Scrape wikipedia-science: 4189 new, 2955 updated, 7318 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstone-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Airstone"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstone"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:36.466364+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An airstone, also called an aquarium bubbler, is a piece of aquarium furniture, traditionally a piece of limewood or porous stone, whose purpose is to gradually diffuse air into the tank, eliminating the noise and large bubbles of conventional air filtration systems, and providing other benefits to the health of the fish. "Airstone" is also a brand name stone or brick veneer used by homebuilders. Airstones are sold in a very wide variety of shapes, sizes, and levels of coarseness – from extremely rough, producing larger (though still typically unnoticeable) bubbles and letting in more oxygen – to very fine, producing minuscule bubbles. Airstones are increasingly being made from bonded glass beads and synthetic products like fiberglass.
+There is some controversy as to the efficiency of airstones versus the conventional powerhead system when used in uplift tubes as part of an under-gravel filter. Arguments can be made in favor of both systems, and both possess certain advantages and disadvantages. Among aquarists, the choice is very much a matter of personal preference, quite often discussed in internet forums.
+
+
+== Protein skimming ==
+
+The original method of protein skimming, running pressurized air through a diffuser to produce large quantities of micro bubbles, remains a viable, effective, and economic choice, although newer technologies may require lower maintenance.  The air stone is most often an oblong, partially hollowed block of wood, most often of the genus Tilia. The most popular wooden air-stones for skimmers are made from limewood (Tilia europaea or European limewood) although basswood (Tilia americana or American Linden), works as well, may be cheaper and is often more readily available. The wooden blocks are drilled, tapped, fitted with an air fitting, and connected by air tubing to one or more air pumps delivering at least 1 cubic foot per minute.  The wooden air stone is placed at the bottom of a tall column of water. The tank water is pumped into the column, allowed to pass by the rising bubbles, and back into the tank. To get enough contact time with the bubble, these units can be many feet in height.
+Air stone protein skimmers may be constructed as a DIY project from PVC pipes and fittings at low cost  [1] [2] Archived 2009-01-23 at the Wayback Machine and with varying degrees of complexity [3].
+While this method has been around for many years, many regard it as inefficient for larger systems or systems with large bio-loads.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Aeration
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Information on the airstone controversy

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_scrubber-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Algae scrubber"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_scrubber"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:37.646457+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An algae scrubber is a water filtering device which uses light to grow algae; in this process, undesirable chemicals are removed from the water. Algae scrubbers allow hobbyists to operate their saltwater or freshwater tanks or ponds using natural filtration based on primary production, much as occurs in oceans and lakes.
+
+== Concepts ==
+An algae scrubber filters water by moving water rapidly over a rough, highly illuminated surface, which causes algae to start growing in large amounts. As the algae grow, they consume nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, nitrite, ammonia, ammonium and even metals such as copper from the water. These nutrients are normally a problem in aquariums and ponds because they cause nuisance algae to grow, and also because they cause sickness and/or other problems in aquarium fish, invertebrates and corals. An algae scrubber allows algae to grow, but the algae grow inside the filter instead of in the aquarium or pond. This removes excess nutrients (scrubs the water), diminishing nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond . Nuisance algae in the aquarium or pond are not to be confused with the desired algae in the algae scrubber filter itself. The algae that grow in the algae scrubber can then be removed, or fed back to the livestock.
+Both iron fertilization and ocean nourishment are techniques that boost the primary production of algae in the ocean, which consumes massive amounts of nutrients and CO2. It is this same consumption of nutrients that algae perform in an aquarium or pond.
+Algae scrubbers are used in both saltwater and freshwater, and remove nuisance algae of multiple types: cyano or slime, bubble, hair, Chaetomorpha, Caulerpa, and film algae, as well as dinoflagellates and Aiptasia.
+
+== History ==
+
+The algae scrubber was invented by Dr. Walter Adey, who beginning in the late 1970s, was Director of the Marine Systems Laboratory at the Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (Washington DC, USA). His research of various types of algae, especially in their ecological role on coral reefs, gave him insight into how the ocean (in particular a reef) "recycles" nutrients. He designed and built various exhibits ranging in size up to 3000 gallons, and modeled different aquatic ecological systems including a tropical coral reef/lagoon which "after 8 years of closure [to the environment], had its chemical parameters controlled solely by an algal turf scrubber. This system, studied by a multidisciplinary team of biologists, demonstrated calcification [coral growth] rates equal to the best 4 percent of wild reefs, and at 543 identified species, and an estimated 800 species, ranked per unit area as the most biodiverse reef ever measured."
+In three editions of his book, Dynamic Aquaria, Dr Adey described his work in detail and discussed in scientific principles the physical, chemical, and biological considerations for building a functioning ecological system within an enclosure, from aquarium size, to microcosm (up to 5000 gallons), or mesocosm size (>5000 gallons). In describing the algal turf scrubber he designed, he explained that removing excess nutrients was not its only function. By operating the scrubber at night when the main tank had shifted to a different respiratory phase (plants were now absorbing oxygen rather than producing it) the scrubber maintained oxygen levels and helped buffer pH by preventing high levels of carbon dioxide from building up.
+
+"Recycling" means how the nutrients go from plants to animals, and back to plants again. On land, you see recycling by following the oxygen flow: Green plants use carbon dioxide and release oxygen; animals use this oxygen and release carbon dioxide. In oceans and lakes, the nutrients go from algae to animals, and back to the algae again.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_scrubber-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Algae scrubber"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_scrubber"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:37.646457+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Dr. Adey built several versions of algae scrubbers for aquariums at the Smithsonian. He called them "Algal Turf Scrubbers", because at the time it was believed that "turf" algae was the best type of algae to grow in a scrubber. He also was granted the first U.S. patent for a dumping-bucket algae scrubber, which described a complex dumping device that poured water onto a horizontal surface, thus simulating waves in a reef environment. After several years of development, he participated in a test of a large algae scrubber on the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium: "The Reef Tank represents the first application of algal scrubber technology to large volume aquarium systems. Aquaria using conventional water purification methods (e.g. bacterial filters) generally have nutrient levels in parts per million, while algal scrubbers have maintained parts per billion concentrations [much lower], despite heavy biological loading in the Reef Tank. The success of the algal scrubbers in maintaining suitable water quality for a coral reef was demonstrated in the observed spawning of scleractinian corals and many other tank inhabitants."
+Unfortunately, it was not known at the time (1988) that calcium and alkalinity needed to be added to an enclosed reef tank, in order to replace that which is utilized by the growing calcifying organisms. Even five years after that, the Pittsburgh Zoo was just starting to test a "mesocosm" scrubber reef tank to see if calcium levels would drop: "It was hypothesized that Ca2+ and the substitutive elements Sr2+ and Mg2+ might have reduced concentrations in a coral reef microcosm due to continuous reuse of the same seawater as a consequence of the recycling process inherent in the coral reef mesocosm." [...] "The scleractinians (Montastrea, Madracis, Porites, Diploria, and Acropora) and calcareous alga (Halimeda and others) present in the coral reef mesocosm are the most likely organisms responsible for the significant reduction in concentration of the Ca2+ and Sr2+ cations." [...] "Ca is not normally a biolimiting element, and strontium is never a biolimiting element; HCO3 [alkalinity] can be. It appears that, because of a minor limitation in the design parameters of the mesocosm, these elements and compounds may have become limiting factors. [...] It is surprising that the organisms could deplete the thousands of gallons of seawater (three to six thousand) of these elements even within two or more years." After other researchers added calcium and/or connected their tanks to the ocean (which also supplies calcium and alkalinity), corals began growing again. Nevertheless, "problem" nutrients (ammonia, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, CO2, metals) were always kept at very low numbers.
+Dr. Adey licensed his patent to very few individuals, who for a short number of years sold a limited number of aquarium scrubbers to hobbyists. The complexity of the design, however, and the cost of the license, caused the scrubber units to be very expensive. This, combined with the fact that the units were noisy, splashy, and unreliable (the dumping mechanism would get stuck) caused the sales to be slow. The scrubbers were just starting to make headway into the aquarium hobby in the 1990s when Adey decided to withdraw his license and no longer allow anybody to make or sell them. He turned his attention instead to commercial and industrial applications, and entered private business making large scale scrubber installations for lakes and rivers.
+As the internet developed in the 1990s, aquarium and pond hobbyists began discussing nuisance algae problems, and started noticing a trend: Aquariums and ponds with very high amounts of nuisance algae had no detectable nutrients in the water. This at first seemed odd, since the amount of nuisance algae should increase as the nutrients in the water increased. How could there be a very large amount of nuisance algae, but no measurable nutrients in the water to support this? Biologists then began pointing out that when the amount of nuisance algae became large enough, the algae actually consumed all the available nutrients from the water faster than new nutrients were added, as Dr. Adey had theorized.
+Interest in using algae for nutrient control once again increased, this time in the form of keeping the algae in a "sump" or other small aquarium which was connected to the main aquarium via plumbing. With added lighting and flow, algae would grow in this area, and the algae would consume nutrients from the water just as Dr. Adey's algae scrubber units did. Sumps or other small aquariums used for this purpose became known as "refugiums". The name "refugium" was used because the growing algae provided a safe place for small and microscopic animals to breed and grow, and thus was a "refuge" from the large fish and invertebrates in the main aquarium that would otherwise consume them. However while the refugiums did indeed consume nutrients from the water, they did not consume them fast enough in all situations; this caused many hobbyists to continue to have nuisance algae problems in their main aquariums.
+
+== Modern forms ==
+
+More recent variations are built with a simple "waterfall" driven by gravity, using a PVC plumbing pipe to flow water down a piece of plastic knitting screen (also known as "plastic canvas"), which is roughed up to allow algae to attach. In almost every case, these homemade algae scrubbers reduced the nutrients to very low levels, and this reduced or eliminated all nuisance algae problems.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_scrubber-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Algae scrubber"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae_scrubber"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:37.646457+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In addition, "turf" algae, which was the focus of Dr. Adey's dumping-bucket design, is replaced by "green hair algae". This is because turf algae tends to be dark brown and thick (like artificial turf on sports fields), and it blocks the light and water from reaching the screen. This slows the growth (and filtering) of the algae because the bottom layers of algae that are attached to the screen start to die and detach. Green algae, however (especially light-green hair algae), allows light and water to penetrate all the way down to the screen if the growth is kept less than 20 mm thick, which allows the algae to grow faster and absorb more nutrients without dying and losing attachment to the screen. This is fortunate because green hair algae is the exact type of algae that grows automatically in a properly constructed algae scrubber.
+Some models also use up-flowing air bubbles. This version, which is basically the exact opposite of the waterfall, allows the algae scrubber to be placed underwater in the aquarium, sump or pond, instead of above it. This greatly simplifies construction, since the device does not need to be waterproof, and it allows placement of the scrubber into tight areas where there is no room above the water line. The design also keeps the algae from drying out in the event of a power failure, because all the algae is under water, and the design also removes almost all splashing. The up-flowing bubble design falls into three categories: those that attach to and shine through the aquarium (or sump) glass; those that float on top of the aquarium, sump or pond water surface; and those that go completely underwater like a submarine.
+
+=== Cleaning and harvesting ===
+Generally, and except for specific continuous-filtering or continuous-cultivating versions, algae scrubbers require the algae to be removed ("harvested") periodically from the scrubber. This removal of algae has the effect of removing undesired nutrients from the water because the algae used the nutrients in order to grow. The algae is generally removed either:
+
+Every 7 to 21 days, or
+When it is black, or
+When it fills up the scrubber, or
+When it starts letting go, or
+When nutrients start to rise in the water.
+For waterfall versions, the screen is removed from the pipe and cleaned in a sink with running water. The pipe is removed also, and the slot is cleaned with a toothbrush, to remove any algae that have grown up into it. After the algae are removed, the screen and pipe are put back in the scrubber. For upflow versions, the cleaning method depends on the type:
+Glass-attached version: The magnet portion outside the glass is removed, and the inside portion is lifted out of the water. If the growth is thick green hair algae, then it is just removed by hand. If the growth is thin green hair (as occurs in freshwater) or dark slime, then the inside unit is taken to the sink and cleaned with a toothbrush. After cleaning, the inside and outside parts are put back into place on the glass.
+Floating-surface version: If the growth is thick green hair algae then it is just removed by hand by lifting the LED lid up and pulling the growth out. If the growth is thin green hair or dark slime, then the floating portion is taken to the sink and cleaned with a toothbrush.
+Drop-in version: The entire unit is lifted out of the water, and the lid is removed. If the growth is thick green hair algae then it is just removed by hand. If the growth is thin green hair or dark slime, then the whole unit is taken to the sink and cleaned with a toothbrush.
+If the screen is not cleaned like this periodically, the algae will get too thick and block light and flow from reaching the "roots" of the algae, and these areas will die and let go, putting nutrients back into the water.
+
+== See also ==
+Refugium (fishkeeping), a component of aquarium systems where algae may be grown
+Protein skimmer, a form of mechanical filtration
+Algaculture, the practice of cultivating algae and seaweed
+Photobioreactor, a device that produces fuel using algae and light
+Wikiversity:Algae scrubber, on how to build a DIY algae scrubber
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+AlgaeScrubber.net – forum about algae scrubbers for aquariums
+PowerPoint slideshow about algae scrubbers
+DIY waterfall version

