greenhouses are now frequently located near appropriate industrial facilities for mutual benefit. For example, Cornerways Nursery in the UK is strategically placed near a major sugar refinery, consuming both waste heat and CO2 from the refinery which would otherwise be vented to atmosphere. The refinery reduces its carbon emissions, whilst the nursery enjoys boosted tomato yields and does not need to provide its own greenhouse heating. +Enrichment only becomes effective where, by Liebig's law, carbon dioxide has become the limiting factor. In a controlled greenhouse, irrigation may be trivial, and soils may be fertile by default. In less-controlled gardens and open fields, rising CO2 levels only increase primary production to the point of soil depletion (assuming no droughts, flooding, or both), as demonstrated prima facie by CO2 levels continuing to rise. In addition, laboratory experiments, free air carbon enrichment (FACE) test plots, and field measurements provide replicability. + +== Types == + +In domestic greenhouses, the glass used is typically 3 mm (1⁄8 in) "horticultural glass" grade, which is good quality glass that should not contain air bubbles (which can produce scorching on leaves by acting like lenses). +Plastics mostly used are polyethylene film and multi-wall sheets of polycarbonate material, or PMMA acrylic glass. +Commercial glass greenhouses are often high-tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers. The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment such as screening installations, heating, cooling and lighting, and may be automatically controlled by a computer. + +=== Dutch Light === +In the UK and other Northern European countries a pane of horticultural glass referred to as "Dutch Light" was historically used as a standard unit of construction, having dimensions of 28+3⁄4 in × 56 in (730 mm × 1,420 mm). This size gives a larger glazed area when compared with using smaller panes such as the 600 mm width typically used in modern domestic designs which then require more supporting framework for a given overall greenhouse size. A style of greenhouse having sloped sides (resulting in a wider base than at eaves height) and using these panes uncut is also often referred to as "Dutch Light design", and a cold frame using a full- or half-pane as being of "Dutch" or "half-Dutch" size. + +=== Greenhouses with spectrally selective solar modules === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..04e73ec31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Greenhouse" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:41.007301+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== High-latitude solar greenhouses === +Specialized designs exist to allow for growing of crops in the colder climates at higher latitudes. In northern areas of China such as Shenyang, slanted solar greenhouses are used to provide efficient, passive heating of crops. This heating has been shown to prevent crops from reaching lethally low temperatures, even when active heating elements are disabled. This style of greenhouse was first constructed in 1978, growing in popularity during the 1980s. + +== Uses == +Greenhouses allow for greater control over the growing environment of plants. Depending upon the technical specification of a greenhouse, key factors that may be controlled include temperature, levels of light and shade, irrigation, fertilizer application, and atmospheric humidity. Greenhouses may be used to overcome shortcomings in the growing qualities of a piece of land, such as a short growing season or poor light levels, and they can thereby improve food production in marginal environments. Shade houses are used specifically to provide shade in hot, dry climates. +As they may enable certain crops to be grown throughout the year, greenhouses are increasingly important in the food supply of high-latitude countries. One of the largest complexes in the world is in Almería, Andalucía, Spain, where greenhouses cover almost 200 km2 (49,000 acres). +Greenhouses are often used for growing flowers, vegetables, fruits, and transplants. Special greenhouse varieties of certain crops, such as tomatoes, are generally used for commercial production. + +Many vegetables and flowers can be grown in greenhouses in late winter and early spring, and then transplanted outside as the weather warms. Seed tray racks can also be used to stack seed trays inside the greenhouse for later transplanting outside. Hydroponics (especially hydroponic A-frames) can be used to make the most use of the interior space when growing crops to mature size inside the greenhouse. +Bumblebees can be used as pollinators for pollination, but other types of bees have also been used, as well as artificial pollination. +The relatively closed environment of a greenhouse has its unique management requirements, compared with outdoor production. Pests and diseases, and extremes of temperature and humidity, have to be controlled, and irrigation is necessary to provide water. Most greenhouses use sprinklers or drip lines. Significant inputs of heat and light may be required, particularly with winter production of warm-weather vegetables. +Greenhouses also have applications outside of the agriculture industry. GlassPoint Solar, located in Fremont, California, encloses solar fields in greenhouses to produce steam for solar-enhanced oil recovery. For example, in November 2017 GlassPoint announced that it is developing a solar enhanced oil recovery facility near Bakersfield, CA that uses greenhouses to enclose its parabolic troughs. + +An "alpine house" is a specialized greenhouse used for growing alpine plants. The purpose of an alpine house is to mimic the conditions in which alpine plants grow; particularly to protect from wet conditions in winter. Alpine houses are often unheated since the plants grown there are hardy, or require at most protection from hard frost in the winter. They are designed to have excellent ventilation. + +== Adoption == +Worldwide, there are an estimated nine million acres (about thirty-six and a half thousand square kilometers) of greenhouses. + +=== Netherlands === + +The Netherlands has some of the largest greenhouses in the world. Such is the scale of food production in the country that in 2017, greenhouses occupied nearly 5,000 hectares. +Greenhouses began to be built in the Westland region of the Netherlands in the mid-19th century. The addition of sand to bogs and clay soil created fertile soil for agriculture, and around 1850, grapes were grown in the first greenhouses, simple glass constructions with one of the sides consisting of a solid wall. By the early 20th century, greenhouses began to be constructed with all sides built using glass, and they began to be heated. This also allowed for the production of fruits and vegetables that did not ordinarily grow in the area. Today, the Westland and the area around Aalsmeer have the highest concentration of greenhouse agriculture in the world. The Westland produces mostly vegetables, besides plants and flowers; Aalsmeer is noted mainly for the production of flowers and potted plants. Since the 20th century, the area around Venlo and parts of Drenthe have also become important regions for greenhouse agriculture. +Since 2000, technical innovations have included the "closed greenhouse", a completely closed system allowing the grower complete control over the growing process while using less energy. Floating greenhouses are used in watery areas of the country. +The Netherlands has around 4,000 greenhouse enterprises that operate over 9,000 hectares of greenhouses and employ some 150,000 workers, producing €7.2 billion worth of vegetables, fruit, plants, and flowers, some 80% of which is exported. + +== See also == + +== Citations == + +== General and cited references == +Cunningham, Anne S. (2000). Crystal palaces: garden conservatories of the United States. Princeton Architectural Press, New York, ISBN 1-56898-242-9 +Francesco Pona: Il Paradiso de' Fiori overo Lo archetipo de' Giardini, 1622 Angelo Tamo, Verona (a manual of gardening with use greenhouse for make Giardino all'italiana) +Pevsner, Nikolaus. A History of Building Types, Thames and Hudson, 1976 (1984 ed.), ISBN 0500271747. +Valera, D. L.; Belmonte, L.J.; Molina, F.D.; López, A. (2016). Greenhouse agriculture in Almería. A comprehensive techno-economic analysis. Ed. Cajamar Caja Rural. 408pp. +van de Muijzenberg, Erwin W B (1980). A History of Greenhousesn. Wageningen, Netherlands: Institute for Agricultural Engineering. OCLC 7164418. +Vleeschouwer, Olivier de (2001). Greenhouses and conservatories. Flammarion, Paris, ISBN 2-08-010585-X. +Woods, May; Warren, Arete Swartz (1988). Glass houses: history of greenhouses, orangeries and conservatories. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-0-906053-85-0. OCLC 17108422. + +== Further reading == + +== External links == + Media related to Greenhouses at Wikimedia Commons +"Greenhouse". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. OCLC 1032680871. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwacheon_National_Science_Museum-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwacheon_National_Science_Museum-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01f572c67 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwacheon_National_Science_Museum-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "Gwacheon National Science Museum" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwacheon_National_Science_Museum" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:06.334141+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gwacheon National Science Museum (Korean: 국립과천과학관) is a national museum in Gwacheon, South Korea. It opened in 2008. + + +== Hall of Fame == + + +=== Main exhibitions === +The hall of fame is a place to praise the achievements of the scientists who contributed to the development of science and technology, and to look around at how Korea has developed and what Korea has achieved. It is dedicated to 31 honorable scientists such as Jang Yeong-sil, Heo Jun, Benjamin Whisoh Lee, and Seok Joo-myung. It consists of 35 exhibits, including 2 experimental exhibits such as “I am also an honorable scientist.” The achievements of the scientists are told in a storytelling way. + + +=== Honorable scientists from the old days, meet the brilliant past === +Like the invention of gunpowder weapons of Moo-seon Choi or what the famous Joseon engineer Young-shil Jang had done, the brilliant achievements of the main figures who led the science and technology powerhouse in the 14th to 15th centuries can be seen here. The successes and relics of the scientists who led Korean science and technology during the Renaissance, such as Joon Heo and Dae-yong Hong, can also be seen here. + + +=== Honorable contemporary scientists, overcome the pains === +Here, scientists who contributed to Korea's rise to one of the 10 top science and technology developed countries and its recovery from the pains of Japanese colonization and the Korean War are honored. The stories are classified into “Pioneers of Science and Technology,” “Constructing the Footholds of Science and Technology,” “Researches that expanded the Horizon of Knowledge,” and “Researches that changed the lives of Koreans.” + + +=== Digital archive, reviewing at once === +“Korea’s glorious history of science” is an archive table that shows the positions and achievements of honorable scientists in chronological order, starting from the 14th century. + + +=== I am also an Honorable Scientist, dreaming of becoming a scientist === +It is a photo zone where visitors can exhibit what they want to achieve with reliefs of their faces. + + +== Nobel Prize and Me == + + +=== Main exhibitions === +Visitors can experience the achievements of Nobel prize winners, especially those that are relevant in real life. 31 displays in 5 corners form the shape of a house. Some examples are ‘Nobel car race’ and ‘DNA rolling ball.’ + + +=== Nobel prize hero, meet the saviors of the human race === +In the “Nobel prize hero” corner, scientists who changed people’s lives dramatically, such as Marie Curie, James Watson, who found out the structure of DNA, and Fleming, who found penicillin, are honored. + + +=== Nobel prize winners in Physiology or Medicine in the library === +“Nobel prize winners in Physiology or Medicine change the view of life,” tells how research like discovering vaccines, developing artificial vitamins, and in vitro fertilization have helped people to be healthy. “DNA rolling ball” is an experimental exhibit that shows how the gene synthesis, which produces fluorescent fish and blue roses, works. + + +=== Nobel Prize Winners in Physics in the Living Room === +“Nobel Prize winners in Physics uncover the origin of space,” explains how these laureates determined that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old. There is also a model of a large particle accelerator that illustrates how scientists have attempted to discover the smallest particles. +“Nobel Prize winners in Physics enhance human capabilities” describes how inventions such as television, digital cameras, telephones, navigation systems, and computers emerged as a result of their work. + + +=== Nobel prize winners in Chemistry in the kitchen === +“Nobel prize winners in nature” shows the achievement of winners in chemistry like detergents, frying pans, plastic products, artificial dye and spices, and fermented foods. +“Nobel prize winners in vehicle” shows the contribution of the winners to vehicles with VR racing games. + + +== Images == + + +== See also == +National Science Museum, South Korea +List of museums in South Korea + + +== External links == + +Official Site +terraceone +m tower \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR_Wallingford-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR_Wallingford-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..538fc9a0d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR_Wallingford-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "HR Wallingford" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR_Wallingford" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:47.212521+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +HR Wallingford Ltd is an engineering and research organisation based in the United Kingdom with a focus on civil engineering and environmental hydraulics. +It was created by the UK Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in 1947, to deal with 'looser boundary' problems such as coastal erosion, flood protection, and the silting and scouring of rivers, estuaries and harbours. +HR Wallingford was a government establishment until 1982, when it was privatised from the Department of the Environment to become Hydraulics Research Station Limited. It became known as HR Wallingford in 1991. During its existence, it has contributed to advance hydraulics research. It also worked on water-related projects in the UK and around the world. + + +== History == +1945 – The Institution of Civil Engineers submitted a proposal to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research on the need for a hydraulics research station in the UK. +1947 – DSIR Hydraulic Research Organisation formed in London +1951 – Hydraulics Research Station established in Wallingford +1965 – Re-organisation into Ministry of Technology. Hydrological Research Unit transferred to the Natural Environment Research Council and later to become Institute of Hydrology and then Centre for Ecology and Hydrology +1971 – Transfer to the Department of the Environment +1982 – Privatisation to create Hydraulics Research Station Limited - a company limited by guarantee. +1983 – Hydraulics Research Limited +1991 – HR Wallingford Limited + + +== Projects in the UK == + + +=== Thames Estuary === +HRS started doing research in the tidal Thames Estuary in 1947. At this time HRO (Hydraulic Research Organisation) was based at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington and had links with a large physical model set up by the Port of London Authority (PLA) in one of their disused warehouses on the Surrey Docks. This model was used to examine many hydrodynamic, sediment, water quality and morphological issues related to the Thames Estuary and the potential redevelopment of the Estuary following the considerable infrastructure damage that had been suffered during World War II. Many of the issues examined and the techniques developed in this pre-computer age formed a remarkably good base from which the modern range and scope of studies have been developed. This has determined the framework for an understanding of the many processes that operate within the tidal Thames Estuary. + + +=== Thames Barrier === +In 1968 of hydraulic studies were funded to understand how a barrier across the Thames would affect the levels of the river and change the movement of silt, although at that time no particular site had been chosen. This would lead to the creation of stations to monitor the measure and the studies were not complete until 1981. The Thames barrier was designed by Rendel, Palmer and Tritton for the Greater London Council and tested at Hydraulics Research Station. + + +=== Shipmoor === +In 2021, with the Witherby Publishing Group, the company launched an LNG carrier mooring tool called SHIPMOOR. + + +== HRS and Institute of Hydrology == +HRS established the Hydrological Research Unit for the purpose of River catchment research and engineering and co-operation with other government offices such as the : +- Soil Survey of England and Wales (JP Bell) +- the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, +- the River Authority (1963 Act). +The work expanded greatly after the 1968 flood in Somerset from such actions as the Plynlimon Hafren and Gwy forest and grassland catchments of 1965 under the auspices of James McCulloch (civil engineering) and John C Rodda (hydrometerology and catchments), to operate several units Northumberland, Thetford, Plynlimon, and was moved to Crowmarsh Gifford as the Institute of Hydrology, in part concerning itself with a mass Flood analysis using existing River Authority data (1975). The Institute is now the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, part of the Natural Environment Research Council. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +HR Wallingford Limited \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haga_trädgård-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haga_trädgård-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67ac0d760 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haga_trädgård-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Haga trädgård" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haga_trädgård" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:50.828982+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Haga Trädgård is a garden located at the northern end of Haga Park in Solna, Sweden. +Haga Trädgård was founded by King Gustav III in the 1785. It was intended that it should become the kitchen garden to the royal household. At the time Gustav III had plans to build a very large palace just 300m from Haga Trädgård but eventually due to lack of available finance the palace was never built. The Haga Tradgard gardens were indeed established and provided the royal household with many different local and exotic vegetables and fruits. In 1812 the King purchased 20 figs from the gardens at a cost of 2 kronor each. At the time a garden employee earned just 7.5 öre per hour. The gardens flourished and became a well known source for flowers and vegetables. +In 1917 the department store NK took over the gardens to grow fresh vegetables for Stockholm's inhabitants. It was at the tail end of the first World War and fresh vegetables were quite scarce. In 1917, NK built a splendid conservatory which now is Stockholms oldest conservatory. In 1933 the town council of Stockholm took over the gardens and produced flowers for official use and for embellishment of squares and gardens. +In 1989 Stephen Fried and Marie Fried opened the Fjärilshuset ("Butterfly House") in Haga Gardens which once again turned the area into a visitor attraction. The butterfly house was so successful that Stephen Fried and Marie Fried bought all of the buildings from the town council with the Royal Swedish Land Agency retaining the land. +Nowadays Fjärilshuset is a national museum with the buildings being held privately and the land leased by Fjarilshuset Haga Tradgard AB. Haga Tradgard is successively being restored so that it mirrors its historical continuity. + + +== Gallery == + + +== External links == +Official site +Photographs \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Hill_Tower-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Hill_Tower-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bc2c790d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Hill_Tower-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Harlow Hill Tower" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Hill_Tower" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:44.370756+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Harlow Hill Tower is a historic building in Harrogate, a town in North Yorkshire, in England. +The building was constructed as an observatory in 1829. It is on the edge of Harlow Moor and was built for John Thompson. It was open to the public as a viewing point by 1900, but was only fitted out with a permanent telescope in 1933. In 1998, a Foucault pendulum was installed inside. The building has been grade II listed since 1949. +The tower is built of stone, with a square plan, and is generally said to be 90 feet (27 m) high, although the Harrogate Civic Society states that it has been measured as only 70 feet (21 m) high. On the top is a modern domed observatory roof. It has no decoration other than a lintel inscribed "HARLOW-HILL TOWER 1829". The only windows are small panes on each side near the top. Adjacent is a two-storey entrance extension with a tile roof, and steps leading up to an upper floor doorway. + + +== See also == +Listed buildings in Harrogate (Harlow Moor Ward) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatteras_Weather_Bureau_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatteras_Weather_Bureau_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6d6022d40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatteras_Weather_Bureau_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Hatteras Weather Bureau Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatteras_Weather_Bureau_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:59.148188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Hatteras Weather Bureau Station is a wood-frame building in Hatteras, North Carolina built in 1901 for what was then called the U.S. Weather Bureau. The then-remote location on the Outer Banks of North Carolina provided data on conditions in the Atlantic Ocean from a fixed location that was farther into the ocean environment than any on the Atlantic coast. The building served as a weather station from 1902 to 1946, when it was converted to living quarters for Weather Bureau personnel. In 1952 the property was turned over to the U.S. Coast Guard, which used it until 1958, when it was transferred to the National Park Service for use by Cape Hatteras National Seashore. From 1958 to 1976 the building was used as a research station, first by Duke University and later by North Carolina State University for investigations concerning marine invertebrates. +It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..39569c8b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Heron Island (Queensland)" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:44.850290+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Heron Island is a coral cay located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef. It is 87 kilometres (54 miles) north-east of Gladstone, Queensland, Australia, and 460 km (290 mi) north-north-west of the state capital Brisbane. The island is situated on the leeward (western) side of Heron Reef, a fringing platform reef of significant biodiversity, supporting around 900 of the 1,500 fish species and 72% of the coral species found on the Great Barrier Reef. During the summer months Heron Island is also home to over 200,000 birds including Noddy Terns and Mutton Birds. +The island is about 800 metres (2,600 feet) long and 300 metres (980 ft) at its widest, giving an area of approximately 16 hectares (40 acres). The highest point, near the western tip, is 3.6 metres (12 ft) above sea level. A dune ridge along the southern shore rises some 3 metres (9 ft 10 in) above sea level, lower dunes on the north-eastern side are only about one metre (3 ft 3 in) above the sea. +Heron Island and an extrapolated version of the research station are the scene of much of the first part of Arthur C. Clarke's The Deep Range. + +== History == + +There is no evidence of Indigenous presence or activity on Heron Island; it is over 65 km (35 nmi) from the Australian mainland. +The island was discovered on 12 January 1843 by a Royal Navy expedition comprising the corvette HMS Fly and the cutter Bramble. The expedition, commanded by Captain Francis Blackwood, was engaged in surveying the eastern edge of the Great Barrier Reef to map out detailed plans for safe passages within the reef. +The island was named by Lieutenant Charles Bampfield Yule, the commander of Bramble. +The island did not become inhabited until the early 20th century when a turtle cannery was established. The aim was to profit from the seasonal influx of green turtles, but the venture soon found it difficult to keep the business afloat. Other attempts at establishing fisheries were abandoned. +In 1932 Captain Christian Poulsen, engaged in bringing fishing parties to the reef, realised the potential of the island as a tourist attraction. In 1936 he bought the lease of the island for £290. On 11 September 1943, the entire island was declared a National Park. + +== Land use == + +=== Heron Island Resort === +Heron Island Resort, operated by the Aldesta Group, is located in the north-west corner of the island. The resort is a popular getaway for scuba diving and snorkelling and accommodates up to 300 guests and 100 staff members. It was owned by P&O before being sold to Voyages Hotels & Resorts in 2004. In March 2012 Heron Island Resort was featured in the BBC's nature TV series Great Barrier Reef. + +=== Heron Island Research Station === +The University of Queensland Heron Island Research Station is situated in the island's south-west quarter. Established in the 1950s by the Great Barrier Reef Committee with the University of Queensland becoming a partner in its operations in 1970, the facility is one of the world's principal coral reef research stations, with a wide variety of research undertaken on coral reef ecology. +Heron Island Research Station suffered a large fire on Friday, 30 March 2007. No one was injured. +In June 2008 the new student accommodation, comprising 80 beds, was officially opened and used for the first time by Tropical Marine Network students. The teaching laboratories and new research building with 9 research labs, library, darkroom, computer room and aquaria deck were officially reopened in February 2009. +In 2010, a state of the art climate change experimental facility was opened at the Research Station. +Sir David Attenborough and Atlantic Productions filmed segments for the documentary David Attenborough's Great Barrier Reef, at Heron Island Research Station in late 2014. + +=== National Park === +The eastern half of the island is protected and forms part of the Capricornia Cays National Park, with a permanent ranger's station onsite. + +=== Harbour === +There is a small artificial channel and wooden jetty on the western shore of the island, where the daily catamaran launch from Gladstone docks and supplies to the island are delivered. The rusted wreck of HMCS Protector lies at the entrance to the channel, and was towed to there in 1945 to form a breakwater for visiting vessels. + +=== Utilities === +The island has no fresh water supply. A small desalination plant on the island uses reverse osmosis technology to supply water for human consumption. Similarly, three diesel generators (and some solar panels) supply electricity to the island. + +== Ecology == +Heron Island has notably rich soil for a tropical coral cay, particularly in the dense southern forest. This is due to the presence of tens of thousands of wedge-tailed shearwaters (Ardenna pacifica) during breeding season. These birds disturb the humus as they dig their nesting burrows, and thus prevent the formation of Jemo soil, a phosphatic hardpan topped off by raw humus. The hardpan is formed by leaching of surface- or tree-nesting seabirds' guano in the absence of burrowing animals. + +=== Flora === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..922fb3d0e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Heron Island (Queensland)" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:44.850290+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Rich forests of Pisonia grandis dominate the centre and south of Heron Island. Towards the eastern and north-western ends, the forest is readily accessible, but its heart is a dense tangle, interrupted only by a few trails. +Some trees in the heart of the forest grow to 10–11 m, but most are just 6–8 m high. The understory is largely absent here, formed only by scattered Celtis paniculata, Ficus opposita and Pipturus argenteus with a height of 2–4 m; some Celtis also grow higher and emerge through the Pisonia canopy. Patches of shrubs – mainly Abutilon albescens, with Wollastonia biflora (probably var. canescens), and the introduced wild poinsettia (Euphorbia cyathophora) – are found here and there. Herbaceous plants are scarce here, mainly consisting of the grass Stenotaphrum micranthum. The more open forest is composed of much the same plants, but the Pisonia does not predominate as much. A few Pandanus tectorius screwpines are also found here, and the understory is far more prominent. +North of the Pisonia forest, a band of open shrubland with some trees extends from the resort to the island's eastern tip. Octopus bush (Heliotropium foertherianum) and sea cabbage (Scaevola taccada) form the major bush cover, while Abutilon and Melanthera are the characteristic ground plants. The trees here are mainly Pandanus, but also Celtis, the she-oak Casuarina equisetifolia ssp. incana, Ficus, bay cedar (Suriana maritima). Herbs, mainly the parasitic vine Cassytha filiformis as well as Euphorbia tannensis ssp. eremophila and grasses (mainly Pacific island thintail, Lepturus repens var. subulatus), are abundant. +The eastern end is marked by a similar habitat, with mainly Casuarina, Scaevola and Heliotropium. This type of vegetation, with some Pandanus in between, extends along the southern and northern dune ridges. On the dune slopes, Boerhavia repens, Commicarpus chinensis var. chinensis (or Commicarpus australis?), the searocket Cakile edentula, yet another Euphorbia (probably Euphorbia sparrmanii), and kuroiwa grass (Thuarea involuta) are common. + +East of the resort in the north-western part of Heron Island there is another type of forest, more open than the central wood. The main tree here is the manjack Cordia subcordata of which few are found elsewhere on Heron Island; Pisonia trees are present but not dominant. The Abutilon–Euphorbia cyathophora–Melanthera scrub grows thick here. Scaevola and Heliotropium as well as patches of the dropseed grass Sporobolus virginicus occur at this forest's edge. +The sea turtle nesting area is further east, making up the central part of the northern shoreside. The animals' burrowing has prevented a proper forest from forming. Consequently, though the usual tree species are found in isolated individuals, the sand is overgrown with herbs and small shrubs, mainly Cakile, Cassytha, Euphorbia eremophila, Lepturus and Melanthera. +Around the western end there is an abundance of plants introduced by the research and resort activity, some deliberately as ornamentals, others accidentally. Notable are Euphorbia cyathophora and Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum, as well as papaya (Carica papaya), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), oleander (Nerium oleander) and temple tree (Plumeria rubra) which have been planted. + +=== Fauna === + +Heron Island is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area. The island's forest and surrounding dunes provide habitat for thousands of nesting seabirds, including the wedge-tailed shearwater (Ardenna pacifica) and the south-western black noddy (Anous minutus minutus), during the breeding season between October and April. Over 120,000 white-capped noddies nest on the island during this period. +All-year resident and breeding on Heron Island are: + +Silver gull (Larus novaehollandiae forsteri) +Eastern reef egret (Egretta s. sacra) +Buff-banded rail (Gallirallus philippensis mellori) +Bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia h. humeralis) +Sacred kingfisher (Todiramphus s. sanctus) +Black-faced cuckooshrike (Coracina n. novaehollandiae) +Capricorn silvereye (Zosterops lateralis chlorocephalus) + +Though other herons may occasionally visit the island, the only member of the Ardeidae which is a breeding resident is the eastern reef egret. And even though the terms "heron" and "egret" are not scientific, the former is generally used to denote the large Ardea whereas the smaller Egretta species are usually called "egrets". Insofar, the only "true" heron that could ever be found on Heron Island is the white-necked heron (Ardea pacifica), which is only seen every now and then as a rare vagrant. +Since 2003, a pair of white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) have nested on Heron Island. However, in June 2019 the tree their nest sat in fell down killing the female. As of October 2019 the male has been seen with another adult but no nest has been built. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab18f9e4c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Heron Island (Queensland)" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:44.850290+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +At least one species of rat, probably the widespread polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), is found on the island. Though even these small rats are known to harm island birds, this is insignificant on islands so close to a continent; while the rats probably feed on eggs and nestlings, they do not threaten the breeding bird populations as a whole. +Heron Island is also a major nesting site for green (Chelonia mydas) and Indopacific loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta gigas). Around 98% of all turtles that nest on the island are green turtles, and only 2% of them will be loggerheads. The Indopacific hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata bissa) has been seen on the reef but does not breed on the island. Other marine life includes the inhabitants of the coral reef, and around early October, cetaceans (e.g. humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae) pass Heron Island on their migration to their summer quarters in subantarctic waters. +As of June 2020, the Turtle Cooling Project is being undertaken by scientists from the World Wildlife Fund Australia, University of Queensland, Deakin University and the Queensland Government. It is looking at the effect of global warming on northern green turtle breeding, in particular the effect of producing more male turtles owing to the higher temperatures. They are working in the area around Raine Island, Heron Island and Moulter Cay. +A notable and much-studied invertebrate of Heron Island is Cerithium moniliferum, a small marine snail. These animals will form large groups as the tide recedes. Feeding on beach rock at a specific height over the average low tide level, the snails slowly move about in their clusters, preserving the precious moisture that allows them to breathe overwater. +Mosquitos and other biting insects are rare on the island. However, diseases such as avian malaria and avian pox, which are carried by biting mosquitoes have been found in low numbers in the island's silvereyes. + +== Geology == + +Heron Reef is a lagoonal platform reef. It has developed in a high energy environment with high tidal flows promoting water turnover and unobstructed access to the ocean. The reef dates from the Holocene period but shows evidence of possible development in the Pleistocene period. Core analysis of the reef from 1937, demonstrated a thickness of at least 15m of stacked limestone, with an eastward sloping disconformity. + +== Society and culture == + +=== Known shipwrecks on the reef === +Jane Lockhart sank between 11 and 17 December 1868. The vessel was a two-mast schooner which departed from Sydney with general cargo for Broadsound and ran aground at an uncertain location - originally stated as on Lady Musgrave reef (most unlikely), later news reports claimed a wreck on Heron Island, with some other reports mentioning the wreck on either One Tree Island or Mast Head. The crew took to the boat and safely reached the pilot station at Great Keppel Island. The vessel was built in 1861 at Ulladulla and registered in Sydney with the Official number of 36858 and a Registered number of 9/1861. +From the original reports: + +One of the boats dispatched to the wreck of the Jane Lockhart, schooner, has returned with the sails and a portion of the running and standing gear. The vessel, it appears, did not strike on Bunker's Group, as reported by Captain Machen, but upon what is known as Heron Island, about ninety miles to the northward of Bunker's Group. When the boat reached the vessel she was settled in a hollow in one of the reefs, the outer formation of the hollow acting as a breakwater against the seas. One side of the vessel was quite visible, and the new copper sheathing appeared uninjured. Captain Norris, who went down in charge of the boat, unbent the sails, so that the position of the vessel might as much as possible remain unaltered; he left the yards and masts standing. + +and six months later it was reported as: + +The Rose, schooner, has returned from the wreck of the Jane Lockhart, on Masthead Reef, whither she went on 15 June Captain Dwyer informs us that the Jane Lockhart still lies in a very snug position, and he has no doubt but that himself, and Mr Norris, the purchaser of the wreck, will be able, ultimately, to raise the vessel and bring her safely to Rockhampton +Nearly the whole of the period that they were at the reef, very heavy weather prevailed, staving operations towards the recovery of the cargo, but luckily the strong SE winds lulled for about three days Captain Dwyer availed himself of the occasion, set to work, rigged up a staging between the masts of the Lockhart, schooner, and by means of a rope and a South Sea Island diver, managed to bring up from eighty to ninety large iron pulley wheels, besides a quantity of machinery and sundries, comprising Ale, porter, liqueur brandy, cutlery, ironmongery, etc Unfortunately the Roses water ran out, much to the chagrin of the crew, who would have raised a great deal more, only having to run into port for supplies. + +=== Voyager spacecraft === +A photo of Heron Island is included on the Voyager Golden Record which was sent past the limits of the Solar System aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft. The photo of Heron Island was selected as one of the examples that portrayed the diversity of life and culture on Earth. + +== References == + +== External links == + +Heron Island Research Station Archived 17 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine +Memories and Mutton Birds: Women of the Great Barrier Reef +EPA/QPWS: Capricornia Cays National Park +Tide Table for Heron Island +Heron Island History, Sydney Morning Herald, 8 February 2004 +Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Shore and Beach, 2006, 74:2 17–18 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4300d04af --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is a University of Alaska Fairbanks program which researches the ionosphere – the highest, ionized part of Earth's atmosphere. The most prominent instrument at HAARP is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI), a high-power radio frequency transmitter facility operating in the high frequency (HF) band. The IRI is used to temporarily excite a limited area of the ionosphere. Other instruments, such as a VHF and a UHF radar, a fluxgate magnetometer, a digisonde (an ionospheric sounding device), and an induction magnetometer, are used to study the physical processes that occur in the excited region. Work on the HAARP facility began in 1993. Initially HAARP was jointly funded by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). It was designed and built by BAE Advanced Technologies. Its original purpose was to analyze the ionosphere and investigate the potential for developing ionospheric enhancement technology for radio communications and surveillance. Since 2015 it has been operated by the University of Alaska Fairbanks. +The current working IRI was completed in 2007; its prime contractor was BAE Systems Advanced Technologies. As of 2008, HAARP had incurred around $250 million in tax-funded construction and operating costs. In May 2014, it was announced that the HAARP program would be permanently shut down later in the year. After discussions between the parties, ownership of the facility was transferred to the University of Alaska Fairbanks in August 2015. +HAARP is a target of conspiracy theorists, who claim that it is capable of weather manipulation and mind control. Scientists and other critics point out that these claims fall well outside the abilities of the facility, and often outside the scope of current natural science. + +== History == + +The High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program began in 1990. Ted Stevens, Republican U.S. senator from Alaska, helped win approval for the facility, and construction began in 1993. +In early May 2013, HAARP was temporarily shut down, awaiting a change between contractors to operate the facility. In July 2013, HAARP program manager James Keeney said, "Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is expected on site as a client to finish up some research in fall 2013 and winter 2014." The temporary shutdown was described as being due to "a contractor regime change." Ahtna, Incorporated, the Alaska Native corporation serving the region of Alaska where the HAARP site is located, was reportedly in talks to take over the facility administration contract from Marsh Creek, LLC. +In May 2014, the Air Force announced that the HAARP program would be shut down later in 2014. While experiments ended in the summer of 2014, the complete shutdown and dismantling of the facility was postponed until at least May 2015. In mid-August 2015 control of the facility and its equipment was turned over to the University of Alaska Fairbanks, which is making the facilities available for researchers on a pay-per-use basis. + +== Project overview == +HAARP began operating in 1999 as a 6 × 8 (= 48) antenna array at 0.96 MW, expanding in 2007 to a 12 × 15 (=180) array of 180 antennas with 360 radio transmitters at 9.6 MW. It covers 14 ha near Gakona, about 250 km northeast of Anchorage. Its beam direction is anywhere within 30° of zenith. +The HAARP project directs a 3.6 MW signal, in the 2.8–10 MHz region of the HF band, into the ionosphere. The signal may be pulsed or continuous. Effects of the transmission and any recovery period can be examined using associated instrumentation, including VHF and UHF radars, HF receivers, and optical cameras. According to the HAARP team, this will advance the study of basic natural processes that occur in the ionosphere under the natural but much stronger influence of solar interaction. HAARP also enables studies of how the natural ionosphere affects radio signals. +The insights gleaned at HAARP will enable scientists to develop methods to mitigate these effects to improve the reliability or performance of communication and navigation systems which would have a wide range of both civilian and military uses, such as an increased accuracy of GPS navigation and advances in underwater and underground research and applications. This may lead, among other things, to improved methods for submarine communication or an ability to remotely sense and map the mineral content of the terrestrial subsurface, and perhaps underground complexes, of regions or countries. The current facility lacks range to be used in regions like the oil-rich Middle East, according to one of the researchers involved, but the technology could be put on a mobile platform. +The project was originally funded by the Office of Naval Research and jointly managed by the ONR and Air Force Research Laboratory, with principal involvement of the University of Alaska Fairbanks; other US universities and educational institutions involved in the development of the project and its instruments include Stanford University, Penn State University (ARL), Boston College, UCLA, Clemson University, Dartmouth College, Cornell University, Johns Hopkins University, University of Maryland, College Park, University of Massachusetts Amherst, MIT, Polytechnic Institute of New York University, Virginia Tech and the University of Tulsa. The project's specifications were developed by the universities, who continued to play a major role in the design of future research efforts. +According to HAARP's original management, the project strove for openness, and all activities were logged and publicly available, a practice which continues under the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Scientists without security clearances, even foreign nationals, were routinely allowed on site, which also continues today. HAARP hosts an open house annually, during which time any civilian can tour the entire facility. In addition, scientific results obtained using HAARP are routinely published in major research journals (such as Geophysical Research Letters and Journal of Geophysical Research), written both by university scientists (American and foreign) and by U.S. Department of Defense research lab scientists. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..16dbfb00e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Research == +HAARP's main goal is basic science research in the uppermost portion of the atmosphere, termed the ionosphere. Essentially a transition between the atmosphere and the magnetosphere, the ionosphere is where the atmosphere is thin enough that the Sun's X-rays and UV rays can reach it, but thick enough that there are enough molecules present to absorb those rays. Consequently, the ionosphere consists of a rapid increase in density of free electrons, beginning at ~70 km, reaching a peak at ~300 km, and then falling off again as the atmosphere disappears entirely by ~1,000 km. Various aspects of HAARP can study all of the main layers of the ionosphere. +The profile of the ionosphere is highly variable, changing constantly on timescales of minutes, hours, days, seasons, and years. This profile becomes even more complex near Earth's magnetic poles, where the nearly vertical alignment and intensity of Earth's magnetic field can cause physical effects like the aurora. +The ionosphere is traditionally very difficult to measure. Balloons cannot reach it because the air is too thin, but satellites cannot orbit there because the air is too thick. Hence, most experiments on the ionosphere give only small pieces of information. HAARP approaches the study of the ionosphere by following in the footsteps of an ionospheric heater called EISCAT near Tromsø, Norway. There, scientists pioneered exploration of the ionosphere by perturbing it with radio waves in the 2–10 MHz range, and studying how the ionosphere reacts. HAARP performs the same functions but with more power and a more flexible and agile HF beam. +Some of the main capabilities of HAARP include: + +Generating very low frequency (VLF) radio waves by modulated heating of the auroral electrojet, useful because generating VLF waves ordinarily requires gigantic antennas +Generating artificial airglow, which is typically subvisual but routinely detectable. Under certain geophysical conditions and transmitter configurations, it can be bright enough to observe with the unaided eye. +Generating extremely low frequency (ELF) waves in the 0.1 Hz range. These are next to impossible to produce any other way, because the length of an antenna is dictated by the wavelength of the signal it emits or receives. +Generating whistler-mode VLF signals that enter the magnetosphere and propagate to the other hemisphere, interacting with Van Allen radiation belt particles along the way +VLF remote sensing of the heated ionosphere +Research at the HAARP has included: + +Plasma line observations +Stimulated electron emission observations. That is, HAARP stimulates plasma waves, which creates radio waves that are received on the ground. The spectrum depends on charge density, ion mass, magnetic field strength, etc. +Gyro frequency heating research +Spread F observations (blurring of ionospheric echoes of radio waves due to irregularities in electron density in the F layer) +High-velocity trace runs +Airglow observations +Heating induced scintillation observations +VLF and ELF generation observations +Radio observations of meteors +Polar mesospheric summer echoes (PMSE) have been studied, probing the mesosphere using the IRI as a powerful radar, and with a 28 MHz radar and two VHF radars at 49 MHz and 139 MHz. The presence of multiple radars spanning both HF and VHF bands allows scientists to make comparative measurements that may someday lead to an understanding of the processes that form these elusive phenomena. +Research into extraterrestrial HF radar echos: the Lunar Echo experiment (2008). +Testing of spread spectrum Transmitters (2009) +Meteor shower impacts on the ionosphere +Response and recovery of the ionosphere from solar flares and geomagnetic storms +The effect of ionospheric disturbances on GPS satellite signal quality +Producing high density plasma clouds in Earth's upper atmosphere +The magnetic zenith effect, that airglow excited by heated electrons becomes much stronger when at the magnetic zenith (the direction of magnetic field). ~100 Rayleighs in O(1 S) 557.7 nm and O(1 D) 630 nm, the main spectral lines in aurora airglows. +Research conducted at the HAARP facility has allowed the US military to perfect communications with its fleet of submarines by sending radio signals over long distances. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5efceb14f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Instrumentation and operation == +The main instrument at HAARP is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI). This is a high-power, high-frequency phased array radio transmitter with a set of 180 antennas, disposed in an array of 12×15 units that occupy a rectangle of about 30–40 acres (12–16 hectares). The IRI is used to temporarily energize a small portion of the ionosphere. The study of these disturbed volumes yields important information for understanding natural ionospheric processes. +During active ionospheric research, the signal generated by the transmitter system is delivered to the antenna array and transmitted in an upward direction. At an altitude between 70 and 350 km (43 and 217 mi) (depending on operating frequency), the signal is partially absorbed in a small volume several tens of kilometers in diameter and a few meters thick over the IRI. The intensity of the HF signal in the ionosphere is less than 3 μW/cm2, tens of thousands of times less than the Sun's natural electromagnetic radiation reaching the Earth and hundreds of times less than even the normal random variations in intensity of the Sun's natural ultraviolet (UV) energy which creates the ionosphere. The small effects that are produced can be observed with the sensitive scientific instruments installed at the HAARP facility. These observations can provide information about the dynamics of plasmas and insight into the processes of solar-terrestrial interactions. +Each antenna element consists of a crossed dipole that can be polarized for linear, ordinary mode (O-mode), or extraordinary mode (X-mode) transmission and reception. +Each part of the two section crossed dipoles is individually fed from a specially designed, custom-built transmitter that operates at very low distortion levels. The effective radiated power (ERP) of the IRI is limited by more than a factor of 10 at its lower operating frequencies. Much of this is due to higher antenna losses and a less efficient antenna pattern. +The IRI can transmit between 2.7 and 10 MHz, a frequency range that lies above the AM radio broadcast band and well below Citizens' Band frequency allocations. HAARP is licensed to transmit only in certain segments of this frequency range. When the IRI is transmitting, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is 100 kHz or less. The IRI can transmit in continuous waves (CW) or in pulses as short as 10 microseconds (μs). CW transmission is generally used for ionospheric modification, while transmission in short pulses frequently repeated is used as a radar system. Researchers can run experiments that use both modes of transmission, first modifying the ionosphere for a predetermined amount of time, then measuring the decay of modification effects with pulsed transmissions. +There are other geophysical instruments for research located at the HAARP facility. Some of them are: + +A fluxgate magnetometer built by the University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute, available to chart variations in the Earth's magnetic field. Rapid and sharp changes of the magnetic field may indicate a geomagnetic storm. +A digisonde that can provide ionospheric profiles, allowing scientists to choose appropriate frequencies for IRI operation. The HAARP makes current and historic digisonde information available online. +An induction magnetometer, provided by the University of Tokyo, that measures the changing geomagnetic field in the Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) range of 0–5 Hz. +The facility is powered by a set of five 2500 kilowatt generators being driven by EMD 20-645-E4 diesel locomotive engines. + +== Site == + +The project site (62°23′30″N 145°09′03″W) is north of Gakona, Alaska just west of Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park. An environmental impact statement led to permission for an array of up to 180 antennas to be erected. HAARP was constructed at the previous site of an over-the-horizon radar (OTH) installation. A large structure, built to house the OTH now houses the HAARP control room, kitchen and offices. Several other small structures house various instruments. +The HAARP site was constructed in three distinct phases: + +The Developmental Prototype (DP) had 18 antenna elements, organized in three columns by six rows. It was fed with a total of 360 kilowatts (kW) combined transmitter output power. The DP transmitted just enough power for the most basic of ionospheric testing. +The Filled Developmental Prototype (FDP) had 48 antenna units arrayed in six columns by eight rows, with 960 kW of transmitter power. It was fairly comparable to other ionospheric heating facilities. This was used for a number of successful scientific experiments and ionospheric exploration campaigns over the years. +The Final IRI (FIRI) is the final build of the IRI. It has 180 antenna units, organized in 15 columns by 12 rows, yielding a theoretical maximum gain of 31 dB. A total of 3.6 MW of transmitter power will feed it, but the power is focused in the upward direction by the geometry of the large phased array of antennas which allow the antennas to work together in controlling the direction. As of March 2007, all the antennas were in place, the final phase was completed and the antenna array was undergoing testing aimed at fine-tuning its performance to comply with safety requirements required by regulatory agencies. The facility officially began full operations in its final status of 3.6 MW transmitter power in the summer of 2007, yielding a maximum effective radiated power (ERP) of 5.1 gigawatts or 97.1 dBW. However, the site typically operates at a fraction of that power due to the lower antenna gain exhibited at frequencies used in standard operation. + +== Related facilities == +In the United States, there have been two related ionospheric heating facilities: the HIPAS, near Fairbanks, Alaska, which was dismantled in 2009, and one at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, which collapsed in 2020. The European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association (EISCAT) operates an ionospheric heating facility capable of transmitting over 1 GW effective radiated power (ERP), near Tromsø, Norway. The Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility, in Vasilsursk, Russia, near Nizhniy Novgorod, is capable of transmitting 190 MW ERP. + +== Conspiracy theories == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5319f51fc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +HAARP is the subject of numerous conspiracy theories. Various individuals have speculated about hidden motivations and capabilities of the project. For example, Rosalie Bertell warned in 1996 about the deployment of HAARP as a military weapon. Michel Chossudovsky stated in a book published by the Committee on Monetary and Economic Reform that "recent scientific evidence suggests that HAARP is fully operational and has the capability of triggering floods, hurricanes, droughts and earthquakes." Over time, HAARP has been blamed for generating such catastrophes, as well as thunderstorms, in Iran, Pakistan, Haiti, Turkey, Greece and the Philippines, and even major power outages, the downing of TWA Flight 800, Gulf War syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome. +Allegations include the following: + +Nick Begich Jr., the son of the late U.S. Representative Nick Begich Sr., brother of former U.S. Senator Mark Begich and retired Alaska state senator Tom Begich, and father of current U.S. Representative Nick Begich III is the co-author of Angels Don't Play This HAARP. He has claimed that the HAARP facility could trigger earthquakes and turn the upper atmosphere into a giant lens so that "the sky would literally appear to burn." He maintains a website that claims HAARP is a mind control device. +A Russian military journal wrote that ionospheric testing would "trigger a cascade of electrons that could flip Earth's magnetic poles". +The Alaska state legislature and the European Parliament held hearings about HAARP, the latter citing environmental concerns. +Former Governor of Minnesota, ex-professional wrestler, and documentary maker Jesse Ventura questioned whether the government is using the site to manipulate the weather or to bombard people with mind-controlling radio waves. An Air Force spokeswoman said Ventura made an official request to visit the research station but was rejected. "He and his crew showed up at HAARP anyway and were denied access." +Physicist Bernard Eastlund claimed that HAARP includes technology based on his own patents that has the capability to modify weather and neutralize satellites. +It has been proposed as a cause of low frequency background hums said to be heard in various locales. +In 1995, Elisabeth Rehn, Finnish Member of the European Parliament, tabled a motion for a resolution on the potential use of military-related resources for environmental strategies. The proposal is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defense Policy for substantive consideration. Magda Aelvoet, Belgian MEP and President of the Green Group, becomes convinced that HAARP is a secret weapon system. In 1998, the two MEPs, convinced by Begich's theory that HAARP poses a threat to the environment, decided to write a report in which they interviewed only two people — Begich and Rosalie Bertell, head of a Canadian association which also supports the conspiracy theory of chemtrails — the invited representatives of the United States and NATO did not respond. It is on the basis of these two testimonies alone, in which Begich is described as a doctor without having any qualification, that a report by the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defense Policy relating to the environment, security and foreign policy takes up these assertions and adopts a resolution indicating that "HAARP (High Frequency Active Auroral Research Project) by virtue of its far-reaching impact on the environment to be a global concern and (the European Parliament) calls for its legal, ecological and ethical implications to be examined by an international independent body before any further research and testing." +Two Georgia men arrested on drug charges in November 2016 were reportedly plotting domestic terrorism based on conspiracy theories about HAARP. The Coffee County Sheriff's Office said the men possessed a "massive arsenal" that included AR-15 rifles, Glock handguns, a Remington rifle and thousands of rounds of ammunition. According to police, the men wanted to destroy HAARP because they believed the facility manipulates the weather, controls minds and even traps the souls of people. Police say the men confessed that "God told them to go and blow this machine up that kept souls, so souls could be released." +Stanford University professor Umran Inan told Popular Science that weather-control conspiracy theories were "completely uninformed," explaining that "there's absolutely nothing we can do to disturb the Earth's [weather] systems. Even though the power HAARP radiates is very large, it's minuscule compared with the power of a lightning flash—and there are 50 to 100 lightning flashes every second. HAARP's intensity is very small." Computer scientist David Naiditch characterizes HAARP as "a magnet for conspiracy theorists," saying that HAARP attracts their attention because, "its purpose seems deeply mysterious to the scientifically uninformed." Journalist Sharon Weinberger called HAARP "the Moby Dick of conspiracy theories," and said the popularity of conspiracy theories often overshadows the benefits HAARP may provide to the scientific community. Austin Baird writing in the Alaska Dispatch said, "What makes HAARP susceptible to conspiracy criticism is simple. The facility doesn't open its doors in the same way as other federally funded research facilities around the country, and it doesn't go to great efforts to explain the importance of its research to the public." In 2016, in response to these claims, the University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute, which manages the facility, announced that HAARP will host an annual open house in August, allowing visitors to tour the complex. +This project resurfaced again during the 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference, known as "COP 27", sparking conspiracies as well as many fantasies, and speaking also about geo-engineering. +Following the recent 2023 earthquakes in Turkey and Syria, this project, including that of "Blue Beam", has also been accused of having caused earthquakes, giving rise to numerous conspiracy theories. +Following the widespread visibility of the aurora borealis over much of the Northern Hemisphere in May and again in October 2024, conspiracy theorists promoted HAARP as the true cause of the event. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..244cd8b90 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== In popular culture == +HAARP gave rise to a live album by the rock band Muse and became the theme of novels like La Route de Gakona by Jean-Paul Jody. +HAARP is the key plot point in Breaking Point of Tom Clancy's Net Force (2000), where it is used to induce group madness. +The HAARP facility appears in the 2004 video game X-Men Legends. In the game, the X-Men track the Brotherhood of Mutants to HAARP. The facility is significantly different from its real life counterpart, with snowy valleys around it and vast icy tunnels below. It is guarded by an extensive security force, including armed guards and tanks. The X-Men eventually locate the Brotherhood and learn that sensitive information, including the location of Magneto's imprisonment, is kept in the HAARP computers. +Season 1, episode 11, of the UPN TV series Seven Days was titled "HAARP Attack". It was broadcast on January 27, 1999. +The HAARP played a major part in the G.I. Joe: Resolute miniseries. In it, Cobra was able to weaponize the lab to create a Particle Cannon and threaten the world to surrender to them. Though it was freed from Destro and Baroness, Cobra possessed a smaller yet functional version that Cobra Commander planned to use to strike randomly until the world surrendered with Washington, D.C. as his first target. Though Duke couldn't deactivate the weapon, he was able to change the target to Cobra's main base in Springfield, though Cobra Commander seemingly escaped the devastation. +The Missing in Alaska series, Zombies of HAARP episode, attempts to claim The top secret government facility known as HAARP, an electromagnetic generator, could be turning people into zombies and causing them to disappear in the Alaska Triangle. + +== See also == +EISCAT +Geophysical Institute +HIPAS Observatory +Ionospheric reflection +Poker Flat Research Range +Riometer +SuperDARN +Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility + +== References == + +== Further reading == +"Experiments with the HAARP Ionospheric Heater – Stanford VLF Group". Retrieved 29 June 2024. +"Evidence for Precipitation of Energetic Particles by Ionospheric "Heating" Transmissions". National Geophysical Data Center. 7 December 2004. Archived from the original on 8 August 2004. Retrieved 27 September 2009. +J. E. Smith (6 May 2006). "HAARPCompleted!". Indybay. Retrieved 27 September 2009. +U. S. Inan; T. F. Bell. "Polar Aeronomy and Radio Science (PARS):ULF/ELF/VLF Project". STAR Laboratory, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2009. +U. S. Inan; M. Golkowski; D. L. Carpenter; N. Reddell; R. C. Moore; T. F. Bell; E. Paschal; P. Kossey; E. Kennedy; S. Z. Meth (2004). "Multi-hop whistler-mode ELF/VLF signals and triggered emissions excited by the HAARP HF heater". Geophysical Research Letters. 31 (24): L24805. Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3124805I. doi:10.1029/2004GL021647. +E. J. Kennedy; P. Rodriguez; C. A. Selcher. "The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program". Archived from the original on 5 March 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2009. +H. L. Rowland (28 April 1999). "Simulations of ELF radiation generated by heating the high-latitude D- region". Journal of Geophysical Research. 104 (A3): 4319–4327. Bibcode:1999JGR...104.4319R. doi:10.1029/1998JA900156. +Donald Koehler N7MGT, "Secret Death Ray: Or is HAARP a useful science tool?", 73 Magazine (December 1999): 14–17, 37, archived from the original on 23 July 2015, retrieved 21 December 2011{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) A first person account from an amateur radio operator who got a full tour of the HAARP site. +Patents +C. W. Hansell (1945). "Communication system by pulses through the Earth", U.S. patent 2,389,432. +R. L. Tanner (1965). "Extremely low-frequency antenna", U.S. patent 3,215,937. +G. F. Leydorf (1966). "Antenna near field coupling system", U.S. patent 3,278,937. +B. J. Eastlund (1987). "Method and apparatus for altering a region in the Earth's atmosphere, ionosphere, and/or magnetosphere", U.S. patent 4,686,605. +B. J. Eastlund (1991). "Method for producing a shell of relativistic particles at an altitude above the earths surface", U.S. patent 5,038,664. +Videos + +Physics Today (15 July 2021). HAARP, the most powerful ionosphere heater on Earth: Plasma interacts with radio waves. Retrieved 29 June 2024 – via YouTube., optical image of an ionospheric plasma created by 2 minutes of stimulation. + +== External links == + +Official website +A Never-Ending Conspiracy Theory in Remote Alaska, The Atlantic, March 10, 2026 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ecf71c8d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "IBTS Greenhouse" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:52.092469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The IBTS (“Integrated Biotectural System") greenhouse is a biotectural, urban development project suited for hot arid deserts. It was part of the Egyptian strategy for the afforestation of desert lands from 2011 until spring of 2015, when geopolitical changes like the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Sinai Province in Egypt forced the project to a halt. The project begun in spring 2007 as an academic study in urban development and desert greening. It was further developed by Nicol-André Berdellé and Daniel Voelker as a private project until 2011. Afterwards LivingDesert Group including Prof. Abdel Ghany El Gindy and Dr. Mosaad Kotb from the Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate in Egypt, Forestry Scientist Hany El Kateb, Agroecologist Wil van Eijsden and permaculturist Sepp Holzer was created to introduce the finished project in Egypt. +The IBTS Greenhouse, together with the programme for the afforestation of desert lands in Egypt, became part of relocation strategies. These play a role in Egypt as urbanization of the Nile Delta is a problem for the agricultural sector and because of infrastructural problems like traffic congestion in Cairo. +The IBTS features sea-water farming but inside a large greenhouse. All of the evaporated water can thus be harvested. The generation of liquid water from the atmosphere inside the IBTS requires large amounts of cooling power. This is done with the incoming sea-water. Thus the cooling requirement and the cooling power are always balanced. +The IBTS relies on a new quality of systems integration including architectural, technological and natural elements. It combines food production and residence, as well as desalination of sea water, or brackish groundwater. A CAE demonstration project using real weather-, soil and economic conditions proved feasibility under hyperarid conditions. +The relevance of the IBTS is its capacity for water Desalination with an efficiency of 0.45kwh per cubic metre of distillate. This is because operational cost for Desalination utilities far outweigh initial building cost over time. Also because the energy requirement for Desalination plants reach up into the GigaWatt region. The dependence on large amounts of fossil energy leaves water provision from industrial plants insecure. +Through the high efficiency, Desalination has become financially and ecologically viable for large scale agriculture, forestry and aquaculture. +Another point of relevance is the creation of a bio-diverse landscape and many jobs instead of smoking chimneys and factories along the valuable waterfront. +Particular relevance also lies in the applicability inland, also that would exclude the high Desalination capacity. +The building has its roots in construction engineering and construction physics in contrast to food production as it is for most greenhouses. It is fundamentally different from the seawater greenhouses. It differs for its performance in desalination. Alternative desalination-technologies, air-to-water utilities and desalination-greenhouses in testing, require a multiple of the energy for fresh-water production. +The significance of the term Integration lies within the efficiency that systems integration can achieve, by imitation of natural systems, especially closed cycles. The establishment of closed watercycles being the most crucial of all, because of the increasing severity of the Global Water crisis particularly in hot desert climates. +The industrial-scale desalination is bound to hot climates because it requires high amounts of solar thermal power. It has turned out to be suitable in mitigation of the sinking of water tables in agricultural areas of the MENA region and beyond. In future versions the IBTS can be deployed in cold climates using extra heat energy sources like compact fusion, or small modular reactors. + +== Charging the watercycle == +The IBTS can be charged by seawater, which is turned into freshwater by evaporation. This is the primary type because it is important. Seawater is unlimited and the IBTS can thus produce excess water for sale. +At the beginning of the saltwater charging lies the seawater farming operation inside the IBTS Greenhouse. This only requires small amounts of seawater. Most of the water flows through the food-production system and is then processed in the full-desalination utility. +The IBTS can also be charged by a continuous inflow of organic matter for the workers, animals, and later residents. The organic matter, which is food and drink first, is regained through waste treatment. The waste-water treatment is part of the ordinary water cycle. The organic matter is partly infiltrated underground into the root zones of the plants and partly processed in septic tanks and then applied as topsoil in the forestry. This concept has been implemented inside residential homes (A common type is an Earthship). +In general, it is possible to build the IBTS as solids and liquids waste treatment sites for settlements, hotels, or cities. +The water cycle can also be charged by a single rain event, which does occur in the desert and can be counted on. Lastly, it is possible to charge the water cycle by pumping saline or contaminated groundwater and to some extent by atmospheric water generation. +The volume of water inside the water cycle is not important as it is a quasi-closed cycle, causing evaporation from soil and exhaled moisture from people getting captured under the roof. +Losses occur due to the export of food and in case of a leak in the roof. Leaks would occur frequently under normal conditions. The Skyroof is maintained with a special refurbishment and replacement system that can deal with harsh weather and objects landing on the thin foil. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d0f273800 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "IBTS Greenhouse" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:52.092469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Charging the nutrient cycle == +The nutrient cycle is connected to the watercycle. Charging it mainly means the practice of building up soil fertility and soil organic matter. This can entail import of biomass through organic waste, but mainly by biowaste from the production of food inside the IBTS. +In sea-water systems the biomass is created from salt-tolerant plants called halophytes. Biomass yields of up to 52 tons per hectare per year have been recorded. +Moreover, the biomass generation of roots are important for Carbon sequestration. This is up to 35t/ha*y extra. The IBTS-Greenhouse is a Blue Carbon project. +A third source of biomass are external seawater farms, which do not require the pricy space under the roof of the IBTS. These can be on land or in sea. Most noteworthy are seaweed farms. +Just as the nutrient cycle has to be charged with biomass there is an option to charge the atmosphere inside the IBTS, or seaweed water-ponds, with CO2. This would increase the biomass yield. This process has certain limits. One is the availability of trace element like phosphorus required by any organism. As the best source for the charging with additional CO2 would be industrial waste CO2 this is another way in which the IBTS can function as waste treatment site. + +== Performance == +The energy of operation is 0.45 kWh per cubic metre of distilled water in the full-scale version. This performance is more than 10 times lower than the records set by desalination plants in Dubai and Perth according to official numbers given by the respective authorities. The IBTS is based on a modular concept, with a core size of 1 hectare. This is the minimum size for the construction and for self-sufficiency, but the circular, architectural modules can be built 10 hectare large, or more. Each module is based on sub-modules allowing for immediate commencement of operation and generation of profit (like a re-afforestation site generating profit in its early stages). Best efficiency and full capacity can be provided with a superstructure approximately 100 modules large. 10 km2 have the capacity of an industrial desalination plant, which is 0,5 million cubic meters of water per day. +Since the first version of the IBTS the atmospheric water generation has evolved through a series of hygrothermal models and can now be operated at 0.45 kwh/m3 according to the developer. The IBTS works with natural processes in closed cycles, hosted in a building. Therefore, it never hits natural, or physical limitations for growth like the desalination technology in the Persian Gulf already has because of brine discharge and temperature rise. + +== Primary energy == +The IBTS is operated with electrical and thermal energy produced from windpower and concentrated solar power, on-site (in a proprietary process). This means that the energy requirement and the use of primary energy can be considered the same, which is not the case for common desalination plants. +Common desalination plants are dependent on power-plants using fossil fuels. Accounting for energy-loss during the energy transformation in the power-plant, common desalination plants use 2-3 times more energy than stated in the usual performance data. These are common factors for energy-conversion losses for the combustion engines used in the desalination industry. +Taking this into account the IBTS uses less than 5% of the current efficiency world-record. This industrial record is about 3.5kWh/m3 plus ca. 1.0kWh/m3 for seawater pumping and other factors not accounted for. It is multiplied with the efficiency of primary energy use. Together 9-14 kWh/m3. +The term of primary energy should be combined with energy quality for realistic understanding. Energy quality in context of desalination shows a new picture for the overall efficiency not only of the physical process of desalination, but the overall economic efficiency of the IBTS using proprietary renewable energy. + +== Design == + + +The maximum of 500m³ of freshwater production per day and hectare, multiplies to 0.5 million m³ on 1000 ha, equaling the output of the largest industrial desalination power plants in the world. It is reached by heat-recovery from the hot fresh-water. This recovered energy is used to heat the brine leaving the Mariculture in the IBTS doubling the daily evaporation of 100m³ and generating salt for sale. The recovered energy is also used to preheat incoming salt-water for the Mariculture. The chosen breed of fish needs warm water and that warm water also increases the natural evaporation inside the Greenhouse. The design points arose out of the computational engineering of the physical model as well as the financial plan in an iterative process. + +== Economic implications == + +Because of the independence of primary energy- and material resources, the efficiency of water production and the scalable, modular design the IBTS Greenhouse is sustainable. A strategic, national infrastructure project like the IBTS allows for the successful energy-transition into a sustainable economy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59c142e60 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "IBTS Greenhouse" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBTS_Greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:52.092469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This can be understood by a comparison of GDP growth, the generation of real values and a weighted GDP. +An example for the infrastructure services of the IBTS Greenhouse is water purification. Wastewater is percolated into the ground and provides water and nutrients for the growth of trees. This is not so easy with food crops for hygienic reasons. Thus the IBTS provides sewage treatment in countries, or areas that lack treatment plants +The IBTS Greenhouse is an open concept compatible with most other technologies and practices for water- energy- and food production. It is plugin-ready for upcoming technologies like nuclear power from compact fusion, the traveling wave reactor, or breeder reactors. When these energy sources become available they can be integrated into existing IBTS infrastructure and generate even more fresh water without brine discharge into natural water bodies and the appending environmental problems. For infrastructure developments taking decades for the roll-out and upscaling it is crucial to design in terms of future-readiness, a key engineering principle. +The manufacturing process of the IBTS is designed for automation, which requires more electricity than common construction sites, or manufacturing processes. This platform design is also future ready for more available energy. An example is the large roof of the IBTS, which needs to be observed and cleaned continuously and refurbished several times over the lifecycle of the IBTS. This can only be done by special bots, or drones on the scale that the IBTS was developed for as national desert greening strategy for reclaiming and regreening entire regions. + +== Examples of other biotecture == + +The most famous example is the Biosphere 2, a research project and demonstration site integrating residential areas into a new type of greenhouse. It was designed to be self-sufficient including food production in an ecosystemic context. Another example for Biotecture, which is foremost a residential home, is an Earthship. Earthships incorporate water-purification and reuse on multiple levels. +Since 2010 urban developments labeled Forest Cities, drawing from the IBTS and other pioneer projects have been created. The Gardens by the Bay using all of the core design elements of the TSPC Forest City from 2008 like artificial trees with spherical buildings on top is an outstanding example. The Liuzhou Forest City is one of many examples for green architecture, respectively green urban developments of new cities with a lot of green areas, including the facades of buildings. +The international efforts to create Forest Cities are another level of implication. China is going forward with the introduction of several hundred designated Forest Cities. One of the latest examples is Shenzhen. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Effects of a Solar Desalination Module integrated in a Greenhouse Roof on Light Transmission and Crop Growth by M.Thameur. Chaibi \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b2884acfd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Ieodo Ocean Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:48.418265+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea. The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data, provision for maritime safety, and fisheries monitoring. However, as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones, the platform has strategic geopolitical importance. +The platform was officially opened in June 2003. The platform has a helipad and five lower decks for equipment and workspace. Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days, the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely. +While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6m below sea level, the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper, at 40m below sea level. As a result, the platform is approximately 700m from the rock's "peak." The platform rises approximately 36m above sea level. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Seed_Vault-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Seed_Vault-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80492f993 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Seed_Vault-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Indian Seed Vault" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Seed_Vault" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:14.399799+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Indian Seed Vault is a secure seed bank located in a high-altitude mountain pass on the Chang La in Ladakh, India. It was built in 2010 jointly by the Defence Institute of High Altitude Research and the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, and is the second largest seed bank in the world. + + +== History == +In the late 1980s, the movement was initiated by the group of activists of Hemwal Valley of Tehri and led by a farmer and social activist Vijay Jardhari. ‘Beej Bachao Andolan’ (Save the Seeds Movement) was started from Jardhargaon of Tehri district, Uttarakhand. +The Indian Seed Vault was established in 2010 through a collaboration between the Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR) and the 'National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) to secure India’s crop diversity in extreme environmental conditions. It serves as a backup for more than 5,000 seed accessions. + + +== Seed storage == +The Indian Seed Bank was carved into a granite outcrop at Chang La, the vaulted chamber is insulated naturally by subzero temperatures, with steel racks and hermetically sealed cryotanks. The vault stores over 10,000 seeds and 200 plant species. These seeds include apricots, barley, cabbage, carrots, radish, potatoes, tomatoes, rice, and wheat, chosen based on qualities such as yield or resistance to temperature, pests and humidity. A solar‑powered generator and back‑up diesel engine maintain a constant –18 °C internal environment, while all access and monitoring systems including RFID‑tagged seed packets and remote‑sensing alarms are duplicated at the low‑land National Genebank in New Delhi to guard against loss. + + +== See also == +Svalbard Global Seed Vault + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..799c2897e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "International Moss Stock Center" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:47.779066+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Moss Stock Center (IMSC) is a biorepository which is specialized in collecting, preserving and distributing moss plants of a high value of scientific research. The IMSC is located at the Faculty of Biology, Department of Plant Biotechnology, at the Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany. + + +== Moss collection == +The moss collection of the IMSC currently includes various ecotypes of Physcomitrella patens, Physcomitrium and Funaria as well as several transgenic and mutant lines of Physcomitrella patens, including knockout mosses. + + +== Storage conditions == +The long-term storage of moss samples in the IMSC is carried out via cryopreservation in the gas phase of liquid nitrogen at temperatures below −135 °C in special freezer containers. +It has been shown for Physcomitrella patens that the regeneration rate after cryopreservation is 100%. +Trackable accession numbers which may be used for citation purposes in +publications are automatically assigned to all samples. + + +== Financial support == +The IMSC is supported financially by the Chair Plant Biotechnology of Prof. Ralf Reski and the Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (bioss). + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Website International Moss Stock Center (IMSC) Freiburg +Website Chair Plant Biotechnology, University of Freiburg +Website Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (bioss) +Sciencedaily: Mosses, deep frozen +BIOPRO "A small moss turns professional" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Planetarium_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Planetarium_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6380100f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Planetarium_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "International Planetarium Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Planetarium_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:07.553520+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Planetarium Society, Inc. (IPS) is the global association of planetarium professionals. Its more than 600 members come from 42 countries around the world. They represent schools, colleges and universities, museums, and public facilities of all sizes, including both fixed and portable planetariums. The primary goal of the IPS is to encourage the sharing of ideas among its members through conferences, publications, and networking. By sharing their insights and creative work, IPS members become better planetarians. +IPS membership is open to anyone interested in planetariums. Members include directors, teachers, informal educators, technicians, writers, artists, media specialists, digital artists and producers, presenters, vendors, scientists, students, and sponsors and friends of the planetarium dome and its starry sky. Although planetariums can be part of school district curriculum, either at an in-district dome or through field trips, they also serve as sites and sources of life-long learning and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. +More than 20 regional and national planetarium associations from around the world are affiliated with IPS. The representatives report to a board composed of elected members from 6 geographic regions, the number of representatives determined by the number of IPS members within that region. This board and the elected officers make up the Executive Council, the ruling body of the organization. + + +== Affiliates == + + +== Membership == +IPS members receive the quarterly journal Planetarian; attend biennial conferences on even-numbered years; receive conference proceedings, and special publications. Member-only benefits are available through the IPS website at ips-planetarium.org, where interested persons also can join. + + +== Publications == +Planetarian is the IPS quarterly membership journal and an important member benefit. In addition to regular features and columnists, it seeks research articles on any aspect of planetarium education (that will be professionally reviewed upon request), the history of planetariums, technological developments, and much more. +Also available: + +IPS Directories: worldwide listing of planetariums and resources +Conference Proceedings: papers and workshops presented at the biennial conferences +Special Publications and Reports: handbooks and resources + + +== Structure == +Elected officers are president, president-elect, past-president, secretary, and treasurer. The officers, along with representatives from the affiliate organizations, make up the Executive Council, the ruling body of the organization. +The current executive officers are: + +President, Michael McConville +President-Elect, Dr.Shannon Schmoll +Past President, Mark SubbaRao +Secretary, Derek Demeter +Treasurer, Mike Smail +All positions are volunteer. + + +== History == +Sources: +The genesis of what was to become the International Planetarium Society began with a meeting of planetarium educators in 1958 at the Cranbrook Institute in Michigan. Sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF), about 100 delegates from 67 facilities attended. The conference's proceedings were published as Planetaria and Their Uses for Education. +Another meeting was sponsored by the NSF in 1960, this time in Cleveland, Ohio, and resulted in Planetariums and Their Uses for Education, Volume 2. At this meeting those attending voted to initiate a national planetarium association called the American Association of Planetarium Operators, but nothing came out of the action. +Regional associations of planetarium educators formed in the 1960s, resulting in the forming of GLPA, MAPS, SWAP, PPA, RMPA, and SWAP, and PAC was formed in Canada. +More than 300 planetarians gathered in 1970 at the Abrams Planetarium at Michigan State University in East Lansing at a meeting called CAPE - the Conference of Planetarium Educators. At this meeting the decision was made to organize a North American planetarium association and publish a journal. By-laws for the International Society of Planetarium Educators were approved in 1971, and the journal, Planetarian, began in 1972. Paul Engle from the University of Arkansas at Little Rock Planetarium became the first president, and the first editor was Frank C. Jettner from the Department of Astronomy at the State University of New York at Albany. Among the articles in the first issue was "Science and Communication" by Isaac Asimov. + + +== Early Planetarians == +The planetarium field's earliest members were those who invented and modified the equipment used to project the stars onto the dome. +Among them are + +Oskar von Miller, Bavarian entrepreneur, who founded the Deutsch Museum in Munich and wanted to show the starry sky in his Museum. +Walther Bauersfeld and Rudolf Straubel, for their development of the Zeiss 1 model opto-mechanical projector in 1923 +Armand Spitz, who developed an early inexpensive opto-mechanical projector in 1946 +Richard H. Emmons, who helped establish more than 23 planetariums + + +== Awards == +The highest award given by IPS is the Service Award, started in 1982. This award is bestowed, from time to time, by the Society upon an individual or institution whose presence and work in the planetarium field has been, through the years, an inspiration to the profession and its members.” Since 1982 there have been 24 people awarded with the IPS Service Award. +Similarly, the IPS Technology and Innovation Award is given by the Society, from time to time, upon an individual whose technology and/or innovations in the planetarium field have been, through the years, used or replicated by other members and/or other planetariums.” The award began in 2009 and 6 persons have been recognized. +Deserving IPS members also may be named a Fellow of the Society. To be named, a member must have continuous active membership in good standing in IPS for at least five years and substantial contributions in at least two of the following respects: + +Serving IPS in effective office, diligent and/or devoted committee work, and the organization of conferences and meetings. +Relevant and significant publications and/or conference presentations. +Cooperation with professional societies, organizations and groups which bring attention to the importance of planetariums’ existence. +The development of new methods in the planetarium field. + + +== See also == +Planetarium + + +== References == + + +== External links == +http://www.ips-planetarium.org/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Biological_and_Environmental_Repositories-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Biological_and_Environmental_Repositories-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..531fea5ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Biological_and_Environmental_Repositories-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "International Society for Biological and Environmental Repositories" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Biological_and_Environmental_Repositories" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:48.929783+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The International Society for Biological and Environmental Repositories (ISBER) is a professional society of individuals and organizations involved in biospecimen banking. Its main activities include creating educational and training opportunities, providing an online forum service, showcasing related products and services, and creating opportunities for networking. It also has published works. + + +== Membership == +Membership includes organizations and individuals from over 30 countries involved in long-term preservation and storage of animal, environmental, human, microorganism culture, museum, and plant/seed collections. A complete list of members is available on the ISBER website. + + +== Meetings == +ISBER holds one international meeting each year. Lectures, workshops, poster presentations, and working group discussions focus on technical issues and challenges such as quality assurance and control, regulations, human subject privacy and confidentiality issues, and provide information about sources of equipment and expertise. + + +=== ISBER Annual Meeting Locations === +Source: + +May 7-10, 2019 - Shanghai, China +May 20-24, 2018 - Dallas, TX, USA +May 9-12, 2017 - Toronto, ONT, Canada +May 20–24, 2014 - Orlando, FL, USA +2013 - Sydney, NSW, Australia +2012 - Vancouver, BC, Canada +2011 - Arlington, VA, USA +2010 - Rotterdam, SH, Netherlands +2009 - Portland, OR, USA +2008 - Bethesda, MD, USA +2007 - Singapore +2006 - Bethesda, MD, USA +2005 - Bellevue, WA, USA +2004 - New York, NY, USA + + +== Best Practices == +The ISBER Best Practices are publications periodically reviewed and revised to reflect advances in research and technology. The fourth edition (2018) of the Best Practices builds on the foundation established in the first, second, and third editions which were published in 2005, 2008, and 2012 respectively. The fifth edition is currently being written. + + +=== Current Best Practices === +ISBER Best Practices: Recommendations for Repositories provides repository professionals with standardized guidelines for the management of biobank specimen collections and repositories. The most current version of the ISBER Best Practices was published in Biopreservation and Biobanking (BIO), February 2018 issue. + + +== Biorepository Proficiency Testing Program == +Developed in collaboration with the Integrated Biobank of Luxembourg (IBBL), the Biorepository Proficiency Testing Program is designed to allow biorepositories to assess the accuracy of their quality control assays and characterization of biospecimens. Participants can compare their results with those obtained in other laboratories and can identify testing issues that may be related to individual staff performance or calibration of instrumentation used in biospecimen quality control. The program provides guidance to biorepositories so they can take appropriate remedial action to be in compliance with ISO/IEC 17043:2010, providing a necessary External Quality Assessment tool for biorepositories who wish to seek accreditation (ISO 17025, CLIA or equivalent). + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iquitos_Satellite_Laboratory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iquitos_Satellite_Laboratory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b7114a5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iquitos_Satellite_Laboratory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Iquitos Satellite Laboratory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iquitos_Satellite_Laboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:29.648550+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Iquitos Satellite Laboratory (IQTLAB) was established in 2002 in the city of Iquitos, Peru by doctor Margaret Kosek, biologist Maribel Paredes Olortegui, and nurse Pablo Peñataro Yori, with the collaboration of the Dr. Robert Gilman working group in Lima, Peru and the US Naval Medical Research Unit No. 6 (NAMRU-6) . +The Iquitos Satellite Laboratory (IQTLAB) is supported through National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fogarty International Center, International Atomic Energy Agency, The University of Virginia and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation funded grants. + + +== Purpose == +The mission of IQTLAB is to improve understanding of health problems among vulnerable populations in order to identify sustainable solutions that improve their health, social and economic conditions. + + +== Team Members == +The IQTLAB team consists of experts from Asociación Benéfica Prisma, the University of Virginia, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and the Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, among other universities and research institutions worldwide. IQTLAB utilizes a multidisciplinary approach that combines knowledge of the epidemiology of tropical infectious disease, malnutrition, intestinal infection, biostatistics, medical science, demography, ecology, and spatial data collection and analysis. + +The Iquitos Satellite Laboratory (IQTLAB) team is led by Margaret Kosek, MD, a professor of infectious disease at the University of Virginia Department of Medicine. + + +== Operations == + +The research center is approximately 4,000 square feet (370 m2) and is capable of conducting sophisticated laboratory diagnostics and experiments in parasitology, microbiology, immunology, and molecular biology. In addition to the laboratory, IQTLAB provides a vast array of support for scientific data collection, including GPS/GIS data collection, survey data collection, satellite image processing, and climate conditions (strategic deployment of weather monitoring systems). +IQTLAB currently has a number of ongoing projects, including: + +Etiology, risk factors and interactions of enteric infections and malnutrition and the consequences for child health and development +Probiotics for Pediatric Diarrhea in Peru +Epidemiology of campylobacters in the Peruvian Amazon +Epidemiology of shigellosis in the Peruvian Amazon +Serologic assessment of burden of diarrheal disease in children under 5 years old +Improved Biomarkers for the Assessment of Environmental Enteropathy +The development of a simple test for small bowel barrier dysfunction applicable to environmental enteropathy +Global Infectious Disease Training Grant +Enterics for Global Health EFGH +Acute Febrile Illness (AFI) +Since its foundation, the Iquitos Satellite Laboratory (IQTLAB) has been the host and support of national and international students from undergraduate to master and MD/PhD programs. + + +== Recent Peer Reviewed Articles == + + +== See also == +International Atomic Energy Agency +Asociacion Benefica Prisma +Enterics for Global Health + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Prisma \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isachsen-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isachsen-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63f97da4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isachsen-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Isachsen" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isachsen" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:00.409161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Isachsen is a remote Arctic research-weather station named after the Norwegian explorer of the Arctic Gunnar Isachsen. It is on the western shore of Ellef Ringnes Island in the Sverdrup Islands, in the territory of Nunavut in Canada. Isachsen Station was established to participate in a joint Canadian-American weather observation program. Isachsen Station operated from April 3, 1948, through September 19, 1978. Regular weather observations began on May 3, 1948. In October 1949, a Douglas C-47 Skytrain (tail number 316062) crash-landed near the station. No one was killed, but three on board were injured. The wreckage has been preserved by the cold weather and dry conditions. + + +== Climate == +According to Environment and Climate Change Canada, Isachsen and the surrounding area has the worst weather in Canada with a Climate Severity Index of 99 out of a possible 100. The climate of Isachsen is a severe tundra climate, with short, cool summers and long, cold winters. The record high is 22.2 °C (72.0 °F) on July 21, 1962, and the record low is −53.9 °C (−65.0 °F) on March 16, 1956. + + +== Flora and fauna == +There are no trees or shrubs that can live this far north. The plant life here is limited to small patches of moss, lichens, and a few tiny flowering plants. The wildlife here is limited to polar bears, Arctic foxes, caribou, Arctic hares, lemmings, seals, muskoxen, and migratory birds. + + +== History and background == +On October 9, 1949, a C-47 cargo plane of the United States Air Force crashed on takeoff at the weather station. The plane had ten people on board: a US Air Force crew of six and four civilian passengers. The passengers were two U.S. weather bureau employees, a Canadian weather bureau employee, and a Royal Canadian Mounted Police constable. Three of the aircrew received cuts and bruises and everyone else escaped injury. The subsequent investigation blamed the accident on the plane being overloaded and attempting to take off with ice building up on the cockpit windshield and wings. At the time of the crash, there were 130 mm (5 in) of snow on the mud runway, a light snowfall and some fog. The wreck was briefly shown in the Polar Special episode of the BBC program Top Gear. Photos of the remains of Isachsen Station can be seen on the Hilux Arctic Challenge website, taken by the Top Gear team on their trip to the nearby 1996 North Magnetic Pole. The footage of the wreck was filmed on May 2, 2007. The episode first aired on July 25, 2007. The wreck site is located at 78°46′13″N 103°20′08″W. +During the 1950s, Isachsen Station was primarily collecting radiosonde observations. Along with weather soundings from similar stations such as Mould Bay, Eureka, and Alert, this information was used to complete the North American data, primarily used to produce weather forecasts over the North Atlantic Ocean, Greenland, and Iceland, and long-range weather forecasts for Western Europe. +The Isachsen Station was in an extremely isolated place, with supplies and new personnel flown in by the Royal Canadian Air Force, usually twice a year: in the late spring, and again in the early fall from an air base (now Resolute Bay Airport) at Resolute on Cornwallis Island. In turn, Resolute Station, like most northern communities, was supplied using ocean-going cargo ships aided by icebreakers during the late summer sealift. +The eight-man staff at Isachsen usually consisted of four Americans and four Canadians. The Americans were usually two weather observers, a cook, and a mechanic. The Canadians were usually two weather observers and two radio operators. All communication to and from Isachsen Station was via shortwave radio radiotelegraphy. +Fuel oil and diesel fuel for heating and cooking, and for the station's electric generators, respectively, were shipped to Isachsen by transport planes in standard metal fuel barrels. +During the summer of 1958, the Isachsen station was rebuilt using prefabricated buildings that had been airlifted in along with about a dozen construction personnel. The sun sets in October and it is totally dark for about three months with temperatures from −32 to −51 °C (−26 to −60 °F). In the summer, the sun is visible above the horizon 24 hours a day for about three months with temperatures from about 7 to 16 °C (45 to 61 °F). +In 1956, a plan by the Government of Canada to resettle the Inuit at several high Arctic locations was scrapped. These settlements would have included Isachsen, Alert, Eureka, and Mould Bay. +On October 31, 1971, the United States withdrew from participation in the weather program at the site. In 1971, the Canadian government made a significant investment in Isachsen to upgrade its buildings. Then, in 1978, as a cost-cutting measure, the government decided to close one high Arctic station; Isachsen Station was selected, and it was closed down during that same year. The last manned weather observations were taken on July 31, 1978. An Automated Surface Observing System was placed at the site in 1989, linked by satellite communications to southern Canada. Isachsen is now uninhabited. +During the summers of 1989 and 1992, the closed weather station at Isachsen was the site of the High Arctic Psychology Research Station (HAPRS). The HAPRS operated under the aegis of the Polar Psychology Project, an international and transpolar multi-year program. Each time, six or seven researchers used each other as participants in investigations of the effects of isolation, remoteness, and cold on psychological and physiological processes such as taste perception, irritability, mood, subjective and hormonal measures of stress, brain waves, and sleep patterns. In 1992, a survey was made of abandoned vehicles, fuel drums, and potential contaminants to assist Environment and Climate Change Canada in planning to remove such items from the site. + + +== See also == +List of accidents and incidents involving the DC-3 in 1949 +List of research stations in the Arctic + + +== References == + + +== External links and photos == +Topographic map of Isachsen at the Atlas of Canada. +Past 24 Hour Conditions in Isachsen (weather station) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isogenic_human_disease_models-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isogenic_human_disease_models-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..815528736 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isogenic_human_disease_models-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Isogenic human disease models" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isogenic_human_disease_models" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:15.618014+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Isogenic human disease models are a family of cells that are selected or engineered to accurately model the genetics of a specific patient population, in vitro. They are provided with a genetically matched 'normal cell' to provide an isogenic system to research disease biology and novel therapeutic agents. They can be used to model any disease with a genetic foundation. Cancer is one such disease for which isogenic human disease models have been widely used. + + +== Historical models == +Human isogenic disease models have been likened to 'patients in a test-tube', since they incorporate the latest research into human genetic diseases and do so without the difficulties and limitations involved in using non-human models. +Historically, cells obtained from animals, typically mice, have been used to model cancer-related pathways. However, there are obvious limitations inherent in using animals for modelling genetically determined diseases in humans. Despite a large proportion of genetic conservation between humans and mice, there are significant differences between the biology of mice and humans that are important to cancer research. For example, major differences in telomere regulation enable murine cells to bypass the requirement for telomerase upregulation, which is a rate-limiting step in human cancer formation. As another example, certain ligand-receptor interactions are incompatible between mice and humans. Additionally, experiments have demonstrated important and significant differences in the ability to transform cells, compared with cells of murine origin. For these reasons, it remains essential to develop models of cancer that employ human cells. + + +== Targeting vectors == +Isogenic cell lines are created via a process called homologous gene-targeting. Targeting vectors that utilize homologous recombination are the tools or techniques that are used to knock-in or knock-out the desired disease-causing mutation or SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) to be studied. Although disease mutations can be harvested directly from cancer patients, these cells usually contain many background mutations in addition to the specific mutation of interest, and a matched normal cell line is typically not obtained. Subsequently, targeting vectors are used to 'knock-in' or 'knock out' gene mutations enabling a switch in both directions; from a normal to cancer genotype; or vice versa; in characterized human cancer cell lines such as HCT116 or Nalm6. +There are several gene targeting technologies used to engineer the desired mutation, the most prevalent of which are briefly described, including key advantages and limitations, in the summary table below. + + +== Homologous recombination in cancer cell disease models == +Homologous recombination (HR) is a kind of genetic recombination in which genetic sequences are exchanged between two similar segments of DNA. HR plays a major role in eukaryotic cell division, promoting genetic diversity through the exchange between corresponding segments of DNA to create new, and potentially beneficial combinations of genes. +HR performs a second vital role in DNA repair, enabling the repair of double-strand breaks in DNA which is a common occurrence during a cell's lifecycle. It is this process which is artificially triggered by the above technologies and bootstrapped in order to engender 'knock-ins' or 'knockouts' in specific genes 5, 7. +A recent key advance was discovered using AAV-homologous recombination vectors, which increases the low natural rates of HR in differentiated human cells when combined with gene-targeting vectors-sequences. + + +== Commercialization == +Factors leading to the recent commercialization of isogenic human cancer cell disease models for the pharmaceutical industry and research laboratories are twofold. +Firstly, successful patenting of enhanced targeting vector technology has provided a basis for commercialization of the cell-models which eventuate from the application of these technologies. +Secondly, the trend of relatively low success rates in pharmaceutical RnD and the enormous costs have created a real need for new research tools that illicit how patient sub-groups will respond positively or be resistant to targeted cancer therapeutics based upon their individual genetic profile. + + +== See also == +AAV +FLP-FRT recombination +Genome engineering +Homologous recombination +in viruses +Technological applications +Cancer therapy +Plasmid +Recombinant AAV mediated genome engineering +Synthetic lethality +Zinc finger nuclease + + +== References == + + +== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JIC_Germplasm_Resources_Unit-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JIC_Germplasm_Resources_Unit-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ccb6e05e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JIC_Germplasm_Resources_Unit-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "JIC Germplasm Resources Unit" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JIC_Germplasm_Resources_Unit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:50.126291+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Germplasm Resources Unit is part of the John Innes Centre. Located in the Norwich Research Park, Norwich, England, is a germplasm conservation unit and National Capability supported by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. This unit houses a number of internationally recognised reference- and working-collections for wheat, oats, barley and peas, which serves UK and non-UK based academic, industrial and non-industrial groups. + + +== History == +The collections from the Germplasm Resources Unit were brought together in the mid-1980s from working collection from several research institutes from around the UK that worked with small grain cereals and legumes, including the extinct Plant Breeding Institute. This centralisation effort was supported by the John Innes Institute, and was designed to act as an open collection that would provide access to important resources for ongoing research and breeding. +The connection of the unit and the JIC has the advantage of placing germplasm material on sites of active research where a higher level of interaction with the scientific community is possible. This two-way interaction ensures that scientists and students are exposed to, and have greater opportunities to view and discuss genetic variability, while affording staff involvement in research objectives and priorities within both basic and strategic applied science. +In 2012 the unit became a National Capability supported by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council as part of its new funding arrangements. +Today, the cereal collections have been successfully screened for many traits leading to the identification of new sources of disease resistance to a range of diseases as well as tolerance to drought, salinity and aluminium. + + +== Collections == +The Germplasm Resources Unit houses a diverse range of seed collections, accounting for more than 20,000 accessions. The seeds are stored in a special low temperature, low humidity facility and a complete list of accessions can be found in the SeedStor, the unit's database, which was released at the end of 2014. +The oldest collection kept in unit is the Watkins Landrace Wheat Collection, which has a variety of wheat landraces cultivars acquired by A.E. Watkins in the 1930s from 32 different countries in Asia, Europe and Africa. Because the samples were collected before modern plant breeding efforts and the green revolution, it is a very interesting source of genetic variability for novel agronomic trait discovery. The collection was screened in 2014 by John Innes Centre researchers, and a great level of genetic diversity was found. +The Small Grain Cereal Collection is the largest in the UK and originated from a series of working collections from different plant breeding and research institutes from the UK. The collection was produced alongside public sector breeding programmes, and has the potential to be a source of important traits regarding disease, pest and stress resistance. +The Germplasm Resources Unit also houses a Pisum collection, all of the elite varieties that are registered in the UK National Listing, and several specialist genetic collections, such as near-isogenic lines, TILLING collections, precise genetic stocks, mapping populations, host differentials for disease testing and variant collections developed and targeted at the research and breeding communities. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta_Planetarium_and_Observatory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta_Planetarium_and_Observatory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1acaa133d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta_Planetarium_and_Observatory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Jakarta Planetarium and Observatory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta_Planetarium_and_Observatory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:08.775551+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jakarta Planetarium and Observatory (Indonesian: Planetarium dan Observatorium Jakarta) is a public planetarium and an observatory, part of the Taman Ismail Marzuki Art and Science Complex in Jakarta, Indonesia. The planetarium is the oldest of the three planetaria in Indonesia. The second planetarium is located in Surabaya, East Java. The third planetarium is located in Kutai, East Kalimantan. + + +== History == + +Construction of the planetarium was an initiative of President Sukarno when in the early 1960s he envisaged a monumental large-scale planetarium project. However, by the next half of the 1960s, the design was made more modest. The construction of the Jakarta Planetarium and Observatory began in 1964 as part of the construction of the Taman Ismail Marzuki art complex. +The construction was funded by the Indonesian government and the Indonesian Batik Cooperatives Association (Gabungan Koperasi Batik Indonesia or GKBI). +The 22-meter dome of the planetarium was completed in 1968. On November 10, 1968, the building was officially inaugurated by the Governor of Jakarta Ali Sadikin together with the Taman Ismail Marzuki art complex. The planetarium was opened to the public on March 1, 1969; the day was made the official birthday of the planetarium. The planetarium made use of the Carl Zeiss Universal planetarium projector +In 1975, a coudé telescope that had already been a property of the institution since the 1964s was installed in a two-floored building not far from the planetarium. In 1982, the coudé telescope was moved closer to the present observatory because the land where the telescope stood earlier belonged to another owner. +In 1984, Jakarta Planetarium became officially the Jakarta Planetarium and Observatory. In 1991, the building was extended and facilities such as classrooms, were added. In 1994, a 31 cm star telescope was acquired to replace the older telescope. +Major renovation and technological upgrade of the planetarium was done in 1996. The previous Universal Projector was replaced with the computerized Universarium VIII Projector. The material for the domed screen was replaced and the diameter of the dome was reduced from 23 meters to 22 meters. The floor was elevated and terraced. The previous central-facing seating configuration was reorganized into a south-facing configuration, and the number of seats was reduced from 500 to 320. +In 2010, a Mobile Observatory unit was acquired: a minibus that transports several telescopes e.g. the LUNT 80 mm solar telescope, Vixen VC200 telescope, and a 120 mm refractor. + + +== Facility == +The Jakarta Planetarium and Observatory features an exhibition hall for astronomy. +The planetarium features nine movies, each with a duration of 60 minutes. + + +== See also == +List of astronomical observatories +List of planetariums +List of museums and cultural institutions in Indonesia + + +== References == + +(in Indonesian) Website Planetarium & Observatorium Jakarta Archived 2007-01-10 at the Wayback Machine +(in Indonesian) Kompas, Jumat, 05/01/2007 - Mengajak Keluarga Menjadi Pengamat Bintang di Jakarta, oleh Neli Triana + + +== Cited works == +Merrillees, Scott (2015). Jakarta: Portraits of a Capital 1950-1980. Jakarta: Equinox Publishing. ISBN 9786028397308. + + +== External links == +Official site (2013) Archived 2013-02-09 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru_Tropical_Botanic_Garden_and_Research_Institute-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru_Tropical_Botanic_Garden_and_Research_Institute-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb67c6fb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru_Tropical_Botanic_Garden_and_Research_Institute-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru_Tropical_Botanic_Garden_and_Research_Institute" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:16.805419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, formerly Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, is an autonomous Institute established by the Government of Kerala on 17 November 1979 at Thiruvananthapuram, the capital city of Kerala. It functions under the umbrella of the Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE), Government of Kerala. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +JNTBGRI official website +Department of Biotechnology, Government of India +Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Thiruvananthapuram \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23f438466 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Johannesburg Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:10.080227+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Johannesburg Planetarium is a planetarium owned by the University of the Witwatersrand, located on the University's East Campus in Braamfontein, Johannesburg. It was the first full-sized planetarium in Africa, and the second in the southern hemisphere. + + +== History == +The idea of setting up a planetarium in Johannesburg was first discussed in 1956 when the Festival Committee — which had been instituted to organise the celebrations of Johannesburg's seventieth anniversary — decided to raise the funds necessary to buy and house a Zeiss planetarium to be set up for the celebrations. As there was too little time to obtain a new instrument, it was decided to buy an existing planetarium projector from Europe. +After lengthy negotiations, the Festival Committee was successful in persuading the Parliament of Hamburg to sell their planetarium's projector which had been in use there since 1930. The Hamburg Parliament, however, imposed as its conditions that the planetarium's projector be fully modernised in the Zeiss factory at Oberkochen, and that Johannesburg would in due course have a new planetarium built for Hamburg. The Hamburg projector was immediately dismantled and moved to Oberkochen for an overhaul, and was in time completely rebuilt. +Soon, the responsibilities of the Festival Committee were taken over by the Johannesburg City Council, which after further negotiations, sold the projector to the University of the Witwatersrand for use as both an academic facility for the instruction of students, and as a public amenity. Plans for a new building to house the projector were first drawn up in 1958, and construction began in 1959. The planetarium finally opened on 12 October 1960. +The Johannesburg Planetarium is often consulted by the media, and the public, in order to explain unusual occurrences in the skies over South Africa. In 2010, the Johannesburg Planetarium celebrated its golden jubilee. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Castro_Mendivil_Digital_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Castro_Mendivil_Digital_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9bf6187cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Castro_Mendivil_Digital_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "José Castro Mendivil Digital Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Castro_Mendivil_Digital_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:11.294291+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +José Castro Mendivil Digital Planetarium (Spanish: Planetario Digital José Castro Mendivil), also known simply as the Morro Solar Planetarium (Spanish: Planetario del Morro Solar), is a planetarium and site museum dedicated to astronomy in the Morro Solar of Chorrillos District, Lima, Peru. It is named after the engineer who designed it. +It is administered by the Peruvian Astronomy Association (Spanish: Asociación Peruana de Astronomía, APA), founded on August 15, 1946, and then headed by Peruvian astronomer Víctor Estremadoyro Robles. Besides its 360° theatre, it also features remnants of the Battle of San Juan during the War of the Pacific. + + +== History == +The first stone was placed at 1 p.m. by Peruvian astronomer and head of the Peruvian Astronomy Association Víctor Estremadoyro Robles, during a ceremony that took place on February 19, 1954, three years after the Peruvian government granted the terrain for the building's construction. It was formally inaugurated on April 23, 1960. +In 1968, construction of an observatory began, with the Astronomical League of the United States donating a Schmidt–Cassegrain telescope. The building's iron dome was designed by the industrial service of the Peruvian Navy, with the entire complex having a cost of US$62,800. +In 2013, a digital projector was added to the planetarium. +In 2018, the APA donated three bronze plaques to replace the ones stolen at the nearby Monument to the Unknown Soldier. + + +== See also == +Morro Solar + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamos_Island_biological_field_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamos_Island_biological_field_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d11e95cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamos_Island_biological_field_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Kalamos Island biological field station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamos_Island_biological_field_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:49.618212+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Kalamos Island biological field station is a research station located in the island Kalamos, in the Ionian Sea, in Western Greece. It is situated in the core of the inner Ionian marine protected area, site GR22220003 of the Natura 2000 network. The marine area is additionally protected under the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area (ACCOBAMS). + + +== Activities == +The station is a base for year-round research activities in ecology, ecosystem management and sustainability issues such as permaculture. It was created as part of the Kalamos and Kastos sustainable development program of Terra Sylvestris, a non-governmental non profit organization that established the program in order to bring about sustainable development through rewilding in the area of the Island of Kalamos, Kastos and adjacent smaller islands and their marine environment. +The station conducts and facilitates a wide variety of research projects, ranging from biodiversity conservation to environmental justice to permaculture. The biological field station is also the base for the volunteer and internship programs of Terra Sylvestris, which enables people from all over the world to participate in the activities of Terra Sylvestris in the area and specifically the biological field station. The station is a member of the Organization of Biological Field Stations and the Global Ecovillage Network. The research station provides facilities for students as well as other visiting researchers and practitioners in the fields of ecology and biodiversity conservation to participate in or conduct projects in scientific research, ecosystem monitoring and ecosystem management. + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Terra Sylvestris non governmental organisation +Natura 2000 sites \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_City_weather_radar_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_City_weather_radar_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..74de75fe0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_City_weather_radar_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "King City weather radar station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_City_weather_radar_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:02.906887+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The King City weather radar station (ICAO site identifier CASKR (CWKR prior to 2021)) is a weather radar located in King City, Ontario, Canada. It is operated by Environment Canada and is part of the Canadian weather radar network, for which it is the primary research station. +The 16.45 hectare site is listed at an elevation of 360 m, and the tower is 27 m tall. +Mounted on the tower was a 5 cm weather radar, and a C-band dual-polarization radar system, installed at the site in 2004, which was replaced during the modernization program of Canadian weather radar network of 2021 by an S band (10 cm), dual-polarization radar. + + +== Research == +The station serves a number of research roles, and collects data to fulfill those observational needs. It is "responsible for providing national leadership on radar meteorology research applications". +In 1984, the Research Directorate of the Atmospheric Environment Service established the first Canadian weather radar with Doppler capability in King City. In 2004, a dual-polarization radar was installed for further research. These systems are used for predictive purposes, and the data collected is used for weather forecasts for the Greater Toronto Area and the Golden Horseshoe. +Further, under the auspices of the Cloud Physics and Severe Weather Research Section of Environment Canada, the King Doppler Weather Radar Research Facility collects data for research. +The radar can be useful for observing bird migration patterns, especially when data is taken in aggregate with that of other radar stations. Current active research in dual-polarization radar includes winter precipitation, detection and short-term forecasting of high-impact weather events, quantitative precipitation estimation, satellite validation, and particle type identification. + + +== Equipment == +The WSR82D radar installed in 1982 had a fiberglass laminate radome, and a parabolic reflector with a diameter of 6.1m and linear horizontal polarisation. Its gain was 48 dB. The radar emitted a 260 kW beam with a frequency of 5625 MHz and wavelength of 5.33 cm having a beam width of 0.65 degrees. In conventional operation, it had a pulse duration of 2 μs, pulse repetition frequency of 250 pulses per second, and performed 6.0 scanning rotations per minute. In Doppler operation, it had a pulse duration of 0.5 μs, alternating pulse repetition frequencies of 892 and 1190 pulses per second, and a scan rate of 0.75 rotations per minute. In long-range Doppler operation, a pulse repetition frequency of 650 pulses per second and a scan rate of 2 rotations per minute were used. It was replaced in 2004 by a similar radar but with dual polarization capabilities. +During the modernization program of Canadian weather radar network, it is being replaced again on the same site in the spring of 2021 by an S band and dual-polarization radar with an estimated construction date from March to June. This new radar uses a klystron, instead of a magnetron, and has: + +Frequency : 2.7 - 2.9 GHz +Pulse repetition frequency (PRF): 250 – 2000 Hz +Pulse length (τ): 0.4 μs ... 4.5 μs +Peak power: 750 kW +Doppler range: 240 km +Reflectivity normal range: 300 km +maximum range: 600 km +Velocity resolution : ± 146 m/s +Antenna diameter: 8.5 m +Beamwidth : < 1° +Rotation: 6 min−1 + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +"King City Radar Station". Environmental Science Centres: Ontario. Environment Canada. 24 January 2008. Retrieved 29 February 2012. +"King City, Ontario: Information about the site". The National Radar Program. Environment Canada. 26 August 2002. Archived from the original on 4 August 2007. Retrieved 24 May 2006. +Crozier, C.L.; Joe, P.I.; Scott, J.W.; Herscovitch, H.N.; Nichols, T.R. (1991). "The King City Operational Doppler Radar: Development, All-Season Applications and Forecasting". Atmosphere-Ocean. 29 (3): 479–516. Bibcode:1991AtO....29..479C. doi:10.1080/07055900.1991.9649414. +Sills, David (2004). "The New Dual-Polarization Radar at King City". Retrieved 24 May 2006. +Raghavan, S. (2003). "Radar Meteorology — History, Principles and Technology". In Sadourny, Robert; Mysak, Lawrence A. (eds.). Radar Meteorology. Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library. Vol. 27. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 1–49. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-0201-0_1. ISBN 978-1-4020-1604-2. + + +== Further reading == +Joe, P.; Lapczak, S. (2002). Evolution of the Canadian Operational Radar Network (PDF). Proceedings of ERAD. Copernicus GmbH. pp. 370–382. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2012-02-29. + + +== External links == +Real time CWKR data Archived 2021-03-11 at the Wayback Machine from Environment Canada \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward_Point-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward_Point-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..742da9c12 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward_Point-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "King Edward Point" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward_Point" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:50.835182+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +King Edward Point (also known as KEP) is a permanent British Antarctic Survey research station on South Georgia island and is the capital of the British Overseas Territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It is situated in Cumberland East Bay on the northeastern coast of the island. The settlement is the second smallest capital in the world by population, after Ngerulmud in Palau. + + +== History == + +King Edward Point was named in honour of King Edward VII. Grytviken (pot cove in Norwegian and Swedish) is nearby and was named after sealers' trywork. Both of these are along the King Edward Cove. +The Post Office in King Edward Point was established in 1909, and has been in operation since then with the exception of the Falklands War. The oldest building in King Edward Point is the customs warehouse and jail built in 1914. +Discovery House, a prefabricated laboratory, was established in 1925, and used by biologists collecting specimens from whale carcasses for six years. In 1929, Discovery II was opened for use in oceanographic study. +Argentine soldiers arrived near King Edward Point on 24 March 1982, and occupied it on 3 April. The British retook King Edward Point in late April. + + +== Environment == +Elephant and fur seals inhabit the area. Cats were brought to King Edward Point, but the last one died in 1980. + + +== Climate == + +King Edward Point and Grytviken have a tundra climate (Köppen ET) with long, cold winters and short, cool summers. The highest temperature ever recorded at Grytviken/King Edward Point was 28.8 °C (83.8 °F) on 10 March 1922. + + +== See also == +List of Antarctic research stations +List of Antarctic field camps + + +== References == + + +== Works cited == + + +== External links == + +King Edward Point +British Antarctic Survey Research Station King Edward Point, South Georgia \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirklington_Hall_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirklington_Hall_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..afbf8346c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirklington_Hall_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Kirklington Hall Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirklington_Hall_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:52.121766+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Kirklington Hall Research Station was a geophysical research institute of BP in Kirklington, Nottinghamshire. During the 1950s it was the main research site of BP. + + +== Background == +Cricketer John Boddam-Whetham was born at the site in 1843. Sir Albert Bennett, 1st Baronet, Liberal MP from 1922-23 for Mansfield, lived there from 1920. The Bennett baronets was formed in 1929. Lady Evelyn Maude Robinson, was the owner from around 1930, and the wife of Sir John Robinson of Worksop, who died aged 74 on Saturday 2 December 1944. +The previous owner died aged 73 on Friday 14 December 1945, leaving £138,365 in her will. In June 1945 it was put up for auction, with 631 acres, 15 bedrooms, 6 bathrooms, and 11 servants rooms. It was sold for £24,500 in Derby in July 1945. +Nottinghamshire County Council for two years was looking to buy the property, but it was a big investment, for a residential further education college; it chose another site in July 1947. + + +== History == + + +=== BP === +As part of the East Midlands Oil Province, oil was found in eastern Nottinghamshire. It was also known as the BP Research Centre or the Geophysical Centre, part of BP's Exploration Division. +The site was acquired due to proximity of Eakring, in July 1949. The local church, with Hockerton, held garden parties at the site in the summer. +The research centre was established in 1950. Its first employee was Jack Birks, later managing director of BP. From 1950 it was the main geophysical research site of BP, until BP sold the site in 1957 for £12,000. Research moved to Sunbury-on-Thames, in Surrey, in 1957. Sunbury Research Centre had been built around the same time as the Kirklington site, in the early 1950s. + + +=== Private property === +It was put up for sale in November 1957. In 1958 there was the possibility of the site being a teacher training college. +From 1958 it was a private school, which had been formed in Southwell in 1945. +It was put up for sale in 1987, with a guide price of £850,000. +Kirklington Hall today is a private school. + + +== Structure == +The former site is situated north of the A617. + + +== Function == +It conducted geophysical research for exploration for BP. This part of BP is now known as BP Exploration. Work would be conducted on core samples and with seismic methods. + + +== See also == +British Geological Survey, also in Nottinghamshire +Sunbury Research Centre, where most of BP's research takes place in the UK today. +Category:Petroleum geology +Category:Seismology measurement + + +== References == + +British Petroleum and Global Oil 1950-1975: The Challenge of Nationalism, James Bamberg, page 33 + + +== External links == +Our Nottinghamshire Archived 3 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ark-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ark-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..088683c2d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ark-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Knowledge ark" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ark" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:51.287637+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A knowledge ark (also known as a doomsday ark or doomsday vault) is a collection of knowledge preserved in such a way that future generations would have access to it if all other copies of it were lost. +Scenarios where access to information (such as the Internet) would become otherwise impossible could be described as existential risks or extinction-level events. A knowledge ark could take the form of a traditional library or a modern computer database. It could also be pictorial in nature, including photographs of important information, or diagrams of critical processes. +A knowledge ark would have to be resistant to the effects of natural or man-made disasters in order to be viable. Such an ark should include, but would not be limited to, information or material relevant to the survival and prosperity of human civilization. +Other types of knowledge arks might include genetic material, such as in a DNA bank. With the potential for widespread personal DNA sequencing becoming a reality, an individual might agree to store their genetic code in a digital or analog storage format which would enable later retrieval of that code. If a species was sequenced before extinction, its genome would still remain available for study. + + +== Examples == + +An example of a DNA bank is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, a seedbank which is intended to preserve a wide variety of plant seeds (such as important crops) in case of their extinction. +The Memory of Mankind project involves engraving human knowledge on clay tablets and storing it in a salt mine. The engravings are microscopic. +A Lunar ark has been proposed which would store and transmit valuable information to receiver stations on Earth. The success of this would also depend on the availability of compatible receiver equipment on Earth, and adequate knowledge of that equipment's operation. +The Arch Mission Foundation sent the Lunar Library, a 30 million page knowledge ark designed to survive for millions or billions of years in space, to the moon on the Israeli Beresheet spacecraft in 2019. The spacecraft experienced a crash landing. However, the library likely survived intact. +The Phoenix Mars lander, which landed on surface of Mars in 2008, included the "Visions of Mars" DVD, a digital library about Mars designed to last for hundreds or thousands of years. +On February 22, 2024, the Arch Mission successfully landed a Lunar Library on the Moon, on the Intuitive Machines IM-1 mission's Odysseus lander. + + +== In popular culture == +In 2020 science fiction book Ready Player Two, a spaceship named Vonnegut was launched to Proxima Centauri which also functions as a knowledge ark since it contains backups of humanity’s cultural materials, such as a standalone copy of the virtual universe OASIS which they call ARC@DIA. +In the Horizon video game franchise, the APOLLO program was a knowledge ark that captured the entirety of human knowledge, intended to educate future societies and allow them to avoid the mistakes that doomed earlier human civilizations. + + +== See also == +Archive +Arch Mission Foundation +Arctic World Archive +Information repository +KEO +Longtermism +Long Now Foundation +Memory of Mankind +Memory of the World Programme +Noah’s Ark +Rosetta Project +Space and survival +Survivalism +Time capsule +Universal library + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1651a9f46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Kyiv Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:12.465344+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Kyiv Planetarium (previously Republican Planetarium; Ukrainian: Київський планетарій) in Kyiv, Ukraine is one of the largest planetaria in former Soviet states. Opened on January 1, 1952, by the initiative of the scientist-astronomer Serhiy Vsekhsviatskiy (1905–1984), the planetarium has a dome of 23.5 meters in diameter, and seats 320 people. +In 1987, Kyiv Planetarium moved to new premises on the street. Red Army, 57 /3, (now Velyka Vasylkivska Street 57/3) where it remains to this day. The new building was equipped with an optomechanical projector "Large Zeiss IV», allowing to demonstrate the 6500 stars of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The planetarium offers lectures on astronomy, geography, natural history. When the children's planetarium astronomical school for students 6–11 years of age and art studio. Kyiv Planetarium is a division of the Society "Knowledge" of Ukraine. + + +== Atmasfera 360 == +In December 2011 an entertainment center ATMASFERA 360 was founded on the basis of the planetarium. Specifications of the dome: diameter — 23 meters, the height of the dome — 11.5 meters. It is equipped with a modern 4k digital projection system supplied by a Ukrainian company Front Pictures. The system uses 15 projectors which work on a single Screenberry media server. Due to digital autocalibration system, the calibration process takes up to 15 minutes and includes all 5 stages: + +Geometric alignment +Edge blending +Brightness uniformity +Gamma matching +Black level compensation +Atmasfera 360 is equipped with a software, Event Horizon. Event Horizon is a real-time 3D fulldome environment that visualizes and simulates the known Universe according to accurate, up-to-date scientific data. The software is based on the latest Unreal Engine technology and provides up to 4K resolution graphics which, combined with a beautiful soundtrack, gives a revolutionary viewing experience. + + +== Kyiv Planetarium == +The planetarium underwent a rebranding and technological upgrade in 2016. It received the name "Kyiv Planetarium". The fulldome auditorium was reequipped with a Front Pictures DX12 software and hardware complex. The 4K digital projection system was synchronized with Zeiss IV Planetarium. Apart from screening fulldome shows, the software installed in the planetarium also allows interactive lectures to be held with SpaceTime360™, presentations with Presenter360™, and the entertaining of visitors with music visualizer Meduza360™. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website (in Ukrainian and English) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab_website-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab_website-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..84d12063b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab_website-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Lab website" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab_website" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:38.343284+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A lab(s) website is a specific type of website most commonly dedicated to research and development programs. +Relating to the classic scientific research environment - the laboratory - existing lab websites predominantly fall into two categories, the real-world and the virtual. + + +== Real-world laboratory websites == +Real-world lab sites relate to the activities and research conducted by laboratories existing outside the Internet. In general, these sites tend to offer users a chance to see results of past research, rather than detailed views of contemporary research. +Examples of these types of labs from the aviation world include Boeing’s Phantom Works, which covers the research arm of the Boeing Corporation, and Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Program, aka Skunk Works. + + +== Virtual laboratory websites == +A number of companies and institutions have created virtual lab websites specifically for research into Internet-based products. +This research environment is seen as both podium and a playpen for Internet-borne companies. In many cases, the labs offer visitors a chance to learn more about the company's products currently in development and to try the work in progress. +One of the best-known examples is Google Labs. Since its inception, Google Labs has resulted in the trial and launch of live products such as Gmail, Google Calendar, and Google Videos. +Similar examples from large web-based companies include Yahoo! Next and Microsoft Live Labs. +One recent notable addition is Digg Labs, illustrating the Digg social bookmarking community's activities in near real-time. The labs are composed of the swarm and the stack activity displays. +Mozilla has added a lab area to its product offering. +Virtual laboratories are not the sole domain of companies and institutions. Some are created by individuals and exist solely as websites. + + +== Media labs == +Traditional print and broadcast media companies have also begun to experiment with dedicating specific areas on their websites to advanced projects. One of the first companies credited with creating its own lab area was Reuters. When founded, the Reuters lab offered a limited number of products for visitors to experiment with, including the news and quotes widget and their mobile service. +The BBC has created a derivation on the lab idea with their BBC Backstage site. Backstage's slogan "Use our stuff to build your stuff" openly invites developers to use the BBC's various feeds and API's to power a new range of non-commercial products and services. The backstage site has allowed the BBC to create a developer network, a location for all those working with the BBC's content to come together and share their ideas and prototypes amongst their peers. The site also contains a blog. +The Guardian newspaper in the UK has taken the idea of a lab to the next level with its Comment is free product. Created by Ben Hammersley, Comment is Free was made as a fully interactive extension to the Guardian Unlimited’s blogging system. +The site contains the political and opinion material from both The Guardian and its sister paper The Observer, as well as work from over 600 separate subject-based experts, selected to write on their topics of knowledge. Users are encouraged to read and comment, and all posts are automatically linked to Technorati to return contextual blogosphere results. +In November 2006, NEWS.com.au, the breaking news section of News Digital Media launched News Lab, the first media-driven R&D website within News Corporation (N.B. News Corp also operates FIM Lab but this is currently without a website). The site aims to collect users' feedback on new products and amend them accordingly. + + +== Monitoring experimentation == +While some media companies choose to create their own experimental areas, others create dedicated areas to document the efforts of others. The Washington Post's blog section, referred to as the Mashington Post records the efforts of Internet users' experimentation with combinations of pre-existing data, referred to as mashups. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10000433f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:17.154648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A laboratory (UK: ; US: ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings such as schools, universities, privately owned research institutions, corporate research and testing facilities, government regulatory and forensic investigation centers, physicians' offices, clinics, hospitals, regional and national referral centers, and even occasionally personal residences. + +== Overview == +The organisation and contents of laboratories are determined by the differing requirements of the specialists working within. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologist's laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those commonly used by computer scientists, computers (sometimes supercomputers) are used for either simulations or the analysis of data. Scientists in other fields will still use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices. +Scientific laboratories can be found as research room and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. + +Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts, the term "laboratory" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources. This development is inspired by new, participatory approaches to science and innovation and relies on user-centred design methods and concepts like Open innovation or User innovation. One distinctive feature of work in Open Labs is the phenomenon of translation, driven by the different backgrounds and levels of expertise of the people involved. + +== History == +Early instances of "laboratories" recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines. +The emergence of Big Science during World War II increased the size of laboratories and scientific equipment, introducing particle accelerators and similar devices. + +=== Early laboratories === +The earliest laboratory according to the present evidence is a home laboratory of Pythagoras of Samos. This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string. A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory, known as Speculum Alcemiae, was accidentally discovered in the year 2002. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor was believed to be the owner. The laboratory is preserved as a museum in Prague. +In the 1885 painting of Louis Pasteur by Albert Edelfelt, Pasteur is shown comparing a note in his left hand with a bottle filled with a solid in his right hand, and not wearing any personal protective equipment. Researching in teams started in the 19th century, and many new kinds of equipment were developed in the 20th century. + +== Techniques == +Laboratory techniques are the set of procedures used on natural sciences such as chemistry, biology, physics to conduct an experiment; while some of them involve the use of complex laboratory equipment from laboratory glassware to electrical devices, and others require more specific or expensive supplies. + +== Equipment and supplies == + +Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in a laboratory. Laboratory equipment is generally used to either perform an experiment or to take measurements and gather data. Larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. +The classical equipment includes tools such as Bunsen burners and microscopes as well as specialty equipment such as operant conditioning chambers, bioreactors, hematology analyzers, autoclaves, centrifuges, spectrophotometers and calorimeters, glucometer, incubator. + +=== Chemical laboratories === +Laboratory glassware such as beakers and reagent bottles +Weighing scale +Laboratory scissor jack +Fume hoods +Reagents +Analytical devices, such as: +High-performance liquid chromatography +spectrophotometers +Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry + +=== Molecular biology and life science laboratories === + +== Specialized types == +The title of laboratory is also used for other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. These include: + +Film laboratories or darkrooms +Clandestine labs for the production of illegal drugs +Computer labs +Crime labs used to process crime scene evidence +Language labs +Medical labs (involves handling of chemical compounds) +Public health labs +Cleanrooms + +== Safety == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6cc2d08fd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:17.154648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In many laboratories, hazards are present. Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage. Therefore, safety precautions are vitally important. Rules exist to minimize the individual's risk, and safety equipment is used to protect lab users from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. +The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories. This standard is often referred to as the "Laboratory Standard". Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan (CHP) which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, and its approach to them. +In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective "outside view" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit. +Inspections and audits like also be conducted on a regular basis to assess hazards due to chemical handling and storage, electrical equipment, biohazards, hazardous waste management, chemical waste, housekeeping and emergency preparedness, radiation safety, ventilation as well as respiratory testing and indoor air quality. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance and the training of individuals who have access to or work in the laboratory. Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries and potential litigation. Efforts are often made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. + +== Sustainability == +The effects of climate change are becoming more of a concern for organizations, and mitigation strategies are being sought by the research community. While many laboratories are used to perform research to find innovative solutions to this global challenge, sustainable working practices in the labs are also contributing factors towards a greener environment. Many labs, such as those at the Massacusetts Institute of Technology and the University of Edinburgh, are already trying to minimize their environmental impact by reducing energy consumption, recycling, and implementing waste sorting processes to ensure correct disposal. +Research labs featuring energy-intensive equipment use up to three to five times more energy per square meter than office areas. Major contributors to this high energy consumption are fume hoods. Fume hoods put a significant load on a buildings heating and cooling systems, as they remove high volumes of conditioned air from a lab when in use. Sensors, automatic shutoff systems, and awareness campaigns to close the sash window on fume hoods have been used to decrease the energy consumption of these devices. +Normally, ultra-low temperature freezers are kept at −80 °C (−112 °F). One such device can consume up to the same amount of energy as a single-family household does in a day (25 kWh). Increasing the temperature to −70 °C (−94 °F) makes it possible to use 40% less energy and still keep most samples safely stored. +Minimizing the consumption of water can be achieved by changing from water-cooled condensers (Dimroth condenser) to air-cooled condensers (Vigreux column), which take advantage of a larger surface area to cool. Ovens used to dry glassware can consume a lot of energy. Employing timers to regulate their use during nights and weekends can reduce their impact on energy consumption enormously. +The disposal of chemically/biologically contaminated waste requires a lot of energy. Regular waste requires much less energy and in some cases can even be recycled. Not every object in a lab is contaminated, but often ends up in the contaminated waste, driving energy costs for waste disposal. A good sorting and recycling system for non-contaminated lab waste can allow lab users to act sustainably and correctly dispose of waste. + +== Organization == +Organization of laboratories is an area of focus in sociology. Scientists consider how their work should be organized, which could be based on themes, teams, projects or fields of expertise. Work is divided, not only between different jobs of the laboratory such as the researchers, engineers and technicians, but also in terms of autonomy (should the work be individual or in groups). For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project. Finance management is yet another organizational issue. +The laboratory itself is a historically dated organizational model. It came about due to the observation that the quality of work of researchers who collaborate is overall greater than a researcher working in isolation. From the 1950s, the laboratory has evolved from being an educational tool used by teachers to attract the top students into research, into an organizational model allowing a high level of scientific productivity. +Some forms of organization in laboratories include: + +Their size: Varies from a handful of researches to several hundred. +The division of labor: Work divided among those working in the laboratory and all other professions involved in the course of the research, ranging from approving committees to designers, technicians, and researchers. +The coordination mechanisms: Which includes the formalization of objectives and tasks; the standardization of procedures (protocols, project management, quality management, knowledge management), the validation of publications and cross-cutting activities (number and type of seminars). +There are three main factors that contribute to the organizational form of a laboratory : \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c82b19c8e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:17.154648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The educational background of the researchers and their socialization process. +The intellectual process involved in their work, including the type of investigation and equipment they use. +The laboratory's history. +Other forms of organization include social organization. + +=== Social organization === +A study by Richard H.R. Harper, involving two laboratories, will help elucidate the concept of social organization in laboratories. The main subject of the study revolved around the relationship between the staff of a laboratory (researchers, administrators, receptionists, technicians, etc.) and their Locator. A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member. The study describes social relationships among different classes of jobs, such as the relationship between researchers and the Locator. It does not describe the social relationship between employees within a class, such as the relationship between researchers. +Through ethnographic studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory. Entitlement can be both formal or informal (meaning it is not enforced), but each class is aware and conforms to its existence. The degree of entitlement, which is also referred to as a staff's rights, affects social interaction between staff. By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization. As an example, administrators, in one lab of the study, do not have the right to ask the Locator where the researchers currently are, as they are not entitled to such information. On the other hand, researchers do have access to this type of information. So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights. The Locator does not want to disclose information that could jeopardize his relationship with the members of staff. The Locator adheres to the rights of each class. +Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies. This was inferred based on the attitude of various jobs towards their lab badge. Their attitude depended on how that job viewed their badge from a standpoint of utility, (how is the badge useful for my job) morality (what are my morals on privacy, as it relates to being tracked by this badge) and relations (how will I be seen by others if I refuse to wear this badge). For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day. Illustrating relations, researchers would also wear their badge due to informal pressures, such as not wanting to look like a spoil-sport, or not wanting to draw attention to themselves. +Another finding is the resistance to change in a social organization. Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more. +In summary, differences in attitude among members of the laboratory are explained by social organization: A person's attitudes are intimately related to the role they have in an organization. This hierarchy helps understand information distribution, control, and attitudes towards technologies in the laboratory. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == + + The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary + Media related to Laboratories at Wikimedia Commons +Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories +QA Explore \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_quality_control-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_quality_control-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d33c0762d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_quality_control-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory quality control" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_quality_control" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:32.076632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Laboratory quality control is designed to detect, reduce, and correct deficiencies in a laboratory's internal analytical process prior to the release of patient results, in order to improve the quality of the results reported by the laboratory. Quality control (QC) is a measure of precision, or how well the measurement system reproduces the same result over time and under varying operating conditions. Laboratory quality control material is usually run at the beginning of each shift, after an instrument is serviced, when reagent lots are changed, after equipment calibration, and whenever patient results seem inappropriate. Quality control material should approximate the same matrix as patient specimens, taking into account properties such as viscosity, turbidity, composition, and color. It should be stable for long periods of time, and available in large enough quantities for a single batch to last at least one year. Liquid controls are more convenient than lyophilized (freeze-dried) controls because they do not have to be reconstituted, minimizing pipetting error. Dried Tube Specimen (DTS) is slightly cumbersome as a QC material but it is very low-cost, stable over long periods and efficient, especially useful for resource-restricted settings in under-developed and developing countries. DTS can be manufactured in-house by a laboratory or Blood Bank for its use. + + +== Interpretation == +Interpretation of quality control data involves both graphical and statistical methods. Quality control data is most easily visualized using a Levey–Jennings chart. The dates of analyses are plotted along the x-axis and control values are plotted along the y-axis. The pattern of plotted points provides a simple way to detect increased random error and shifts or trends in calibration. +In clinical laboratories, Levey-Jennings charts are commonly used to identify deviations, shifts and trends in analytical performance during laboratory quality control. Levey-Jennings charts are often interpreted with Westgard rules such as 1-2s,1-3s, 2-2s, and R-4s rule to identify specific error patterns and early detection of both systematic and random errors. As a result, the reliability of test results improves, and laboratories can better meet accreditation standards such as ISO 15189. + + +== The control charts == +Control charts are a statistical approach to the study of manufacturing process variation for the purpose of improving the economic effectiveness of the process. These methods are based on continuous monitoring of process variation. The control chart, also known as the Shewhart chart or process-behavior chart, is a statistical tool intended to assess the nature of variation in a process and to facilitate forecasting and management. A control chart is a more specific kind of run chart. The control chart is one of the seven basic tools of quality control, which also include the histogram, pareto chart, check sheet, cause and effect diagram, flowchart and scatter diagram. Control charts prevent unnecessary process adjustments, provide information about process capability, provide diagnostic information, and are a proven technique for improving productivity. + + +== Levey–Jennings chart == + +A Levey–Jennings chart is a graph that quality control data is plotted on to give a visual indication whether a laboratory test is working well. The distance from the mean is measured in standard deviations. It is named after Stanley Levey and E. R. Jennings, pathologists who suggested in 1950 that Shewhart's individuals control chart could be used in the clinical laboratory. The date and time, or more often the number of the control run, is plotted on the x-axis. A mark is made indicating how far the actual result was from the mean, which is the expected value for the control. Lines run across the graph at the mean, as well as one, two and three standard deviations to either side of the mean. This makes it easy to see how far off the result was. +Rules such as the Westgard rules can be applied to see whether the results from the samples when the control was done can be released, or if they need to be rerun. The formulation of Westgard rules were based on statistical methods. Westgard rules are commonly used to analyse data in Shewhart control charts. Westgard rules are used to define specific performance limits for a particular assay (test) and can be used to detect both random and systematic errors. Westgard rules are programmed into automated analyzers to determine when an analytical run should be rejected. These rules need to be applied carefully so that true errors are detected while false rejections (of valid results that are outside of range) are minimized. The rules applied to high-volume chemistry and hematology instruments should produce low false rejection rates. +The Levey–Jennings chart differs from the Shewhart individuals control chart because the standard deviation (σ, "sigma") is estimated. The Levey–Jennings chart uses the long-term (i.e., population) estimate of sigma whereas the Shewhart chart uses the short-term (i.e., within the rational subgroup) estimate. + + +== Validation and verification == + +Validation and verification of medical devices ensure that they fulfil their intended purpose. Validation or verification is generally needed when a health facility acquires a new device to perform medical tests. +The main difference between the two is that validation is focused on ensuring that the device meets the needs and requirements of its intended users and the intended use environment, whereas verification is focused on ensuring that the device meets its specified design requirements. + + +== Analytical sensitivity and specificity == +"Analytical sensitivity" is defined as the smallest amount of substance in a sample that can accurately be measured by an assay (synonymously to detection limit), and "analytical specificity" is defined as the ability of an assay to measure one particular organism or substance, rather than others. These definitions are different from diagnostic sensitivity and diagnostic specificity, which are measures of how well a test can identify true positives and true negatives, respectively. + + +== See also == +Quality control +Quality assurance +External quality assessment + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Westgard.com \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f509f339c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory safety" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:34.605305+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Many laboratories contain significant risks, and the prevention of laboratory accidents requires great care and constant vigilance. Examples of risk factors include high voltages, high and low pressures and temperatures, corrosive and toxic chemicals and chemical vapours, radiation, fire, explosions, and biohazards including infective organisms and their toxins. +Measures to protect against laboratory accidents include safety training and enforcement of laboratory safety policies, safety review of experimental designs, the use of personal protective equipment, and the use of the buddy system for particularly risky operations. +In many countries, laboratory work is subject to health and safety legislation. In some cases, laboratory activities can also present environmental health risks, for example, the accidental or deliberate discharge of toxic or infective material from the laboratory into the environment. + +== Chemical hazards == +Hazardous chemicals present physical and/or health threats to workers in clinical, industrial, and academic laboratories. Laboratory chemicals include cancer-causing agents (carcinogens), toxins (e.g., those affecting the liver, kidney, and nervous system), irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, as well as agents that act on the blood system or damage the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes. + +== Biological hazards == + +=== Biological agents and biological toxins === + +Many laboratory workers encounter daily exposure to biological hazards. These hazards are present in various sources throughout the laboratory such as blood and body fluids, culture specimens, body tissue and cadavers, and laboratory animals, as well as other workers. +These are federally regulated biological agents (e.g., viruses, bacteria, fungi, and prions) and toxins that have the potential to pose a severe threat to public health and safety, to animal or plant health, or to animal or plant products. + +Anthrax - Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by a spore-forming bacterium called Bacillus anthracis. +Avian Flu - Avian influenza is caused by Influenza A viruses. +Botulism - Cases of botulism are usually associated with consumption of preserved foods. +Foodborne Disease - Foodborne illnesses are caused by viruses, bacteria, parasites, toxins, metals, and prions (microscopic protein particles). Symptoms range from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening neurologic, hepatic and renal syndromes. +Hantavirus - Hantaviruses are transmitted to humans from the dried droppings, urine, or saliva of mice and rats. +Legionnaires’ Disease - Legionnaires’ disease is a bacterial disease commonly associated with water-based aerosols. +Molds and fungi - Molds and fungi produce and release millions of spores small enough to be air, water, or insect-borne which may have negative effects on human health including, allergic reactions, asthma, and other respiratory problems. +Plague - The World Health Organization reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year. A bioterrorist release of plague could result in a rapid spread of the pneumonic form of the disease, which could have devastating consequences. +Ricin - Ricin is one of the most toxic and easily produced plant toxins. It has been used in the past as a bioterrorist weapon and remains a serious threat. +Smallpox - Smallpox is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. It is estimated that no more than 20 percent of the population has any immunity from previous vaccination. +Tularemia - Tularemia is also known as "rabbit fever" or "deer fly fever" and is extremely infectious. Relatively few bacteria are required to cause the disease, which is why it is an attractive weapon for use in bioterrorism. + +== Physical hazards and others == +Besides exposure to chemicals and biological agents, laboratory workers can also be exposed to a number of physical hazards. Some of the common physical hazards that they may encounter include the following: ergonomic, ionizing radiation, non-ionizing +radiation, and noise hazards. + +=== Ergonomic hazards === +Laboratory workers are at risk for repetitive motion injuries during routine laboratory procedures such as pipetting, working at microscopes, operating microtomes, using cell counters, and keyboarding at computer workstations. Repetitive motion injuries develop over time and occur when muscles and joints are stressed, tendons are inflamed, nerves are pinched and the flow of blood is restricted. Standing and working in awkward positions in front of laboratory hoods/biological safety cabinets can also present ergonomic problems. + +=== Ionizing radiation === + +Ionizing radiation sources are found in a wide range of occupational settings, including laboratories. These radiation sources can pose a considerable health risk to affected workers if not properly controlled. Any laboratory possessing or using radioactive isotopes must be licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and/or by a state agency that has been approved by the NRC, 10 CFR 31.11 and 10 CFR 35.12. +The fundamental objectives of radiation protection measures are: + +to limit entry of radionuclides into the human body (via ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or through open wounds) to quantities as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) and always within the established limits; +to limit exposure to external radiation to levels that are within established dose limits and as far below these limits as is reasonably achievable. + +== Safety hazards == + +=== Autoclaves and sterilizers === +Workers should be trained to recognize the potential for exposure to burns or cuts that can occur from handling or sorting hot sterilized items or sharp instruments when removing them from autoclaves/sterilizers or from steam lines that service the autoclaves. + +=== Centrifuges === +Centrifuges, due to the high speed at which they operate, have great potential for injuring users if not operated properly. Unbalanced centrifuge rotors can result in injury, even death. Sample container breakage can generate aerosols that may be harmful if inhaled. +The majority of all centrifuge accidents are the result of user error. + +=== Compressed gases === + +Laboratory standard for compressed gas \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d62647ea8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory safety" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_safety" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:34.605305+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Is a gas or mixture of gases in a container having an absolute pressure exceeding 40 pounds per square inch (psi) at 70 °F (21.1 °C); or +Is a gas or mixture of gases having an absolute pressure exceeding 104 psi at 130 °F (54.4 °C) regardless of the pressure at 70 °F (21.1 °C); or +Is a liquid having a vapor pressure exceeding 40 psi at 100 °F (37.8 °C) as determined by ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) +Within laboratories, compressed gases are usually supplied either through fixed piped gas systems or individual cylinders of gases. Compressed gases can be toxic, flammable, oxidizing, corrosive, or inert. Leakage of any of these gases can be hazardous. + +==== Store, handle, and use compressed gases ==== +All cylinders whether empty or full must be stored upright. +Secure cylinders of compressed gases. Cylinders should never be dropped or allowed to strike each other with force. +Transport compressed gas cylinders with protective caps in place and do not roll or drag the cylinders. + +=== Cryogens and dry ice === +Cryogens, substances used to produce very low temperatures [below -153 °C (-243 °F)], such as liquid nitrogen (LN2) which has a boiling point of -196 °C (-321 °F), are commonly used in laboratories. +Although not a cryogen, solid carbon dioxide or dry ice which converts directly to carbon dioxide gas at -78 °C (-109 °F) is also often used in laboratories. Shipments packed with dry ice, samples preserved with liquid nitrogen, and in some cases, techniques that use cryogenic liquids, such as cryogenic grinding of samples, present potential hazards in the laboratory. +Hand protection is required to guard against the hazard of touching cold surfaces. It is recommended that Cryogen Safety Gloves be used by the worker. +Eye protection is required at all times when working with cryogenic fluids. When pouring a cryogen, working with a wide-mouth Dewar flask, or around the exhaust of cold boil-off gas, use of a full face shield is recommended. + +=== Personal protective equipments === +Personal protective equipment or PPE is equipment worn to protect against exposure to hazardous substances. PPE does not eliminate the risks of hazards it helps protect the user from exposure. To ensure safety, workplaces provide instructions and training on how to use and choose proper PPE in different situations. +PPE includes: + +Long-sleeved shirts, lab coats, aprons +Goggles +Safety gloves; +The two most common types of safety gloves are latex and nitrile gloves. Latex gloves have a high sensitivity when it comes to contact and fine control which is very suitable for surgery. Nitrile gloves are generally more durable and resistant to tearing and chemicals. However, the sulfur in some nitrile gloves can oxidize silver and other highly reactive metals. +Face shield or mask +Particulate respirator +Organic vapor respirator + +=== Electrical === +In the laboratory, there is the potential for workers to be exposed to electrical hazards including electric shock, electrocutions, fires, and explosions. Damaged electrical cords can lead to possible shocks or electrocutions. A flexible electrical cord may be damaged by door or window edges, by staples and fastenings, by equipment rolling over it, or simply by aging. +The potential for possible electrocution or electric shock or contact with electrical hazards can result from a number of factors, including the following: + +Faulty electrical equipment/instrumentation or wiring; +Damaged receptacles and connectors; and +Unsafe work practices. + +=== Fire === + +Fire is the most common serious hazard that one faces in a typical laboratory. While proper procedures and training can minimize the chances of an accidental fire, laboratory workers should still be prepared to deal with a fire emergency should it occur. In dealing with a laboratory fire, all containers of infectious materials should be placed into autoclaves, incubators, refrigerators, or freezers for containment. + +Small bench-top fires in laboratory spaces are not uncommon. Large laboratory fires are rare. However, the risk of severe injury or death is significant because fuel load and hazard levels in labs are typically very high. Laboratories, especially those using solvents in any quantity, have the potential for flash fires, explosions, rapid spread of fire, and high toxicity of products of combustion (heat, smoke, and flame) + +=== Glassware === +Broken glass is a hazard for a sharps +Correct eye protection should be worn in most experiments involving glassware. +Inserting a glass rod through a stopper can introduce the possibility of a stab wound or sharps injury if the rod breaks. The hands must be protected. +Tubing should be cut from a barbed connection so as not to shatter the connection. A quick disconnect is preferable to a barbed fitting. +Ground glass joints can become a breaking hazard if they freeze. +Broken and other waste glass should be discarded in a separate container specially marked to indicate its contents. +Glassware should always be labeled as to its contents. + +Rapid heating (or cooling) may cause uneven thermal expansion putting too much mechanical stress on the surface and cause it to fracture. Fracturing is a concern when people new to laboratory become impatient and heat glassware, especially the larger pieces, too fast. Heating of glassware should be slowed using an insulating material, such as metal foil or wool, or specialized equipment such as heated baths, heating mantles or laboratory grade hot plates to avoid fracturing. +Hot glass looks like cold glass, so a person must be careful to avoid grabbing hot glassware. +Glassware can explode if the exhaust is in any way restricted, so any apparatus should be vented. +Glassware can implode under negative pressure +When connecting joints, it is the responsibility of the person overseeing the experiment to select the correct seal. For example, PTFE tape, bands, and fluoroether-based grease or oils may emit toxic perfluoroisobutylene fumes if the rated temperature limits are exceed. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_specimen-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_specimen-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..116762a57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_specimen-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Laboratory specimen" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_specimen" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:37.089863+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A laboratory specimen is sometimes a biological specimen of a medical patient's tissue, fluids, or other samples used for laboratory analysis to assist in differential diagnosis or staging of a disease process. These specimens are often the most reliable method of diagnosis, depending on the ailment. For example, breast cancer biopsies, performed on laboratory specimens of breast tissue, yield just a 2% rate of incorrect diagnosis. Laboratory specimens may also include feces. + + +== Types == + +General types of cellular tissue extraction include: + + +== Preparation == +For a given medical process, a certain volume of specimen must be taken from the patient. Some specimen types also require special treatment, such as immediate mixture with an additive, or storage at a certain temperature. After extraction, all specimen containers must be labeled with at least two of the following identifiers (at the time of collection): patient's name, date of birth, hospital number, test request form number, accession number, or a unique random number. All specimens should be labeled with the patient present. This ensures that no false results are obtained from mislabeled samples. + + +== Storage and use == +Specimen temperatures are controlled for their specific use. Several common temperatures for storage are listed below: + +Any specimen sample should only be used for testing, as any sharing of patient biological samples without patient consent is unethical and could heavily bias/slow research progress, not to mention grossly violate patient privacy. + + +== Disposal == +Disposal varies based on the nature of the specimen and testing. Laboratory and healthcare personnel should follow industry standard practices regarding sterile technique and any precaution regarding hypodermic needles. All biological material should be treated as potentially hazardous and in doing so protocols regarding the disposal of the specimen should be strictly followed to maintain the safety of both patients and health care workers. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..07f3250e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Lal Bagh" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:53.373817+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lalbagh Botanical Garden or simply Lalbagh (lit. 'red garden'), is a botanical garden in Bengaluru, India. It was originally built by Hyder Ali in 1760, during the Sultanate of Mysore . The garden was later managed under numerous British superintendents before Indian Independence. It was responsible for the introduction and propagation of numerous ornamental plants as well as those of economic value. It also served a social function as a park and recreational space, with a central glass house dating from 1890 which was used for flower shows. In modern times, it hosts two flower shows coinciding with the week of Republic Day (26 January) and Independence Day (15 August). As an urban green space along with Cubbon Park, it is also home to numerous wild species of birds and other wildlife. The garden also has a lake adjoining a large rock on which a watchtower had been constructed during the reign of Kempegowda II. + +== History == + + +King Hyder Ali commissioned the building of this garden in 1760, but his son, King Tipu Sultan, completed it. A Bagh is Hindustani for garden while the reference of the prefix Lal is debated and could refer to the colour red due to its original floral composition but Lal also means "beloved". King Hyder Ali decided to create this garden on the lines of the Mughal Gardens that were gaining popularity during his time. King Hyder Ali laid out these famous botanical gardens and his son King Tipu Sultan added horticultural wealth to them by importing trees and plants from several countries. King Hyder Ali and King Tipu Sultan's Lalbagh gardens were managed by Mohammed Ali and his son Abdul Khader, and were based on design of the Mughal Gardens that once stood at Sira, at a distance of 120 km from Bengaluru. At that time, Sira was the headquarters of the strategically important southernmost Mughal "suba" (province) of the Deccan before the British Raj. +The Lalbagh gardens were commissioned by the 18th century; over the years, it acquired India's first lawn-clock and the subcontinent's largest collection of rare plants. After the British conquest of Kingdom of Mysore in 1799, the garden was under the charge of Major Gilbert Waugh, Company paymaster and in 1814 its control was transferred to the Government of Mysore with an appeal by Waugh to the Marquis of Hastings that it should be under the botanical garden at Fort William, Calcutta. This was accepted and the charge for supervision was given to Nathaniel Wallich on 24 April 1819. This continued until 1831 when charge moved to the Mysore Commissioner. An Agricultural and Horticultural Society had been formed with William Munro, an army officer and amateur botanist in charge of the Bengaluru chapter. The Society wrote to the Mysore Commissioner, Sir Mark Cubbon, requesting charge of the Lalbagh garden. Cubbon granted control and during this period it was used for horticultural training. The Bengaluru chapter of the Society was dissolved in 1842, leaving the gardens unmanaged. +In 1855, Hugh Cleghorn, was appointed as a botanical advisor to the Commissioner of Mysore. Cleghorn and Jaffrey, superintendent of the Madras Agri-Horticultural Society looked at various sites for a horticultural garden and found that Lalbagh suited their purpose despite being located at a distance from the Cantonment, the British centre of the city. He suggested that a European Superintendent be appointed with control under the Chief Commissioner. Cleghorn was against the use of Lalbagh for commercial enterprise and instead suggested that it should aim to improve the use of indigenous plants, aid in introducing useful exotic species and help in the exchange of plant and seed materials with other gardens at Madras, Calcutta and Ooty. Under Cubbon's orders, Lalbagh was made into the Government Botanical Garden in August 1856 and a professional horticulturist was sought from Kew. William New was recommended and he arrived at Bengaluru on 10 April 1858. New's contract ended in 1863-64 and he was replaced by Allan Adamson Black who worked at the Kew Herbarium. +Black, however, suffered from poor health and resigned in 1865. He died after visiting his brother in Rangoon aboard HMS Dalhousie, off the Coco Islands on 4 December 1865. New was then re-appointed. In his 1861 catalogue of the plants of Lalbagh, there were numerous economic and ornamental plants including Cinchona, coffee, tea, macadamia nuts, hickory, pecan, rhododendrons, camellias, and bougainvilleas. New died in 1873 and was followed by John Cameron, also from Kew. Cameron had the additional support of the Maharaja of Mysore who was appointed in 1881 and introductions included Araucarias (A. cookii and A. bidwilli), cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens), topiaries made from Hamelia patens. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..269f60d2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Lal Bagh" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:53.373817+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 1890-91, a central bandstand and the glasshouse (for flowershows) made with iron pillars cast by Walter Macfarlane and Company of Glasgow were added. Cameron also helped introduce commercial crops like cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, radish, rhubarb, celery, and kohlrabi. Trees introduced included the baobab from Africa, Brownea rosea from the Caribbean, and Catha edulis from Yemen. Cameron retired in 1908 and was followed by Gustav Herman Krumbiegel. A menagerie and an aviary had been established in the 1860s. A 15 ft high pigeon house or dovecote for 200 birds was built in 1893 south of the Glass House. Following the plague the maintenance deteriorated and there was a proposal to close the menagerie and aviary in the 1900s. in 1914. Captain S.S.Flower reported that it included a court built between 1850 and 1860 having tigers and rhinoceros; an aviary; a monkey house with an orangutan; a paddock with blackbuck, chital, Sambar deer, barking deer, and a pair of emus; a bear house and a peacock enclosure. +In 1874, Lalbagh had an area of 45 acres (180,000 m2). In 1889, 30 acres were added to the eastern side, followed by 13 acres in 1891 including the rock with Kempegowda tower and 94 acres more in 1894 on the eastern side just below the rock bringing it to a total of 188 acres (760,000 m2). The foundation stone for the Glass House, modeled on London's Crystal Palace was laid on 30 November 1889 by Prince Albert Victor and was built during the time of John Cameron. It was built with cast iron from the Saracen Foundry in Glasgow UK. This structure was extended in 1935, this time with steel from the Mysore Iron and Steel Company at Bhadravathi. +The Horticultural Department decided to close Lalbagh Botanical Garden on Saturday 21 March 2020, in order to avoid public gatherings in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the third week of May the government allowed parks to be open only from 7 a.m. to 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. to 7 p.m. +The COVID-19 pandemic forced the cancellation of the Lalbagh flower show on Independence Day in 2020. Due to the pandemic, mango and jackfruit melas were also not conducted at Lalbagh in 2020. + +== Overview == +Lalbagh is a 240 acres (0.97 km2) garden and is located in south Bengaluru. It holds two flower shows and has over 1,000 species of plants with many trees that are more than a hundred years old. +The garden adjoins one of the towers erected by the founder of Bengaluru, Kempe Gowda. The park has some rare species of plants brought from Persia, Afghanistan and France. With an intricate watering system for irrigation, this garden is aesthetically designed, with lawns, flowerbeds, lotus pools and fountains. Most of the centuries-old trees are labelled for easy identification. The Lalbagh Rock, one of the most ancient rock formations on earth, dating back to 3,000 million years, is another attraction that attracts the crowds. + +=== Gates === +Lalbagh has four gates numbered 1 to 4. Gates 1 and 2 are on the north side. Gate 3 is to the east and Gate 4 is to the west. The eastern gate is situated near Siddapura Circle (K.H Circle - K.H Double Road) and one can enter this gate and enjoy the sylvan atmosphere of the garden. The northwestern wall adjoins Krumbiegal Road named after G.H. Krumbiegal, the last pre-Independence Superintendent. +The western gate has a wide road with Jayanagar, Bengaluru close by. The southern gate is often referred to as a small gate and opens near Ashoka pillar. The northern gate is a fairly wide and big road leading to the Glass House and serves as the primary entrance. + +== Tourism and eco-development == +Flower shows are conducted every year during the week of Republic day and Independence day, to educate people about the variety of flora and develop public interest in plant conservation and cultivation. In August 2022, on the occasion of 75th Independence Day, flower show was conducted in the honour of Rajkumar and Puneeth Rajkumar depicting their life journey. It was attended by 8.34 lakh people. + +A bonsai garden has been added in 2002. Apart from this, there is a Topiary Garden, Rose Garden and Lotus Garden inside Lalbagh. +An artificial waterfall has been commissioned in 2017 at the far eastern edge of the lake. +Lalbagh is a good place for bird watching both in the lake and on the ground. +Lalbagh also has a "Garden centre" where citizens can buy ornamental plants. This is managed by Nursery Men's Cooperative society. +A geological monument for the peninsular gneiss formation is also a tourist attraction at the gardens. This monument has been designated by the Geological Survey of India on the Lalbagh hill which is made up of 3,000 million-year-old peninsular gneissic rocks. One of the four cardinal towers erected by Kempegowda II, also a major tourist attraction, is seen above this hillock. This tower gives a view of Bengaluru from the top. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c779a1552 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Lal Bagh" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bagh" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:53.373817+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Lalbagh management and public protests == +The Lalbagh botanical gardens is managed by the Department of Horticulture and is no longer maintained as a botanical garden and is not a member of the Botanic Gardens Conservation International. With an increasing pressure to serve as a park and social space, much of the garden has been converted into walking paths and lawns. Morning walkers throng Lalbagh every morning. Many tree have been trimmed or cut down to make way for public amenities or due to perceptions that falling branches may threaten visitors. A part of the garden was taken over and many trees cut down amid protests for construction of the Lalbagh Metro Station as part of the Bengaluru Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. Entry fees of INR 25 with a camera fee of INR 60 have also been a point of contention. There have been repeated proposals to build various recreational amenities such as rock gardens, fountains and boating facilities. Some of these proposals of the management have been halted in the past due protests from enlightened public who have pointed out the impacts these have on the environment. + +== Connectivity == +Lalbagh metro station connects with the Greenline of Namma Metro. +Lalbagh is also connected by Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation buses from Kempegowda Bus Station/Shivaji Nagar. All buses towards Jayanagar/Banashankari areas pass through one of the four gates of Lalbagh. + +== Preservation Act, 1979 == +The Preservation Act, 1979 passed by the Government of Karnataka to preserve the uniqueness of the park is under the provision of Karnataka Government Park (Preservation) Act, 1975, which states:Accordingly, it is directed that neither any land should be granted to nor any further constructions be permitted whether temporary or permanent by any organization or individuals in the Cubbon Park and Lalbagh areas except the constructions taken up by the Horticulture Department in furtherance of the objectives of the department. + +== Gallery == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Catalogue of plants in 1891 +Official Website +The Lalbagh - A History +Lalbagh Flower Show January 2025 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_Jungle_Lab-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_Jungle_Lab-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e9f0e0241 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_Jungle_Lab-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Liquid Jungle Lab" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_Jungle_Lab" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:53.372776+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Liquid Jungle Lab (LJL) is a tropical marine research station on the island of Canales de Tierra on the western coast of Pacific Panama along a primary marine biological corridor. The LJL research campus was completed in 2004 and is part of a private 3,500 hectare reserve composed of primary forest, mangroves, tide pools, and a rocky inter-tidal zone that transitions into fringing coral reefs. +The island laboratory is adjacent to two large coastal bays, Bahia Honda, Veraguas Province and Pixvae Bay, which are important mangrove, estuarine and riparian (stream) habitats. The island and laboratory serve as a strategic base for ecologic research of the Coiba National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Panama's largest marine protected area. The tremendous biodiversity of the marine and terrestrial environments surrounding Isla Canales de Tierra allows visiting scientists to conduct multidisciplinary ecologic research in a pristine area and has even inspired a designer perfume fragrance, Fleur de Liane. The LJL was founded by Jean Pigozzi, a Swiss venture capitalist, photographer and art collector. + + +== Research == + +A multi-disciplinary approach to research in Terrestrial and Marine Tropical Ecology are conducted between a consortium of scientists and researchers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid. These organizations and visiting scientists and students use the marine lab facilities and experimental farm to conduct primary and applied research in the fields of tropical island ecology, marine biology, physical oceanography, marine biogeochemistry, aquaculture, genetics, molecular biology, herpetology, botany, ornithology, entomology, ecosystem conservation, island biogeography, geology, fisheries management, tropical forest ecology, agro-forestry, veterinary science, and organic agriculture. +Current areas of marine research at the Liquid Jungle include plankton community dynamics and marine larval ecology and transport, modeling internal waves and benthic structure, coral community architecture and diversity, synoptic chemical mapping, invasive sessile invertebrate species, mangrove and estuarine watersheds, and the effects of natural and anthropogenic nutrient input on primary production and fisheries along Pacific coastal zones. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +PLUTO website Archived 2022-03-08 at the Wayback Machine (The Panama Liquid Jungle Laboratory Underwater Tropical Observatory) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northeastern_Thailand-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northeastern_Thailand-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..85f2b8643 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northeastern_Thailand-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "List of Thai Meteorological Department weather stations in northeastern Thailand" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northeastern_Thailand" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:31.840151+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) has a total of 118 weather stations throughout Thailand, including 21 Agromet stations. + + +== Weather stations in Thailand == + +Thailand is according to Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) for climatic observations divided into six regions: northern, northeastern, eastern, central, southern (west coast) and southern (east coast) Thailand. + + +== Northeastern region == + +The northeastern region includes the 20 provinces: + + +=== TMD weather stations in northeastern Thailand === +There are a total of 22 weather stations in northeastern Thailand, including 3 Agromet stations. + + +=== TMD weather stations === + +All TMD weather stations in Thailand have their own website. The weather forecasts are at 1.00, 4.00, 7.00, 10.00, 13.00, 16.00, 19.00 and 22.00 hour. The weather stations distribute the weather forecasts every day at 7.30, 8.30, 12.30,13.30,19.30 and 20.30 via FM radio broadcast, these include the weather forecasts of the neighboring weather stations. +When the weather station is located near an airport, the Royal Thai Air Force and civil aviation use their own weather station for the pilots' briefing. +In the northeastern region just four stations have a weather radar with a radius of 120 km or 240 km, they are station Sakon Nakhon, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani and Surin. + + +=== Agromet stations === +Agromet stations deliver climatic data direct to TMD centers. Agromet stations distribute the weather forecasts every day at 1.00, 4.00, 7.00, 10.00, 13.00, 16.00, 19.00 and 22.00 hour via their own website. + + +=== Weather forecasts northeastern Thailand === + + +== Notes == +In this overview of weather stations, an Agromet station is omitted if it is located close to a TMD weather station. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northern_Thailand-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northern_Thailand-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18841b8b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northern_Thailand-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "List of Thai Meteorological Department weather stations in northern Thailand" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Thai_Meteorological_Department_weather_stations_in_northern_Thailand" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:33.031034+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) has a total of 118 weather stations throughout Thailand, including 21 Agromet stations. + + +== Weather stations in Thailand == + +Thailand is according to Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) for climatic observations divided into six regions: northern, northeastern, eastern, central, southern (west coast) and southern (east coast) Thailand. + + +== Northern region == + +The northern region includes the 15 provinces: + + +=== TMD weather stations in northern Thailand === +There are a total of 29 weather stations in northern Thailand, including 5 Agromet stations. + + +=== TMD weather station Phitsanulok === + +Like all TMD weather stations in Thailand, the weather station has its own website. The weather forecasts are at 1.00, 4.00, 7.00, 10.00, 13.00, 16.00, 19.00 and 22.00 hour. +This weather station (48378) distributes the weather forecasts every day at 7.30, 8.30, 12.30,13.30,19.30 and 20.30 via radio broadcast on FM 104.25 MHz, these include the weather forecasts of the five neighboring weather stations. +The weather station is located near Phitsanulok airport. But both the Royal Thai Air Force and civil aviation use their own weather station for the pilots' briefing. +In the northern region just five stations have a weather radar with a radius of 120 km or 240 km, they are station Chiang Rai, Lamphun, Phitsanulok, Phetchabun and Tha Wang Pha. + + +=== Agromet station Phichit === +Agromet stations deliver climatic data direct to TMD centers. Agromet station Phichit (48386) distributes the weather forecasts every day at 1.00, 4.00, 7.00, 10.00, 13.00, 16.00, 19.00 and 22.00 hour via its own website. + + +=== Weather forecasts northern Thailand === + + +== Notes == +In this overview of weather stations, an Agromet station is omitted if it is located close to TMD weather station. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md index 542c86f21..c8f964529 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:42.338468+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:21.011064+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..51217f1ff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,308 @@ +--- +title: "List of planetariums" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:50.584295+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This entry is a list of permanent planetariums across the world. + +== Permanent planetariums == +Planetariums are ordered by continent and then by country in alphabetical order. The planetariums are listed in the following format: name, city. The International Planetarium Society has a more complete list on its website. + +=== Africa === + +==== Algeria ==== +Complexe Culturel Abdelwahab Salim, Tipaza +Planetarium de Ghardaia, Ghardaia + +==== Egypt ==== +Arab Academy for Science and Technology Planetarium, Alexandria +The Child Museum, Cairo +Planetarium Science Center, Alexandria +Suez Discovery & Science Center, Suez + +==== Ghana ==== +Ghana Planetarium, Accra + +==== Libya ==== +Planetarium of Tripoli, Al-Quba Al-Falakia, Tripoli, Libya + +==== South Africa ==== +Iziko Planetarium at the Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town +Johannesburg Planetarium at University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg +Sutherland Planetarium +Naval Hill Planetarium, Bloemfontein + +==== Tunisia ==== +Planetarium of Tunis Science City, Tunis + +=== Asia === + +==== Bangladesh ==== +Novo Theatre, Dhaka +Novo Theatre, Rajshahi + +==== China ==== +Beijing Planetarium, Beijing +Hong Kong Space Museum, Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong +Macao Science Center, Macao +Shanghai Astronomy Museum, Shanghai + +==== India ==== + +==== Indonesia ==== +Jagad Raya Planetarium, Tenggarong +Jakarta Planetarium, Jakarta +Loka Jala Crana Planetarium, Surabaya + +==== Iraq ==== +Baghdad Planetarium, Baghdad + +==== Israel ==== +Eretz Israel Museum Planetarium, Tel Aviv +Givatayim Observatory, Givatayim +Wise Observatory, Mitzpe Ramon + +==== Japan ==== + +==== Kuwait ==== +Kuwait Planetarium + +==== Kazakhstan ==== +Aktobe Planetarium + +==== Malaysia ==== +Melaka Planetarium, Malacca +Planetarium Negara, Kuala Lumpur +Sultan Iskandar Planetarium, Sarawak + +==== Myanmar ==== +Yangon Planetarium, Yangon + +==== Pakistan ==== +PIA Institute of Planetaria, Astronomy & Cosmology (PIA-IPAC), Karachi +PIA Institute of Planetaria, Astronomy & Cosmology (PIA-IPAC), Lahore +PIA Institute of Planetaria, Astronomy & Cosmology (PIA-IPAC), Peshawar + +==== Philippines ==== +National Museum Planetarium, Manila +PAGASA Planetarium, Quezon City +DOST-PAGASA Mindanao Planetarium, Mindanao + +==== South Korea ==== +Gwacheon National Science Museum Planetarium, Gwacheon +National Science Museum, Daejeon +Eunpyung Planetarium, Seoul National Science Museum, Seoul + +==== Sri Lanka ==== +Sri Lanka Planetarium, Colombo + +==== Taiwan ==== +Taipei Astronomical Museum, Taipei +National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung +Tainan Astronomical Education Area, Tainan + +==== Thailand ==== + +==== Turkmenistan ==== +Ashgabad Planetarium, Ashgabad + +=== Europe === + +==== Austria ==== +Digitales Planetarium im Naturhistorischen Museum Wien, Vienna +Sternenturm Planetarium Judenburg, Judenburg +Zeiss Planetarium der Stadt Wien, Vienna + +==== Belarus ==== +Minsk Planetarium, Minsk + +==== Belgium ==== +Brussels Planetarium, Brussels +Europlanetarium Genk, Genk +Planetarium Volkssterrenwacht Urania, Hove +Planètarium Olympus Mons, Mons +Planétarium, Université de Liège, Liège +Volkssterrenwacht vzw Beisbroek, Bruges + +==== Bulgaria ==== +NAOP Gabrovo, Gabrovo +NAOP Smolyan, Smolyan +NAOP Varna, Varna +NAOP Yambol, Yambol +Planetarium of Plovdiv, Plovdiv +Public Astronomical Observatory and Planetarium, Dimitrovgrad + +==== Croatia ==== +Astronomical Centre Rijeka, Rijeka +Nikola Tesla Technical Museum Planetarium, Zagreb + +==== Cyprus ==== +The Cyprus Planetarium, Nicosia + +==== Czech Republic ==== + +==== Denmark ==== +Orion Planetarium, Jels +The Steno Museum, Aarhus +Tycho Brahe Planetarium, Copenhagen + +==== Estonia ==== +Planetarium in Science Centre AHHAA, Tartu +Planetarium in Tartu Old Observatory +Planetarium in Pernova Nature House, Pärnu +Planetarium in Energy Discovery Centre, Tallinn + +==== Finland ==== +Heureka Planetarium, Vantaa +Kallioplanetaario, Jyväskylä +Särkänniemi Planetarium, Tampere +Ursa Starlab, Helsinki +Kakslauttanen Planetarium, Saariselkä + +==== France ==== + +==== Germany ==== + +==== Greece ==== +Eugenides Planetarium (see also Evgenidio Foundation), Athens +Thessaloniki Planetarium, Thessaloniki + +==== Hungary ==== +Budapest Planetarium (hu:TIT Budapesti Planetárium), Budapest +Kecskemét Planetarium, Kecskemét +Bukk Astronomical Observatory (hu:Bükki Csillagda), Répáshuta + +==== Ireland ==== +Inishowen Planetarium, Inishowen +Schull Planetarium, Schull + +==== Italy ==== + +==== Kosovo ==== +Kosovo Planetarium of Çabrat, Gjakova, Scien.-Edu. Center Cosmos & Human +National Observatory and Planetarium of Kosovo, Shtime + +==== Lithuania ==== +Planetariumas, Vilnius + +==== Malta ==== +Esplora Interactive Science Centre, Kalkara + +==== Netherlands ==== +Artis Planetarium, Amsterdam +Eise Eisinga Planetarium, Franeker +Omniversum, The Hague +Planetarium Planetron, Dwingeloo +Planetarium Ridderkerk, Museum Johannes Postschool, Ridderkerk-Rijsoord + +==== Norway ==== +Vitensenteret i Trondheim (Trondheim Science Center), Trondheim +Nordnorsk vitensenter (Science Center of Northern Norway), Tromsø +Saint Exupery Planetarium, Oslo +Science Factory (Vitenfabrikken, Norway), Sandnes + +==== Poland ==== + +==== Portugal ==== +Calouste Gulbenkian Planetarium, Lisbon +Espinho Planetarium, Navegar Foundation, Espinho +Planetario Coimbra, Coimbra +Planetário do Porto, Porto + +==== Romania ==== + +==== Russia ==== + +==== Serbia ==== +Belgrade Planetarium, Belgrade +Novi Sad Planetarium + +==== Slovakia ==== +Slovenské technické múzeum, Košice +CVC Domino, Košice +Observatory and planetarium Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Hlohovec +Observatory and planetarium Presov, Prešov +Observatory Vihorlat, Kolonické sedlo +Regional Observatory and Planetarium Maximilian Hell, Žiar nad Hronom +Slovak central observatory Hurbanovo, Hurbanovo + +==== Spain ==== + +==== Sweden ==== + +==== Switzerland ==== +Planetarium at Swiss Museum of Transport, Swiss Museum of Transport, Luzern +Sternwarte - Planetarium SIRIUS, Schwanden near Sigriswil + +==== Turkey ==== + +==== Ukraine ==== +Dnipro Planetarium, Dnipro +Donetsk Planetarium, Donetsk +Kharkiv Planetarium, Kharkiv +Kyiv Planetarium, Kyiv + +==== United Kingdom ==== + +==== Other ==== +Aboard the RMS Queen Mary 2, the first planetarium at sea + +=== North America === + +==== Canada ==== + +===== Alberta ===== +Queen Elizabeth II Planetarium, Edmonton, Alberta +TELUS Spark Science Centre, Calgary, Alberta +Telus World of Science, Edmonton, Alberta + +===== British Columbia ===== +Centre of the Universe, Victoria, British Columbia +H. R. MacMillan Space Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia + +===== Manitoba ===== +Manitoba Museum, Winnipeg, Manitoba + +===== Ontario ===== +Doran Planetarium, Sudbury, Ontario +Ontario Science Centre Digital Planetarium, Toronto +Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto +Science North, Greater Sudbury, Ontario +W.J. McCallion Planetarium, Hamilton, Ontario + +===== Quebec ===== +Rio Tinto Alcan Planetarium, Montreal, Quebec + +===== Yukon ===== +Northern Lights Centre, Watson Lake, Yukon + +==== Costa Rica ==== +Planetario Ciudad de San José, San José + +==== Mexico ==== + +==== United States ==== + +===== Alabama ===== +Boyd E. Christenberry Planetarium, Homewood +W. A. Gayle Planetarium, Montgomery +Wernher von Braun Planetarium+ +INTUITIVE Planetarium, U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville + +===== Alaska ===== +Babula Planetarium at the University of Alaska Museum of the North Fairbanks +Marie Drake Planetarium, Juneau +Thomas Planetarium at the Anchorage Museum, Anchorage +University of Alaska Planetarium & Visualization Theater Anchorage + +===== Arizona ===== +Dorrance Planetarium at the Arizona Science Center, Phoenix +Flandrau Science Center and Planetarium at the University of Arizona, Tucson +Jim and Linda Lee Planetarium +Planetarium at Mesa Community College +The Star Barn Cave Creek \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cdd1e2653 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,206 @@ +--- +title: "List of planetariums" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:50.584295+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== Arkansas ===== +EpiSphere at the Aerospace Education Center, Little Rock + +===== California ===== + +===== Colorado ===== +Fiske Planetarium at the University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder +Gates Planetarium at Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Denver +United States Air Force Academy Planetarium at United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs + +===== Connecticut ===== +The Children's Museum, West Hartford +The Discovery Museum, Bridgeport +Leitner Family Observatory and Planetarium at Yale University, New Haven +Treworgy Planetarium at Mystic Seaport, Mystic + +===== District of Columbia ===== +Albert Einstein Planetarium, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution +Rock Creek Park Planetarium, Rock Creek Park Nature Center + +===== Florida ===== + +===== Georgia ===== +Jim Cherry Memorial Planetarium at the Fernbank Science Center, Atlanta +Mark Smith Planetarium at the Museum of Arts and Sciences, Macon +Omnisphere Theater, Coca-Cola Challenger Space Science Center, Columbus State University, Columbus +Rollins Planetarium at Young Harris College, Young Harris +Tellus Planetarium at Tellus: Northwest Georgia Science Museum, Cartersville +Wetherbee Planetarium at Thronateeska Heritage Center, Albany + +===== Guam ===== +University of Guam Planetarium at the University of Guam, Hagåtña + +===== Hawaii ===== +Hōkūlani Imaginarium, Windward Community College, Kāne‘ohe, Hawai‘i +ʻImiloa Astronomy Center, Hilo +Jhamandas Watumull Planetarium at the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu + +===== Idaho ===== +Capital High School, Boise + +===== Illinois ===== + +===== Indiana ===== + +===== Iowa ===== +Bettendorf High School, Bettendorf +Sanford Museum and Planetarium, Cherokee, Iowa + +===== Kansas ===== +Justice Planetarium at the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, Hutchinson +Lakin High School Lakin, Kansas +Peterson Planetarium at Emporia State University + +===== Kentucky ===== +Gheen's Science Hall & Rauch Planetarium at the University of Louisville, Louisville +Golden Pond Planetarium and Observatory, Golden Pond +Hardin Planetarium at Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green +Hummel Planetarium at Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond +Star Theater, at Morehead State University, Morehead +Varia Planetarium (part of East Kentucky Science Center) at Big Sandy Community and Technical College, Prestonsburg + +===== Louisiana ===== +Dayna & Ronald L. Sawyer Space Dome Planetarium, Shreveport +Irene W. Pennington Planetarium, Baton Rouge +Audubon Planetarium & Nature Dome Theater at Audubon Louisiana Nature Center, New Orleans + +===== Maine ===== +Francis Malcolm Science Center Planetarium at Easton, Maine, 776 Houlton Road +Ladd Planetarium at Bates College, Lewiston, 44 Campus Avenue +Maynard F. Jordan Planetarium at the University of Maine, Orono +Southworth Planetarium at University of Southern Maine - Portland campus located at 70 Falmouth Street + +===== Maryland ===== +Arthur Storer Planetarium, Prince Frederick, named after the first astronomer in the American colonies and the original namesake of Halley's Comet +Davis Planetarium at the Maryland Science Center, Baltimore +Montgomery College Planetarium, Takoma Park +James E. Richmond Science Center and Planetarium, Charles County Public Schools, Waldorf (60' diameter, 184 seats) +Planetarium at Towson University +William Brish Planetarium + +===== Massachusetts ===== +Charles Hayden Planetarium at the Museum of Science, Boston +Framingham State College Planetarium, Framingham +George Alden Planetarium at the Ecotarium, Worcester +Seymour Planetarium at the Springfield Science Museum, Springfield, the oldest operating planetarium in the United States + +===== Michigan ===== + +===== Minnesota ===== +Como Planetarium, Como Park Elementary School, St. Paul +Forestview Planetarium, Forestview Middle School, Baxter +Marshall W. Alworth Planetarium, University of Minnesota Duluth, Duluth, Minnesota +Mayo High School, Rochester +MSUM Planetarium, Minnesota State University Moorhead, Moorhead +Paulucci Space Theatre, Hibbing Community College, Hibbing +SMSU Planetarium, Southwest Minnesota State University, Marshall +Whitney and Elizabeth MacMillan Planetarium, Bell Museum of Natural History, St. Paul + +===== Mississippi ===== +Russell C. Davis Planetarium, Jackson + +===== Missouri ===== +Del & Norma Robison Planetarium, Kirksville +Gottlieb Planetarium, Kansas City +James S. McDonnell Planetarium, St. Louis +Rock Bridge Senior High School Planetarium, Columbia + +===== Montana ===== +Taylor Planetarium at the Museum of the Rockies + +===== Nebraska ===== +Mallory Kountze Planetarium (UNO), Omaha +Martin Luther King Jr. Planetarium, Omaha +Ralph Mueller Planetarium, Lincoln + +===== Nevada ===== +Fleischmann Planetarium & Science Center, Reno +Dale Etheridge Planetarium, Las Vegas, Nevada + +===== New Hampshire ===== +McAuliffe-Shepard Discovery Center, Concord + +===== New Jersey ===== + +===== New Mexico ===== +The Planetarium at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science, Albuquerque +Early College Academy, Hefferan Planetarium, Albuquerque +Robert H. Goddard Planetarium, Roswell + +===== New York ===== + +===== North Carolina ===== + +===== Ohio ===== + +===== Oklahoma ===== +James E. Bertelsmeyer Planetarium at the Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium, Tulsa +Love's Planetarium at Science Museum Oklahoma, Oklahoma City +Mackie Planetarium, Northern Oklahoma College +Jenks Public Schools Planetarium at Jenks High School Math Science Complex, Jenks, Oklahoma + +===== Oregon ===== +North Medford High School Planetarium, Medford +Harry C. Kendall Planetarium (part of Oregon Museum of Science and Industry), Portland +Planetarium at Chemeketa Community College, Hayesville +Science Factory, Eugene +Planetarium Sky Theater, Mt. Hood Community College, Gresham, Oregon + +===== Pennsylvania ===== + +Edinboro University Planetarium at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, Edinboro, Pennsylvania + +===== Puerto Rico ===== +RUM Planetarium, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Mayagüez + +===== Rhode Island ===== +Roger Williams Park Museum of Natural History and Planetarium, Providence + +===== South Carolina ===== +Clemson University Planetarium, Clemson +DuPont Planetarium at the University of South Carolina Aiken, Aiken +SCSM Planetarium, Columbia +Stanback Planetarium, Orangeburg +T. C. Hooper Planetarium at the Roper Mountain Science Center, Greenville + +===== Tennessee ===== +Bays Mountain Planetarium at Bays Mountain Park, Kingsport +Heavens Declare Planetarium at the Wonders Center & Science Museum, Dickson +Sharpe Planetarium at the Pink Palace Museum and Planetarium, Memphis +Sudekum Planetarium at Adventure Science Center, Nashville +University of Tennessee Planetarium and Observation Deck, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Knoxville +MD Anderson Planetarium, University of Memphis Lambuth, Jackson + +===== Texas ===== + +===== Utah ===== +Clark Planetarium, Salt Lake City +Ott Planetarium at Weber State University, Ogden +Royden G. Derrick Planetarium, at Brigham Young University, Provo +Snow Planetarium at Snow College, Ephraim +Christa McAuliffe Space Education Center at Central Elementary, Pleasant Grove + +===== Vermont ===== +Lyman Spitzer Jr. Planetarium at Fairbanks Museum in Saint Johnsbury + +===== Virginia ===== + +===== Washington ===== + +===== Wisconsin ===== + +===== Wyoming ===== +Snow King Observatory and Planetarium, Jackson + +=== Oceania === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..31d2a44a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "List of planetariums" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planetariums" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:50.584295+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Australia ==== +Science Space, Wollongong, NSW +Melbourne, Scienceworks Museum Planetarium, Melbourne +Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, Launceston +Scitech Planetarium, Perth +Sir Thomas Brisbane Planetarium, Brisbane +UNISA Planetarium, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide +Cosmos Centre, Charleville, Queensland + +==== New Zealand ==== +Sir Edmund Hillary Alpine Centre Digital Dome at The Hermitage Hotel, Mount Cook Village +Perpetual Guardian Planetarium, Tūhura Otago Museum, Dunedin +Planetarium North, Whangārei +Space Place at Carter Observatory, Wellington +Stardome Observatory, Auckland + +=== South America === + +==== Argentina ==== +Complejo Astronómico Municipal, Rosario +Complejo Planetario Malargüe, Malargüe +Galileo Galilei planetarium, Buenos Aires +Parque Astronómico la Punta + +==== Brazil ==== + +==== Chile ==== +Planetario Chile (University of Santiago, Chile), Carl Zeiss VI, Santiago +Planetario Mamalluca, Municipalidad de Vicuña, Región de Coquimbo +Planetario Rapa Nui (Fundación Planetario Rapa Nui, Chile), Isla de Pascua +Planetario Movil Tikva, Purranque, Región Los Lagos + +==== Colombia ==== +Planetarium of Bogotá, Bogotá +Planetarium of Medellín, Medellín +Planetarium La Enseñanza, Medellín +Planetario Móvil Colombia, Bogotá + +==== Ecuador ==== +Planetarium of Mitad del Mundo, Ciudad Mitad del Mundo-Quito +Planetario de la Armada -Guayaquil- (INOCAR) +Planetario Mundo Juvenil -Cuenca- +Centro cultural Planetario -Quito- (IGM) + +==== Uruguay ==== +Planetario de Montevideo "Agr. Germán Barbato", first Latin American planetarium (1955), Montevideo + +==== Venezuela ==== +Planetario del Museo de los Niños de Caracas, Caracas +Planetario Humboldt, [Zeiss] Caracas +Planetario Fundación la Salle de Ciencias Naturales La Salle, Punta de Piedra +Planetario Simón Bolívar (part of Complejo Científico, Cultural y Turístico), Maracaibo + +== See also == +Amateur astronomy + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Worldwide Planetarium Database + +== External links == +Worldwide Planetariums Database (WPD) +Planetariums & Digital Dome Theatres Database +Plafinder – planetarium search engine +Loch Ness Productions Fulldome Theater Compendium (fulldome facilities) +Loch Ness Productions Dome Theater Compendium (classic facilities) +Wonderdome – UK Mobile Planetarium \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md index e77eade09..1df2234f7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:43.320730+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:25.874593+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Plants_Genes_Bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Plants_Genes_Bank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c88c74ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Plants_Genes_Bank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Lithuanian Plants Genes Bank" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Plants_Genes_Bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:18.097987+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lithuanian Plants Genes Bank (Lithuanian: Augalų genų bankas, AGB) is plant gene resource guardian and sustainable use organization governed by Lithuania's Ministry of Environment. Its headquarters based in Akademija, Kėdainiai, Central Lithuania. +In 1997 the plant storage started to operate. In 2004 the Lithuanian Plants Gene Bank was established and the seed storage become a part of it. By 2017 it had 3318 samples from 201 variety of different kind of plants. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ed24d281 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Lovell Telescope" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:35.766583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Lovell Telescope ( LUV-əl) is a radio telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, near Goostrey, Cheshire, in the north-west of England. When construction was finished in 1957, the telescope was the largest steerable dish radio telescope in the world at 76.2 metres (250 feet) in diameter; +it is now the third-largest, after the Green Bank telescope in West Virginia, United States, and the Effelsberg telescope in Germany. +It was originally known as the "250 ft telescope" or the Radio Telescope at Jodrell Bank, before becoming the Mark I telescope around 1961 when future telescopes (the Mark II, III, and IV) were being discussed. It was renamed to the Lovell Telescope in 1987 after Sir Bernard Lovell, and became a Grade I listed building in 1988. The telescope forms part of the MERLIN and European VLBI Network arrays of radio telescopes. +Both Bernard Lovell and Charles Husband were knighted for their roles in creating the telescope. In September 2006, the telescope won the BBC's online competition to find the UK's greatest "Unsung Landmark". 2007 marked the 50th anniversary of the telescope. +If the air is clear enough, the Mark I telescope can be seen from high-rise buildings in Manchester such as the Beetham Tower, and from as far away as the Pennines, Winter Hill in Lancashire, Snowdonia, Beeston Castle in Cheshire, and the Peak District. It can also be seen from the south-facing windows of the Terminal 1 restaurant area and departure lounges of Manchester Airport. + +== Construction == + +=== Conception and construction of the Mark I === +Bernard Lovell built the Transit Telescope at Jodrell Bank in the late 1940s. This was a 218 ft (66 m)-diameter radio telescope that could only point directly upwards; the next logical step was to build a telescope that could look at all parts of the sky so that more sources could be observed, as well as for longer integration times. Although the Transit Telescope had been designed and constructed by the astronomers that used it, a fully steerable telescope would need to be professionally designed and constructed; the first challenge was to find an engineer willing to do the job. This turned out to be Charles Husband, whom Lovell first met on 8 September 1949. + +Two circular 15" turret drive gear sets and associated pinions from 15-inch (38-cm) gun turrets were bought cheaply in 1950; these came from the World War I battleships HMS Revenge and Royal Sovereign, which were being broken up at the time. The bearings became the two main altitude rotator bearings of the telescope, with the appropriate parts of the telescope being designed around them. Husband presented the first drawings of the proposed giant, fully steerable radio telescope in 1950. After refinements, these plans were detailed in a "Blue Book", which was presented to the DSIR on 20 March 1951; the proposal was approved in March 1952. +Construction began on 3 September 1952. The foundations for the telescope were completed on 21 May 1953 after being sunk 90 ft (27 m) into the ground. It then took until mid-March 1954 to get the double railway lines completed because of their required accuracy. The central pivot was delivered to the site on 11 May 1954, and the final bogie in mid-April 1955. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..185d24947 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Lovell Telescope" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:35.766583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The telescope bowl was originally going to have a wire mesh surface to observe at wavelengths between 1 and 10 meters (3.3 and 32.8 ft), so frequencies between 30 and 300 MHz; this was changed to a steel surface so that the telescope could observe at the 21 cm (8.3 in) hydrogen line, which was discovered in 1951. Also, in February 1954 Lovell and the Air Ministry met to see if funding could be made available for improving the accuracy of the dish so that it could be used on centimetre wavelengths, for research at these wavelengths for the Ministry as well as "other purposes". Although the funding was not ultimately made available from the Air Ministry, the planning process had already progressed, so this improvement was made anyway. +The telescope was constructed so that the bowl could be completely inverted. Originally, it was intended to use a movable tower at the base of the telescope to change the receivers at the focus. However, the movable tower was never built, jointly because of funding constraints and the fact that much of the receiver equipment was placed at the base of the telescope rather than at the focus. Instead, receivers were mounted on 50-foot (15-m) long steel tubes, which were then inserted by a winch into the top of the aerial tower while the bowl was inverted. The cables from the receivers then ran down the inside of this tube, which could then be connected when the telescope was pointed at the zenith. Associated receiver equipment could then be placed either in the small, swinging laboratory directly underneath the surface; in rooms at the tops of the two towers; at the base girders, or in the control building. +The telescope moved for the first time on 3 February 1957: by an inch. It was first moved azimuthally under power on 12 June 1957; the bowl was tilted under power for the first time on 20 June 1957. By the end of July the dish surface was completed, and first light was on 2 August 1957; the telescope did a drift scan across the Milky Way at 160 MHz, with the bowl at the zenith. The telescope was first controlled from the control room on 9 October 1957, by a purpose-built analogue computer. +There were large cost overruns with the telescope's construction, mainly the result of the steeply rising cost of steel during construction. The original grant for the telescope came jointly from the Nuffield Foundation and the government; this amounted to £335,000. The government increased its share of the funding several times as the cost of the telescope rose; other money came from private donations. The final part of the debt from the construction of the telescope, £50,000, was paid off by Lord Nuffield and the Nuffield Foundation on 25 May 1960 (partly because of the telescope's early, very public role in space probe tracking; see below), and Jodrell Bank observatory was renamed to the Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories. The final total cost for the telescope was £700,000. + +=== Upgrade to Mark IA === +Shortly after the telescope was originally completed, Lovell and Husband started contemplating an upgrade to the telescope so that it had a more accurate surface, and was controlled by a digital computer. Plans for this upgrade were created by Husband and Co., and were presented to Lovell in April 1964. Their plans became more urgent when fatigue cracks were discovered in the elevation drive system in September 1967. The telescope was only expected to have an operational lifespan of 10 years, and Husband had been warning about the decay of the telescope since 1963. The appearance of fatigue cracks was the first of these problems that threatened to stop the telescope working; had they not been put right the elevation system could have failed and perhaps jammed. The telescope was therefore repaired and upgraded to become the Mark IA; the £400,000 of funding to do this was announced on 8 July 1968 by the SRC. The upgrade was carried out in three phases, phase 1 lasting between September 1968 and February 1969, phase 2 between September and November 1969 and phase 3 between August 1970 and November 1971. +The first phase saw the addition of an inner railway track, which was designed to take a third of the weight of the telescope. The outer railway track, which had been decaying and sinking over the previous years, was relaid in the second phase. Four bogies and their steelwork were added on the inner track, and the existing bogies on the outer track were overhauled. +The third phase saw the biggest changes; a new, more accurate bowl surface was constructed in front of the old surface, meaning that the telescope could be used on wavelengths as small as 6 cm (5 GHz), and the central "bicycle wheel" support was added. A new computer control system was also installed (reusing the Ferranti Argus 104 computer from the Mark II); fatigue cracks in the cones connecting the bowl to the towers were repaired, and the central antenna was lengthened and strengthened. In January 1972 the hoist carrying two engineers to the central antenna broke, gravely injuring one and killing the other. +The Mark IA upgrade was formally completed on 16 July 1974, when the telescope was handed back to the University of Manchester. Because of increases in the cost of steel during the upgrade, the final amount for the upgrade was £664,793.07. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a7a7b1926 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Lovell Telescope" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:35.766583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Later upgrades and repairs === +The Gale of January 1976 on 2 January brought winds of around 90 mph (140 km/h), which almost destroyed the telescope. The towers bowed, and one of the bearings connecting the dish to the towers slipped. After an expensive repair, diagonal bracing girders were added to the towers to prevent this happening again. +By the 1990s, the telescope surface was becoming badly corroded. In 2001–03, the telescope was resurfaced, increasing its sensitivity at 5 GHz by a factor of five. A holographic profiling technique was used on the surface, meaning that the surface works optimally at wavelengths of 5 cm (compared to 18 cm on the old surface). A new drive system was installed, which provides a much higher pointing accuracy. The outer track was relaid, and the focal tower was strengthened so that it could support heavier receivers. +In 2007 the telescope needed a new drive wheel, as one of the 64 original wheels had cracked; in 2008 another new steel tyre was needed after a second wheel cracked. These are the only two wheel changes needed since the telescope started operation in 1957. +The presence (as at 2010) of two breeding pairs of wild peregrine falcons (nesting one in each of the telescope's two support towers) prevents the nuisance of pigeon infestation (by droppings fouling, and their body heat affecting sensitive instrument readings) that some other radio telescopes suffer from. +Close to one of the buildings at the observatory stands a bust of Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer who developed the heliocentric model of the universe, with Sun, rather than the Earth, at its centre. + +== Statistics == + +== Space probe tracking == + +=== Sputnik and artificial satellites === + +The telescope became operational in the summer of 1957, just in time for the launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite. While the transmissions from Sputnik itself could easily be picked up by a household radio, the Lovell Telescope was the only telescope capable of tracking Sputnik's booster rocket by radar; it first located it just before midnight on 12 October 1957. It also located Sputnik 2's carrier rocket at just after midnight on 16 November 1957. +The telescope also took part in some of the early work on satellite communication. In February and March 1963, the telescope transmitted signals via the moon and Echo II, a NASA balloon satellite at 750 km (470 mi) altitude, to the Zimenki Observatory in the USSR. Some signals were also relayed from the US to the USSR via Jodrell Bank. + +=== The race to the Moon === + +The Lovell Telescope was used to track both Soviet and American probes aimed at the Moon in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The telescope tracked Pioneer 1 from 11 to 13 November 1958, Pioneer 3 in December 1958, and Pioneer 4 in March 1959. The telescope tracked Pioneer 5 between 11 March and 26 June 1960, and was also used to send commands to the probe, including the one to separate the probe from its carrier rocket and the ones to turn on the more powerful transmitter when the probe was 13 million kilometres (8 million miles) away. It also received data from Pioneer 5, and was the only telescope in the world capable of doing so at the time. The last signal was picked up from the probe at a distance of 36.2 million kilometres (22.5 million miles) on the 26 June 1960. +The telescope also tracked the Soviet Moon probes. An attempt to track Luna 1 failed. The telescope successfully tracked Lunik II from 13 to 14 September 1959 as it hit the moon; this was proven by the telescope by measuring the effect of the Moon's gravity on the probe, and Luna 3 around 4 October 1959. Also, the telescope tracked Luna 9 in February 1966, the first spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon. The telescope listened in on its facsimile transmission of photographs from the Moon's surface. The photos were sent to the British press – the probe transmitted, likely intentionally to increase chances of reception, in the international format for image transmission by newswire – and published before the Soviets themselves had made the photos public. +The telescope tracked Luna 10, a Russian satellite put into orbit around the Moon, in April 1966, and Zond 5 in September 1968, a Russian probe containing two tortoises that was launched at the Moon, around which it sling-shotted before returning to Earth. The telescope did not track Apollo 11, as it was tracking Luna 15 in July 1969. However, a 50 ft (15 m) telescope at Jodrell Bank was used at the same time to track Apollo 11. + +=== Venus probes === +The telescope possibly detected signals from Venera 1, a Russian satellite en route to Venus, during 19–20 May 1961. However, it was not possible to confirm the origin of the signals. A few years later, in December 1962, the telescope tracked and received data from Mariner 2. On 18 October 1967, the telescope received signals from, and tracked, Venera 4, a Russian probe to Venus. + +=== Mars probes === +The telescope tracked Mars 1 in 1962–63, and Mars 2 and Mars 3 in 1971 (amidst the upgrade of the telescope to the Mark IA). In more recent years, it has also searched for several lost Mars spacecraft, including NASA's Mars Observer spacecraft in 1993, Mars Polar Lander in 2000, +and the Beagle 2 lander on Mars in 2003. However, it did not succeed in locating any of them. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7a3dcdb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Lovell Telescope" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:35.766583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== ICBM watchdog === +As a stopgap measure while RAF Fylingdales was being built, the telescope was on standby for "Project Verify" (also known by the codewords "Lothario" and "Changlin") between April 1962 and September 1963. During strategic alerts, a 'pulse transmitter, receiver and display equipment' could be connected to the telescope to scan known Russian launch sites for indications of launches of ICBMs and/or IRBMs. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, the telescope was discreetly turned towards the Iron Curtain to provide a few minutes' warning of any missiles that might have been launched. + +== Scientific observations == +When the telescope was proposed, a series of objectives for the telescope's observations were set out. These included: + +Surveys of galactic and extragalactic radio emission +Observations of the Sun +Radar echoes from the planets +Investigation of meteor detections +Observations of the Gegenschein +Studies of the Aurora +Detections of radio reflections from cosmic ray ionization in the atmosphere +However, the actual observations made with the telescope differ from these original objectives, and are outlined in the following sections. + +=== Solar system === +In Autumn 1958, the telescope was used to bounce "Hellos" off the Moon for a demonstration in Lovell's third Reith Lecture. The telescope was also used to receive messages bounced off the Moon (a "moonbounce") as part of the 50th anniversary First Move festival. In April 1961, a radar echo from Venus was achieved using the telescope while the planet was at a close approach, confirming measurements of the distance of the planet made by American telescopes. + +=== 21cm hydrogen line === + +The 21 cm hydrogen line was discovered during the telescope's construction; the telescope was subsequently redesigned so that it could observe at that frequency. Using this line emission, hydrogen clouds both in the Milky Way galaxy and in other galaxies can be observed; for example, the telescope discovered a large cloud around the M81 and M82 galaxies. The motion of these clouds either towards or away from us either redshifts or blueshifts the line, allowing the velocity to the cloud to be measured. This provides a probe of the internal dynamics of galaxies, and can also provide a measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe. + +=== Masers === + +In 1963, the telescope discovered OH emissions from star-forming regions and giant stars; the first astronomical masers. OH masers emit on four frequencies around 18 cm (7.1 in), which are easily observable on the telescope. As part of MERLIN, the telescope is regularly used to construct maps of maser regions. + +=== Pulsars === + +In 1968, the telescope observed the coordinates of the recently discovered pulsar, confirming its existence and investigating the dispersion measure. It was also used to make the first detection of polarization of the pulsar's radiation. This marked the start of a substantial amount of work investigating pulsars at Jodrell, which is still ongoing. In the 30 years following the discovery of pulsars, the telescope discovered over 100 new pulsars (and astronomers at Jodrell Bank discovered around 2/3 of the total number using the Lovell and other telescopes). 300 pulsars are regularly observed using either the Lovell, or a nearby 42-foot (13-m) dish. +The telescope was involved in the discovery of millisecond pulsars, and also discovered the first pulsar in a globular cluster in 1986: a millisecond pulsar in the Messier 28 globular cluster. In September 2006, the results of three years of observing a double pulsar, PSR J0737-3039, with the Lovell telescope, as well as with the Parkes and Green Bank Telescopes, were announced; these confirmed that the general theory of relativity is accurate to 99.5%. + +=== Gravitational lensing === + +Between 1972 and 1973, the telescope was used for "a detailed survey of the radio sources in a limited area of the sky … up to the sensitivity limit of the instrument". Among the objects catalogued was the first gravitational lens, which was confirmed optically in 1979 after its position was found to coincide with a pair of faint blue stars by using the Mark I as an interferometer with the Mark II. The telescope was also involved in the detection of the first Einstein ring in 1998, in conjunction with observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope. + +=== Quasars and interferometry === + +The early investigation into the size and nature of quasars drove the development of interferometry techniques in the 1950s; the Lovell telescope had an advantage because of its large collecting area, meaning that it could make high-sensitivity interferometer measurements relatively quickly. As a result, the telescope featured heavily in the discovery of quasars. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f4a88fb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Lovell Telescope" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovell_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:35.766583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Interferometry at Jodrell Bank started before the Lovell telescope was constructed, using the Transit Telescope with a 35 m2 broadside array to determine the size of radio-loud nebulae. Once construction of the Lovell telescope was complete, the broadside array was put on a steerable mount and the pair were used as a tracking radio interferometer. This was then used to determine the 2D shape of quasars on the sky. In the summer of 1961, a 25-foot (8-m) diameter paraboloid telescope was constructed (of aluminium tubing and mounted on the rotating structure of an old defence radar). This was then used as a steerable interferometer with the Mark I, with a resolution of 0.3 arcseconds, to determine the sizes of some high-redshift (z~0.86) quasars. +The Mark II telescope once constructed was also used as an interferometer with the Lovell telescope. This has a baseline of 425 metres (1,394 feet) (meaning that it can synthesize a telescope with 425 m diameter), giving it a resolution of around 0.5 arcminutes. This telescope pair has been used to carry out survey work, and to determine the positions of faint radio objects. Also, one of the drivers behind the construction of the Mark III was to use it as an interferometer with the Mark I to carry out a survey of radio sources. +The telescope took part in the first transatlantic interferometer experiment in 1968, with other telescopes being those at Algonquin and Penticton in Canada. It was first used as an interferometer with the Arecibo radio telescope in 1969. +In 1980, it was used as part of the new MERLIN array with a series of smaller radio telescopes controlled from Jodrell Bank. With baselines of up to 217 km (135 mi), this gave a resolution around 0.05 arcminutes. An upgraded version of this became a national facility in 1992. It has also been used in Very Long Baseline Interferometry, with telescopes across Europe (the European VLBI Network), giving a resolution of around 0.001 arcseconds. Around half of the telescope's observing time is now spent doing interferometry with other telescopes. It is planned that the telescope will work as part of an interferometer with the Radioastron (Russian) and VLBI Space Observatory Programme (Japanese) orbital radio satellites, providing yet larger baselines and higher resolutions. + +=== Other notable observations === +The telescope was used as a follow-up instrument for possible SETI detections made at Arecibo between 1998 and the end of 2003. No signals were detected. In February 2005, astronomers using the Lovell Telescope discovered the galaxy VIRGOHI21 that appears to be made almost entirely of dark matter. + +== In popular culture == +A 1:200 scale model of the telescope, made in 1961, resides in the Science Museum, London. +In 1962, the telescope was mentioned in a sci-fi novel A for Andromeda, by Fred Hoyle and John Elliot. +The 1981 Doctor Who serial Logopolis, filmed at Crowsley Park, used a model of the Lovell Telescope as the Pharos Project, from which the Doctor, played by Tom Baker, fell and regenerated. The model was based on the Mark I telescope, but it also featured some modifications from the Mark IA telescope such as the rim around the edge of the dish. +Sophie Aldred portrayed the Seventh Doctor's companion Ace, standing on both the superstructure and dish in the 1990 Doctor Who educational special "Search Out Science: Search Out Space". +In 1992, the telescope was featured on the cover of Sub Sub's "Space Face" single. +The telescope also made a brief appearance in the film version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy in 2005. +Four bands have shot music videos or photos in the bowl of the telescope: Oasis in June 1994 by Steve Double, D:Ream in 1995 ("Party Up the World"), Placebo in 2003 ("The Bitter End"), and Public Service Broadcasting in 2015 ("Sputnik"). Long shots of the telescope feature in the music video of "Secret Messages" by Electric Light Orchestra. +The Royal Mail depicted the telescope as "J for Jodrell Bank" in their alphabetical landmarks stamp series; it has also previously featured on stamps from Haiti, Hungary, Ascension Island, Barbuda, Liechtenstein and Tanzania. +In an August 1981 episode of Coronation Street the telescope was seen. Len and Rita Fairclough brought the boy they were fostering to see the telescope. + +== Notes and references == + +=== Books === +Lovell, Bernard (1968). The Story of Jodrell Bank. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-217619-6. +Lovell, Bernard (1973). Out of the Zenith: Jodrell Bank 1957–1970. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-217624-0. +Lovell, Bernard (1985). The Jodrell Bank Telescopes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-858178-9. +Lovell, Bernard (1990). Astronomer by Chance. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-55195-0. +Piper, Roger. The Story of Jodrell Bank (Carousel ed.). London: Carousel. ISBN 978-0-552-54028-5. + +=== Journal articles === +Lovell, Bernard (1957). "The Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope". Nature. 180 (4576): 60–62. Bibcode:1957Natur.180...60L. doi:10.1038/180060a0. S2CID 21214658. +Rowson, B. (1963). "High resolution observations with a tracking radio interferometer". MNRAS. 125 (2): 177. Bibcode:1963MNRAS.125..177R. doi:10.1093/mnras/125.2.177. +Spinardi, G. (August 2006). "Science, Technology, and the Cold War: The Military Uses of the Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope". Cold War History. 6 (3): 279–300. doi:10.1080/14682740600795428. S2CID 154984982. + +== See also == + +Grade I listed buildings in Cheshire +Listed buildings in Goostrey + +== External links == + +The Lovell Telescope website at Manchester University +Jodrell Bank Discovery Centre website +'50 Years of the Lovell Telescope', lecture by Professor Ian Morison given at Gresham College, 5 December 2007 (available for free audio, video and text download). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARK_IVB_Meteorological_Data_Station_AN/UMQ-13-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARK_IVB_Meteorological_Data_Station_AN/UMQ-13-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f0c92fd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARK_IVB_Meteorological_Data_Station_AN/UMQ-13-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "MARK IVB Meteorological Data Station AN/UMQ-13" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARK_IVB_Meteorological_Data_Station_AN/UMQ-13" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:07.763447+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The AN/UMQ-13(V) system or MARK IV-B, is a meteorological data station that is owned and operated by the United States Space Force. This system allows meteorologists from around the globe to analyze and forecast meteorological data from polar orbiting satellites belonging to, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). The MARK IVB also uses geostationary orbiting satellites to include Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES), Japan's Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS), and Meteosat which is operated in cooperation between EUMETSAT and the European Space Agency. +There are nine operational MARK IVB terminals world-wide to provide operational missions with tactical meteorological information for a specific location. With the rapid changes in technology, the MARK IVB operates a Windows based software allowing for the rapid analyzing of meteorological images. Older models of this system were unable to process microwave data which resulted in new techniques and upgraded to both the satellites and the MARK IVB terminals. The upgrades to satellite sensors enable the ability for both satellites and meteorologists to detect weather conditions such as thunderstorms, lightning, volcanic ash, and fog. Both commercial and military aircraft can be severely affected by these weather conditions. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGARes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGARes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bba152ecd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGARes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "MEGARes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGARes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:19.332974+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +MEGARes is a hand-curated antibiotic resistance database which incorporates previously published resistance sequences for antimicrobial drugs, while also expanding to include published sequences for metal and biocide resistance determinants. In MEGARes 3.0, the nodes of the acyclic hierarchical ontology include four antimicrobial compound types, 59 classes, 223 mechanisms of resistance, and 1,448 gene groups that classify the 8,733 gene accessions. This works in conjunction with the AMR++ bioinformatics pipelin (version 3.0) to classify resistome sequences directly from FASTA. +The database focuses on the analysis of large-scale, ecological sequence datasets with an annotation structure that allows for the development of high throughput acyclical classifiers and hierarchical statistical analysis of big data. MEGARes annotation consists of three hierarchical levels when looking at AMR genes: drug class, mechanism, and group. The comprehensive MEGARes content was compiled from all published sequences included various other databases: Resfinder, ARG-ANNOT, Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD), and the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Lahey Clinic beta-lactamase archive. +MEGARes allows users to analyze antimicrobial resistance on a population-level, similar to a microbiome analysis, from a FASTA sequence. Furthermore, users can access AMR++, a bioiinformatics pipeline for resistome analysis of metagenomic datasets that can be integrated with the MEGARes database. + + +== See also == +Antimicrobial Resistance databases + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel_Nevill-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel_Nevill-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c4f1539b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel_Nevill-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Mabel Nevill" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel_Nevill" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:45.527590+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mabel Nevill (née Grant) (1865–1958) was a South African human computer and astronomical assistant, and the first South African women's singles tennis champion. + + +== Biography == + +Mabel Grant was born in Durban, South Africa, the daughter of a merchant, William Grant, and his wife Sarah (née Pilcher). +Mabel Grant became the first South African women's singles tennis champion in 1899. On the event's silver trophy, she is listed as champion three additional times between 1890 and 1893. + + +=== Human computer === +Beginning in 1887 (possibly from 1885), she joined three other women who were assisting the government astronomer at the Natal Observatory (located in today's KwaZulu-Natal province of the Republic of South Africa). The women worked during the mornings as human computers, completing complex astronomical calculations, processing meteorological observations and the reduction of tidal observations. In 1890, she was named the Observatory's meteorological assistant and on 1 September 1891, she succeeded John Grant as the senior astronomical assistant. +According to the Report of the Government Astronomer (1903), her job was intricate and demanding: "The senior assistant maintains a general supervision over the whole of the details of the work of the Observatory; carries on the general and astronomical correspondence; assists when required in all observations made between eleven o'clock at night and eight o'clock the next morning; looks after, makes out, checks, and pays all accounts, keeping the necessary books, and preparing and rendering all the returns required by the Government; calculates all the ephemerids, working lists, and tabular places; constructs all auxiliary tables and charts; reduces the magnetic observations and tidal records, and generally takes over the duties of the Junior and Meteorological Assistants when they are absent on leave or from illness." +On 1 July 1902, Mabel Nevill resigned from her observatory position but remained in the job until her successor, R.F. Rendell, arrived in April 1903. + + +=== Personal life === +In June 1894, she married the observatory's resident astronomer Edmund Nevill, a member of the Royal Society. Eventually, they had two sons and a daughter. Edmund Nevill remained as a Government Astronomer at the Natal Observatory until it was closed in 1911, after the formation of the Union of South Africa. +Mabel Nevill died in 1958 in the United Kingdom. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..011e302a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:54.620713+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station is located on the west coast of Ireland, and is one of the longest running mercury recording stations in the world. The station's location is important as it is far away from neighbouring cities, to ensure no pollutants interfere with recordings, and its location is suitable for studying the atmosphere under Northern Hemispheric and European conditions. The station has the dual status of being a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GMO) station and a European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP) supersite. Mace Head research and monitor the climate and atmospheric composition, focusing on aerosol-cloud interactions and mercury readings. + +== About == +Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station was established in 1987, and is still in operation. The current station manager is Gerry Spain, who has held this position for the last 20 years. The station PI/Contact is Professor Simon O'Doherty, who runs trace gas measurement at the University of Bristol, and the station CO-PI is Professor Peter Simmonds. Mace Head funding is supported by the UK's Department for Energy Security and Net Zero and NASA. +The station has the dual status of being a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GMO) station and a European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP) supersite. It is operated by both the National University of Ireland Galway's School of Physics and the University's Ryan Institute Centre for Climate and Air Pollution studies. +The University of Galway's School of Physics has operated at Mace Head for 50 years, and Mace Head Station is one of the more important Global Atmosphere Watch stations in the Northern Hemisphere. +With funding from research projects, it is the University's personnel; the students and post-doctoral fellows who are responsible for the operation and maintenance of equipment at Mace Head station. The University provides funding for the costs of consumables such as filters, as well as the transport of chemical analysis samples to the Glasnevin, Dublin laboratory. + +== Location == +The Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station is located in Carna, County Galway, on the west coast of Ireland. This Northern Hemisphere station has westerly exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean, with coordinates of 53.3267ºN, 9.9046ºW. This is a clean sector from 180 degrees to 300 degrees, and approximately 60% of the air that is measured by the site arrives through this clean sector. Time in Ireland is Western European Time (WET, UTC+00) in winter and Western European Summer Time (WEST, UTC+01) in summer (although, at almost 10°W, local solar time is 40 minutes later than civil time). Annual rainfall is 1,200mm, 10 °C average air temperature, and a sea temperature of 10 °C in winter and 15 °C in summer. Peat lands and wetlands surround the station, and its location is approximately 90 metres (300 ft) from the shoreline. +To reduce pollutants influencing and interfering with measurements taken at the site, Mace Head is located approximately 88 kilometres (55 mi) west of Galway city. Similarly, the clean sector surrounding the site also includes three small close surrounding islands, but they are uninhabited and thus do not influence the measurements taken at the site. Furthermore, the main Atlantic shipping routes are over 150 km (93 mi) away, and the transatlantic air corridors are over 80 km (50 mi) away, thus ensuring cleaner readings. +The location of Mace Head makes it a suitable site for measuring marine biogenic gases, aerosol production and chemistry, and long-range transport of air pollution. It is also suitable for studying the atmosphere under Northern Hemispheric conditions as well as European conditions during eastern winds. +There are numerous facilities on the site used for recording and analysing data. These facilities consist of a 10 m (33 ft) tall meteorological tower, an aluminium walk-up tower and a cargo container laboratory, and three laboratory buildings; one that is 300 m (980 ft) from the shore, and two that are 90 m (300 ft) from the shore. + +== History == +Research and operations began during 1978 to 1983 in Adrigole, County Cork. However, this was shut down and the operations officially moved to the Mace Head site in 1987. It was from 1987 that measurements of chloroform, methane and trichlorotrifluoroethane began, and in 1995 carbon monoxide and hydrogen began. In October 1994, the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) network installed their first automated gas chromatography-mass spectrometer. It was later replaced by the Agilent 5973 MS in 1998, and in December 2004 was retired and the Medusa gas chromatography-mass spectrometry system (Medusa-GCMS) was installed. + +== Mission statement and research themes == +The Mace Head station has numerous research aims and themes, such as monitoring climate change, atmospheric composition, aerosol-cloud interactions, air quality, atmosphere-ocean exchange and climate-ecosystem interactions. Their mission statement states that their goal is to monitor trends of atmospheric composition change, monitor climate variables and air pollution, and research atmospheric composition and its impact on climate change. Mace Head also wants to promote education within the topics of climate, air pollution, and the atmosphere. + +== Instruments == +Mace Head uses a variety of instruments to record their findings. Some of these instruments include a ceilometer and doppler lidar, both used to detect clouds and aerosols, a cloud radar, microwave radiometer and a nano-scanning mobility particle sizer. Mace Head also has a gas chromatography–mass spectrometry system (Medusa-GCMS), which was installed in December 2004 and measures trace gas species. +Mace Head also has an automated atomic fluorescence analyzer (AFS) and an automated atomic absorption analyzer (AAS), both used to measure time resolved mercury measurements. There is also a cavity ring-down spectrometer (CRDS) which is used to measure carbon dioxide and methane. There is also a gas chromatorgraph-electron capture detector (GC-ECD) to measure sulphur hexafluoride and nitrous oxide, and a gas chromatophraph-multi detector (GC-MD) to measure carbon monoxide and hydrogen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b0411ecb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:54.620713+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Measurements and recordings == +Mace Head is renowned for their atmospheric chemistry research, as they measure numerous meteorological elements such as wind speed and direction, temperature, rainfall, and humidity. They also record and measure greenhouse gases, UV levels, and solar radiation. Mace Head began measuring the ozone since 1988, chloroform, methane and trichloro trifluoroethane in 1897, and carbon monoxide and hydrogen began in 1995. +Mark Lunt measured chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), and Jurgita Ovadnevaite reported on the aerosol-cloud and climate interactions at Mace head, specifically the major advances in sea salt aerosols. Observations of methyl chloroform at Mace Head have also been useful in the understanding of methane removal from the atmosphere, which is caused by trends in atmospheric hydroxyl radical concentrations. +Whilst Mace Head does measure numerous atmospheric compositions, they mainly focuses on the measurements of aerosols and mercury readings, but also observed and measures storms and strong winds. + +=== Measured storms and wind speeds === +Mace Head measures storms and strong winds that pass through specifically during winter; storm season. One such storm measured was Storm Ali, the first storm of the 2018–2019 season. Storm Ali arrived at the northern areas of the British Isles on 19 September, and brought heavy rain and strong winds to Northern Ireland and Western Scotland. The highest recorded gust was at Cairn Gorm with 169 km/h (105 mph), and Mace Head captured one of the highest recordings at 140 km/h (90 mph). Storm Ali impacted and disrupted Ireland, causing power outages, travel disruption, damage to buildings and transport, as well as two deaths. +Storm Callum was the third storm of the 2018–2019 season, impacting the UK during 12 and 13 October. Callum brought windy weather, rainfall, power outages, and since there were high tides the winds caused large waves thus many sea walls fell, resulting in coastal flooding. Mace Head measured wind gusts of 116 km/h (72 mph), with maximum gust speeds reading 138 km/h (86 mph) at Capel Curig. +Additionally, Storm Fionn was also measured at Mace Head. It was named by Met Éireann, and was the seventh storm of the 2018–2019 winter. It arrived in Ireland on 16 January and was observed and measured not only at Mace Head, but also other sites such as Sherkin Island, Valentia Observatory, St Mary's Airport and Aberdaron. The highest recorded gust was measured at Mace Head, with a wind speed of 137 km/h (85 mph). Storm Fionn did not have as significant disruption to Ireland as Storm Ali created, with the only impacts being traffic disruption and snowfall. +Other storms measured at Mace Head include Storm Erik in 2019 at 120 km/h (75 mph) and Storm Jake in 2016 at 134 km/h (83 mph). +On 24 January 2025 during Storm Éowyn, Mace Head recorded the strongest ever gust of wind in Ireland at 183 km/h (114 mph), breaking the previous record set during Hurricane Debbie in 1961. + +=== Aerosols === +Air quality modelling is used to highlight the relationship between atmospheric concentrations, emissions, meteorology and other factors. These atmospheric measurements are useful in detailing trace gas concentrations and various atmospheric aerosols. +Aerosols are liquid particles suspended in the air, and they influence the climate by scattering light and affecting clouds, thus they work in opposition to greenhouse gases and cause cooling. Natural aerosols include sulfates, ammonium salts and sea salts. Mace Head has one of the most advanced aerosol monitoring sites in Europe, providing important and vital ash data during the Icelandic volcano eruption during April and May. On 14 April 2010, Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano erupted, with volcanic ash rising up to 9 km (5.6 mi) into the air. The weather conditions worsened for central Europe, with pollutants remaining for the next six days. The vertical volcanic ash plume had a peak of 3.5 km (2.2 mi) and was intercepted by Mace Head 33 times over a six week period, with approximately three of these events lasting more than 12 hours, thus displaying it to be a major ash plume. +Mace Head uses a doppler cloud lidar and a ceilometer to detect clouds and aerosols about 15 m (49 ft) above ground level. This detection and sampling of aerosols is based on wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity and rain presence. For ideal collection of samples, there should be a low wind speed, <95% humidity and no rain present. Furthermore, more dependable samples are taken over multiple days. +There are five main parameters that are routinely measured at Global Atmosphere Watch stations. These are aerosol optical depth, absorption, scattering, mass, and chemistry. Mass and chemistry of aerosols have not yet been measured at Mace Head but will be recorded over the coming years. +The cloud radar can also be used to detect non-spherical and depolarizing volcanic ash particles. Thus, Mace Head is perfect for detecting volcanic aerosol plumes which could be used to alert locations with volcanoes nearby, namely Ireland and Europe, about possible eruptions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f60430c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:54.620713+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Mercury === +The Mace Head station has been recording mercury (Hg) since 1995, and has thus been one of the longest running mercury recording stations in the world. Mercury data recording and collection is vital as it is a global environmental pollutant emitted both naturally and from man-made sources. +Evidence suggests that mercury emissions from man-made sources are as great as those originating from natural sources, thus it is the man-made emitted mercury that is contributing to an increase in environmental exposure to mercury. +Long term and continuous measurements are necessary as it details whether a fluctuation is normal or something unusual, thus allowing one to monitor background levels of total gaseous mercury. Continuous measurements of mercury are taken within a 15 minute time resolution, and is one of the first stations to generate total gaseous measurements with such a high time resolution. Furthermore, long term monitoring can provide direct evidence of temporal trends, as mercury has an atmospheric residence time of approximately 1 year. Measurements recorded at Mace Head display that background levels of mercury in the Northern Hemisphere are approximately 1.7 ng/m3 with a seasonal variation of approximately 20%. + +== Other international research networks == +Mace Head is one of many international research networks, including the Atmospheric/Ocean Chemistry Experiment (AEROCE), the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE), the World Meteorological Organization/Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO/GAW), the Budget of Ozone over the Atlantic (BOA), the Tropospheric Ozone Research (TOR, a EUROTRAC project), and the former Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (CMDL/NOAA), which became part of Earth System Research Laboratories in 2005. +There are five European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) monitoring stations in Ireland, with Mace Head being the site situated in West Ireland. The remaining four sites are Malin Head (Glenveagh) in the north, Valentia Observatory in the south, Carnsore Point and Johnstown Castle in the east and Oak Park, County Carlow located inland. Each of these EMEP sites have their chemical analysis undertaken by Met Éireann at their Dublin laboratory in Glasnevin. + +== References == + +== External links == +Mace Head at Met Éireann +Mace Head at MaREI, the Research Ireland Centre for Energy, Climate and Marine +Mace Head AGAGE at NASA \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..321ec8523 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Macquarie Island Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:55.838299+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Macquarie Island Station, commonly called Macca, is a permanent Australian subantarctic research base on Macquarie Island, situated in the Southern Ocean and located approximately halfway between Mainland Australia and Antarctica, managed by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD). The station lies at the base of Wireless Hill, between two bays on the isthmus at the northern end of the island. +The island and its surrounding waters are administered as a nature reserve by the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service. In 1997, the island was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as a site of major geoconservation significance, being the only place on Earth where rocks from the Earth's mantle are actively exposed above sea-level. + + +== Purpose == +The research station is operated by the Australian Antarctic Division. Scientific research on the island is focused around biology, geosciences, meteorology, and human impact on the environment. Macquarie island birds breed on the island so wildlife management and counting is key to a number of research projects. Monitoring is also undertaken for the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency to detect radioactive debris from atmospheric explosions or vented by underground or underwater nuclear explosions. Macquarie Island is an important global monitoring location for scientific research, including monitoring southern hemisphere climatic data by Geoscience Australia. + + +=== Facilities === +Various buildings exist, some dating back to the early 1950s: Sleeping quarters are in Southern Aurora Dongas (SAD), Garden Cove (Dorm), Hasselborough House and Cumpston's Cottage. A combined mess and kitchen adjoin the doctor's surgery. Storage exists in the main store shed and a large field store shed. The various trades there have their own workshops. A main and standby powerhouse provide electricity and reticulated heating water via a heat exchanger on the diesel generators. Water is sourced from a dam at the top of Gadget's Gully and piped to storage tanks at the station. Sewage is treated before discharge and garbage is sorted for recycling (back in Hobart) or incineration on site. Scientific facilities exist in the Biology Building, Physics Building and Bureau of Meteorology buildings. Various outbuildings support instrumentation such as ionosondes, seismometers and upper atmospheric experiments. A tide gauge is installed in Garden Cove. + + +=== Communications === +The radiocommunications station has callsign "VJM" and conducts a nightly HF radio schedule with the field huts on 3023 kHz (time varies depending on season and staff preferences). Communications with Australia are conducted using the ANARESAT Earth station facility which utilises the Intelsat Pacific Ocean satellite. Inmarsat and Iridium Communications portable units are used as a backup. A network of VHF radio repeaters is utilised with handheld transceivers by bushwalkers on the island. The base has an Internet Protocol network for local PC and VoIP equipment. + + +== History == +The station was opened in 1911 by Douglas Mawson as his party established a base to relay radio messages from Antarctica to Hobart, Tasmania. From 1948 the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions used the base for scientific purposes. Permanent Daylight-Saving Time was established for stationed personnel in 1948, which was later changed to Summer DST in April 2024 with the addition of a permanent human population on Macquarie Island. + + +== See also == +Amateur radio call signs of Antarctica +Research stations in Antarctica § List of research stations +Antarctic field camps + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Macquarie Island on AAD \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_Falls,_Nova_Scotia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_Falls,_Nova_Scotia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38a8274f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_Falls,_Nova_Scotia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Malay Falls, Nova Scotia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_Falls,_Nova_Scotia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:05.321545+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Malay Falls is a small rural community on the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia, Canada, in the Halifax Regional Municipality. The community is located along Route 374 and is about 11 km (6.8 mi) northeast of Sheet Harbour. The community is located along East River, and is adjacent to the Malay Falls Flowage, a lake along the river's course. Malay Falls was first settled in 1784. Colin Malay acquired land here in 1849, when the area was called Salmon River. The Government of Canada maintains a weather station in the community. + + +== Climate == + + +== References == +Citations + +Bibliography +Scott, David (2011). Nova Scotia Place Names. DESPUB. ISBN 978-0-9865370-1-1. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malin_Head-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malin_Head-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0f028af5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malin_Head-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Malin Head" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malin_Head" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:06.518950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Malin Head (Irish: Cionn Mhálanna) is the most northerly point of mainland Ireland, located in the townland of Ardmalin on the Inishowen peninsula in County Donegal. The head's northernmost point is called Dunalderagh at latitude 55.38ºN. It is about 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the village of Malin. The island of Inishtrahull is further north, about 10 km (6 mi) northeast of the headland. Malin Head gives its name to the Malin sea area. There is a weather station on the head, which is one of 22 such stations whose reports are broadcast as part of the BBC Shipping Forecast. A tower built in 1805 is on Altnadarrow, also known locally as the Tower Hill. +Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century AD) described a point called Βορειον (Boreion, "the northern") which probably referred to Malin Head. + + +== Locality == +To the northeast Inistrahull Island can be seen. The first lighthouse on the island was put into operation in 1813, and the light flashes every 30 seconds. +Below Altnadarrow to the east lies Ballyhillion beach, a unique raised beach system of international scientific importance. The very distinct shorelines show the changing relationship between the sea and the land from the time the glaciers began to melt, some 15,000 years ago. At that time County Donegal was depressed by the weight of an immense ice sheet, so the level of the sea, relative to today's shore, was up to 80 feet higher than today. +Scenes from Star Wars: The Last Jedi were filmed in Malin Head. + + +== Weather station == +Weather reports commenced in Malin Head in 1885. In 1955 a new Meteorological station was built beside the coastguard station by Met Éireann. Hourly data points, which include sunshine, wind, rain etc., are recorded here. + + +=== Climate === +Malin Head has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen class Cfb). +As a result of its exposed coastal location, high winds and storms are a notable presence for much of the year. Summers are typically mild bordering on cool, while winters have cool days and crisp nights. + + +== Wartime use == + +A military watchtower was built on Altnadarrow in 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars. Around 1902, a signal station used by the Marconi Company was built close to the old Napoleonic watchtower. Both of these buildings still stand. +During The Emergency (World War II), the Government of Ireland allowed the British Government to site two radio direction finders on Malin Head. This top-secret operation was mentioned in The Cranborne Report. The RDF equipment was used by Allied naval and air forces to monitor U-boat and aerial activity in the North Atlantic. A detailed history of radio at Malin Head, Marconi Wireless Radio Station: Malin Head from 1902 was published in 2014. +To the north of Altnadarrow and just before Dúnalderagh, a ground marker reading '80 EIRE' can be seen in large letters that were formed from placing stones together to form the letters. This was to signify to overflying planes that they were crossing Irish territory and that Ireland was neutral. + + +== Ornithology == +Malin Head is an ideal vantage point from which to view the autumnal movements of seabirds such as gannets, shearwaters, skuas, auks and others, on their southward migration flights. Rarities have included Black-browed Albatross, Feas Petrel and many other rare seabirds have been recorded here. This is also a good vantage point for viewing Basking sharks and the resident pod of Bottle-nosed Dolphins. + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +Malin to Mizen +Wild Atlantic Way +List of tourist attractions in Ireland + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Historic mapping of the area Archived 13 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine (Ordnance Survey Ireland{ Choose "Base history and mapping" then "Historic 25-inch mapping 1888-1913" and enter 55.3719929, -7.3392604 to see the site of the watch tower. +Modern mapping of the tower site (OpenStreetMap) +Location of weather station (OpenStreetMap) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meise_Botanic_Garden-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meise_Botanic_Garden-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c1214b2c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meise_Botanic_Garden-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Meise Botanic Garden" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meise_Botanic_Garden" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:54.607438+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Meise Botanic Garden (Dutch: Plantentuin Meise; French: Jardin botanique de Meise), until 2014 called the National Botanic Garden of Belgium (Dutch: Nationale Plantentuin van België; French: Jardin botanique national de Belgique), is a botanical garden located in the grounds of Bouchout Castle in Meise, Flemish Brabant, just north of Brussels. It is one of the world's largest botanical gardens, with an extensive collection of living plants and a herbarium of about 4 million specimens. The current garden was established in 1958 after moving from central Brussels; the former site is now the Botanical Garden of Brussels. +Meise Botanic Garden contains about 18,000 plant species — about 6% of all the world's known plant species. Half are in greenhouses, the other half, including cultivated and indigenous plants, are outdoors. The Index Herbariorum code assigned to this botanic garden is BR, which is used when citing housed specimens. The botanic garden's mission statement specifies increasing and spreading "the knowledge of plants" and contributions to "the conservation of biodiversity". Research at the garden is primarily conducted on Belgian and African biodiversity (incl. plants, fungi, myxomycetes, diatoms). +Meise Botanic Garden was property of the Belgian government, but after several years of negotiations, it was eventually transferred to the Flemish Community effective 1 January 2014. The French Community still has its own employees and representation in the board of directors. The plants, library, etc. remain property of the state, but are given as commodate to the Flemish Community. + + +== History == + + +=== Establishment in Brussels === + +The first botanical garden in Brussels belonged to the École Centrale of the department of the Dyle that was created during the French rule of Belgium at the end of the 18th century. Due to their costs, those French schools were soon dropped and some municipalities, including the City of Brussels, took over the garden that was about to be abandoned. In 1815, Belgium became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Around the same period, the maintenance costs of the garden were regarded as too high by the city administration. In 1826, a group of local bourgeois decided to create a new kind of botanical garden in Brussels. At the time the bourgeoisie was the new leading-class, and since companies were a popular financing method, the garden was created as a company. The creators thought it would be their contribution to the city's reputation. Although it was rooted on a private enterprise, it was also intended to be a national institution dedicated to science and botanical studies. +Both the City of Brussels and the Home Office supported the Botanical Garden financially. However, the independence of Belgium (1830–31) was detrimental to the Dutch-born institution; it was regarded as orangist, as a mere playground for the local elites, and as not useful for the country's agriculture, among other critiques. From then on, the garden would have to battle to survive. The state and the city did not want to support it anymore unless it proved useful to the whole country, so the Botanical Garden was obliged to develop its commercial activities. It sold plants by the thousands, and created several money-consuming attractions and events for the local elite, like aquaria, a dance room, fairs, a fish nursery, concerts etc. In the 1860s, the aging buildings required renovation. The board of the Society of Horticulture tried to raise the money, but the costs were just too high for the company. In 1870, the Belgian government took over the company. The National Botanic Garden was created in the very same year. Barthélemy Dumortier, a Belgian politician and botanist, had played a major role in this process. He wanted a "Belgian Kew" to be created in the capital, that is to say a botanical garden dedicated to taxonomy. That is why, some months before the garden was bought by the state, the government had purchased the famous Von Martius Herbarium that was held in Munich. So, in 1870, Belgium had a great herbarium and an appropriate building. This marked the dawn of a new era for Belgian botany. + + +=== Move to Meise === + +In 1927, just after the death of Empress Charlotte, it was proposed to set up the National Botanical Garden at the Bouchout Domain. It took until 1937 before the final decision was made and major constructions were started. To the south-east of Bouchout Castle, the "Palace of Plants" was built, which consists of a number of greenhouses. Further to the south-west of the castle, the Victorian Balat Greenhouse was placed. This greenhouse was designed in 1853 by the architect Alphonse Balat and transported from its original location at the Botanical Garden of Brussels. +During the Second World War, Bouchout Castle was occupied by the German forces and the domain was altered into a fortress. Next to the Palace of Plants, six barracks were placed and concrete defences were erected. The court of honour of Bouchout Castle was used to store ammunition, while artillery defences were placed at the borders of the domain. The last German soldiers left the Bouchout Domain on 3 September 1944. Just a few days later, the Allied Forces arrived; they used it as a training location, while stationing about 200 vehicles at the domain. On 29 November 1944, a bomb exploded at the western part of the park, destroying the windows of Bouchout Castle. A second bomb exploded on 2 December at the nearby Hoogvorst Castle, causing its complete destruction. + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == + +Botanic Gardens Conservation International +List of herbaria in Europe +List of botanical gardens in Belgium +Belgian Federal Science Policy Office + + +== References == + + +== External links == + + Media related to National Botanic Garden of Belgium at Wikimedia Commons +Meise Botanic Garden website +Botanic Garden Meise on BALaT – Belgian Art Links and Tools (KIK-IRPA, Brussels) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Seed_Bank_Partnership-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Seed_Bank_Partnership-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7d575687 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Seed_Bank_Partnership-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Millennium Seed Bank Partnership" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Seed_Bank_Partnership" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:20.556670+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Millennium Seed Bank Partnership (MSBP or MSB), formerly known as the Millennium Seed Bank Project, is the largest ex situ plant conservation programme in the world, coordinated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. After being awarded a Millennium Commission grant in 1995, the project commenced in 1996, and is now housed in the Wellcome Trust Millennium Building situated in the grounds of Wakehurst Place, West Sussex. Its purpose is to provide an "insurance policy" against the extinction of plants in the wild by storing seeds for future use. The storage facilities consist of large underground frozen vaults preserving the world's largest wild-plant seedbank or collection of seeds from wild species. The project had been started by Dr Peter Thompson and run by Paul Smith after the departure of Roger Smith. Roger Smith was awarded the OBE in 2000 in the Queen's New Year Honours for services to the Project. + + +== Project == +In collaboration with other biodiversity projects around the world, expeditions are sent to collect seeds from dryland plants. Where possible, collections are kept in the country of origin with duplicates being sent to the Millennium Seed Bank Project for storage. Major partnerships exist on all the continents, enabling the countries involved to meet international objectives such as the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation and the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations Environment Programme. +The seed bank at Kew has gone through many iterations. The Kew Seed Bank facility, set up by Peter Thompson in 1980, preceded the MSBP and was headed by Roger Smith from 1980 to 2005. From 2005, Paul Smith took over as head of the MSBP. The Wellcome Trust Millennium Seed Bank building was designed by the firm Stanton Williams and opened by Prince Charles in 2000. The laboratories and offices are in two wings flanking a wide space open to visitors which houses an exhibition. From here visitors can also view the cleaning and preparation of seeds through windows of the work areas and see the entrance to the underground vaults where the seeds are stored at −20 °C (−4 °F). In 2001, the international programme of the MSBP was launched. +In April 2007, it banked its billionth seed, the Oxytenanthera abyssinica, a type of African bamboo. +In October 2009, it reached its 10% goal of banking all the world's wild plant species by adding Musa itinerans, a wild banana, to its seed vault. As estimates for the number of seed bearing plant species have increased, 34,088 wild plant species and 1,980,405,036 seeds in storage as of June 2015 represent over 13% of the world's wild plant species. +As of 2025, the Millennium Seed Bank contained just under 2.5 billion seeds, made up of 103,000 collections from over 40,000 species. Over 98% of the UK's bankable plant species are contained within these collections. + + +== Aims == +The main aims of the project are to: + +Collect the seeds from 75,000 species of plants by 2020, representing 25% of known flora. This is the second phase of this goal, with the original partnership goal of banking 10% of known flora by 2010 was achieved in October 2009. +Collect seeds from all of the UK's native flora. +Further research into conservation and preservation of seeds and plants. +Act as a focal point for research in this area and encourage public interest and support. + + +== International partnerships == +There are over 100 partnerships worldwide, including Australia, Mexico, Chile, Kenya, China, United States, Jordan, Mali, Malawi, Madagascar, Burkina Faso, Botswana, Tanzania, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and South Africa. Australia is particularly significant as its flora constitutes 15% of the world's total of species, with 22% of them identified as under threat of extinction. Between 2005 and 2009, MSBP coordinated the EU project ENSCONET. + + +== Preservation of seeds == + +Seed collections arrive at the MSBP in varying states, sometimes attached to fruits, sometimes clean. The collections usually also include a voucher specimen that can be used to identify the plant. The collections are immediately moved to a dry room, where they are stored at 18°C with a 15% relative humidity. Seeds can stay in this room from anywhere between two weeks and six months to extend their lifespan up to 40 times. The seeds are cleaned of debris and other plant material, X-rayed to ensure they are free from pests, then dried a second time before travelling into the vaults where they are banked at −20 °C (−4 °F). +Seeds are banked in hermetically sealed glass containers along with silica gel packets impregnated with indicator compounds that change colour if moisture seeps into the collection. Seeds are tested for viability with a germination test shortly after banking and then at regular 10 year intervals. If seed collections are low, re-harvesting from the wild is the preferred option. +For species that cannot survive the standard drying process, researchers at the Seed Bank are experimenting in using cryopreservation to rapidly dry and freeze seeds (or parts of seeds) using liquid nitrogen. + + +== Seed distribution == +When seeds are required for research purposes, they can be requested from the MSBP's seedlist. If it has the legal permission to do so, the MSB can then provide up to 60 seeds for free, to bona fide, non-commercial organisations for the purposes of research, restoration, and reintroduction. All seeds provided to institutions are on a non-profit mutual benefit basis. The MSB also operates the UK Native Seed Hub which aims to improve the resilience of the UK's ecological networks by providing high-quality UK native seeds to conservation and restoration groups. + + +== See also == +Svalbard Global Seed Vault +Australian Grains Genebank + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +The Millennium Seed Bank homepage +The MSB seed collection +Photos of the buildings +Convention on Biological Diversity +TED talk: Jonathan Drori – Millennium Seed Bank – TED talk on the seed bank \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molodyozhnaya_Station_(Antarctica)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molodyozhnaya_Station_(Antarctica)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a5c9dacf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molodyozhnaya_Station_(Antarctica)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Molodyozhnaya Station (Antarctica)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molodyozhnaya_Station_(Antarctica)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:10.224878+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Molodyozhnaya (Russian: Молодёжная, "Youth") (also known as "Molodezhnaya") was a Soviet, then Russian research station in East Antarctica at 67°40′S 45°50′E. After being mothballed in 1990, it was reopened in 2006 to operate on a seasonal basis. In Russian, the station is sometimes referred to as the capital of Antarctica. + + +== Location == +Molodyozhnaya Station is located in the Thala Hills, 500–600 meters inland from the coast on the southern shore of Alasheyev Bight in the Cosmonaut Sea, at 42 meters above sea level. The area around the station is composed mostly of rocky ridges separated by snow-covered depressions and lakes. The sea near the station is covered in pack ice for much of the year, out to a distance of as much as 100 km at the end of winter. The rise to the summit of the massive East Antarctic Ice Sheet (Dome A) begins 1.5-2.0 km from the shore. Kheis Glacier is located in 15 km east of the station, and Campbell Glacier is roughly the same distance to the southwest. + + +== History == +The site was opened in February 1962, and used as a launch site for suborbital meteorological sounding rockets. From 25 May 1969 and 26 December 1990, 1104 M-100 model research sounding rockets were launched from Molodyozhnaya Station. On 28 February 1979, the MMR06 model was launched from Molodyozhnaya. This was the only instance of this model rocket being launched from Molodyozhnaya Station. +Funding for meteorological research became scarce during the late 1980s, as the Soviet Union was collapsing. Launches of the M-100 abruptly ended in 1990, and the station was mothballed. In the 1990s, several scientific and environmental studies were undertaken in the area to fulfill the requirements of the Protocol for the Defence of Nature in the Antarctic Treaty System, but the station wasn't reopened. + +In February 2006, Valeriy Lukin, the head of the Russian Antarctic Expedition (RAE), said:There are plans to open the mothballed stations Molodyozhnaya, Leningradskaya and Russkaya in the 2007-2008 season. This will bring great benefits because these stations are located in the Pacific section of Antarctica, which is poorly covered by scientific studies. +Since 2006, it has operated on a seasonal basis. When open during the Antarctic summer there is occasional amateur radio operation by station personnel. + + +== Climate == +The average temperature varies from −19 °C in the coldest months (July–August), to around 0 °C in January. + + +== See also == + +History of Antarctica +List of Antarctic expeditions +List of Antarctic research stations +List of Antarctic field camps +Airports in Antarctica +Soviet Antarctic Expedition + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute +Molodezhnaya website at Encyclopedia Astronautica +AARI Molodezhnaya Station page +COMNAP Antarctic Facilities +COMNAP Antarctic Facilities Map \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnaran_Solar_Power_Plant-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnaran_Solar_Power_Plant-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..443a1f628 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnaran_Solar_Power_Plant-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Monnaran Solar Power Plant" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnaran_Solar_Power_Plant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:55.812770+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Monnaran 10MW Solar Power Plant (Mongolian: Моннаран нарны цахилгаан станц) is a photovoltaic power station in Songino Khairkhan, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. It was constructed together on top of greenhouse. + + +== History == +The construction of the power plant started in 2015. It was then commissioned on 25 November 2017 during a ceremony attended by Foreign Minister D. Tsogtbaatar. +The power plant was constructed with a cost of US$23 million. Part of the funds were provided by the Japan Bank for International Cooperation. It was constructed by Everyday Farm LLC. + + +== Technical specifications == +The power plant consists of 46,848 photovoltaic panels with a total installed capacity of 10 MW. Included in the project were the construction of the 20-km of overhead line and the expansion of Bayanchandmani substation. The area includes 20 greenhouses which were built on 13 hectares of land in which the PV panels were installed on top of the greenhouse buildings. + + +== See also == +List of power stations in Mongolia + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mérieux_NutriSciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mérieux_NutriSciences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..98791e5d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mérieux_NutriSciences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Mérieux NutriSciences" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mérieux_NutriSciences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:30.885626+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mérieux NutriSciences is an American-French multinational company specializing in food safety, quality, sustainability testing, consulting, and training services. + +It is a subsidiary of Institut Mérieux and operates over 140 laboratories in approximately 32 countries, serving more than 10,000 employees worldwide. The company is headquartered in Chicago (United States) and Tassin‑la‑Demi‑Lune (France). +With a history in food microbiology, Mérieux NutriSciences' business is mainly focused on services for the food sector, addressing the needs of raw materials & ingredients suppliers, food manufacturers, processors, caterers, and retail companies. The company also operates in packaging and pharmaceutical quality management. + + +== History == +1967: Creation by Dr. John H. Silliker in Chicago of the company Silliker, a food-focused solutions company. +1997: Acquisition of Silliker by Institut Mérieux +2011: The Group is officially named Mérieux NutriSciences +2025: Acquisition of the Food testing business of Bureau Veritas, including a joint venture with AsureQuality - resulting in the company enlarging its footprint to 32 countries and doubling its footprint in Canada and Asia-Pacific. +In 1897, Marcel Mérieux, a student of Louis Pasteur, founded Institut Mérieux. +The Institut Mérieux was then directed by Dr. Charles Mérieux and later by Alain Mérieux and became the leader in the field of human and veterinary vaccines. +Until 1994, the Mérieux family managed several companies in this area before withdrawing from the vaccinology work. +Meanwhile, in Chicago, Silliker, a company in the field of food safety and quality was created in 1967 by Dr. John H. Silliker, a microbiologist known for his work on Salmonella. +The Mérieux Family acquired Siliker in the 1990s. The company was renamed Mérieux NutriSciences in 2011. + + +== Acquisitions == +Mérieux NutriSciences has completed more than 50 acquisitions since 2007. The company has a worldwide presence, with sites in Europe, North America, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Africa. + + +=== 2019 === +Swiss Food (Germany) +Institut Kirchhoff (Germany) +KTBA (Netherlands) +EcamRicert (Italy) +Acumen Scientific (Malaysia) +ALT (Ireland) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_Plant_Genetic_Resources b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_Plant_Genetic_Resources new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gene_Bank_of_Plants_of_Ukraine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gene_Bank_of_Plants_of_Ukraine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..054e461a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gene_Bank_of_Plants_of_Ukraine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "National Gene Bank of Plants of Ukraine" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gene_Bank_of_Plants_of_Ukraine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:22.958671+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +National Gene Bank of Plants of Ukraine (Ukrainian: Національний Центр генетичних ресурсів рослин України, romanized: Natsionalnyi Tsentr henetychnykh resursiv roslyn Ukrainy) is a Ukrainian gene bank (seed bank) located in Kharkiv. +The bank was created in 1990s as part of the Plant Genetic Resources of Ukraine (PGRU) project, an initiative of the Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Sciences (and supervised by the Plant Production Institute named after V.Ya. Yuriev). By early 2021 it has collected 151,300 specimens belonging to 544 crops and 1,802 species of plants. In terms of its volume and diversity, the Gene Bank was one of the 10 largest gene banks in the world. In mid-May 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the bank was reported destroyed by the Russians. It was later clarified that the facility had been bombed, and that two or three dozen thousand samples destroyed only represented a small fraction of the collection, and the majority of the collection was still being protected in an underground warehouse. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_oceanographic_meteorological_automatic_device-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_oceanographic_meteorological_automatic_device-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..49158e94d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_oceanographic_meteorological_automatic_device-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Navy oceanographic meteorological automatic device" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_oceanographic_meteorological_automatic_device" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:11.466331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Navy oceanographic meteorological automatic device (NOMAD) is an anchored automated weather station developed shortly after World War II and still used today. + + +== Advantages == +The NOMAD has a boat-shaped hull made from aluminum, and it provides relatively high cost-effectiveness and excellent long-term survivability in severe weather. NOMAD buoys are highly directional and have a quick rotational response and stability. There have been no known capsizings of 6-meter (20 ft) NOMAD hulls. The relatively small size of the NOMAD allows for easy transport across land. + + +== Development == +The NOMAD hull was developed from the "Roberts buoy," which was a 6.67-foot-long (2.03 m), 400-pound (181 kg) boat-shaped buoy developed in the early 1940s by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey to measure strong tidal currents. The buoy's performance was satisfactory, but its limited size significantly restricted its use in other areas. +In July 1946, the United States Navy's Bureau of Ships became involved in a program to develop automatic weather station buoys. As a prospective part of this program, they conducted a preliminary investigation of the feasibility of mooring a buoy. The investigation concluded that the buoy's hull size was of insufficient length to be moored in 3,600 feet (1,097 m) of water. To support such a mooring, a similarly shaped hull had to be 20 feet (6.1 m) long and displace approximately 20,000 pounds (9,072 kg). This was to become the prototype of the buoy now known as the NOMAD. +The NOMAD was the first of such stations to be anchored successfully for a substantial period in more than 11,000 feet (3,353 m) of water. It was also the first anchored automated station to detect the formation of a hurricane and alert weather observers on land. The station was developed as part of the ocean test and evaluation program, started in 1957, for the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Naval Weapons, with the National Bureau of Standards responsible for technical direction. + + +== Use == +Today, the NOMAD is used for monitoring meteorological, oceanographic, and water quality parameters all over the world. As of 2010, the U.S. National Weather Service had 17 NOMADs in operation. NOMADs have also been used by the Meteorological Service of Canada for over 25 years and there are now three NOMADs monitoring Canadian waters. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Arthropod_Collection-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Arthropod_Collection-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f1b538515 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Arthropod_Collection-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "New Zealand Arthropod Collection" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Arthropod_Collection" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:52.458538+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The New Zealand Arthropod Collection is a collection of terrestrial invertebrates held by Maanaki Whenua – Landcare Research in Auckland, New Zealand. It specialises in the taxonomy and identification of indigenous and exotic invertebrate species in New Zealand, and is one of New Zealand's Nationally Significant Collections and Databases. +The NZAC provides identification guides to the public in the form of insect factsheets, the "What is this bug" website, and illustrations by Des Helmore. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Fungarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Fungarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..22085abb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Fungarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "New Zealand Fungarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Fungarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:53.639251+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The New Zealand Fungarium (PDD; Māori: Te Kohinga Hekaheka o Aotearoa) is a fungarium and the major collection of New Zealand fungi. It is one of the largest collections in the Southern Hemisphere. The Fungarium is designated a Nationally Significant Collection by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. + + +== History == +The accessioning of collections that led to the establishment of the New Zealand Fungarium (PDD): Te Kohinga Hekaheka o Aotearoa began with the appointment of G.H. Cunningham in 1919 by the Department of Agriculture. Cunningham and the collection were transferred to the Department of Science and Industrial Research's Plant Diseases Division in 1936. This is the origin of the PDD acronym. The DSIR was disestablished and reorganised into a number of Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) in 1992 and the Fungarium is now part of and maintained by the Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research CRI. + + +== Collections == +The Fungarium houses the collections of R.E. Beever (Agaricales, Boletales), G.H. Cunningham (Aphyllophorales, Gasteromycetes, Uredinales), J.M. Dingley (Ascomycetes), E. Horak (Agaricales), S.J. Hughes (Hyphomycetes, sooty moulds), R.F.R. McNabb (Agaricales, Boletaceae, Dacrymycetaceae, Tremellaceae), R.H. Petersen (Clavariaceae), G.J. Samuels (Ascomycetes), and K. Curtis. Fungal specimens from the herbarium of the Plant Health and Diagnostic Station, Levin (LEV) have been incorporated into PDD. +The study of the New Zealand native mushrooms and other larger fungi was pioneered by Greta Stevenson, Marie Taylor, and Barbara Segedin from the late 1940s until the 1990s. Collectively they described over 250 new species of New Zealand fungi. All these are available through the Biota of New Zealand or Systematics Collections Data internet portals. +The Fungarium has over 2,900 Type specimens – these are the specimens on which the species descriptions are based. These include over 17,000 New Zealand primary Types. +Fungarium staff undertook an assessment in 2019 to identify native fungi that are endangered. As a result, 30 species were added to the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Meet Maj Padamsee, curator of the New Zealand Fungarium (2022) +Meet Adrienne Stanton, collection manager at the NZ Fungarium | Te Kohinga Hekaheka o Aotearoa (2022) +Peter Buchanan introduces the New Zealand Fungarium | Te Kohinga Hekaheka o Aotearoa (2022) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwot_Ridge-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwot_Ridge-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f24eeaf4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwot_Ridge-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Niwot Ridge" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwot_Ridge" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:58.198147+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Niwot Ridge is an alpine ecology research station located 65 km northwest of Denver in north-central Colorado. It is on the Front Range of the southern Rocky Mountains and lies within the Roosevelt National Forest. Niwot Ridge is 2,900 metres (9,500 ft) high. + + +== Characteristics of the site == +Niwot Ridge was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1979 and was one of 17 reserves in the United States withdrew from the program in June 2017. The Niwot Ridge Long-Term Ecological Research Site was established in 1980 as a United States Forest Service experimental ecology reserve. +The site is characterized by "extensive alpine tundra, a variety of glacial landforms, glacial lakes and moraines, cirques and talus slopes, patterned ground, and permafrost", and is home to Arikaree Glacier. Habitats include western spruce-fir forest, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) subalpine forest, alpine meadows as well as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) shrubland. The site is little influenced by human impact and is thus an excellent site to monitor biological, chemical, and physical responses to changes in atmospheric chemistry and climate. The site is administered cooperatively by the U.S. Forest Service and the University of Colorado Boulder's Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) for experimental and long-term studies of alpine tundra. +The University of Colorado's Mountain Research Station facilitates research from atmospheric chemistry to alpine and sub-alpine ecology. Niwot Ridge is one of the National Science Foundation's Long Term Ecological Research Network (LTER) sites and has been used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for atmospheric trace gas sampling since 1968. The eddy covariance dataset at Niwot Ridge is among the longest for forest sites, and has been used to study the role of subalpine forests in cycles of water, carbon, nutrients, and energy. +Substantial increases in nitrogen deposition during the past three decades are one of the major concerns and have already impacted biological processes in the alpine tundra and surrounding catchment areas. Educational programs in the biosphere reserve focus primarily on the university level but also include high schools and the general public. + + +== Climate == +The weather station, Boulder 14 W, is located roughly 300 feet (91 m) above Niwot Ridge. Niwot Ridge has a subalpine climate (Köppen Dfc). + + +== Sources == + This article incorporates text from a free content work (license statement/permission). Text taken from UNESCO - MAB Biosphere Reserves Directory​, UNESCO, UNESCO. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +Neonscience site +Another site \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Genetic_Resource_Center-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Genetic_Resource_Center-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed7808190 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Genetic_Resource_Center-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Nordic Genetic Resource Center" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Genetic_Resource_Center" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:24.219145+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen; Scandinavian: Nordiskt Genresurscenter) is a plant, farm animal and forest conservation, gene resource guardian, and sustainable use organization under and primarily financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, and is headquartered in Alnarp, near Malmö, in southern Sweden. NordGen's primary mission is "securing the broad diversity of genetic resources linked to food and agriculture" through "conservation and sustainable use, solid documentation and information work and international agreements". + + +== History == +In January 2008, as a culmination of a quarter century of cooperation by Nordic nations on genetic resource conservation, NordGen was created from a merger among 3 organizations, the Nordic Gene Bank, the Nordic Gene Bank Farm Animals and the Nordic Council for Forest Reproductive Material. Besides NordGen as the new parent organization and primarily successor to the Nordic Gene Bank, NordGen Plants is in Alnarp, near Malmö, in southern Sweden, NordGen Farm Animals and NordGen Forest are in Ås, near Oslo, in Norway. +NordGen notes that the high cost of its missions prompted a joint Nordic nation solution, while each nation simultaneously maintains its own national programs as well. + + +== Projects == +NordGen leads, participates in, and collaborates with genebanks, research organizations, pre-breeding centers and breeding centers at the global level as well as in the Nordic region. NordGen has extensive United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Bioversity International and the Crop Trust collaborations. +Here are key NordGen international projects: + + +=== Svalbard Global Seed Vault === +The Svalbard Global Seed Vault (SGSV) owned by the government of Norway, was inspired by a safety store NordGen had placed in a former Svalbard coal mine. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Bioversity International approached Norwegian authorities to open a comprehensive facility and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault began, in 2008, to be the safety store of Earth's most important crops for human and human-mediated agriculture and consumption. +The Vault is managed through a tripartite agreement among the Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food, the Crop Trust and NordGen. Nordgen provides operational management and Vault deposits in collaboration with depositing genebanks and the Crop Trust which co-funds Vault operations and funds seed shipment from developing countries to the Vault in Svalbard. + + +=== European collaboration (Plants) === +The European Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ECPGR) in which NordGen participates is a European gene bank collaboration whose working groups include the development of AEGIS, a virtual gene bank which serves as a tool for guaranteeing, rationalizing and coordinating European gene bank material quality. + + +=== Nordic research on climate change (Farm Animals) === +AnGR-NordicNET is a Nordic research network being established by five Nordic nations as a knowledge base for decision makers and fostering of strategies regarding climate change effects on farm animal genetic resources. + + +=== North West Russia (Plants) === +The N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry (VIR), a Russian national genebank, cooperates with NordGen, as the VIR preserves plant genetic resources salient to Nordic ecozones, such as traditional landraces of all collected Nordic crop groups prior to NordGen's existence. + + +=== The Baltic countries (Plants) === +Baltic Sea region plant genetic resources are the subject of sustainable conservation workshop series led by NordGen. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official site \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_Weather_Centre-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_Weather_Centre-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61c2e8fc4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_Weather_Centre-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Nottingham Weather Centre" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham_Weather_Centre" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:13.914228+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Nottingham Weather Centre (also referred to Nottingham Watnall) is a functioning observation and weather station located in Watnall, Nottinghamshire in England. The weather station is located 5.6 miles (9.0 km) from the city centre of Nottingham, and is the closest weather station to Nottingham with observations. +The weather station was established in 1941 and like many other weather stations in the United Kingdom, the recording of weather observations began in January 1960. The weather centre is currently being managed by the Met Office. The station's WMO classification index is 03354. + + +== Climate == + +As the weather station is located at a higher elevation of 117 m or 384 ft, temperatures are usually cooler than the city centre of Nottingham and the Sutton Bonington weather station, as these locations are situated on a lower elevation. +During the period of 1981–2010, the Nottingham Weather Centre lies within hardiness zone 9a and lies within the AHS heat zone 1. For the periods of 1961–1990 and 1971–2000 the station lied within the hardiness zone 8b, as the average annual minimum temperature was below −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) during those periods. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md index 348c15218..14e6c11fd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:33:20.418218+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:43.099429+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md index ef3f0636a..331aa1c4a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:33:20.418218+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:43.099429+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md index 5f3d320fc..689031b75 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:33:20.418218+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:43.099429+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oglethorpe_Barracks-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oglethorpe_Barracks-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6e096d977 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oglethorpe_Barracks-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Oglethorpe Barracks" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oglethorpe_Barracks" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:15.361136+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Oglethorpe Barracks usually refers to a 19th-century United States Army post in the historic district of Savannah, Georgia. Some sources use the title to refer to Fort James Jackson (also known as Fort Oglethorpe) or Fort Wayne, both near Savannah. A hotel constructed in the 1880s now sits on the site of the old barracks. + + +== Origin == +In 1824, City of Savannah, Georgia, petitioned Secretary of War John C. Calhoun to build a military barracks within the city and agreed to purchase the necessary land. The War Department agreed to the endeavor and furnished the materials to build the barracks. The barracks took the name of James Oglethorpe, founder of Georgia colony and of the settlement of Savannah. +Weather observations from 1827-1835 cited in Grice's study were likely collected at Cantonment Oglethorpe, a separate artillery installation located outside the city that operated from 1826 to 1835. Following years of high mortality from malaria at the cantonment, troops relocated to the newly constructed Oglethorpe Barracks on Liberty Street in May 1835. +Construction of Oglethorpe Barracks finished circa 1834. The weather station began using a rain gauge in 1836. Meteorological observations continued through December 1850. + + +== Civil War == +Local Confederate volunteer companies occupied Oglethorpe Barracks throughout American Civil War until Union General William Tecumseh Sherman captured the city in 1864. + + +== Reconstruction era == +United States Army troops continued to occupy Fort Oglethorpe after the end of the Civil War. Meteorological observations resumed in or before September 1866. +In 1875, a brick wall 10 feet (3.0 m) high enclosed the barracks and connected the buildings that abutted city streets. The buildings on the post surrounded a courtyard that functioned as its parade ground. Army surgeons took weather observations at the barracks hospital, a frame building abutting Harris Street with an 11-foot (3.4 m)-tall brick foundation 62 feet (19 m) long and 40 feet (12 m) wide. The frame hospital building measured 19 feet (5.8 m) above its foundation and extended 10 feet (3.0 m) beyond its foundation on each end, where square brick pillars supported the building. A two-story frame guard house building lay east of the hospital along Harris Street and measured 30 feet (9.1 m) long, 30 feet (9.1 m) wide, and 30 feet (9.1 m) high. A two-story brick building abutted Harris Street west of the hospital. +During the long summer of 1876, the troops transferred to Camp Oglethorpe near Oliver, Georgia. + + +== Decommissioning == +The Army left Oglethorpe Barracks after March 1879, when meteorological observations ceased. The Signal Service office in Savannah continued the record of meteorological observations for the city at another location. The War Department later in 1879 sold the parcel to Savannah Hotel Corporation for $75,000. Congress in 1883 directed Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln to sell Oglethorpe Barracks. +The new owner then tore down the barracks. Construction of Desoto Hotel on the site of the former barracks began in 1888 and completed in 1890. The hotel featured five stories, 206 rooms, a solarium, a barber shop, a drug store, and a restaurant; a swimming pool (outdoor) was added later. A fountain featuring the head of a lion with water flowing out its mouth was a feature of the hotel, which remain today. For a number of years, a local radio station WCCP, later WBYG, had studios in the hotel. Hilton now operates the hotel. +The Army closed Fort James Jackson in 1902. +The parcel on which Oglethorpe Barracks once stood now lies just northeast of Madison Square in historic old Savannah. + + +== References == + +Grice, Garry (2005). History of Weather Observations, Oglethorpe Barracks, Georgia, 1827-1879. Midwestern Regional Climate Center. 15 pp. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni-Theatre,_Science_Centre_Singapore-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni-Theatre,_Science_Centre_Singapore-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e3ec94d22 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni-Theatre,_Science_Centre_Singapore-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Omni-Theatre, Science Centre Singapore" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni-Theatre,_Science_Centre_Singapore" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:13.633942+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Omni-Theatre is an observatory and large-format film theatre located at the Science Centre Singapore (formerly Singapore Science Centre) in Jurong East, Singapore. + + +== Facilities == +It was officially opened on 10 December 1987 by the 4th President of Singapore Wee Kim Wee as an expansion of the larger Science Centre, it specifically encompasses an observatory, an omniplanetarium, and a domed projection system to show movies relating to science, astronomy, etc. A simulation theatre, exhibition room, classroom, restaurant, and gift shop are also located on the premises. + + +== The Observatory == +As one of the few observatories in the world located next to the Equator, constellations in both the northern and southern celestial hemispheres can be observed and thus opens up more vistas in the sky for observers. +The main telescope of the Observatory is a 40-cm Cassegrain reflector of combined focal length 520-cm. The sub-telescope is a 15-cm apochromatic Kepler refractor of focal length 180-cm. The equatorial mount for the telescopes was designed for its location; the accompanying English yoke provides the necessary stability for the drive and tracking mechanisms. The 5.5-metre stainless steel dome can be made to swivel in any direction and its shutter can be made to slide open for the telescope to be focused onto interesting objects in the sky. +The observatory is situated at geographical coordinates: +1° 20' 03" N latitude +103° 44' 14" E longitude +15.27 m Height (m.s.l) + + +== The theatre == + +The theatre consists of a massive hemispheric screen, twenty-three metres in diameter. This screen is sixteen metres or about five storeys high, and is made up of 376 pieces of vinyl-coated aluminium panels, covering a surface of 625 m2. The material achieves 30% reflectivity, ensuring immense clarity. +About 43 million perforations in the screen allow both sound and air-conditioning to pass through to the audience. Stretching 180 degrees horizontal from wall to wall and tilted at a 30-degree angle to the horizon, the screen "wraps" over the audience to cover 80% of a hemisphere so that the images far exceed a person's field of vision. The theatre was originally opened with a seating capacity of 276 and was the first dedicated IMAX Dome/OMNIMAX theatre, and the first overall IMAX installation, in Southeast Asia. A refurbishment in 2015 saw the theatre's seating capacity reduced to 221, and the original IMAX Dome analogue film system was replaced with a new Evans & Sutherland "8K" Digistar 5 digital planetarium theatre system. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Science Centre, Singapore \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc6c41186 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Orto botanico di Palermo" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:25.491144+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Orto Botanico di Palermo (Palermo Botanical Garden) is both a botanical garden and a research and educational institution of the Department of Botany of the University of Palermo. The garden lies within the city of Palermo, Italy at 10 m (33 ft) above sea-level. It covers about 0.12 km2 (30 acres) on top of red soil that has evolved on a limestone tuff substratum. + +== Brief history == +The earliest beginnings of the gardens go back to 1779, when the Accademia dei Regi Studi created the chair of "Botany and medicinal properties". A modest plot of land was allocated to develop a small botanical garden dedicated to the cultivation of plants with medicinal benefits, for the twin objectives of general learning and improving public health. +Initially a site near Porta Carini utilized a site of the former fortified bastions facing the seaside from the walls of the city. These bastions were demolished in 1774–1778 under the praetorship of Antonino La Grua Talamanca, marchese de Regalmici, and later Prince of Carini, and reassigned for the botanical gardens. This initial garden allotment soon proved too small, and in 1786 it was decided to move to the present site, right next to the Piano di Sant'Erasmo, best remembered for the unfortunate events that occurred there during the Spanish Inquisition. The site had been orchards belonging to the former villa Giulia. Patronizing the development was the praetor Bernardo Filangieri, count of San Marco and the noblemen Giovanni Battista Paterno Asmondo and Ignazio Vanni. +In 1789 construction of the main part of the administrative buildings of the garden commenced in a neoclassical style. It is constructed with a central building, the Gymnasium, and two side buildings, the Tepidariumand the Caldarium, designed by the Frenchman Léon Dufourny, who had also designed a part of the oldest section of garden, right next to the Gymnasium. Its rectangular layout is divided into four quadrangles, within which the species are categorised according to Carl Linnaeus' system of classification. The new garden was opened in 1795; in the ensuing years it was improved, with the Aquarium (1798), a great pool hosting numerous species of aquatic plants, and the serra Maria Carolina (or Maria Carolina glasshouse), completed in 1823. The huge Ficus macrophylla, which is an emblem and a well-known attraction of the modern garden, was imported from Norfolk Island (Australia), in 1845. Today's area, some 10 hectares, was reached in 1892, following successive extensions. In 1913 the Giardino coloniale (Colonial garden) was developed alongside the botanic gardens, but that no longer exists. The gardens have been managed by the Department of Botany since 1985. + +== Buildings, features and the collection == + +=== Gymnasium, Calidarium and Tepidarium === +The central neo-classical building, known as the Gymnasium, is located near the main entrance gate. Originally it was the main office of the Schola Regia Botanice (school of botany), the Herbarium, the library and the director's office. +Two smaller buildings are located either side of the Gymnasium in perfect symmetry. To this day they are called the Calidarium and the Tepidarium because originally they housed plants from warm and temperate zones respectively (caldo meaning "hot" in Italian). + +=== Linneian section === +This is the oldest section of the gardens, laid out in a rectangular shape and divided into four quadrangles, the "quatrains" (or quartini). Each quatrain is further divided into flowerbeds, within which the plants were originally organised along the lines of the Linneian system of classification. The design of this section has gradually changed over time to display certain specimens at the expense of others that are now gone. At the centre of this section, is the particularly evocative “cross”, the small plaza that results from the intersection of the central axis (the Viale centrale) with the tree lined avenue of palms (the Viale delle palme). + +=== The Aquarium and other water features === + +The Aquarium, a large round pool divided into 24 sections, is located at the end of the central avenue. The design consists of three concentric rings which are divided into 8 wedges, each being a home to a variety of acqautic flora. +The "lagoon" is located a few metres further down from the Acquariam and is another ample water feature in which the plants are arranged informally. Other smaller ponds are located in the quatrains of the Linneian section. + +=== The greenhouses === +Over time the gardens have benefitted from the development of a series of greenhouses that currently comprise a surface area of some 1,300 mq. +The oldest of these greenhouses is the serra Maria Carolina (serra is Italian for greenhouse), a gift from the Queen of Naples, Maria Carolina of Austria, also known as the Giardino d'Inverno (the winter garden). Originally it was constructed of wood and heated by stoves, over the course of the second half of the 19th century, it was completely rebuilt of cast-iron. +Other greenhouses include: + +the greenhouse of succulents, containing plants from hot-arid zones; +the experimental greenhouse, that currently house bananas and papaya; +the greenhouse of the region, containing plants of the warm-humid zones; +the greenhouse for the preservation of succulents, an annex of the Department of Botany; +the greenhouse of ferns. + +=== Bioecological and geographic zone === +In this section plants are arranged according to bioecological and geographic criteria. Here one finds the Giardino a succulente ("Garden of succulents"), consisting of an assortment of plants from the arid zones of Africa; the Palmetum; the Cycadetum; e la collinetta mediterranea (mediterranean hillside) which includes various significant species endemic to the Mediterranean, including some specimens which represent rare and endangered species. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e2b0a8f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Orto botanico di Palermo" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:25.491144+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Experimental and research zone === +In the experimental zone, situated to the side of the Winter Garden, tropical and subtropical plants are cultivated for the purposes of research. Studies currently in train or recently undertaken include those on cotton, vegetables, sugar cane and sorghum. The zone dedicated to plants of a practical application, which extends over the south west part of the gardens, consists of terrain set apart for plants yielding a variety of oils, resins and fibres. + +=== Engler's zone === +Also known as the nuovo settore (the new zone), it comprises the southern section of the gardens within which the plants are arranged in accordance with the classification system of Engler. The species are partitioned into three sections, each dedicated in turn to the gymnosperms, the angiosperms, the dicotyledons and the liliopsida. + +=== The herbarium === +The modern Herbarium mediterraneum, accommodated within a few buildings adjacent to the gardens, covers a surface area of some 6,000 m2. +The main part of the collection comprises the Erbario Siculo and the Erbario Generale of the Department of Botany, estimated to be around 50,000 and 200,000 specimens respectively. Of the latter group, around a quarter represent plants native to the mediterranean. +The non Sicilian specimens are mainly from Portugal, Spain, France, Corsica, Sardinia, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, Algeria and Egypt. +It also includes around 2,000 specimens of algae, 1,600 of lichen, 4,700 of bryophyte and a thousand odd of fungus. + +=== Gene bank === +The gene bank, having been started in 1993, is part of a broader project to protect the genetic material of the region's flora. +The main objective of the bank is the conservation ex situ, both short and long term, of all seeds endemic to the region, rare or endangered. Once they have been collected, the seeds are immediately treated and conserved in ampoules, all managed by the institution and available for exchange with others. The seeds are periodically tested for their propensity to germinate. +The bank forms part of the RIBES network (Rete Italiana delle Banche per la conservazione Ex-Situ del germoplasma). + +== Summary of the species present == + +(See also the full list of species of plants growing in the gardens further below). + +The gardens are currently home to at least 12,000 different species. +Having been developed during the great age of exploration, between the second half of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century the gardens became an important point of reference for the bigger botanical gardens of Northern Europe. Because of Palermo's favourable climate, they transferred a good number of unknown, poorly classified and exotic tropical species there. In this context, the relationship between the Berlin Botanic Garden, under the stewardship of Adolf Engler, and those of the originating areas of the New World proved to be extremely important. +As an illustrative example of the role of the Palermo Botanic Garden, consider the introduction into the Mediterranean of the mandarin (Citrus deliciosa) and the loquat (Eriobotrya japonica). +The early Linneian plantings consisted of 1,580 different species, of which 658 still exist. Of these specimens, the most notable is the mighty Ginkgo biloba. + +In the Aquarium many species of Nymphaea are to be found, including Nymphaea alba, Nymphaea tuberosa hybrids of Nymphaea × marliacea, the multicoloured Nuphar lutea and Nelumbum nucifera. Moreover, in the areas further in that are not submerged but humid nevertheless, one finds Alocasia, Colocasia, Zantedeschia, while in a nearby pond, the so-called laghetto, Egyptian papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and other cyperaceae such as Scirpus lacustris and Cyperus alternifolius are absolutely thriving. +Various species of bamboo grow nearby and directly behind here, atop a small artificial hill, there is a healthy specimen of the drago tree (Dracaena draco). Not too far away one can see the tallest plant of the gardens, a magnificent Araucaria columnaris, and the largest overall in terms of volume, a gigantic specimen of Ficus macrophylla, with its typical aerial roots, imported from Norfolk Island (a territory of Australia in the Pacific Ocean), in 1845. It is also a native of the east coast of Australia and is known as the Moreton Bay fig. +The giardino a succulente (the garden of succulents) of the bioecological zone is home to numerous species of the genus Aloe and various other plants of arid regions, including Cereus, Crassula, Euphorbia and Opuntia. Alongside the collection of succulents, there is a huge specimen of Ficus rubiginosa, recreating an environment reminiscent of a tropical jungle. +In the area containing Cycadetum there are certain species of Cycadales that have a notable history. Of these we have Cycas revoluta, donated by Queen Maria Carolina in 1793, was the first such specimen to find a permanent home in Europe. In the following stage of the gardens' development Zamiaceae Ceratozamia mexicana and Dioon edule, were both introduced from Mexico, as was Cycas circinalis, an elegant species from the Indian sub-continent. In 1997 the collection was further improved by the acquisition of a variety of worthy specimens, including Dioon spinulosum, Encephalartos altensteinii, Encephalartos longifolius, Encephalartos villosus, Macrozamia moorei and Zamia furfuracea. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3be56348a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Orto botanico di Palermo" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:25.491144+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the area dedicated to palms one can find Chamaerops humilis, the only palm native to Sicily, and numerous exotic palms, in which the gardens are particularly blessed. Amongst both potted and fully cultivated specimens, one can count a good 34 genera and around 80 species. The genus Washingtonia is represented by W. filifera, that flowered in Palermo for the first time ever, and by W. robusta. In the genus Phoenix, apart from the common date (Phoenix dactylifera) there are also P. rupicola, P. reclinata, P. canariensis, P. roebelenii and P. teophrastii. There are also many other genera: Chamaedorea, Brahea, Sabal, Erythea, Livistona, Howea and Trachycarpus. +The Giardino d'Inverno (Winter Garden) is home to a number of species native to the warmer climes of Africa, Central America, South America, Asia and Australia. Amongst those that are worth a brief mention, we have the coffee plant (Coffea arabica), papaya (Carica papaya), numerous species of Bougainvillea, cinnamon (Cinnamomum ceylanicum), (Parmentiera cereifera) and mimosa (Mimosa spegazzinii). In the serra della Regione (glasshouse of the regions), there are potted specimens of (Ravenala madagascariensis) (the traveller's palm) and various species of Anthurium, Codiaeum, Pandanus and other plants from tropical and equatorial climes. Two smaller glasshouses are located alongside this one, housing orchids and carnivorous plants respectively. Also notable is the collection of succulents contained in the similarly titled glasshouse, amongst which we find specimens of Echinocactus grusonii of considerable dimensions. +In the Settore Sperimentale e delle Piante Utili (Experimental zone and zone of practical plantings) plants which produce foodstuffs are exhibited, such as sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and (Sorghum saccharatum), both used for the production of sugar; avocado (Persea americana), various cultivars of banana (Musa acuminata × balbisiana), pecan nut, not to mention an extensive collection of vegetable plants with over 100 cultivars of great historical interest and hugely important in terms of the conservation of a local gene pool. Lastly we have the medicinal plantings, including Artemisia absinthium, Datura stramonium, ginseng (Withania somnifera), la camphour (Cinnamomum camphora) and the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). + +== Odd spot == +For a few years now the gardens have been home to a colony of parrots of the species Psittacula krameri, having escaped from the aviaries of the nearby Villa Giulia and are perfectly at home in the subtropical habitat of the gardens. + +== Useful information == +The gardens are open to visitors during the working week from 9.00am to 5.00pm (from April to October to 6.00pm). +Weekend hours are from 8.30am to 1.30pm. +E-mail: info@ortobotanico.palermo.it + +== See also == + +Palermo +Botanical garden +List of botanical gardens in Italy + +== References == + +Lima A.I.. L'Orto Botanico di Palermo. S.F.Flaccovio Editore, Palermo 1978 +Raimondo F.M., Di Martino A., Mazzola P. L' orto botanico di Palermo. La flora dei tropici nel cuore del mediterraneo. Arbor Editore, 1993 ISBN 88-86325-02-9 +Raimondo F.M., Scialabba A. - The role and function of germplasm in the context of the Palermo Botanical Garden. Giorn. Bot. Ital.,1994; 128(1): 414. + +== External links == +Home page of the Department of Botany, University of Palermo (in Italian) +Article on the gardens in PROMETHEUS, a periodical focusing on cultural matters (in Italian) +Official site of the gardens (in Italian and English) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ova_bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ova_bank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e4d8eafc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ova_bank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Ova bank" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ova_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:56.064738+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An ova bank, or cryobank, or egg cell bank is a facility that collects and stores human ova, mainly from ova donors, primarily for the purpose of achieving pregnancies of either the donor, at a later time (i.e. to overcome issues of infertility), or through third party reproduction, notably by artificial insemination. Ova donated in this way are known as donor ova. + + +== General == +There are currently very few ova banks in existence. +Generally, the main purpose of storing ova, at present, is to overcome infertility which may arise at a later age, or due to a disease. The ova are generally collected between 31 and 35 years of age. +The procedure of collecting ova may or may not include ovarian hyperstimulation. +It can be expected however that ova collection will become more important in the future, i.e. for third party reproduction, and/or for producing stem cells, i.e. from unfertilized eggs (oocytes). + + +== See also == +Sperm bank +Gene bank +Artificial insemination +Genetic counseling +Genetic testing +New eugenics +Safe upper age limit for women donating ova +Eugenics +Infertility +Surrogacy +Commercial surrogacy +Assisted reproduction +Designer babies + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_house-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_house-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..906d33c35 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_house-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Palm house" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_house" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:57.064230+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Palm house is a term sometimes used for large and high heated display greenhouses that specialise in growing palms and other tropical and subtropical plants. In Victorian Britain, several ornate glass and iron palm houses were built in botanical gardens and parks, using cast iron architecture. Especially in English-speaking countries outside the British Isles, these are often called conservatories, in the UK mainly a term for small glass structures attached to houses. + +The large example, completed in 1848, in Kew Gardens, London was arguably the first greenhouse to be built on this scale. It was also the first large-scale structural use of wrought iron. The later Temperate House at Kew is in fact even larger. Other British examples are at Liverpool's Sefton Park and Stanley Park. Elsewhere there are the Franklin Park Conservatory in Columbus, Ohio, the Royal Greenhouses of Laeken in Brussels, the Palmenhaus Schönbrunn in Vienna, and many others. +The rounded shapes of Kew were often followed in the 19th century. Parts of the iron technology there were borrowed from shipbuilding, so the resemblance of many designs to upturned ships in not entirely coincidental. In the 20th century some pyramidal designs and geodesic domes were adopted. The "Tropical Pyramid" at the Muttart Conservatory in Alberta (c. 1976) and Eden Project in England are respectively examples of these shapes. The term "palm house" tends not to be used, though the function of the buildings remains the same. + + +== History == + +The palm house was a stage in the 19th-century development of glass and iron architecture, which was also widely used in railway stations, markets, exhibition halls, and other large buildings needing a large and open internal area. The Anthaeum, Hove was a very ambitious example, with a huge cupola-topped dome covering more than 1.5 acres (0.61 ha). It was planned by Henry Phillips as a visitor attraction by itself, with Amon Henry Wilds as the architect; both were local men from Brighton and Hove. However, it collapsed the day before its official opening in 1830. +One of the earliest examples of a palm house is located in the Belfast Botanic Gardens. Designed by Charles Lanyon, the building was completed in 1840. It was constructed by iron-founder Richard Turner, who would later build the Palm House at Kew in 1848, to a design by Decimus Burton; this is 62 feet high and 362 long. This came shortly after the Chatsworth Great Conservatory (1837–40; 67 feet high and 277 long, demolished in 1920) and shortly before The Crystal Palace (1851), both designed by Joseph Paxton, and both now lost. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Pevsner, Nikolaus. A History of Building Types, Thames and Hudson, 1976 (1984 edn), ISBN 0500271747. + + +== External links == +A Tropical Getaway: Polish Palm Houses \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_(Burggarten)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_(Burggarten)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba545da44 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_(Burggarten)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Palmenhaus (Burggarten)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_(Burggarten)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:58.295298+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Palmenhaus (Palm House), also known as the Glashaus (Glass House), is a building in the Innere Stadt district of Vienna. It is located on the edge of the Burggarten near the Albertina and the State Opera. It is 180 metres long and 13 metres wide, and has a floor area of around 2,050m². + + +== History == +The original classical greenhouse was built between 1823 and 1826 according to designs by Ludwig von Remy and was architecturally based on the Orangerie in Schönbrunn. The rear wall of the building was part of the Vienna City Wall. The greenhouse was demolished around the turn of the 20th century and a new building, influenced by the Jugendstil movement, was built in 1901–1905 to designs by the court architect Friedrich Ohmann. The decorations in the central section (vases, female figures with wreaths, small boys) are by Josef Václav Myslbek, Edmund Hellmer and Rudolf Weyr. +From 1919 to 1938, the Palmenhaus was the seat and exhibition space of the Vienna Kunstgemeinschaft, an association of artists. +In 1988 the building was closed for security reasons, and from 1996 to 1998 a general renovation costing around 13 million euros was carried out. In 1998 the Palmenhaus was finally reopened. The middle part is used as a restaurant, the left wing houses the Butterfly House, the right wing is used by the Austrian Federal Gardens authority as a greenhouse. + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_Schönbrunn-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_Schönbrunn-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7fe277451 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_Schönbrunn-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Palmenhaus Schönbrunn" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmenhaus_Schönbrunn" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:59.550543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Palmenhaus Schönbrunn is a large greenhouse in Vienna, Austria featuring plants from around the world. It opened in 1882. It is the most prominent of the four greenhouses in Schönbrunn Palace Park, and is also among the largest botanical exhibits of its kind in the world, with around 4,500 plant species. + + +== History == + +Several forerunners were built in the Palace Park in the 18th and 19th centuries, under Emperors Francis I and Joseph II. The present building was built by Ignaz Gridl following plans by court architect Franz-Xaver von Segenschmid, known for his projects of bridges, and Sigmund Wagner. Groundbreaking took place in 1881 and Franz Joseph I opened the greenhouse on 19 June 1882. Since 1918 it has been run by the Bundesgärten (Federal Gardens). +A heavy bomb attack on Schönbrunn Palace in February 1945 destroyed most of the glazing of the Palmenhaus. Many plants died, although some were saved by being transferred to the nearby Sonnenuhrhaus. The rebuilding began in 1948, and the Palmenhaus was reopened in 1953. +The building was closed to the public in 1976 as a safety measure following the collapse of the Reichsbrücke. Renovations were carried out between 1986 and 1990. + + +== Architecture == +Built with 600 tons of wrought iron and 120 tons of cast iron, the Palmenhaus is 111 metres long, 28 metres wide and 25 metres high, and has 45,000 glass tiles. The annexes on the north and south sides serve as a coldhouse and a hothouse respectively. + + +== Notable features == + +The oldest plant by some distance is a roughly 350-year-old olive tree donated by Spain in 1974. +A Wollemia, a so-called “living fossil” species, discovered in 1994. This one is on permanent loan from the Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna and is one of the few to be cultivated outside Australia. +A coco de mer, donated by the Seychelles in 1990 and not expected to blossom for around 50 to 100 years. +A victoria waterlily, which blossomed in 2001 for the first time in more than 40 years. +The centre of the building has traditionally been the location for the tallest plant. The current centrepiece, planted in 2008, is a Livistona chinensis known as the “Mirna palm” after the Austrian swimmer Mirna Jukić. +Other notable collections include the azaleas and the cyatheales. + + +== See also == +Wüstenhaus Schönbrunn (Desert House), featuring succulent plants and desert fauna, located in the nearby Sonnenuhrhaus. +There is another Palmenhaus in the Vienna Burggarten. + + +== Notes == + + +== External links == + +Home page on the Schönbrunn Palace website (in German) + + +== Further reading == +Gerhard Deimel, Kurt Vogl and Ingrid Gregor: Palast der Blüten – Das Schönbrunner Palmenhaus, Holzhausen, Vienna, 2002, ISBN 3-85493-052-6. (in German) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovsk_Experimental_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovsk_Experimental_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a2cae8a4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovsk_Experimental_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Pavlovsk Experimental Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavlovsk_Experimental_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:27.321055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pavlovsk Experimental Station (Russian: Павловская опытная станция) is an agricultural experiment station and gene bank that is part of the Institute of Plant Industry and situated in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg, Russia. + + +== History == +It was started in 1926 by agricultural scientist Nikolai Vavilov and contains an extensive collection of more than 5,000 varieties of fruits and berries. +The Pavlovsk station's collection contains more than 100 varieties each of gooseberries, raspberries, and cherries. It also contains more than 1,000 varieties of strawberries. More than 90% of the collection is found in no other research collection or genebank. +The collection is a field genebank, meaning that the varieties are stored as plants in the ground. Most of the species concerned do not breed true from seeds, and so the varieties cannot be stored as seeds. +The Pavlovsk station itself fell into German hands during the Siege of Leningrad in 1941–1944, but prior to the arrival of German troops, scientists from the Institute of Plant Industry were able to move much of the station's tuber collection to a location within the city. Twelve of these scientists died of starvation while protecting the institute's edible collection of tubers and seeds. +In 2010 the experimental station faced an uncertain future, because the land it sits on was being sold to a developer who planned to build private homes on the site. If this planned development had gone forward, much of the collection would have been lost. Due to technical issues and quarantine regulations, it would not have been feasible to move the collection before demolition of the station was slated to have begun. in 2010 President Dmitry Medvedev announced via Twitter that the issue would be "scrutinised". Prime Minister Vladimir Putin had not yet responded to public calls to save the experimental station and its collection by the end of 2010. However, in April 2012 the Russian government took formal action to preserve this important genetic repository and stop the land from being conveyed to private interests for development. + + +== In popular culture == +Hunger by American writer Elise Blackwell, is a fictionalized retelling of the plight of the scientists who starved to death while protecting the gene bank's edible seed and tuber collection during the Siege of Leningrad. +The song "When the War Came," by the band The Decemberists, tells the story of these scientists, with one verse saying "We made our oath to Vavilov / We'd not betray the Solanum / The acres of asteraceae / To our own pangs of starvation." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penkridge_weather_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penkridge_weather_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7c1ec039 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penkridge_weather_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Penkridge weather station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penkridge_weather_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:17.870037+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Penkridge weather station is a weather station at Penkridge in Staffordshire, England, operated by the Met Office. It is situated on the site of Rodbaston College. +The station is 101 m above mean sea level. +Below are the 1981-2010 averages. + + +== External links == +Met office: Penkridge 1961-1990 averages +Met office: Penkridge 1971-2000 averages \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytotron-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytotron-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a873c7042 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytotron-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Phytotron" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytotron" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:00.765735+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A phytotron is an enclosed research greenhouse used for studying interactions between plants and the environment. It was a product of the disciplines of plant physiology and botany. + + +== Overview == + +Phytotrons unified and extended earlier piecemeal efforts to claim total control of the whole environment. In both walk-in rooms and smaller reach-in cabinets, phytotrons produced and reproduced whole complex climates of many variables. In the first phytotrons each individual room was held at a constant unique temperature. The Australian phytotron, for example, had rooms maintaining 9°C, 12°C, 16°C, 20°C, 23°C, 26°C, 30°C, 34°C. Because some of the earliest controlled environment experiments showed that plants reacted differently in daytime temperatures and nighttime temperatures, the first experiments to observe the effect(s) of varying the daytime versus the nighttime temperature saw experimenters move their plants from higher to lower temperatures over the course of a daily, or any other variable or constant, routine. This rendered the variable “temperature” experimentally controllable. +Even a brute force approach that tested each successive environmental variable and every variety of plant would serve to pinpoint specific environmental conditions to maximize growth. Expecting that more knowledge would surely come from greater technology, the next generation of phytotrons expanded in technological reach, in their ranges of environmental variables, and also in the degree of control over each variable. The phytotron in Stockholm offered a humidity controlled room and a custom built computer, as well as a low temperature room that extended the temperature range down to -25°C for the study of Nordic forests. After that, phytotron technology compressed whole environments into smaller cabinets able to be set to any desired combination of environmental conditions, which are still in use today. + + +== History == +The first phytotron was built under the direction of Frits Warmolt Went at the California Institute of Technology in 1949. It was funded by the Earhart Foundation, and was officially known as the Earhart Plant Research Laboratory. It acquired its more distinctive nickname evidently from a joking conversation between Caltech biologists James Bonner and Sam Wildman. Recalling the origin sometime in 1980s Bonner noted that: +"The Earhart Plant Research Laboratory [was] called an environmentally controlled greenhouse but my first postdoctoral fellow [Sam Wildman] and I, sitting around about 1950, having coffee, decided it deserved a better or more euphonious name [...]. We decided to call it a phytotron—phytos from the Greek word for plant, and tron as in cyclotron, a big complicated machine. Went was originally enormously annoyed by this word. But Dr. Millikan took it right up saying, ‘this edifice financed by Mr. Earhart, is going to do for plant biology what the cyclotron has done for physics,’ and he christened it a phytotron." +Phytotrons spread around the world between 1945 and the present day to Australia, France, Hungary, the Soviet Union, England, and the United States. Moreover, they have spurred variants such as the Climatron at the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Biotron at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the Ecotron at Imperial College London and the Brisatron at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. + + +== See also == +Biotron (disambiguation) + + +== References == + +Munns, David P.D. (March 2010). "Controlling the Environment: The Australian Phytotron, the Colombo Plan, and Postcolonial Science". British Scholar. 2 (2): 197–226. doi:10.3366/brs.2010.0203. +David P.D. Munns, Engineering the Environment: Phytotrons and the Quest to Control Climate in the Cold War (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2017). + + +== External links == +The NCAR Phytotron +The Phytotron at World of Trons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple_pit-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple_pit-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a8fe4d6c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple_pit-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Pineapple pit" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple_pit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:01.956733+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A pineapple pit is a method of growing pineapples in colder climates. One of the earliest examples in Britain has been found by archaeologists at Heligan in Cornwall. The first pineapples known to have been grown in Europe were cultivated in the Netherlands in 1685. None were grown in England until about 1715. + + +== Method of cultivation == +The pineapple pit consisted of three trenches covered with glass, slightly below ground level, connected with two cavity walls. The outer troughs were kept filled with 15 tonnes of fresh horse manure, which gave off heat as it decomposed. This heat passed through small gaps at the bottom of the wall, rose up, and was then forced through gaps at the top of the wall, into the central trough. The central trough is where the pineapples were grown, at an artificially high temperature, due to the manure. + + +== Maintenance and obsolescence == +A pineapple pit requires a huge amount of fresh manure, and manual labour to maintain the temperature of the central trench. +The introduction of steam ships meant that the pineapple pit became obsolete, as it was cheaper to transport fruit from overseas than to grow them under special conditions in the UK. In 2012 the cost of growing a pineapple in a pineapple pit in Cornwall was estimated to be in excess of £1000 if costs of manure, maintenance of the pits and staff costs were added up. + + +== Modern pineapple pits == +An original pineapple pit was discovered at the Lost Gardens of Heligan in the UK, and renovated in 1993 by John Nelson, architectural historian John Chamberlain, and horticultural historian Peter Thoday. The original design was by Thomas Andrew Knight FRS. It uses two varieties of South African pineapples, Jamaica Queen and Smooth Cayenne. In 1997, the first pineapple was successfully grown in the renovated pit. The second pineapple grown there was presented to Queen Elizabeth II of the UK. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitsford_Hall_weather_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitsford_Hall_weather_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fe32dcd18 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitsford_Hall_weather_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Pitsford Hall weather station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitsford_Hall_weather_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:19.126205+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pitsford Weather Centre, formerly Pitsford Hall weather station, is an climatological station maintained by Pitsford School in the village of Pitsford, Northamptonshire. The centre was established in 1998 and issues local forecasts for the county as well as maintaining a detailed and continuous weather record. The centre maintains the Met Office climate station for Northampton, officially known as Pitsford, Northampton. The centre is a regular contributor to weather-related articles in the local press and has featured on local and national TV and radio. An analysis of each month's weather as well special articles are published in the centre's Monthly Weather report received by the British Library and available online and in hard copy to subscribers. +The weather station has been run by Sixth Form students using traditional meteorological instruments from its inception in 1998 until 2016 when the site became fully automatic and renamed Pitsford Weather Centre. However, manual observations were recommenced in 2018 when the site was incorporated into the Met Office network of climatological monitoring stations. +The Weather information is now available via Twitter and Facebook as well as smartphone apps for iPhone and Android. +An extensive archive of county weather records is held by the station which date back to 1880 and the station continues to receive weather records from a number of sites from across the county. +The weather centre's most popular feature remains its Daily Weather Report, a comprehensive 3 day forecast for Northamptonshire, distributed by free subscription email. +The station enjoys the patronage of broadcast meteorologists Michael Fish MBE (now retired) and Alex Deakin. It is a corporate member of the Royal Meteorological Society. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetario_de_Montevideo-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetario_de_Montevideo-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d1883815e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetario_de_Montevideo-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Planetario de Montevideo" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetario_de_Montevideo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:14.747385+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Planetario de Montevideo (or Montevideo Planetarium; also known as the Surveyor Germán Barbato Municipal Planetarium), is a planetarium in Montevideo, Uruguay. +Inaugurated on 11 February 1955, it was the first planetarium in Latin America and all of the southern hemisphere. It has a 18.3 m diameter dome and seats 157 people. + +Historically, it used a Spitz Model B projector, which in 2016 was the oldest such projector still in working order. The planetarium was renovated in 2017–19, when the Spitz projector was replaced by a digital system; it reopened in December 2019. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96a354c4f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Planetarium" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:49.406322+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A planetarium (pl.: planetariums or planetaria) is a theatre built primarily for presenting educational and entertaining shows about astronomy and the night sky, or for training in celestial navigation. +A dominant feature of most planetariums is the large dome-shaped projection screen onto which scenes of stars, planets, and other celestial objects can be made to appear and move realistically to simulate their motion. The projection can be created in various ways, such as a star ball, slide projector, video, fulldome projector systems, and lasers. Typical systems can be set to simulate the sky at any point in time, past or present, and often to depict the night sky as it would appear from any point of latitude on Earth. +Planetaria range in size from the 37 meter dome in St. Petersburg, Russia (called "Planetarium No 1") to three-meter inflatable portable domes where attendees sit on the floor. The largest planetarium in the Western Hemisphere is the Jennifer Chalsty Planetarium at Liberty Science Center in New Jersey, its dome measuring 27 meters in diameter. The Birla Planetarium, Kolkata in India is the largest by seating capacity, having 630 seats. In North America, the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City has the greatest number of seats, at 423. +The term planetarium is sometimes used generically to describe other devices which illustrate the Solar System, such as a computer simulation or an orrery. Planetarium software refers to a software application that renders a three-dimensional image of the sky onto a two-dimensional computer screen, or in a virtual reality headset for a 3D representation. The term planetarian is used to describe a member of the professional staff of a planetarium. + +== History == + +=== Early === + +The ancient Greek polymath Archimedes is attributed with creating a primitive planetarium device that could predict the movements of the Sun and the Moon and the planets. The discovery of the Antikythera mechanism proved that such devices already existed during antiquity, though likely after Archimedes' lifetime. Campanus of Novara described a planetary equatorium in his Theorica Planetarum, and included instructions on how to build one. The Globe of Gottorf built around 1650 had constellations painted on the inside. These devices would today usually be referred to as orreries (named for the Earl of Orrery). In fact, many planetariums today have projection orreries, which project onto the dome the Solar System (including the Sun and planets up to Saturn) in their regular orbital paths. +In 1229, following the conclusion of the Fifth Crusade, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen brought back a tent with scattered holes representing stars or planets. The device was operated internally with a spinnable table that rotated the tent. +The small size of typical 18th century orreries limited their impact, and towards the end of that century a number of educators attempted to create a larger sized version. The efforts of Adam Walker (1730–1821) and his sons are noteworthy in their attempts to fuse theatrical illusions with education. Walker's Eidouranion was the heart of his public lectures or theatrical presentations. Walker's son describes this "Elaborate Machine" as "twenty feet high, and twenty-seven in diameter: it stands vertically before the spectators, and its globes are so large, that they are distinctly seen in the most distant parts of the Theatre. Every Planet and Satellite seems suspended in space, without any support; performing their annual and diurnal revolutions without any apparent cause". Other lecturers promoted their own devices: R E Lloyd advertised his Dioastrodoxon, or Grand Transparent Orrery, and by 1825 William Kitchener was offering his Ouranologia, which was 42 feet (13 m) in diameter. These devices most probably sacrificed astronomical accuracy for crowd-pleasing spectacle and sensational and awe-provoking imagery. +The oldest still-working planetarium can be found in the Frisian city of Franeker. It was built by Eise Eisinga (1744–1828) in the living room of his house. It took Eisinga seven years to build his planetarium, which was completed in 1781. + +=== 20th century === + +In 1905 Oskar von Miller (1855–1934) of the Deutsches Museum in Munich commissioned updated versions of a geared orrery and planetarium from M Sendtner, and later worked with Franz Meyer, chief engineer at the Carl Zeiss optical works in Jena, on the largest mechanical planetarium ever constructed, capable of displaying both heliocentric and geocentric motion. This was displayed at the Deutsches Museum in 1924, construction work having been interrupted by the war. The planets travelled along overhead rails, powered by electric motors: the orbit of Saturn was 11.25 m in diameter. 