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarist-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:38.811251+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An aquarist is a person who manages aquariums, either professionally or as a hobby. They typically care for aquatic animals, including fish and marine invertebrates. Some may care for aquatic mammals. Aquarists often work at public aquariums. They may also work at nature reserves, zoos, and amusement parks. Some aquarists conduct field research outdoors. In business, aquarists may work at pet stores, as commercial fish breeders, or as manufacturers. Some aquarists are hobbyists, also known as "home aquarists," who may vary in skills and experience.
+
+
+== History ==
+People have cared for aquatic animals since ancient times. The Sumerians kept fish in ponds as early as 2500 BCE. Pliny the Elder wrote of people who kept fish as oracles, and ancient Agrigent was believed to have fish ponds. The Roman poet Rutilus Namatianus wrote of a Etrurian Jew who kept fish in opaque tanks. By the 10th century, goldfish were popular pets in China. In 1369, Emperor Hung Wu established a porcelain factory to produce large tubs for fish. Around 1500, goldfish came to Sakai, Japan. Two hundred years later, Sato Sanzaemon, from Koriyama, became the first Japanese fish breeder, and fish breeding became popular throughout Japan. Around 1611, goldfish came to Europe, probably first in Portugal. By the 18th century, goldfish were common pets in Europe. During this time, Richard Bradley, an English botanist, and John Dayell, a Scottish naturalist, experimented with keeping marine life. In particular, scientists tried to determine if marine life could survive in captivity, as they usually died shortly after being removed from their natural environments.
+For centuries, humans had limited exposure to aquatic life. The sea was often considered mysterious. As written by Bernd Brunner in The Ocean at home, "The ocean was considered a source of life but also a place of ill omen, death, and mayhem—a cursed, dark world where terrifying monsters lurked, devouring anything in sight." Yet, in the 19th century, railroad transportation was introduced, enabling more people to visit coastal regions. During this period, scientists focused on analyzing the chemical and physical properties of aquatic environments, such as water temperature and salt content. Ocean exploration also became more common, as telegraph cables were installed underwater, diving bells and early submarines were invented, and deep sea explorations began with the help of dredgers. One of the most famous oceanic expeditions of the period was the four year journey of HMS Challenger, led by Sir Charles Wyville Thomson, which visited 363 locations.
+In 1830, Jeanne Villepreux-Power conducted research on argonauts in Messina, Italy. According to Richard Owen, director of the British Museum, Villepreux-Power invented the first aquarium through these experiments. That same year, Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward discovered that delicate plants could grow in airtight glass, as the glass created a microclimate. Around 1838, Felix Dujardin, a French zoologist, owned a saltwater aquarium. In 1846, Anna Thyne moved stone corals from Torquay to her home in London, later keeping them in her home in glass bowls. She experimented with water changes to sustain the corals, and she was able to keep the corals alive for three years. In 1849, Robert Warrington created a 13-gallon tank with springwater and goldfish. He published his findings related to oxygen and lighting in Chemical Society's Journal. In 1854, The Aquarium, by Philip Henry Gosse, was published, which was a commercial success and inspired middle-class families to create aquariums. The book provided information on how to build aquariums with aquatic plants, fish, hermit crabs, shrimp, sea anemone, aphrodita, and other aquatic life. During this period, William Alford Lloyd sold aquariums at his shop in London, which also provided aquarium maintenance services to customers. In 1856, Emil Adolf Rossmässler wrote about setting up freshwater aquariums as a "small botanical garden island" with animals such as snails, pearl mussels, and goldfish in Die Gartenlaube. These freshwater aquariums were appealing for people who lived farther from the sea.
+
+While the "aquarium mania" of the 1850s lost popularity after a few years, public aquariums were soon established. In 1853, the "fish house" was opened at the London Zoo. In 1860, Gustav Jager, a German nature scientist and doctor, built an aquarium in Vienna, Austria. Major cities continued to open aquariums in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as the New York Aquarium (1896) and Belle Isle Aquarium in Detroit (1904). Early aquariums cared little for conservation of endangered species, and they often contributed to marine degradation. However, conservation efforts began in the 20th century, such as the conservation of the Galápagos tortoises led by Charles Haskins Townsend. Contemporary aquariums are now often involved in conservation and field research. In 2019, The Atlantic reported that "the United States is experiencing a new wave of aquarium enthusiasm," but that public aquariums often experience financial difficulty.
+
+
+== Responsibilities ==
+Responsibilities for aquarists often include maintaining and cleaning tanks, preparing food for the animals (including dietary adjustments), feeding the animals, providing mental stimulation for some animals, monitoring animals for sickness or injuries, administering medication and vitamins to animals, maintaining the water quality and water temperature of tanks, maintaining the lighting of tanks, collecting data on the water quality and water temperature of tanks, monitoring and maintaining aquarium machinery (such as filters, heaters, and pumps), transporting animals, and building exhibits, among other duties. It is common for aquarists to have scuba diving certification.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An aquarium (pl.: aquariums or aquaria) is a vivarium of any size having at least one transparent side in which aquatic plants or animals are kept and displayed. Fishkeepers use aquaria to keep fish, invertebrates, amphibians, aquatic reptiles, such as turtles, and aquatic plants. The term aquarium, coined by English naturalist Philip Henry Gosse, combines the Latin root aqua, meaning 'water', with the suffix -arium, meaning 'a place for relating to'.
+The aquarium principle was fully developed in 1850 by the chemist Robert Warington, who explained that plants added to water in a container would give off enough oxygen to support animals, so long as the numbers of animals did not grow too large. The aquarium craze was launched in early Victorian England by Gosse, who created and stocked the first public aquarium at the London Zoo in 1853, and published the first manual, The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea in 1854. Small aquariums are kept in the home by hobbyists. There are large public aquariums in many cities. Public aquariums keep fish and other aquatic animals in large tanks. A large aquarium may have otters, dolphins, sharks, penguins, seals, and whales. Many aquarium tanks also have plants.
+An aquarist owns fish or maintains an aquarium, typically constructed of glass or high-strength acrylic. Aquaria with flat walls are known as fish tanks or simply tanks, while those with rounded walls are known as fish bowls. Size can range from a small glass bowl, a few liters in volume, to immense public aquaria of thousands of liters. Specialized equipment maintains appropriate water quality and other characteristics suitable for the aquarium's residents.
+
+== History and popularization ==
+
+=== Antiquity ===
+In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor of China established a porcelain company that produced large porcelain tubs for maintaining goldfish; over time, people produced tubs that approached the shape of modern fish bowls. Leonhard Baldner, who wrote Vogel-, Fisch- und Tierbuch (Bird, Fish, and Animal Book) in 1666, maintained weather loaches and newts. It is sometimes held that the aquarium was invented by the Romans, who are said to have kept sea barbels in marble-and-glass tanks, but scholars doubt the veracity of this.
+
+=== Nineteenth century ===
+
+In 1832, Jeanne Villepreux-Power, a pioneering French marine biologist, became the first person to create aquaria for experimenting with aquatic organisms. This experimentation led to several discoveries, including the first direct evidence that argonauts, a marine cephalopod, create their own shells. In 1836, soon after his invention of the Wardian case, Dr. Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward proposed to use his tanks for tropical animals. In 1841 he did so, though only with aquatic plants and toy fish. However, he soon housed real animals. In 1838, Félix Dujardin noted owning a saltwater aquarium, though he did not use the term. In 1846, Anne Thynne maintained stony corals and seaweed for almost three years, and was credited as the creator of the first balanced marine aquarium in London. English chemist Robert Warington experimented with a 13-gallon container, which contained goldfish, eelgrass, and snails, creating one of the first stable aquaria. The aquarium principle was fully developed by Warington, explaining that plants added to water in a container would give off enough oxygen to support animals, so long as their numbers do not grow too large. He published his findings in 1850 in the Chemical Society's journal.
+
+The keeping of fish in an aquarium became a popular hobby and spread quickly. In the United Kingdom, it became popular after ornate aquaria in cast-iron frames were featured at the Great Exhibition of 1851. In 1853, the aquarium craze was launched in England, spreading from there to Germany, the United States and France as the result of the publications and activity of Philip Henry Gosse, the marine zoologist known as the "Father of the Aquarium". He created and stocked the first public aquarium at the London Zoo in Regent's Park, which came to be known as the Fish House. The Regent's Park aquarium, initially indiscriminately referred to as the "Fish House", "Vivarium", "Aquavivarium" or "Marine vivarium", soon yielded to the word "aquarium", a term coined by Gosse used as the title of his 1854 book The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Water. In this book, Gosse primarily discussed saltwater aquaria. The high-water mark of the popular aquarium movement in Britain lasted from 1853 to 1860.
+Tank designs and techniques for maintaining water quality were developed by Warington, later cooperating with Gosse until his critical review of the tank water composition. Edward Edwards developed these glass-fronted aquaria in his 1858 patent for a "dark-water-chamber slope-back tank", with water slowly circulating to a reservoir beneath.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Influenced by Gosse, the German Emil Adolf Rossmässler promoted the value of the aquarium movement in the educational field. Rossmässler wrote of its use in an 1855 article in Die Gartenlaube (The Gazebo) and in his 1857 book Das Susswasser-Aquarium (The Freshwater Aquarium), the freshwater aquarium being much easier to maintain in landlocked areas. In 1862 William Alford Lloyd, then bankrupt because of the craze in England being over, moved to Grindel Dammthor, Hamburg, to supervise the installation of the circulating system and tanks at the Hamburg Aquarium. During the 1870s, some of the first aquarist societies were appearing in Germany. The United States soon followed. Published in 1858, Henry D. Butler's The Family Aquarium was one of the first books written in the United States solely about the aquarium. According to the July issue of The North American Review of the same year, William Stimson may have owned some of the first functional aquaria, and had as many as seven or eight. Henry Bishop, a bird and fish dealer in Baltimore ("Goldfish King"), is credited with revolutionizing the aquarium business in the US, selling a wide range of tanks and supplies beginning in the 1870s-1880s. The first aquarist society in the United States was founded in New York City in 1893, followed by others. The New York Aquarium Journal, first published in October 1876, is considered to be the world's first aquarium magazine.
+
+In the Victorian era in the United Kingdom, a common design for the home aquarium was a glass front with the other sides made of wood (made watertight with a pitch coating). The bottom would be made of slate and heated from below. More advanced systems soon began to be introduced, along with tanks of glass in metal frames. During the latter half of the 19th century, a variety of aquarium designs were explored, such as hanging the aquarium on a wall, mounting it as part of a window, or even combining it with a birdcage.
+
+=== Twentieth century ===
+
+Around 1908, the first mechanical aquarium air pump was invented, powered by running water, instead of electricity. The introduction of the air pump into the hobby is considered by several historians of the hobby to be a pivotal moment in its development.
+
+Aquaria became more widely popular as houses had an electricity supply after World War I. Electricity allowed artificial lighting, as well as aeration, filtration, and heating of the water. Initially, amateur aquarists kept native fish (with the exception of goldfish); the availability of exotic species from overseas further increased the popularity of the aquarium. Jugs made from a variety of materials were used to import fish from overseas, with a bicycle foot pump for aeration. Plastic shipping bags were introduced in the 1950s, making it easier to ship fish. The eventual availability of air freight allowed fish to be successfully imported from distant regions. Popular publications started by Herbert R. Axelrod influenced many more hobbyists to start keeping fish. In the 1960s, metal frames made marine aquaria almost impossible due to corrosion, but the development of tar and silicone sealant allowed the first all-glass aquaria made by Martin Horowitz in Los Angeles, CA. The frames remained, however, though purely for aesthetic reasons.
+Japan played an increasingly important role in shaping aquarium design in the latter part of the twentieth century, with the aquascaping designs of Takashi Amano influencing fishkeepers to treat home aquariums as aesthetically pleasing compositions, rather than simply as a way of displaying fish specimens.
+In the United States, as of 1996, aquarium keeping is the second-most popular hobby after stamp collecting. In 1999, an estimated 9.6 million US households owned an aquarium. Figures from the 2005/2006 APPMA National Pet Owners Survey report that Americans own approximately 139 million freshwater fish and 9.6 million saltwater fish. Estimates of the numbers of fish kept in aquaria in Germany suggest at least 36 million. The hobby has the strongest following in Europe, Asia, and North America. In the United States, 40% of aquarists maintain two or more tanks.
+Over time, there has been an increasing appreciation of the usefulness of access to an aquarium to provide potential stress reduction and improvement of mood in people observing aquatic life. According to the research of having an aquarium is many health benefits like reduce stress, blood pressure and heart rate improvement, better quality sleep, reduce anxiety and pain, therapy of excited children, Alzheimer's therapy and improve productivity.
+
+== Design ==
+
+=== Materials ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Glass ====
+The first modern aquarium made of glass was developed in the 19th century by Robert Warrington. During the Victorian age, glass aquariums commonly had slate or steel bottoms, which allowed them to be heated underneath by an open-flame heat source. These aquariums had the glass panels attached with metal frames and sealed with putty. Metal-framed aquariums were still available until the mid-1960s, when the modern, silicone-sealed style replaced them. Acrylic aquariums first became available to the public in the 1970s. Laminated glass is sometimes used, which combines the advantages of both glass and acrylic. Today, most aquaria consist of glass panes bonded together by 100% silicone sealant, with plastic frames attached to the upper and lower edges for decoration. The glass aquarium is standard for sizes up to about 1,000 litres (260 US gal; 220 imp gal). However, glass is brittle and has very little give before fracturing, though generally the sealant fails first. Aquaria are made in a variety of shapes, such as cuboid, hexagonal, angled to fit in a corner (L-shaped), and bow-front (the front side curves outwards). Fish bowls are generally either made of plastic or glass, and are either spherical or some other round configuration in shape.
+Glass aquaria have been a popular choice for many home and hobbyist aquarists for many years. Once silicone sealant became strong enough to ensure a long-term water-tight seal, it eliminated the need for a structural frame. In addition to lower cost, glass aquaria are more scratch resistant than acrylic. Although the price is one of the main considerations for aquarists when deciding which of these two types of aquaria to purchase, for very large tanks, the price difference tends to disappear.
+
+==== Acrylic ====
+Acrylic aquaria are now the primary competitor with glass. Prior to the invention of UV stabilization, early acrylic aquaria discolored over time with exposure to light; this is no longer the case. Acrylic is generally stronger than glass, weighs less, and provides a certain amount of temperature insulation. In colder climates or environments, it is easier to achieve and maintain a tropical temperature and requires less capacity from an aquarium heater. Acrylic-soluble cements are used to directly fuse acrylic together. Acrylic allows for the formation of unusual shapes, such as the hexagonal tank. Acrylics are easier to scratch than glass, but unlike glass, scratches in acrylic can be polished out.
+
+==== Other materials ====
+Large aquaria might instead use stronger materials such as fiberglass-reinforced plastics. However, this material is not transparent. Reinforced concrete is used for aquaria where weight and space are not factors. Concrete must be coated with a waterproof layer to prevent the water from breaking down the concrete, as well as preventing contamination of the water by the concrete.
+Plywood can also be used when building aquaria. The benefits of using plywood include: lower construction costs, less weight, and better insulation. A popular positioning choice for plywood aquaria is keeping them in a wall. Here the use of plywood is hidden by sinking the aquarium inside the wall. Putting insulation between the two helps with the insulation of a heated tank.
+
+=== Styles ===
+
+Objects used for aquariums include: coffee tables, sinks, and even toilets. Another such example is the Macquarium, an aquarium made from the shell of an Apple Macintosh computer. In recent years, elaborate custom-designed home aquariums costing hundreds of thousands of dollars have become status symbols—according to The New York Times, "among people of means, a dazzling aquarium is one of the last surefire ways to impress their peers."
+
+==== Kreisel ====
+
+A kreisel tank (kreisel being German for "spinning top" or "gyroscope") is an aquarium shaped like a horizontal cylinder that is designed to hold delicate animals such as jellyfish and newborn seahorses. These aquariums provide slow, circular water flow with a bare minimum of interior hardware to prevent the inhabitants from becoming injured by pumps or the tank itself. The tank has no sharp angles around its sides and keeps the housed animals away from plumbing. Water moving into the tank gives a gentle flow that keeps the inhabitants suspended. Water leaves the tank through a screen which prevents animals from being drawn into the pump intake or overflow line.
+There are several types of kreisel tanks. In a true kreisel, a circular tank has a circular, submerged lid. Pseudokreisels are "U" or semicircle shaped, usually without a lid. Stretch kreisels are a "double gyre" kreisel design, where the tank length is at least twice the height. Using two downwelling inlets on both sides of the tank lets gravity create two gyres in the tank. A single downwelling inlet may be used in the middle as well. The top of a stretch kreisel may be open or closed with a lid. There may also be screens about midway down the sides of the tank, or at the top on the sides. It is possible to combine these designs; a circular shaped tank is used without a lid or cover, and the surface of the water acts as the continuation of circular flow.
+
+==== Biotope ====
+Another popular setup is the biotope aquarium. A biotope aquarium is a recreation of a specific natural environment. Some of the most popular biotopes are the freshwater habitats of the Amazon River, the Rio Negro River, the African rift lake environments of Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika, and saltwater coral reefs of Australia, the Red Sea, and the Caribbean Sea. The fish, plants, substrate, rocks, wood, coral, and any other component of the display should completely match that of the local natural environment. It can be a challenge to recreate such environments, and most "true" biotopes will only have a few (if not only one) species of fish and invertebrates.
+Finally, an emerging concept for the home is that of a wall mounted aquarium.
+
+=== Aquarium size and volume ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-3.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An aquarium can range from a small glass bowl containing less than 1 liter (0.26 U.S. gal) of water to immense public aquaria that house entire ecosystems such as kelp forests. Relatively large home aquaria resist rapid fluctuations of temperature and pH, allowing for greater system stability. Beginner aquarists are advised to consider larger tanks to begin with, as controlling water parameters in smaller tanks can prove difficult.
+Small, unfiltered bowl-shaped aquaria are now widely regarded as unsuitable for most fish. In order to keep water conditions at suitable levels, aquariums should contain at least two forms of filtration: biological and mechanical. Chemical filtration should also be considered under some circumstances for optimum water quality. Chemical filtration is frequently achieved via activated carbon, to filter medications, tannins, and/or other known impurities from the water.
+Reef aquaria under 100 litres (26 US gal; 22 imp gal) have a special place in the aquarium hobby; these aquaria, termed nano reefs (when used in reefkeeping), have a small water volume, under 40 litres (11 US gal; 9 imp gal).
+
+Practical limitations, most notably the weight of water (1 kilogram per litre (8.345 lb/U.S. gal; 10.022 lb/imp gal)) and internal water pressure (requiring thick glass siding) of a large aquarium, restrict most home aquaria to a maximum of around 1 cubic metre in volume (1000 L, weighing 1,000 kg or 2,200 lb). Some aquarists, however, have constructed aquaria of many thousands of litres.
+Public aquariums and oceanariums designed for exhibition of large species or environments can be dramatically larger than any home aquarium. The Georgia Aquarium, for example, features an individual aquarium of 6,300,000 US gallons (24,000,000 L).
+
+==== Nano aquariums ====
+A new trend is to have very small aquariums, termed mini aquariums (less than 150 litres or 40 gallons) or nano aquariums (less than 75 litres or 20 gallons). These can be either freshwater or saltwater, and are intended to display a tiny but self-contained ecosystem.
+
+== Components ==
+
+The typical hobbyist aquarium includes a filtration system, an artificial lighting system, an air diffuser and pump, and a heater or chiller depending on the aquarium's inhabitants. Many aquaria incorporate a hood, containing the lights, to decrease evaporation and prevent fish from leaving the aquarium (and anything else from entering the aquarium).
+Combined biological and mechanical aquarium filtration systems are common. These either convert ammonia to nitrate (removing nitrogen at the expense of aquatic plants), or to sometimes remove phosphate. Filter media can house microbes that mediate nitrification. Filtration systems are sometimes the most complex component of home aquaria.
+Aquarium heaters combine a heating element with a thermostat, allowing the aquarist to regulate water temperature at a level above that of the surrounding air, whereas coolers and chillers (refrigeration devices) are for use anywhere, such as cold water aquaria, where the ambient room temperature is above the desired tank temperature. Thermometers used include glass alcohol thermometers, adhesive external plastic strip thermometers, and battery-powered LCD thermometers. In addition, some aquarists use air pumps attached to airstones or water pumps to increase water circulation and supply adequate gas exchange at the water surface. Wave-making devices have also been constructed to provide wave action.
+
+An aquarium's physical characteristics form another aspect of aquarium design. Size, lighting conditions, density of floating and rooted plants, placement of bog-wood, creation of caves or overhangs, type of substrate, and other factors (including an aquarium's positioning within a room) can all affect the behavior and survival of tank inhabitants.
+An aquarium can be placed on an aquarium stand. Because of the weight of the aquarium, a stand must be strong as well as level. A tank that is not level may distort, leak, or crack. These are often built with cabinets to allow storage, available in many styles to match room decor. Simple metal tank stands are also available. Most aquaria should be placed on polystyrene to cushion any irregularities on the underlying surface or the bottom of the tank itself that may cause cracks. However, some tanks have an underframe making this unnecessary.
+Another important consideration for aquariums is their electrical usage. Water is expensive to keep heated, along with the lights that many aquariums, especially those with live plants have. New aquarists should also pay close attention to their electrical setup for their aquarium, taking care to set up power connections with drip loops to prevent water from getting to outlets.
+
+== Aquarium maintenance ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-4.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Large volumes of water enable more stability in a tank by diluting effects from death or contamination events that push an aquarium away from equilibrium. The bigger the tank, the easier such a systemic shock is to absorb, because the effects of that event are diluted. For example, the death of the only fish in an 11-litre (3 US gal; 2 imp gal) tank causes dramatic changes in the system, while the death of that same fish in a 400-litre (110 US gal; 88 imp gal) tank with many other fish in it represents only a minor change. For this reason, hobbyists often favor larger tanks, as they require less attention.
+Several nutrient cycles are important in the aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters the system at the surface water-air interface. Similarly, carbon dioxide escapes the system into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients also cycle through the system, entering as food and exiting as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with supplying an adequately balanced food supply and considered biological loading, is enough to keep these other nutrient cycles in approximate equilibrium.
+An aquarium must be maintained regularly to ensure that the fish are kept healthy. Daily maintenance consists of checking the fish for signs of stress and disease. Also, aquarists must make sure that the water has a good quality and it is not cloudy or foamy and the temperature of the water is appropriate for the particular species of fish that live in the aquarium.
+Typical weekly maintenance includes changing around 10–30% or more of the water while cleaning the gravel, or other substrate if the aquarium has one; however some manage to avoid this entirely by keeping it somewhat self-sufficient. A good habit is to remove the water being replaced by "vacuuming" the gravel with suitable implements, as this will eliminate uneaten foods and other residues that settle on the substrate. In many areas tap water is not considered to be safe for fish to live in because it contains chemicals that harm the fish. Tap water from those areas must be treated with a suitable water conditioner, such as a product which removes chlorine and chloramine and neutralizes any heavy metals present. The water conditions must be checked both in the tank and in the replacement water, to make sure they are suitable for the species.
+
+=== Water conditions ===
+The solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as total dissolved solids and other constituents dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or salinity, is the most basic measure of water conditions. An aquarium may have freshwater (salinity below 500 parts per million), simulating a lake or river environment; brackish water (a salt level of 500 to 30,000 PPM), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as estuaries; and salt water or seawater (a salt level of 30,000 to 40,000 PPM), simulating an ocean environment. Rarely, higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.
+Saltwater is usually alkaline, while the pH (alkalinity or acidity) of fresh water varies more. Hardness measures overall dissolved mineral content; hard or soft water may be preferred. Hard water is usually alkaline, while soft water is usually neutral to acidic. Dissolved organic content and dissolved gases content are also important factors.
+Home aquarists typically use tap water supplied through their local water supply network to fill their tanks. Straight tap water cannot be used in localities that pipe chlorinated water. In the past, it was possible to "condition" the water by simply letting the water stand for a day or two, which allows the chlorine time to dissipate. However, chloramine is now used more often and does not leave the water as readily. Water conditioners formulated to remove chlorine or chloramine are often all that is needed to make the water ready for aquarium use. Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a commercially available mixture of salts and other minerals.
+
+Some aquarists modify water's alkalinity, hardness, or dissolved content of organics and gases, before adding it to their aquaria. This can be accomplished by additives, such as sodium bicarbonate, to raise pH. Some aquarists filter or purify their water through deionization or reverse osmosis prior to using it. In contrast, public aquaria with large water needs often locate themselves near a natural water source (such as a river, lake, or ocean) to reduce the level of treatment. Some hobbyists use an algae scrubber to filter the water naturally.
+Water temperature determines the two most basic aquarium classifications: tropical versus cold water. Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited temperature range; tropical aquaria, with an average temperature of about 25 °C (77 °F), are much more common. Temperate or coldwater aquaria are for fish that are better suited to a cooler environment. Temperature consistency is more important than range. Most organisms are not accustomed to sudden changes in temperatures, which can cause shock and lead to disease. Water temperature can be regulated with a thermostat and heater (or cooler).
+Water movement can also be important in simulating a natural ecosystem. Aquarists may prefer anything from still water up to swift currents, depending on the aquarium's inhabitants. Water movement can be controlled via aeration from air pumps, powerheads, and careful design of internal water flow (such as location of filtration system points of inflow and outflow).
+
+=== Nitrogen cycle ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-5.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Of primary concern to the aquarist is management of the waste produced by an aquarium's inhabitants. Fish, invertebrates, fungi, and some bacteria excrete nitrogen waste in the form of ammonia (which converts to ammonium, in water) and must then either pass through the nitrogen cycle or be removed by passing through zeolite. Ammonia is also produced through the decomposition of plant and animal matter, including fecal matter and other detritus. Nitrogen waste products become toxic to fish and other aquarium inhabitants at high concentrations. In the wild, the vast amount of water surrounding the fish dilutes ammonia and other waste materials. When fish are put into an aquarium, waste can quickly reach toxic concentrations in the enclosed environment unless the tank is cycled to remove waste.
+
+==== The process ====
+A well-balanced tank contains organisms that are able to metabolize the waste products of other aquarium residents, recreating a portion of the nitrogen cycle. Bacteria known as nitrifiers (genus Nitrosomonas) metabolize nitrogen waste. Nitrifying bacteria capture ammonia from the water and metabolize it to produce nitrite. Nitrite is toxic to fish in high concentrations. Another type of bacteria (genus Nitrospira) converts nitrite into nitrate, a less toxic substance. (Nitrobacter bacteria were previously believed to fill this role. While biologically they could theoretically fill the same niche as Nitrospira, it has recently been found that Nitrobacter are not present in detectable levels in established aquaria, while Nitrospira are plentiful.) However, commercial products sold as kits to "jump start" the nitrogen cycle often still contain Nitrobacter.
+Aquatic plants also eliminate nitrogen waste by metabolizing ammonia and nitrate. When plants metabolize nitrogen compounds, they remove nitrogen from the water by using it to build biomass that decays more slowly than ammonia-driven plankton already dissolved in the water. Some hobbyists also use "anoxic filtration", which relies on bacteria that live in low-oxygen environments.
+
+==== Maintaining the nitrogen cycle ====
+
+The nitrogen cycle in an aquarium is only a portion of the complete cycle: nitrogen must be added to the system (usually through food provided to the tank inhabitants), and nitrates accumulate in the water at the end of the process, or become bound in the biomass of plants. The aquarium keeper must remove water once nitrate concentrations grow, or remove plants which have grown from the nitrates.
+Hobbyist aquaria often do not have sufficient bacteria populations to adequately denitrify waste. This problem is most often addressed through different filtration solutions: Activated carbon filters absorb nitrogen compounds and other toxins, while biological filters provide a medium designed to enhance bacterial colonization. Activated carbon and other substances, such as ammonia absorbing resins, stop working when their pores fill, so these components have to be replaced regularly.  Mechanical solutions, often referred to as protein skimmers.  These devices use a combination of high throughput pumps, mechanical agitation (impellers), and air stones to circulate the water column through the system while removing fish and/or coral waste products.  These proteins typically form a high density foam that is the then captured in a trap that needs to be periodically cleaned by the aquarist.  These systems can also enhance the dissolved oxygen levels in tanks.    
+New aquaria often have problems associated with the nitrogen cycle due to insufficient beneficial bacteria. Therefore, both fresh water and saltwater systems have to be matured before stocking them with fish or coral. There are three basic approaches to this: the "fishless cycle", the "silent cycle" and "slow growth".  This is a common mistake made by beginner hobbyists who are excited to put livestock in their tanks on day one.  When a tank is overstocked it can result in excess ammonia build-up, "nitrogen burn" , potentially leading to livestock death. 
+In a fishless cycle, small amounts of ammonia are added to an unpopulated tank to feed the bacteria. During this process, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate levels are tested to monitor progress. The "silent" cycle is basically nothing more than densely stocking the aquarium with fast-growing aquatic plants and relying on them to consume the nitrogen, allowing the necessary bacterial populations time to develop. According to anecdotal reports, the plants can consume nitrogenous waste so efficiently that ammonia and nitrite level spikes seen in more traditional cycling methods are greatly reduced or disappear. "Slow growth" entails slowly increasing the population of fish over a period of 6 to 8 weeks, giving bacteria colonies time to grow and stabilize with the increase in fish waste. This method is usually done with a small starter population of hardier fish which can survive the ammonia and nitrite spikes, whether they are intended to be permanent residents or to be traded out later for the desired occupants.
+The largest bacterial populations are found in the filter, where there is high water flow and plentiful surface available for their growth, so effective and efficient filtration is vital. Sometimes, a vigorous cleaning of the filter is enough to seriously disturb the biological balance of an aquarium. Therefore, it is recommended to rinse mechanical filters in an outside bucket of aquarium water to dislodge organic materials that contribute to nitrate problems, while preserving bacteria populations. Another safe practice consists of cleaning only half of the filter media during each service, or using two filters, only one of which is cleaned at a time.
+
+=== Biological load ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-6.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The biological load, or bioload is a measure of the burden placed on the aquarium ecosystem by its inhabitants. High biological loading presents a more complicated tank ecology, which in turn means that equilibrium is easier to upset. Several fundamental constraints on biological loading depend on aquarium size. The water's surface area limits oxygen intake. The bacteria population depends on the physical space they have available to colonize. Physically, only a limited size and number of plants and animals can fit into an aquarium while still providing room for movement. Biologically, biological loading refers to the rate of biological decay in proportion to tank volume. Adding plants to an aquarium will sometimes help greatly with taking up fish waste as plant nutrients. Although an aquarium can be overloaded with fish, an excess of plants is unlikely to cause harm. Decaying plant material, such as decaying plant leaves, can add these nutrients back into the aquarium if not promptly removed. The bioload is processed by the aquarium's biofilter filtration system.
+
+==== Calculating capacity ====
+Limiting factors include the oxygen availability and filtration processing. Aquarists have rules of thumb to estimate the number of fish that can be kept in an aquarium. The examples below are for small freshwater fish; larger freshwater fishes and most marine fishes need much more generous allowances.
+
+3 cm of adult fish length per 4 litres of water (i.e., a 6 cm-long fish would need about 8 litres of water).
+1 cm of adult fish length per 30 square centimetres of surface area.
+1 inch of adult fish length per US gallon of water.
+1 inch of adult fish length per 12 square inches of surface area.
+Experienced aquarists warn against applying these rules too strictly because they do not consider other important issues such as growth rate, activity level, social behaviour, filtration capacity, total biomass of plant life, and so on. It is better to apply the overall mass and size of a fish per gallon of water, than simply the length. This is because fish of different sizes produce quite differing amounts of waste. Establishing maximum capacity is often a matter of slowly adding fish and monitoring water quality over time, following a trial and error approach.
+
+==== Other factors affecting capacity ====
+
+One variable is differences between fish. Smaller fish consume more oxygen per gram of body weight than larger fish. Labyrinth fish can breathe atmospheric oxygen and do not need as much surface area (however, some of these fish are territorial, and do not appreciate crowding). Barbs also require more surface area than tetras of comparable size.
+Oxygen exchange at the surface is an important constraint, and thus the surface area of the aquarium matters. Some aquarists claim that a deeper aquarium holds no more fish than a shallower aquarium with the same surface area. The capacity can be improved by surface movement and water circulation such as through aeration, which not only improves oxygen exchange, but also waste decomposition rates.
+Waste density is another variable. Decomposition in solution consumes oxygen. Oxygen dissolves less readily in warmer water; this is a double-edged sword since warmer temperatures make fish more active, so they consume more oxygen.
+In addition to bioload/chemical considerations, aquarists also consider the mutual compatibility of the fish. For instance, predatory fish are usually not kept with small, passive species, and territorial fish are often unsuitable tankmates for shoaling species. Furthermore, fish tend to fare better if given tanks conducive to their size. That is, large fish need large tanks and small fish can do well in smaller tanks. Lastly, the tank can become overcrowded without being overstocked. In other words, the aquarium can be suitable with regard to filtration capacity, oxygen load, and water, yet still be so crowded that the inhabitants are uncomfortable.
+For planted freshwater aquariums, it is also important to maintain a balance between the duration and quality of light, the amount of plants, CO2 levels and nutrients. Light exposure within the tank environment can also influence nutrient concentrations. For a given amount of light, if there is insufficient number of plants or insufficient CO2 to support the growth of those plants, so as to consume all the nutrients in the tank, the result would be algae growth. While there are fishes and invertebrates that could be introduced in the tank to clean up this algae, the ideal solution would be to find the optimal balance between the above-mentioned factors. Supplemental CO2 can be provided, whose quantity has to be carefully regulated, as too much CO2 may harm the fishes.
+
+== Aquarium classifications ==
+
+From the outdoor ponds and glass jars of antiquity, modern aquaria have evolved into a wide range of specialized systems. Individual aquaria can vary in size from a small bowl large enough for only a single small fish, to the huge public aquaria that can simulate entire marine ecosystems.
+One way to classify aquaria is by salinity. Freshwater aquaria are the most popular due to their lower cost. More expensive and complex equipment is required to set up and maintain marine aquaria. Marine aquaria frequently feature a diverse range of invertebrates in addition to species of fish. Brackish water aquaria combine elements of both marine and freshwater fishkeeping. Fish kept in brackish water aquaria generally come from habitats with varying salinity, such as mangrove swamps and estuaries. Subtypes exist within these types, such as the reef aquarium, a typically smaller marine aquarium that houses coral.
+Another classification is by temperature range. Many aquarists choose a tropical aquarium because tropical fish tend to be more colorful. However, the coldwater aquarium is also popular, which includes fish from temperate areas worldwide.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium-7.md

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:40.028331+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquaria may be grouped by their species selection. In a community tank, several non-aggressive species live peacefully. In these aquaria, the fish, invertebrates, and plants probably do not originate from the same geographic region, but tolerate similar water conditions and each other. Aggressive tanks, by contrast, house a limited number of species that can be aggressive toward other fish, or are able to withstand aggression well. Most aquarists maintaining marine tanks and tanks housing cichlids have to take species aggressiveness into account when stocking. Specimen tanks usually only house one fish species, along with plants—sometimes those found in the fish species' natural environment—and decorations simulating a natural ecosystem. This type is useful for fish that cannot coexist with other fish, such as the electric eel, as an extreme example. Some tanks of this sort are used simply to house adults for breeding.
+Biotope aquaria is another type based on species selection. In it, an aquarist attempts to simulate a specific natural ecosystem, assembling fish, invertebrate species, plants, decorations and water conditions all found in that ecosystem. Public aquaria often use this approach. Biotope aquaria simulates the experience of observing in the wild. It typically serves as the healthiest possible artificial environment for the tank's occupants.
+
+== Public aquaria ==
+
+Most public aquarium facilities feature a number of smaller aquaria, as well as those too large for home aquarists. The largest tanks hold millions of gallons of water and can house large species, including sharks or beluga whales, which typically could not be housed properly in the home aquarium. Dolphinaria are specifically for dolphins. Aquatic and semiaquatic animals, including otters and penguins, may also be kept by public aquaria. Public aquaria may also be included in larger establishments such as a marine mammal park or a marine park. These are very popular around the world, especially with a new emergence in the Middle East.
+
+== Virtual aquariums ==
+
+A virtual aquarium is a computer program which uses 3D graphics to reproduce an aquarium on a personal computer. The swimming fish are rendered in real time, while the background of the tank is usually static. Objects on the floor of the tank may be mapped in simple planes so that the fish may appear to swim both in front and behind them, but a relatively simple 3D map of the general shape of such objects may be used to allow the light and ripples on the surface of the water to cast realistic shadows. Bubbles and water noises are common for virtual aquariums, which are often used as screensavers.
+The number of each type of fish can usually be selected, often including other animals like starfish, jellyfish, seahorses, and even sea turtles. Most companies that produce virtual aquarium software also offer other types of fish for sale via Internet download. Other objects found in an aquarium can also be added and rearranged on some software, like treasure chests and giant clams that open and close with air bubbles, or a bobbing diver. There are also usually features that allow the user to tap on the glass or put food in the top, both of which the fish will react to. Some also have the ability to allow the user to edit fish and other objects to create new varieties.
+
+== See also ==
+List of aquaria
+Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)
+List of aquarium diseases
+List of aquarium fish by scientific name
+List of brackish aquarium fish species
+List of brackish aquarium plant species
+List of freshwater aquarium amphibian species
+List of freshwater aquarium fish species
+List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species
+List of freshwater aquarium plant species
+List of marine aquarium fish species
+List of marine aquarium invertebrate species
+List of marine aquarium plant species
+Vivarium
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Ernest Ingersoll (1920). "Aquarium" . Encyclopedia Americana.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_filter-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium filter"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_filter"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:56.583496+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquarium filters are critical components of both freshwater and marine aquaria. Aquarium filters remove physical and soluble chemical waste products from aquaria, simplifying maintenance. Furthermore, aquarium filters are necessary to support life as aquaria are relatively small, closed volumes of water compared to the natural environment of most fish.
+
+== Overview ==
+Animals, typically fish, kept in fish tanks produce waste from excrement and respiration. Another source of waste is uneaten food or plants and fish which have died. These waste products collect in the tanks and contaminate the water. As the degree of contamination rises, the risk to the health of the aquaria increases and removal of the contamination becomes critical. Filtration is a common method used for maintenance of healthy aquaria.
+
+=== Biological filtration and the nitrogen cycle ===
+
+Proper management of the nitrogen cycle is a vital element of a successful aquarium. Excretia and other decomposing organic matter produce ammonia which is highly toxic to fish. Bacterial processes oxidize this ammonia into the slightly less toxic nitrites, and these are in turn oxidized to form the much less toxic nitrates. In the natural environment these nitrates are subsequently taken up by plants as fertilizer and this does indeed happen to some extent in an aquarium planted with real plants.
+An aquarium is, however, an imperfect microcosm of the natural world. Aquariums are usually much more densely stocked with fish than the natural environment. This increases the amount of ammonia produced in the relatively small volume of the aquarium. The bacteria responsible for breaking down the ammonia by converting it to nitrite, Nitrosomonas, colonize the surface of any objects inside the aquarium. The bacteria that then convert nitrite to nitrate are Nitrospira and Nitrobacter. In most cases, a biological filter is nothing more than a chemically inert porous sponge, which provides a greatly enlarged surface area on which these bacteria can develop. These bacterial colonies take several weeks to form, during which time the aquarium is vulnerable to a condition commonly known as "new tank syndrome" if stocked with fish too quickly. Some systems incorporate bacteria capable of converting nitrates into nitrogen gas.
+Accumulation of toxic ammonia from decomposing wastes is the largest cause of fish mortality in new, poorly maintained, or overloaded aquariums.  In the artificial environment of the aquarium, the nitrogen cycle effectively ends with the production of nitrates. In order that the nitrate level does not build up to a harmful level regular partial water changes are required to remove the nitrates and introduce new, uncontaminated water.
+
+=== Mechanical and chemical filtration ===
+The process of mechanical filtration removes particulate material from the water column. This particulate matter may include uneaten food, feces or plant or algal debris. Mechanical filtration is typically achieved by passing water through materials which act as a sieve, physically trapping the particulate matter.  Removal of solid waste can be as simple as physical hand netting of debris, and/or involve highly complex equipment. All removal of solid wastes involve filtering water through some form of mesh in a process known as mechanical filtration. The solid wastes are first collected, and then must be physically removed from the aquarium system. Mechanical filtration is ultimately ineffective if the solid wastes are not removed from the filter, and are allowed to decay and dissolve in the water.
+Dissolved wastes are more difficult to remove from the water. Several techniques, collectively known as chemical filtration, are used for the removal of dissolved wastes, the most popular being the use of activated carbon and foam fractionation. To a certain extent, healthy plants extract dissolved chemical wastes from water when they grow, so plants can serve a role in the containment of dissolved wastes.
+A final and less common situation requiring filtration involves the desire to sterilize water-borne pathogens. This sterilization is accomplished by passing aquarium water through filtration devices which expose the water to high intensity ultraviolet light and/or exposing the water to dissolved ozone gas.
+
+== Materials suitable for aquarium filtration ==
+
+Numerous materials are suitable as aquarium filtration media. These include synthetic wools, known in the aquarium hobby as filter wool, made of polyethylene terephthalate or nylon. Synthetic sponges or foams, various ceramic and sintered glass and silicon products along with igneous gravels are also used as mechanical filter materials. Materials with a greater surface area provide both mechanical and biological filtration. Some filter materials, such as plastic "bioballs", are best used for biological filtration.
+With the notable exception of diatom filters, aquarium filters are rarely purely mechanical in action, as bacteria will colonise most filter materials effecting some degree of biological filtration. Activated carbon and zeolites are also frequently added to aquarium filters. These highly porous materials act as adsorbates binding various chemicals to their large external surfaces and also as sites of bacterial colonisation.
+The simplest type of aquarium filter consists only of filter wool and activated carbon. The filter wool traps large debris and particles, and the activated carbon adsorbs smaller impurities. These should be changed regularly at suitable intervals.  This is particularly important in the case of activated carbon filters, which may re-release their adsorbed contents in large (and therefore harmful) doses if they are allowed to saturate. Activated carbon adsorbs toxins on the extended porous surface of the carbon. It cannot be reactivated by boiling in water. The adsorption of activated carbon can be restored by thermal regeneration at temperatures of 500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F), electrochemical regeneration, ultrasound, or other industrial processes. For the aquarist, replacing the activated carbon with fresh material is simple and inexpensive.
+
+== Types ==
+
+Numerous types of aquarium filters are commercially available, including:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_filter-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium filter"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_filter"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:56.583496+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Power filters ===
+Power or HOB (hang on back) filters, which are impeller powered, remove water from the aquarium, usually with a long siphoning tube, which is then pushed (or pulled) through a series of different filter media and returned to the aquarium. These are the most common type of aquarium filter. They are often more suitable for larger tanks than other types. However, they are not necessarily the best for smaller tanks, since they have a tendency to cause an excess of water flow in smaller tanks. Other types, such as sponge filters, are ideal in this environment.
+Advantages of this type of filter are that they allow for a selection of different types of filter media depending on the tank needs, and that they are easy to clean without disturbing the inhabitants of the tank because they sit on the outside of the fish tank. Disadvantages of power filters include their smaller capacity for filter media compared to canister filters, their aforementioned tendency to create excessive flow rates, and that they tend to be very noisy, usually resulting from vibrations.
+
+==== Canister filters ====
+Compared to filters that hang on the back of the aquarium, canister-style external filters offer a greater quantity of filter materials to be used along with a greater degree of flexibility with respect to filter material choice. Water enters the canister filled with the chosen filter material through an intake pipe at the bottom of the canister, passes through the material, and is fed back to the aquarium through the return pipe. Water is forced to circulate through the filter by a pump typically installed at the top of the canister.
+Canister filters are sealed, fully flooded systems, meaning that the aquarium, intake pipe, filter interior and the return pipe form a continuous body of water. In this configuration both the intake and return path form two siphons, which precisely counterbalance each other. Under these circumstances, the filter pump does not have to spend any effort to lift the water back to the aquarium, regardless of how high the latter is installed above the canister. The pump should only be powerful enough to push the water through the filtering material as well as overcome the drag in the intake and return pipes. This makes canister filter pumps virtually insensitive to the height difference between the aquarium and the filter (although exceeding the manufacturer-specified height limit can lead to leaks).
+Benefits of this type of filter are that they can provide a high volume of filter material without reducing the internal space in the aquarium, and that they can be disconnected from the tank for cleaning/maintenance and replaced without disturbing the aquarium interior or occupants. Also, as a filter with external plumbing, it supports in-line installation of other aquarium equipment, such as water heaters and carbon dioxide diffusers. Such equipment can be removed from the tank and installed in-line into the return pipe of the filter. Disadvantages of canister filters include the increased cost and complexity relative to internal filters and difficulties in cleaning the tubes which transfer water to and from the aquarium. There is also the risk of a leak, which naturally is an issue for any filter placed outside of the aquarium. They, too, fall victim to the issue of excess water flow.
+Canister filters were initially designed to filter drinking water, under low pressure. Canister filters for aquariums use high water pressure, from a properly powered pump, to force water through the dense filter media. A pump can draw water from an under-gravel filter, and run it into a canister for double filtration.
+
+==== Diatom filters ====
+Diatom filters are used only for sporadic cleaning of tanks, they are not continuously operated on aquariums. These filters utilise diatomaceous earth to create an extremely fine filter down to 1 μm which removes particulate matter from the water column.
+
+==== Trickle filters ====
+
+Trickle filters, also known as wet/dry filters are another water filtration systems for marine and freshwater aquariums. This filter comes in two configurations, one which is placed on top of the aquarium (more rarely seen) and one which is placed below the aquarium (more common).
+If the wet/dry filter is placed on top of the aquarium, water is pumped over a number of perforated trays containing filter wool or some other filter material. The water trickles through the trays, keeping the filter wool wet but not completely submerged, allowing aerobic bacteria to grow and aiding biological filtration. The water returns to the aquarium like rain.
+Alternatively, the wet/dry filter may be placed below the tank. In this design, water is fed by gravity to the filter below the aquarium. Prefiltered water is delivered to a perforated plate (drip plate). Prefiltering may take place in the aquarium via a foam block or sleeve in the overflow, or weir siphon, or it may be prefiltered by filter wool resting on the perforated plate. The waste laden water from the aquarium spreads over the drip plate, and rains down through a medium. This may be a filter wool/plastic grid rolled into a circular shape (DLS or "Double Layer Spiral") or any number of plastic media commonly known as Bio Balls. As the water cascades over the media, CO2 is given off, oxygen is picked up, and bacteria convert the waste from the tank into less harmful materials. From here the water enters the sump. The sump may contain a number of compartments, each with its own filtration material. Often, heaters and thermostats are placed in the sump.
+
+==== Algae filters ====