180 stars were projected onto the wall by electric bulbs. +While this was being constructed, von Miller was also working at the Zeiss factory with German astronomer Max Wolf, director of the Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl observatory of the University of Heidelberg, on a new and novel design, inspired by Wallace W. Atwood's work at the Chicago Academy of Sciences and by the ideas of Walther Bauersfeld and Rudolf Straubel at Zeiss. The result was a planetarium design which would generate all the necessary movements of the stars and planets inside the optical projector, and would be mounted centrally in a room, projecting images onto the white surface of a hemisphere. In August 1923, the first (Model I) Zeiss planetarium projected images of the night sky onto the white plaster lining of a 16 m hemispherical concrete dome, erected on the roof of the Zeiss works. The first official public showing was at the Deutsches Museum in Munich on October 21, 1923. +Zeiss Planetarium became popular, and attracted a lot of attention. Next Zeiss planetariums were opened in Rome (1928, in Aula Ottagona, part of the Baths of Diocletian), Chicago (1930), Osaka (1937, in the Osaka City Electricity Science Museum). + +=== After World War II === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cbd75e272 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Planetarium" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:49.406322+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +When Germany was divided into East and West Germany after the war, the Zeiss firm was also split. Part remained in its traditional headquarters at Jena, in East Germany, and part migrated to West Germany. The designer of the first planetariums for Zeiss, Walther Bauersfeld, also migrated to West Germany with the other members of the Zeiss management team. There he remained on the Zeiss West management team until his death in 1959. +The West German firm resumed making large planetariums in 1954, and the East German firm started making small planetariums a few years later. Meanwhile, the lack of planetarium manufacturers had led to several attempts at construction of unique models, such as one built by the California Academy of Sciences in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, which operated 1952–2003. The Korkosz brothers built a large projector for the Boston Museum of Science, which was unique in being the first (and for a very long time only) planetarium to project the planet Uranus. Most planetariums ignore Uranus as being at best marginally visible to the naked eye. +A great boost to the popularity of the planetarium worldwide was provided by the Space Race of the 1950s and 60s when fears that the United States might miss out on the opportunities of the new frontier in space stimulated a massive program to install over 1,200 planetariums in U.S. high schools. + +Armand Spitz recognized that there was a viable market for small inexpensive planetaria. His first model, the Spitz A, was designed to project stars from a dodecahedron, thus reducing machining expenses in creating a globe. Planets were not mechanized, but could be shifted by hand. Several models followed with various upgraded capabilities, until the A3P, which projected well over a thousand stars, had motorized motions for latitude change, daily motion, and annual motion for Sun, Moon (including phases), and planets. This model was installed in hundreds of high schools, colleges, and even small museums from 1964 to the 1980s. + +Japan entered the planetarium manufacturing business in the 1960s, with Goto and Minolta both successfully marketing a number of different models. Goto was particularly successful when the Japanese Ministry of Education put one of their smallest models, the E-3 or E-5 (the numbers refer to the metric diameter of the dome) in every elementary school in Japan. +Phillip Stern, as former lecturer at New York City's Hayden Planetarium, had the idea of creating a small planetarium which could be programmed. His Apollo model was introduced in 1967 with a plastic program board, recorded lecture, and film strip. Unable to pay for this himself, Stern became the head of the planetarium division of Viewlex, a mid-size audio-visual firm on Long Island. About thirty canned programs were created for various grade levels and the public, while operators could create their own or run the planetarium live. Purchasers of the Apollo were given their choice of two canned shows, and could purchase more. A few hundred were sold, but in the late 1970s Viewlex went bankrupt for reasons unrelated to the planetarium business. +During the 1970s, the OmniMax movie system (now known as IMAX Dome) was conceived to operate on planetarium screens. More recently, some planetariums have re-branded themselves as dome theaters, with broader offerings including wide-screen or "wraparound" films, fulldome video, and laser shows that combine music with laser-drawn patterns. +Learning Technologies Inc. in Massachusetts offered the first easily portable planetarium in 1977. Philip Sadler designed this patented system which projected stars, constellation figures from many mythologies, celestial coordinate systems, and much else, from removable cylinders (Viewlex and others followed with their own portable versions). +When Germany reunified in 1989, the two Zeiss firms did likewise, and expanded their offerings to cover many different size domes. + +=== Computerized planetaria === +In 1983, Evans & Sutherland installed the first digital planetarium projector displaying computer graphics (Hansen planetarium, Salt Lake City, Utah)—the Digistar I projector used a vector graphics system to display starfields as well as line art. This gives the operator great flexibility in showing not only the modern night sky as visible from Earth, but as visible from points far distant in space and time. The newest generations of planetarium projectors, beginning with Digistar 3, offer fulldome video technology. This allows for the projection of any image. + +== Technology == + +=== Domes === + +Planetarium domes range in size from 3 to 35 m in diameter, accommodating from 1 to 500 people. They can be permanent or portable, depending on the application. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b7fa17c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Planetarium" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:49.406322+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Portable inflatable domes can be inflated in minutes. Such domes are often used for touring planetariums visiting, for example, schools and community centres. +Temporary structures using glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) segments bolted together and mounted on a frame are possible. As they may take some hours to construct, they are more suitable for applications such as exhibition stands, where a dome will stay up for a period of at least several days. +Negative-pressure inflated domes are suitable in some semi-permanent situations. They use a fan to extract air from behind the dome surface, allowing atmospheric pressure to push it into the correct shape. +Smaller permanent domes are frequently constructed from glass reinforced plastic. This is inexpensive but, as the projection surface reflects sound as well as light, the acoustics inside this type of dome can detract from its utility. Such a solid dome also presents issues connected with heating and ventilation in a large-audience planetarium, as air cannot pass through it. +Older planetarium domes were built using traditional construction materials and surfaced with plaster. This method is relatively expensive and suffers the same acoustic and ventilation issues as GRP. +Most modern domes are built from thin aluminium sections with ribs providing a supporting structure behind. The use of aluminium makes it easy to perforate the dome with thousands of tiny holes. This reduces the reflectivity of sound back to the audience (providing better acoustic characteristics), lets a sound system project through the dome from behind (offering sound that seems to come from appropriate directions related to a show), and allows air circulation through the projection surface for climate control. +The realism of the viewing experience in a planetarium depends significantly on the dynamic range of the image, i.e., the contrast between dark and light. This can be a challenge in any domed projection environment, because a bright image projected on one side of the dome will tend to reflect light across to the opposite side, "lifting" the black level there and so making the whole image look less realistic. Since traditional planetarium shows consisted mainly of small points of light (i.e., stars) on a black background, this was not a significant issue, but it became an issue as digital projection systems started to fill large portions of the dome with bright objects (e.g., large images of the sun in context). For this reason, modern planetarium domes are often not painted white but rather a mid grey colour, reducing reflection to perhaps 35-50%. This increases the perceived level of contrast. +A major challenge in dome construction is to make seams as invisible as possible. Painting a dome after installation is a major task, and if done properly, the seams can be made almost to disappear. +Traditionally, planetarium domes were mounted horizontally, matching the natural horizon of the real night sky. However, because that configuration requires highly inclined chairs for comfortable viewing "straight up", increasingly domes are being built tilted from the horizontal by between 5 and 30 degrees to provide greater comfort. Tilted domes tend to create a favoured "sweet spot" for optimum viewing, centrally about a third of the way up the dome from the lowest point. Tilted domes generally have seating arranged stadium-style in straight, tiered rows; horizontal domes usually have seats in circular rows, arranged in concentric (facing center) or epicentric (facing front) arrays. +Planetaria occasionally include controls such as buttons or joysticks in the arm rests of seats to allow audience feedback that influences the show in real time. +Often around the edge of the dome (the "cove") are: + +Silhouette models of geography or buildings like those in the area round the planetarium building. +Lighting to simulate the effect of twilight or urban light pollution. +Traditionally, planetariums needed many incandescent lamps around the cove of the dome to help audience entry and exit, to simulate sunrise and sunset, and to provide working light for dome cleaning. More recently, solid-state LED lighting has become available that significantly decreases power consumption and reduces the maintenance requirement as lamps no longer have to be changed on a regular basis. +The world's largest mechanical planetarium is located in Monico, Wisconsin. Called the Kovac Planetarium, it is 22 feet in diameter and weighs two tons. The globe is made of wood and is driven with a variable speed motor controller. This is the largest mechanical planetarium in the world, larger than the Atwood Globe in Chicago (15 feet in diameter) and one third the size of the Hayden. +Some new planetariums now feature a glass floor, which allows spectators to stand near the center of a sphere surrounded by projected images in all directions, giving the impression of floating in outer space. For example, a small planetarium at AHHAA in Tartu, Estonia features such an installation, with special projectors for images below the feet of the audience, as well as above their heads. + +=== Traditional electromechanical/optical projectors === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a911bacb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Planetarium" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:49.406322+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Traditional planetarium projection apparatus use a hollow ball with a light inside, and a pinhole for each star, hence the name "star ball". With some of the brightest stars (e.g. Sirius, Canopus, Vega), the hole must be so big to let enough light through that there must be a small lens in the hole to focus the light to a sharp point on the dome. In later and modern planetarium star balls, the individual bright stars often have individual projectors, shaped like small hand-held torches, with focusing lenses for individual bright stars. Contact breakers prevent the projectors from projecting below the "horizon". +The star ball is usually mounted so it can rotate as a whole to simulate the Earth's daily rotation, and to change the simulated latitude on Earth. There is also usually a means of rotating to produce the effect of precession of the equinoxes. Often, one such ball is attached at its south ecliptic pole. In that case, the view cannot go so far south that any of the resulting blank area at the south is projected on the dome. Some star projectors have two balls at opposite ends of the projector like a dumbbell. In that case all stars can be shown and the view can go to either pole or anywhere between. But care must be taken that the projection fields of the two balls match where they meet or overlap. +Smaller planetarium projectors include a set of fixed stars, Sun, Moon, and planets, and various nebulae. Larger projectors also include comets and a far greater selection of stars. Additional projectors can be added to show twilight around the outside of the screen (complete with city or country scenes) as well as the Milky Way. Others add coordinate lines and constellations, photographic slides, laser displays, and other images. +Each planet is projected by a sharply focused spotlight that makes a spot of light on the dome. Planet projectors must have gearing to move their positioning and thereby simulate the planets' movements. These can be of these types:- + +Copernican. The axis represents the Sun. The rotating piece that represents each planet carries a light that must be arranged and guided to swivel so it always faces towards the rotating piece that represents the Earth. This presents mechanical problems including: +The planet lights must be powered by wires, which have to bend about as the planets rotate, and repeatedly bending copper wire tends to cause wire breakage through metal fatigue. +When a planet is at opposition to the Earth, its light is liable to be blocked by the mechanism's central axle. (If the planet mechanism is set 180° rotated from reality, the lights are carried by the Earth and shine towards each planet, and the blocking risk happens at conjunction with Earth.) +Ptolemaic. Here the central axis represents the Earth. Each planet light is on a mount which rotates only about the central axis, and is aimed by a guide which is steered by a deferent and an epicycle (or whatever the planetarium maker calls them). Here Ptolemy's number values must be revised to remove the daily rotation, which in a planetarium is catered for otherwise. (In one planetarium, this needed Ptolemaic-type orbital constants for Uranus, which was unknown to Ptolemy.) +Computer-controlled. Here all the planet lights are on mounts which rotate only about the central axis, and are aimed by a computer. +Despite offering a good viewer experience, traditional star ball projectors suffer several inherent limitations. From a practical point of view, the low light levels require several minutes for the audience to "dark adapt" its eyesight. "Star ball" projection is limited in education terms by its inability to move beyond an Earth-bound view of the night sky. Finally, in most traditional projectors the various overlaid projection systems are incapable of proper occultation. This means that a planet image projected on top of a star field (for example) will still show the stars shining through the planet image, degrading the quality of the viewing experience. For related reasons, some planetariums show stars below the horizon projecting on the walls below the dome or on the floor, or (with a bright star or a planet) shining in the eyes of someone in the audience. +However, the new breed of Optical-Mechanical projectors using fiber-optic technology to display the stars show a much more realistic view of the sky. + +=== Digital projectors === + +An increasing number of planetariums are using digital technology to replace the entire system of interlinked projectors traditionally employed around a star ball to address some of their limitations. Digital planetarium manufacturers claim reduced maintenance costs and increased reliability from such systems compared with traditional "star balls" on the grounds that they employ few moving parts and do not generally require synchronisation of movement across the dome between several separate systems. Some planetariums mix both traditional opto-mechanical projection and digital technologies on the same dome. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c14a09497 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Planetarium" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:49.406322+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In a fully digital planetarium, the dome image is generated by a computer and then projected onto the dome using a variety of technologies including cathode-ray tube, LCD, DLP, or laser projectors. Sometimes a single projector mounted near the centre of the dome is employed with a fisheye lens to spread the light over the whole dome surface, while in other configurations several projectors around the horizon of the dome are arranged to blend together seamlessly. +Digital projection systems all work by creating the image of the night sky as a large array of pixels. Generally speaking, the more pixels a system can display, the better the viewing experience. While the first generation of digital projectors were unable to generate enough pixels to match the image quality of the best traditional "star ball" projectors, high-end systems now offer a resolution that approaches the limit of human visual acuity. +LCD projectors have fundamental limits on their ability to project true black as well as light, which has tended to limit their use in planetaria. LCOS and modified LCOS projectors have improved on LCD contrast ratios while also eliminating the "screen door" effect of small gaps between LCD pixels. "Dark chip" DLP projectors improve on the standard DLP design and can offer relatively inexpensive solution with bright images, but the black level requires physical baffling of the projectors. As the technology matures and reduces in price, laser projection looks promising for dome projection as it offers bright images, large dynamic range and a very wide color space. + +== Show content == + +Worldwide, most planetariums provide shows to the general public. Traditionally, shows for these audiences with themes such as "What's in the sky tonight?", or shows which pick up on topical issues such as a religious festival (often the Christmas star) linked to the night sky, have been popular. Live format is preferred by many venues as a live speaker or presenter can answer questions raised by the audience. +Since the early 1990s, fully featured 3-D digital planetariums have added an extra degree of freedom to a presenter giving a show because they allow simulation of the view from any point in space, not only the Earth-bound view which we are most familiar with. This new virtual reality capability to travel through the universe provides important educational benefits because it vividly conveys that space has depth, helping audiences to leave behind the ancient misconception that the stars are stuck on the inside of a giant celestial sphere and instead to understand the true layout of the Solar System and beyond. For example, a planetarium can now 'fly' the audience towards one of the familiar constellations such as Orion, revealing that the stars which appear to make up a co-ordinated shape from an Earth-bound viewpoint are at vastly different distances from Earth and so not connected, except in human imagination and mythology. For especially visual or spatially aware people, this experience can be more educationally beneficial than other demonstrations. + +== See also == + +Antikythera mechanism – Ancient Greek analogue astronomical computer +Armillary sphere – Model of objects in the sky consisting of a framework of rings +Astrarium – Timepiece and astronomical prediction device +Astrolabe – Astronomical instrument +Astronomical clock – Clock displaying astronomical information +Magic lantern +Fulldome video – Dome-based video projection environment +List of observatory software +Observatory – Location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events +Orrery – Mechanical model of the Solar System +List of planetariums +Planetarium projector – Device to project images of stars +Prague Orloj – Medieval astronomical clock in the Czech Republic +Torquetum – Medieval astronomical instrument +Space-themed music – Music genre +Star atlas – Part of astronomy concerned with mapping of stars + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Boris Goesl, Hans-Christian von Herrmann, Kohei Suzuki (Hrsg.): Zum Planetarium. Wissensgeschichtliche Studien. Paderborn 2018, ISBN 978-3-7705-5971-8. +Helen Ahner: Planetarien, Verlag Wallstein, Göttingen 2021, ISBN 978-3-8353-5430-2 +McMahon, Matthew, et al., eds. 100 Years of Planetaria: 100 Stories of People, Places, and Devices. Springer Nature, 2025. +Yu, Ka Chun. "People in the Planetarium." 100 Years of Planetaria: 100 Stories of People, Places, and Devices (2025): 145. +Rocher, Yann, et al. "Building the Planetarium." 100 Years of Planetaria: 100 Stories of People, Places, and Devices. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025. 67-104. + +== External links == + +IPS (International Planetarium Society) +WPD (Worldwide Planetariums Database) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_Science_Center-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_Science_Center-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..935e7baf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_Science_Center-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Planetarium Science Center" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_Science_Center" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:17.137355+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Planetarium Science Centre (PSC) is a department in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina located in Alexandria, Egypt. It promotes science centers as an educational tool. + + +== Structure == + + +=== Pre-Historic Animal Park === +The Science Park has a Dinosaur Park that houses models of many prehistoric animals. + + +=== ALEXPloratorium === +The ALEXPloratorium is located next to the Planetarium, where visitors can interact with multiple exhibits that cover various scientific topics, most commonly physics and astronomy. + + +== Programs and events == +The PSC's Remote Sensing Workshop program introduces the scientific principles of remote sensing and offers hands-on applications. The RoboAlex Center at the Alexploratorium offers instruction in robotics. The participating groups design, program, and test robots on a playing field to accomplish certain missions. The result of an alliance between FIRST and LEGO is the FIRST Lego League Challenge (FLL). The FLL is an international hands-on, sport-like robotics program that was intended for children aged 9–14. + + +=== Eratosthenes === +Eratosthenes is an annual festival that the Bibliotheca Alexandrina organizes to promote science and heritage among school students. The Festivities of 2003–2008 evolved around measuring the Earth's circumference, inspired by the Greek mathematician and poet Eratosthenes. + + +=== Intel BASEF === +The PSC, in collaboration with Intel, organizes the Intel Bibliotheca Alexandrina Science and Engineering Fair (Intel BASEF), which is hosted by the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in March. Intel BASEF is intended for children in grades 9–12 from Alexandria and the neighboring governorates to compete with each team. The winning projects, one team project and two individual projects, represent Egypt in the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (Intel ISEF) that takes place in the United States. + + +== Renovation == +In 2009, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina reopened its planetarium after a renovation. The renovation included a new dome projection system and a new set of shows. The renovation allowed for the Bibliotheca and the Planetarium Science Center to jointly host the 20th International Planetarium Society conference in June 2010. "Stars of the Pharaohs" is one of the shows that was displayed at the PSC; it was based on ancient Egyptian astronomy. It discusses topics such as how the Ancient Egyptians built observatories to study astronomy and what their legacy is to modern science. "New Horizons" is a show focusing on modern astronomical discoveries. +The Digistar 3 was first introduced in 2002 by the Evans & Sutherland (E&S) Company, which specializes in digital systems for planetariums. The Digistar 3 uses two projectors to display the full hemisphere of the planetarium. + + +== See also == +List of planetariums +Bibliotheca Alexandrina +Library of Alexandria +International Planetarium Society + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Bibliotheca Alexandrina planetarium at Wikimedia Commons +Planetarium Science Center official website +Intel Bibliotheca Alexandria Science and Engineering Fair official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytunnel-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytunnel-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b98fe6911 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytunnel-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Polytunnel" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytunnel" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:03.164305+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A polytunnel (also known as a polyhouse, hoop greenhouse, or hoophouse, grow tunnel or high tunnel) is a tunnel typically made from steel and covered in polyethylene, usually semi-circular, square or elongated in shape. The interior heats up because incoming solar radiation from the sun warms plants, soil, and other things inside the building faster than heat can escape the structure. Air warmed by the heat from hot interior surfaces is retained in the building by the roof and wall. Temperature, humidity, and ventilation can be controlled by equipment fixed in the polytunnel or by manual opening and closing of vents. Polytunnels are mainly used in temperate regions in similar ways to glass greenhouses and row covers. Besides the passive solar heating that every polytunnel provides, every variation of auxiliary heating (from hothouse heating through minimal heating to unheated houses) is represented in current practice. The nesting of row covers and low tunnels inside high tunnels is also common. + +Polytunnels can be used to provide a higher temperature and/or humidity than that which is available in the environment but can also protect crops from intense heat, bright sunlight, winds, hailstones, and cold waves. This allows fruits and vegetables to be grown at times usually considered off season; market gardeners commonly use polytunnels for season extension. Beyond season extension, polytunnels are also used to allow cold-hardy crops to overwinter in regions where their hardiness is not quite strong enough for them to survive outdoors. Temperature increases of only 5 to 15 °C (9 to 27 °F) above outdoor ambient, coupled with protection from the drying effect of wind, are enough to let selected plant varieties grow slowly but healthily instead of dying. The effect is to create a microclimate that simulates the temperatures of a location several hardiness zones closer to the equator (and protects from wind as well). + +Every factor influencing a crop can be controlled in a polytunnel. Polytunnels are often used in strawberry, floriculture and plant nurseries, as the revenue value of the plants can justify the expense. +In recent years the true adaptability of polytunnel structures has been realised by adapting them to suit livestock housing. It is now commonplace in the UK to see polytunnels used for housing sheep, alpacas, goats, calves and poultry. + + +== Usage == + + +=== Temperate regions === + +Polytunnels are mainly used in temperate regions in similar ways to greenhouses and cloches (row covers). Modern designs allow sowing and harvesting machines to move inside the structures, automating production. Polytunnels have had a significant effect on the production of strawberries in the United Kingdom. Other soft fruits such as raspberries and blackberries are also cultivated in the same way. In colder regions such as Quebec, Canada, they extend the growing season by 2-3 months. Also, local manufacturing such as Industries Harnois are now producing high tunnels locally in North America. + + +=== Tropical regions === + +In a tropical climate, temperatures are prone to soar above all normal levels. In such cases, foggers/misters are used to reduce the temperature. This does not increase the humidity levels in the polytunnel as the evaporated droplets are almost immediately ventilated to open air. +High-tech poly houses even have space-heating systems as well as soil-heating systems to purify the soil of unwanted viruses, bacteria, and other organisms. The recent Indo-Israel collaboration at Gharunda, near Karnal in India, is an excellent example of polyhouse farming taking place in a developing country. Christine Allen, of CAFOD, describes areas of Kenya where there are "vegetable-filled polytunnels as far as the eye can see", but notes that they primarily serve the export market rather than providing food for domestic consumption. +If developing countries were to develop a special incentive program solely for fruit-and-vegetable farmers, especially in demographically large nations like India, then the migration rate from rural to urban areas (as well as the loss of horticultural and fruit/vegetable farmers) to urban areas may be reduced. This brings a huge potential to improve the farming sector, which is key to long-term economic stability. The small polytunnels used by each farmer in each village promote the cultivation of vegetables both on-season and off-season, and would actually help to moderate the market rate for fruit and vegetables in long run, on a year-round basis, and would help to satisfy local market needs. +For example, in India, the inability to grow tomatoes generates price spikes during the monsoon season. This is seen as an ideal time to grow tomatoes in polytunnels, since they provide the ideal climate for the crop. In India, the Abhinav Farmers Club grows flowers and organic vegetables in polytunnels. + + +== Development == +Hoophouses have existed at least since the 1940s, but they are much more commonly used with each passing decade, and their design continues to evolve. Because of the wide variety of constantly changing designs, in reality there is an entirely continuous spectrum from high tunnels through low tunnels to the simplest row covers, although they are often thought about as discrete steps. Major themes of continuing development are (1) achieving the same results with lighter construction and less cost and (2) making hoophouses easily movable. The advantages of mobile hoophouses include greater return on investment (with the same unit of investment getting greater use per year across different crops in different months) and more flexibility on crop rotation without ever having to bother to dig the soil out of a stationary house (or use soil steam sterilization) to cure greenhouse soil sickness. +A US Department of Agriculture program is helping farmers install polytunnels. The program was announced at the US White House garden in December 2009. +Farmers in Iraq are building these in increasing number and adding drip irrigation to grow tomatoes. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Polytunnels on Hortweek 1 November 2016 + +Polytunnels: Second generation on Hortweek 13 February 2015 +Polytunnels – Fresh Produce on Hortweek 6 November 2015 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d16574a7a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Progress Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:20.509342+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Progress (Russian: Прогресс) is a Russian (formerly Soviet) research station in Antarctica. It is located at the Larsemann Hills antarctic oasis on the shore of Prydz Bay. +The station was established by the 33rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition on April 1, 1988, and was moved to another place on February 26, 1989 In 2000, work was temporarily halted but it reopened in 2003. +A landing field is located close to the station for air connection with other stations. From 1998 to 2001 works were performed to transfer transportation operations to Progress from the Mirny Station and make it the main support base for Vostok station. +In 2004, work began on a year-round facility at the station. On October 4, 2008, a fire broke out at the construction site resulting in the death of a construction worker and two serious injuries. The fire resulted in the complete loss of the new structure, as well as damage to the station's communications and scientific equipment. +In 2013, the construction of a new wintering complex was completed. It is a residential unit with a sauna and gym, rooms for meteorologists and radio operators, a medical care unit which doubles as a regional hospital, and its own galley. +In 2022, the wintering complex was modernized and enlarged. An additional adjacent airfield, complementing the pre-existing Progress Skiway and called Zenit after the St. Petersburg football club, was built from scratch and features a runway of 3,000 meters length and 100 meters width, which is also able to accommodate larger planes such as the Ilyushin IL-76. + + +== Climate == + + +== See also == + +List of Antarctic research stations +List of Antarctic field camps +Airports in Antarctica + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute +AARI Progress Station page website, contains photos and climatological data since 1989 +COMNAP Antarctic Facilities +COMNAP Antarctic Facilities Map \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe_Observatory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe_Observatory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..32f86d9d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe_Observatory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Radcliffe Observatory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe_Observatory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:37.007420+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Radcliffe Observatory was the astronomical observatory of the University of Oxford from 1773 until 1934, when the Radcliffe Trustees sold it and built a new observatory in Pretoria, South Africa. It is a Grade I listed building. Today, the building forms part of Green Templeton College of the University of Oxford. + + +== History == + +The observatory was founded and named after the physician John Radcliffe (1650–1714) by the Radcliffe Trustees. It was built on the suggestion of the astronomer Thomas Hornsby, who was occupying the Savilian Chair of Astronomy, following his observation of the notable transit of Venus across the Sun's disc in 1769 from a room in the nearby Radcliffe Infirmary. +The observatory building, at a site on Woodstock Road, commenced to designs by Henry Keene in 1772 and was completed in 1794 to the designs of James Wyatt. It has a prominent octagonal tower based on the Tower of the Winds in Athens, topped with a statue by John Bacon of Atlas holding up the World. +Until 1839, the Savilian Chair of Astronomy was responsible for the observatory. At this date the appointment of George Henry Sacheverell Johnson – an astronomer with no observational experience – caused the creation of the new role of Radcliffe Observer. +Because of the viewing conditions, weather, urban development and light pollution at Oxford, the observatory was moved to South Africa in 1939. Eventually that site, in Pretoria, also became untenable and the facility was combined with others into the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO) in the 1970s. +The building is now used by Green Templeton College and is a centrepiece of the college. The original instruments are now in the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, except for the Radcliffe 18/24-inch Twin Refractor telescope, which was transferred to the University of London Observatory. + + +== Radcliffe Observers == +The following have been Radcliffe Observers: + +1839 Manuel John Johnson +1860 Robert Main +1879 Edward James Stone +1897 Arthur Alcock Rambaut +1924 Harold Knox-Shaw +1950 David Thackeray + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == + +Observatory Street to the north +Radcliffe Observatory Quarter, a local development project + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == + + +== External links == + Media related to Radcliffe Observatory at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fe25d48ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Radmilovac" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:28.645791+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Radmilovac (Serbian Cyrillic: Радмиловац) is a suburban settlement of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia, and an experimental farm of the University of Belgrade's Faculty of Agriculture. It is located in the Belgrade municipality of Grocka. It is also known for the hotel of the same name. + +== Location == +Radmilovac is actually a westernmost extension of the Belgrade's suburb of Vinča (to which it makes no urban connections), on the very border with the neighboring Leštane. It is located north of the road of Smederevski put which connects Belgrade and the town of Smederevo. It is located 14 kilometers north-east of downtown Belgrade, between Vinča and Kaluđerica with Leštane being located right across the Smederevski put. Right behind the settlement is the Vinča Nuclear Institute. + +== Farm == + +=== History === +The experimental agricultural farm of Radmilovac, a section of the Faculty of Agriculture in Belgrade is the original core of the neighborhood. Farm originated from the lands bequested to the Faculty by the industrialist, deputy and judge Milan Vukićević in 1941, when he died. Vukićević left the farm estate for the practical education in all types of agriculture. He originally purchased 39 ha (96 acres) from the municipalities of Vinča and Kaluđerica. The estate already had several buildings. In one section of the administrative building there is a museum "Radmilovac", dedicated to Vukićević. +Milan's wife Radmila Vukićević was the first manager of the farm from 1941 to 1945 when she died, too. In 1947 the farm was named Radmilovac in her honor (Serbian for “Radmila’s place”). It was also in 1947 when the faculty took over the farm, due to the World War II and post-war developments in the state. After World War II the land was nationalized, returned to the Faculty in the 1960s, taken by the state again and given to the PKB company, main agricultural supplier of the Belgrade market. In the late 1980s the farm was finally returned to the Faculty again. The reconstruction and expansion of the farm began in 2006, with new small fishponds and projected halls and covered areas. + +=== Characteristics === + +Today the farm, mainly known for its orchards, covers an area of 86 hectares. It is the largest agricultural gene bank in eastern and southeastern Europe. + +==== Agriculture ==== +Arable land covers 10 hectares and includes several large greenhouses. Products of Radmilovac can be bought on the farm. They include wines, brandies, seedlings, but also some unusual products like a tomato jam. + +==== Beer ==== +A ceramic container with small hole-like marks on the inside, was discovered in a Neolithic house at the nearby Vinča archaeological site. Discovered in the late 2010s, it was dated to 5,000 BC, and the marks were consistent with the ones made by the alcoholic fermentation. Inside the same house, abundant quantity of grains was discovered, too. Archaeologists from the site, and archaeobotanists from the University of Massachusetts Boston, conducted an experiment in Radmilovac. They planted ancient varieties of wheat and barley, and then used the grains to produce mildly alcoholic "Neolithic beer", resembling boza. + +==== Fruits ==== +Orchards cover 15 hectares and are populated by apples, plums, peaches and pears, including one peach cultivar created here. Trees are planted differently from the usual way, with lesser space between them, only one meter apart (up to 3.000 seedlings per hectare). Anti-hail net is placed between the trees and a drip irrigation system is introduced. One section is reserved for the old local and new worldwide cultivars, including hundreds of unique fruit brands. Internationally known type of brandies are being produced here. + +==== Vineyards ==== +Vineyards spread over 13 hectares. Farm developed 23 new grape cultivars, 15 table and 8 wine varieties. Yield varies from 35 to 60 tons per year, with 20 tons internationally recognized brands of wines made of it. +A house and the adjoining grapevine in 4 Gospodska street in a distant neighborhood of Zemun are protected by the law. The vine was planted c1910. It is of the red grape variety, specifically the Rosette (Seibel 1000), or, as it is called in Serbia, the "Frenchman". Popularly nicknamed "Zemunka" ("Zemun girl"), the vine is still vital, spreading and bearing fruit. Faculty of Agriculture examined its grapes. The French hybrid originated from after 1860. The French cultivars were grafted on the American cultivars after the massive Phylloxera epidemic caused the Great French Wine Blight, which actually destroyed vineyards in entire Europe. The "Seibel 1000" cultivar reached Serbia in 1903. Some 30 vines were transplanted in Radmilovac. Grapes from there are being mixed with that from Zemun and experimental wines have been produced. The grafts of the "Zemunka" have been transplanted to several other vineyards in Serbia, including the ones at Oplenac. + +==== Beekeeping ==== +The farm also contains bees gene bank and 40 beehives. They produce several different types of honey: black locust, floral, sunflower, multifloral (“meadow”). Curiosity is honey produced from sophora (“Japanese acacia”). + +==== Fishpond ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4fc8d4329 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Radmilovac" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radmilovac" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:28.645791+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Center for fishery and applied hydrobiology occupies 5 hectares. Formerly, a stream Ševarice flowed through the farm. It received wastewater from the neighboring settlements and was so polluted that it was named Šugavac (Scabies stream). It was conducted underground into the sewage system and instead an artificial short clean stream, named "Little Danube". The water wells were dug and the wetland around the stream was recreated. It is 1.5 kilometers long and is a miniature representation of the entire Danube's flow, from the Black Forest to the Black Sea, including islands, peninsulas, hills, mountains and plains. Little Danube is populated with 40 fish species and plants were planted along its banks, both fishes and plants being characteristic for the "Big" Danube, which flows on the other side of the hill behind the farm. +A series of fish ponds were created. Main species include common carp and trout. Inside the Center, there are 40 aquariums with numerous types of fish: common barbel, huchen, brook trout, common minnow, eel, goldfish, European mudminnow, common roach, common bream, Wels catfish, zander and Northern pike, but also the genetically mixed fish population. The aquariums are ornamented with the replicas of the Lepenski Vir sculptures. The fishing of carp and catfish is allowed. One section is turned into the botanical water garden with 40 species of aquatic plants, and 30 species of birds (15 species of ducks, 5 species of geese, ruddy shelducks, swans, black swans and peacocks) roaming between the ponds. In one pond a small artificial island ("miniature Great War Island") is constructed and a fisherman's house built on it that can be reached by walking over the short hanging bridge. In the house, the old tools used by the fishermen are exhibited, so as the model of tikvara, old type of the fishing boat. +On 21 September 2019, within the "Little Danube" complex, a replica of the prehistoric fishermen settlement was opened. It consists of 5 segments: Paleolithic (cave, to 10,000 BC); Mesolithic (first permanent settlements, 10,000-6,000 BC); Neolithic 1 (Starčevo culture dugouts, 6,200-5,300 BC); Neolithic 2 (Vinča culture houses, 5,300-4,300 BC); fishermen houses from 4,300 BC till today. The project was designed by the group of archaeologists, fishery professors, architects and craftsmen. + +== Hotel == +Hotel "Radmilovac" was opened on 9 October 1989. As a major venue of its kind in the area between Belgrade and Smederevo, it soon developed into the popular place, especially because of its restaurant. Though not a large venue, in time it was often visited by Dobrica Ćosić, Momo Kapor, Vladimir Cvetković, Dragan Kićanović, Dragan Džajić, Nemanja Vidić, Zdravko Čolić, but also hosted Armand Assante, Bernie Ecclestone, and others. Because of the legal problems with defection of the Romanian-Serbian footballer Miodrag Belodedici to Belgrade and the Red Star Belgrade, the team organized his stay in "Radmilovac", due to the hotel's location outside of the city. Also, on its way to winning the Intercontinental Cup in 1991, team members of Red Star Belgrade stayed in the hotel between the matches. After returning to Serbia, Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia lived for a while in "Radmilovac". In total, five princes from the former royal family spent some time in the hotel, including Prince Vladimir Karađorđević. +Numerous symposiums, either political, sport or professional, were organized in the hotel. For a while, it was fashionable to organize weddings in the "Radmilovac", including ones organized by the Serbian prime minister Dragutin Zelenović for his daughter, and the wedding of Claudio Del Monaco and Dragana Jugović del Monaco. For years, the venue hosted an artistic colony and as a result it exhibits 120 works of Raša Trkulja, Danica Basta, Moma Antonović, Vasa Dolovački, Dragan Stojkov (painter), and others. + +== Settlement == +Radmilovac is a small, exclusively residential settlement of few dozen houses located around the hotel. It developed on the hill above the farm, beginning in the late 1970s, and today has an estimated population of 500. + +== References == + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Science_Centre-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Science_Centre-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..97974430d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Science_Centre-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Raman Science Centre" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Science_Centre" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:18.375392+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Raman Science Centre and Raman Planetarium Complex at Nagpur is an interactive science centre affiliated with Mumbai's Nehru Science Centre. The centre was developed to promote a scientific attitude, portray the growth of science and technology and their applications in industry and human welfare, and hold science exhibits. The centre is named after famous Nobel Prize winner Indian physicist Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. +The Raman Science Centre was inaugurated on 7 March 1992 and the planetarium was started on 5 January 1997. The centre is located opposite Gandhi Sagar Lake in the heart of Nagpur. Between 1 April 2014 and 31 March 2015, the Centre recorded a visitor count of 582,962. The centre is part of the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM), India, which is the largest network of science centres/museums under a single administrative umbrella in the world. NCSM rates the centre as regional level and it has a total floor area of 4333 sq meters. + + +== Activities == +The centre carries out numerous programs to spread science and technology knowledge amongst the general public. The centre inaugurated the Innovation Centre on 14 February 2017 to give opportunities to students who are dedicated to science. The centre, along with local NGO Hirwai, gives the Green Finger Award to create awareness about the environment amongst school children. In August 2007, the information and communication technology gallery was opened, where then ISRO Chairman Madhavan Nair declared that India would send astronauts to space by 2015. +The centre currently has four different interactive galleries, an Innovation Centre, a Science on a Sphere Show and a 133-seat planetarium, two fun science galleries, a prehistoric Animal Park and more. The centre also holds science lectures, science film shows and 3-dimensional science shows. The centre also organises activities like planet watching and watching other celestial phenomena for citizens. + + +== See also == +List of science centers#Asia + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle-0.md index b4f5d7526..f35426d8d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:36:06.983291+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:33.364226+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_Automated_Weather_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_Automated_Weather_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c68e3fe40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_Automated_Weather_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Remote Automated Weather Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_Automated_Weather_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:21.725459+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Remote Automatic Weather Stations (RAWS) system is a network of automated weather stations run by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and monitored by the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), mainly to observe potential wildfire conditions. +Unlike the automated airport weather stations which are located at significant airports, RAWS stations are often located in remote areas, particularly in national forests. Because of this, they usually are not connected to the electrical grid, but rather have their own solar panels, and a battery to store power for overnight reporting. Some instead run on a generator. In both cases, data important to operating the station itself, such as battery voltage or fuel level, is often included in the hourly reports. +Also because of the remote locations, most communicate with a radio connection to a GOES satellite. +In this regard, they are similar to mesonets and may be mesonets if the distance between stations (spatial resolution) is sufficiently dense. They often lack the consistently high-quality data needed for use in numerical weather prediction and climatology, however. Road Weather Information System (RWIS) may likewise be self-powered and located in remote areas. + + +== Portable RAWS == +There are times when a portable weather station is required, such as planned ignitions, wildfires, and other projects where there is a need to collect and share weather information. +Portable stations may also be referred to as "quick deploy" or QD, and this should be indicated within the name of the station to allow proper interpretation of the collected data. + + +== See also == +Remote sensing + + +== External links == + +National Interagency Remote Automatic Weather Stations (RAWS) Homepage Archived 2021-02-17 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requetemu-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requetemu-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..679838e2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requetemu-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Requetemu" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requetemu" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:22.958783+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Requetemu is a NOAA weather station in the Mexican state of San Luis Potosí. Its coordinates are 21.93°N 98.90°W / 21.93; -98.90. It is 89m (292 feet) above sea level. + + +== Footnotes == + + +== External links == +"Climate Explorer: Time series". climexp.knmi.nl. Retrieved 2008-07-09. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..431064dd4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Research station" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:27.087380+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Research stations are facilities where scientific investigation, collection, analysis and experimentation occurs. A research station is a facility that is built for the purpose of conducting scientific research. There are also many types of research stations including: biological field stations, space stations etc. Research station sites might include remote areas of the world, oceans, as well as outer space, such as the International Space Station. Biological research stations developed during a time of European colonization and imperialism where naturalists were employed to conduct observations on fauna and flora. Today, the discipline is represented by a number of organizations which span across multiple continents. Some examples include: the Organization of Biological Field Stations and the Organization for Tropical Studies. +Space stations were also developed over a number of decades through scientific analysis and writing, with the first design aspects of early space stations being introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. Since then, the construction and launch of space stations have been both national and international, collaborative efforts which have allowed different design philosophies to form key space stations such as the International Space Station (ISS). Similarly, stations in Antarctica are built to ensure that they are well insulated against the sub-zero temperatures of the exterior landscape with many redevelopments being required over the years to overcome issues associated with snowdrifts, accessibility and rusting. + +== Types == + +Some research stations are located in the Arctic, such as the Northeast Science Station, McGill Arctic Research Station and Himadri Station. Some stations in the Arctic are staffed drifting ice stations, built on the ice of the high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean. Many nations also have research stations located in Antarctica; Showa Station, Halley and Troll are examples. There are also various research stations doing field ecological research such as the Tiputini Biodiversity Station in the Ecuadorian Amazon, Comoé National Park Research Station in the Savannas of North-eastern Côte d'Ivoire or the Gombe Research Station in Tanzania, where famous chimpanzee research was conducted by Jane Goodall. + +=== Biological research stations === +Biological field stations or ecological research stations are facilities where research can be conducted into different aspects of the environmental and biological life. It covers a wide range of field stations including: marine research stations, tropical research stations etc. During the 18th and early 19th century, field stations were not yet formally established, and European naturalists and biologists would conduct their research through imperial scientific explorations. This time period occurred within the time of imperialism and colonial expansion which began from the mid-18th century, which was where European countries, which undergoing industrialization, were in the process of seeking to invade and conqueror territories around the world. Naturalists were often enlisted on imperial campaigns to "undiscovered" territories to assist in the cataloging and mapping of foreign specimens. For example, in 1813, Charles Darwin was appointed the naturalist on the Royal Navy ship, HMS Beagle, and his diary journals from that voyage contributed significantly to his later scientific theories on evolution and natural selection. Similarly, Joseph Banks was also an English naturalist who was appointed the botanist of imperial collaboration between the Royal Navy Society scientific expedition in 1768 on HMS Endeavour to the South Pacific which was heralded as the discovery of Australia or Terra Nullius as it was known at the time. + +In the mid – late 19th century, biological stations were formalized and began to be built around the world. In Europe, some early field stations (which are still in operation today) included Concarneau Marine Biological Station (Station de biologie marine de Concarneau) which was founded in 1859 in Concarneau, France. Concarneau Marine Biological Station is a marine biology station which was founded by Victor Coste for the purposes of conducting research into coastal fishing by the request of Napoleon III. In Asia, an example of an early field station includes the Misaki Marine Biological Station was founded in Japan in 1886 with the purpose of investigating the abundant fauna of Sagami Bay that is it was situated across from.The increased interest in building biological field stations grew with the era known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration which was a period beginning in the late 19th century where European explorers were in competition to explore and establish scientific presence on the Antarctic continent. However, the formation of biological field stations became stagnant during international disruptions of World War I and World War II. After World War II, the number of biological research stations around the world increased significantly with 92 stations being established in the 1950s alone. It was during the post-war period that multiple multinational and regional organizations surrounding biological field stations were formed. The most prominent is the non-profit organization known as the Organization of Biological Field Stations was founded in 1963. This organization was formed with the goal of representing and unifying the work of research centers from North America, Central America and Canada. It currently has 180 member stations. Another biological non-profit is the Organization for Tropical Studies which was founded in 1963 and consists of approximately 50 institutions worldwide. Its three goals consist of 1) furthering scientific discovery and knowledge, 2) expanding the educational scope of tropical natural resources and 3) helping to shape policies that will impact these regions. It provides both undergraduate and graduate programs to students in the fields of field biology, ecology, global health, and conservation and allows students to perform hands-on work in both African and South American continents. There are also numerous other organizations and institutes, both public and private, around the world that support the funding, approval and maintenance of biological research stations. Tropical and subtropical research stations have a high conservation return on investment with for instance in Africa deforestation being 22% less near field stations compared to matched sites at a distance \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6d1d4f86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Research station" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:27.087380+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Space stations === +Space stations are not stationary buildings unlike normal research stations on Earth, they are specially created mobile spacecraft that are built to allow a group of human researchers and crew to inhabit over a span of anywhere from months and even a year. Space stations are intended to be permanently operating in space unlike other kinds of space craft such as satellites. However, it may not be permanently inhabited by human researchers who may come and go as they cycle through different explorations. Space stations are typically controlled by their own respective space agency and country. The design for space stations evolved over multiple decades. The engineering and design aspects of a space station was first introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. His "Wohnrad" also known as "Living Wheel" consisted of a rotating wheel-shaped space station consisting of three parts: a habitat rotation wheel, an observatory, and a machine room. The Wohnrad's habitat wheel consisted of habitation units, laboratories and observatories which would measure 30 meters in diameter and whose centrifugal force would generate a sense of gravity for the crew members. The theme of gravity being artificially produced through the rotation of the space station was first detailed by Wernher Von Braun in the 1950s which maintained a similar concept of a rotating wheel. The International Space Station (ISS) is one of the biggest space stations in the world and it is permanently inhabited. The first parts of the stations were launched in 1998. It operates in a low Earth orbit which means that relatively closer to the Earth's surface. This can be anywhere from 1000 km to just 160 km above the surface of the Earth. + +The ISS is a collaborative effort by multiple space agencies around the world. The countries involved in the funding of the stations includes Europe, Japan, Canada, Russia and the United States. The respective space agencies of these countries are ESA, JAXA, CSA, Roscosmos, NASA. The modularity and size of components of the research station were dictated by the use of the space shuttle as the primary launch vehicle. The components also needed to be durable and maintainable. In the earlier years the development of the ISS in the 1990s, different countries brought different philosophies and approaches to the construction, design and transportation of research stations. Russian engineers emphasized automated use and remote control in their designs. The United States, Japanese and European nations were guided by four, consistent main principles: accessibility, maintainability, modularity and reconfigurability. This affected the construction of interior hardware racks which were built to be replaceable. It also took into account the preferences of the crew members who largely indicated that the interior design of the station would be constructed with distinct floors, ceiling and walls. The ISS is set to be retired around the end of the 2020s. The only other occupied space station in low Earth orbit is the Chinese space station, Tiangong. Tiangong was launched in 2021 and follows its predecessors Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2 which were first launched in 2011 and 2016 respectively. This space station was the largest spacecraft built by China, weighing 22.5 tons or 49604.01 pounds. + +=== Antarctic research stations === +Antarctica has around 50 research stations and from around 1000 to 5000 people who reside in those stations around the year. The continent itself is a polar desert which consists of uninhabitable ice-filled environment. It is governed by around 30 countries facilitated through the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). Since 1959 when this treaty was enacted, 42 countries have become signatories to it and have established research stations in Antarctica. Research stations in Antarctica operate on a seasonal basis in accordance with its Summer and Winter. This is as temperatures have a large variation between the two seasons with temperature exceeding +10 °C in Summer and dropping to under −40 °C in Winter in the coastal parts of the continent. Most operations are carried out in the Summer where temperatures are higher. The majority of research stations in Antarctica are located in these coastal regions with a large number being clustered alongside the peninsula of the continent. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d8e4ee4c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Research station" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:27.087380+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +These research stations are built to accommodate for the sub-zero climatic conditions of the region as well as considering the placement and construction of it building itself. Antarctic research stations need to be built in a manner to minimize issues such as insulation, freezing of concrete during the building process and the potential for the accumulation of drifting snow. The process of the construction of research stations on the continent evolved over time to address these issues. Early research bases in Antarctica used by prominent explorers such as Ernest Shackleton and Roald Amundsen during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration consisted of wooden huts and tents. It was not until post World War II when research stations began to be built on a wider and more commercial scale. These post war research stations were made with the aim to be quickly erected and it was often constructed by individuals with little construction experience and knowledge. Research stations during this time were made up of standard cool room panels and utilized expanded Bakelite insulation. This model later evolved to be elevated buildings held aloft by steel scaffolding. This was done in an attempt to address the issue of accumulation of drifting snow so that stations would not be "snowed in". This did occur in 1968, when the Halley Research Station I operated by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) had to be shut down as it was covered in snow. However, this design did not take into consideration of water vapour moving through the panel insulation which led to rusting of the panel from the inside. Another issue with this design was that limited the function and dimensions of the building. This made the buildings hard to access. +From this period onwards (roughly the late 1960s onwards), multiple designs were trialed to resolve the issues of guy wires which obstructed mobility and to improve the quality of safety and services, as well as reducing cost. Some examples of design elements during this period included fiberglass paneled stations, aluminum window frames and timber panels. However, these designs were not very effective at overcoming the challenge of accumulating snowdrift, frost or maintaining effective insulation. While there were significant challenges to building research stations during this time, there were also some building innovations that developed from this period of architectural experimentation in the region. Engineers found that buildings could be constructed to be parallel to the direction of the wind to prevent the accumulation of snowdrift. Another discovery that engineers made was that the structural foundations of research stations can be made directly into the rock bed of station sites at sites which were sediment and rock dominant over ice. After this period of trial and error, in the early 2000s, there began a movement to create more consistent, commercialized structures which emphasized durability. A notable example of this was the formation of the design of Halley VI in 2005, which involved a design competition to create the most effective and long-lasting research station suitable for its location on a floating ice shelf. The resulting design consists of an elevated station set on hydraulic stilts which allowed operators to physically move or relocate it out of snow drifts. Bert Buecking, an architect working on designs for India's National Center for Antarctic and Ocean Research's new research station emphasized the importance of this redesign on shifting the approach to the construction of Antarctic research stations, "when the U.K. built Halley VI, many nations realized the importance of doing something special, and not just doing something." Similarly, the Australian Antarctic Building System (AANBUS) has claimed to set the standard for design in the Antarctic by utilizing braced steel framed structures, insulated panels and vapour barriers to overcome previous design and practicality issues. + +== See also == +Research stations in Antarctica +List of research stations in the Arctic +Observatory +Human outpost +Space station +International Space Station (ISS) + +== References == + +== External links == + Media related to Scientific stations at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_weather_information_system-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_weather_information_system-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b3fd6a2f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_weather_information_system-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Road weather information system" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_weather_information_system" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:24.173241+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A road weather information system (RWIS) comprises remote automatic weather stations (AWSs) – often technically referred to as environmental sensor stations (ESSs), as they also cover non-meteorological variables – a communication system for data transfer, and central systems to collect field data from numerous ESSs. These stations measure real-time atmospheric parameters, pavement conditions, water level conditions, visibility, and sometimes other variables. Central RWIS hardware and software are used to process observations from ESSs to develop nowcasts or forecasts, and to display or disseminate road weather information in a format that can be easily interpreted by a manager. RWIS data are used by road operators and maintainers to support decision making. Real-time RWIS data is also used by automated warning systems (AWSs). The spatial and temporal resolution of a station network can be that of a mesonet or sometimes a constituent network in a network of station networks comprising a mesonet. The data is often considered proprietary although it is typically ingested into the major numerical weather prediction models. + + +== Sensors == +Thermometer for measuring temperature and pavement conditions +Anemometer for measuring wind speed +Wind vane for measuring wind direction +Visibility sensor for detecting fog and smoke +Rain gauge for measuring precipitation +Surface sensor (embedded) for measuring road surface temperature and status temperature, dry or wet state, water depth, chemical concentration +Surface sensor (non-invasive) for measuring road surface temperature and status temperature, dry or wet state, water depth, chemical concentration, friction +Sub-surface probe for measuring below-grade temperature of roadway, surface temperature and resistance + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross-on-Wye_weather_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross-on-Wye_weather_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a9799669 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross-on-Wye_weather_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Ross-on-Wye weather station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross-on-Wye_weather_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:25.417927+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Ross-on-Wye weather station is a weather station, now fully automated, situated off the Walford Road in Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire, England. + + +== Tradition == +Throughout the Second World War, it was the only volunteer-run weather station to be accepted by the Met office. Every night throughout the conflict, it was the only land-locked station to be included in the shipping forecast on the World Service. The anecdotes goes that- even when in the Pacific- the soldiers from Ross would know exactly what the weather was like around at their mothers. Clement Grant Dixon, Physics teacher, Ross Grammar School, 1970. + + +== History == +Henry Southall (1836–1916), set up a station at 'The Craig, Ross' in 1859. It was in 1860, after the loss of the Royal Charter in 1859, that Robert FitzRoy (1805–1865) used the electric telegraph to transmit weather data so he might issue storm warnings and in 1861 issue weather forecasts. Importantly Ross was already operating. +Frederick James Parsons arrived in Ross in 1912 having previously had his own amateur station when a child. He met up with Southall, and established his own station at Chase Dale in the Chase, Ross. In 1914 he was made a Fellow of Royal Meteorological Society but due to the outbreak of war he joined the Herefordshire Territorials and was transferred to the Royal Engineers as one of the first five meteorologists to be in the service. The station was maintained in his absence by the landowner, Mrs Purchase. On return he continued to take daily readings until 1964 when he was 72. +From 1975 until 1985 the town was without a weather station, but on the initiative of the mayor, Arthur Clarke, it was reopened in May 1985. +More recently readings were taken by Howard Ellis, a retired chemist assisted by the husband and wife team, June and Rex Swallow. June Swallow took over the monitoring station in 1995 and continued to take readings until the Summer 2008 when she retired after 23 years. +The station was semi-automated but still needed volunteers to take some readings. +In October 2017 the station was fully automated. + + +== Henry Southall == +Henry Southall was a distinguished meteorologist, a Fellow of Royal Meteorological Society who served as its president. In December 1895, he read his paper on the "Floods in the West Midlands" in which he considered the great floods that had occurred on the rivers Severn, Wye, Usk and Avon. He took data from the River Wye at Ross. He used a rise of 14 feet 6 inches (4.42 m)as measure of a 'primary flood'. He wrote that all the great floods occurred in November and February, and their frequency was decreasing. This he attributed to better drainage in the lower reaches and railway embankments and bridges holding back the surge from the upper reaches. He noted that rainfall had not decreased and he had taken the readings. +The floods at Ross were in + +1770 - 16 to 18 November +1795 - 11 to 12 February +1809 - 27 January (exception) +1824 - 24 November +1831 - 10 February +1852 - 8 February & 12 November +1894 - 15 November 14 feet 3 inches (4.34 m) a secondary flood. + + +== The station == +The station has these instruments: + +On the Ground +Thermometers +Grass & Concrete Minimum +Soil - Depth - 10 cm & 30 cm +Rain Gauge +In the Screen +Thermometers +Maximum +Minimum +Wet & Dry Bulbs +On the Tower +Wind Indicators +Sunshine Recorder + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Analysis of Ross Data sets from 1931 +Met Office raw weather datasets for Ross +River Level data \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..be02a92f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Royal Greenhouses of Laeken" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:04.397568+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Royal Greenhouses of Laeken (French: Serres royales de Laeken, Dutch: Koninklijke Serres van Laken) are a vast complex of monumental heated greenhouses in the park of the Royal Palace of Laeken (northern part of the City of Brussels), Belgium. The historic complex contains tropical, subtropical and cold greenhouses, and is home to the famous Royal Botanic Collection, which includes large collections of camellias, orange trees and many plants originating from the African parts of the former Belgian Empire. +The greenhouses were commissioned by King Leopold II, originally designed by the architect Alphonse Balat, and built between 1874 and 1905. Following Balat's death in 1895, Leopold called upon the architects Henri Maquet and Charles Girault. They are now part of the Royal Domain of Laeken and the royal private gardens belonging to the Belgian royal family, and are accessible to the public only a few days a year. This site is served by Stuyvenbergh metro station on line 6 of the Brussels Metro. + +== History == + +=== Inception and construction === +The original gardens of the Royal Palace of Laeken date back to the 18th century, but King Leopold II drastically altered their appearance. The king, having visited the Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, wanted a similarly progressive building in his palace's garden, which would combine his love of plants with multifunctional spaces that could also be used as a banquet, theatre and dining halls. He first approached the botanist Jean Linden for this project, but found his design too unambitious. He then commissioned his architect, Alphonse Balat. Balat's plans surpassed all that had been achieved at the time, even the Palm house in London's Kew Gardens and Carl Bouché's botanical garden in Berlin-Schöneberg. The project was the result of a close collaboration between Balat and the king, involving frequent discussions, correspondence and preliminary designs. + +The first construction phase took place between 1874 and 1893, ending with the completion of the so-called Iron Church, a domed greenhouse, which would originally serve as the royal chapel. The inauguration took place in 1880, but the complex was also expanded afterwards. During that period, the king was establishing his Congo Free State, a private colony that was founded in 1885. The greenhouses were intended as a symbol of the king's colonial power, with plants from Central Africa said to illustrate that power. In particular, the Congo Greenhouse and the Embarcadère Greenhouse were built in 1886–1888 from this perspective. A third zone was constructed from 1892 to 1905. Following Balat's death in 1895, Leopold called upon the architects Henri Maquet and Charles Girault to oversee this work. The octagonal Palm Pavilion was furnished as a bedroom and connected to the palace by a subterranean corridor where Leopold received his mistresses. After the king's death in 1909, the greenhouses were preserved, but the Iron Church was converted into a private royal bathing house. + +=== Present-day === + +The Winter Garden at Laeken Palace still serves as the setting for royal receptions. Every year in the spring, the greenhouses are partially opened to the public for twenty days at the request of Leopold II. This tradition has been carried on by all monarchs who reigned after him. The greenhouses are also sometimes used today for contemporary art exhibits and displays, such as Alexandre Dang's The Dancing Solar Forget-Me-Not for the International Day of Missing Children (in cooperation with Child Focus) in 2010. +Since 2021, a new heating system for the Royal Domain of Laeken has come into operation: the new network is directly connected to the Neder-Over-Heembeek incinerator via 4.5 km (2.8 mi) of underground pipes allowing the residual heat released by the incinerator to be exported to the Royal Domain and thus heat the greenhouses and buildings. + +== Description == +The Royal Greenhouses of Laeken are among Belgium's major 19th-century monuments. They were built entirely in metal and glass, which represented a spectacular innovation for the time (as did the Crystal Palace in London). This immense complex, whose total floor surface is 2.5 ha (6.2 acres), takes on the appearance of a glass city set in a hilly landscape. It is characterised by monumental pavilions, glass domes, as well as wide galleries that run through the grounds like covered streets. In the steel constructions, Balat introduced decorative motifs derived from plants and flowers. This formed a first step towards Art Nouveau architecture, a style that was further developed by Victor Horta, who served as an apprentice of Balat's. Approximately 800,000 litres (210,000 US gallons) of fuel oil are needed each year to heat the buildings. + +=== Orangery === +The existing Orangery was built between 1817 and 1819 by the architects Guislain-Joseph Henry and François Verly on the orders of King William I of the Netherlands. A rectangular neoclassical building, 97 metres (318 ft) long, 13 metres (43 ft) wide, and 8 metres (26 ft) high, it is connected to the palace via the Theatre Greenhouse. The Dining Room Greenhouse is also attached to it. It houses orange trees, a collection of laurels, rhododendrons, and camellias, as well as a bust of Leopold II by the sculptor Jef Lambeaux. + +=== Winter Garden === +The largest greenhouse is the round-domed Winter Garden, built in 1874. With a diameter of 57 metres (187 ft) and a height of 25 metres (82 ft), it is made up of a number of concentric cast iron trusses, which are supported halfway through their span by a circular Doric colonnade. The trusses' starting and ending points rest on the ground, giving the greenhouse the appearance of a glass dome supported by flying buttresses. Its enormous dimensions made it possible to plant Congolese palm trees in the rotunda. This Winter Garden, the main building of the complex, was also of great importance for the development of cast-iron architecture. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aa9b3cb74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Royal Greenhouses of Laeken" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Greenhouses_of_Laeken" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:04.397568+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Other greenhouses === +Between 1885 and 1887, Balat designed the Palm Greenhouse, the Congo Greenhouse, the Diana Greenhouse, and the Embarcadère Greenhouse. The latter consists of two parallel compartments under a barrel vault, the second of which contains a dome supported by iron Corinthian columns. It is decorated with Chinese vases and two statues by the sculptor Charles Van der Stappen (The Dawn and The Evening). Finally, in 1893, the Iron Church was added, a neo-Byzantine ensemble surrounded by wreath chapels, the dome of which is supported by twenty columns of Scottish granite. This greenhouse is therefore also officially called the Chapel Greenhouse. + +== Royal Botanic Collection == +The Royal Botanic Collection is famous for its old African plants and various species of flowers, which are cultivated inside the royal greenhouses for use at court. Though the collection has lost many cultivars since Leopold II's death, it is still famous. In 1909, the royal collection contained 314 species of camellias, with over 1,000 plants. Today, only 305 remain. This is the world's largest and oldest collection of camellias in a greenhouse. Leopold II's orange tree collection was also renowned, with 130 trees aged 200 to 300 years, and one even 400 years old. By the 1970s, however, only 45 trees were still alive. + +== Visit == + +The royal complex is only open to visitors for a two-week period each year in April–May, when most of the flowers are in full bloom. This is an opportunity to discover one of the most remarkable monuments of Belgian heritage and to admire the exotic plant and flower collections, some of which have been brought back from expeditions to the Congo for Leopold II. +Other times, the greenhouses are visited by heads of state during official visits. Famous visitors have included: + +Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria and Princess Stéphanie of Belgium were engaged in the new Winter Garden (1880). +Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom (1966) +Pope John Paul II (1985) +Laura Bush, First Lady of the United States (2001) +Melania Trump, First Lady of the United States (2017) +King Willem-Alexander and Queen Máxima of the Netherlands (2023) + +== Gallery == + +== See also == + +List of parks and gardens in Brussels +Royal Trust (Belgium) +History of Brussels +Belgium in the long nineteenth century + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Bibliography === + +== External links == + Media related to Laeken Royal Greenhouses at Wikimedia Commons +Official website +The Royal Greenhouses of Laeken on BALaT - Belgian Art Links and Tools (KIK-IRPA, Brussels) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7395ea45b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Royal Institution" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:38.212600+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Royal Institution of Great Britain (often the Royal Institution, abbreviated Ri or RI) is an organisation for scientific education and research, based in the City of Westminster. It was founded in 1799 by the leading British scientists of the age, including Henry Cavendish and its first president, George Finch. Its foundational principles were diffusing the knowledge of, and facilitating the general introduction of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, as well as enhancing the application of science to the common purposes of life (including through teaching, courses of philosophical lectures, and experiments). + +Much of the Institution's initial funding and the initial proposal for its founding were given by the Society for Bettering the Conditions and Improving the Comforts of the Poor, under the guidance of philanthropist Sir Thomas Bernard and American-born British scientist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford. Since its founding it has been based at 21 Albemarle Street in Mayfair. Its Royal Charter was granted in 1800. + +== History == +The Royal Institution was founded as the result of a proposal by Sir Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) for the "formation by Subscription, in the Metropolis of the British Empire, of a Public Institution for diffusing the Knowledge and facilitating the general Introduction of useful Mechanical Inventions and Improvements, and for the teaching by courses of Philosophical Lectures and Experiments, the application of Science to the Common Purposes of Life". +Rumford's proposal led to a 7 March 1799 meeting at the house of Joseph Banks, then president of the Royal Society, a similar but much older learned society. A follow-up meeting on 9 March saw the first meeting of the managers of the Institution. In June of that year, the society elected George Finch, 9th Earl of Winchilsea as its first president, and in July it purchased the 21 Albemarle Street, Mayfair building that has served as its home ever since. Renovations began immediately on the building to provide appropriate meeting, office, and laboratory space for the Institution's mission. +The first Professor and Public Lecturer in Experimental Philosophy, Mechanics and Chemistry was Dr Thomas Garnett, whom Rumford poached from the newly founded Andersonian Institute in Glasgow in October 1799. +The steep-sided main lecture hall that has become the building's most publicly visible feature, as the home of its Christmas lectures, was completed in 1800, the same year that the institution received its royal charter from George III. The lecture hall was put to use immediately; the first lecture given in it was by Garnett in March 1800. + +Throughout its history, the Institution has supported public engagement with science through a programme of lectures, many of which continue today. The most famous of these were both founded in 1825: the annual Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, and the Friday Evening Discourses. +Despite Garnett's first lectures being a great success, his salary was frozen, he was not allowed to practise as a doctor, and Humphry Davy was appointed as his assistant, so he resigned. Humphry Davy was an even greater success, as was his assistant and successor Michael Faraday. Davy's immediate successor was William Thomas Brande. +Thus the Institution has had an instrumental role in the advancement of science since its founding. Notable scientists who have worked there include Sir Humphry Davy (who discovered sodium and potassium), Michael Faraday, James Dewar, Sir William Henry Bragg and Sir William Lawrence Bragg (winners of the Nobel Prize for Physics for their work on x-ray diffraction), Max Perutz, John Kendrew, Antony Hewish, and George Porter. +In the 19th century, Faraday at the Royal Institution carried out much of the research which laid the groundwork for the practical exploitation of electricity. In total fifteen scientists attached to the Royal Institution have won Nobel Prizes. Ten chemical elements including sodium were discovered there; the electric generator was devised at the Institution, and much of the early work on the atomic structure of crystals was carried out within it. +The Royal Institution was founded during the age of slavery, and one of its major supporters was John Fuller, whose fortune derived from two Jamaican plantations. Fuller contributed more than £10,000 to the institution, including endowing two professorships; Michael Faraday was the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry. In contemporary times, use of the Fullerian title has been discontinued, and the two chairs will no longer be filled. + +=== Nobel laureates === + +=== Chemical elements discovered or isolated === + +=== Past presidents === + +=== Past directors === + +The leadership of the Royal Institution has had various titles: + +Director of the Laboratory +Director of the Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory +Director +The position was abolished in 2010, with the firing of Susan Greenfield. +The position was restored in April 2017 with the appointment of Sarah Harper, Professor of Gerontology at the University of Oxford. Harper resigned in September 2017. +The present director is Katherine Mathieson. + +=== Andrade controversy === +In 1952, Edward Andrade was forced to resign following a complicated controversy over the management of the Royal Institution and his powers as director, involving a power struggle with Alexander Rankine who was secretary. Following various resignations and general meetings of members, Andrade was awarded £7,000 by arbitration: the arbitrators blamed the problems on "a lack of clear definition of roles ... an outdated constitution, and the inability of the protagonists to compromise". Andrade launched a lawsuit to set the arbitration aside, which he lost. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e7e29994 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Royal Institution" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:38.212600+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Director Greenfield firing === +From 1998 to 8 January 2010, the director of the Royal Institution was Baroness Susan Greenfield, but following a review, the position was abolished for being "no longer affordable". The Royal Institution had found itself in a financial crisis following a £22 million development programme led by Greenfield, which included refurbishment of the institution's main Albemarle Street building, and the addition of a restaurant and bar with an aim to turn the venue into a "Groucho club for science". The project ended £3 million in debt. +Greenfield subsequently announced that she would be suing for discrimination. +The RI's official statement stated it would "continue to deliver its main charitable objectives under the direction of chief executive officer, Chris Rofe and a talented senior team including Professor Quentin Pankhurst, the Director of the Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory, Dr Gail Cardew, the Head of Programmes and Professor Frank James, Head of Collections and Heritage." Baroness Greenfield later dropped the discrimination case. + +== Current organisation == + +Today the Royal Institution is committed to "diffusing science for the common purposes of life". Membership is open to all, with no nomination procedure or academic requirements, on payment of an annual subscription. +The Institution's patrons and trustees include: + +Patron: Charles III +President: The Duke of Kent +Honorary Vice-President: Sir John Ritblat +Chairman: Sir Richard Catlow +Board of Trustees (current): Sophie Forgan, Simon Godwin, Kate Hamilton, Suze Kundu, Renato Lulia, the Baroness Morris of Yardley, Vincent Nobel, Christopher Potter, Angela Seddon, Jack Stilgoe, Harriet Wallace, Allison Wollard +In December 2021, the Institution appointed Katherine Mathieson as Director. In July 2018, the institution announced a new five-year strategy running from October 2018 to September 2023. The strategy, which sets out to double the charity's size, involves "plans for new research, development of a new national science club and open forum public policy debates". One new venture will be a Research Centre for Science and Culture, working with other academic groups, this "will investigate historical and contemporary examples of the relationship between science and culture". +The institution's palatial home has been greatly enlarged and redeveloped since 1799, and is a Grade I listed building. The structure's last refurbishment was a £22 million project completed in 2008, intended to create a "science salon" for the public. As well as the famous Lecture Theatre, the building contains several function rooms, modern research facilities and a public café. The trustees were considering selling the building in an effort to recoup the organisation's debts, which amounted to £7 million. In 2013 The Ri received an anonymous donation of £4.4m and as of January 2016, the Ri is now debt-free. + +The institution (which it now abbreviates as 'Ri', though third parties often prefer 'RI') has a substantial public science programme and science for schools programme, holding over one hundred events per year on a wide variety of topics. The Christmas Lectures continue today as a series of three televised lectures aimed at children. The Friday Evening Discourses, once weekly now monthly, are lectures given by eminent scientists and researchers, limited to exactly one hour. There is an annual members' ballot for tickets to the Christmas Lectures but all other events are open to the public. Discounts or free tickets are available to Ri Patrons and Members. Many other events and lectures are held both at Albemarle Street and at other venues around the country. +Scientific research headed by Professor Quentin Pankhurst continues to be done under the auspices of the Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory (DFRL), and indeed this is considered to be one of the UK's most notable labs in nano-science. +In May 2015, The Royal Institution was host to the historic unveiling of the Santara Computer, created by Dr Andrew Deonarine. +In November 2015 a new membership scheme was launched and Fellows of the Ri were abolished. The new scheme includes the categories Member, Under 26 and Ri Young Member. Adult Members have voting rights and use of MRi as post-nominal letters. A Patrons' scheme has also been introduced for the first time. +In December 2011 the Royal Institution launched the Ri Channel, a new website displaying science videos and archive content from the Royal Institution, including past Christmas Lectures. The Ri Channel was archived in late 2017 with all Ri videos except past Christmas Lectures being hosted on YouTube. Past Christmas Lectures are hosted on the Ri's website and in early 2018 the Ri began a to upload all past Christmas Lectures that were not already available on its website. +The Royal Institution has become a mixed tenancy office building that hosts conferences, weddings and events in order to continue to pursue its charitable goals. In 2015 it sold small part of its historic collection of manuscripts that did not relate to its own history in order to raise funds. +Since 2021, the researchers of the London Institute for Mathematical Sciences have been tenants on the second floor. They occupy rooms that were once the private living quarters of Michael Faraday, where they carry out their research in theoretical physics and mathematics. + +== Faraday Museum == + +Though the Royal Institution has had a museum since its founding, in 1973 the Royal Institution officially opened the Faraday Museum, a museum dedicated to Michael Faraday. It is in the main building in Albemarle Street and is open to the public during weekday office hours. The highlight of the exhibition is Faraday's original 1850s laboratory (not a reconstruction as often cited). Opposite this lab is the current state-of-the-art nanotechnology lab. Other exhibits include the discoveries, people and activities of the Royal Institution. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Official website of the Royal Institution of Great Britain +The Science Media Centre +Royal Institution's YouTube Channel +James, Frank A. J. L. (1 August 2018). "The legacies of the Royal Institution". 71 (8): 36–43. Bibcode:2018PhT....71h..36J. doi:10.1063/PT.3.3996. S2CID 115196867. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |publication= ignored (help) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOTEL-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOTEL-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9cd0d3e2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOTEL-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "SNOTEL" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNOTEL" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:27.951186+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +SNOTEL is an automated system of snowpack and related climate sensors operated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) of the United States Department of Agriculture in the Western United States. +There are over 900 SNOTEL (or snow telemetry) sites in 11 states, including Alaska. The sites are generally located in remote high-mountain watersheds where access is often difficult or restricted. Access for maintenance by the NRCS includes various modes from hiking and skiing to helicopters. +All SNOTEL sites measure snow water content, accumulated precipitation, and air temperature. Some sites also measure snow depth, soil moisture and temperature, wind speed, solar radiation, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. These data are used to forecast yearly water supplies, predict floods, and for general climate research. + + +== History == +Installation of SNOTEL began in the mid-1960s. Its use in climate forecasting was not originally envisioned, but it has become the standard climate data for western U.S. locations which are elevated sufficiently to have at least a seasonal snowpack. Ongoing algorithm upgrades correct and backfill missing data, while improvements in communications improve the overall quality of data collection. + + +== Meteor burst technology (phased out) == + +SNOTEL used to use meteor burst communications technology to collect and communicate data in near-real-time. VHF radio signals are reflected at a steep angle off the ever-present band of ionized meteors existing from about 50 to 75 miles (80 to 120 km) above the earth. +Sites are designed to operate unattended and without maintenance for a year. They are battery powered with solar cell recharge. The condition of each site is monitored daily when it reports on 8 operational functions. Serious problems or deteriorating performance trigger a response from the NRCS electronics technicians located in six data collection offices. A central computer at the NRCS's National Water and Climate Center (NWCC) in Portland, Oregon controls system operations and receives the data collected by the SNOTEL network. +Meteor burst has been phased out of all SNOTEL sites. Today, SNOTEL sites use GOES, iridium, and cell networks to telemeter data. + + +== System capabilities == + +Basic SNOTEL sites have a pressure sensing snow pillow, storage precipitation gauge, and air temperature sensor. However, they can accommodate 64 channels of data and will accept analog and parallel or serial digital sensors. On-site microprocessors provide functions such as computing daily maximum, minimum, and average temperature information. Generally, sensor data are recorded every 15 minutes and reported out in a daily poll of all sites. Special polls are conducted more frequently in response to specific needs. +The new generation of remote sites, master stations, and central computer facilities allows for hourly interrogation of remote sites. The system has the ability to vary the configuration of a remote site by transmitting the appropriate commands telling the remote site what sensors to turn on or what parameters to send. +A variety of calculations can be made on any sensor channel. For example, the user can select maximum, minimum, average, standard deviation, or circular averaging. +Each sensor can be accessed independently at a specific interval. For example, wind speed may be sensed every minute during the day to arrive at an average, while the snow pillow may be accessed every 15 minutes for the accumulated total. +System performance has increased over the years, mainly due to a better understanding of meteor burst communication characteristics and improved equipment. While a 95 percent response to a system-wide poll is the standard, over 99 percent is common. + + +== Data storage, management and accessibility == +All data are received by the SNOTEL central computer, which in turn is linked to the Centralized Forecasting System (CFS) in the NWCC where data can be accessed. Once on the CFS the data is kept in a relational database, where various analysis and graphics programs are available. Current and historical data and analyses are available by dialing into the CFS, by disk or tape media, paper copy, and on the Internet. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Official SNOTEL site +Meteor Communications Corporation +What You Don’t Know About Snow: The USDA’s SNOTEL Network is Playing a Critical Role in Protecting Water Resources in the Western United States \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Botanical_Garden-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Botanical_Garden-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f32703dbb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Botanical_Garden-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Botanical_Garden" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:05.628070+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The main Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden, officially known as the Russian Academy of Sciences Vladimir Komarov Botanical Institute's Botanical Garden of Peter the Great (Russian: Ботанический сад Петра Великого Ботанического института им. В. Л. Комарова РАН (in short Ботанический сад БИН РАН); since 1823 Emperor's Botanical Garden "Императорский Ботанический сад", originally Apothecary Garden "Аптекарский огород"), is the second oldest botanical garden in Russia. It consists of outdoor and indoor collections situated on Aptekarsky Island in Saint Petersburg and belongs to the Komarov Botanical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is 18.9 ha in area, and is bordered by Aptekarsky Prospekt (main entrance), Prof. Popov Street (second entrance), as well as the embankments of the Karpovka and Bolshaya Neva rivers. + + +== Overview == +The garden, located in Ulitsa Professora Popova, St. Petersburg, Russia, was founded by Peter I in 1714 as a herb garden in order to grow medicinal plants and re-established as a botanical institution under the name Imperial Botanical Garden in 1823, with assistance from John Goldie. Ivan Lepyokhin was in charge of the botanical garden from 1774 until 1802. Beginning in 1855, Eduard August von Regel was associated with the garden, first as Scientific Director and then as Director General (1875–1892). Regel had a particular fascination with the genus Allium, overseeing collections of these plants in the Russian Far East and writing about them in two monographs. More than 60 of the alliums he identified bear his name, e.g., A. giganteum Regel and A. rosenbahianum Regel. Many alliums can be viewed in the Northern Yard of the garden. In 1897 Constantin Georg Alexander Winkler became head botanist at the garden. He then reorganized the herbaria and greenhouse collections. Around 1900, Boris Fedtschenko became head botanist and he organised investigations of various Russian regions including Siberia, Caucusus, Middle Asia and Asiatic Russia. All published in various volumes and books. +In 1930, the garden became subordinate to the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union and, in 1931, was merged with the Botanical Museum into the Botanical Institute. + + +=== Greenhouses === + +The garden has 25 greenhouses constructed in 1823–1824. They are numbered from 1 to 28 (No. 5 and No. 25 don't exist; No. 10 and No. 11 are shared). Some of them are open to the public (guided visits only), including the large collections of azaleas and other Ericaceae (No. 6), ferns (No. 15), cacti and other succulents (No. 16), various tropical plants (No. 18), the 23.5 m high Big Palm Greenhouse with an important collection of orchids (No. 26) and the greenhouse with a pond containing Victoria amazonica (no. 28). The night blossom of cactus Selenicereus grandiflorus, cultivated there since 1857, is a celebrated event announced in mass media and open to the public in the 16th greenhouse in June-July. The indoor collections suffered significant losses during the Siege of Leningrad in 1941-1944; out of 6367 species only 861 survived. +The chain of greenhouses encircles the Southern Yard and the Northern Yard, the latter featuring an extensive outdoor collection of Iridaceae and bulbous plants, including many species of Allium. The building of the botanical museum faces the Northern Yard in place of the non-existent greenhouse No. 5. + + +=== Park === +The outer park includes a small rock garden (constructed in the end of the 19th century) located in front of the Big Palm Greenhouse, and a 0.16 km² arboretum, organized partly as an English garden and partly as a formal garden. The park, unlike the greenhouses, is closed for visitors from October 1 to May 8. It is elevated only 1.5-3 m above sea-level and has thus regularly suffered from catastrophic floods characteristic of Saint Petersburg. The herbarium edifice built in 1913 stands in front of the main entrance. + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Путеводитель по оранжереям Ботанического сада. Тропики. / Отв. ред. Н.А. Аврорин и Н. Н. Имханицкая. – Leningrad: Nauka, 1978. +Ботанический сад. Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1989. +Соколов В.С., А.А. Федорова. Ботанический институт имени В. Л. Комарова Академии наук СССР. Leningrad, 1947. +От аптекарского огорода до Ботанического института. Leningrad: Изд-во АН СССР, 1957. +BGCI: Arboretum of Komarov Botanical Institute in Saint Petersburg, Russia Archived 2017-09-13 at the Wayback Machine + + +== External links == + +Botanical collections of Russia and the adjacent states. Database (designed for Internet Explorer only) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_(material)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_(material)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6936af174 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_(material)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Sample (material)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_(material)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:35.886770+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In general, a sample is a limited quantity of something which is intended to be similar to and represent a larger amount of that thing(s). The things could be countable objects such as individual items available as units for sale, or an uncountable material. Even though the word "sample" implies a smaller quantity taken from a larger amount, sometimes full biological or mineralogical specimens are called samples if they are taken for analysis, testing, or investigation like other samples. They are also considered samples in the sense that even whole specimens are "samples" of the full population of many individual organisms. The act of obtaining a sample is called "sampling" and can be performed manually by a person or by automatic process. Samples of material can be taken or provided for testing, analysis, investigation, quality control, demonstration, or trial use. Sometimes, sampling may be performed continuously. + + +== Aliquot part == +In science, a representative liquid sample taken from a larger amount of liquid is sometimes called an aliquot or aliquot part where the sample is an exact divisor of the whole. For example, 10mL would be an aliquot part of a 100mL sample. + + +== Sample characteristics == +The material may be solid, liquid, gas, a substance with some intermediate characteristics such as gel or sputum, tissue, organism, or a combination of these. Even if a material sample is not countable as individual items, the quantity of the sample may still be describable in terms of its volume, mass, size, or other such dimensions. A solid sample can come in one or a few discrete pieces, or it can be fragmented, granular, or powdered. A section of a rod, wire, cord, sheeting, or tubing may be considered a sample. Samples that are not solid pieces are usually kept in containers. +Where goods are sold or supplied by reference to a sample, relevant sale of goods legislation may dictate the supplier's legal obligations in ensuring that the bulk of the goods corresponds with the goods comprising the sample, for example in the UK, the Sale of Goods Act 1979, section 15, the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982, section 5, and the Consumer Rights Act 2015, section 13. + + +== See also == +Core sample +Ice core +Specimen (disambiguation) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schatzgräber_(weather_station)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schatzgräber_(weather_station)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ccc4b3c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schatzgräber_(weather_station)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Schatzgräber (weather station)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schatzgräber_(weather_station)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:26.678768+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Schatzgräber or “Treasure Hunter” was the name of a military weather station Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine established in the north of Alexandra Land in the Arctic Franz Josef Land archipelago in 1943. The construction of the secret complex codename “Treasure Hunter” began in 1942 at the command of Adolf Hitler but came into operation only in 1943. The mission of the station's crew started in September that year and lasted until July 1944, when they were summarily evacuated after most of them consumed raw polar bear meat and fell sick. + + +== Weather observations in the Arctic == +Since the beginning of World War II, the Kriegsmarine was endowed with the task of collecting meteorological data in support of the German war effort. That was accomplished mainly by weather-observation vessels (frequently refitted fishing boats). Motivated by repeated losses of such boats, beginning in 1941, and under direction of Hans-Robert Knoespel, the erection of meteorological stations on land was planned and executed. The first such station around the Arctic Ocean, Knospe, was established in the northwest of the main island of the Svalbard archipelago in October 1941. + + +== Weather troop Schatzgräber == +To prepare members of the meteorological mission for the conditions in the deployment area, the Kriegsmarine's weather department was training candidates in a camp named Goldhöhe (Czech: Zlaté návrší) in the Giant Mountains in Silesia. As hardly any more alpine- or arctic-experienced personnel were available, inexperienced meteorologists were to prepare for arctic conditions in the alpine facility. Diverging from established practice, the mission was not named after its team leader, but after H. Schatz, who was heading training operations at Goldhöhe. Schatz would not join Schatzgräber station, as he was to command the Bassgeiger mission in northeast Greenland at that time. + + +=== The meteorological station on Alexandra Land === +Early in September 1943, the weather observation boat Kehdingen sailed for Alexandra Land from Kiel, via Narvik and Tromsø. Submarine U 387 was put on escort duty for the trip. Also, the U-boat's crew helped unpack supplies and equipment in the actual establishment of the station. Starting on November 17, Schatzgräber reported weather and temperature data. With the polar night ending, Schatzgräber added measurements of high-altitude / jet stream winds, that were conducted and reported by radio balloons. +Resupply was conducted by U 387 and by parachuting from a Focke-Wulf Condor aircraft. + + +=== Mission failing === +On 30 May 1944, weather inspector Gerhard Wallik and Obergefreiter Werner Blankenburg hunted and killed a polar bear. Blankenburg, who was also the station's cook, prepared a serving of steak tartare from the animal, which was consumed by all but one member of the station's crew. +As Blankenburg had also been the one who had consumed the greatest amount of raw polar bear meat, he was the first to report pain in his legs and a high fever after a few days. Within a month, nine more members of the weather troop fell ill, with the vegetarian paramedic Gerhard Hoffmann as the only exception. The Kriegsmarine's medical corps remotely attested trichinosis, and the evacuation of the operation was ordered immediately. + + +=== Removal of the Schatzgräber weather troop === +To adequately care for the sick troop, staff surgeon Dr. Wendt of the Tromsø marine hospital was chosen. He was to fly in to the station and parachute from a Condor (registration: F8+RL), commanded by naval pilot Oberleutnant Stahnke, who had repeatedly flown parachute resupply missions for the station. The station's commander, Dr. Drees, however, gave conflicting feedback by radio, indicating that an evacuation was unnecessary. +In spite of the order for immediate evacuation that was given very early in July, the mission started only on 7 July. On board the plane flown by Stahnke was Dr. Wendt, who had gone through a snap parachuting training; however, he was still looking forward to his first jump. +Stahnke spared him this experience by bringing the Condor down on Alexandra Land, while damaging the landing gear. +The Condor damaged, immediate evacuation was not an option and delusions of those fallen sick added to the difficulty of the situation. A BV 222 seaplane (registration: X4+BH) was sent from Biscarosse to Banak to aid in resupplying spare parts to repair the stranded aircraft. +On 11 July the Condor landed with haphazardly-repaired landing gear in Trondheim, carrying all members of the Schatzgräber weather troop. + + +== Removal of the leftover minefield == +To protect the weather station, a minefield had been laid out. However, it could not be removed during the evacuation procedure. When veterans learned in the 1950s that the Soviet Union had established a weather station on Alexandra Land of their own accord, they attempted to contact the Soviet leadership to submit the mines' positions, but their attempts were altogether ignored. Only in 1990, an expedition conducted by the Norwegian Polar Institute could secure and disarm the mines, building on the original maps of the Schatzgräber weather troop. Today, one of the mines removed from the site is an exhibit at Forsvarsmuseet in Oslo. +In 2016, some 500 artifacts from what appears to be the base were discovered by Russian scientists and removed for study. + + +== See also == +North Atlantic weather war +Weather Station Kurt in Canada + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneefernerhaus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneefernerhaus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a7311d430 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneefernerhaus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Schneefernerhaus" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneefernerhaus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:59.397834+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Schneefernerhaus is a former hotel in the Alps, that is now used as an environmental research station. It lies immediately below the summit of the Zugspitze at a height of 2,650 m and was opened on 20 January 1931. It used to house the top station of the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway as well as a tourist hotel. There was then a cable car from the Schneefernerhaus to the Zugspitze summit. In 1938 a gallery for pedestrians was opened from the ridge station of the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car to the Schneefernerhaus. From 1945 to 1952 the hotel was commandeered for use as a "recreation facility" by the US Forces. +On 15 May 1965 an avalanche, that swept over the sun terrace of the hotel and the lifts on the Zugspitzplatt, claimed 10 lives and injured 21. This tragedy was the impetus behind the introduction of a state avalanche warning service and local avalanche commissions. +In 1988, after the new station of the Zugspitze Railway was opened on the plateau and, in 1989, the SonnAlpin restaurant there was extended, the hotel and restaurant operation at the Schneefernerhaus finally closed on 14 January 1992. The trackage of the Zugspitze Railway is still there but is now only used to serve the research station. + + +== Construction == +After the tunnel had been driven for the rack railway and the line itself had been finished (laying of the tracks and installation of catenary) on 20 June 1930 it was possible from then on to transport larger quantities of building material and heavy items up the mountain. Once huts for the construction workers had been erected, blasting operations on the plateau could begin. +After these and other preparations had finished it was important to begin passenger services as quickly as possible. As a result, there was only a short period of time from the first delivery of construction material to the opening of the line, during which the first construction stage for a wooden building with lighting, heating, water supplies and drainage had to be completed. With that the first guests could be received and fed (initially without any overnight stays). The new building was open to the public on 8 July 1930, just 39 days after the rack railway had opened. +Once the wooden building was up and running, work could begin on the actual Schneefernerhaus. Again only partially, because on the site blasted out of the rock, part had to be used for the stacking of building material, machinery, etc. +On the side of the mountain, which sloped at about 45 degrees and, in places, was even steeper, no more work space could be made available apart from that created by the blasting operation. +In Christmas 1930 the second stage of the present-day Schneefernerhaus was completed. +The intention was that the third stage of construction, i.e. the rest of the hotel building, would be carried out to the extent that the wooden hut could remain and continue to provide basic tourist accommodation. In its place, in the fourth stage, the last part of the planned hotel was to have been built. But events turned out differently: the hotel was not extended and the wooden building was demolished after the devastating avalanche in 1965. + + +== Research == +The Free State of Bavaria has rented the Schneefernerhaus long term from the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway and converted it into an environmental research station that was opened in 1996. The original left wing of the hotel no longer exists. +The station houses scientists from the following institutions: + +German Met Office DWD +Umweltbundesamt +German Aerospace Center DLR +Karlsruhe Institute of Technology +Helmholtz Zentrum München +Technical University of Munich +LMU Munich +Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE +Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization +The physical and chemical properties of the atmosphere, global climate, medical influences and many other areas are researched at the Schneefernerhaus. +A project led by the University of Würzburg will build the Wetterstein Millimeter Telescope (WMT) on top of the Zugspitze, near the Schneefernerhaus. The new radio telescope will be part of the next generation Very Large Array (ngVLA), as the German contribution to the ngVLA. The ngVLA will have its core in New Mexico, USA. The WMT will also be able to do observations on its own. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Official homepage +„Dem Himmel so nah“ - Report at Spiegel Online by Max Hägler about the research at the Schneefernerhaus (in German) +Technical data on the Gletscherbahn +Technical data on the Hangbahn \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaOrbiter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaOrbiter-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5322d0b03 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaOrbiter-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "SeaOrbiter" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaOrbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:00.565678+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The SeaOrbiter, also known as Sea Orbiter (two words), is a proposed oceangoing research vessel based on the ideas of French architect and oceanographer Jacques Rougerie. Construction was due to start in 2014 but by May 2015, only the Eye of SeaOrbiter has been completed, and as of 2024, there is no news of any other construction. +The SeaOrbiter is planned to allow scientists and others a residential yet mobile research station positioned under the oceans' surface, with laboratories, workshops, living quarters and a pressurized deck to support divers and submarines. +SeaOrbiter is a project of the "Floating oceanographic laboratory" organisation. It is headed by Jacques Rougerie, oceanographer Jacques Piccard and astronaut Jean-Loup Chrétien. In 2012 the cost was estimated to be around US$52.7 million. + + +== Description == +As proposed, the laboratory would be a semi-submersible oceangoing craft weighing 1,000 tonnes (2,200,000 lb). It would have a total height of 51 metres (167 ft) with 31 metres (102 ft) below sea level. +It is designed to float vertically and drift with the ocean currents but has two small propellers allowing it to modify its trajectory and maneuver in confined waters. Underwater robots would be sent from the laboratory to explore the seabed. The hull would be made of an alloy of aluminum and magnesium. + + +== See also == +Ben Franklin (PX-15), a 1968 research vessel designed to house a six-man crew for up to 30 days of oceanographic study in the depths of the Gulf Stream. +Earth 300, a proposed superyacht intended for scientific research +NEEMO, ongoing NASA program + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..97f3602d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Seawater greenhouse" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:06.839271+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops and the production of fresh water in arid regions. Arid regions constitute about one third of the Earth's land area. Seawater greenhouse technology aims to mitigate issues such as global water scarcity, peak water and soil becoming salted. The system uses seawater and solar energy, and has a similar structure to the pad-and-fan greenhouse, but with additional evaporators and condensers. The seawater is pumped into the greenhouse to create a cool and humid environment, the optimal conditions for the cultivation of temperate crops. The freshwater is produced in a condensed state created by the solar desalination principle, which removes salt and impurities. Finally, the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants. + +== Projects == + +=== The Seawater Greenhouse Ltd === +The seawater greenhouse concept was first researched and developed in 1991 by Charlie Paton's company Light Works Ltd, which is now known as the Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. Charlie Paton and Philip Davies worked on the first pilot project commenced in 1992, on the Canary Island of Tenerife. A prototype seawater greenhouse was assembled in the UK and constructed on the site in Tenerife covering an area of 360 m2. The temperate crops successfully cultivated included tomatoes, spinach, dwarf peas, peppers, artichokes, French beans, and lettuce. +The second pilot design was installed in 2000 on the coast of Al-Aryam Island, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. The design is a light steel structure, similar to a multi-span polytunnel, which relies purely on solar energy. A pipe array is installed to improve the design of the greenhouse by decreasing the temperature and increasing the freshwater production. The greenhouse has an area of 864 m2 and has a daily water production of 1 m3, which nearly meets the crop's irrigation demand. +The third pilot seawater greenhouse, which is 864 m2, is near Muscat in Oman which produces 0.3 to 0.6 m3 of freshwater per day. This project was created as a collaboration between Sultan Qaboos University. It provides an opportunity to develop a sustainable horticultural sector on the Batinah coast. These projects have enabled the validation of a thermodynamic simulation model which, given appropriate meteorological data, accurately predicts and quantifies how the seawater greenhouse will perform in other parts of the world. +The fourth project is the commercial installation in Port Augusta, Australia, installed in 2010. It is currently a 20 hectare seawater greenhouse owned and run by Sundrop Farms which has developed it further. +The fifth design was constructed in 2017 in Berbera, Somaliland. The design was researched to be simplified and inexpensive with advanced greenhouse modeling techniques. This design includes a shading system which retains core evaporative cooling elements. + +=== Sahara Forest Project === +The Sahara Forest Project (SFP) combines the seawater greenhouse technology and concentrated solar power and constructed pilot projects in Jordan and Qatar. The seawater greenhouse evaporates 50 m3 of seawater and harvests 5 m3 of fresh water per hectare per day. The solar power production capacity through PV panels produces 39 kW on the 3 hectares area with 1350 m2 growing area. The greenhouses are 15 degrees cooler than the outside temperatures which enables the production up to 130,000 of kg of vegetables per year and up to 20,000 liters of fresh water per day. Additionally, the project includes revegetation by soil reclamation of nitrogen-fixing and salt-removing desert plants by repurposed waste products from agriculture and saltwater evaporation. + +== Process == +A seawater greenhouse uses the surrounding environment to grow temperate crops and produce freshwater. A conventional greenhouse uses solar heat to create a warmer environment to allow adequate growing temperature, whereas the seawater greenhouse does the opposite by creating a cooler environment. The roof traps infrared heat, while allowing visible light through to promote photosynthesis. +The design for cooling the microclimate primarily consists of humidification and dehumidification (HD) desalination process or multiple-effect humidification. A simple seawater greenhouse consists of two evaporative coolers (evaporators), a condenser, fans, seawater and distilled water pipes and crops in between the two evaporators. This is shown in schematic figures 1 and 2. + +The process recreates the natural hydrological cycle within a controlled environment of the greenhouse by evaporating water from saline water source and regains it as freshwater by condensation. The first part of the system uses seawater, an evaporator, and a condenser. The front wall of the greenhouse consists of a seawater-wetted evaporator which faces the prevailing wind. These are mostly constituted of corrugated cardboard shown in Figure 3. If the wind is not prevalent enough, fans blow the outside air through the evaporator into the greenhouse. The ambient warm air exchanges the heat with the seawater which cools it down and gets it humidified. The cool and humid air creates an adequate growing environment for the crops. The remaining evaporatively-cooled seawater is collected and pumped to the condenser as a coolant. + +The second part of the system has another evaporator. The seawater flows from the first evaporator which preheats it and thereafter flows through the solar thermal collector on the roof to heat it up sufficiently before it flows to the second evaporator. The seawater, or coolant, flows through a circuit consisting of the evaporators, solar heating pipe, and condenser with an intake of seawater and an output of fresh water. The fresh water is produced by hot and relatively high humidity air which can produce sufficient distilled water for irrigation. The volume of fresh water is determined by air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and the airflow rate. These conditions can be modeled with appropriate meteorological data, enabling the design and process to be optimized for any suitable location. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ddb2a33c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Seawater greenhouse" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:06.839271+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Applicability == +The technique is applicable to sites in arid regions near the sea. The distance and elevation from the sea must be evaluated considering the energy required to pump water to the site. There are numerous suitable locations on the coasts; others are below sea level, such as the Dead Sea and the Qattara Depression, where hydro schemes have been proposed to exploit the hydraulic pressure to generate power, e.g., Red Sea–Dead Sea Canal. + +== Studies == +In 1996, Paton and Davies used the Simulink toolkit under MATLAB to model forced ventilation of the greenhouse in Tenerife, Cape Verde, Namibia, and Oman. The greenhouse is assisted by the prevailing wind, evaporative cooling, transpiration, solar heating, heat transfer through the walls and roof, and condensation which is analyzed in the study. They found that the amount of water required by the plants is reduced by 80% and 2.6-6.4 kWh electrical energy is needed for m3 of fresh water produced. +In 2005, Paton and Davis Evaluated design options with thermal modeling using the United Arab Emirates model as a baseline. They studied three options:perforated screen, C-shaped air path, and pipe array, to find a better seawater circuit to cool the environment and produce the most freshwater. The study found that a pipe array gave the best results: an air temperature decrease of 1 °C, a mean radiant temperature decrease of 7.5 °C, and a freshwater production increase of 63%. This can be implemented to improve seawater greenhouses in hot arid regions such as the second pilot design in the United Arab Emirates. +In 2018, Paton and Davis researched brine utilization for cooling and salt production in wind-driven seawater greenhouses to design and model it. The brine disposed by the seawater desalination may disturb the ecosystem as the same amount of brine is produced as freshwater. By using the brine valoristation method of wind-driven air flow by cooling the greenhouse with seawater evaporation, salt can be produced as shown in Figure 4. This brine is the by-product of the freshwater production, but can also be the ingredient to make salt, making it into a product that can be merchandised. + +An additional finding of this research was the importance of the shade-net which is modelled by a thin film in the study shown in Figure 5. It not only provides cooling, but also elongates the cooling plume by containing the cold air plume from the evaporative cooling pad. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == + +"Engineers race to steal nature's secrets. Giant wind turbines based on a seed, and desalination plant that mimics a beetle", The Guardian (2006) +"Seawater Greenhouse: A new approach to restorative agriculture" +"The Sahara Forest Project a new source of fresh water, food and energy" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..912d6bd4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Seed bank" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:30.042989+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A seed bank (also seed banks, seeds bank or seed vault) stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity; hence it is a type of gene bank. There are many reasons to store seeds. One is to preserve the genes that plant breeders need to increase yield, disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutritional quality, taste, etc. of crops. Another is to forestall loss of genetic diversity in rare or imperiled plant species in an effort to conserve biodiversity ex situ. Many plants that were used centuries ago by humans are used less frequently now; seed banks offer a way to preserve that historical and cultural value. Collections of seeds stored at constant low temperature and low moisture are guarded against loss of genetic resources that are otherwise maintained in situ or in field collections. These alternative "living" collections can be damaged by natural disasters, outbreaks of disease, or war. Seed banks are considered seed libraries, containing valuable information about evolved strategies to combat plant stress, and can be used to create genetically modified versions of existing seeds. The work of seed banks often span decades and even centuries. Most seed banks are publicly funded and seeds are usually available for research that benefits the public. + +== Seed Hunting == +Seed hunting is a well known method by tribals of India and Asian countries that help in search, collection, and preservation of seeds from native, rare, endangered, or sacred plants to protect biodiversity and secure future plant resources. This practice has long been followed by many indigenous and tribal communities such as Gond, Munda, Santhal, Paharia and orthers of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Arunachal Pradesh, who conserve valuable species through indigenous knowledge and folk practices. Yellow Palash and Agarwood are among the important examples associated with this method. of seed hunting method. Seed hunting plays a significant role in protecting biodiversity, conserving native and endemic plant species, and promoting the sustainable development of forests. + +== Storage conditions and regeneration == +Seeds are living plants and keeping them viable over the long term requires adjusting storage moisture and temperature appropriately. As they mature on the mother plant, many seeds attain an innate ability to survive drying. Survival of these so-called 'orthodox' seeds can be extended by dry, low temperature storage. The level of dryness and coldness depends mostly on the longevity that is required and the investment in infrastructure that is affordable. Practical guidelines from a US scientist in the 1950s and 1960s, James Harrington, are known as 'Thumb Rules'. The 'Hundreds Rule' guides that the sum of relative humidity and temperature (in Fahrenheit) should be less than 100 for the sample to survive five years. Another rule is that reduction of water content by 1% or temperature by 10 °F (5.6 °C) will double the seed life span. Research from the 1990s showed that there is a limit to the beneficial effect of drying or cooling, so it must not be overdone. +Understanding the effect of water content and temperature on seed longevity, the Food and Agriculture division of the United Nations and a consultancy group called Bioversity International developed a set of standards for international seed banks to preserve seed longevity. The document advocates drying seeds to about 20% relative humidity, sealing seeds in high quality moisture-proof containers, and storing seeds at −20 °C (−4 °F). These conditions are frequently referred to as 'conventional' storage protocols. Seeds from species considered most important – corn, wheat, rice, soybean, pea, tomato, broccoli, melon, sunflower, etc. are stored in this way. However, there are many species that produce seeds that do not survive the drying or low temperature of conventional storage protocols. These species must be stored cryogenically. Seeds of citrus fruits, coffee, avocado, cocoa, coconut, papaya, oak, walnut and willow are a few examples of species that should be preserved cryogenically. +Like everything, seeds eventually degrade with time. It is hard to predict when seeds lose viability and so most reputable seed banks monitor germination potential during storage. When seed germination percentage decreases below a prescribed amount, the seeds need to be replanted and fresh seeds collected for another round of long-term storage. +Seeds banks may operate in much more primitive conditions if the aim is only to maintain year-by-year seed supplies and lower costs for farmers in a particular area. + +== Challenges == +One of the greatest challenges for seed banks is selection. Collections must be relevant and that means they must provide useful genetic diversity that is accessible to the public. Collections must also be efficient and that means they must not duplicate materials already in collections. +Keeping seeds alive for hundreds of years is the next biggest challenge. Orthodox seeds are amenable to 'conventional' storage protocols but there are many seed types that must be stored using nonconventional methods. Technology for these methods is rapidly advancing; local institutional infrastructure may be lacking. +Some seeds cannot be kept alive in storage and must be regenerated – planted to produce a new quantity of seeds to be stored for another length of time. Parzies et al. 2000 found that this reduced the effective population size and alleles were lost. Parzies' finding has since been taken seriously by banks around the world and has sparked further verification – regeneration is widely recognized to not preserve diversity perfectly. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a78d42a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Seed bank" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:30.042989+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Alternatives == +In-situ conservation of seed-producing plant species is another conservation strategy. In-situ conservation involves the creation of National Parks, National Forests, and National Wildlife Refuges as a way of preserving the natural habitat of the targeted seed-producing organisms. This also allows the plants to continue to evolve with their environment through natural selection. In-situ conservation of agricultural resources is performed on-farm. +An arboretum stores trees by planting them at a protected site. +A less expensive, community-supported seed library can save local genetic material. +The phenomenon of seeds remaining dormant within the soil is well known and documented (Hills and Morris 1992). Detailed information on the role of such "soil seed banks" in northern Ontario, however, is extremely limited, and research is required to determine the species and abundance of seeds in the soil across a range of forest types, as well as to determine the function of the seed bank in post-disturbance vegetation dynamics. Comparison tables of seed density and diversity are presented for the boreal and deciduous forest types and the research that has been conducted is discussed. This review includes detailed discussions of: (1) seed bank dynamics, (2) physiology of seeds in a seed bank, (3) boreal and deciduous forest seed banks, (4) seed bank dynamics and succession, and (5) recommendations for initiating a seed bank study in northern Ontario. + +== Longevity == + +Seeds may be viable for hundreds and even thousands of years. The oldest carbon-14-dated seed that has grown into a viable plant was a Judean date palm seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at the palace of Herod the Great in Israel. +In February 2012, Russian scientists announced they had regenerated a narrow leaf campion (Silene stenophylla) from a 32,000-year-old seed. The seed was found in a burrow 124 feet (38 m) under Siberian permafrost along with 800,000 other seeds. Seed tissue was grown in test tubes until it could be transplanted to soil. This exemplifies the long-term viability of DNA under proper conditions. + +== Climate change == +Conservation efforts such as seed banks are expected to play a greater role as climate change progresses. Seed banks offer communities a source of climate-resilient seeds to withstand changing local climates. As challenges arise from climate change, community based seed banks can improve access to a diverse selection of locally adapted crops while also enhancing indigenous understandings of plant management such as seed selection, treatment, storage, and distribution. + +== Facilities == + +There are about 6 million accessions, or samples of a particular population, stored as seeds in about 1,300 genebanks throughout the world as of 2006. This amount represents a small fraction of the world's biodiversity, and many regions of the world have not been fully explored. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6463c369f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Seed bank" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:30.042989+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Svalbard Global Seed Vault has been built inside a sandstone mountain in a man-made tunnel on the frozen Norwegian island of Spitsbergen, which is part of the Svalbard archipelago, about 1,307 kilometres (812 mi) from the North Pole. It is designed to survive catastrophes such as nuclear war and world war. It is operated by the Global Crop Diversity Trust. The area's permafrost will keep the vault below the freezing point of water, and the seeds are protected by 1-metre thick walls of steel-reinforced concrete. There are two airlocks and two blast-proof doors. The vault accepted the first seeds on 26 February 2008. +The Millennium Seed Bank is located in the grounds of Wakehurst Place in West Sussex, near London, UK. Established in 1996, it is the largest seed bank in the world (and will longterm be at least 100 times bigger than Svalbard Global Seed Vault), providing space for the storage of billions of seed samples in a nuclear bomb proof multi-story underground vault. Its ultimate aim being to store every plant species possible. It is already (2024) home to over 2.4 billion seeds, representing over 39,000 different species of the world’s storable seeds. Importantly they also distribute seeds to other key locations around the world, do germination tests on each species every 10 years, and other important research. +The Institute of Plant Genetic Resource in Saint Petersburg, Russia is probably the oldest and still one of the 5-6 largest in the world. It was started in 1924 by Russian geneticist and botanist Nikolai Vavilov and survived the 28-month Siege of Leningrad in World War II because several botanists starved to death rather than eat the collected seeds and potatoes. Some authorities attribute the foundation of this seed bank to Alexander Batalin in 1894. +The Australian PlantBank is located in the Australian Botanic Gardens, Mount Annan, New South Wales. It is part of the Millennium Seed Bank Project in London and incorporates the former NSW Seedbank, established in 1986 to preserve native Australian flora, especially NSW threatened species. +The Australian Grains Genebank (AGG), in Horsham, Victoria, Australia, is a national center for storing genetic material for plant breeding and research. The Genebank is in a collaboration with the Australian Seed Bank Partnership on an Australian Crop Wild Relatives project. It was officially opened in March 2014 The primary reason for the bank to be created was the extreme temperatures in the area, up to 40 °C (104 °F) in the summer time. Because of that they had to ensure the protection of the grains all year around. The Genebank aims to collect and conserve the seeds of Australian crop wild species, that are not yet adequately represented in existing collections. +The George Hulbert Seed Vault in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia, is dedicated to the preservation of rice varieties, including some predating the Green Revolution. +Indian Seed Vault is a secure seed bank located in a high-altitude mountain pass on the Chang La in Ladakh, India. It was built in 2010 and is claimed to be the second largest in the world. +The BBA (Beej Bachao Andolan — Save the Seeds movement) began in the late 1980s in Uttarakhand, India, led by Vijay Jardhari. Seed banks were created to store native varieties of seeds. +The National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation, in Fort Collins, Colorado, is the largest seed bank in the United States. +Desert Legume Program (DELEP) in Tucson, Arizona, focuses on wild species of plants in the legume family (Fabaceae), specifically legumes from dry regions around the world. The DELEP seed bank currently has over 3,600 seed collections representing nearly 1,400 species of arid land legumes originating in 65 countries on six continents. It is backed up (at least in part) in National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation, and in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. The DELEP seed bank is an accredited collection of the North American Plant Conservation Consortium. +The National Gene Bank of Plants of Ukraine was created in the 1990s in Ukraine. Described as one of the largest seed banks in the world, it was damaged during the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 but survived in substantial part. +The INRAE Centre for Vegetable Germplasm in Avignon, France stores over 10,000 species of five vegetable crops as seeds: aubergine (eggplant), pepper, tomato, melon and lettuce collections, together with their wild or cultivated relatives. Species from the collections have geographically diverse origins, are generally well-described and fixed for traits of agronomic or scientific interest, and have available passport data. +Meise Botanical Garden houses a seed bank in Belgium. Among other things, it aims to preserve endangered and rare wild species of Belgian flora.It also includes wild beans, wild bananas and seeds of the Copper plants of Katanga. + +== Seed banks classification == +Seed banks can be classified in three main profiles: assistentialist, productivist or preservationist. In practice, many seed banks have a combination of these three main types, and they may have different priorities depending on the context and goals of the seed bank. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8dbf7092f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Seed bank" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:30.042989+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Assistentialist seed banks: These seed banks primarily aim to support the needs of local communities and small-scale farmers. They focus on providing seed samples that are well-suited to local conditions and are easy to grow and maintain. They prioritize seed samples that have high yield potential, are pest and disease resistant, and can be grown with minimal inputs. +Productivist seed banks: These seed banks primarily aim to support large-scale agricultural production and commercial farming. They focus on providing seed samples that have high yield potential, are pest and disease resistant, and can be grown with minimal inputs. They prioritize seed samples that are well-suited to large-scale mechanized farming and can be grown in large quantities. +Preservationist seed banks: These seed banks primarily aim to conserve the genetic diversity of wild and domesticated plant species. They focus on preserving the genetic diversity of plant species, and make seed samples available for research and breeding programs. They prioritize seed samples that are rare, endangered, or have unique genetic characteristics. + +== Early concepts == +In Zoroastrian mythology, Ahura Mazda instructed Yima, a legendary king of ancient Persia, to build an underground structure called a Vara to store two seeds from every kind of plant in the known world. The seeds had to come from plant specimens that were free of defects, and the structure itself had to withstand a 300-year apocalyptic winter. Some scholars have suggested that the Norse equivalent of this myth is the underground garden Odainsaker, which was intended to withstand the three-year fimbul winter preceding Ragnarok, to protect the people (and seemingly the plants) that would repopulate the world after this event. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Ellis, R. H., T.D. Hong and E.H. Roberts (1985). Handbook of Seed Technology for Genebanks Vol II: Compendium of Specific Germination Information and Test Recommendations. SGRP (System-Wide Genetic Resources Programme). Rome, Italy. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) +Engels, J. M. M. and L. Visser, ed. (2003). A Guide to Effective Management of Germplasm Collections. CGN, FAO, GRST, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 2007-05-25. +Kameswara Rao, N., J. Hanson, M. E. Dulloo, K. Ghosh, A. Nowell and M. Larinde (2006). Manual of Seed Handling in Genebanks. SGRP (System-Wide Genetic Resources Programme). Rome, Italy. Archived from the original on 2008-01-21.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 147 p. +Koo, B., Pardey, P. G., Wright, B. D.; et al. (2004). Saving Seeds. CABI, IFPRI, IPGRI, SGRP. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) +Karafyllis, Nicole C., ed. (2018). Theorien der Lebendsammlung. Pflanzen, Mikroben und Tiere als Biofakte in Genbanken. Karl Alber. Freiburg, Germany. + +== External links == +Sustainablelivingsystems.org: "A Typology of Community Seed Banks" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_library-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_library-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a04e15905 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_library-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Seed library" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_library" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:59.623185+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A seed library is an institution that lends or shares seed. It is distinguished from a seedbank in that the main purpose is not to store or hold germplasm or seeds against possible destruction, but to disseminate them to the public which preserves the shared plant varieties through propagation and further sharing of seed. + + +== History == +The first seed library was created in 1975 in Bocking, Essex in the United Kingdom. Established by Lawrence Hills, It was called the HDRA Vegetable Seed Library, now known as the Heritage Seed Library. Run by Garden Organic, the Heritage Seed Library conserves up to 800 varieties of heritage and heirloom vegetable seeds. The first seed library to be established in a public library in America was at the Gardiner Public Library in Gardiner, New York and was developed by Ken Greene in 2004. Since then, the number of seed libraries has grown to over 450 across the globe, with most being established in the United States. + + +== Function == +Seed libraries can maintain their collections through donations from members, but may also operate as pure charity operations intent on serving gardeners and farmers. A common attribute of many seed libraries is to preserve agricultural biodiversity by focusing on rare, local, and heirloom seed varieties. +Seed libraries can also receive donations from companies, either monetarily or through actual donations of seeds. For example, Scottsdale Public Library is partnered with Blue Zones Project Scottsdale to provide seeds to patrons. +Seed libraries use varied methods for sharing seeds, primarily by: + +seed swaps otherwise known as seed exchanges, in which library members or the public meet and exchange seeds +seed "lending," in which people check out seed from the library's collection, grow them, save the seed, and return seed from the propagated plants to the library +Seed libraries may function as programs of public libraries, such as the programs of the Richmond Public Library in California (the "Richmond Grows" program is the "unofficial spiritual center" of the public library seed library movement) and the New Port Richey Public Library (Florida). Seed library initiatives in public libraries garner patron participation as a novelty supplement to book check-outs. Seed packets are usually located next to everyday circulated items like books, audiobooks, CDs, and DVDs. Seed libraries in public libraries have been successful because they catch patron hobby curiosities. Public libraries are an appropriate space for seed libraries because they make seeds and plants available to everyone. +They are also located in college libraries, such as Hampshire College's seed library; museums, such as the Hull-House Heirloom Seed Library, a program of the Jane Addams Hull-House Museum. or as membership based online programs like the Hudson Valley Seed Library. Some have developed as programs of botanical gardens, such as that of the VanDusen Botanical Garden, or from gardening associations and research institutes, such as the Heritage Seed Library of Garden Organic. Other seed libraries have evolved from community sustainability or resilience efforts, such as the Bay Area Seed Interchange Library (BASIL) (the United States' oldest seed library, which developed from the Berkeley, California Ecology Center); and still others from the Slow Food movement, such as Grow Gainesville's seed program. +While "lending" is straightforward, "returning" or re-depositing seeds presents a challenge, since the new seeds are not necessarily well-described, and may be inadvertent hybrids. Some libraries, like the Live Oak Public Library in Savannah, Georgia, do not accept returns or unsolicited donations to ensure quality control. Other libraries, like the Live Oak Public Library in, Live Oak, Florida, ask that borrowers return seeds if possible but there is no penalty for not doing so, and they will not accept hybrid or GMO seeds. +Seed libraries complement the preservationist activities of seedbanks, by collecting local and heirloom varieties that might otherwise be lost, and by collecting new local varieties. In theory, lending and returning seed libraries will also promote local agriculture over time, by growing collections of seeds locally adapted to the region. + + +== See also == +Heirloom plant +Kokopelli Seed Foundation +Library +Navdanya +Seed saving + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +A Seed Library Thrives, New York Times +The Seed Library Movement from Roots to Bloom +Sowing Revolution: Seed Libraries Offer Hope for Freedom of Food +"Seed lending library sprouts in West Concord", Boston Globe, Massachusetts, July 10, 2013 + + +== External links == + +Seed Library Network +Bay Area Seed Interchange Library, Berkeley, California +Seed Library of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California +Richmond Seed Library, Richmond, California +BFPL Seed Library Archived 2018-12-15 at the Wayback Machine, Vermont +Seed Library of Pima County Public Library, Tucson, AZ +"Seed Library Locator Map". Archived from the original on 2018-08-05. +"Valley Permaculture Alliance Seed Library". Archived from the original on 2016-08-10. Retrieved 2019-03-09. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafter_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafter_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c12f3916f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafter_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Shafter Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafter_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:01.815226+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Shafter Research Station is an agricultural research station near Shafter, Kern County, California, in the San Joaquin Valley. +The station was established in 1922 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) as Shafter Cotton Research Station. It was built to provide California with high-quality cotton. Initial research at the station focused on growing long-staple cotton, Egyptian Pima cotton, which was used to make airplane wings at the time. The Hatch Act of 1887 provided for U.S. funding of agricultural science. +By 1925, the researchers had determined that Acala cotton, named after Acala, Texas, was the highest-quality variety of long-staple cotton; they then developed the "one variety" method of cotton production, in which every California cotton producer would grow Acala cotton. As a result of this research, the state of California enacted the California One Variety Cotton Act, which mandated that California cotton producers could grow only Acala cotton. The law spurred the growth of California's fledgling cotton industry, which now forms a major part of the state's agricultural economy. The success of the "one variety" policy caused the station to earn an international reputation for its research, and procedures developed at the station have been used in the Australian and Israeli cotton industries. +The Shafter Cotton Research Station changed from a USDA research station to a private one in June 2012. The San Joaquin Valley Quality Cotton Growers Association now runs the facility. With this change, the former Shafter Cotton Research Station now works other crops, including orchard crops. Today the facility consists of a 20-acre campus, 20 buildings and 60 acres of experimental crops. +The Shafter Research Station was made a California Historical Landmark (#1022) on March 3, 1997, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 17, 1997. + +The California Historical Landmark plaque reads: +NO. 1022 SHAFTER COTTON RESEARCH STATION - The Shafter Cotton Research Station, established here in 1922 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, developed the "Acala" varieties which were exceptionally well suited to the San Joaquin Valley. The quality of the Acala cottons and the marketing advantage of the one variety cotton district, created in 1925, resulted in premium cottons with a world-wide demand. Through the continued vision and cooperative efforts of growers and researchers, production of Acala cotton became one of California's largest agricultural enterprises. + + +== See also == +California Historical Landmarks in Kern County, California +National Register of Historic Places listings in Kern County, California + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official Shafter Research Station website +Photos from the NRHP nomination \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md index d72d8c48d..6c5fc1ac2 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:09.842744+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:31.430233+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solardome-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solardome-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..77c1e4c77 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solardome-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Solardome" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solardome" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:08.088100+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Solardome Industries Limited (shortened to Solardome) is a UK manufacturer of glass geodesic domes. +The original greenhouse was an offshoot of the 1960s NATO developed early warning radar system. The Buckminster Fuller organisation designed and develop giant "golf ball" radar domes. In Europe, these were placed in Fylingdales, North Yorkshire. +These giant domes had to withstand extremes of wind and storm and yet remain unaffected. An ex German U-boat engineer, Hans Lemke, living in Hunmanby North Yorkshire was fascinated by these domes and thought, "If they can withstand these weather conditions then they would make an ideal domestic garden building, greenhouse or garden conservatory". He explored the Buckminster Fuller Geodesic domes and their principles and then designed and manufactured the first European domestic Geodesic dome, a 14' 6" Solardome. +The first glasshouse was produced in 1969 and production continues to this day, although not in Hunmanby. + + +== Media == +In 2012 a Solardome glasshouse was included as part of a project to improve facilities at The Yard, as featured on the BBC One "Big Build Children in Need Special" programme. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sornfelli-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sornfelli-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb3c50834 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sornfelli-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Sornfelli" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sornfelli" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:29.273796+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sornfelli is a mountain plateau on the island of Streymoy in the Faroe Islands about 12 km from the capital Tórshavn (20 km by road), in the Mjørkadalur valley. It is the site of a NATO military radar station at 725m above sea level (asl). +The Sornfelli Meteorological Station installed in 1999 is located in the middle of the 40,000 m2 Sornfelli Mountain top plateau, also at 725m above sea level. + + +== Climate == +Temperatures at the meteorological station in 2000 were: + +Mean annual air temperature: +1.7 °C +Mean coldest month (April): −2.2 °C +Mean warmest month (August): 6.5 °C +From Tórshavn you can drive over the mountain road "Oyggjarvegin" to the Sornfelli Mountain plateau. There is a public road up to the Sornfelli Mountain plateau, but not the last 200 m to the radar base. +The mountain of Sornfelli has a height of 749m. + + +== Military base == + +Sornfelli was the site of a Danish military installation (Joint Arctic Command) and NATO early warning radar system until the Danish authorities closed it in 2002. Known as Site 43, it was also part of the North Atlantic Radio System and ACE High, with tropospheric scatter links to Hofn Air Station (H-3) and RAF Mormond Hill. There is a basic cable railway for freight, of a couple hundred metres to the top of the station, as the road does not reach the peak. +The radar station atop Sornfelli mountain was supported by a multi-storey bunker built inside the mountain. The main base of operations, which at its peak hosted up to 200 soldiers of the Danish military, was situated in the Mjørkadalur base. On 15 November 2010 the last equipment was shut down at the base. +One of the smaller radars continues to serve civilian radar purposes for air traffic control purposes for ISAVIA and aviation VHF. Sornfelli also continues to serve civilian communications purposes for Føroya Tele. + +In 2022, the Danish Government committed to reinstating a NATO military radar station on Sornfelli. + + +== References == + +Scannet (2007). "Sornfelli". Scandinavian / North European Network of Terrestrial Field Bases. Retrieved 2007-06-09. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a5a59ae2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A sperm bank, semen bank, or cryobank is a facility or enterprise which purchases, stores and sells human semen. The semen is produced and sold by men who are known as sperm donors. The sperm is purchased by or for other persons for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy or pregnancies other than by a sexual partner. Sperm sold by a sperm donor is known as donor sperm. +A sperm bank may be a separate entity supplying donor sperm to individuals or to fertility centers or clinics, or it may be a facility which is run by a clinic or other medical establishment mainly or exclusively for their patients or customers. +A pregnancy may be achieved using donor sperm for insemination with similar outcomes to sexual intercourse. By using sperm from a donor rather than from the sperm recipient's partner, the process is a form of third party reproduction. In the 21st century artificial insemination with donor sperm from a sperm bank is most commonly used for individuals with no male partner, i.e. single women and coupled lesbians. +A sperm donor must generally meet specific requirements regarding age and screening for medical history. In the United States, sperm banks are regulated as Human Cell and Tissue or Cell and Tissue Bank Product (HCT/Ps) establishments by the Food and Drug Administration. Many states also have regulations in addition to those imposed by the FDA. In the European Union a sperm bank must have a license according to the EU Tissue Directive. In the United Kingdom, sperm banks are regulated by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. + +== General == +The first sperm banks began as early as 1964 in Iowa, USA and Tokyo, Japan and were established for a medical therapeutic approach to support individuals who were infertile. As a result, over 1 million babies were born within 40 years. +Sperm banks provide the opportunity for individuals to have a child who otherwise would not be able to conceive naturally. This includes, but is not limited to, single women, same-sexed couples, and couples where one partner is infertile. +Where a sperm bank provides fertility services directly to a recipient woman, it may employ different methods of fertilization using donor sperm in order to optimize the chances of a pregnancy. Sperm banks do not provide a cure for infertility in individuals who produce non-viable sperm. Nevertheless, the increasing range of services available through sperm banks enables people to have choices over challenges with reproduction. +Individuals may choose an anonymous donor who will not be a part of family life, or they may choose known donors who may be contacted later in life by the donor children. People may choose to use a surrogate to bear their children, using eggs provided by the person and sperm from a donor. Sperm banks often provide services which enable an individual to have subsequent pregnancies by the same donor, but equally, people may choose to have children by a number of different donors. Sperm banks sometimes enable an individual to choose the sex of their child, enabling even greater control over the way families are planned. Sperm banks increasingly adopt a less formal approach to the provision of their services thereby enabling people to take a relaxed approach to their own individual requirements. +Men who donate semen through a sperm bank provide an opportunity for others who cannot have children on their own. Sperm donors may or may not have legal obligations or responsibilities to the child conceived through this route. Whether a donor is anonymous or not, this factor is important in allowing sperm banks to recruit sperm donors and to use their sperm to produce whatever number of pregnancies from each donor as are permitted where they operate, or alternatively, whatever number they decide. +In many parts of the world sperm banks are not allowed to be established or to operate. Where sperm banks are allowed to operate they are often controlled by local legislation which is primarily intended to protect the unborn child, but which may also provide a compromise between the conflicting views which surround their operation. A particular example of this is the control which is often placed on the number of children which a single donor may father and which may be designed to protect against consanguinity. However, such legislation usually cannot prevent a sperm bank from supplying donor sperm outside the jurisdiction in which it operates, and neither can it prevent sperm donors from donating elsewhere during their lives. There is an acute shortage of sperm donors in many parts of the world and there is obvious pressure from many quarters for donor sperm from those willing and able to provide it to be made available as safely and as freely as possible. + +== Recruitment == +The finding of a potential sperm donor and motivating them to donate sperm is typically called recruitment. A sperm bank can recruit donors by advertising, often in colleges, in local newspapers, and also on the internet. +A donor must be a fit and healthy male, normally between 18 and 45 years of age, and willing to undergo frequent and rigorous testing. The donor must also be willing to donate their sperm so that it can be used to impregnate people who are unrelated to and unknown by them. Some sperm banks require two screenings and a laboratory screening before a donor is eligible. The donor must agree to relinquish all legal rights to all children which result from their donations. The donor must produce their sperm at the sperm bank thus enabling the identity of the donor, once proven, always to be ascertained, and also enabling fresh samples of sperm to be produced for immediate processing. Some sperm banks have been accused of heightism due to minimum height requirements. + +== Screening of donors == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57c30a026 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A sperm bank will aim to provide donor sperm which is safe by checking and screening donors and of their semen. A sperm donor must generally meet specific requirements regarding age and medical history. Requirements for sperm donors are strictly enforced, as in a study of 24,040 potential sperm donors, only 5620, or 23.38% were eligible to donate their sperm. +Sperm banks typically screen potential donors for a range of diseases and disorders, including genetic diseases, chromosomal abnormalities and sexually transmitted infections that may be transmitted through sperm. The screening procedure generally also includes a quarantine period, in which the samples are frozen and stored for at least six months after which the donor will be re-tested for the STIs. This is to ensure no new infections have been acquired or have developed during the period of donation. Providing the result is negative, the sperm samples can be released from quarantine and used in treatments. Common reasons for sperm rejection include suboptimal semen quality and STDs. Chromosomal abnormalities are also a cause for semen rejection, but are less common. Children conceived through sperm donation have a birth defect rate of almost a fifth compared with the general population. +A sperm bank takes a number of steps to ensure the health and quality of the sperm which it supplies and it will inform customers of the checks which it undertakes, providing relevant information about individual donors. A sperm bank will usually guarantee the quality and number of motile sperm available in a sample after thawing. They will try to select men as donors who are particularly fertile and whose sperm will survive the freezing and thawing process. Samples are often sold as containing a particular number of motile sperm per milliliter, and different types of samples may be sold by a sperm bank for differing types of use, e.g. ICI or IUI. +The sperm will be checked to ensure its fecundity and also to ensure that motile sperm will survive the freezing process. If a man is accepted onto the sperm bank's program as a sperm donor, his sperm will be constantly monitored, the donor will be regularly checked for infectious diseases, and samples of his blood will be taken at regular intervals. A sperm bank may provide a donor with dietary supplements containing herbal or mineral substances such as maca, zinc, vitamin E and arginine which are designed to improve the quality and quantity of the donor's semen, as well as reducing the refractory time (i.e. the time between viable ejaculations). All sperm is frozen in straws or vials and stored for as long as the sperm donor may and can maintain it. +Donors are subject to tests for infectious diseases such as human immunoviruses HIV (HIV-1 and HIV-2), human T-cell lymphotropic viruses (HTLV-1 and HTLV-2), syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), Trypanosoma cruzi and malaria as well as hereditary diseases such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, familial Mediterranean fever, Gaucher's disease, thalassaemia, Tay–Sachs disease, Canavan's disease, familial dysautonomia, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, carnitine transporter deficiency. Some sperm banks may also use karyotyping to ensure donors are 46XY. +A sperm donor may also be required to produce their medical records and those of their family, often for several generations. A sperm sample is usually tested micro-biologically at the sperm bank before it is prepared for freezing and subsequent use. A sperm donor's blood group may also be registered to ensure compatibility with the recipient. +Some sperm banks may disallow sexually active gay men from donating sperm due to the population's increased risk of HIV and hepatitis B. Modern sperm banks have also been known to screen out potential donors based on genetic conditions and family medical history. + +== Donor payment == +The majority of sperm donors who donate their sperm through a sperm bank receive some kind of payment, although this is rarely a significant amount. A review including 29 studies from nine countries came to the result that the amount of money actual donors received for their donation varied from $10 to €70 per donation or sample. The payments vary from the situation in the United Kingdom where donors are only entitled to their expenses in connection with the donation, to the situation with some US sperm banks where a donor receives a set fee for each donation plus an additional amount for each vial stored. At one prominent California sperm bank for example, TSBC, donors receive roughly $50 for each donation (ejaculation) which has acceptable motility/survival rates both at donation and at a test-thaw a couple of days later. Because of the requirement for the two-day celibacy period before donation, and geographical factors which usually require the donor to travel, it is not a viable way to earn a significant income—and is far less lucrative than selling human eggs. Some private donors may seek remuneration although others donate for altruistic reasons. According to the EU Tissue Directive donors in EU may only receive compensation, which is strictly limited to making good the expenses and inconveniences related to the donation. + +== Collection == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ad446e33 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A sperm donor will usually be required to enter into a contract with a sperm bank to supply their semen, typically for a period of six to twenty-four months depending on the number of pregnancies which the sperm bank intends to produce from the donor. If a sperm bank has access to world markets e.g. by direct sales, or sales to clinics outside their own jurisdiction, a man may donate for a longer period than two years, as the risk of consanguinity is reduced (although local laws vary widely). Some sperm banks with access to world markets impose their own rules on the number of pregnancies which can be achieved in a given regional area or a state or country, and these sperm banks may permit donors to donate for four or five years, or even longer. +The contract may also specify the place and hours for donation, a requirement to notify the sperm bank in the case of acquiring a sexual infection, and the requirement not to have intercourse or to masturbate for a period of usually 2–3 days before making a donation. +The contract may also describe the types of treatment for which the donated sperm may be used, such as artificial insemination and IVF, and whether the donor's sperm may be used in surrogacy arrangements. It may also stipulate whether the sperm may be used for research or training purposes. In certain cases, a sperm donor may specify the maximum number of offspring or families which may be produced from the donor's sperm. 'Family' may be defined as a couple who may each bear children from the same donor. The contract may also require consent if the donor's samples are to be exported. In the United Kingdom, for example, the maximum number of families for which a donor is permitted to bear children is ten, but a sperm bank or fertility center in the UK may export sperm to other fertility centers so that this may be used to produce more pregnancies abroad. Where this happens, consent must be provided by the donor. Faced with a growing demand for donor sperm, sperm banks may try to maximize the use of a donor whilst still reducing the risk of consanguinity. In legislations with a national register of sperm donors or a national regulatory body, a sperm donor may be required to fill in a separate form of consent which will be registered with the regulatory authority. In the United Kingdom this body is the HFEA. +A sperm donor generally produces and collects sperm at a sperm bank or clinic by masturbation in a private room or cabin, known as a 'men's production room' (UK), 'donor cabin' (DK) or a masturbatorium (US). Many of these facilities contain pornography such as videos/DVD, magazines, and/or photographs which may assist the donor in becoming aroused in order to facilitate production of the ejaculate, also known as the "semen sample" but the increasing usage of porn in the U.S. has dulled many men to its effects. Often, using any type of personal lubricant, saliva, oil or anything else to lubricate and stimulate the genitals is prohibited as it can contaminate the semen sample and have negative impacts on the quality and health of sperm. In some circumstances, it may also be possible for semen from donors to be collected during sexual intercourse with the use of a collection condom which results in higher sperm counts. + +== Processing sperm == +After collection, sperm must be processed for storage. According to the Sperm Bank of California, sperm banks and clinics can use the 'unwashed' or 'wash' method to process sperm samples. The 'wash' method includes removing unwanted particles and adding buffer solutions to preserve viable sperm. However, this approach can contribute to further stress on the sperm cells and decrease the survival of sperm after freezing. The 'unwashed' approach allows for more flexibility to freeze the semen sample and increases the number of sperm survival. One sample can produce 1–20 vials or straws, depending on the quantity of the ejaculate and whether the sample is 'washed' or 'unwashed'. 'Unwashed' samples are used for intracervical insemination (ICI) treatments, and 'washed' samples are used in intrauterine insemination (IUI) and for in-vitro fertilization (IVF) or assisted reproduction technologies (ART) procedures. +A cryoprotectant semen extender is conducted if the semen sample is placed in the freezer for storage. Semen extenders play a key factor in protecting sperm sample from 'freeze and osmotic shock, oxidative stress, and cell injury' due to the formation of ice crystal during frozen storage. The collection of semen is preserved by stabilizing the properties of the sperm cells such as the membrane, motility, and 'DNA integrity' in order to create a sustainable viable environment. There are two common forms of medium for sperm cyropreservation, one containing egg yolk from hens and glycerol, and the other containing just glycerol. One study compared media supplemented with egg yolk and media supplemented with soy lecithin, finding that there was no significance between sperm motility, morphology, chromatin decondensation, or binding between the two, indicating that soy lecithin may be a viable alternative to egg yolk. + +== Storage == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..538ab86a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +After the sample has been processed for cryoprotection, the sperm is stored in small vials or straws holding between 0.4 and 1.0 ml of sperm and then cryogenically preserved in liquid nitrogen tanks. Two approaches for sperm cryoperservation include conventional freezing and vitrification. The conventional technique consists of a slow freezing process that is most commonly used for assisted reproduction technologies (ART). Whereas the vitrification method is a faster approach for sperm cryopreservation in converting liquid to solid state. The disadvantage of this latter process is increase in contamination from the liquid nitrogen and smaller sperm sample size to improve the speed for 'high cooling rate'. +It has been proposed that there should be an upper limit on how long frozen sperm can be stored; however, a baby has been conceived in the United Kingdom using sperm frozen for 21 years and andrology experts believe sperm can be frozen indefinitely. The UK government places an upper limit for storage of 55 years. +Following the necessary quarantine period, which is usually six months, a sample will be thawed. To thaw a sperm sample, the vial or straw is left at room temperature for approximately 30 minutes, and then brought to body temperature by holding it in the hands of the person performing the insemination. Once a sperm sample is thawed, it cannot be frozen again, and should be used to artificially inseminate a recipient or used for another assisted reproduction technologies (ART) treatment immediately. +Freeze-drying is another promising alternative for storing semen for its accessibility with regular refrigerator. This method has been successfully replicated in animal species. However, DNA can be damaged in this process, therefore further research is warranted to determine factors that can effect the efficacy of this method. + +== Demographics of people that utilize sperm donor/bank services == + +=== Demographics === +One study conducted by investigators at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill looked into donated sperm utilization within the United States from 1995 to 2017. Cross-sectional studies recorded that an estimated 170,701 individuals during 1995 used donated sperm, while the 2011 to 2013 cohort had a decreased amount of donated sperm use of 37,385. Most recently, in the 2015 to 2017 cohort, 440,986 individuals were reported to use donated sperm. When looking at 200,197 individuals across 2011–2017, 76% had a 4-year college degree or further while 24% had high school or 2-year college degree. In terms of household percent of poverty, 71% of the sperm bank users were at or above 400% of the household poverty level while only 11% were between 200 and 399% of the household poverty levels. Although the household income levels were not explicit, there seems to be an obvious trend that higher education level attainment (such as finishing college or higher) and being at much higher income level above the household poverty levels were the common tendencies in the sperm bank users. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2514e64b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Controversy === +Based on the statistics presented in earlier discussions, there is controversy with regard to a perceived lack of diversity within the donor sperm pool of many sperm banks. This includes, but is not limited to, height requirements implemented by some sperm banks. As a result, it is alleged that potential sperm recipients often encounter very limited sperm donor pool options. Lack of diversity results in very limited choices especially among ethnic minorities within the United States. Whenever an individual chooses to specify their preferred donor background, the number of available options (sperm donors that meet the particular individual's criteria) can dwindle down to the low single digits. Scott Brown from California Cryobank admitted: "We don't get as many minority applicants as we [would] like." Even after numerous attempts to reach out to numerous ethnic communities, the response can be nearly nonexistent. +At the California Cryoback, Brown mentions that one out of 100 would be able to become final sperm donor while Ottey from the Fairfax Cryobank mentions one out of 200 would be able to become ultimate sperm donors. In addition, locations of the California Cryobank are in Los Angeles, Los Altos, California; mid-Manhattan, and Cambridge Massachusetts. These locations are known to have a population with higher socioeconomic latitude and being more likely to afford the services. Moreover, one of the requirements includes the potential sperm donor to be able to live nearby the sperm bank in order to provide samples once to twice a month for at least a term of six months. This could create potential barriers for populations who are at socioeconomic disadvantage and do not have their own forms of transportation; often having to rely on multiple forms of public transportation to reach certain places. This factor could cause a significant decrease in the sperm donor pool and less diverse availability for sperm recipients. +Some controversy stems from the fact that donors father children for others, in the majority of cases, for single people or same-sex couples, but usually take no part in the upbringing of such children. The issue of sperm banks providing fertility services to single women and coupled lesbians so that they can have their own biological children by a donor is itself often controversial in some jurisdictions, but in many countries where sperm banks operate, this group form the main body of recipients. Donors usually do not have a say in who may be a recipient of their sperm. +Another controversy centers around the use of sperm posthumously, or after the death of the sperm donor, as pioneered by California Cryobank. Within the United States, there were differences when it came to a child conceived after the father's death and the eligibility for survivor's benefits. Under California law, there was one court case (Vernoff vs. Astrue) in which the mother's child (conceived after the father's death) was not eligible for the survivor's benefits. However, Arizona courts had a different approach when it came to children who were born after father's death that the children are eligible for the survivors benefits. There were numerous other stories of similar situations across different states in the United States and even the United Kingdom. Canada, France, Germany, and Sweden do not permit the retrieval use of sperm posthumously. + +== Services == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fe6fbe98e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Use === +Subject to any regulations restricting who can obtain donor sperm, donor sperm is available to all people who, for whatever reason, wish to have a child. These regulations vary significantly across jurisdictions, and some countries do not have any regulations. When an individual finds that they are barred from receiving donor sperm within their jurisdiction, they may travel to another jurisdiction to obtain sperm. Regulations change from time to time. In most jurisdictions, donor sperm is available to an individual if their partner is infertile or where they have a genetic disorder. However, the categories of individuals who may obtain donor sperm is expanding, with its availability to single persons and to same-sex couples becoming more common, and some sperm banks supply fertility centers which specialize in the treatment of such people. +Frozen vials of donor sperm may be shipped by the sperm bank to a recipient's home for self-insemination, or they may be shipped to a fertility clinic or physician for use in fertility treatments. The sperm bank will rely on the recipient woman or medical practitioner to report the outcome of any use of the sperm to the sperm bank. This enables a sperm bank to adhere to any national limits of pregnancy numbers. The sperm bank may also impose its own worldwide limit on numbers. +Sperm is introduced into the recipient by means of artificial insemination or by IVF. The most common technique is conventional artificial insemination which consists of a catheter to put the sperm into the vagina where it is deposited at the entrance to the cervix. In biological terms, this is much the same process as when semen is ejaculated from the penis during sexual intercourse. Owing to its simplicity, this method of insemination is commonly used for home and self inseminations principally by single women and lesbians. Other types of uses include intrauterine insemination (IUI) and deep intrauterine artificial insemination where 'washed' sperm must be used. These methods of insemination are most commonly used in fertility centers and clinics mainly because they produce better pregnancy rates than ICI insemination especially where the woman has no underlying fertility issues. +Men may also store their own sperm at a sperm bank for future use particularly where they anticipate traveling to a war zone or having to undergo chemotherapy which might damage the testes. +Sperm from a sperm donor may also be used in surrogacy arrangements and for creating embryos for embryo donation. Donor sperm may be supplied by the sperm bank directly to the recipient to enable a woman to perform her own artificial insemination which can be carried out using a needleless syringe or a cervical cap conception device. The cervical cap conception device allows the donor semen to be held in place close to the cervix for between six and eight hours to allow fertilization to take place. Alternatively, donor sperm can be supplied by a sperm bank through a registered medical practitioner who will perform an appropriate method of insemination or IVF treatment using the donor sperm in order for the woman to become pregnant. + +=== Choosing donors === + +==== Information about donor ==== +In the United States, sperm banks maintain lists or catalogs of donors which provide basic information about the donor such as racial origin, skin color, height, weight, color of eyes, and blood group. Some of these catalogs are available for browsing on the Internet, while others are made available to patients only when they apply to a sperm bank for treatment. Some sperm banks make additional information about each donor available for an additional fee, and others make additional basic information known to children produced from donors when those children reach the age of 18. Some clinics offer "exclusive donors" whose sperm is used to produce pregnancies for only one recipient woman. How accurate this is, or can be, is not known, and neither is it known whether the information produced by sperm banks, or by the donors themselves, is true. Many sperm banks will, however, carry out whatever checks they can to verify the information they request, such as checking the identity of the donor and contacting his own doctor to verify medical details. +In the United Kingdom, most donors are anonymous at the point of donation and recipients can see only non-identifying information about their donor (height, weight, ethnicity etc.). Donors need to provide identifying information to the clinic and clinics will usually ask the donor's doctor to confirm any medical details they have been given. Donors are asked to provide a pen portrait of themselves which is held by the HFEA and can be obtained by the adult conceived from the donation at the age of 18, along with identifying information such as the donor's name and last known address. Known donation is permitted and it is not uncommon for family or friends to donate to a recipient couple. +Qualities that potential recipients typically prefer in donors include the donors being tall, college educated, and with a consistently high sperm count. +A review came to the result that 68% of donors had given information to the clinical staff regarding physical characteristics and education but only 16% had provided additional information such as hereditary aptitudes and temperament or character. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..438a65058 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Recipient's selection of donors === +Sperm banks make information available about the sperm donors whose donations they hold to enable customers to select the donor whose sperm they wish to use. This information is often available by way of an online catalog. Subscription fees to be able to view the sperm donor through California Cryobank, for example, start at $145. This cost could potentially be a barrier for many on limited income and may not have discretionary income to spend on sperm donor services. +A sperm bank will also usually have facilities to help customers to make their choice and they will be able to advise on the suitability of donors for individual donors and their partners. +Where the recipient has a partner, they may prefer to use sperm from a donor whose physical features are similar to those of their partner if they have one. In some cases, the choice of a donor with the correct blood group will be paramount, with particular considerations for the protection of recipients with negative blood groups. If a surrogate is to be used, such as where the customer is not intending to carry the child, considerations about their blood group etc. will also need to be taken into account. Similar considerations will apply where both partners in a lesbian couple intend to have a child using the same donor. +Information made available by a sperm bank will usually include the race, height, weight, blood group, health and eye color of the donor. Sometimes information about the donor's age, family history and educational achievements will also be given. Some sperm banks make a 'personal profile' of a donor available and occasionally more information may be purchased about a donor, either in the form of a DVD or in written form. Catalogs usually state whether samples supplied by a particular donor have already given rise to pregnancies, but this is not necessarily a guide to the fecundity of the sperm since a donor may not have been in the program long enough for any pregnancies to have been recorded. The donor's educational qualification is also taken into account when choosing a donor. +If an individual intends to have more than one child, they may wish to have the additional child or children by the same donor. Sperm banks will usually advise whether sufficient stocks of sperm are available from a particular donor for subsequent pregnancies, and they normally have facilities available so that the woman may purchase and store additional vials from that donor on payment of an appropriate fee. These will be stored until required for subsequent pregnancies or they may be on-sold if they become surplus to the woman's requirements. +The catalogue will also state whether samples of sperm are available for ICI, IUI, or IVF use. + +=== Sex selection === + +Some sperm banks enable recipients to choose the sex of their child, through methods of sperm sorting. Although the methods used do not guarantee 100% success, the chances of being able to select the gender of a child are held to be considerably increased. +One of the processes used is the 'swim up' method, whereby a sperm extender is added to the donor's freshly ejaculated sperm and the test-tube is left to settle. After about half-an-hour, the lighter sperm, containing the male chromosome pair (XY), will have swum to the top, leaving the heavier sperm, containing the female chromosome pair (XX), at the bottom, thus allowing selection and storage according to sex. +The alternative process is the Percoll Method which is similar to the 'swim up' method but involves additionally the centrifuging of the sperm in a similar way to the washing of samples produced for IUI inseminations, or for IVF purposes. +Sex selection is controversial, and is illegal in many countries, including Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada, except when there is a large possibility of a sex-linked genetic disorder. It is legal in the United States, although use for non-medical reasons is discouraged by the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. + +=== Other uses === + +There is a market for vials of processed sperm and for various reasons a sperm bank may sell-on stocks of vials which it holds known as 'onselling'. The costs of screening of donors and storage of frozen donor sperm vials are not insignificant and in practice most sperm banks will try to dispose of all samples from an individual donor. The onselling of sperm therefore enables a sperm bank to maximize the sale and disposal of sperm samples which it has processed. The reasons for onselling may also be where part of, or even the main business of, a particular sperm bank is to process and store sperm rather than to use it in fertility treatments, or where a sperm bank is able to collect and store more sperm than it can use within nationally set limits. In the latter case a sperm bank may onsell sperm from a particular donor for use in another jurisdiction after the number of pregnancies achieved from that donor has reached its national maximum. +Sperm banks may supply other sperm banks or a fertility clinic with donor sperm to be used for achieving pregnancies. +Sperm banks may also supply sperm for research or educational purposes. + +== Regulation == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4fa7e29c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Sperm bank" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm_bank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:02.091898+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the United States, the sperm bank industry is largely unregulated federally, with no laws against fertility fraud, no national registry, no requirement of open-ID at 18 donors or release of information to the donor conceived person, and no limit to the number of children born from each donor. Sperm banks are regulated as Human Cell and Tissue or Cell and Tissue Bank Product (HCT/Ps) establishments by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), effective May 25, 2005. This requires a physical exam, screening for STIs including HIV, and a psychological evaluation. It also bars men who have had sex with men in the last 5 years from donating, which is widely regarded as homophobic, as donors are already tested for HIV, and men who practice unprotected sex with many women are allowed to donate, but not men who are in a monogamous relationship with a man. +In the European Union a sperm bank must have a license according to the EU Tissue Directive which came into effect on April 7, 2006. In the United Kingdom, sperm banks are regulated by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. +In countries where sperm banks are allowed to operate, the sperm donor will not usually become the legal father of the children produced from the sperm he donates, but he will be the 'biological father' of such children. In cases of surrogacy involving embryo donation, a form of 'gestational surrogacy', the 'commissioning mother' or the 'commissioning parents' will not be biologically related to the child and may need to go through an adoption procedure. +As with other forms of third party reproduction, the use of donor sperm from a sperm bank gives rise to a number of moral, legal, and ethical issues, including, but not limited to the right of the sperm donor remaining anonymous, and the child's right to know their familial background. +Furthermore, as local regulations reduce the size of the donor pool and, in some cases, exclude entire classes of potential buyers such as single women and lesbian couples, restricting donations to only heterosexual couples who are married. Some customers choose to buy abroad or on the internet, having the samples delivered at home. + +== Abuse == +There have been reports of incidents of abuse regarding forced insemination with sperm samples bought online. +Further abuse of sperm banks comes from the fertility clinic staff themselves. There have been a number of reports of staff at sperm banks and fertility clinics providing their own sperm in place of donor sperm. There have also been cases in which men have claimed their sperm sample was used by a clinic to inseminate a woman without his consent. This has led to cases of malpractice, and in some states, lobbying to create fertility fraud laws. These incidents have also led to outcry by people who had been conceived by such incidents, raising concerns of consanguinity, as well as the simple right to know who their siblings and biologic parents are. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Further reading == + +== External links == + The dictionary definition of sperm bank at Wiktionary + Media related to Sperm banks at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f611a8a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Sri Lanka Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:19.596194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sri Lanka Planetarium (Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා ග්‍රහලෝකාගාරය) is a public planetarium located in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It is the first and only planetarium in the country and maintained as an institute under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Research. +The planetarium was established on 1 February 1965 by the State Engineering Corporation as a special feature for the Ceylon industrial exhibition held in Colombo same year. The planetarium was designed by the chief engineer from the State Engineering Corporation of Ceylon, A. N. S. Kulasinghe, and was constructed by engineers from Germany. The building takes elements from the Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral (Sir Frederick Gibberd - 1960) and the Cathedral of Brasília (Oscar Niemeyer - 1960). The building has a reinforced concrete floor and a pre-stressed concrete folded plate roof, which was pre-cast on-site. The building was funded by the German Democratic Republic as a gift to Ceylon. The planetarium is 21.33 m (70.0 ft) high and 37.8 m (124 ft) in diameter. +The building was refurbished in 2014 at a cost of Rs 200 million and re-opened to the public on 9 December. +The planetarium has a digital fully-spherical projector stationed at the centre of the building, which projects an artificial sky on the 23 m (75 ft) diameter dome above a 570-seat auditorium. The universal projector is a product of Carl Zeiss AG East Germany. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfire_Optical_Range-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfire_Optical_Range-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e4781b54 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfire_Optical_Range-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Starfire Optical Range" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfire_Optical_Range" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:46.707975+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Starfire Optical Range (SOR - Pronounced as an initialism) is a United States Air Force research laboratory on the Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Its primary duty, according to the official website, is to "develop and demonstrate optical wavefront control technologies." The range is a secure lab facility and is a division of the Directed Energy Directorate of the Air Force Research Laboratory. +SOR's optical equipment includes a 3.5 meter telescope which is "one of the largest telescopes in the world equipped with adaptive optics designed for satellite tracking" according to the Air Force, a 1.5 meter telescope, and a 1-meter beam director. + + +== Purpose == +The purpose of Starfire is to conduct research to use adaptive optics to remove the effects of scintillation (atmospheric turbulence). Turbulence interferes with laser beam integrity over distances. Lasers are being used for long-distance high-bandwidth communications and accuracy in air-to-air laser connectivity is important for data integrity. +Scintillation is also a problem in development of weaponized lasers, such as the airborne laser being developed to intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles. + + +== See also == +North Oscura Peak +List of the largest optical telescopes in the contiguous United States + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official SOR website +Starfire Optical Observatory page at globalsecurity.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storfjord_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storfjord_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..36df0c55a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storfjord_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Storfjord Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storfjord_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:30.566855+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Storfjord was a Norwegian hunting, meteorological and radio station ("Storfjord/LMR") located in King Christian IX Land, Eastern Greenland. +Administratively the area were the hut stood belongs now to the Sermersooq municipality. +The station was built on the shore of Kangerlussuaq Fjord, also known as Storfjord. The anchorage near the station was difficult owing to the deep waters of the fjord and the very strong currents. + + +== History == +In 1931 Norway sent two expeditions to establish hunting and radio stations in Southeast Greenland. Led by Ole Mortensen, one of the expeditions went to Kangerlussuaq Fjord on ship Signalhorn and built a hut there, Storfjord Station. Since hunting there was poor, Mortensen moved with his men south to Lindenow Fjord, where a Norwegian radio and meteorological station named Moreton was built 7 km (4.3 mi) from the mouth of the fjord in 1932. Meanwhile another Norwegian station was built in Thorland and named Finnsbu. +In the same year Norway staked sovereignty claims in Southeast Greenland between 60°30'N —just north of Nanuuseq, and 63°40'N —just south of Odinland. As a result, another expedition was sent by the Norwegian government led by Gunnar Horn on ship Veslemari and the Storfjord Station was reestablished. Together with Finnsbu and Torgilsbu further south, as well as Jonsbu in the far north, Storfjord became part of the Norwegian contribution to the International Polar Year 1932–33. +Danish explorer Ejnar Mikkelsen, whose 1932 Søkongen Expedition station was in the more protected Uttental Sound branch of the fjord, wondered about the choice of the site for a meteorological station by the Norwegians. According to him the Norwegian building was in a dangerous location, totally exposed to violent winds blowing from the head of Kangerlussuaq Fjord. +After the 1933 resolution of the Permanent Court of International Justice rejecting Norway's claims in Greenland, the stations at Storfjord and Finnsbu were closed, but Torgilsbu continued operation for a few years under Danish jurisdiction and restrictions. +In 1935, during the British East Greenland Expedition, geologist Lawrence Wager visited the area of Kangerlussuaq Fjord and noted that the Storfjord hut was completely destroyed, even though it had a concrete foundation and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) thick turf walls. Wager concluded that it had been razed to the ground by the persistent, hurricane-force winds of the fjord. + + +== Bibliography == +Spencer Apollonio, Lands That Hold One Spellbound: A Story of East Greenland, 2008 +Susan Barr & Cornelia Lüdecke eds. The History of the International Polar Years (IPYs). 2010 + + +== See also == +Erik the Red's Land + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Norwegian Polar Year and Radio Stations in East Greenland, 1932–33 +Anders Christian Feyling, Torgilsbu 1933-34: dagbok ført av radiostasjonens bestyrer +The World at War - Greenland 1721 - 1953 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukkulenten-Sammlung_Zurich-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukkulenten-Sammlung_Zurich-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ec8ebe68e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukkulenten-Sammlung_Zurich-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Sukkulenten-Sammlung Zurich" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukkulenten-Sammlung_Zurich" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:09.321717+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sukkulenten-Sammlung Zürich, literally succulent plant collection of the city of Zürich, is a botanical garden in the Swiss municipality of Zürich. It also houses a botanic library, a herbarium and the International Organizations for Succulent Plant Research (IOS). + + +== Location == +The greenhouses are located in district of Enge, on Zürichsee (Lake Zurich). They are a part of the Quaianlagen promenades, and are located on the southwestern lake shore. The collection is separated by the Mythenquai road from the lower lake shore promenade and the Enge harbour area, at the park facilities of the Mythenquai lido near the lower entrance to the Rieterpark. + + +== History == +At the end of the 1920s, Jakob Gasser, a cactus grower from Zürich, tried to sell his collection of about 1,500 succulents to the city government of Zürich, but the venture failed. in 1929, Julius Brann Gassersche, a store owner, acquired the unique collection and made a gift of it to the city of Zürich. The collection was housed in the greenhouses at the former site of the municipal gardens (Stadtgärtnerei) at Mythenquai, and established as Städtische Kakteensammlung, meaning urban cactus collection. +Formally established in 1931, the collection houses one of the largest and most important collections of succulent plants. The main complex was built in 1947 and inaugurated in 1948. The succulent collection started in the existing greenhouse at Mythenquai, and was extended in 1948, 1954, 1961, 1984. In 2011, the entrance area was rebuilt and information for visitors improved. There are plans to redesign the Mythenquai area, including a renovation of the greenhouses. + + +== Collection and structure == +Succulents are plants from arid areas that survive by storing water, including Agaves, Aloes and stonecrop family, in addition to Cacti and thick leaf plants. The collection features more than 6,500 different types of succulent plants from more than 80 different plant families of Orchidaceae, Crassulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Aizoaceae, Cactaceae and Apocynaceae. The collection is funded by Grün Stadt Zürich and by the booster association, Förderverein der Sukkulenten-Sammlung Zürich. Although internationally known for its scientific objectives, the Sukkulenten-Sammlung is perceived by the public as a collection. Periodic special displays provide an insight into the survival mechanisms used by succulents. + + +== Facilities == +Surrounded by a park on the lake, the facilities house over 25,000 exotic plants in about 6,500 species and varieties on 4,750 square metres (1.17 acres), including 700 square metres (0.17 acres) in six greenhouses, 16 heated cold frame boxes and an outdoor area. The staff consists of nine employees who take care of 50,000 visitors annually. The greenhouses are open daily. + + +== IOS library, database and herbarium == +Since about 1947, the institution has been involved in an international seed exchange between botanical institutes and gardens around the world. Currently, there are more than 200 botanical gardens involved. In addition, Sukkulenten-Sammlung houses a specialized library on succulent plants. These books are not allowed to leave the library, but can be seen when the collection is open. The library contains more than 30,187 titles. +The herbarium was founded in 1950, simultaneously with the International Organizations for Succulent Plant Research (IOS), and has an extensive archive of plants with approximately 20,000 specimens and a meticulous tracking database. It is now under the patronage of the Swiss UNESCO commission. + + +== Förderverein association == +Despite the uniqueness of the collection, in 1996 the municipal council (Gemeinderat) of the city of Zürich sought to either outsource the collection of succulents or to close the collection entirely. This political pressure led to the founding of the boosting association Förderverein der Sukkulenten-Sammlung Zürich. The council then decided to suspend the motion, until it became clear whether the Canton of Zürich and the federal authorities would become involved in co-financing. + + +== Cultural heritage of national importance == +Sukkulenten-Sammlung Zürich is listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance as a Class A object of national importance. + + +== Literature == +Gartenbiografien: Orte erzählen. vdf Hochschulverlag AG, ETH Zürich, Zürich 2013, ISBN 978-3-7281-3579-7. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Sukkulenten-Sammlung Zürich website (in German) +Förderverein (in German) +IOSweb.org: International Organizations for Succulent Plant Research website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c807b79da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Svalbard Global Seed Vault" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:32.783355+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Svalbard Global Seed Vault (Norwegian: Svalbard globale frøhvelv) is a secure backup facility for the world's crop diversity on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen in the remote Arctic Svalbard archipelago. The Seed Vault provides long-term storage for duplicates of seeds from around the world, conserved in gene banks. This provides security of the world's food supply against the loss of seeds in gene banks due to mismanagement, accident, equipment failures, funding cuts, war, sabotage, disease, and natural disasters. The Seed Vault is managed under terms spelled out in a tripartite agreement among the Norwegian government, the Crop Trust, and the Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen). +The Norwegian government entirely funded the Seed Vault's approximately 45 million kr (US$8.8 million in 2008) construction cost. Norway and the Crop Trust pay for operational costs. Storing seeds in the vault is free to depositors. +As of June 2025, the Seed Vault conserves 1,355,591 accessions, representing more than 13,000 years of agricultural history. + +== History == +In 1984, the Nordic Gene Bank (now NordGen) began storing backup Nordic plant germplasm via frozen seeds in an abandoned coal mine outside of Longyearbyen. +In 2001, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) was adopted and national governments began to ratify the treaty soon after. The treaty establishes a multilateral system for plant genetic resources that includes providing access to the materials and providing mechanisms so that those who use the resources can share any derived benefits. +A team led by conservationist Cary Fowler actively campaigned for the development of the Seed Vault and approached the Norwegian Government. Fowler conceptualized the vault, headed the committee that developed the plan for the facility and is the founding chair of the international council that has overseen the vault since its inception. The Norwegian Government gave a contract to the Center for International Environment and Development Studies at the Agricultural University of Norway for Fowler’s role and to the Nordic Gene Bank. Chaired by Fowler, then a professor at the university and a senior advisor in the CGIAR, the committee included Henry Shands (head of the U.S. national gene bank), William George (an engineer), Bent Skovmand (director of the Nordic Gene Bank), and Geoff Hawtin as an observer. The team conducted a feasibility study in 2004 and concurred that Svalbard was an appropriate location for long-term storage. +Also in 2004, the ITPGRFA entered into force and provided the legal framework for having one international security facility. The FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture endorsed the initiative and in October 2004 the Norwegian Government committed to fund the Seed Vault and begin the construction. In 2006, Geoffrey Hawtin was appointed to prepare a report on technical, administrative and political issues. +The Seed Vault officially opened on 26 February 2008, although the first seeds arrived in January 2008. +As part of the Seed Vault's first anniversary, more than 90,000 food crop seed samples were placed into storage, bringing the total number of seed samples to 400,000. Among the new seeds included were 32 varieties of potatoes from Ireland's national genebanks and 20,000 new samples from the U.S. Agricultural Research Service. Other seed samples came from genebanks in Canada and Switzerland as well as international genebanks in Colombia, Mexico and Syria. This 4 t (3.9-long-ton; 4.4-short-ton) shipment brought the total number of seeds stored in the Seed Vault to over 20 million. As of this anniversary, the Seed Vault contained samples from approximately one-third of the world's most important food crop varieties. Also as part of the anniversary, experts on food production and climate change met for a three-day conference in Longyearbyen. +Japanese sculptor Mitsuaki Tanabe presented a work to the Seed Vault named "The Seed 2009 / Momi In-Situ Conservation". +In 2010, a delegation of seven U.S. senators deposited a number of different varieties of chili pepper. +By 2013, approximately one-third of the genera diversity stored in genebanks globally was represented at the Seed Vault. +In 2015, researchers started sending seeds from the Middle East for safeguarding in Svalbard due to ongoing conflicts. +In October 2016, the Seed Vault experienced an unusually large degree of water intrusion due to higher than average temperatures and heavy rainfall. While it is common for some water to seep into the Seed Vault's 100 m (328 ft) entrance tunnel during the warmer spring months, in this case the water encroached 15 m (49 ft) into the tunnel before freezing. Because the Seed Vault was designed to be able to handle water intrusion, the seeds were not at risk. As a result, however, the Norwegian public works agency Statsbygg completed improvements to the tunnel in 2019 to prevent any such intrusion in the future, including waterproofing the tunnel walls, removing heat sources from the tunnel, and digging exterior drainage ditches. +For the Seed Vault's 10th anniversary on 26 February 2018, a shipment of 70,000 samples was delivered to the facility, bringing the number of samples received to more than one million (not counting withdrawals). +According to The Independent the COVID-19 pandemic did not pose a risk to the vault "as there are no permanent staff at the Svalbard facility." +In 2019, the Seed Vault cost about 2.4 million kr (US$282,000) to maintain. + +== Construction == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..55442fe75 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Svalbard Global Seed Vault" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:32.783355+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, and Iceland's prime ministers ceremonially laid "the first stone" on 19 June 2006. +The seed bank is 130 m (430 ft) inside a sandstone mountain on Spitsbergen Island, and employs robust security systems. The facility is managed by the Nordic Genetic Resource Center, though there are no permanent staff on-site. +Spitsbergen was considered ideal because it lacked tectonic activity and had permafrost, which aids preservation. It being 130 m (430 ft) above sea level will keep the site dry even if the ice caps melt. Locally mined coal provides power for refrigeration units that further cool the seeds to the internationally recommended standard of −18 °C (−0.4 °F). If the equipment fails, at least several weeks will elapse before the facility rises to the surrounding sandstone bedrock's temperature of −3 °C (27 °F), and is estimated to take two centuries to warm to 0 °C (32 °F). +A feasibility study prior to construction determined that the Seed Vault could preserve most major food crops' seeds for hundreds of years. Some, including those of important grains, could potentially remain viable for thousands of years. +Running the length of the facility's roof and down the front face to the entryway is an illuminated artwork named Perpetual Repercussion by Norwegian artist Dyveke Sanne that marks the location of the vault from a distance. In Norway, government-funded construction projects exceeding a certain cost must include artwork. KORO, the Norwegian State agency overseeing art in public spaces, engaged the artist to propose an artwork for the Seed Vault. The roof and vault entrance are filled with highly reflective stainless steel, mirrors, and prisms. The installation reflects polar light in the summer months, while in the winter, a network of 200 fibre-optic cables gives the piece a muted greenish-turquoise and white light. + +== Mission == +The Seed Vault's mission is to provide a backup against accidental loss of diversity in traditional genebanks. While the popular press has emphasized its possible utility in the event of a major regional or global catastrophe, the Seed Vault will be more frequently accessed when genebanks lose samples due to mismanagement, accident, equipment failures, funding cuts, and natural disasters. These events occur with some regularity. War and civil strife have a history of destroying some genebanks. The national genebank of the Philippines was damaged by flooding and later destroyed by a fire, the genebanks of Afghanistan and Iraq have been lost completely, while an international genebank in Syria became unavailable. According to The Economist, "the Svalbard vault is a backup for the world's 1,750 seed banks, storehouses of agricultural biodiversity." +Norwegian law has prohibited the storing of genetically modified seeds at the vault. +The adjacent Arctic World Archive provides a similar service for data, which is etched as code into reels of film. Project lead Piql of Norway states that the film, when properly preserved, should last for 1,000 years. + +== Tripartite agreement == +The Seed Vault is managed under terms spelled out in a tripartite agreement among the Norwegian Government, the Crop Trust, and the Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen). The Kingdom of Norway owns the Seed Vault. The Crop Trust provides funding for ongoing operations and provides financial assistance to depositors in their preparation of shipments. NordGen operates the Seed Vault and maintains the public database of the deposits. +An International Advisory Council provides guidance and advice. It includes representatives from the FAO, CGIAR, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources and other institutions. + +== Access to seeds == + +Vault seed samples are copies of samples stored in the depositing genebanks. Researchers, plant breeders, and other groups wishing to access seed samples cannot do so through the Seed Vault; they must instead request samples from the depositing genebanks. The samples stored in the genebanks will, in most cases, be accessible in accordance with the terms and conditions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, approved by 148 countries or parties. +The Seed Vault functions like a safe deposit box in a bank. The bank owns the building and the depositor owns the contents of their box. The Government of Norway owns the facility and the depositing genebanks own the seeds they send. The deposit of samples in Svalbard does not constitute a legal transfer of genetic resources. In genebank terminology this is called a "black box" arrangement. Each depositor signs a Deposit Agreement with NordGen, acting on behalf of Norway. The Agreement makes clear that Norway does not claim ownership over the deposited samples and that ownership remains with the depositor, who has the sole right of access to those materials in the seed vault. No one has access to anyone else's seeds from the seed vault. The database of samples and depositors is maintained by NordGen. +The Syrian civil war created a situation where the black box arrangement was demonstrated. As a result of the conflict, the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) was unable to maintain its genebank located at Tel Hadya, Syria and therefore unable to distribute samples. In 2015, ICARDA withdrew some of the backup samples it had stored at the Seed Vault so that it could regenerate those seeds. ICARDA made a second and larger withdrawal in 2017. These seeds were planted in fields in Lebanon and Morocco and multiplied. Some were then returned to the Seed Vault while others were added to ICARDA's genebanks in Lebanon and Morocco so they could be conserved and distributed. These are the only withdrawals from the Seed Vault as of May 2024. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..149925d87 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "Svalbard Global Seed Vault" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Global_Seed_Vault" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:32.783355+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Seed storage == +The seeds are stored in sealed three-ply foil packages and then placed into plastic tote containers on metal shelving racks. The storage rooms are kept at −18 °C (−0.4 °F). The low temperature and limited access to oxygen will ensure low metabolic activity and delay seed ageing. The permafrost surrounding the facility will help maintain the low temperature of the seeds if the electricity supply fails. +Initially the Seed Vault would have some minor water intrusion at its entrance during the annual spring permafrost thawing. Warmer temperatures and heavy rainfall in October 2016 caused significantly greater amounts of water to seep into the entrance, but the facility's design ensured that the water froze after several meters and the seeds were not endangered. Work completed in 2019 eliminated this water seepage. +Attached to the seed boxes are sheets of nanofilm that hold information on such things as seed identity. + +== Crop Trust == +The Crop Trust, officially known as the Global Crop Diversity Trust, plays a key role in the planning of the Seed Vault and coordinating shipments of seed samples to the Seed Vault in conjunction with the Nordic Genetic Resource Center. The Crop Trust provides most of the annual operating costs for the facility and has set aside an endowment fund to do so, while the Norwegian government finances upkeep of the structure itself. With support of its donors, the Crop Trust assists selected genebanks in developing countries as well as the international agricultural research centres in packaging and shipping seeds to the Seed Vault. + +== Awards and honors == +The Svalbard Global Seed Vault ranked at No. 6 on Time's Best Inventions of 2008. It was awarded the Norwegian Lighting Prize for 2009. It was ranked the 10th most influential project of the past 50 years by the Project Management Institute. + +== Capacity == +Seeds are stored in airtight aluminium bags. The number of seeds in each bag varies depending on the size of the seed, but on average each bag contains approximately 500 seeds. The facility has a storage capacity of 4.5 million seed samples. +The table below presents the cumulative total of samples (i.e. accessions) deposited by year. + +== Depositors == +As of March 2025, 127 depositors safeguard their crop samples in the Seed Vault. The below table lists the top international genebanks followed by the top regional and national genebank in terms of the number of samples currently deposited in the Seed Vault. + +=== Indigenous communities === +Depositors to the Seed Vault are not limited to international, regional and national genebanks. Some indigenous communities have deposited seeds for safety duplication in the Seed Vault. In 2015, representatives of the Parque de la Papa in Peru deposited 750 samples of potatoes. In 2020, the Cherokee Nation became the first US tribe to deposit when it safeguarded nine samples of heirloom food crops which predate European colonization. + +== Cultural importance == +The seed vault is a common reference in different forms of fiction and media, often as an example of international collaboration, similar to the International Space Station, as a media symbol for the potential of doomsday scenarios, and a point of conversation about the sustainability of human society. Even before the Seed Vault officially opened, there was a feature article in The New Yorker. Science communicators have been important in taking the project from relative obscurity, to global awareness. For example, Cary Fowler gave a TED talk on the Seed Vault at Oxford in 2009. +The Seed Vault was the inspiration for Ibsen International's art project "The Seed", supported by the Norwegian government. The children's opera Children of Ginko (Norwegian: Frøbarna) which aimed to raise ecological awareness, "reveal the power of nature and celebrate children's courage in growing up", was created as part of this project. +There are several children’s books about the seed vault, including The Garden at the End of the World, and Just in Case: Saving Seeds in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. The seed vault has also been the subject of two feature length documentaries: Seeds of Time and Seed Battles, as well as Forever Securing the World Food Supply. +In 2011, Norway issued a postage stamp to honor the seed vault. + +== See also == +Arctic policy of Norway +Arctic World Archive +Center of origin +Frozen zoo, a similar concept, but for animals +National Ice Core Laboratory +Amphibian Ark +Coral reef organizations +Rosetta Project +Indian Seed Vault +Millennium Seed Bank Partnership +Orthodox seed +Recalcitrant seed +Survivalism + +== References == + +== External links == + +Official website +Svalbard Global Seed Vault by the Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food +Svalbard Global Seed Vault by the Crop Trust +Svalbard Global Seed Vault by the Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen) +Online searchable database of deposits at NordGen +"Inside the Svalbard Seed Vault" on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ea6681f23 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Swami Vivekananda Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:20.803056+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Swami Vivekananda Planetarium, also called Pilikula Planetarium, at Pilikula Nisargadhama in Mangaluru is a 3D planetarium in India: the first of its kind in the country. It is also the only such planetarium in the country with hybrid modern technology innovations coupled with 3D technology of 8K digital and opto-mechanical (hybrid) projection system. It is a part of the Pilikula Nisargadhama (covering an area of 370 acres (150 ha)), which is also named Dr. Shivaram Karanth Biological Park. Its creation is attributed to Pilikula Regional Science Centre. + + +== History == +Swami Vivekananda Planetarium is the first state-of-the-art 3D planetarium in India. It was initiated in 2013 to mark the 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda by the then chief minister of Karnataka, Jagadish Shettar, who had laid the foundation stone to build it in two years at a cost of ₹35.69 crore (US$3.8 million). However, the project overran its schedule completion, and the planetarium could be opened only on 1 March 2018. It was set up with grants from KSTePS (Karnataka Science and Technology Promotion Society) of the Karnataka government. The planetarium's objective is intended to give the viewers (students in particular and the public) to see the stars and planetary systems in the universe. Its creation is attributed to Pilikula Regional Science Centre. +The planetarium was planned and established as the first planetarium in the country with 8K digital and opto-mechanical (hybrid) projection system. Five technical persons were initially sent to Utah, US, for training to operate the planetarium. The planetarium also has a provision of ₹1.5 crore (US$160,000) for annual maintenance. + + +== Technical specifications == +The planetarium has a dome diameter of 18 m (59 ft) and a seating capacity of 170; the seats can be tilted by 15 degrees to enhance the viewing experience of the audience. It has a Megastar IIA optical projector integrated with digistar and active stereo 3D 8K digital planetarium system manufactured in US by Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation. The projected 3 dimensional images on the screen are a part of a new level of full dome innovation. The 32 lenses of the 8K ultra-bright LED-based projector, from Ohira Tech Japan, is said to be capable of beaming "20 million stars uniformly and seamlessly over the nano-seam panels of the dome, thereby avoiding the overlapping of projected visuals." + + +== Programmes == +The planetarium was inaugurated on 1 March 2018 and started the first public show on 2 March 2018. Eight shows are held daily with each show lasting 25 minutes. Some of the 3D shows screened are We are stars, Dawn of the space age and Mysteries of the unseen world. The shows cover space technology, planets, nature, environment science, history and geography, which are presented in English, Hindi and Kannada. The first inaugural show screened was We are stars which covers the story of space of billions of years from the time of the Big Bang to the modern day. + + +== Access == +The planetarium is located at the Pilikula Regional Science Centre at Moodushedde, 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) away from Mangalore. which is well connected by road, rail, and air services with the rest of the country. Mangalore railway station, in the city centre, is connected to the major cities including Chennai, Mumbai and New Delhi. Mangalore International Airport is located about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) away from the city centre. By road, it is 350 kilometres (220 mi) west of Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka. + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +Astrotourism in India +List of planetariums + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..95f869da5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Tashkent Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:22.018362+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Tashkent Planetarium is one of the newest constructions in Uzbekistan, and is visited by local people and tourists. Tashkent Planetarium provides visitors with the opportunity to look at outer space, even in the morning, and enlarge their knowledge about the cosmos and the whole universe. + + +== About == +Tashkent Planetarium was established by edict No.649 of "Cabinet of Ministers of Republic Uzbekistan" on 3 November 2003, by decision of Tashkent city municipality of 7 November 2003 No.748. The Planetarium is nowadays controlled by the controlling unit of Tashkent city municipality which focuses on culture and sport. +There are two main halls at the Planetarium, and each hall has its own functions. The first hall is mainly built for showing the Solar System and space, using Japanese technologies. The second hall contains artefacts, where visitors can learn more about specific planets and about Earth. +In 2008 a group of scientists at Tashkent Planetarium discovered the new planet "Samarkand". + + +== See also == + +State Museum of History of Uzbekistan +The Museum of Health Care of Uzbekistan +The Museum of Communication History in Uzbekistan +Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan +Tashkent Museum of Railway Techniques +Museum of Geology, Tashkent +Art Gallery of Uzbekistan +The Alisher Navoi State Museum of Literature +Museum of Victims of Political Repression in Tashkent +State Museum of Nature of Uzbekistan + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Brochure about the planetarium +Article about the planetarium +Article about the planetarium in English +Article about the planetarium in English \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Planet,_Dubai-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Planet,_Dubai-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7a3348a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Planet,_Dubai-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "The Green Planet, Dubai" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Planet,_Dubai" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:49.632797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Green Planet is an indoor zoo and garden in the City Walk area of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It has over 3,000 plants and animals in its artificial "bio-dome" tropical rainforest including birds, reptiles, and fish. They are kept in open environments, but may not be touched. +The Green Planet indoor ecosystem was opened in 2016, with 3,000 plants and animals. The attraction was created by Meraas. + + +== Structure == +The bio-dome is cube-shaped and was built as an expansion to CityWalk on Al Wasl Road. It is 60,000 square feet in area and the building's exterior is divided into two parts diagonally. One part is cylindrical with glass, while the other is covered with small circular apertures. +At the centre of the bio-dome, there is an 82-foot (25-meter) tall tree with an artificial trunk. A small bridge connects to the tree, which can only hold up to four people at a time. There is also an artificial waterfall. Visitors enter on the fourth floor via a lift and walk down using a spiral slope. In addition, there is a lift and stairs to access animals in the basement. Reptiles are on display at every level, with information about them. Green Planet is the region's first bio-dome which has recreated a tropical forest with its rich biodiversity of over 3,000 plants and animals. It has been certified with the global LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) which is fully compliant with the Dubai Municipality green building regulations and specifications. +Animals on display include sloths, flying foxes, Seba bats, anaconda snakes, and a bearcat. It is possible for visitors to camp overnight at The Green Planet. + + +== See also == +List of tourist attractions in Dubai + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to The Green Planet, Dubai at Wikimedia Commons +Official website +"The Green Planet Dubai" – Indoor Rainforest Review video on YouTube +The Green Planet: Transport yourself to a world of nature and wonder video from Khaleej Times \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puratos_Sourdough_Library-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puratos_Sourdough_Library-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0030db859 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puratos_Sourdough_Library-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "The Puratos Sourdough Library" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puratos_Sourdough_Library" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:57.255110+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Sourdough Library was founded in October 2013 in Saint-Vith, Belgium, and is the only facility in the world dedicated to housing sourdough cultures. The library is housed at the Puratos Center for Bread Flavour, with a mission to conserve and promote sourdoughs from around the world, to conduct research, and to ensure the survival of the various strains for future use. It currently has over 900 strains of wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria recorded. Every new sample that arrives at the library is checked and analyzed in the laboratory, run by Professor Marco Gobbetti. The library is a not-for profit initiative from Puratos and as of 2016 has 87 sourdoughs, including 12 from the United States. + + +== See also == +List of sourdough breads + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Virtual tour \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e5875dd02 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of planetariums" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_planetariums" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:51.803476+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a timeline of the history of planetariums. + + +== Historic influences == + + +== Development of modern planetariums == + + +== Digital and Fulldome video == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torgilsbu-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torgilsbu-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6f54b68f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torgilsbu-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Torgilsbu" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torgilsbu" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:34.267594+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Torgilsbu was a Norwegian hunting, meteorological and radio station (Torgilsbu Radio/LMQ) located on the King Frederick VI Coast, Southeastern Greenland. +Administratively the area were the hut stood belongs now to the Kujalleq municipality. +The station was located on the northern shore of the head of Nanuuseq Fjord, formerly known as Oyfjord. There was an anchorage in the fjord near the station. + + +== History == + +In 1931 Norway sent two expeditions to establish hunting and radio stations in Southeast Greenland. Led by Ole Mortensen, one of the expeditions went to Storfjord (Kangerlussuaq Fjord) on ship Signalhorn and built a hut there. Since hunting there was poor, Mortensen moved with his men to Lindenow Fjord, where a Norwegian radio and meteorological station named Moreton was built 7 km (4.3 mi) from the mouth of the fjord in 1932. Meanwhile another Norwegian station was built in Thorland and named Finnsbu. +In the same year Norway staked sovereignty claims in Southeast Greenland between 60°30'N —just north of Nanuuseq, and 63°40'N —just south of Odinland. As a result, another expedition was sent by the Norwegian government led by Gunnar Horn on ship Veslemari and the Storfjord Station was reestablished. The Lindenow Fjord station was moved to a better location further north to Nanuuseq Fjord. +The meteorological station in the new location was named "Torgilsbu", after Torgils Orrabeinfostre, a legendary Norseman who was shipwrecked in 1001 and spent four years trying to reach the Western Settlement. Subsequently seven smaller stations were established in the area near Torgilsbu. +Together with Finnsbu and Storfjord further north, Torgilsbu became part of the Norwegian contribution to the International Polar Year 1932–33. +Gino Watkins and his two companions, Percy Lemon and Augustine Courtauld, stopped at Torgilsbu during their open boat journey of 600 nautical miles (1,111 km) around the King Frederick VI Coast in the south of Greenland. The Norwegians gave them hospitality and helped them to repair their boats. +Mortensen died by drowning in the waters of the fjord while fishing on the ice. After the 1933 resolution of the Permanent Court of International Justice rejecting Norway's claims in Greenland, the stations further north at Storfjord and Finnsbu were closed, but Torgilsbu continued operation, being manned by a staff of three that were relieved each year by a Norwegian ship. The station was closed in 1940, following the German occupation of Norway. +After the Nanuuseq Fjord station was abandoned, the name "Torgilsbu" was transferred to one of the Bluie WWII weather stations, Bluie East One, a little further south on Prince Christian Sound. + + +== Bibliography == +Spencer Apollonio, Lands That Hold One Spellbound: A Story of East Greenland, 2008 +Frode Skarstein, “A cursed affair”—how a Norwegian expedition to Greenland became the USA’s first maritime capture in World War II. Norwegian Polar Institute, + + +== See also == +Erik the Red's Land + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Norwegian Polar Year and Radio Stations in East Greenland, 1932–33 +Anders Christian Feyling, Torgilsbu 1933-34: dagbok ført av radiostasjonens bestyrer +The World at War - Greenland 1721 - 1953 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_the_Winds_(Oxford)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_the_Winds_(Oxford)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4f064c53 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_the_Winds_(Oxford)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Tower of the Winds (Oxford)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_the_Winds_(Oxford)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:39.460531+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Tower of the Winds is the prominent octagonal tower on top of the old Radcliffe Observatory building in Oxford, England. The building now forms a centrepiece for Green Templeton College, one of the colleges of Oxford University. +The tower is based on the ancient (but much smaller) Tower of the Winds in Athens, Greece, built c.100–50 BC by Andronicus of Cyrrhus for the purpose of measuring time. It is of octagonal stone construction, with eight relief images of Greek mythological wind gods at the top of each side of the tower, carved by John Bacon the Elder in 1792–4, copying those in Athens. The tower was completed by James Wyatt in 1794. On the top are Atlas and Hercules supporting a globe in white, also by John Bacon. The reliefs of the signs of the zodiac above the windows on the first floor are made of Coade stone by J. C. F. Rossi. Inside the tower, there are three main rooms on top of each other. +The Tower of the Winds is situated in prominent view of the adjacent telescope dome of the Radcliffe Observatory, +which has lent its name not only to Observatory Street to the north, but also the surrounding Radcliffe Observatory Quarter (ROQ) which has supplanted the previous Radcliffe Infirmary complex with a constellation of prominent new buildings of the University of Oxford. The closest of these are the Andrew Wiles Mathematical Institute and the striking new Stephen A. Schwarzman Centre for the Humanities, thereby creating an arrangement which juxtaposes noted examples of 21st-century academic architecture with the 18th-century observatory and Tower. Other modern buildings in the ROQ include the NHS's Jericho Health Centre and the Blavatnik School of Government. +The ROQ is bounded on the south by Somerville College and on the north by Green Templeton College, while the Woodstock Road and Walton Street +respectively represent its eastern and western boundaries. Just across the Woodstock Road is located St Anne's College, which therefore also enjoys fine views of the Tower. + + +== See also == +Classical compass winds +List of wind deities +Observatory Street, Oxford +Radcliffe Observatory +Radcliffe Observatory Quarter +Tower of the Winds, Athens, Greece + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter_Hamburg-Billstedt-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter_Hamburg-Billstedt-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..31542e28d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter_Hamburg-Billstedt-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Transmitter Hamburg-Billstedt" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter_Hamburg-Billstedt" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:35.511493+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Transmitter Hamburg-Billstedt is a broadcasting facility in Hamburg-Billstedt, established in 1934. It is owned and operated by the Norddeutscher Rundfunk public broadcasting service, but open to competitors, too. + + +== History == +From 1934 to 1949 it used as transmission aerial a wire hung up in a tower of wood. This tower had until 1941 a height of 145 metres. In 1941 its height was reduced to 84.5 metres and in 1949 it was demolished. +In 1940 a second aerial in form of a triangle area aerial was built. This aerial allowing transmitting on a wide frequency range was demolished in the Fifties. +In 1949/50 a 198-metre-high guyed steelframework mast with a cage aerial and a transmission aerial for FM and TV on its top was erected. From this mast, which was partly destroyed by a storm during its erection in December 1949, between 1953 and 1962 the programme of the "Deutschen Langwellensender" (German longwave transmitter) was broadcast. +This programme was transmitted in a special modulation mode, the compatible single sideband modulation, allowing smaller bandwidth and the possibility of reception with conventional AM receivers. +Because this mast was under high voltage the aerials for FM and TV on its top were fed via a Goubau line. +In the first half of the 1960s this aerial mast was demounted and the current installation built. It consists of: + +Guyed steel tube mast for FM and TV, built in 1960. This radio mast has a diameter of 2 metres. It was 255 metres high in 1960 and grew to 300 metres in the meantime. +Guyed tubular mast radiator for mediumwave. This mast, which is 184 metres tall, is insulated against ground. It is designed as double feedable fading-reducing aerial and therefore equipped with a separation insulator in a height of 101 metres +Guyed steel tube mast with a height of 120.9 metres and a diameter of 0.7 metres. This mast was built in 1939. It stood until 1963 at Osterloog transmitting station and was dismounted in this year and rebuilt in Hamburg-Billstedt. It is insulated against ground and used as back-up aerial for mediumwave. +Guyed steel framework mast with a height of 77 metres insulated against ground. This mast built in 1979 is used as reflector mast for the 184-metre-high medium wave transmission mast. Its construction was necessary because of the conditions of the waveplan of Geneva. +Since 1967, the University of Hamburg has been using the 304 m-mast as a six-level meteorological measurement platform, with thermometers, hygrometers, and anemometers mounted at various heights up to 280 m above ground. The atmospheric variables are sampled at a high temporal resolution to allow computation of boundary layer turbulent fluxes of heat and momentum. Live data and time series are also made available via the World Wide Web. [1] +In 2025, a second Mast of 303 m high was made for NDR nearby. + + +== Hamburg's Light Miracle == +In 1934, shortly after the inauguration of the facility, some owners of recreational gardens discovered that a light bulb connected to ground and a highly spun wire made the bulb light up brightly enough to illuminate a small house. Later many other did so. Transmission energy is taken from the transmitter, and induces electrical power in the wire. This effect was not discovered immediately. Later, technicians of the transmitter noticed, that in the houses of nearby gardens, lights went on and off depending on whether the transmitter was switched on or off. This phenomenon got the nickname "Hamburger Lichtwunder" (German: "Hamburg's light miracle"). After this was discovered, use of transmitting energy of radio transmitters for other purposes than radio reception was prohibited in Germany by law. +technic3d.com, Literature "Wunder der Wellen", Author: Eduard Rhein + + +== See also == +List of masts +List of towers + + +== References == + + +== External links == + + +=== Radio transmitter === +Billwerder-Moorfleet Transmitter (1934) at Structurae +Billwerder-Moorfleet Transmitter (1950) at Structurae +UKW-Sendemast Hamburg-Billwerder at Structurae +Mittelwellensendemast Hamburg-Billwerder at Structurae +Reservemittelwellensendemast Hamburg-Billwerder at Structurae +Reflektormast Hamburg-Billwerder at Structurae +http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b45492 +http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b45494 +http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b45495 +http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b60444 +http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=60443 +http://www.skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=47079 +Google Maps: Main Transmission Mast + + +=== Meteorological observatory === +https://web.archive.org/web/20060630195430/http://wettermast-hamburg.zmaw.de/ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropenhaus_Frutigen-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropenhaus_Frutigen-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f423f762a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropenhaus_Frutigen-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Tropenhaus Frutigen" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropenhaus_Frutigen" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:10.558184+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Tropenhaus (English: Tropic House) in Frutigen, Switzerland, is a commercial project using geothermal energy from hot water flowing out of the Lötschberg base tunnel for the production of sturgeon meat, and caviar and formerly exotic fruit in a tropical greenhouse in the Swiss alps. In 2007, the project received the Prix Evenir, the Swiss petroleum industry's CHF 50,000 award for sustainable development. +The idea for the greenhouse began in 2002 when it became apparent that the water continuously flowing out of the Lötschberg Base Tunnel could not be directly diverted to the local river, the Kander, as its temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) would disrupt the biological rhythm of the endangered trout there. Rather than cooling the water artificially, wasting its thermal energy, tunnel engineers founded a start-up company to use the warm water to heat a greenhouse. The construction of the site began in May 2008 at 8 million CHF, and was completed by the end of 2009. Visitors were welcomed that same year. + +A sturgeon farm, one of few in Europe, is the heart of the Tropenhaus. Some 60,000 fish are intended to be grown in 40 outdoor basins. The sturgeons thrive in permanent Siberian summer conditions and are intended to yield 20 tonnes of meat as well as two tonnes of caviar annually. The first sturgeon fillets were sold in local stores in November 2008. The rest of the greenhouses were initially dedicated to the production of tropical fruits, such as banana, papaya, mango and guava in an area of 2,000 m2 (21,500 sq ft). +The Tropenhaus was also conceived as a tourist destination, with a visitors' centre, a visitors' trail through the installation, a restaurant, and an exhibition room (paid for by a Bernese energy company) showcasing the project's use of renewable energy and sustainability. +In 2024, the Tropenhaus ended all touristical activities to focus on fish and caviar production. + + +== See also == + +Fishing industry in Switzerland + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Agricultural_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Agricultural_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..003c81f31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Agricultural_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Tropical Agricultural Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Agricultural_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:02.983139+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +USDA-ARS Tropical Agriculture Research Station or TARS is an USDA-ARS agricultural research center with well known botanical garden in the city of Mayagüez, in Puerto Rico. Maricao, in Puerto Rico. Its code of international recognition as a botanical institution, as well as the initials of its herbarium is MAYAG. + + +== Location == +This botanical garden is located at Pedro Albizu Campos Ave. Suite 201 Mayagüez 00680, between Carr. 65 intersection with Carr. 108. +Tropical Agricultural Research Station Mayagüez Institute of Tropical Agriculture, PO Box 70, Autonomous Municipality of Mayagüez, PR 00708, Puerto Rico. +Office hours to arrange a visit of the TARS are from 7:00 am – 12:00 pm / 1:00 pm – 4:00 pm. + + +== History == +In 1901, the United States Congress authorized the establishment of the research station in Mayagüez to study agricultural problems of interest to Puerto Rico. One hundred years later, the station makes important contributions to agriculture on a regional and national scale. +According to Ricardo J. Goenaga, the director of the TARS, the main goal of the scientists at the station is the development of fruit production systems that help growers to increase the market and the sales potential of the crops. +The Germplasm Research and Introduction Unit in Saint Croix, of the United States Virgin Islands, is a satellite site of the Mayagüez station. This facility is also part of the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS]) of the ARS. The new germplasm is grown here in isolation and is certified free of harmful pathogens before it is distributed for home use. + + +== Collections == +Currently, the TARS contains one of the best and well-documented tropical plant collections in the Western Hemisphere, consisting of more than 2,000 permanently cultivated species, both tropical fruits and ornamental plants. +TARS research also focuses on improving genetic diversity in dry greens and sorghum. + + +== Activities == +Currently the "TARS" is developing the projects: + +Quick and easy method to identify the susceptibility and resistance of sorghum to ergotism. +Selection of germplasm from green bean with heat tolerance and disease resistance of common bacterial infection. +Selection of clones of cocoa that produce high yields of their crops. +Determination of the water that guineo and papaya need to grow in various types of soil. +New crops of fruit varieties of plantains, papayas and other tropical fruits. + + +== See also == + +List of botanical gardens and arboretums in Puerto Rico + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7c5b1ecfc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Tycho Brahe Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:15.922812+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Planetarium (formerly Tycho Brahe Planetarium) is located at the southern end of the lake Skt. Jørgens Sø in Copenhagen, Denmark. It was designed by MAA Knud Munk (1936–2016) and opened on November 1, 1989. + + +== History == +The planetarium is built where the Saltlageret theater was previously located. The foundation stone was placed on February 22, 1988, and the planetarium opened on November 1, 1989. The financial basis for building the planetarium was a 50,000,000 DKK donation by the foundation Bodil Pedersen Fonden to the foundation Uraniafonden, which administered the construction of the planetarium. Since 1989, the Bodil Pedersen Fonden has also awarded the annual Tycho Brahe Medaljen. + + +== Exhibition == +The exhibition underwent a major renovation in 2017, and the new exhibition Cosmos (formerly Made in Space) opened in February 2018. The exhibition was made in collaboration with Tony-winning, London based designers, 59 Productions, and was made on a donation from the foundation A.P. Møller Fonden. The exhibition is an interactive and including exhibition, telling the story of how all of the elements that make up a human originally came from space. +Planetarium is home to the largest lunar rock that can be seen outside the US. Weighing more than 200 grams, it was brought back to Earth by the crew on the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. +In the Dome Theatre there are shows every day. The centre also screens films. Most are narrated to Danish, but it is possible to have English narration in headphones. During summertime there are normally a few shows in English every day. There are also two smaller exhibitions. One about the moon and the other about Saturn's rings. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Planetarium website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understory_(company)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understory_(company)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4d7ccd779 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understory_(company)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Understory (company)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understory_(company)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:36.721466+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Understory (founded in 2012 as WInstruments) is a company that forecasts weather and collects data using a grid of weather-sensing hardware that tracks weather from the ground level. + + +== History == +Although originally known as WInstruments, founder and CEO Alex Kubicek changed the company name to Subsidence and joined Gener8tor, a group in Madison, Wisconsin that provides funding to startups. After receiving funding from Gener8tor, the company moved to Boston to the Bolt hardware accelerator. Kubicek soon renamed the company “Understory,” and combined funding from Gener8tor and Bolt came to $68,000. After raising $1.9 million in seed funding led by True Ventures, with participation by RRE Ventures, Vegas Tech Fund, SK Ventures, and Andrew C. Payne, the company moved from Madison to Boston, Massachusetts. +Headquarters was set up in Somerville at the clean tech incubator, Greentown Labs, and the company set up pilot tests in Kansas City, Missouri, Dallas, Texas, and Boston. +Series A funding resulted in another $7.5 million for the company, co-led by 4490 Ventures and Monsanto Growth Ventures and joined by CSA Partners, True Ventures, RRE Ventures, and SK Ventures. The company then announced a plan to move back to Madison, Wisconsin. +The company's first customer was American Family Insurance, which uses weather data to adjust claims. + + +== Device == +Understory makes solar-powered weather stations that detect three-dimensional rain, hail, wind and other weather in real-time at the ground level, instead of using atmospheric data like traditional weather detectors. Each weather station is about 1 foot wide and 2 feet tall, and connects in a grid through cellular connections. The stations can collect up to 3,000 data points per minute. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zimbabwe_Lake_Kariba_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zimbabwe_Lake_Kariba_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71c0df3ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zimbabwe_Lake_Kariba_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zimbabwe_Lake_Kariba_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:05.323640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station is a research station in the Nyamhunga suburb of Kariba. It is operated by the University of Zimbabwe. Station staff have published research on topics such as fish diets and population dynamics and climate change. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99ad8e491 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "University of the Philippines Los Baños Limnological Research Station" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:04.171350+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The UPLB Limnological Research Station traces its root from the Department of Entomology, of the then UP College of Agriculture. Since its conception, the station contributed immensely to the understanding of the bounties of Laguna de Bay and helped establish the duck farming industry on Los Baňos foreshores and pioneered in aquarium fish production in the country. It serves as the base for studies on limnology and biology of aquatic organisms aimed at developing strategies for the optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources; developing, adapting or improving conventional technologies used to increase fish production; and promoting environment friendly approaches for effective water management. + +== History == + +=== Pre-War === +The idea of institutionalizing a Limnological Station began as a result of collaboration between Dr. Leopoldo B. Uichanco, professor and head of the Department of Entomology of the then UP College of Agriculture and Albert William Herre, then Chief of Fisheries Division, Bureau of Science, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources on ‘Dolong’, a species of goby that can be found in Laguna de Bay (Ref: Letter of Albert W. Herre to Dr. L.B. Uichangco dated January 19, 1926, UPLB LRS archive # 1). On August 17, 1928, the UP College of Agriculture Limnological Research and Aquatic Resources Management Center was established with Proclamation No. 176 signed by Governor General Henry L. Stimson (Gov. Gen from Dec. 27, 1927 to February 23, 1929) as its backbone and maintained as a facility under the Department of Entomology. +Under Dr. L.B. Uichangco’s diligent efforts, more researches on aquatic animals and more courses in Zoology were instituted. Dr. Deogracias V. Villadolid, upon his return after getting his Ph.D. in Aquatic Biology from Stanford University in 1927, Zoology was no longer a mere background to entomology. Dr. Villadolid, who became head of the station more than any other, was responsible for the enhanced development of fisheries in the Philippines. Dr. Villadolid together with Messrs. Andres M. Mane and F. Alonte eventually left the department in 1934 and transferred to the Bureau of Fisheries now known as the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) and served as its director, and later became an aquatic biologist of the Fish and Game Administration (Gabriel, 1979), operations of the station naturally ceased. +Since then, work has not been resumed primarily due to lack of funds and low priority assigned to the activity in addition to the onset of World War II in 1941. + +=== World War II === +World War II brought the Department back to almost where it was in 1909. Cendana (1959) narrated that during the Japanese occupation, it was impossible to do any kind of research work. But instruction went on throughout the war years, although only two courses, Zoology 1 and Entomology 1, could be offered. During the end of war, retreating Japanese soldiers burned the Entomology Building on February 23, 1945. With it was burned everything that took the Department 32 years to accumulate including extensive insect and zoological collections, irreplaceable biological notes, valuable books and all the equipment. + +=== Post-War === +The UP College of Agriculture was re-opened in June 1945, with Dean L.B. Uichanco as the concurrent head of the Department of Entomology. Upon the establishment of the College of Arts and Humanities (renamed on October 28, 1977 College of Arts and Sciences) on December 21, 1972, Zoology became one of its seven initial departments. When the programs in Hydrozoology and Wildlife Zoology were instituted, the need to reactivate and bring the Station back to its real potentials consequently started. In 1975, an ad hoc committee for the reactivation of the Station was formed with Dr. Cesar P. Madamba of the Department of Zoology, CAS as Chairman. Members of the committee were Dr. W.P. David, Dr. B.L. Cariaso, Dr. B.P. Gabriel, Dr. V.J. Calilung and Dr. C.R. Barril. They initiated plans and activities for the research station at the University level. After the construction of the new Station, an ad hoc committee was formed to conceptualize research plans and other developments regarding aquatic resources management, also with Dr. Madamba as Chairman with the original five members of the reactivation committee and Mr. Batoon from ACCI as an addition. The Station was renamed UPLB Limnological Research Station. +At the time it was reserved, the Station ground directly bordered Laguna de Bay. However, there has been built up - as a result in part of the accumulation of sand and shell by constant wave action and in part of the recession of the lake's water - a foreshore accretion between the original reservation and the Lake. Since the Station's research activities in the waters of the Lake cannot very well be carried out without direct access to it, the Station's premises were extended, as the waters of the Lake receded, to this accretion area. Aware of the need for a Freshwater Research Center, then Philippine President Ferdinand E. Marcos proclaimed the Reservation Area under Proclamation No. 1678, thereby amending Proclamation No. 176, signed at UPLB on October 10, 1977 making the Station's total land area at 4.077 hectares. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f3acd5d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "University of the Philippines Los Baños Limnological Research Station" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:04.171350+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Present === +The UPLB Limnological Research Station (popularly called Limno Station or just Limno) is being managed by the Animal Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences. The Station has a total land area of 4.78 ha. situated at the foreshore of Laguna de Bay in Barangay Mayondon, Los Baňos Laguna. +On January 28, 1994, the Station was identified and established as the National Center for Inland Waters Research and Development by the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development-Department of Science and Technology (PCAMRD-DOST). The Station is also the seat of PCAMRD-DOST's Southern Luzon Zonal Center for Aquatic and Marine R&D (Zonal Center 2). +The UPLB Limnological Research Station once again plays an important role in the fisheries sector through the leadership of their Station Manager, Dr. Pablo P. Ocampo, paving the way towards achieving its goals to: (1) develop optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources; (2) conduct limnological studies; (3) conduct training and extension activities on different aspects of aquarium fish production; (4) develop culture technique for live feeds; (5) develop new aquarium varieties from indigenous fish species; and, (6) conduct captive breeding on some selected endemic/endangered freshwater fish species. + +== Goals == +Develop optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources +Conduct limnological studies +Conduct captive breeding studies on some endemic/endangered fish species +Conduct training and extension activities on different aspects of aquarium fish production +Develop culture techniques for live feeds +Develop new aquarium varieties from indigenous fish species + +== Research Fields == +Limnological studies +Endemic/endangered fish propagation +Aquarium fish culture +Aquatic plant culture +Fish parasites and diseases + +== Extension Activities == +TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE +Cooperators in aquarium fish production project +Researchers from different institution and government agencies +Fisherfolk organizations and interested private individuals +Student researchers +CONDUCT TRAININGS +Aquarium fish production +Limnological techniques + +== Facilities == +Hatchery +Incubators +Fry-rearing tanks +Grow-out ponds +Library +Conference/Training Room +Three equipped Research Laboratories + +=== Ornamental Fish Laboratory === +Angel Fish Breeding +Fighting Fish Breeding + +=== Captive Breeding Laboratory === +Leiopotherapon plumbeus (Ayungin) Breeding +Glossogobius celebius (Rock Goby) Breeding + +=== Biology Laboratory === +Live Native and Endemic Diminutive Freshwater Fish Collection +Ichthyological (Pisces) Reference Collection + +== Fish Ark Philippines == +Program Leader: Dr. Pablo P. Ocampo +Fish Ark Philippines: Direction for the Conservation of Native and Endemic Philippine Freshwater Fishes, a program funded by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) through the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD), with an overall objectives in line with the Philippine Strategy for Biological Conservation, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and the Provisions No. 24 of Republic Act 9147 (otherwise known as the Philippine Conservation and Protection Act). The program will also address gaps in our knowledge of the species richness of freshwater aquatic fauna and inland ecosystems, particularly from inland waters. +The main goals of the program are the following: (1) to develop an equip aqua laboratory where threatened and endangered native or endemic freshwater fishes can be provided with safe refuge until such time that adequate and protected natural habitat can be established; (2) to establish a self-sustaining captive breeding program and produce adequate breeding stock as backup populations, and attempt to develop techniques to prepare animals for re-introduction; (3) to document the status of different freshwater species in the wild, and set priorities for species to be conserved or re-introduced; and, (4) to develop information delivery systems that would underscore conservation education and public awareness that can create local support necessary in sustaining re-introduction efforts. +The program has four component projects: + +Component Project I: Survey of Diminutive Freshwater Fishes Indigenous to Isolated Crater Lakes, Mountain Streams and Cataracts in Southern Luzon, Philippines +(Project Leader: Dr. Vachel Gay V. Paller) + +Component Project II: Captive Breeding of the Native and Endemic Diminutive Freshwater Fishes +(Project Leader: Dr. Pablo P. Ocampo) + +Component Project III: Biochemical and Cytogenetic Profile of Selected Native and Endemic Philippine Freshwater Fishes +(Project Leader: Dr. Roberto C. Reyes) + +Component Project IV: Isolation and Characterization of Microsatellites in Selected Native and Endemic Philippine Freshwater Fishes +(Project Leader: Dr. Maria Genaleen Q. Diaz) + +== References == +Labatos, Bonifacio, Jr. V. 2009. History of UPLB Limnological Research Station. 4p +"UPLB History". University of the Philippines Los Baños. +"About UPLB Research, Development and Extension". University of the Philippines Los Baños + +== External links == +"UPLB RDE Portal - OVCRE". Ovcre.uplb.edu.ph. Retrieved 9 June 2018. +"'Ayungin' (Leiopotherapon plumbeus) target of conservation attempt by researchers". Researchsea.com. 22 October 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2018. +"Freshwater fish get to ride in fish ark". ScienceBlog.com. 7 May 2009. Retrieved 9 June 2018. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VENUS-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VENUS-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..473f6ad97 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VENUS-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "VENUS" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VENUS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:47.863824+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Victoria Experimental Network Under the Sea (VENUS) is one of two principal cabled seafloor observatories operated by Ocean Networks Canada at the University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. +The VENUS cabled ocean observatory is designed to provide new ways of studying the ocean. Since its launch in 2006, it has enabled scientists to run and monitor various ocean experiments remotely. +The aim of VENUS is to study coastal oceans in two sites near Victoria and Vancouver, British Columbia. The first site of the VENUS seafloor network, operational since February 2006, is located in Saanich Inlet at 100m. The second site is located in the deeper waters of the Strait of Georgia and links instrument arrays deployed at depths varying from 100 to 300 meters. +VENUS uses Internet, telecommunication technology, and a network of about 50 kilometers of fiber optic cables at a maximum depth of 300 meters to create a permanent link to cameras and other monitoring instruments on the seafloor. The VENUS observatory has scores of sensors that measure such parameters as temperature, salinity, and pressure of the water 24 hours a day. The seafloor instruments provide oceanographers, marine biologists, and geologists with real-time ocean data. Ship-based ocean research methods provide a snapshot view only, whereas the VENUS observatory can be like a continuous film, which will allow more reliable long term observation. +The data, including images and audio, are processed and made available to researchers and the public through the VENUS website. The goal of the project is to not only provide valuable information to advance research, but also to allow members of the public to log on and view the ocean up close. +The facility is funded by the federal and provincial governments of Canada, as well as private industry. VENUS is designed to provide continuous observations for 20–25 years. + + +== See also == +NEPTUNE Canada, a sister observatory to VENUS, also operated by Ocean Networks Canada. +MARS, a similar MBARI cabled-based oceanography observatory. +SATURN, Science and Technology University Research Network, a coastal margin, or river-to-ocean, testbed observatory for the United States Pacific Northwest, a project of the National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center for Coastal Margin Observation and Prediction. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Ocean Networks Canada website +Center for Coastal Margin Observation and Prediction official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVC_weather_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVC_weather_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f8a21bb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVC_weather_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "VVC weather station" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VVC_weather_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:37.941350+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The VDNKh weather station is the principal weather station in Moscow, Russia. It opened in 1948 on the grounds of the All-Russia Exhibition Centre. The station's World meteorological organization classification index is 27612. + + +== History == +The Moscow Agrometeorological station at the VSHV was opened on August 1, 1939, along with the main cascade, and operated for 11 months until July 1, 1940. Since the beginning of the war, it has been mothballed. It was only on May 20, 1948, that the 2nd-class meteorological station was reopened on the territory of the All-Russian Agricultural Academy. On June 10, 1949, it was reorganized into the agrometeorological station Moscow, VSHV, which still exists today under the name Moscow, VDNH. The station was moved several times within the territory of VDNKH, but the surrounding conditions did not change significantly.. + + +== Climatological data == + + +== Climate change == +According to the VDNKh weather station, the climate has been getting warmer in recent decades, and the average annual temperature has been rising.. The reasons for this process may be both the so—called global warming and the natural cyclical climate, as well as the continued growth of the city (an increase in population, the number of cars, etc. - there are many construction projects in the VDNKH area, new overpasses and interchanges have appeared). At the same time, the latter factor still plays the least importance — warming at VDNKh is proceeding at the same pace as at suburban stations. +Average temperature over the decade: + +1969—1978 — +4,8 °C +1979—1988 — +5,0 °C +1989—1998 — +5,7 °C +1999—2008 — +6,3 °C +2009—2018 — +6,8 °C +2019—2028 — +7,3 °C +2029—2038 — +7,8 °C +2039—2048 — +8,3 °C +2049—2058 — +8,8 °C +2059—2068 — +9,3 °C +2069—2078 — +9,8 °C +2079—2088 — +10,3 °C +2089—2098 — +10,8 °C +The warming is uneven throughout the year, for example, December and January have warmed significantly in winter, the temperature in February has increased slightly; in spring, the temperature in March and April has increased, and the temperature in May has decreased slightly. +In summer, warming is observed in July and August, the temperature in June decreased slightly. In autumn, warming occurs in all months, the most in November .In November 2005, in 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 In recent years, the average monthly temperature has been above 0. As a result, over the past 10 years (2003-2012), the average temperature in November has turned positive, reaching +0.9, which was previously unusual for this month. In the Moscow region, November traditionally refers to the cold season. + + +=== Le taux 1991-2020 === +Since 2021, the norms of the 1991-2020 series, calculated according to the data of the VDNKh meteorological station, can be used to characterize the modern climate of Moscow. The World Meteorological Organization has decided that it is necessary to calculate two climatic standards: the climatological standard and the reference. The climatological standard norm is updated every ten years, the reference norm covers the period from 1961 to 1990. + + +== Criticism == + + +=== Lowering the maximum temperature === +Many professional meteorologists criticize the location of the station. In particular, the site does not meet the requirements of the guidance documents on the location of the weather station, according to which the meteorological site should be removed from buildings and trees by at least 10 times their height. (): The weather booth is shaded by tall trees growing about 30 m from the site.. This contributes to the fact that in sunny weather during the period from mid—October to early March (when the sun is lowest above the horizon), the station's temperature readings in sunny weather are seriously underestimated (by 1-2 degrees compared to other Moscow stations). + + +=== Measuring wind speed and recording weather events === +Due to the location of the weather station among dense buildings, it has significantly reduced wind speed and the frequency of snowstorms (compared to weather stations located on the outskirts of the city). There are no night-time landmarks to determine visibility, as a result, visibility observations are not performed at night.. + + +=== Snow cover === +In recent years, the problem of recording more snow cover than the surrounding metropolitan and regional weather stations has become significant. The fact is that the weather station is located in a kind of hollow — there is a forest belt on the south side, which is also located on an elevation relative to the site. Also, given that the weather station is located in a dense urban area in the wind shadow, such conditions contribute to the accumulation of snow cover by the end of the meteorological winter, and a significant discrepancy in its measured height from the actual height of snow cover in the city, including in open areas, even those not affected by anthropogenic influences. +All these violations make the site unsuitable for conducting objective meteorological observations in the metropolis.. + + +=== Technical errors in observations === +Observation errors are also common. An example of a gross error is the value that records the minimum temperature at night from June 30 to July 1, 2010, when, according to data transmitted from the station, the temperature was +1.2 °C. This value is below the historical minimum of July. This data has been transferred to an international exchange and is not subject to correction. +On November 10, 2011, observers made a typo when transmitting encoded data, as a result of which distorted data was received in the international exchange, namely information that the snow cover in Moscow reaches almost 1 meter (97 cm), despite the fact that there was no actual snow cover. + + +== See also == +Climate of Moscow +Weather station + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Fiorita,_Brugherio-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Fiorita,_Brugherio-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..46c0a9650 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Fiorita,_Brugherio-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "Villa Fiorita, Brugherio" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Fiorita,_Brugherio" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:11.786384+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Villa Scotti-Cornaglia-Noseda-Bertani, commonly known as Villa Fiorita, is a building in Lombardy, Italy, where the Brugherio Comune's headquarters are housed. + + +== History == +Villa Fiorita is a historic aristocratic urban mansion with an L-shape layout. An extension overlooks the old town through a wrought iron railing, supported by late baroque pillars, forming the main entrance. The rear entrance faces a large park leading to the church square. +The mansion, built in 1721, was an "aristocratic house" with shells and a garden. It belonged to the counts of Scotti, who have been in Brugherio since the beginning of sixteenth century. The land was owned by the Court of Monza. +In 1778 the count of Vedano, Giambattista Gallarati Scotti, sold it (with the neighbouring building, today known as Palazzo Ghirlanda-Silva) to Gaspare Ghirlanda who probably started the reconstruction and the decorative works of which many traces remain. +The mansion was then inherited by the Nosedas, a family of Milanese land-owners, who used it as a summer residence. In 1921 it was bought by Bertani's brother. +In 1938 the mansion was given to a nursing home for "nervous afflictions" known as Villa Fiorita. This clinic, managed by the accountant Bogani, who came from Milan, between 1949 and 1956 was home to the painter Filippo De Pisis from Ferrara who used the mansion's greenhouse as an office, now called Serra De Pisis. +The building, because of its heritage status and the recent transformation into a nursing home, has been frequently modified for practical and sanitary reasons: two shells and an extension were demolished in 1963. +The building was further remodelled, however without changing the structure, to house the town hall, whose opening took place on the 17 December 1978. During the renovation, the original three-arcades portico was rebuilt with granite pillars. + + +== Description == + +The remodelling works removed almost all the fresco decorations on the facade. At the rear, there is a monochrome representation of cariatidis that seem to be supporting the balconies but these are in fact a twentieth-century addition. +Inside in the mayor's office on the ground floor, there is a fresco on the ceiling while in the hall and in the central room overlooking the garden, there are the remains of eighteenth-century frieze frescos depicting mythological scenes (possibly episodes from Cleopatra's life). +Through the grand staircase to the first floor, there is a large "Arts and crafts" fresco by Max Squillace, Franco Ghezzi and Gian Mario Mariani. The wall painting depicts cultural, family, farming and factory activities, and man's aggressiveness. The farming activities are represented by a man with a plough and oxen. The family, in a social context, is depicted by a man who gives to a woman, lying on the large hand of mother earth, a wheat seed as a sign of fertility. The figures contained inside a globe represent culture. Finally, a man symbolizes aggressiveness within man. In the centre, showing the relationship of the figures with the city, there is the town's coat of arms. + + +== Villa Fiorita's Park == + +Beyond Villa Fiorita, in the centre of Brugherio, there is an English landscape garden covering about 7,000 m2 (75,000 sq ft). It was first documented from the eighteenth century, when it was just a small garden annexed to count Ottaviano Scotti's mansion. +In the second half of the nineteenth century it was enlarged and transformed into a classical romantic garden with a man-made hill, winding paths, irregularly set shrubs, rocks bordering the flower-beds, allées and fencing. +There are more than 600 different shrubs composed not just by hackberries and yew trees, but also by cedars, horse chestnuts, beech trees, ginkgos, maples, elms and robinias. +Of particular note are the monumental hackberry in front of the De Pisis greenhouse, the magnificent Sophora japonica and the historic thicket of bamboo. +The park includes a playground for children and a kiosk with toilets. The park also hosts cultural and musical events and, in the summer evenings, films are shown in the open-air. + + +== De Pisis greenhouse == +The Villa Fiorita Park includes a building that was used as a greenhouse. Villa Fiorita became a psychiatric nursing home, and between 1949 and 1956 it hosted the painter Filippo de Pisis (1896-1956) of Ferrara who used the greenhouse as an office. He chose it for its park setting and its optimal exposure to sunlight. + + +== See also == +Palazzo Ghirlanda-Silva + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Brugherio: i suoi luoghi, la sua storia: 225. anniversario del primo volo italiano in mongolfiera con uomini a bordo (in Italian). Brugherio: Comune di Brugherio. 