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_filter-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium filter"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_filter"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:56.583496+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Algae may be grown purposely, which removes chemicals from the water which need to be removed in order to have healthy fish, invertebrates and corals. This is a natural ("green") filtering method, which lets an aquarium operate the way oceans and lakes operate.
+Algae and disease-causing organisms can also be removed by treating the water with ultraviolet irradiation, but the drawback of UV is that it will kill beneficial bacteria as well. Therefore, UV treatment is typically used only when needed, and not all the time.
+
+==== Baffle filters ====
+
+Baffle filters are similar to wet and dry, trickle filters in that they are generally situated below the aquarium. This type of filter consists of a series of baffles that the water must pass through in order to reach the pump which is returning water to the aquarium. These baffles then act much like a series of canister filters and can be filled with different filter media for different purposes.
+
+==== Fluidized bed filter ====
+
+The fluidized bed filter (FBF) is a biological reactor only. The principle is to direct water through a sand (or similar media) bed from below so that the sand becomes fluidized – behaves like a fluid. This mechanism is seen in liquefaction, quick sand, and industrial processes including municipal sewage treatment. The combined surface of all sand particles in the filter is very large, and so there is a large surface for aerobic denitrification bacteria. Therefore, the size of the filter can be modest.
+The filter itself can be internal or external. In its simplest DIY internal version an FBF is very easy to build, with a container, sand, pump, and some plumbing. There are many variables: shape and size of the container, quantity of sand or equivalent, particle sizes, the pump's power, and plumbing.
+
+=== Internal filters ===
+
+Internal filters are, by definition, filters within the confines of the aquarium. These include the sponge filter, variations on the corner filter (pictured top right and left), foam cartridge filter and the undergravel filter. An internal filter may have an electric pump and thus be an internal power filter, often attached to the inside of aquaria via suction cups.
+
+==== Airlift filters ====
+Sponge filters and corner filters (sometimes called box filters) work by essentially the same mechanism as an internal filter. Both generally work by airlift, using bubbles from an air pump rising in a tube to create flow. In a sponge filter, the inlet may only be covered by a simple open-cell block of foam. A corner filter is slightly more complex. These filters are often placed in the corner on the bottom of the aquarium. Water enters slits in the box, passes through a layer of medium, then exits through the airlift tube to return to the aquarium. These filters tend to only be suitable for small and lightly stocked aquaria. The sponge filter is especially useful for rearing fry where the sponge prevents the small fish from entering the filter.
+
+==== Undergravel filters ====
+
+One of the oldest types of filters, the undergravel filters consist of a porous plate which is placed beneath the gravel on the base of the aquarium and one, or more, uplift tubes. Historically, undergravel filters have been driven via air displacement. Air stones are placed at the base of uplift tubes which force water out of the uplift tube creating negative pressure beneath the undergravel filter plate (also called the plenum). Water then percolates down through the gravel which itself is the filtration material. Greater flow rate of water through the gravel can be achieved via the use of water pump rather than air displacement.
+Beneficial bacteria colonize the gravel bed and provide biological filtration, using the substrate of the aquarium itself as a biological filter.
+Undergravel filters can be detrimental to the health of aquatic plants. Fine substrates such as sand or peat may clog an undergravel filter. Undergravel filters are still effective even if the substrate bed is uneven. In an uneven gravel bed, water will still flow through both portions of the bed, leaving the more heavily covered areas to cultivate Anaerobic bacteria which can neutralise to build up of nitrate.
+
+=== Marine-specific systems ===
+
+==== Protein skimmers ====
+
+==== Deep sand beds ====
+
+==== Berlin method ====
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fish_feed-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium fish feed"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fish_feed"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:57.725185+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquarium fish feed is plant or animal material intended for consumption by pet fish kept in aquariums or ponds. Fish foods normally contain macronutrients, trace elements and vitamins necessary to keep captive fish in good health. Approximately 80% of fishkeeping hobbyists feed their fish exclusively prepared foods that most commonly are produced in flake, pellet or tablet form.  Some fish foods also contain additives such as sex hormones or beta carotene to artificially enhance the color of ornamental fish.
+
+== Prepared foods ==
+Prepared foods are those foods that are non-living and are made by the aquarist or bought already prepared for consumption for fish.
+
+=== Dry foods ===
+Dry food is a type of proprietary or artificially manufactured fish food consumed by a wide variety of tropical and saltwater fish and invertebrates. It is ideally suited to top dwellers and mid-water fish though numerous bottom dwelling species consume flake food once it has settled on the bottom. Flake food is baked to remove moisture, ensuring a longer shelf life. Generally the more moisture a particular example of fish food contains, the more readily it will deteriorate in quality.
+Dry foods are also available as pellets, sticks, flakes, tablets, granules, and wafers, manufactured to float or sink, depending on the species they are designed to feed.
+
+=== Vacation food ===
+Vacation foods, also known as "food blocks" (or "weekend blocks" for smaller versions), are designed to be placed inside the aquarium to forgo feeding while the owner is absent.  These blocks release small amounts of food as they dissolve. Food blocks can be a good choice for smaller tropical fish, but can pollute the water if the tank is neglected for too long.
+
+=== Medicated fishfood ===
+Medicated fishfood is a safe and effective method to deliver medication to fish. One advantage is that medicated food does not contaminate the aquatic environment and also, unlike bath treatments, does not negatively affect fish, filtration and algae growth in the aquarium. The parasites will get treated spot on by medicated food, because the fish is ingesting it.
+
+=== Freeze-dried and frozen fish diets ===
+Freeze-dried and frozen fish foods were primarily developed for tropical and marine fish and are useful in providing variety to the diet or specialist feeding needs of some species. These include tubifex worms, mosquito larvae, bloodworms, water fleas (Daphnia and Cyclops spp.) along with brine shrimp (Artemia salina).
+
+=== Frozen fish food ===
+Perishable food can be preserved by frozen storage, and is often sold in blister packs or resealable packets. These can contain a variety of ingredients such as bloodworms, Daphnia, or brine shrimp, and are commonly used to feed such fish as Discus which require a high protein diet. Often fed on beef heart fish food within the aquaculture industry, the discus fish are not the only fish which can benefit from a high quality prepared frozen mixture such as beef heart, although by far these are the fish most associated with this particular frozen food. 
+
+== Live foods ==
+Live foods are based on small living creatures in their recognizable form and can be either still living, dried or frozen. Live fish food include earthworms, sludge worms, water fleas, bloodworms, and feeder fish. Food for larvae and young fish include infusoria (Protozoa and other microorganisms), newly hatched brine shrimp and microworms. These are the most preferred type of food for fish, but are difficult to get and can be quite expensive. However, freeze dried forms of earthworms, tubifex etc. are available now.
+
+== Ingredients ==
+
+Fish food should ideally provide the fish with fat (for energy) and amino acids (building blocks of proteins) and the fish food (whether flake or pellet) must be speedily digested in order to prevent buildup of intestinal gas, kidney failure and infections (such as swim bladder problems and dropsy) and  to avoid aquarium pollution due to excessive ammonia.  Aquatic diets for carnivores must contain vegetable matter such as spirulina.
+
+=== Nutrients ===
+Amino acids are the basic components of proteins. Protein requirements are species-specific. Carnivorous fish need a greater percentage of proteins than herbivorous. An example of an aquatic diet that is a good source of amino acid is a crumbled hard boiled egg offered to small fry.   Large amounts of DL-Methionine enhance the headgrowth of the Lionhead goldfish.
+Fats that are broken down into fatty acids are the main source of energy in fish especially for the heart and skeletal muscles.  Fats also assist in vitamin absorption.  Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat-soluble or can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats.
+Carbohydrates are molecular substances that include sugars, starches, gums and celluloses. Most of the carbohydrates that are incorporated into aquatic diets are of plant origin and are sources of the enzyme amylase.  Carbohydrates, however, are not a superior energy source for fish over protein or fat but digestible carbohydrates do spare protein for tissue building. Unlike in mammals, glycogen is not a significant storage depot of energy in fish.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fish_feed-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium fish feed"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fish_feed"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:57.725185+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Sources ===
+Fish meal (protein source) have two basic types: (a) those produced from fishery wastes associated with the processing of fish for human consumption (such as salmon and tuna) and (b) those from specific fish (herring, menhaden and pollack) which are harvested solely for the purpose of producing fish meal.
+Shrimp mix (shrimp meal) is made from cull shrimp that are being processed before freezing or from whole shrimp that is not of suitable quality for human consumption. The material to be made into shrimp meal is dried (sun-dried or by using a dryer) and then ground.   Shrimp meal is a source of pigments that enhances the desirable color in the tissues of fish.   It is also a secondary supplemental protein source for fish.
+Squid meal is made from squid viscera portions from cannery plants including the eggs and testis.  Squid Meal is a highly digestible protein source for fish which provides a full range of amino acids, vitamins, minerals and cholesterol (1.0–1.5%) of cholesterol suitable for fish fry and young fish.
+Brine shrimp (adult Artemia) is a common food source for fish that are available in adult-form, as eggs or freeze-dried.   Brine shrimp is a source of protein, carotene (a color enhancer) and acts as a natural laxative in fish digestive systems.  Brine shrimps can also supply the fish with vegetable matter due to their consumption of algae.
+Daphnia species (commonly Pulex or Moina) vary in size, but all are about 50% protein and are high in carotenoids. They can be cultivated in live cultures or freeze dried.
+Soybean meal is a high protein source for fish and has become a substitute for traditionally used marine animal meals.
+Spirulina is a blue-green Cyanobacteria rich in raw protein, vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C and E, beta-carotene, color enhancing pigments, a whole range of minerals, essential fatty acids and eight amino acids required for complete nutrition.
+Whole wheat (carbohydrates) is not the best source of energy in fish but is an excellent source of roughage for fish such as Goldfish and Koi.  It is also a natural source of vitamin E which promotes growth and enhances coloration.
+
+== See also ==
+Aquarium
+Aquarium fish feeder
+Commercial fish feed
+Hikari (fish food)
+Pet food
+Pond
+Rolf C. Hagen Group
+Tetra Company
+Wardley (company)
+
+== References ==
+
+== Other sources ==
+"An Interpet Guide to Fancy Goldfish" by Dr. Chris Andrews – ISBN 1-902389-64-6

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fish_feeder-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium fish feeder"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fish_feeder"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:41.226192+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquarium fish feeders are electric or electronic devices that are designed to feed aquarium fish at regular intervals. They are often used to feed fish when the aquarist is on vacation or is too busy to maintain a regular feeding schedule.
+
+
+== Design ==
+Fish feeders are usually clamped to the wall of the tank just over the water. Most designs consist of a hopper which is loaded with a variety of dry food, a timer which rotates the hopper at regular intervals (dispensing food in the process), and a method of setting the interval between feeding and the amount of food dispensed. Some designs have individual small hoppers. Whilst this limits the absolute number of feeds, it does allow for more accurate dosing, and delivery of mixed, (both flake and pellet), foodstuffs, which are often important for community tanks.
+Most feeders can dispense flake, pellet, or freeze dried food.
+
+
+== Benefits ==
+The benefits of electronic aquarium feeders are not only that the fish are fed when the aquarist is not at home, but they are also helpful in maintaining the fish' health. Because they are feeding small portions of food at scheduled intervals and precise feedings at appropriate times, the automatic feeders can be successfully used to feed diabetic fish. 
+Another concern of aquarists is overeating. Fish are not to be given too much food. It is estimated that fish should be given as much as they can eat in 3 to 5 minutes, and once a day. However, the electronic fish feeders prevent overeating by releasing the right quantity of food, at scheduled times. This way, aquarists who have to get away for few days do not have to ask their neighbours or friends to come over and take care of their pets. It is often impossible to find a reliable person available and willing to do such a favor. The electronic fish feeders are therefore a solution for fish keepers who own aquariums and which ensure that the pets are fed in a healthy way and on schedule. There are multiple chambers within the electronic fish feeder when the feeder rotates (clockwise); the food is released at a set time. With the help of the feeder, feeding mixed food to the fish, including fish flakes and fish pellets, becomes more manageable. The mounting system is typically in the form of hooks or brackets. However, some electronic fish feeders also come with suction cups that attach to the wall of the aquarium.
+Another advantage of these devices is that electronic fish feeders may also be used to feed amphibians, if they are kept in glass cages. 
+There are also disadvantages that come with the electronic feeders. First, fish tend to get used to where and when the timer is going to trigger and food is going to fall which can create a feeding frenzy when the feeder drops the food. This usually results in a lot of splashing which may wet the rest of the food. Mold can then grow and the leftover food is likely to go bad or to clog the feeder's mechanism. The humidity and moisture due to close proximity to the water can also cause this type of problem with an electronic feeder. Second, one has to make sure that the food containers are properly sealed and the food is kept fresh. At this time electronic feeders are not able to adjust to the changing needs of the fish over longer periods which may result in either overfeeding or underfeeding. Too much food in the water is not only bad for the fish, but also for their environment.
+
+
+== Maintenance ==
+The maintenance of electronic aquarium feeders basically consists in keeping the device clean and making sure the electronic part of the feeder does not get wet, which may cause improper functioning.
+
+
+== Limitations ==
+Though some feeders are designed specifically to keep food dry, many designs allow moisture to seep into the food hopper. This can cause clumping, and can result in the failure of the mechanism. Because fish feeders generally cannot feed frozen or live food, they are not effective options for feeding most predatory fish. Similarly, most (though not all), designs of feeder only allow for one type of food at a time, (flaked or granular), therefor fish communities requiring both floating and sinking foodstuffs are not well served, and may require two feeders.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Fish food
+Fishkeeping
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Fish Information & Guides

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fishery-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium fishery"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_fishery"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:42.474941+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquarium fishery is the process of fishing wild fish for sale to private and public aquariums.
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Aquarium fisheries collect primarily saltwater fish, typically colorful reef fish. Major fishery areas are in the waters off the United States (Hawaii, Florida), Fiji Islands, Australia,  the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. According to a report by the National Geographic “tens of millions of marine animals” are collected each year, more than half of them ending up in the US. It is estimated that about 1,800 species of tropical fish are collected and traded.  Sea Sherpherd estimates that about 25 million fish are in the commercial pipeline of which “nearly all will die within a year from the point of capture”. Others estimates the number at 30 million animals, the vast majority coming from the Philippines and Indonesia. Aside from fish the pipeline also moves invertebrates and live corals.
+
+
+== Regulation ==
+The industry is largely unregulated and lacks a central data base to assess its impact upon the environment.
+Different fisheries are regulated or managed differently and with various degrees of oversight. For example, lack of oversight has led to the widespread use of cyanide to stun fish to collect them in the Philippines although officially it is illegal.
+While the US is required to monitor import of species listed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)  the majority of fish imported for aquariums is lumped together as marine tropical fish (MATF) by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Thus import of endangered species within this group is not monitored. The lack of an adequate database about tropical fish, - life cycle, growth and reproductive rate, population development over time - makes it difficult to monitor the impact of aquarium fisheries.
+Overcollection can be damaging to the coral reef as the example of the regal blue tang has shown. As these fish eat algae that overgrow corals, their removal endangers the health of the coral.
+
+
+== Demise of MAC ==
+The Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) was an international organization formed in 1998 by stake holders including animal collectors, exporters, importers, retailers, aquarium keepers,  and public aquariums, conservation organizations and government agencies. MAC recognized problems in the trade and wanted to address them. Vosseler listed them as follows:
+
+Use of cyanide and other destructive collection methods
+Poor handling and husbandry practices
+Unnecessary animal mortality
+Collection of unwanted and/or unsuitable species
+Potential for stock depletion
+Ecosystem effect of live coral and live rock exports
+Potential for alien species introduction
+Lack of reliable data on the resources and the trade
+Limited government capacity for reef management and enforcement
+Potential for government trade restrictions
+The stake holders were unable to regulate the industry and MAC ceased to function due to internal disagreements in 2008.
+
+
+== Call for prohibition ==
+With the lack of oversight and the danger to the environment by overfishing environmentalists have called for stricter regulation and even prohibition of the collecting of wild fish for private aquariums. Captive-bred tropical fish are readily available for hobbyists. "In this day and age, where the ocean faces a crisis ... there's absolutely no justification for a fishery for hobby," indicated Mike Long of Sea Shepherd.
+Environmental efforts led Hawaii to enact some protection in the late 1990s when certain sections were closed to aquarium fisheries. There is evidence that these protective measure have been effective, but reefs are also endangered from other factors such as fertilizer run-off and coastal development.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_furniture-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+---
+title: "Aquarium furniture"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_furniture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:43.650411+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquarium furniture or aquarium decor refers to the various ornaments and functional items that support an aquarium.
+
+
+== Interior decorations ==
+
+Ornamental aquarium furniture is used both for aesthetic reasons and to enrich the habitat and provide shelter for fish. Common types of aquarium furniture include artificial plants, caves, and themed decorations. Common tropes include treasure chests, shipwrecks, and vibrantly colored synthetic coral. Using ceramic objects as aquarium furniture is controversial to aquarists, as some types of ceramic glaze can leach heavy metals into aquarium water.
+Examples of functional aquarium furniture include devices for removing algae from the glass (either a razor or a scouring pad, attached to the glass by a magnet), airstones, water filters, water heaters, and food dispensers.
+
+
+== Exterior stands and cabinetry ==
+
+Aquarium furniture may also refer to an item of (regular) furniture that features an aquarium in its design. A stand or cabinet that supports the aquarium may be considered aquarium furniture, as well as canopies which may contain metal halide lights. 
+Aquarium stands and canopies are often constructed to the same standards as high quality cabinetry. They can be custom built to not only support the tank itself, but to house control systems such as lights and pumps, and to provide storage for supplies.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Live rock
+Reef aquarium

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquascaping-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+---
+title: "Aquascaping"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquascaping"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:44.858225+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquascaping is the craft of arranging aquatic plants, as well as rocks, stones, cavework, or driftwood, in an aesthetically pleasing manner within an aquarium—in effect, gardening under water. Aquascape designs include a number of distinct styles, including the garden-like Dutch style and the Japanese-inspired nature style. Typically, an aquascape houses fish as well as plants, although it is possible to create an aquascape with plants only, or with rockwork or other hardscape and no plants.
+Aquascaping appears to have begun to be a popular hobby in the 1930s in the Netherlands, following the introduction of the Dutch-style aquascaping techniques. With the increasing availability of mass-produced freshwater fishkeeping products and popularity of fishkeeping following the First World War, hobbyists began exploring the new possibilities of creating an aquarium that did not have fish as the main attraction.
+Although the primary aim of aquascaping is to create an artful underwater landscape, the technical aspects of tank maintenance and the growth requirements of aquatic plants are also taken into consideration. Many factors must be balanced in the closed system of an aquarium tank to ensure the success of an aquascape. These factors include filtration, maintaining carbon dioxide at levels sufficient to support photosynthesis underwater, substrate and fertilization, lighting, and algae control.
+Aquascape hobbyists trade plants, conduct contests, and share photographs and information via the Internet. The United States-based Aquatic Gardeners Association has about 1,200 members.
+
+== Designs ==
+
+=== Dutch style ===
+
+The Dutch aquarium employs a lush arrangement in which multiple types of plants having diverse leaf colors, sizes, and textures are displayed much as terrestrial plants are shown in a flower garden. This style was developed in the Netherlands starting in the 1930s, as freshwater aquarium equipment became commercially available. It emphasizes plants located on terraces of different heights, and frequently omits rocks and driftwood. Linear rows of plants running left-to-right are referred to as "Dutch streets". Although many plant types are used, one typically sees neatly trimmed groupings of plants with fine, feathery foliage, such as Limnophila aquatica and various types of Hygrophila, along with the use of red-leaved Alternanthera reineckii, Ammania gracilis, and assorted Rotala for color highlights. More than 80% of the aquarium floor is covered with plants, and little or no substrate is left visible. Tall growing plants that cover the back glass originally served the purpose of hiding bulky equipment behind the tank.
+
+=== Nature style ===
+
+A contrasting approach is the "nature aquarium" or Japanese style, introduced in the 1990s by Takashi Amano. Amano's three-volume series, Nature Aquarium World, sparked a wave of interest in aquarium gardening, and he has been cited as having "set a new standard in aquarium management". Amano also worked in natural-landscape photography, and used multi-exposure techniques to photograph aquariums better, and has been described as a portrait photographer of aquariums.  Amano's compositions drew on Japanese gardening techniques that attempt to mimic natural landscapes by the asymmetrical arrangement of masses of relatively few species of plants, and which set rules governing carefully selected stones or driftwood, usually with a single focal point positioned to reflect the golden ratio. The objective is to evoke a terrestrial landscape in miniature, rather than a colourful garden. This style draws particularly from the Japanese aesthetic concepts of Wabi-sabi (侘寂), which focuses on transience and minimalism as sources of beauty. Plants with small leaves like Glossostigma elatinoides, Eleocharis acicularis, Eleocharis parvula, Echinodorus tenellus, Hemianthus callitrichoides, Riccia fluitans, small aquatic ferns, Staurogyne repens, and Java moss (Versicularia dubyana or Taxiphyllum barbieri) are often used to emulate grass or moss. Colours are more limited than in the Dutch style, and the hardscape is not completely covered. Fish, or freshwater shrimp such as Caridina multidentata and Neocaridina davidi, are usually selected to complement the plants and control algae, but for reasons of minimalism the number of species are often limited. Smaller species may also be used to give the impression of a larger aquarium. The Nature style can be broken down into three different sub-styles: Ryoboku (流木), Iwagumi (岩組), and diorama.
+
+==== Ryoboku ====
+
+This aquascape style is based on using wood as the main hardscape material. The word Ryoboku (流木), which can be translated into English "driftwood", represents aquariums set up with wood. There are many types of wood that can be used, including driftwood, bogwood, Manzanita wood and Redmoor roots. Often the wood will protrude from the water surface, which adds an enhanced sense of nature. Moss and other epiphyte plants are also commonly used, adding a beautiful sense of maturity and aged appearance. Only one type of wood is usually used in order to make it more natural. Stones can also be used, but these are not main focus.
+
+==== Iwagumi ====
+
+The Iwagumi (岩組) term itself comes from the Japanese "rock formation" and refers to a layout where stones play a leading role. In the Iwagumi style, each stone has a name and a specific role. Rocks provide the bony structure of the aquascape and the typical geometry employs a design with three main stones, with one larger stone and two other smaller stones, although additional rocks can also be used. The Oyaishi (親石), or main stone, is placed slightly off-center in the tank, and Soeishi (添石), or accompanying stones, are grouped near it, while Fukuseki (副石), or secondary stones, are arranged in subordinate positions. The location of the focal point of the display, determined largely by the asymmetric placement of the Oyaishi, is considered important, and follows ratios that reflect Pythagorean tuning.
+
+==== Diorama ====
+This nature aquascape sub-style uses a physical landscape or fantasy scene as the main source of inspiration. This aquascape style typically focuses on the hardscape in order to create a landscape effect with planting often limited to very small textures and a few species in order to maintain a sense of scale. The hardscape layouts are often highly complex underwater structures that take months to create rocks or wood being painstakingly glued together.
+
+=== Jungle style ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquascaping-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Aquascaping"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquascaping"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:44.858225+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Some hobbyists also refer to a "jungle" (or "wild jungle") style, separate from either the Dutch or nature styles, and incorporating some of the features of them both. The plants are left to assume a natural, untrimmed look. Jungle style aquascapes usually have little or no visible hardscape material, as well as limited open space. Bold, coarser leaf shapes, such as Echinodorus bleheri, are used to provide a wild, untamed appearance. Unlike nature style, the jungle style does not follow clean lines, or employ fine textures. A jungle canopy effect can be obtained using combinations of darker substrates, tall plants growing up to the surface, and floating plants that block light, offering a dappled lighting effect. Other plants used in jungle style aquascapes include Microsorum pteropus, Bolbitis heudelotii, Vallisneria americana, Crinum species, Aponogeton species, Echinodorus species, Sagittaria subulata, Hygrophila pinnatifida, Anubias species, and Limnobium laevigatum.
+
+=== Biotopes ===
+
+The styles above often combine plant and animal species based on the desired visual impact without regard to geographic origin. Instead, Biotope aquariums are designed to replicate a particular aquatic habitat at a particular geographic location, not necessarily to provide a gardenlike display. Plants and fish need not be present, but if they are, they must match what would be found in nature in the habitat being represented. The gravel, hardscape, and chemical composition of the water must also represent the habitat desired. By including only organisms that naturally exist together, biotopes can be used to study ecological interactions in a relatively natural setting.
+For instance, blackwater biotope aquariums mimic a blackwater watercourse, pond, or swamp. Blackwater aquariums resemble the native environment of many popular aquarium fish. The chemical composition of blackwater rivers in the Amazon rainforest is often used as a reference. They contain recalcitrant (slow-decaying) organics like driftwood, leaf litter, and pinecones. These organics release tannins, humics and fulvics, which darken and acidify the water. The water is also soft water, low in dissolved minerals. There is evidence that tannins have anti-fungal properties and can boost fish immune systems. This environment is less stressful and more conducive to natural behavior and breeding. Blackwater aquaria may not contain plants; if they do, they use plants that thrive in the low light levels caused by the dark water. Some aquarists may decrease artificial lighting further to mimic the dark conditions fish are accustomed to. A water pump may be added to help with water flow, similar to the conditions of a slow-moving river.
+
+=== Paludariums ===
+
+A paludarium is an aquarium that combines water and land inside the same environment. These designs can represent habitats including tropical rainforests, jungles, riverbanks, bogs, or even the beach. In a paludarium, part of the aquarium is underwater, and part is above water. Substrate is built up so that some "land" regions are raised above the waterline, and the tank is only partially filled with water. This allows plants, such as Cyperus alternifolius and Spathiphyllum wallisii, as well as various Anubias and some bromeliads, to grow emersed, with their roots underwater but their tops in the air, as well as completely submersed. In some configurations, plants that float on the surface of the water, such as Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes, can be displayed to full advantage. Unlike other aquarium setups, paludariums are particularly well-suited to keeping amphibians.
+A riparium is a paludarium that imitates a riparian area, the bank of a watercourse. The plants are often in floating pots attached to the rear wall. It may be left open, with the plants growing out of the tank.
+
+=== Saltwater reefs ===
+
+Dutch and nature style aquascapes are traditionally freshwater systems. In contrast, relatively few ornamental plants can be grown in a saltwater aquarium. Saltwater aquascaping typically centers, instead, on mimicking a reef. An arrangement of live rock forms the main structure of this aquascape, and it is populated by corals and other marine invertebrates as well as coralline algae and macroalgae, which together serve much the same aesthetic role as freshwater plants.
+Lighting plays a particularly significant role in the reef aquascape. Many corals, as well as tridacnid clams, contain symbiotic fluorescent algae-like dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae. By providing intense lighting supplemented in the ultraviolet wavelengths, reef aquarists not only support the health of these invertebrates, but also elicit particularly bright colors emitted by the fluorescent microorganisms.
+
+== Techniques ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquascaping-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+---
+title: "Aquascaping"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquascaping"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:44.858225+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In addition to design, freshwater aquascaping also requires specific methods to maintain healthy plants underwater. Plants are often trimmed to obtain the desired shape, and they can be positioned by tying them in place inconspicuously with thread. Most serious aquascapers use aquarium-safe fertilizers, commonly in liquid or tablet form, to help the plants fill out more rapidly. Some aquarium substrates containing laterite also provide nutrients. Reverse osmosis filters may be used mitigate damaging effects of hard water on sensitive animals and plants, and filtered water is remineralized to the ideal hardness.
+It is also necessary to support photosynthesis by providing light. A variety of lighting systems may be used to produce the full spectrum of light, usually at 2–4 watts per gallon (0.5–1 watts per litre). Lights are usually controlled by a timer that allows the plants to be acclimated to a set cycle. Alternatively, some  aquarists opt for placing their aquariums near windows (usually north or northeastern-facing, to avoid harsh direct sun), without artificial lighting, thus giving plants a more consistent, natural light cycle.
+Depending on the number of plants and fish, the aquascape may also require carbon dioxide supplementation. This can be accomplished with a simple homemade system (using a bottle filled with yeast, warm water, and sugar, connected to an airstone in the aquarium), or, more commonly, with a pressurized CO2 tank that diffuses a set amount of carbon dioxide into the aquarium water. Both methods have benefits and challenges, with the use of pressurized carbon dioxide necessitating the refilling of  tanks periodically, usually at a gas supplier, and yeast-sugar methods requiring general maintenance and more frequent changing-out.
+Algae (including cyanobacteria, as well as true algae) is considered distracting and unwanted in aquascaping, and is controlled in several ways. Algae is most commonly caused by an excess of nutrients and waste, so aquarists will perform water changes to lower the nitrates present. Another method is the use of animals that consume algae, such as some fish (notably cyprinids of the genera Crossocheilus and Gyrinocheilus, and catfish of the genera Ancistrus, Hypostomus, and Otocinclus), shrimp, or snails, to clean the algae that collect on the leaves. A third method is using adequate light and CO2 to promote rapid growth of desired plants, while controlling nutrient levels, to ensure that the plants utilize all fertilizer without leaving nutrients to support algae. When adding new fish to a tank, aquascapers may also disinfect their plants by using diluted hydrogen peroxide or bleach, as unknown plants may carry undesired species of algae, as well as potential snail eggs or worms.
+Although serious aquascapers often use a considerable amount of equipment to provide lighting, filtration, and CO2 supplementation to the tank, some hobbyists choose instead to maintain plants with a minimum of technology, and some have reported success in producing lush plant growth this way. This approach, sometimes called the "Walstad Method" and popularized by Diana Walstad, can include the use of soil in place of aquarium gravel, the elimination of CO2 apparatus and most filtration, and limited lighting. Only a few fish or shrimp are kept to limit the quantity of fish waste. Plants are used to perform the water-cleansing role typically played by aquarium filters by utilizing what fish waste there is as fertilizer.
+
+== Contests ==
+Early Dutch hobbyists began the practice of aquascape contests, with over 100 local clubs. Judges had to go through about three years of training and pass examinations in multiple disciplines in order to qualify. This competition continues to be held every year, under the auspices of the National Aquarium Society. There are three rounds, beginning with contests in local clubs. First-place local winners are entered in the second round, held in fifteen districtkeuring (districts). The winners at that level are then entered in the third round, which is the national championship.
+In the Dutch contest, the focus is not only on composition, but also on the biological well-being of the aquarium's inhabitants. Most points are, in fact, awarded for such biological criteria as fish health, plant health, and water quality. Unlike contests in other countries, the judges travel to each contestant's home to evaluate the tank, where they measure the water parameters themselves.
+The Aquatic Gardeners Association, based in the United States, Aqua Design Amano, based in Japan, and AquaticScapers Europe, based in Germany, also conduct annual freshwater aquascaping contests. Entries from around the world are submitted as photographs and explanatory text online.
+The Aquatic Gardeners Association contest is judged on:
+
+Overall impression (Maximum 35 points)
+Composition, balance, use of space and use of color (Maximum 30 points)
+Selection and use of materials (Maximum 20 points)
+Viability of aquascape (Maximum 15 points)
+The International Aquatic Plant Layout Contest (IAPLC), run by Aqua Design Amano (ADA), is the largest aquascaping competition, with 1450 online entries in 2024. Winners of the IAPLC include Josh Sim (2017, 2019), Takayuki Fukada (2015, 2016), and Luis Carlos Galarraga (2024).
+There are also smaller contests conducted by Acuavida in Spain, by the Greek Aquarist's Board, and by the French association Aquagora.
+
+== Public aquariums ==
+
+Large public aquariums sometimes use aquascaping as part of their displays. As early as the 1920s, the New York Aquarium included a moray eel display tank that was decorated with calcareous tufa rock, arranged to resemble a coral reef, and supporting some stony corals and sea fans. Because they typically present wildlife from a particular habitat, modern day displays are often created to be biologically accurate biotopes. 
+
+The largest aquascape of the Japanese nature aquarium style in a public aquarium was situated in the Lisbon Oceanarium in Portugal. The exhibit is called "Forests Underwater by Takashi Amano". It was initially intended to be temporary, but has now become a permanent exhibition at the Lisbon Oceanarium, residing there for over 9 years as of 2024. 
+
+== See also ==
+
+Aquarium
+Terrarium (land)
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Amano, Takashi (1992), Nature Aquarium World, Neptune City, N.J.: T.F.H. Publications, English translation by Christopher Perrius (in one volume), ISBN 0-7938-0089-7.
+Artists Create Mesmerizing Miniature Worlds, All Within The Confines Of A Fish Tank, at the Huffington Post, 4 February 2014 (accessed 17 February 2014). Includes noteworthy photographs of aquascapes.
+
+== External links ==
+
+The following sites offer tutorials, images, and in-depth discussions on aquascaping styles and techniques:
+
+Aquatic Gardeners Association
+UK Aquatic Plant Society
+Great Aquascapes Group at Flickr
+Aquatic Eden Website
+Advanced Aquascaping Guide
+Rotala Butterfly – Calculator tools for planted tanks
+These sites provide extensive non-commercial descriptions of aquatic plant species and their use in aquascaping:
+
+Aquatic Plant Finder Archived 16 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
+Flowgrow Aquatic Plant Database

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_seawater-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+---
+title: "Artificial seawater"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_seawater"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:46.012093+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Artificial seawater (abbreviated ASW) is a mixture of dissolved mineral salts (and sometimes vitamins) that simulates seawater. Artificial seawater is primarily used in marine biology and in marine and reef aquaria, and allows the easy preparation of media appropriate for marine organisms (including algae, bacteria, plants and animals). From a scientific perspective, artificial seawater has the advantage of reproducibility over natural seawater since it is a standardized formula. Artificial seawater is also known as synthetic seawater and substitute ocean water.
+
+
+== Industrial and laboratory formulations ==
+A smaller but significant use is in laboratory or fire-fighting applications. In industrial and materials-science contexts, artificial seawater refers to a chemically defined electrolyte used to reproduce the ionic composition and conductivity of natural ocean water for corrosion testing, electrochemical research, and sensor calibration.
+The most widely cited formulation, ASTM D1141, specifies concentrations of sodium, chloride, sulfate, magnesium, calcium, potassium, bromide, and strontium that approximate the average composition of seawater with a salinity of about 35 g kg⁻¹.  This mixture is deliberately simplified and excludes organic matter or biological nutrients so that the chemical environment is reproducible from batch to batch.  It is commonly employed in laboratory methods such as ASTM G31 (immersion corrosion testing), ASTM G44 (alternate immersion), ASTM G78 (crevice corrosion), and the international standard ISO 11130 for corrosion of metals and alloys under controlled conditions.
+By contrast, aquarium and aquaculture formulations of artificial seawater—sold under trade names such as Instant Ocean and Reef Crystals—are designed to sustain marine organisms rather than to model corrosion processes.  These products include trace nutrients such as iron, iodine, molybdenum, and zinc; carbonate–bicarbonate buffers to stabilize pH near 8.2; and sometimes vitamins or chelating agents to support biological systems.  Because such ingredients can introduce organic films, complexing agents, or variable redox chemistry, aquarium formulations are unsuitable for standardized corrosion or electrochemical testing.
+Artificial seawater used for corrosion studies is typically prepared with analytical-grade salts  and deionized or distilled water, mixed shortly before use, and replaced periodically to prevent pH drift, precipitation, or contamination.  Test solutions may be aerated, deaerated, or maintained at fixed temperatures depending on the procedure.  The focus is on chemical reproducibility and electrochemical representativeness, rather than biological realism.
+
+
+== Example ==
+The tables below present an example of an artificial seawater (35.00 ‰ of salinity) preparation devised by Kester, Duedall, Connors and Pytkowicz (1967).  The recipe consists of two lists of mineral salts, the first of anhydrous salts that can be weighed out, the second of hydrated salts that should be added to the artificial seawater as a solution.
+
+While all the compounds listed in the recipe above are inorganic, mineral salts, some artificial seawater recipes, such as that of Goldman and McCarthy (1978), also add trace solutions of vitamins and organic compounds needed by marine organisms.
+
+
+== Standard ==
+The International Standard for making artificial seawater can be found at ASTM International. The current standard code is ASTM D1141-98 (the original standard was ASTM D1141-52) and describes the standard practice for the preparation of substitute ocean water. The ASTM D1141-98 standard is available in a ready-made artificial seawater form or as a "Sea Salt" mix that scientists and hobbyists can prepare. Generally, the ready-made artificial seawater comes in 1 gallon and 5 gallon containers, whereas the "Sea Salt" mix comes in 20 lb pails (makes approximately 57 gallons) and 50 lb pails (makes approximately 143 gallons).
+
+
+=== Uses and applications ===
+There are various applications for ASTM D1141-98 synthetic seawater including corrosion studies, ocean instrument calibration and chemical processing. Typically, laboratory-grade water is used for preparing synthetic seawater.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Algaculture
+Aquarium
+ASTM D1141
+Corrosion testing
+Marine coatings
+Electrochemistry
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Artificial seawater media, Goldman & McCarthy (1978)
+Modified Artificial Seawater Media (MASM), Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa
+Synthetic Seawaters for Aquaria and Laboratories, Calypso Publications (1979)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorepository-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+---
+title: "Biorepository"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorepository"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:24.506345+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A biorepository is a facility that collects, catalogs, and stores samples of biological material for laboratory research. Biorepositories collect and manage specimens from animals, plants, and other living organisms. Biorepositories store many different types of specimens, including samples of blood, urine, tissue, cells, DNA, RNA, and proteins. If the samples are from people, they may be stored with medical information along with written consent to use the samples in laboratory studies.
+
+
+== Purpose ==
+The purpose of a biorepository is to maintain biological specimens, and associated information, for future use in research. The biorepository maintains the quality of specimens in its collection and ensures that they are accessible for scientific research.
+
+
+== Operations ==
+The four main operations of a biorepository are; (i) collection  (ii) processing, (iii) storage or inventory, and (iv) distribution of biological specimens.
+(i) Collection or accession occurs when a specimen arrives at the biorepository. Information about the specimen is entered into the laboratory information management system ("LIMS"), which tracks information about all of the specimens in the biorepository. Typical information linked to a specimen would be the specimen's origin and when it arrived at the biorepository.
+(ii) Processing of specimens is standardized to minimize variation due to handling. Processing may prepare the specimen for long-term storage. For example, DNA samples are processed into a salt buffer (aqueous solution) of proper pH to stabilize the DNA for storage.
+(iii) Storage and inventory are where all samples are held prior to being requested via a distribution request. The inventory system is composed of sample holding boxes and the boxes are stored in freezers of various types depending on the sample storage requirements.
+(iv) Distribution is the process of retrieving one or more samples from the biorepository inventory system.
+
+
+== Standard Operating Procedures ==
+Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) play a crucial role in the biorepository industry. There are a number of reasons why they are important:
+
+SOPs reduce variability within the samples and storage processes by providing standardized guidelines for proper storage and care.
+Biospecimen samples should closely resemble biospecimens in their natural state. SOPs help ensure that.
+SOPs provide a standardized framework of how to conduct operations within a biorepository. They ensure seamless and reliable processes be implemented throughout operations.
+
+
+== Biological Resource Centres ==
+The OECD has issued best practice guidelines for biorepositories, which are referred to as biological resource centres.
+They are defined by the OECD as follows:
+"Biological Resource Centres are an essential part of the infrastructure underpinning biotechnology. They consist of service providers and repositories of the living cells, genomes of organisms, and information relating to heredity and the functions of biological systems. BRCs contain collections of culturable organisms (e.g. micro-organisms, plant, animal and human cells), replicable parts of these (e.g. genomes, plasmids, viruses, cDNAs), viable but not yet culturable organisms, cells and tissues, as well as databases containing molecular, physiological and structural information relevant to these collections and related bioinformatics."
+
+
+== Examples of Biorepositories in the United States ==
+
+
+=== Cell Line Repositories ===
+The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) Human Cell and Data Repository maintains a collection of cell lines to advance the study of neurological disorders.
+The National Institute on Aging (NIA) Aging Cell Repository facilitates research into the mechanisms of aging by providing cell lines collected from subjects of different ages.
+The National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) Human Genetic Cell Repository is collection of well-characterized human cells for use in biomedical research.
+
+
+=== Sample Repositories ===
+The Intermountain Healthcare Biorepository is a collection of over 4.5 million biological samples preserved in formalin and embedded in paraffin wax.
+The J. Craig Venter Institute Human Reference Genome makes available DNA samples from J. Craig Venter, whose genome has been sequenced and assembled.
+The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Genetic Testing Reference Material Program (GeT-RM) maintains DNA samples for use in molecular genetic testing. These samples are from diseases such as Huntington Disease, Cystic Fibrosis, Fragile X Syndrome, Alpha-Thalassemia, and Muenke Syndrome.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Biobank
+Biological database
+Gene bank
+Genetic fingerprinting
+Genomics
+Genotype
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Specimen Central biorepository list, A worldwide listing of active biobanks and biorepositories
+Clinical Specimens Database and Specimen Collections Repository
+Biorepository LIMS, A LIMS software solution for biobanking and biorepositories
+Global Directory of Biobanks, Tissue Banks and Biorepositories
+National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases HIV/AIDS Specimen Repository
+International Society for Biological and Environmental Repositories ("ISBER")
+ProMedDx BioServices cGMP Biostorage & Biorepository - Biorepository Consulting Design
+Cell&Co Biorepository - The first French Eco-Biobank
+- What is a Biorepository?