2009. +Tribuzio Zotti, Luciana (1986). Brugherio nei documenti (in Italian). Brugherio: Musicografia Lombarda. +Tribuzio Zotti, Luciana (1987). Brugherio: luoghi memorabili (in Italian). Brugherio: Parole Nuove. +Mancini, Manuela (1996). BRUGHERIO Presente e Passato (in Italian). Milano: Swan Edizioni. +Cooperativa Agricola di Consumo. Calendario BRUGHERIO ierIOggi 1994 (in Italian). Milano. + + +== External links == + +"Comune di Brugherio. Parco di Villa Fiorita" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015. +"Lombardia Beni Culturali. Architetture. Villa Ghirlanda, Noseda, Bertani (complesso) Brugherio" (in Italian). Retrieved 3 April 2015. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlaams_Instituut_voor_Biotechnologie-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlaams_Instituut_voor_Biotechnologie-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..86ba657b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlaams_Instituut_voor_Biotechnologie-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlaams_Instituut_voor_Biotechnologie" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:02:34.086926+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +VIB is a research institute located in Flanders, Belgium. It was founded by the Flemish government in 1995, and became a full-fledged institute on 1 January 1996. The main objective of VIB is to strengthen the excellence of Flemish life-sciences research and to turn the results into new economic growth. +VIB spends almost 80% of its budget on research activities, while almost 12% is spent on technology transfer activities and stimulating the creation of new businesses. VIB is member of EU-LIFE, an alliance of leading life-sciences research centres in Europe. +As of 2026, the institute is led by Christine Durinx and Jérôme Van Biervliet. Ajit Shetty is chairman of the board of directors. + + +== Goals == +VIB's mission is to conduct frontline biomolecular research in life sciences for the benefit of scientific progress and the benefit of society. The strategic goals of the VIB are: + +Strategic basic research; +Technology transfer policy to transfer the inventions to consumers and patients; +Scientific information for the general public. + + +== Research == +VIB scientists work on the normal and pathological processes occurring in a cell, an organ, or an organism (humans, plants, microorganisms). Research areas include cancer biology, neuroscience, plant biology, computational biology, and inflammatory disease. VIB researchers are affiliated to one of the Flemish universities and work in research departments on different Flemish campuses: Ghent University, KU Leuven, University of Antwerp, and Vrije Universiteit Brussel. +As of 2026, VIB consists of nine centers: + +VIB Inflammation Research Center, at UGent and VUB (Scientific director: Bart Lambrecht) +VIB.AI, VIB Center for AI & Computational Biology, at KU Leuven and UGent (Stein Aerts) +VIB-UAntwerp Center for Molecular Neurology (Rosa Rademakers) +VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, UGent (Yves Van de Peer) +VIB-UGent Medical Biotechnology Center, UGent (Nico Callewaert) +VIB-KU Leuven Center for Cancer Biology, KU Leuven (Diether Lambrechts and Chris Marine) +VIB-KU Leuven Center for Neuroscience (Patrik Verstreken and Joris de Wit) +VIB-KU Leuven Center for Microbiology (Kevin Verstrepen) +VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Jan Steyaert) + + +== Service facilities == +VIB has established several core facilities focused on advanced technologies, which make high-throughput technologies available to academic and industrial researchers in Flanders. + +VIB BioInformatics Training and Service facility +VIB Compound Screening service Facility, UGent +VIB Genetic Service Facility, University of Antwerp +VIB Nucleomics Core, KU Leuven +VIB Nanobody VHH Service Facility, Vrije Universiteit Brussel +VIB Protein Service Facility, UGent +VIB Proteomics Expertise Center, UGent +VIB Bio Imaging Core, UGent and KU Leuven +VIB Metabolomics Core, UGent and KU Leuven +VIB Single Cell Core, UGent and KU Leuven +VIB Tech Watch Core, UGent and KU Leuven +VIB Spatial Catalyst, UGent + + +== Spin-offs == +VIB was involved in the creation of spin-offs from academic research groups, such as for Ablynx, DevGen, CropDesign, ActoGeniX, Pronota (formerly Peakadilly), Agrosavfe, Multiplicom, Orionis, Q-biologicals, SoluCel, Aphea.Bio, Rainbow Crops and Aelin Therapeutics. + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +J. Comijn, P. Raeymaekers, A. Van Gysel, M. Veugelers, Today = Tomorrow : a tribute to life sciences research and innovation : 10 years of VIB, Snoeck, 2006, ISBN 978-90-5349-630-5 +Biotechnology industry in Belgium + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._Gayle_Planetarium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._Gayle_Planetarium-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db27c26df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._Gayle_Planetarium-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "W. A. Gayle Planetarium" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._Gayle_Planetarium" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:05:23.197681+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The W.A. Gayle Planetarium is operated by the Montgomery Zoo for the city of Montgomery, Alabama. It provides public presentations and exhibits on astronomy, planetary science, and space exploration. + + +== Overview == +The W.A. Gayle Planetarium is a planetarium located in Oak Park in the city of Montgomery, Alabama. Dedicated on September 25, 1968, the planetarium is named after William Armistead Gayle, mayor of Montgomery from 1952 to 1959. It was previously operated by Troy University for the City of Montgomery from 1972 to 2022. +The planetarium reopened to the public at the end of January 2024 after a shutdown during COVID-19 and a transfer of management responsibilities from Troy University back to the City of Montgomery. As of June 2024, public shows are offered on each Saturday with shows at 10 am, 11:30 am, 1 pm, and 2:30 pm. Tickets can be purchased at the planetarium gift shop on Saturdays 15-20 minutes before the start of each show. Group reservations (10 or more people) can be obtained by contacting the planetarium office directly and are provided by appointment Tuesdays - Fridays. The planetarium is closed on Sundays and Mondays. +Public and group shows typically offer visitors a full-dome movie about a current topic in astronomy and planetary science. Interactive presentations also provide a tour of the night sky over Montgomery, pointing out what planets, stars, and constellations can be seen overhead. A short laser show is usually provided at the end of the presentation as well. The 159-seat theater uses a Super MediaGlobe II digital projection system (installed in 2014) to simulate the night sky. Other exhibits include a one-fifth scale model of the Hubble Space Telescope, images of celestial objects, and a black-light hallway depicting the history of astronomy. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walipini-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walipini-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dc186d03e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walipini-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Walipini" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walipini" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:13.007818+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A walipini is an earth-sheltered cold frame. It derives its name from the Aymaran languages. It is similar in concept to the pineapple pit that was used, as the name implies, to cultivate pineapple and other exotic fruits in Victorian era Britain and in the cold plains of pre-revolution Russia. +In the Soviet era, similar techniques were developed to grow citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, mandarins, tangerines, grapefruits, limes, pomelos) at temperatures of minus 30 degrees Celsius. By 1950, the Soviet Union boasted 30,000 hectares of citrus plantations producing 200,000 tonnes of fruits per year. +The walipini is attractive to practitioners of permaculture and the sustainability movement because it allows for crops to be grown in greenhouse-like settings whilst requiring little to no heating. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardian_case-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardian_case-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ef293ea00 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardian_case-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Wardian case" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardian_case" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:14.225637+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Wardian case was an early type of terrarium, a sealed protective container for plants. It found great use in the 19th century in protecting foreign plants imported to Europe from overseas, the great majority of which had previously died from exposure during long sea journeys, frustrating the many scientific and amateur botanists of the time. The Wardian case was the direct forerunner of the modern terrarium and vivarium and the inspiration for the glass aquarium. +It is named after Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward (1791–1868) of London, who promoted the case after experiments. He published a book titled On the Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases in 1842. A Scottish botanist named A. A. Maconochie had created a similar terrarium almost a decade earlier, but his failure to publish meant that Ward received credit as the sole inventor. + + +== History and development == + +Ward was a physician with a passion for botany. His personally collected herbarium amounted to 25,000 specimens. The ferns in his London garden in Wellclose Square, however, were being poisoned by London's air pollution, which consisted heavily of coal smoke and sulphuric acid. +Ward also kept cocoons of moths and the like in sealed glass bottles, and in one, he found that a fern spore and a species of grass had germinated and were growing in a bit of soil. Interested but not yet seeing the opportunities, he left the seal intact for about four years, noting that the grass actually bloomed once. After that time however, the seal had become rusted, and the plants soon died from the bad air. Understanding the possibilities, he had a carpenter build him a closely fitted glazed wooden case and found that ferns grown in it thrived. +Ward published his experiment and followed it up with a book in 1842, On the Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases. +English botanists and commercial nurserymen had been passionately prospecting the world for new plants since the end of the 16th century, but these had to travel as seeds or corms, or as dry rhizomes and roots, as salty air, lack of light, lack of fresh water and lack of sufficient care often destroyed all or almost all plants even in large shipments. With the new Wardian cases, tender young plants could be set on deck to benefit from daylight and the condensed moisture within the case that kept them watered, but protected from salt spray. +The first test of the glazed cases was made in July 1833, when Ward shipped two specially constructed glazed cases filled with British ferns and grasses all the way to Sydney, Australia, a voyage of several months that found the protected plants still in good condition upon arrival. Other plants made a return trip: a number of Australian native species that had never survived the transportation previously. The plants arrived in good shape after a stormy voyage around Cape Horn. +One of Ward's correspondents was William Jackson Hooker, later director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Hooker's son Joseph Dalton Hooker was one of the first plant explorers to use the new Wardian cases, when he shipped live plants back to England from Aotearoa/New Zealand in 1841, during the pioneering voyage of HMS Erebus that circumnavigated Antarctica. + +Wardian cases soon became features of stylish drawing rooms in Western Europe and the United States. In the polluted air of Victorian cities, the fern craze and the craze for growing orchids that followed owed much of their impetus to the new Wardian cases. +More importantly, the Wardian case unleashed a revolution in the mobility of commercially important plants. In the 1840s, Robert Fortune used Wardian cases to ship 20,000 tea plants to British India, smuggling them out of Shanghai, China, to begin the tea plantations of Assam. In 1860, Clements Markham used Wardian cases to smuggle the cinchona plant out of South America. In the 1870s, after germination of imported hevea seeds in the heated glasshouses of Kew, seedlings of the rubber tree of Brazil were shipped successfully in Wardian cases to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the new British territories in Malaya to start the rubber plantations. + +Wardian cases have thus been credited for helping break geographic monopolies in the production of important agricultural goods. +Kew Gardens used Wardian cases to ship plants abroad up until 1962. +Wardian cases unintentionally caused the introduction of many invasive species around the world, such as the Japanese honeysuckle, which invaded most of the United States and other countries from its native East Asia. The pathologist and horticulturalist Beverly Thomas Galloway, chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, noted in 1924 that they were probably "the means of scattering more dangerous insects, nematodes, and other pests over the earth than almost any other form of carrier.” +The oldest surviving Wardian case is believed to be from circa 1880, discovered at Tregothnan in 1999. +Ward was always active in the Society of Apothecaries of London, of which he became Master in 1854. Until 1899, the Society managed the Chelsea Physic Garden, London, the second oldest botanical garden in the UK. Ward was a founding member of both the Botanical Society of Edinburgh and the Royal Microscopical Society, a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a Fellow of the Royal Society. + + +== See also == +Vivarium +Pteridomania +Bottle garden +Biotope + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Jones, Felicity (2025). Case Studies: A Story of Plant Travel. Auckland: Massey University Press. +Allen, David Elliston (1969). The Victorian Fern Craze. London: Hutchinson. +Hershey, David (May 1996). "Doctor Ward's Accidental Terrarium". The American Biology Teacher. 58 (5): 276–281. doi:10.2307/4450151. JSTOR 4450151. +Boyd, Peter D. A. (2002-01-02). "Pteridomania - the Victorian passion for ferns". Antique Collecting. Revised: web version. 28 (6): 9–12. Retrieved 2007-10-02. + + +== External links == + +Biography of Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward +David Hershey's website devoted to Ward and his discovery +"The Remarkable Case of Dr Ward" at the Telegraph \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Station_Kurt-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Station_Kurt-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b40358307 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Station_Kurt-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Weather Station Kurt" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Station_Kurt" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:39.157410+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Weather Station Kurt (Wetter-Funkgerät Land-26) was an automatic weather station, erected by a German U-boat crew of the Kriegsmarine in northern Labrador, Dominion of Newfoundland (now part of Canada), in October 1943. Installing the equipment for the station was the only known armed German military operation on land in North America (outside of Greenland) during the Second World War. After the war, it was forgotten until its rediscovery in 1977. + + +== Background == +In the northern hemisphere, weather systems in temperate climates predominantly move from west to east. This gave the Allies an important advantage. The Allied network of weather stations in North America, Greenland, and Iceland allowed the Allies to make more accurate weather forecasts than the Germans. +German meteorologists used weather reports sent by U-boats and weather ships, such as Lauenburg, operating in the North Atlantic. They also had reports from clandestine weather stations in remote parts of the Arctic and readings collected over the Atlantic by specially equipped weather aircraft. +However, the ships and clandestine stations were easily captured by the Allies during the early part of the war. Data from aircraft was incomplete as they were limited in range and susceptible to Allied attack. Regular weather reporting by U-boats put them at risk as it broke radio silence, allowing the Allies to locate them and track their movements by radio triangulation. + + +== Development and deployment == + +To gather more weather information, the Germans developed the Wetter-Funkgerät Land (WFL) automatic weather station. It was designed by Dr. Ernst Ploetze and Edwin Stoebe. Twenty-six were manufactured by Siemens. The WFL had an array of measuring instruments, a telemetry system and a 150 watt, Lorenz 150 FK-type transmitter. It consisted of 10 cylindrical canisters, each 1 metre (3.3 ft) by c. 47 cm (19 in) diameter (1.5 m [4.9 ft] circumference) and weighing around 100 kilograms (220 lb). One canister contained the instruments and was attached to a 10-metre (33 ft) antenna mast. A second, shorter mast carried an anemometer and wind vane. The other canisters contained the nickel-cadmium batteries that powered the system. The WFL would send weather readings every three hours during a two-minute transmission on 3940 kHz. The system could work for up to six months, depending on the number of battery canisters. +Fourteen stations were deployed in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions (Greenland, Bear Island, Spitsbergen, and Franz Josef Land) and five were placed around the Barents Sea. Two were intended for North America. One was deployed in 1943 by the German submarine U-537, but the submarine carrying the other station, U-867, was sunk with depth charges in September 1944 northwest of Bergen, Norway, by a British air attack. +On 18 September 1943, U-537, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Peter Schrewe, departed from Kiel, Germany, on her first combat patrol. She carried WFL-26, codenamed "Kurt;" meteorologist Dr Kurt Sommermeyer and his assistant Walter Hildebrant. En route, the U-boat was caught in a storm and a large breaker produced significant damage including leaks in the hull and the loss of the submarine's quadruple anti-aircraft cannon, leaving it both unable to dive and defenceless against Allied aircraft. + +On 22 October, U-537 arrived at Martin Bay in northern Labrador at a position 60°5′0.2″N 64°22′50.8″W. This is close to Cape Chidley at the north-eastern tip of the Labrador Peninsula. Schrewe selected a site this far north as he believed this would minimize the risk of the station being discovered by Inuit. Within an hour of dropping anchor, a scouting party had located a suitable site and soon after, Sommermeyer, Hildebrant and 10 sailors disembarked to install the station. Armed lookouts were posted on nearby high ground and other crew members set to repair the submarine's storm damage. +For concealment, the station was camouflaged. Empty American cigarette packets were left around the site to deceive any Allied personnel that chanced upon it. One canister was marked and misspelled "Canadian Meteor Service," in order to simulate "Canadian Weather Service" as a German attempt to avoid suspicion if discovered, though no such agency existed in Canada. In addition, the area was part of the Dominion of Newfoundland and was not part of Canada until 1949. The crew worked through the night to install Kurt and repair their U-boat. They finished just 28 hours after dropping anchor and, after confirming the station was working, U-537 departed. However, the weather station functioned for only a few days before its signals became degraded and within three weeks it permanently failed. The U-boat undertook a combat patrol in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland during which she survived three attacks by Canadian aircraft, but sank no ships. The submarine reached port at Lorient, France, on 8 December after 70 days at sea. She was sunk with all hands 11 months later on 11 November 1944 by the submarine USS Flounder near the Dutch East Indies. + + +== Rediscovery == +The German weather station was forgotten until 1977 when Peter Johnson, a geomorphologist working on an unrelated project, stumbled upon it. He suspected it was a Canadian military installation and named it "Martin Bay 7". Around the same time, retired Siemens engineer Franz Selinger, who was writing a history of the company, went through Sommermeyer's papers and learned of the station's existence. +He contacted Canadian Department of National Defence historian W.A.B. Douglas, who went to the site with a team in 1981 and found the station still there, although the canisters had been opened and components strewn about the site. Weather Station Kurt was removed from its site and is now part of the collection of the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa. + + +== See also == +North Atlantic weather war +Schatzgräber (weather station) in the former Soviet Union + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +The Nazi weather station in Labrador +Canadian War Museum artifact description +German Description of Weather Station Kurt, including a wartime picture of the deployed station +English Description of Weather Station Kurt \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..722e6e66d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Weather station" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:40.045982+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, or insolation. Manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period. Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount. + +== Weather instruments == + +A weather instrument is any device that measures weather related conditions. Since there are a variety of different weather conditions, there are a variety of different weather instruments. +Typical weather stations have the following instruments and sensors: + +Thermometer for measuring air and sea surface temperature +Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure +Hygrometer for measuring humidity +Anemometer for measuring wind speed +Pyranometer for measuring solar radiation +Rain gauge for measuring liquid precipitation over a set period of time. +Wind sock for measuring general wind speed and wind direction +Wind vane, also called a weather vane or a weathercock: it shows which way the wind is blowing. +Evaporation pan for measuring evaporation. +In addition, at certain automated airport weather stations, additional instruments may be employed, including: + +Present weather sensor for identifying falling precipitation +Disdrometer for measuring drop size distribution +Transmissometer for measuring visibility +Ceilometer for measuring cloud ceiling +More sophisticated stations may also measure the ultraviolet index, leaf wetness, soil moisture, soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data. + +=== Exposure === + +Except for those instruments requiring direct exposure to the elements (anemometer, rain gauge), the instruments should be sheltered in a vented box, usually a Stevenson screen, to keep direct sunlight off the thermometer and wind off the hygrometer. The instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording, otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a format such as METAR, is also desirable as many weather station's data is required for weather forecasting. + +== Personal weather station == + +A personal weather station is a set of weather measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association, or business (where obtaining and distributing weather data is not a part of the entity's business operation). Personal weather stations have become more advanced and can include many different sensors to measure weather conditions. These sensors can vary between models but most measure wind speed, wind direction, outdoor and indoor temperatures, outdoor and indoor humidity, barometric pressure, rainfall, and UV or solar radiation. Other available sensors can measure soil moisture, soil temperature, and leaf wetness. The quality, number of instruments, and placement of personal weather stations can vary widely, making the determination of which stations collect accurate, meaningful, and comparable data difficult. There are a comprehensive number of retail weather stations available. +Personal weather stations typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a personal computer where data can be displayed, stored, and uploaded to websites or data ingestion/distribution systems. Open-source weather stations are available that are designed to be fully customizable by users. +Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, while some owners share their results with others. They do this by manually compiling data and distributing it, distributing data over the Internet, or sharing data via amateur radio. The Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) is a service which facilitates the sharing of information from personal weather stations. This data is submitted through use of software, a personal computer, and internet connection (or amateur radio) and are utilized by groups such as the National Weather Service (NWS) when generating forecast models. Each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The Weather Underground Internet site is another popular destination for the submittal and sharing of data with others around the world. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data. The UK Met Office's Weather Observations Website (WOW) also allows such data to be shared and displayed. + +== Dedicated ships == + +A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and upper air meteorological measurements for use in weather forecasting. It was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights. The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a global network of 13 weather ships in 1948. Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern Atlantic Ocean while three were located in the northern Pacific Ocean. The agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as they did not avoid weather systems like merchant ships tended to and were considered a valuable resource. The last weather ship was MS Polarfront, known as weather station M ("jilindras") at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. MS Polarfront was removed from service January 1, 2010. Since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by satellites, long range aircraft and weather buoys. Weather observations from ships continue from thousands of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation; the Old Weather crowdsourcing project transcribes naval logs from before the era of dedicated ships. + +== Dedicated buoys == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57659a17c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Weather station" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_station" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:40.045982+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and oceanography data within the world's oceans and lakes. Moored buoys have been in use since 1951, while drifting buoys have been used since the late 1970s. Moored buoys are connected with the seabed using either chains, nylon, or buoyant polypropylene. With the decline of the weather ship, they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s. During the 1980s and 1990s, a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean helped study the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Moored weather buoys range from 1.5–12 metres (5–40 ft) in diameter, while drifting buoys are smaller, with diameters of 30–40 centimetres (12–16 in). Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number, with 1250 located worldwide. Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships. There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well, relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity. + +== Synoptic weather station == + +Synoptic weather stations are instruments which collect meteorological information at synoptic time 00h00, 06h00, 12h00, 18h00 (UTC) and at intermediate synoptic hours 03h00, 09h00, 15h00, 21h00 (UTC). Every weather station has assigned station unique code by WMO for identification. +The common instruments of measure are anemometer, wind vane, pressure sensor, thermometer, hygrometer, and rain gauge. +The weather measures are formatted in special format and transmit to WMO to help the weather forecast model. + +== Networks == +A variety of land-based weather station networks have been set up globally. Some of these are basic to analyzing weather fronts and pressure systems, such as the synoptic observation network, while others are more regional in nature, known as mesonets. + +=== Global === +Global Climate Observing System +Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP) +Weather Underground Personal Weather Stations + +=== Japan === +Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS)（アメダス） + +=== United States of America === +Arizona Meteorological Network (AZMET) +Central Pennsylvania Volunteer Weather Station Network +Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN) +Georgia Environmental Monitoring Network (GAEMN) +Indiana Purdue Automated Agricultural Weather Station Network (PAAWS) +Iowa Environmental Mesonet (IEM) +MesoWest +Michigan Automated Weather Network (MAWN) +Missouri Weather Stations +National Weather Service Cooperative Observer (COOP) program +New York State Mesonet +Oklahoma Mesonet +The Pacific Northwest Cooperative Agricultural Weather Network + +=== Southern Hemisphere === +Antarctic Automatic Weather Stations Project +Australia: Bureau of Meteorology AWS network. +Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia +Australia: Lower Murray Water Automatic Weather Station Network + +== See also == +Global Telecommunications System +Lightning detection +Surface weather observation and surface weather analysis +Weather radar +Weather satellite +Wind profiler + +== Further reading == +Naylor, Simon (2024). The Observatory Experiment: Meteorology in Britain and Its Empire. Cambridge University Press. + +== References == + +== External links == + +Citizen Weather Observer Program +Initial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations at Urban Sites, by Tim R. Oke +International Weather Watchers Observer Handbook +NWS Cooperative Observer Program +NWS Observing Handbook No. 2: Cooperative Station Observations \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Head,_Nova_Scotia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Head,_Nova_Scotia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d66efaa35 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Head,_Nova_Scotia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Western Head, Nova Scotia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Head,_Nova_Scotia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:40.340825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Western Head is a community in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located in the Region of Queens Municipality. The Meteorological Service of Canada maintains a weather station in Western Head ID: CWWE. A lighthouse and fog station, the Western Head Lighthouse, is located here at 43.989109°N 64.661495°W / 43.989109; -64.661495 (Western Head Lighthouse). The lighthouse is an octagonal concrete tower with an aluminum lantern. +Western Head is prone to tropical storms and hurricanes that track up the East Coast. However, effects are usually quick and minimal as the cool waters may weaken the storm, and storms usually move very quickly across Western Head. For example, Hurricane Earl made landfall near Western Head as a large Category One hurricane in 2010. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8b64b7854 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "White Elephant (building)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:41.515341+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +White Elephant (Ukrainian: Білий слон, romanized: Bilyi slon; Polish: Biały Słoń) is an abandoned campus of the former Polish Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory of University of Warsaw, located at remote area on the peak of Pip Ivan in the Chornohora range of the Carpathian Mountains, Ukraine. Currently the structure is used as a mountain shelter with a small search and rescue team with some rooms adapted for lodging and recovery. +Along with that Bialy Slon is recognized as a historical landmark and there are restoration activities on the way since 2012 to restore its original conditions in cooperation with the Ciscarpathian National University and the University of Warsaw and scheduled to be finished in 2018. It is considered to be the highest built residential structure in Ukraine. +The closest settlement today is the village of Zelene in Verkhovyna Raion, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast. Currently the observatory is classified under the registration number three as a monument of cultural heritage that is not considered for privatization. The facility is located with the Carpathian National Nature Park. +The region was part of the Second Polish Republic when the observatory was established during the interbellum period. Biały Słoń, started in 1937 and completed in the summer of 1938, was the highest-elevated, permanently inhabited, building in Poland. It was located on the international border between the Second Polish Republic and Czechoslovakia that stretched across mountain peaks of the Carpathian Mountains. + +== Polish observatory == + +=== Preparation and construction === + +According to Wladyslaw Midowicz, the first and only director of the observatory, the construction of "Biały Słoń" was suggested by a group of influential Warsaw astronomers who managed to convince General Leon Berbecki, director of the influential Airborne and Antigas Defence League, to support it. General Tadeusz Kasprzycki, minister of military affairs, also backed the construction of the observatory. +The building design was approved sometime in 1935. Construction of the building began in the summer of 1936 with an official ceremony for the placing of the cornerstone. Biały Słoń was a very expensive structure with total costs exceeding one million Polish złoty, a huge burden on the state budget at the time. The design was based on the Przemyśl Castle and shaped like a letter "L" with a tower. +The whole complex consists of three major features that could be considered as separate structure connected together: a tower, a main building, and smaller service attachment. Biały Słoń had five stories facing the Czechoslovak side (today Zakarpattia Oblast), and two stories facing the Polish side (today Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast). The whole complex was built mostly from local sandstone. Due to lack of roads, the construction materials were brought by horses, or either by hand or on the backs of local Hutsuls and soldiers of the 49th Hutsul Rifle Regiment from the Vorokhta train station located some 70 km (43 mi) away. The walls of a lower attachment and the semi-basement floor have a thickness of 1.5 m (4.9 ft), while upper floors - 1 m (3.3 ft). The roof of a building was covered with copper sheets. On the southern side there was a rotunda on which a telescope was located. The copper dome of the telescope opened automatically. +Biały Słoń had 43 rooms, including a conference hall, living quarters, offices, a cafeteria, a battery station, and a boiler room in the basement (the lower structure). The upper floors were occupied by astronomers and meteorologists, most of whom worked for the State Meteorological Institute and Astronomical Observatory of the University of Warsaw. Their work was to carry out meteorological observations for the Polish Air Force. In the lower levels, there were lodgings for soldiers of the "Karpaty" Regiment of the Border Defence Corps, with headquarters in Stryj. Altogether, the number of inhabitants never exceeded 20. Among those who worked there were professor Wlodzimierz Zonn, doctor Jan Gadomski, and professor Eugeniusz Rybka. + +=== Opening and operations === + +The opening ceremony of the building took place on 29 July 1938. Its official name was the "Observatory of the State Meteorological Institute", but soon it took on the nickname "Biały Słoń", due to the color of its walls. The observatory was lavishly equipped, with a custom-made astrograph and refracting telescope made by the British company Grubb Parsons of Newcastle upon Tyne. It had its own power plant with two diesel motor–generators and central heating fueled by oil, which was transported in iron barrels from the Polmin company in Borysław (today Boryslav). The military authorities also installed their own equipment, including two radiotelephone prototypes constructed to withstand high altitude. +The observatory was located in a remote, deserted area, with the nearest store and mail office 12 miles (19 km) away (at Żabie, today Verkhovyna), the nearest doctor 30 miles (48 km) away, and a rail station in Kolomyia as far as 80 miles (130 km) away. The director of the observatory, Mykulychyn native Władysław Midowicz, wrote that the staff's main problem, however, was water, as no waterworks had been constructed and it had to be carried from a stream 4 miles (6.4 km) away. +For fourteen months (July 1938-September 1939) the observatory was the highest-elevated, permanently inhabited, building in interbellum Poland. As entry was permitted only with a special military pass, local Hutsuls made up several legends about the building and its inhabitants. Wladyslaw Midowicz wrote that the Hutsuls thought that the observatory was in fact a mighty cannon, capable of attacking neighboring countries. + +== World War II and abandonment == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad9193b62 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "White Elephant (building)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Elephant_(building)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:04:41.515341+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +On 18 September 1939, following the Soviet aggression on the eastern part of Poland (see: Kresy), the personnel of the observatory packed the most important equipment (including the refractor) and left for the Hungarian border. At first it was taken to the Budapest Konkoly Observatory, and then the Vienna Observatory by the end of the war. Within the first years after the war, the equipment returned to Poland. The three-lens objective today is located in the Silesian Planetarium (Katowice). +By the end of the month, the Red Army had captured the building. After the region was united with the Ukrainian SSR, the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) sent an expedition. On 31 December 1939 the first academician-astronomer of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Oleksandr Orlov, visited the observatory. He established that the most valuable equipment has been taken out of the building, including five large-diameter lenses, two lenses of smaller diameter, two micrometers, and two chronometers. Based on Orlov's report, the NASU Presidium declared that the Carpathian Astronomical Observatory (the newly acquired name) was to be transferred to the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, based on a resolution of the government of the Ukrainian SSR of 2 January 1940. Orlov was appointed the director of the Carpathian Observatory. Until June 1941, it was used as a meteorological station. In the summer of 1941 (see: Operation Barbarossa), the Observatory was seized by the Wehrmacht, which in turn was turned over to the Hungarian troops, who were stationed there until winter 1941. After that, the deserted building became a ruin, even though it had not been damaged during the war. The locals reused all remaining materials; even the cast iron batteries were taken away. +It was reported that Germans took out the metal parts of the astrograph to Lviv. Now they are kept indoors at the Lviv University Faculty of Physics. + +== Revival == +Restoration of the building started only after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, but progress was very slow. In the mid-1990s scientists of the Lviv Polytechnic, led by professor Anatoliy Dultsev, together with their colleagues from Warsaw Polytechnic, brought forward the idea of rebuilding the observatory. In October 1996 a special conference took place in Lviv and Yaremche, but no works had been started. +On 24 January 2002 another scientific council took place in Yaremche to revive the rebuilding project for the observatory. In the beginning of October 2002 the head of the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast administration, Mykhailo Vyshyvaniuk, sent an official letter to the President of Ukraine, Leonid Kuchma, about the project. By the end of November that year, Vyshyvaniuk received an answer from the First Deputy of the presidential administration, Valeriy Khoroshkovskiy, stating that the proposition was reviewed and recognized as one for international discussion for the restoration. In that regard, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was given the required orders. Between 1998 and 2010 there were about a dozen summer expeditions that contributed to the reconstruction of the building. +In 2012 the Ministry of Culture of Poland directed about $70,000 as a grant program in partnership with the Ciscarpathian University. With contributions from Warsaw and the Ciscarpathian University, the total amount of money allocated for preparation works amounted to $100,000. From July 2012 some preparation work started and continued in the fall of 2012, where all window openings were sealed with bricks and the roof was covered. It was decided to enclose the building in order to get rid of moisture. The whole cost of the project is $2 million. Initially, the project was to be finished by 28 July 2015. +Since at least 2015, there has been a small chapel next to the former observatory complex. +In December 2017 it was reported that the White Elephant will be equipped with a lightning protection system, and the Ciscarpathian University had already ordered documentation for a projected budget. The lightning prevention system was intended to be installed by the summer of 2018. + +=== Mountain rescue post === + +Since 2015, the building has been home to a mountain rescue post of the Ivano-Frankivsk branch of the State Emergency Service of Ukraine. The post is unique as the most high-altitude government institution in Ukraine. The post is insulated and electrified. There is Wi-Fi and a separate space for visitors. +The tourist traffic over Chornohora Ridge is constant and exceeds 6,000 people per month in summer, according to statistics of the State Emergency Service of Ukraine in 2017. Between the summer of 2016 and summer of 2017, the mountain was visited by 4,000 groups totaling over 22,000 people, of whom 9,000 were foreigners. Some 420 groups totaling about 1,500 people found shelter at the top. The rescue post conducted seven search-and-rescue missions saving eight people, and provided various types of aid to 89 others. +In 2017 a joint Polish-Ukrainian mountain rescue service and a school of mountain rescue were created. During the ongoing restoration activities in 2017, main rooms of mountain shelter were not available, but some provisional space was created without heating. + +== Gallery == + +== References == + +== External links == +Grand opening of the first stage of restoration of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory on Pip Ivan mountain – consecration of a mountain rescue post (УРОЧИСТЕ ВІДКРИТТЯ ПЕРШОЇ ЧЕРГИ ВІДНОВЛЕННЯ АСТРОНОМІЧНО-МЕТЕОРОЛОГІЧНОЇ ОБСЕРВАТОРІЇ НА ГОРІ ПІП ІВАН – посвята рятувального поста гірських рятувальників). State Service of Ukraine on Emergency Situations. 18 September 2017. +Restoration of the Astronomic Observatory (Відновлення астрономічної обсерваторії). Ciscarpathian Pedagogic University. 25 December 2014 +Pip Ivan (aerial view by quadcopter). YouTube. 2015 +"White Elephant" of the Carpathians - short video dedicated to the Observatory, Polish Institute in Kyiv, 2018. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Creek_Research_Basin-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Creek_Research_Basin-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e0e020837 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Creek_Research_Basin-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Wolf Creek Research Basin" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Creek_Research_Basin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:06.497001+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wolf Creek is in the Yukon Territory, Canada. + + +== Research station == +A research station at Wolf Creek Research Basin has been providing continuous data since 1992 for hydrological data. There are three meteorological stations, a groundwater monitoring well since 2003, as well as specialized instrumentation running continuously for specific projects. +It is an important location for the study of snow and climate in the region. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wüstenhaus_Schönbrunn-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wüstenhaus_Schönbrunn-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dce751f2c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wüstenhaus_Schönbrunn-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Wüstenhaus Schönbrunn" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wüstenhaus_Schönbrunn" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:03:15.533677+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Wüstenhaus Schönbrunn (Schönbrunn Desert House) is a desert botanical exhibit in Vienna, Austria. It is located in the Sonnenuhrhaus ("Sundial House"), which was built in 1904 as the newest of the four botanical houses in Schönbrunn Palace Park. The desert exhibit opened in 2004 as a counterpart to the "Rainforest House" that opened in 2002 in the nearby Vienna Zoo. + + +== History == + +The Sundial House stands opposite the Schönbrunn Palm House (Palmenhaus; another botanical exhibit), directly between the Hietzing Gate and the Zoo. The unprepossessing building owes its name to the sundial (Sonnenuhr) located in the gardens to the south. +It was built with the encouragement of Charles von Hügel – diplomat, explorer and founder of the Vienna Horticultural Society – to replace an earlier greenhouse which could no longer meet its plants' needs. At first, it housed the plants of the extensive “New Holland Collection”, which Hügel had assembled and had been acquired by the Imperial Court in 1848, and later expanded with plants from southern Africa and the Americas that required similar conditions. The architect of the 1904 building was Alphons Custodis. +An air raid in February 1945, which almost totally destroyed the windows of the nearby Palm House, left the bulk of the Sundial House's glazing intact, probably because the Palm House stood between it and the bombed area, and because the Sundial House had windows which were roughly parallel to the spreading blast waves (unlike the Palm House). A number of plants from the Palm House were therefore brought here for safekeeping, where space allowed. The Sundial House again served as a refuge between 1986 and 1990, while the Palm House was renovated. +In April 1990 the first butterfly zoo in Austria was established in the Sundial House, but it was transferred to the greenhouse in the Burggarten in 1998. + +Rust on the steel framework caused the building to be closed in 1998 and renovated from 2000 to 2003. The Desert House was finally established here by a joint project between the Zoo and the Austrian Federal Gardens (Bundesgärten), which have managed the building since 1918 as successor to the Imperial and Royal Court Gardens. The exhibition includes succulent plants from the Federal Gardens, and small animals under the care of the Zoo, such as desert jerboas, reptiles and birds. + + +=== Notable features === +Two Welwitschias (one male and one female), the rare and endangered desert plant discovered in 1859 by the Austrian Friedrich Welwitsch. They can live up to 2,000 years; the two individuals in the Desert House, however, stem from the Frankfurt University Botanic Gardens and are no more than 40 years old. +The distinctive, rose-like cactus Pereskia. + + +== Architecture == +300 ft. long, 45 ft. wide and 50 ft. high, the building is fully glazed on the roof and the south face, while the north face is walled up. With a total floor space of 14,000 sq. ft., the interior is divided lengthwise into three sections; there are two annexes to the central section, namely a plant-rich east wing which serves as the entrance hall, and a west wing used as a coldhouse. + + +== Notes == + + +== External links == +Home page on the Zoo website (in German) +The Desert Experience House From the Schönbrunn Palace website. (in English) + + +== Further reading == +ARGE Sonnenuhrhaus Wien: Wüstenhaus Schönbrunn. Schönbrunner Tiergarten, Vienna (2003). ISBN 3-902243-11-2. (in German) +Gerhard Deimel, Kurt Vogl, Ingrid Gregor: Palast der Blüten – Das Schönbrunner Palmenhaus. Holzhausen, Vienna (2002). ISBN 3-85493-052-6. (in German) +Marie H. Scheib, Dagmar Schratter, Andreas Leiss, Barbara Zeidler: Pflanzenführer Wüstenhaus Schönbrunn. Schönbrunner Tiergarten, Vienna (2004). ISBN 3-902243-12-0. (in German) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b01a69e3c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A zoo (short for zoological garden; also called a zoological park, animal park, or menagerie) is a facility where animals are kept within enclosures for public exhibition and often bred for conservation purposes. +The term zoological garden refers to zoology, the study of animals. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, 'animal', and the suffix -λογία, -logia, 'study of'. The abbreviation zoo was first used of the London Zoological Gardens, which was opened for scientific study in 1828, and to the public in 1847. The first modern zoo was the Tierpark Hagenbeck by Carl Hagenbeck in Germany. In the United States alone, zoos are visited by over 181 million people annually. +However, animal welfare organizations have expressed criticism of zoos and the conditions in which animals are kept. Concerns have been raised about the impact of zoos on animal welfare, including both housing conditions and the effects of visitor behavior. In recent decades, efforts have been made to improve conditions in zoos. + +== Etymology == + +The London Zoo, which was opened in 1828, was initially known as the "Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society of London", and it described itself as a menagerie or "zoological forest". The abbreviation "zoo" first appeared in print in the United Kingdom around 1847, when it was used for the Clifton Zoo, but it was not until some 20 years later that the shortened form became popular in the rhyming song "Walking in the Zoo" by music-hall artist Alfred Vance. The term "zoological park" was used for more expansive facilities in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Washington, D.C., and the Bronx in New York, which opened in 1846, 1891 and 1899 respectively. +Relatively new terms for zoos, in the late 20th century are "conservation park" or "bio park". Adopting a new name is a strategy used by some zoo professionals to distance their institutions from the stereotypical and nowadays criticized zoo concept of the 19th century. The term "bio park" was first coined and developed by the National Zoo in Washington D.C. in the late 1980s. In 1993, the New York Zoological Society changed its name to the Wildlife Conservation Society and re branded the zoos under its jurisdiction as "wildlife conservation parks". + +== History == + +=== Royal menageries === + +The predecessor of the zoological garden is the menagerie, which has a long history from the ancient world to modern times. The oldest known zoological collection was revealed during excavations at Hierakonpolis, Egypt in 2009, of a c. 3500 BCE menagerie. The exotic animals included hippos, hartebeest, elephants, baboons and wildcats. King Ashur-bel-kala of the Middle Assyrian Empire created zoological and botanical gardens in the 11th century BC. In the 2nd century BC, the Chinese Empress Tanki had a "house of deer" built, and King Wen of Zhou kept a 1,500-acre (610 ha) zoo called Ling-Yu, or the Garden of Intelligence. Other well-known collectors of animals included King Solomon of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah, Queen Semiramis and King Ashurbanipal of Assyria, and King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia. By the 4th century BC, zoos existed in most of the Greek city states; Alexander the Great is known to have sent animals that he found on his military expeditions back to Greece. The Roman emperors kept private collections of animals for study or for use in the arena, the latter faring notoriously poorly. The 19th-century historian W. E. H. Lecky wrote of the Roman games, first held in 366 BCE: + +At one time, a bear and a bull, chained together, rolled in fierce combat across the sand ... Four hundred bears were killed in a single day under Caligula ... Under Nero, four hundred tigers fought with bulls and elephants. In a single day, at the dedication of the Colosseum by Titus, five thousand animals perished. Under Trajan ... lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, giraffes, bulls, stags, even crocodiles and serpents were employed to give novelty to the spectacle. +Charlemagne had an elephant named Abul-Abbas that was given to him by the Abbasid caliph. +King Henry I of England kept a collection of animals at his palace in Woodstock which reportedly included lions, leopards, and camels. The most prominent collection in medieval England was in the Tower of London, created as early as 1204 by King John I. Henry III received a wedding gift in 1235 of three leopards from Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and in 1264, the animals were moved to the Bulwark, renamed the Lion Tower, near the main western entrance of the Tower. It was opened to the public during the reign of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog for feeding to the lions. The animals were moved to the London Zoo when it opened. +Aztec emperor Moctezuma II had in his capital city of Tenochtitlan a "house of animals" with a large collection of birds, mammals and reptiles in a garden tended by more than 600 employees. The garden was described by several Spanish conquerors, including Hernán Cortés in 1520. After the Aztec revolt against the Spanish rule, and during the subsequent battle for the city, Cortés reluctantly ordered the zoo to be destroyed. + +=== Enlightenment era === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..02106bae9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The oldest zoo in the world still in existence is the Schönbrunn Zoo in Vienna, Austria. It was constructed by Adrian van Stekhoven in 1752 at the order of Emperor Francis I, to serve as an imperial menagerie as part of Schönbrunn Palace. The menagerie was initially reserved for the viewing pleasure of the imperial family and the court, but was made accessible to the public in 1765. In 1775, a zoo was founded in Madrid, and in 1795, the zoo inside the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was founded by Jacques-Henri Bernardin, with animals from the royal menagerie at Versailles, primarily for scientific research and education. The planning about a space for the conservation and observation of animals was expressed in connection with the political construction of republican citizenship. +The Kazan Zoo, the first zoo in Russia was founded in 1806 by the Professor of Kazan Federal University Karl Fuchs. + +=== The modern zoo === + +Until the early 19th century, the function of the zoo was often to symbolize royal power, like King Louis XIV's menagerie at Versailles. Major cities in Europe set up zoos in the 19th century, usually using London and Paris as models. The transition was made from princely menageries designed to entertain high society with strange novelties into public zoological gardens. The new goal was to educate the entire population with information along modern scientific lines. Zoos were supported by local commercial or scientific societies. + +=== British Empire === + +The modern zoo that emerged in the 19th century in the United Kingdom was focused on providing scientific study and later educational exhibits to the public for entertainment and inspiration. +A growing fascination for natural history and zoology, coupled with the tremendous expansion in the urbanization of London, led to a heightened demand for a greater variety of public forms of entertainment to be made available. The need for public entertainment, as well as the requirements of scholarly research, came together in the founding of the first modern zoos. Whipsnade Zoo in Bedfordshire, England, opened in 1931. It allowed visitors to drive through the enclosures and come into close proximity with the animals. +The Zoological Society of London was founded in 1826 by Stamford Raffles and established the London Zoo in Regent's Park two years later in 1828. At its founding, it was the world's first scientific zoo. Originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study, it was opened to the public in 1847. The Zoo is located in Regent's Park—then undergoing development at the hands of the architect John Nash. What set the London zoo apart from its predecessors was its focus on society at large. The zoo was established in the middle of a city for the public, and its layout was designed to cater for the large London population. The London zoo was widely copied as the archetype of the public city zoo. In 1853, the Zoo opened the world's first public aquarium. It closed in 2019 and some fish moved to Whipsnade Zoo. +Dublin Zoo was opened in 1831 by members of the medical profession interested in studying animals while they were alive and more particularly getting hold of them when they were dead. +Downs' Zoological Gardens created by Andrew Downs and opened to the Nova Scotia public in 1847. It was originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study. By the early 1860s, the zoo grounds covered 40 hectares with many fine flowers and ornamental trees, picnic areas, statues, walking paths, The Glass House (which contained a greenhouse with an aviary, aquarium, and museum of stuffed animals and birds), a pond, a bridge over a waterfall, an artificial lake with a fountain, a wood-ornamented greenhouse, a forest area, and enclosures and buildings. +The first zoological garden in Australia was Melbourne Zoo in 1860. + +=== Germany === + +In German states leading roles came Berlin (1841), Frankfurt (1856), and Hamburg (1863). In 1907, the entrepreneur Carl Hagenbeck founded the Tierpark Hagenbeck in Eimsbüttel, now a quarter of Hamburg. His zoo was a radical departure from the layout of the zoo that had been established in 1828. It was the first zoo to use open enclosures surrounded by moats, rather than barred cages, to better approximate animals' natural environments. He also set up mixed-species exhibits and based the layout on the different organizing principle of geography, as opposed to taxonomy. + +=== Poland === + +The Wrocław Zoo (Polish: Ogród Zoologiczny we Wrocławiu) is the oldest zoo in Poland, opened in 1865 when the city was part of Prussia, and was home to about 10,500 animals representing about 1,132 species (in terms of the number of animal species, it is the third largest in the world). In 2014 the Wrocław Zoo opened the Africarium, the only themed oceanarium devoted solely to exhibiting the fauna of Africa, comprehensively presenting selected ecosystems from the continent of Africa. Housing over 10 thousand animals, the facility's breadth extends from housing insects such cockroaches to large mammals like elephants on an area of over 33 hectares. + +=== United States === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..451045b7f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the United States, the Philadelphia Zoo, opened on July 1, 1874, earning its motto "America's First Zoo." The Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens in Chicago and the Cincinnati Zoo opened in 1875. In the 1930s, federal relief programs provided financial aid to most local zoos. The Works Progress Administration and similar New Deal government agencies helped greatly in the construction, renovation, and expansion of zoos when the Great Depression severely reduced local budgets. It was "a new deal for animals." +The Atlanta Zoo, founded in 1886, suffered neglect. By 1984 it was ranked among the ten worst zoos in the United States. Systematic reform by 2000 put it on the list of the ten best. +By 2020, the United States featured 230 accredited zoos and aquariums across 45 states, accommodating 800,000 animals, and 6,000 species out of which about 1,000 are endangered. The zoos provide 208,000 jobs, and with an annual budget of $230 million for wildlife conservation. They attract over 200 million visits a year and have special programs for schools. They are organized by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. + +=== Japan === +Japan's first modern zoo, Tokyo's Ueno Zoo, opened in 1882 based on European models. In World War II it was used to teach the Japanese people about the lands recently conquered by the Army. In 1943, fearing American bombing attacks, the government ordered the zoo to euthanize dangerous animals that might escape. + +=== Environmentalism === + +When ecology emerged as a matter of public interest in the 1970s, a few zoos began to consider making conservation their central role, with Gerald Durrell of the Jersey Zoo, George Rabb of Brookfield Zoo Chicago, and William Conway of the Bronx Zoo (Wildlife Conservation Society) leading the discussion. From then on, zoo professionals became increasingly aware of the need to engage themselves in conservation programs, and the American Zoo Association soon said that conservation was its highest priority. To stress conservation issues, many large zoos stopped the practice of having animals perform tricks for visitors. The Detroit Zoo, for example, stopped its elephant show in 1969, and its chimpanzee show in 1983, acknowledging that the trainers had probably abused the animals to get them to perform. +Mass destruction of wildlife habitat has yet to cease all over the world and many species such as elephants, big cats, penguins, tropical birds, primates, rhinos, exotic reptiles, and many others are in danger of dying out. Many of today's zoos hope to stop or slow the decline of many endangered species and see their primary purpose as breeding endangered species in captivity and reintroducing them into the wild. Modern zoos also aim to help teach visitors the importance of animal conservation, often through letting visitors witness the animals firsthand. Some critics, and the majority of animal rights activists, say that zoos, no matter their intentions, or how noble these intentions, are immoral and serve as nothing but to fulfill human leisure at the expense of the animals (an opinion that has spread over the years). However, zoo advocates argue that their efforts make a difference in wildlife conservation and education. + +=== Human exhibits === + +Humans were occasionally displayed in cages at zoos along with non-human animals, to illustrate the differences between people of European and non-European origin. In September 1906, William Hornaday, director of the Bronx Zoo in New York City—with the agreement of Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society—had Ota Benga, a Congolese pygmy, displayed in a cage with the chimpanzees, then with an orangutan named Dohong, and a parrot. The exhibit was intended as an example of the "missing link" between the orangutan and white man. It triggered protests from the city's clergymen, but the public reportedly flocked to see Benga. +Humans were also displayed at various events, especially colonial expositions such as the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition, with the practice continuing in Belgium at least to as late as 1958 in a "Congolese village" display at Expo 58 in Brussels. These displays, while sometimes called "human zoos", usually did not take place in zoos or use cages. + +== Type == + +Zoo animals live in enclosures that often attempt to replicate their natural habitats or behavioural patterns, for the benefit of both the animals and visitors. Nocturnal animals are often housed in buildings with a reversed light-dark cycle, i.e. only dim white or red lights are on during the day so the animals are active during visitor hours, and brighter lights on at night when the animals sleep. Special climate conditions may be created for animals living in extreme environments, such as penguins. Special enclosures for birds, mammals, insects, reptiles, fish, and other aquatic life forms have also been developed. Some zoos have walk-through exhibits where visitors enter enclosures of non-aggressive species, such as lemurs, marmosets, birds, lizards, and turtles. Visitors are asked to keep to paths and avoid showing or eating foods that the animals might snatch. + +=== Safari park === + +Some zoos keep animals in larger, outdoor enclosures, confining them with moats and fences, rather than in cages. Safari parks, also known as zoo parks and lion farms, allow visitors to drive through them and come in close proximity to the animals. Sometimes, visitors are able to feed animals through the car windows. +The first safari park was Whipsnade Park in Bedfordshire, England, opened by the Zoological Society of London in 1931 which since 2014 covers 600 acres (240 hectares). Since the early 1970s, an 1,800 acres (730 hectares) park in the San Pasqual Valley near San Diego has featured the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, run by the Zoological Society of San Diego. One of two state-supported zoo parks in North Carolina is the 2,000 acres (810 hectares) North Carolina Zoo in Asheboro. The 500 acres (200 hectares) Werribee Open Range Zoo in Melbourne, Australia, displays animals living in an artificial savannah. + +=== Aquaria === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..44c0e0f4c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The first public aquarium was opened at the London Zoo in 1853. This was followed by the opening of public aquaria in continental Europe (e.g. Paris in 1859, Hamburg in 1864, Berlin in 1869, and Brighton in 1872) and the United States (e.g. Boston in 1859, Washington in 1873, San Francisco Woodward's Gardens in 1873, and the New York Aquarium at The Battery in 1896). + +=== Roadside zoos === +Roadside zoos are found throughout North America, particularly in remote locations. They are often small, for-profit zoos, often intended to attract visitors to some other facility, such as a gas station. The animals may be trained to perform tricks, and visitors are able to get closer to them than in larger zoos. Since they are sometimes less regulated, roadside zoos are often subject to accusations of neglect and cruelty. +In June 2014 the Animal Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Iowa-based roadside Cricket Hollow Zoo for violating the Endangered Species Act by failing to provide proper care for its animals. Since filing the lawsuit, ALDF has obtained records from investigations conducted by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services; these records show that the zoo is also violating the Animal Welfare Act. + +=== Petting zoos === + +A petting zoo, also called petting farm or children's zoo, features a combination of domestic animals and wild species that are docile enough to touch and feed. To ensure the animals' health, the food is supplied by the zoo, either from vending machines or a kiosk nearby. + +=== Animal theme parks === + +An animal theme park is a combination of an amusement park and a zoo, mainly for entertaining and commercial purposes. Marine mammal parks such as SeaWorld, Sea Life and Marineland are more elaborate dolphinariums keeping whales, and containing additional entertainment attractions. Another kind of animal theme park contains more entertainment and amusement elements than the classical zoo, such as stage shows, roller coasters, and mythical creatures. Some examples are Busch Gardens Tampa Bay in Tampa, Florida, both Disney's Animal Kingdom and Gatorland in Orlando, Florida, Flamingo Land Resort in North Yorkshire, England, and Six Flags Discovery Kingdom in Vallejo, California. + +== Zoo population management == + +=== Sources of animals === +By 2000 most animals being displayed in zoos were the offspring of other zoo animals. This trend, however was and still is somewhat species-specific. When animals are transferred between zoos, they usually spend time in quarantine, and are given time to acclimatize to their new enclosures which are often designed to mimic their natural environment. For example, some species of penguins may require refrigerated enclosures. Guidelines on necessary care for such animals is published in the Zoological Society of London. Animal exchanges between facilities are usually made voluntarily, based on a model of cooperation for conservation, but may also reflect political currents, such as the so-called panda diplomacy. Loaned animals usually remain the property of the original park, and any offspring yielded by loaned animals are usually divided between the lending and holding institutions. For decades the capture of wild animals or purchasing of animals has been broadly considered unethical and has not been practiced by reputable zoos. + +=== Space constraints and surplus animals === + +Especially in large animals, a limited number of spaces are available in zoos. As a consequence, various management tools are used to preserve the space for the genetically most important individuals and to reduce the risk of inbreeding. Management of animal populations is typically through international organizations such as AZA and EAZA. Zoos have several different ways of managing the animal populations, such as moves between zoos, contraception, sale of excess animals and euthanization (culling). +Contraception can be an effective way to limit a population's breeding. However it may also have health repercussions and can be difficult or even impossible to reverse in some animals. Additionally, some species may lose their reproductive capability entirely if prevented from breeding for a period (whether through contraceptives or isolation), but further study is needed on the subject. Sale of surplus animals from zoos was once common and in some cases animals have ended up in substandard facilities. In recent decades the practice of selling animals from certified zoos has declined. A large number of animals are culled each year in zoos, but this is controversial. A highly publicized culling as part of population management was that of a healthy giraffe at Copenhagen Zoo in 2014. The zoo argued that his genes already were well-represented in captivity, making the giraffe unsuitable for future breeding. There were offers to adopt him and an online petition to save him had many thousand signatories, but the culling proceeded. Although zoos in some countries have been open about culling, the controversy of the subject and pressure from the public has resulted in others being closed. This stands in contrast to most zoos publicly announcing animal births. Furthermore, while many zoos are willing to cull smaller and/or low-profile animals, fewer are willing to do it with larger high-profile species. + +=== Breeding and cloning === +Many animals breed readily in captivity. Zoos frequently are forced to intentionally limit captive breeding because of a lack of natural wild habitat in which to reintroduce animals. This highlights the importance of in situ conservation, or preservation of natural spaces, in addition to the utility of zoo captive breeding and reintroduction programs. In situ conservation and reintroduction programs are key elements to obtaining certification by reputable organisations such as the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA). Efforts to clone endangered species in the United States, Europe, and Asia are frequently embedded in zoos and zoological parks. + +== Justification == + +=== Conservation and research === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..038695f09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The position of most modern zoos in Australasia, Asia, Europe, and North America, particularly those with scientific societies, is that they display wild animals primarily for the conservation of endangered species, as well as for research purposes and education, and secondarily for the entertainment of visitors. The Zoological Society of London states in its charter that its aim is "the advancement of Zoology and Animal Physiology and the introduction of new and curious subjects of the Animal Kingdom." It maintains two research institutes, the Nuffield Institute of Comparative Medicine and the Wellcome Institute of Comparative Physiology. In the United States, the Penrose Research Laboratory of the Philadelphia Zoo focuses on the study of comparative pathology. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums produced its first conservation strategy in 1993, and in November 2004, it adopted a new strategy that sets out the aims and mission of zoological gardens of the 21st century. When studying behaviour of captive animals, several things should however be taken into account before drawing conclusions about wild populations. Including that captive populations are often smaller than wild ones and that the space available to each animal is often less than in the wild. +Conservation programs all over the world fight to protect species from going extinct, but many conservation programs are underfunded and under-represented. Conservation programs can struggle to fight bigger issues like habitat loss and illness. It often takes significant funding and long time periods to rebuild degraded habitats, both of which are scarce in conservation efforts. The current state of conservation programs cannot rely solely in situ (on-site conservation) plans alone, ex situ (off-site conservation) may therefore provide a suitable alternative. Off-site conservation relies on zoos, national parks, or other care facilities to support the rehabilitation of the animals and their populations. Zoos benefit conservation by providing suitable habitats and care to endangered animals. When properly regulated, they present a safe, clean environment for the animals to increase populations sizes. A study on amphibian conservation and zoos addressed these problems by writing, + +Whilst addressing in situ threats, particularly habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, is of primary importance; for many amphibian species in situ conservation alone will not be enough, especially in light of current un-mitigatable threats that can impact populations very rapidly such as chytridiomycosis [an infectious fungal disease]. Ex situ programmes can complement in situ activities in a number of ways including maintaining genetically and demographically viable populations while threats are either better understood or mitigated in the wild +The breeding of endangered species is coordinated by cooperative breeding programmes containing international studbooks and coordinators, who evaluate the roles of individual animals and institutions from a global or regional perspective, and there are regional programmes all over the world for the conservation of endangered species. In Africa, conservation is handled by the African Preservation Program (APP); in the U.S. and Canada by Species Survival Plans; in Australasia, by the Australasian Species Management Program; in Europe, by the European Endangered Species Program; and in Japan, South Asia, and South East Asia, by the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums, the South Asian Zoo Association for Regional Cooperation, and the South East Asian Zoo Association. + +=== Positive impacts on local wildlife === + +Besides conservation of captive species, large zoos may form a suitable environment for wild native animals such as herons to live in or visit. A colony of black-crowned night herons has regularly summered at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. for more than a century. Some zoos may provide information to visitors on wild animals visiting or living in the zoo, or encourage them by directing them to specific feeding or breeding platforms. +In addition to these potential positive impacts, Milstein proposes that zoos can transform their practices by increasing their focus on wildlife rescue and care, and by making better use of online platforms to situate species of interest within their wider ecologies. Such changes may enhance public education and encourage audiences to participate in projects and campaigns that limit the ecologically destructive process putting local wildlife at risk in the first place. + +== Animal welfare in zoos == + +The welfare of zoo animals varies widely including its level. Some zoos work to improve their animal enclosures and make it fit the animals' needs, but constraints such as size and expense can complicate this. The type of enclosure and the husbandry are of great importance in determining the welfare of animals. Substandard enclosures can lead to decreased lifespans, caused by factors as human diseases, unsafe materials in the cages and possible escape attempts. However, when zoos take time to think about the animal's welfare, zoos can become a place of refuge. Today, many zoos are improving enclosures by including tactile and sensory features in the habitat that allow animals to encourage natural behaviors. These additions can prove to be effective in improving the lives of animals in captivity. The tactile and sensory features will vary depending on the species of animal. There are animals that are injured in the wild and are unable to survive on their own, but in the zoos they can live out the rest of their lives healthy and happy. In recent years, some zoos have chosen to move out some larger animals because they do not have the space available to provide an adequate enclosure for them. However, those cannot avoid the fundamental issue of commercially exploiting beings that are inherently deserving of respect, and infringing upon their freedom. +An issue with animal welfare in zoos is that best animal husbandry practices are often not completely known, especially for species that are only kept in a small number of zoos. To solve this organizations like EAZA and AZA have begun to develop husbandry manuals. + +== Problems == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..68acde891 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Capture in wild and mortality === +In modern, well-regulated zoos, breeding is controlled to maintain a self-sustaining, global captive population. This is not the case in some less well-regulated zoos, often based in poorer regions. Overall "stock turnover" of animals during a year in a select group of poor zoos was reported as 20%-25% with 75% of wild caught apes dying in captivity within the first 20 months. The authors of the report stated that before successful breeding programs, the high mortality rate was the reason for the "massive scale of importations." +One 2-year study indicated that of 19,361 mammals that left accredited zoos in the U.S. between 1992 and 1998, 7,420 (38%) went to dealers, auctions, hunting ranches, unaccredited zoos and individuals, and game farms. + +=== Behavioural restriction === +Many modern zoos attempt to improve animal welfare by providing more space and behavioural enrichments. This often involves housing the animals in naturalistic enclosures that allow the animals to express more of their natural behaviours, such as roaming and foraging. Whilst many zoos have been working hard on this change, in some zoos, some enclosures still remain barren concrete enclosures or other minimally enriched cages. +Sometimes animals are unable to perform certain behaviors in zoos, like seasonal migration or traveling over large distances. Whether these behaviors are necessary for good welfare however is unclear. Some behaviors are seen as essential for an animal's welfare whilst others are not. It is however shown that even in limited spaces, certain natural behaviors can still be performed. A study in 2014 for example found that Asian elephants in zoos covered similar or higher walking distances when compared to sedentary wild populations. Migration in the wild can also be related to food scarcity or other unfavorable environmental problems. However a proper zoo enclosure never runs out of food or water, and in case of unfavorable temperatures or weather animals are provided with (indoor) shelter. + +=== Abnormal behaviour === + +Animals in zoos can exhibit behaviors that are abnormal in their frequency, intensity, or would not normally be part of their behavioural repertoire. Whilst these types of behaviors can be a sign of bad welfare and stress, this is not necessarily the case. Other measurements or behavioral research is advised before determining whether an animal performing stereotypical behavior is living in bad welfare or not. Examples of stereotypical behaviors are pacing, head-bobbing, obsessive grooming and feather-plucking A study examining data collected over four decades found that polar bears, lions, tigers and cheetahs can display stereotypical behaviors in many older exhibits. However they also noted that in more modern naturalistic exhibits, these behaviors could completely disappear. Elephants have also been recorded displaying stereotypical behaviours in the form of swaying back and forth, trunk swaying or route tracing. This has been observed in 54% of individuals in UK zoos. However it has been shown that modern facilities and modern husbandry can greatly decrease or even entirely remove abnormal behaviors. A study of a group of elephants in Planckendael showed that the older wild-caught animals displayed many stereotypical behaviors. These elephants had spent part of their lives either in a circus or in other substandard enclosures. On the other hand, the elephants born in the modern facilities that had lived in a herd their whole life barely displayed any stereotypical behaviors at all. The life history of an animal is thus extremely important when analyzing the causes of stereotypical behavior, as this can be a historical relict instead of a result of present-day husbandry. +Some zoos have used psychoactive drugs, such as Prozac, in attempting to stop animals from exhibiting the behaviors. + +=== Longevity === +The influence on a zoological environment on animal's longevity is not straightforward. A study of 50 mammal species found that 84% of them lived longer in zoos than they would in the wild on average. On the other hand, some research claims that elephants in Japanese zoos would live shorter than their wild counterparts at just 17 years. This has been refuted by other studies however. Such studies might not yet fully represent recent improvements in husbandry. For example, studies show that captive-bred elephants already have a lower mortality risk then wild-caught ones. + +=== Climate conditions === +Climatic conditions can make it difficult to keep some animals in zoos in some locations. For example, Alaska Zoo had an elephant named Maggie. She was housed in a small, indoor enclosure because the outdoor temperature was too low. + +=== Epidemiology === +Tsetse flies have invaded zoos that have been established in the tsetse zone. More concerning, tsetse-borne species of trypanosomes have entered zoos outside the traditional tsetse zone in infected animals imported and added to their collections. Whether these can be controlled depends on several factors: Vale 1998 found that the technique used in placing attractants was important; and Green 1988, Torr 1994, Torr et al. 1995, and Torr et al. 1997 found the availability for specifically needed attractants for the specific job to also vary widely. + +== Effect of visitors on animals == +Various studies have examined the impact of visitors on animal welfare and behavior in zoo. Most report negative effects, particularly when visitor groups are large or noisy. Disturbing behaviors by visitors, such as teasing or banging on enclosure glass, have been linked to negative effects. However, under certain conditions and for some species, visitor presence can have positive effects. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ec2f9793 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Zoo" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Negative effects === +Most studies have found that large or noisy visitor groups negatively affect animals. +A study measuring stress hormone (corticoid) levels in rhinoceroses found a significant relationship between visitor exposure and stress levels. +A review of primate studies indicated that visitors are generally a source of stress, with stronger negative effects when groups are large. Dominant group members can influence responses, as shown in gorillas, orangutans, and mangabey monkeys. +Visitor behavior can also affect primate aggression. Orangutans showed more aggressive behavior in the presence of noisy audiences, and siamangs increased aggressive behavior when visitors attempted to mimic their actions or engage in disturbing interactions. +In petting zoos, goats and sheep exhibited more fear behaviors, such as fleeing or attacking, when visitor numbers were high. +Leopards exposed to the public had higher fecal stress hormone levels than leopards not shown to visitors, and larger visitor numbers increased stress hormones in Mexican wolves and black wolves. +Increased stress-related behaviors with higher visitor numbers have also been observed in jaguars, fennec foxes, brown bears, harbor seals, deer, gazelles, and koalas. +Studies suggest ways to improve animal welfare without removing public displays. These include limiting visitor numbers, providing educational signage, encouraging quiet behavior, and modifying enclosure design. Providing hiding places within enclosures allows animals to limit visitor exposure, which reduces stress and improves welfare. + +=== Positive effects === +Although most effects are negative, some studies report positive effects under certain conditions. Moderate interaction with visitors can enhance welfare for some animals. +For example, a long-billed corella named Claude spent most of his time at the front of his cage walking and dancing when visitors were present. This behavior suggests that interactions were enriching. On very busy days, Claude occasionally retreated, showing that visitor exposure should be moderated. +Prairie dogs also approached visitors, indicating a positive experience. +Chimpanzees may experience interactions with visitors as positive if they include feeding. Orangutans can respond positively to visitor presence when they have the option to hide. +A review of interactive petting areas found some positive effects when visitors fed animals, as observed in giraffes. However, most interactions, including petting or walking with animals, have the potential for negative or mixed effects. + +== Moral criticism == +Some critics and many animal rights activists argue that zoo animals are treated as voyeuristic objects, rather than living creatures, and often suffer due to the transition from being free and wild to captivity. Ever since imports of wild-caught animals can became more regulated by organizations like CITES and national laws, zoos have started sustaining their populations via breeding. This change started around the 1970s. Many corporations in the form of breeding programs have been set up since, for both common and endangered species. Emma Marris, writing an opinion piece for The New York Times, suggested zoos "stopped breeding all their animals, with the possible exception of any endangered species with a real chance of being released back into the wild ... Eventually, the only animals on display would be a few ancient holdovers from the old menageries, animals in active conservation breeding programs and perhaps a few rescues. Such zoos might even be merged with sanctuaries." +In 2017, activist travel company Responsible Travel and anti-captive animal charity the Born Free Foundation conducted an independent survey of 1,000 members of the UK public who had visited a zoo in the previous five years, to gauge public understanding of zoos' contribution to conservation. The results showed that zoos spend on average ten times less than visitors expect on conservation. It also emerged that three-quarters of visitors would expect at least one-fifth of the animals in a zoo to be endangered. The actual figure, according to the Born Free Foundation, is 10%. +In light of these findings and ongoing animal welfare concerns, in 2017, Responsible Travel became the first travel company to stop promoting holidays that include visits to a zoo. + +=== Live feeding === + +In some countries, feeding live vertebrates to zoo animals is illegal under most circumstances. The UK Animal Welfare Act of 2006, for example, states that prey must be killed for feeding, unless this threatens the health of the predator. Some zoos had already adopted such practices prior to the implementation of such policies. London Zoo, for example, stopped feeding live vertebrates in the 20th century, long before the Animal Welfare Act. Despite being illegal in China, some zoos have been found to still feed live vertebrates to their predators. In some parks like Xiongsen Bear and Tiger Mountain Village, live chickens and other livestock were found to be thrown into the enclosures of tigers and other predators. In Guilin, in south-east China, live cows and pigs are thrown to tigers to amuse visitors. Other Chinese parks like Shenzhen Safari Park have already stopped this practice after facing heavy criticism. + +== Regulation == + +=== United States === +In the United States, any public animal exhibit must be licensed and inspected by the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the Endangered Species Act, the Animal Welfare Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and others. +Additionally, zoos in several countries may choose to pursue accreditation by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), which originated in the U.S. To achieve accreditation, a zoo must pass an application and inspection process and meet or exceed the AZA's standards for animal health and welfare, fundraising, zoo staffing, and involvement in global conservation efforts. Inspection is performed by three experts (typically one veterinarian, one expert in animal care, and one expert in zoo management and operations) and then reviewed by a panel of twelve experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated once every five years. The AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,400 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of February 2007; fewer than 10% are accredited. + +=== Europe === +The European Union introduced a directive to strengthen the conservation role of zoos, making it a statutory requirement that they participate in conservation and education, and requiring all member states to set up systems for their licensing and inspection. Zoos are regulated in the UK by the Zoo Licensing Act of 1981, which came into effect in 1984. A zoo is defined as any "establishment where wild animals are kept for exhibition [...] to which members of the public have access, with or without charge for admission, seven or more days in any period of twelve consecutive months", excluding circuses and pet shops. The Act requires that all zoos be inspected and licensed, and that animals kept in enclosures are provided with a suitable environment in which they can express most normal behavior. + +== See also == + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == + +== External links == + +Zoos Worldwide Zoos, aquariums, animal sanctuaries and wildlife parks +Zoological Gardens keeping Asian Elephants +The Bartlett Society: Devoted to studying yesterday's methods of keeping wild animals, download page \ No newline at end of file

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