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog-wood-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+---
+title: "Bog-wood"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog-wood"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:47.176451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bog-wood (also spelled bogwood or bog wood), also known as abonos and, especially amongst pipe smokers, as morta, is a material from trees that have been buried in peat bogs and preserved from decay by the acidic and anaerobic bog conditions, sometimes for hundreds or even thousands of years.  The wood is usually stained brown by tannins dissolved in the acidic water. Bog-wood represents the early stages in the fossilisation of wood, with further stages ultimately forming jet, lignite and coal over a period of many millions of years. Bog-wood may come from any tree species naturally growing near or in bogs, including oak (Quercus – "bog oak"), pine (Pinus), yew (Taxus), swamp cypress (Taxodium) and kauri (Agathis). Bog-wood is often removed from fields and placed in clearance cairns. It is a rare form of timber that is claimed to be "comparable to some of the world's most expensive tropical hardwoods".
+
+
+== Formation process ==
+Bog-wood is created from the trunks of  trees that have lain in bogs, and bog-like conditions such as lakes, river bottoms and swamps, for centuries and even millennia. Deprived of oxygen, the wood undergoes the process of fossilization.
+Water flow and depth play a special role in the creation of bog-wood. Currents bind the minerals and iron in the water with tannins in the wood, naturally staining the wood in the process. This centuries-long process, often termed "maturation," turns the wood from golden-brown to completely black, while increasing its hardness to such a level that it can only be carved with the use of specialty cutting tools.
+While the time necessary for the oak to transform into bog-wood varies, the "maturation" commonly lasts thousands of years. Due to the ecological reasons mentioned above, no two trunks can be found of the same color.
+
+
+== Excavation sites ==
+Sites of high quality bog-wood in the world are very rare. In the sites expected to yield it, bog-wood is hard to find, and access to the river bank and its bed is often difficult. Therefore, extensive preparations and the engagement of professional divers are necessary for bog-wood recovery. Bog-wood is located in conditions of total darkness, and its extraction marks its first exposure to light after centuries of entombment.
+In England and Ireland, the three main types of bog-wood that can be found are yew, oak and pine. Reserves of the ancient wood can also be found in Russia and Ukraine, where the northern region has a climate favorable to the growth of oak.
+In Croatia, bog-wood is typically found in the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries. The age of bog-wood found in Croatian rivers ranges from several hundred years in the southern rivers to the oldest retrieved so far, from the Krapina River, dated at 8290 years old.
+In Serbia, bog-wood over 8,000 years old is found in the valleys of the Danube River, Sava River and their tributaries, primarily in the province of Vojvodina.
+Saving the wood for further processing is a very delicate matter. Extracted logs must be wrapped in waterproof material and meticulously dried to prevent warping. The process of wood desiccation is complex, and despite great care, most of the raw wood is unsuitable for further processing. For this reason, the price of high quality raw bog-wood is quite high.
+
+
+== Aesthetics ==
+Bog-wood is characterized by natural staining and variations in color, and the direction of growth rings. Well preserved bog-wood is not affected by weather conditions or organisms which would change its strength and appearance.
+Semi-dry bog-wood is sometimes of a golden or copper color, or with a tint of some other hue, and is exceptionally hard. Older wood can be completely black, yet possess the rich variations in hue characteristic of “live” wood. This dark hue is a special feature of bog-wood as a construction material, whether it is used for the making of semi-manufactured goods, veneer or planks.
+
+
+== Uses ==
+
+Because bog-wood can remain free of decay for thousands of years it is of use in dendrochronology, often providing records much older than living trees. Wooden artifacts lost or buried in bogs become preserved as bog-wood, and are important in archaeology.
+Bog-wood may be used in joinery to make furniture or wood carving.  Bog-wood sometimes has aesthetically interesting shapes (similar to driftwood) and may be used as ornaments. As bog-wood dries out, it may crack or split, but this does not necessarily detract from its aesthetic qualities. Due to its natural color, it is a traditionally favored wood for the carving of dirks (bìodagan) and sgian-dubh in the Scottish Highlands.
+Bog-wood is used in aquaria for ornaments, providing hiding places for fish and a growing surface for plants such as Java fern. Additionally, the leaching of organic compounds such as tannins into the water causes a brown coloration.
+During the nineteenth century bog oak was used to make carved decorative items such as jewelry and in some parts of the world it is still used to craft unique artifacts. Prized in the Tudor period for its dark hue, bog oak was used to construct the throne of Peter the Great as well in the construction of Venetian palaces and the bedroom suite of Louis XIV.
+
+One of the uses of bog-wood is for making of tobacco pipes. It is an ideal material because of a high percentage of minerals, reaching up to 12%, which makes bog-wood especially resistant to burning. Because underground currents erase all traces of tannin, resin and similar ingredients in bog-wood, pipes constructed of the ancient wood provide a neutral taste during tobacco smoking. Due to the challenges of extraction and processing, today there are a relatively small number of pipemakers who make pipes out of bog-wood.
+In addition to pipes, bog-wood has traditionally been used to construct decorative objects and items for everyday use. It has also been utilized as a tonewood in the construction of high-end guitars. Today, modern drying techniques have made it possible to preserve larger planks of bog oak that are suitable for floor coverings, furniture, doors, window frames, and sculptures.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Aquarium substrates
+Driftwood
+Mopane wood, recovered from deserts and often sold as an alternative to bogwood for aquaria; it is sometimes incorrectly labelled as bogwood or charred bogwood.
+Swamp kauri
+Sweet Track, a timber causeway in Somerset, England, its timbers preserved in waterlogged ground for over 5,800 years.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Irish Peatland Conservation Council - Information sheet on bogwood and its formation in Irish peat bogs.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/5
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:21.676565+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:25.742576+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-1.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/5
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:21.676565+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:25.742576+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-2.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/5
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:21.676565+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:25.742576+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-3.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/5
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:21.676565+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:25.742576+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-4.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/5
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:03:21.676565+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:25.742576+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish-water_aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Brackish-water aquarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish-water_aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:48.361898+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A brackish-water aquarium is an aquarium where the water is brackish (semi-salty). The range of "saltiness" varies greatly, from near freshwater to near marine and is often referred to as specific gravity (SG) or salinity. Brackish water aquaria is a popular specialization within the fishkeeping hobby. Many species of fish traded as freshwater species are actually true brackish species, for example mollies, Florida flagfish, and some cichlids such as chromides and black-chin tilapia. There are also several popular species traded purely as brackish water fish, including monos, scats, archerfish, and various species of pufferfish, goby, flatfish, and gar. Generally, aquarists need to maintain a specific gravity of around 1.005 to 1.010 depending on the species being kept, but practically all brackish water fish tolerate variations in salinity well, and some aquarists maintain that regularly fluctuating the salinity in the aquarium actually keeps the fish healthy and free of parasites.
+
+
+== Aquarium maintenance ==
+Brackish water species can be kept mainly the same as standard freshwater aquaria, but a hydrometer is used to check the salinity of the water. Certain kinds of brackish water fish need to have their salinity increased slightly every six months. The tank sizes can vary widely depending on the needs of the particular species, and the temperature is usually in the tropical range of 76-82 °F. The substrate can vary from sand to gravel, but many aquarists choose crushed coral or aragonite sand, both of which help raise the hardness and pH to an acceptable level. Many brackish water fish, as any fish, can jump out of the tank, so it must be covered.  Some brackish water species come from estuaries. These should have a slow moving current and some hiding places in their aquarium. Some come from larger rivers. These should have plants around the perimeter of the aquarium with some large rocks to rest on. Others come from mangrove swamps. These should have a few mangrove plants, and some species should have a beach to climb out on. Some freshwater species (and the blacktip shark, a marine species) are hardy enough or survive better in brackish water, such as Polypterus bichir, certain loaches, Danio rerio, all kinds of mollies but especially the Yucatán molly, and some gobies. All can tolerate the same amount of salt in aquaria, but should be acclimated slowly.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Aquarium
+Brackish water
+Fishkeeping
+List of brackish aquarium fish species
+List of brackish aquarium invertebrate species
+
+
+== External links ==
+Aquariacentral Brackish Water Forum FAQ
+Brackish Water Fishes
+Estuarine Aquarium Keeping, Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Frank Schäfer (2005). Brackish-Water Fishes. Aqualog. ISBN 3-936027-82-X (English), ISBN 3-936027-81-1 (German)
+Neale Monks, ed. (2006). Brackish-Water Fishes. TFH. ISBN 0-7938-0564-3

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_reactor-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Calcium reactor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_reactor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:49.529426+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium and trace elements to a reef aquarium. Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium.
+In marine and reef aquariums, a calcium reactor dissolves a calcium carbonate media in order to balance alkalinity and introduce other trace elements. An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a reaction chamber with salt water and calcium rich media. The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid, and dissolves calcium. This solution is recirculated through the reaction chamber via a recirculating pump. The effluent, which is now rich in elements from the dissolved media, is returned to the reef aquarium where the elements are consumed by organisms, primarily corals when building skeletons. 
+The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO−3 (alkalinity) and calcium (Ca2+) ions at the same rate as consumed during calcification. Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher, so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide (CO2) is used. The reaction formula is: 
+
+CaCO3 + H2O + CO2  ⇌  Ca2+ + 2 HCO−3
+Inside the reaction chamber, a calcium rich media (aragonite), mainly CaCO3, is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide (CO2) in order to create carbonic acid (H2CO3). This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate. The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate, supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2+ and CO2−3, important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels.
+A bubble counter is used to visually (or audibly) measure the carbon dioxide rate (bubbles per minute). The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution, with a minimum unconsumed. A needle valve or solenoid valve generally attached to the CO2 regulator regulates the CO2 bubble rate. Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control.
+A feed pump takes aquarium water into the reactor, controlling the volume of water exchange. This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor can reduce its efficiency, thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2.
+Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor's recirculation pump. A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted, increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor. Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side.
+Peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure, capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance.
+A pH controller is recommended to control the CO2. It works by connecting to the CO2 regulator on the CO2 tank and measuring the pH of the solution inside the reactor via a pH probe. The controller will turn on and off the flow of CO2 based on the pH inside the reactor. The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 to 6.8. When the pH rises above a certain level, a valve opens, allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor. The controller closes the valve as the pH falls below this level.
+
+Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump. This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank. If the probe detects a low pH level, the pump activates. The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas.
+Since the pH inside the reactor is much lower than the pH in the aquarium, you run the risk of lowering the aquarium pH by running a calcium reactor if that low pH is not mitigated. To counteract that effect, many manufacturers offer reactors with secondary buffering chambers. This buffering chamber is filled with the same media as the primary chamber; however, no CO2 is injected into this chamber. The effluent of the primary chamber passes through the buffering chamber, consuming any excess CO2 and raising the pH of the solution, prior to entering the aquarium.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Aquarium
+Protein skimmer
+Filter
+
+
+== References ==
+Reefkeeping.com article on calcium reactors
+Georgia Tech information on calcium reactor

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean-up_crew-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Clean-up crew"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean-up_crew"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:50.672663+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The clean-up crew is the term that has been used by many aquarists and vendors since the late 1980s to refer to various small animals commonly sold for use in keeping the reef aquarium clear of pest algae, detritus and parasites. 
+Among the most popular have long been blue-legged hermit crabs, scarlet hermit crabs, emerald crabs and various snails. Other commonly used animals include limpets, sea hares, sea urchins, brittle stars, algae-eating combtooth blennies, neon gobies, reef lobsters, cleaner shrimp, mysid shrimp, copepods, ostracods, isopods and amphipods. Even peppermint shrimp that feed on pest Aiptasia anemones are often included. Sometimes it is used for the shallow sediment-dwelling animals that live in the deep sand bed of marine aquariums or reef aquariums such as sand sifting starfish, spaghetti worms, bristleworms and flatworms.
+Clean-up crews have also more recently been used in freshwater aquariums to control algae, detritus and pest snails. These often include various snails, shrimp, small crayfish, Gammarus and Hyalella amphipods, Asellus isopods, Cyclops copepods, ostracods, Planaria flatworms, California blackworms, sludge worms, Loricariid and Corydoras catfish, loaches, log suckers and siamese algae-eaters.
+The term clean-up crew, along with custodian, has also been used for various arthropods, primarily a few established lines of terrestrial woodlice and springtails, used in terrarium clean up since the late 1990s. The two most popular have long been the Spanish orange Porcellio sp. (often falsely labeled P. scaber) and a moderately large and prolific entomobryid known as the "giant" springtail. These small workers help to keep various small animal enclosures (for dart frogs, salamanders, centipedes, whipspiders, etc.) clear of decomposing food particles that otherwise can result in mold growth, mite infestations, or oxygen depletion from decomposition. Other terrarium clean-up crew inhabitants include various millipedes, soil mites, cockroaches, earthworms, whiteworms, bean weevils, crickets, darkling beetles, ladybirds, firebrats, sun beetles and skin beetles.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Biological pest control
+Live sand
+Live food
+Coral sand
+Sand
+Live rock
+Algae eater
+Filter (aquarium)
+Vermicompost
+Bioactive terrarium

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldwater_fish-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+---
+title: "Coldwater fish"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldwater_fish"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:51.866431+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The term coldwater fish can have different meanings in different contexts.
+
+In the context of fishkeeping, it refers to ornamental fish species that tolerate the temperatures of a typical indoor aquarium well and do not require a heater to remain active, as opposed to tropical fish, which need a heater to survive in the room temperatures of temperate climates;
+In the context of ecology and fishing, it refers to fish species that prefer to inhabit waterbodies or depth zones with much lower temperatures than the average temperate water. Salmonids (e.g. salmon, trout, char and graylings) are a classic example of such types of fish.
+
+
+== Fishkeeping ==
+Most or all ornamental fish species are able to tolerate temperatures as low as or lower than room temperature, with most stenothermic tropical species having critical thermal minimums of around 10-12 °C. Although these fish are capable of surviving in unheated aquaria, their temperature preferences may vary. For example, koi, goldfish, and pond loaches are commonly considered to be cold-water fish because of their ability to survive at very low temperatures, but their temperature preferences and/or physiological optimal temperatures are 32 °C (90 °F), 24–31 °C (75–88 °F), and 26–28 °C (79–82 °F), respectively. Because many of the ornamental fish considered to be “coldwater fish” are more accurately eurythermal fish and many prefer temperatures similar to, or even warmer than those preferred by certain tropical fish, the term “coldwater fish” in the aquarium context often misleads pet owners into keeping fish below their preferred temperature.
+
+
+=== Freshwater aquarium fish ===
+
+Note: The above contains a mix of true coldwater fish and sub-tropical fish that can survive and thrive at room temperature which ranges from 15 °C (59 °F) and to 30 °C (86 °F).
+
+
+=== Freshwater pond fish ===
+
+
+=== Saltwater aquarium fish ===
+
+
+== Wild fisheries ==
+The term "coldwater" is also used to refer to wild fish species that prefer bodies of water that are colder than most temperate waters. In recreational fishing, anglers may loosely break down fish into categories of warm-water fish, cool-water fish, and cold-water fish. Warm-water fish, such as largemouth bass, sunfish and bullhead catfish, are species that tend to dwell in relatively warm tropical and temperate waters similar to the room temperatures that humans easily find comfortable. Cool-water species, such as smallmouth bass and walleye, can tolerate a wide range of temperatures, but tend to be most abundant in cooler rivers or deeper parts of ponds and lakes, where the temperature is slightly lower than room temperatures. Cold-water species, such as salmonids (e.g. salmon, trout, char, graylings, freshwater whitefishes, etc.) and gadiforms (cods, hakes, pollock, haddock, burbot and rocklings, etc.), however become stressed at warm temperatures and are most active in colder temperatures around 7–18 °C (45–65 °F) which resemble a more subarctic or alpine condition. Because these designations are informal, different fisheries management authorities may recognize different boundaries in temperature preference between the categories.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of freshwater aquarium fish species
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Marine Aquarium Fish - http://www.oregonreef.com/sub_coldwater.htm
+Freshwater Aquarium Fish - Practical Fishkeeping Magazine
+Freshwater Pond Fish - An Essential Guide to Choosing Your Pond Fish and Aquatic Plants by Graham Quick and also http://www.pondexpert.co.uk/ChoosingTheRightFishForYourPond.html
+
+
+== External links ==
+About.com Archived 2009-02-02 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+---
+title: "Community aquarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:53.041015+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Community aquaria are tanks that are designed to contain more than one species of fish. Most commonly they include a variety of species that do not normally occur together in nature, for example angelfish from Brazil, swordtails from Mexico, and gouramis from South East Asia. The aim of such communities is to bring together fish that are compatible in temperament and water requirements, while using their different colours and behaviors to add interest and entertainment value.
+Though not usually called community tanks, most marine aquaria fit into this category too, using fish from places as diverse as the Caribbean, Red Sea, and western Pacific Ocean.
+Other aquarists prefer communities, called biotopes, that represent particular geographic locations, and combine fish with appropriate decorative materials including endogenous rocks and plants. The most popular of these geographically correct community tanks are those replicating the cichlid habitat of the East African Rift lakes of Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi.
+
+
+== Community fish ==
+
+For freshwater community tanks, there are large numbers of species that make successful community fishes. Most of the livebearers, barbs, tetras, rasboras, danios, and rainbowfishes are peaceful, though a few species are fin nippers, most notably tiger barbs and serpae tetras. Angelfishes, gouramis, and Corydoras catfishes are also popular, though angelfish are predatory and will eat very small fish such as neon tetras and livebearer fry. The size of the fish introduced within a new or established community tank is an essential factor to ensure harmony within the setup. A traditional and proven practice suggest- If a fish fits into the mouth of another fish, there are more chances of it being eaten by the larger variety. Understandably, all fish are opportunistic animals which makes them prone to occasional attacks on the other small-sized members within the tank. Considering the nature of aquatic animals, it is better to pair similar sized fish to maintain stable and peaceful aquarium communities. If neon tetras are kept around fish unlikely to take advantage of their small size, they are very peaceful towards other fish.
+Many fishes are not suitable for typical community tanks. These fishes include:
+
+Territorial or aggressive fishes, such as many cichlids.
+Red-tailed black sharks should not be placed with others of their species, as they often become territorial.
+Predatory fishes such as snakeheads, leaffishes, and bucktooth tetras.
+Large active fishes that will outgrow their tanks and tankmates, such as tinfoil barbs, iridescent sharks, and larger catfishes.
+Fragile fishes, or fishes that get nervous around more active fish, such as the discus and threadfin rainbowfish.
+Slow or specialized eaters that cannot compete with other tankmates, such as pipefishes.
+
+
+== Water chemistry ==
+Most freshwater aquarium fish do well in water that is soft to moderately hard, and that has a pH between 6 and 8.
+Brackish water aquaria are a special case and need dedicated community tanks. While a few freshwater and marine fish can adapt to brackish water, most cannot.
+The most deadly chemical in aquarium water is ammonia, produced from fish excretions. It is important to test for ammonia, since it is a chemical precursor of nitrites and nitrates, also harmful to fish. Ammonia is removed from the water through the nitrogen cycle, which takes place within the aquarium filter, which takes a few weeks to start processing the ammonia. The processed ammonia is converted to nitrite, which is then processed to nitrate. Weekly water changes (25% of aquarium volume), while vacuuming debris from the bottom of the tank, can solve this problem of nitrate build-up, provided the tank is not overcrowded.
+Build-up of algae is largely related to light level and mineral imbalance. An aquarium near a window is likely to be overgrown with algae. A material known as a "phosphate sponge" is available at aquarium shops to leach the phosphate out of the aquarium and reduce the growth of algae. Also, plants such as java moss (not java fern) compete with algae for another necessary plant nutrient, nitrate, and reduce algae growth. Java moss also forms a ground cover along the bottom of the aquarium.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+---
+title: "Conservatory (greenhouse)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:26.975715+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A conservatory is a building or room having glass or other transparent roofing and walls, used as a greenhouse or a sunroom.  Usually it refers to a space attached to a conventional building such as a house, especially in the United Kingdom.  Elsewhere, especially in America, it can often refer to a large freestanding glass-walled building in a botanic garden or park, sometimes also called a palm house if tall enough for trees.  Municipal conservatories became popular in the early 19th century.
+
+== Description ==
+
+Many cities, especially those in cold climates and with large European populations, have built municipal conservatories to display tropical plants and hold flower displays. This type of conservatory was popular in the early nineteenth century, and by the end of the century people were also giving them a social use (e.g., tea parties). Conservatory architecture varies from typical Victorian glasshouses to modern styles, such as geodesic domes. Many were large and impressive structures and are included in the list below.
+In the UK, the legal definition of a conservatory is a building that has at least 50% of its side wall area glazed and at least 75% of its roof glazed with translucent materials, either polycarbonate sheeting or glass. Today, the terms sunroom, solarium and conservatory are used interchangeably by the public, but in general the term conservatory and particularly English conservatory evoke the image of an ornate structure, echoing the traditions of that Victorian era of conservatory building. Modern conservatories tend also to be graced with a traditional cresting and finial, along with single, double patio or even bi-folding doors.
+These structures have been designed and built around the world, in private gardens, parks, and botanical institutions. Smaller garden conservatories have become popular, which may be dual-function, equally devoted to horticulture and recreation, or favor the latter, as a solarium or sunroom.
+
+== History ==
+
+Conservatories originated in the 16th century when wealthy landowners sought to cultivate citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges that began to appear on their dinner tables brought by traders from warmer regions of the Mediterranean.  Preservation of citrus and other tender plants started out as crudely as building a pergola over potted plants or beds, or simply moving potted plants indoors for the cold season. Known in Italy as limonaia, these early structures employed wood panels or open galleries to protect from the cold.
+
+Further north in Europe, the preservation of orange trees became the trend with special-purpose buildings built to protect the delicate fruit.  Orangeries, as they came to be called, were typically enclosed structures built with wood, brick or stone with tall vertical windows on the south walls.  The citrus trees were typically in huge pots or tubs, and wheeled outside for the summer months, as at the Gardens of Versailles.  Use of these rooms expanded socially and practically, being used to entertain and to host a wider variety of plants.  The term greenhouse came to describe the rooms and conservatories for tender plants. In the 18th century, sloped glass began to be used in conservatory design to allow more light into the structure, enhancing conditions for plant growth. This innovation may have been influenced by the work of Dutch scientist Jan Ingenhousz, who studied the role of light in photosynthesis. However, while his research likely contributed to advancements in horticultural practices, it is not definitively known if he directly influenced the adoption of sloping glass for conservatories.
+The 19th century was the golden age of conservatory building, primarily in England. English conservatories were the product of English love of gardening and new technology in glass and heating technology. Many of the magnificent public conservatories, built of iron and glass, are the result of this era.  Kew Gardens in London is an example of a large greenhouse used for growing tender and rare plants, or, less often, for birds and rare animals – sometimes with the plants and animals living together. Other examples include the Great Palm House at Kew Gardens that was built in 1844, built by Decimus Burton and the Crystal Palace, built for London's Great Exhibition of 1851 by Sir Joseph Paxton.
+The widespread construction of UK conservatories came to a halt with the onset of World War II. While the advent of insulated glass in the 1950s and 1960s saw the development of simple sunroom structures, it was not until the 1970s that creative architects and builders began to recreate the Victorian styling of 19th-century English conservatories in smaller domestic versions using insulated glass. In contemporary construction, a conservatory differs from an orangery in having more than 75% of its roof surface made from glass. Frame and roof materials include aluminium, PVCu and timber. A conservatory by definition must have more than 50% of its wall surface glazed. Contemporary conservatories use a number of technologies to ensure glass is as energy efficient as possible, ensuring it lets in the maximum light possible while maintaining a steady temperature throughout summer and winter. Technologies include argon-filled glazing units, easy clean coatings, heat reflective film, thermal ribbons or thermal breaks – hollow sections of glass that intercept heat. The latest glass technologies involve self-tinting glass that darkens as heat builds up during a summer's day and then lightens as the surface temperature of the glass cools later in the day.
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+== List of prominent conservatories ==
+
+=== Argentina ===
+Buenos Aires Botanical Garden
+Lucien Hauman Botanical Garden
+Botanical Garden of the Municipality of Córdoba
+La Plata Botanical Garden
+Pillahuincó Botanical Garden
+Alberto Roth Botanical Garden of Posadas
+Oro Verde Botanical Garden
+Dr. Miguel J. Culaciati Botanical Garden
+Aníbal Oscar Carnevalini Botanical Garden
+Arturo E. Ragonese Botanical Garden
+Cascada Escondida Botanical Garden
+Botanical Garden of the Arid Patagonia
+
+=== Australia ===
+Ballarat Botanical Gardens
+Bicentennial Conservatory at Adelaide Botanic Garden
+Fitzroy Gardens, Melbourne
+
+=== Austria ===
+Palmenhaus Schönbrunn
+
+=== Belgium ===
+Royal Greenhouses of Laeken

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
+---
+title: "Conservatory (greenhouse)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatory_(greenhouse)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:26.975715+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Canada ===
+Muttart Conservatory (Edmonton, Alberta)
+Bloedel Floral Conservatory (Vancouver, B.C.)
+Allan Gardens  (Toronto, Ontario)
+Centennial Park Conservatory (Toronto, Ontario)
+Assiniboine Park Conservatory (Winnipeg, Manitoba)
+
+=== China ===
+Beijing Botanical Garden (Beijing)
+Shanghai Botanical Garden (Shanghai)
+South China Botanical Garden (Qingyang, Guangzhou)
+
+=== Denmark ===
+Copenhagen Botanical Gardens
+
+=== Germany ===
+Botanical Gardens and Botanical Museum, Berlin
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+
+==== England ====
+Kew Gardens (southwest London)
+Chatsworth House (Derbyshire)
+Eden Project (Cornwall)
+Syon House (west London)
+Barbican Conservatory (central London)
+Anthaeum, Hove: built in 1830 with the world's largest dome, it collapsed on its opening day in 1833.
+
+==== Northern Ireland ====
+Belfast Botanic Gardens
+
+==== Scotland ====
+Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
+Kibble Palace
+The Tollcross Winter Gardens, Glasgow
+Springburn Winter Gardens
+
+=== South Africa ===
+Pearson Conservatory, Port Elizabeth
+The Botanical Society Conservatory, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Cape Town
+
+=== Spain ===
+Palacio de Cristal del Retiro
+
+=== United States ===
+Amazon Spheres (Seattle, Washington)
+Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory (Detroit, Michigan)
+Biosphere 2 (Oracle, Arizona)
+Birmingham Botanical Gardens (Birmingham, Alabama)
+Bolz Conservatory (Madison, Wisconsin)
+Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens (Buffalo, New York)
+Cecil B. Day Butterfly Center (Pine Mountain, Georgia)
+Climatron (St. Louis)
+Conservatory of Flowers (San Francisco, California)
+Desert Dome at the Henry Doorly Zoo and Aquarium (Omaha, Nebraska)
+Desert Garden Conservatory (San Marino, California)
+Denver Botanic Gardens (Denver, Colorado)
+Eleanor Armstrong Smith Glasshouse (Cleveland, OH)
+Enid Haupt Conservatory at New York Botanical Garden (New York)
+Foellinger-Freimann Botanical Conservatory (Fort Wayne)
+Fort Worth Botanic Garden (Fort Worth, Texas)
+Franklin Park Conservatory (Columbus, Ohio)
+Garfield Park Conservatory (Chicago, Illinois)
+Garfield Park Conservatory and Sunken Gardens (Indianapolis)
+Greater Des Moines Botanical Garden (Des Moines)
+Howard Peters Rawlings Conservatory and Botanic Gardens of Baltimore (Baltimore)
+The Huntington Library, Art Museum, and Botanical Gardens (San Marino, California)
+Krohn Conservatory (Cincinnati)
+Lamberton Conservatory at Highland Park (Rochester, New York)
+Lena Meijer Conservatory at Frederik Meijer Gardens & Sculpture Park (Grand Rapids, Michigan)
+Lewis Ginter Botanical Garden Conservatory (Richmond, Virginia)
+Lincoln Park Conservatory (Chicago)
+Longwood Gardens (Kennett Square, Pennsylvania)
+Marjorie McNeely Conservatory at Como Park (St. Paul)
+Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory (Milwaukee)
+Moody Gardens (Galveston)
+Myriad Botanical Gardens and Crystal Bridge Conservatory (Oklahoma City)
+Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens (Pittsburgh)
+Steinhardt Conservatory (Brooklyn)
+Reiman Gardens (Ames, Iowa)
+United States Botanic Garden (Washington, D.C.)
+Volunteer Park Conservatory (Seattle, Washington)
+W. W. Seymour Botanical Conservatory (Tacoma, Washington)
+
+=== India ===
+Lalbagh Botanical Garden (Bengaluru, India)
+
+== See also ==
+Roof lantern
+Tessellated roof
+
+== References ==
+
+Antram, Nicholas; Morrice, Richard (2008). Brighton and Hove. Pevsner Architectural Guides. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12661-7.
+Orangeries Palaces of Glass-Their History and Development. 1994.
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_bank-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+---
+title: "DNA bank"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_bank"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:28.162558+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+DNA banking is the secure, long-term storage of an individual's genetic material. DNA is most commonly extracted from blood, but can also be obtained from saliva and other tissues. DNA banks allow for conservation of genetic material and comparative analysis of an individual's genetic information. Analyzing an individual's DNA can allow scientists to predict genetic disorders, as used in preventive genetics or gene therapy, and prove that person's identity, as used in the criminal justice system. There are multiple methods for testing and analyzing genetic information including restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and polymerase chain reactions (PCR).
+
+
+== Uses ==
+DNA banking is used to conserve genetic material, especially that of organisms that face extinction. This is a more prominent issue today due to deforestation and climate change, which serve as a threat to biodiversity. The genetic information can be stored within lambda phage and plasma vectors. The National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences (NIAS) DNA Bank, for example, collects the DNA of agricultural organisms, such as rice and fish, for scientific research. Most DNA provided by DNA banks is used for studies to attempt to develop more productive or more environmentally friendly agricultural species. Some DNA banks also store the DNA of rare or endangered species to ensure their survival.
+The DNA bank can be used to compare and analyze DNA samples. Comparison of DNA samples allowed scientists to work on the Human Genome Project, which maps out many of the genes on human DNA. It has also led to the development of preventive genetics. Samples from the DNA bank have been used to identify patterns and determine which genes lead to specific disorders. Once people know which genes lead to disorders, people can take steps to lessen the effects of that disorder. This can occur through adjustments in lifestyle, as demonstrated in preventive healthcare, or even through gene therapy. DNA can be banked at any time during a person's life.
+DNA banks were introduced to the criminal justice system in the 1980s. This system makes it possible to rule out or confirm the verdict of a suspect based on their personal genetic code. Once an individual's DNA is stored, it remains in the system permanently; allowing law enforcement to identify and track criminals more easily. There is some controversy about this topic as some individuals believe the storage of citizen's DNA is an invasion of privacy.
+DNA banking capsules are also starting to be used for retaining the DNA of the deceased, a service offered by some funeral homes.
+
+
+== Processes ==
+Scientists are capable of retrieving genetic information from hair, skin, blood, sperm, tissue, and saliva as long as the sample contains intact DNA. Nucleotide sequences between humans differ by only 0.1%. Even so, this 0.1% includes approximately three million bases.  DNA can be analyzed through restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and Polymerase chain reactions (PCR). The RFLP process was introduced in 1988. Restriction enzymes digest portions of the DNA, leaving short fragments. These fragments are sorted through gel electrophoresis. The gel demonstrates the length of the fragments allowing specialists to determine whether the fragments came from the same person. PCR is more commonly used today because it more efficient and requires smaller samples of genetic samples.
+
+
+== Organizations ==
+There are various organizations founded for the purpose of storing and analyzing DNA sample. For example; The UK Biobank contains DNA samples of 500,000 individuals aged between 40 and 69 when their samples were taken in the years 2006-2010 . The Human DNA Bank India at Lucknow city, the Asia's first Human DNA Bank takes the DNA of common public, stores it for 50 years, takes their biometrics as well and provide them a UID DNA card. This system is an absolute mean of identity and is very helpful for the concerned associations in many conditions like identification at any mass gathering, identification at any massive calamity, identification at terrorist attacks, identification of any individual even if they are hiding their real identity.[1] [2] The director Dr. Saeed Ahmad has established Asia's first human DNA bank in India and has been well known throughout the world for his work on DNA. Under IQRA Biotech Services this human DNA bank which is in public-privet-partnership with Biotech Park, Lucknow under the Department of Biotechnology and the Ministry of Science and Technology. IQRA Biotech Services has also established a cord blood and stem cell bank that stores the stem cells of their clients and in future it is possible that these stem cells may be used for genetic treatments of diseases like spinal cord injuries, neuralgic palsy, leukemia, Parkinson's disease, anemia, SCIA, and cancer.
+
+
+== See also ==
+DNA database
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+List of DNA banks by Global Genome Biodiversity Network
+NIAS DNA bank
+RBG Kew DNA bank
+DNA Bank Network
+DNA Stewardship

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_sand_bed-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Deep sand bed"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_sand_bed"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:54.220245+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A deep sand bed is a filtration method used in some saltwater aquariums and some freshwater aquariums. A deep sand bed, similar to the Berlin Method, is designed to cultivate anaerobic bacteria in the bottom layers of sand, converting nitrate to nitrogen gas to remove toxic nitrates.
+
+
+== Operation ==
+A deep sand bed is commonly defined as a bed of fine sand with a minimum depth of four to six inches which ensures that a portion of the sand at the bottom will not be exposed to significant circulation of water. An established deep sand bed consists of sand populated with bacteria, algae and other marine organisms such as worms, crabs, snails and stars. The creatures burrow and overturn the top two to three inches of sand in search of food, which causes water to circulate deeper in the sand than it would if the creatures were not present.
+Deep sand beds may be made of a variety of materials, but typically fine or "superfine" sand is used, with a grain size between 1 mm and 0.05 mm.  A larger particle size increases circulation, which in turn requires greater depth to establish anaerobic areas. Larger particles can also inhibit the burrowing of small animals, which would limit circulation into the bed. Additionally, larger particles (2 mm or larger) are prone to detritus accumulation, which necessitates periodic siphon cleaning.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Coral sand
+Filter (aquarium)
+Live rock
+Live sand
+Reef aquarium
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denitrifying_bacteria-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+---
+title: "Denitrifying bacteria"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denitrifying_bacteria"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:55.402407+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Denitrifying bacteria are a diverse group of bacteria that encompass many different phyla. This group of bacteria, together with denitrifying fungi and archaea, is capable of performing denitrification as part of the nitrogen cycle. Denitrification is performed by a variety of denitrifying bacteria that are widely distributed in soils and sediments and that use oxidized nitrogen compounds such as nitrate and nitrite in the absence of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. They metabolize nitrogenous compounds using various enzymes, including nitrate reductase (NAR), nitrite reductase (NIR), nitric oxide reductase (NOR) and nitrous oxide reductase (NOS), turning nitrogen oxides back to nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O).
+The reducing power can be supplied by organic carbon compounds (termed "heterotrophic denitrification") or inorganic substances such as hydrogen, reduced iron, or sulfur species (termed "autotrophic denitrification"). Some microbes can use either organic or inorganic sources of reducing power (termed "mixotrophs").
+
+== Diversity of denitrifying bacteria ==
+There is a great diversity in biological traits. Denitrifying bacteria have been identified in over 50 genera with over 125 different species and are estimated to represent 10-15% of bacteria population in water, soil and sediment.
+
+Denitrifying include for example several species of Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes , Bacillus and others. 
+The majority of denitrifying bacteria are facultative aerobic heterotrophs that switch from aerobic respiration to denitrification when oxygen as an available terminal electron acceptor (TEA) runs out. This forces the organism to use nitrate to be used as a TEA. Because the diversity of denitrifying bacteria is so large, this group can thrive in a wide range of habitats including some extreme environments such as environments that are highly saline and high in temperature. Aerobic denitrifiers can conduct an aerobic respiratory process in which nitrate is converted gradually to N2 (NO3− → NO2− → NO → N2O → N2 ), using nitrate reductase (Nar or Nap), nitrite reductase (Nir), nitric oxide reductase (Nor), and nitrous oxide reductase (Nos). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that aerobic denitrifiers mainly belong to α-, β- and γ-Proteobacteria.
+
+== Denitrification mechanism ==
+Denitrifying bacteria use denitrification to generate ATP.
+The most common denitrification process is outlined below, with the nitrogen oxides being converted back to gaseous nitrogen:
+
+2 NO3− + 10 e− + 12 H+ → N2 + 6 H2O
+The result is one molecule of nitrogen and six molecules of water. Denitrifying bacteria are a part of the N cycle, and consists of sending the N back into the atmosphere. The reaction above is the overall half reaction of the process of denitrification. The reaction can be further divided into different half reactions each requiring a specific enzyme. The transformation from nitrate to nitrite is performed by nitrate reductase (Nar)
+
+NO3− + 2 H+ + 2 e− → NO2− + H2O
+Nitrite reductase (Nir) then converts nitrite into nitric oxide
+
+2 NO2− + 4 H+ + 2 e− → 2 NO + 2 H2O
+Nitric oxide reductase (Nor) then converts nitric oxide into nitrous oxide
+
+2 NO + 2 H+ + 2 e− → N2O + H2O
+Nitrous oxide reductase (Nos) terminates the reaction by converting nitrous oxide into dinitrogen
+
+N2O + 2 H+ + 2 e− → N2 + H2O
+It is important to note that any of the products produced at any step can be exchanged with the soil environment.
+
+== Oxidation of methane and denitrification ==
+
+=== Anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to denitrification ===
+Anaerobic denitrification coupled to methane oxidation was first observed in 2008, with the isolation of a methane-oxidizing bacterial strain found to oxidize methane independently. This process uses the excess electrons from methane oxidation to reduce nitrates, effectively removing both fixed nitrogen and methane from aquatic systems in habitats ranging from sediment to peat bogs to stratified water columns.
+The process of anaerobic denitrification may contribute significantly to the global methane and nitrogen cycles, especially in light of the recent influx of both due to anthropogenic changes. The extent to which anthropogenic methane affects the atmosphere is known to be a significant driver of climate change, and considering it is multiple times more potent than carbon dioxide. Removing methane is widely considered to be beneficial to the environment, although the extent of the role that denitrification plays in the global flux of methane is not well understood. Anaerobic denitrification as a mechanism has been shown to be capable of removing the excess nitrate caused by fertilizer runoff, even in hypoxic conditions.
+Additionally, microorganisms which employ this type of metabolism may be employed in bioremediation, as shown by a 2006 study of hydrocarbon contamination in the Antarctic, as well as a 2016 study which successfully increased the rates of denitrification by altering the environment housing the bacteria. Denitrifying bacteria are said to be high quality bioremediators because of their adaptability to a variety of different environments, as well as the lacking any toxic or undesirable leftovers, as are left by other metabolisms.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denitrifying_bacteria-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Denitrifying bacteria"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denitrifying_bacteria"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:55.402407+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Role of denitrifying bacteria as a methane sink ===
+Denitrifying bacteria have been found to play a significant role in the oxidation of methane (CH4) (where methane is converted to CO2, water, and energy) in deep freshwater bodies of water. This is important because methane is the second most significant anthropogenic greenhouse gas, with a global warming potential 25 times more potent than that of carbon dioxide, and freshwaters are a major contributor of global methane emissions.
+A study conducted on Europe's Lake Constance found that anaerobic methane oxidation coupled to denitrification – also referred to as nitrate/nitrite-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation (n-damo) – is a dominant sink of methane in deep lakes. For a long time, it was considered that the mitigation of methane emissions was only due to aerobic methanotrophic bacteria. However, methane oxidation also takes place in anoxic, or oxygen depleted zones, of freshwater bodies. In the case of Lake Constance, this is carried out by M. oxyfera-like bacteria. M. oxyfera-like bacteria are bacteria similar to Candidatus Methylomirabilis oxyfera, which is a species of bacteria that acts as a denitrifying methanotroph.
+The results from the study on Lake Constance found that nitrate was depleted in the water at the same depth as methane, which suggests that methane oxidation was coupled to denitrification. It could be inferred that it was M. oxyfera-like bacteria carrying out the methane oxidation because their abundance peaked at the same depth where the methane and nitrate profiles met. This n-damo process is significant because it aids in decreasing methane emissions from deep freshwater bodies and it aids in turning nitrates into nitrogen gas, reducing excess nitrates.
+
+== Denitrifying bacteria and the environment ==
+
+=== Denitrification effects on limiting plant productivity and producing by-products ===
+The process of denitrification can lower the fertility of soil as nitrogen, a growth-limiting factor, is removed from the soil and lost to the atmosphere. This loss of nitrogen to the atmosphere can eventually be regained via introduced nutrients, as part of the nitrogen cycle. Some nitrogen may also be fixated by species of nitrifying bacteria and the cyanobacteria. Another important environmental issue concerning denitrification is the fact that the process tends to produce large amounts of by-products. Examples of by-products are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N2O). NO is an ozone depleting species and N2O is a potent greenhouse gas which can contribute to global warming.
+
+=== Denitrifying bacteria use in wastewater treatment ===
+Denitrifying bacteria are an essential component in treating wastewater. Wastewater often contains large amounts of nitrogen (in the form of ammonium or nitrate), which could be damaging to ecological processes if left untreated. Many physical, chemical, and biological methods have been used to remove the nitrogenous compounds and purify wastewaters. The process and methods vary, but it generally involves converting ammonium to nitrate via the nitrification process with ammonium oxidizing bacteria (AOB, NH4+ → NO2–) and nitrite oxidizing bacteria (NOB, NO2– → NO3–), and finally to nitrogen gas via denitrification. One example of this is ammonia-oxidizing bacteria which have a metabolic feature that, in combination with other nitrogen-cycling metabolic activities, such as nitrite oxidation and denitrification, remove nitrogen from wastewater in activated sludge. Since denitrifying bacteria are heterotrophic, an organic carbon source is supplied to the bacteria in an anoxic basin. With no available oxygen, denitrifying bacteria use the redox of nitrate to oxidize the carbon. This leads to the creation of nitrogen gas from nitrate, which then bubbles up out of the wastewater.
+
+== See also ==
+Nitrifying bacteria
+Nitrogen Cycle
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinobase-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+---
+title: "Echinobase"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinobase"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:29.364626+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Echinobase is a Model Organism Database (MOD). It supports the international research community by providing a centralized, integrated web based resource to access the diverse and rich, functional genomics data of echinoderm evolution, development and gene regulatory networks. 
+Genomic research data and tools are available for searching, browsing and bioinformatic analysis of genomes, genes, and transcripts. 
+Echinobase provides a critical data sharing infrastructure for other NIH-funded projects and enhances the availability and visibility of echinoderm data to the broader biomedical research community.
+
+
+== Supported species ==
+Echinobase offers two levels of integration for supported echinoderm species. Full support includes full genome integration in the database, including gene pages, as well as availability of the genomes to BLAST, browsing via JBrowse, and genome download. Partial support provides BLAST, JBrowse, and download options, but no gene page integration.
+Current level one supported species (at various stages of integration) are:
+
+Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Purple sea urchin)
+Patiria miniata (Bat star)
+Lytechinus variegatus (Green variegated sea urchin)
+Acanthaster planci (Crown-of-thorns starfish)
+Current level two supported species (at various stages of integration) are:
+
+Lytechinus pictus (painted urchin)
+Anneissia japonica (Feather star, a crinoid)
+Asterias rubens (Sugar star)
+Amphiura filiformis (Brittle star)
+Ptychodera flava (Yellow acorn worm)
+
+
+== Software, hardware and platform ==
+Echinobase runs in a cloud environment. Its virtual machines are running in a VMware vSphere environment on two servers, with automatic load balancing and fault tolerance. Its software uses Java, JSP, JavaScript, AJAX, XML, and CSS. It also uses Apache Tomcat and the Postgres database. Echinobase is developed in tandem with Xenbase.
+
+
+== Functional genomics ==
+Echinobase is a resource for genomics research that is organized by gene models and represented using gene pages. Each gene page has a tremendous amount of gene specific information. 
+Genomics - Search and BLAST tools are available directly or through the gene pages that display gene model HGNC compliant names, orthology, GO terms and link to BLAST, the JBrowse genome browser, and a gene expression plotting tool.
+Tabs beyond the summary provide gene specific literature, transcripts, expression data, protein sequences and interactants.
+Genomic research tools are implemented to assist browsing, search and analysis and visualization of genomic sequence assemblies, annotations and features.  Additionally, gene expression data collection, search and visualization is provided.
+
+Gene search  - Search genes by name, symbol or synonym directly from the landing page
+Gene nomenclature guidelines  - Echinobase is the official body responsible for echinoderm gene naming
+Genome browser with tracks for RNA-seq and ATAC-seq data - Echinobase uses JBrowse
+BLAST - Users can BLAST against supported genomes, RNA, and protein sequences
+RNA-seq data visualization - Plots of temporal expression profiles and spatial (anatomy) expression heatmaps for S. purpuratus
+Diseases - Users can search for both Disease Ontology and OMIM diseases to find relevant genes and publications
+The Echinoderm Anatomical Ontology (ECAO) uses standardized terms to refer to anatomical cell types and structures and relates these to developmental stages. Numerous echinoderm species are included in the ontology so that some terms are present in all echinoderms while others are species specific. The ECAO contains thousands of anatomical terms for cell types, structures and tissues and anatomical systems such as the nervous system or skeletal system. Relationships between entities are defined using "develops_from" or "develops_into" and "is_a" or "part_of". 
+
+Echinoderm Anatomical Ontology - Standardized anatomy terms are used to describe developmental stages
+
+
+== Literature, resources and community ==
+Literature on Echinobase is collected by automatically searching published papers using echinoderm query terms and retrieved articles are then manually curated.
+
+Literature Search - Users can search for papers based on title, author, journal, etc.
+The data download site makes GFF genome files available and Gene Page Reports provide files for bioinformatic analyses.
+
+EchinoWiki -The Echinobase Resources serve to support the community by collecting data, protocols, reagents and other resources that are then shared using the EchinoWiki.
+Reagents - Echinobase has reagent search tools for antibodies (Ab), morpholinos (MO), and guide RNAs (gRNA) used in published studies.
+In order to support the Community and to enable interdisciplinary and collaborative studies, research, descriptions and contact information of community members, labs and organizations are available and searchable. New Job Openings are also posted on Echinobase.
+
+Community Link - People, jobs, labs which study echinoderms
+
+
+== Other Model Organism Databases (MODs) ==
+Xenbase
+Flybase
+Wormbase
+Mouse Genome Informatics
+ZFIN
+DictyBase
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Baylor Sea Urchin Genome Project
+Sea Urchin Genome at NCBI
+Sea Urchin Gene Catalog at MPIMG
+S. purpuratus Gene  Expression - NIDCR Archived 2016-08-07 at the Wayback Machine
+Endomesoderm Gene Regulatory Network
+Virtual Urchin Archived 2017-09-19 at the Wayback Machine
+Patent: Gene regulatory networks and methods of interdiction for controlling the differentiation state of a cell
+Gene regulatory networks

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Bank_for_induced_pluripotent_Stem_Cells-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "European Bank for induced pluripotent Stem Cells"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Bank_for_induced_pluripotent_Stem_Cells"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:30.538388+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The European Bank for induced pluripotent Stem Cells (EBiSC) is a non-profit induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) biorepository and service provider with central facilities in Germany and the United Kingdom.
+EBiSC was set up between 2014 and 2017 by a consortium that represented researchers, clinicians and industry stakeholders. A second phase of the project runs between 2019 and 2022 with the aim of consolidating EBiSC as a not-for-profit, self-sustainable iPSC bank and service provider. The initiative was funded by the European Commission and the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations under the Innovative Medicines Initiative.
+The European Bank for induced pluripotent Stem Cells performs collection, banking, quality control and distribution of iPSC lines for research purposes. EBiSC's stated goal is to supply academic, non-profit and commercial researchers with quality-controlled, disease-relevant iPSC lines, data and other services. It also seeks to promote the international standardisation of iPSC banking practices and to act as a central hub that ensures the sustainability and accessibility of iPSC lines generated by different research organisations. IPSC lines generated externally can be deposited into EBiSC for storage, banking, quality control and distribution.
+
+
+== Catalogue and facilities ==
+In February 2020, the EBiSC catalogue contained iPSC lines representing diseases and conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Frontotemporal Dementia, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Dravet syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, depression and pain, diabetes mellitus, eye diseases and heart disease. These iPSC lines have been deposited into EBiSC by academic institutions and non-profit and commercial organisations internationally. This includes lines generated within research projects such as StemBANCC, HipSci, IMI-ADAPTED, CRACK IT BadIPS and CRACK IT UnTangle.
+The EBiSC Bank is run collaboratively by Fraunhofer UK Research Ltd in Glasgow, Scotland and the Fraunhofer Institute for Biomedical Engineering (IBMT) in Germany.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishless_cycling-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+---
+title: "Fishless cycling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishless_cycling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:58.884976+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fishless cycling is a form of "maturing" an aquarium. The goal of the process is to establish a robust colony of nitrifiers, with the ammonia source provided to allow nitrifiers ('beneficial bacteria,' although nitrifiers can also be archaea) to grow and reproduce coming from non-fish sources, hence 'fishless.' Fishless cycling can reduce the chance of fish loss resulting from insufficient populations of nitrifiers.
+
+
+== Process ==
+
+Fishless cycling can be instant or take a long time, up to six months in some reported cases. During this time, the aquarist provides an ammonia source for developing the nitrifier colony. Nitrifiers in the aquarium grow on all surfaces, particularly in areas of high water flow and high surface area, such as the filter. Allowing ammonia to be converted to nitrite and onto the less harmful nitrate minimizes stress and injury to aquarium fish.  'Cycling' is not identical to the 'nitrogen cycle', as here it is referring specifically to the process of establishing nitrification and not the other parts of the nitrogen cycle.
+Cycling can be sped up via specific methodologies. Seeding the aquarium with nitrifiers, either from established biomedia, or a biological booster product can help. However, not all products have been found to work, or are even suitable for cycling. The best products on the market are FritzZyme TurboStart 700, followed by the lesser concentrated FritzZyme 7, and Tetra SafeStart. Tetra SafeStart in particular have been studied by scientists and confirmed to accelerate the cycling process. The same study found Seachem Stability, API QuickStart, Imagitarium Biological Booster, and Fluval Cycle to perform no better than using no products, at least over the first 14 days. Conventional wisdom suggests increasing pH and temperature can help, however this is not always true. Different nitrifiers are adapted to different pH and temperatures, and some actually prefer lower pH/temperature. For example, a freshwater Nitrotoga species has an optimal pH of 6.8 and temperature of 22°C.
+The ammonia source can be 'pure' ammonia or fish food, however using 'pure' ammonia is superior.
+
+
+== Advantages ==
+The most significant advantage of fishless cycling is that it can reduce fish loss due to ammonia and nitrite spikes. Fish loss can be very discouraging for beginners of fish keeping, so indirectly, fishless cycling can also help beginners get a good start.
+Cycling aquariums using feeder fish is risky, because it infects the aquarium with any disease or parasite they happen to have. Fish raised as feeders do not get the same degree of care as non-feeders. Fishless cycling avoids this potential problem.
+Fishless cycling also allows the aquarium to be completely stocked from the moment it is cycled if the aquarium can handle a high enough concentration of ammonia. This means that for large aquariums, where fish must be added in several batches, fishless cycling is faster than cycling with fish. It can also be extremely useful when the fish keeper plan to stock a tank full of territorial aggressive fish, such as African cichlids, where the later added fish can be at a disadvantage. However, care in adding ammonia for fishless cycling must be used, too high of an ammonium concentration can kill nitrifiers. 
+
+
+== Disadvantages ==
+Phosphates are often created as byproducts when decaying fish food is the source of ammonia.
+It might cost more than other methods to cycle the tank, if you include all the cost of the water test kit, pure ammonia, etc.
+The aquarist have to wait before stocking the aquarium.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Fishkeeping
+Nitrogen cycle
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galway_Atlantaquaria-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Galway Atlantaquaria"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galway_Atlantaquaria"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:00.061817+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Galway Atlantaquaria is an aquarium in Salthill, Galway, Ireland. It is Ireland’s largest aquarium, containing over 170 species. It is a member of the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums and the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria. In 2011, it became the home of "Dessie", a 70-year-old lobster and Northern Ireland's largest lobster. It has many years of expertise in wildlife rehabilitation.
+
+
+== History ==
+In 2017, it began plans to build Ireland's first "Penguinarium", a penguin exhibit. However, the plan was rejected by Galway City Council.
+In 2024, it was visited by former NASA astronaut Steven Swanson, and a starfish was named "Steve" in his honor. It has hosted an exhibition in collaboration with University of Galway on using algae for the controlled release of medicine.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Echo_Park_Aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Glen Echo Park Aquarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Echo_Park_Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:01.754306+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Glen Echo Park Aquarium is a small public aquarium located on the premises of historic Glen Echo Park in Glen Echo, Maryland. Labeled as a "Chesapeake Bay Discovery Center," the Aquarium’s stated mission is to "promote awareness of the Chesapeake Bay and its watershed through education, in order to encourage stewardship and conservation."
+Glen Echo Park Aquarium (GEPA) is currently the only public aquarium in the immediate Washington D.C. area following the closure of the National Aquarium in Washington D.C. in 2013.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Glen Echo Park Aquarium is located on the grounds of the historic Glen Echo Park. It sits on a tract of the park that was previously used for the Living Classrooms Children's Museum, formerly the Discovery Creek Children's Museum. Prior to the museums, the building was used to stable horses in the park.
+In the summer of 2015, the Glen Echo Park Aquarium soft launched, opening on weekends for summer camp programs. It held its grand opening on September 19, 2015, the date chosen by the Aquarium director, Andrew Wilson, as it coincided with International Talk Like a Pirate Day. Wilson is the founder of Under the Sea, an educational organization focused on marine biology based in Sterling, Virginia. He had dreamt since his days in the Navy of establishing a place for people to learn about the history and fragile ecosystem of the Chesapeake Bay. The Aquarium was initially staffed primarily by Wilson and his family, before expanding to include other staff, including volunteers.
+
+
+== Exhibits ==
+The Glen Echo Park Aquarium features live animals native to the local Chesapeake Bay estuary, showcased in tanks in a large exhibit hall. The Aquarium is arranged in a way that tells "the story of water" as it flows from streams, creeks, and rivers into the Bay, and out to the Atlantic ocean. In addition to the many tanks, there is a touch tank with horseshoe crabs as the main attraction. 
+The walls of the venue are decorated with a mural representing a number of native and Bay-visiting animals, such as a manatee and a sand tiger shark. A "discovery table" sits at one end with magnifying glasses, microscopes to allow children and adults to examine marine artifacts and models up close. The Aquarium building sits on a tract of land fenced off from the rest of the park, containing a garden, a sandbox, a water play table, and a wooden pirate ship that guests can board.
+
+
+== Events ==
+The Aquarium hosts birthday parties, special events, and summer camp programs for children. The nature-based camps have children explore the local Minnehaha Creek. 
+The Aquarium’s parent company, Under the Sea, also conducts outreach programs where they bring live animals to schools and other locations to be exhibited.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_sand-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Live sand"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_sand"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:02.942964+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Live sand, a term used in aquarism, is natural reef coral sand populated with large quantities of beneficial bacteria and organisms which aid in the dissolving of organic wastes like ammonia, nitrites and nitrates produced by larger organisms in saltwater aquariums. Live sand can be purchased from aquarium stores, but many hobbyists make their own by seeding dead sand with live sand from other aquarium systems.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Filter (aquarium)
+Live rock
+Reef aquarium
+Sand
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Advanced Marine Aquarium Techniques, by Jay Hemdal
+Baumeister, Werner (2002). Akwarystyka morska (in Polish). Łódź: Galaktyka. pp. 20, 21. ISBN 83-87914-58-4.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livebearers-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "Livebearers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livebearers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:04.090698+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Livebearers are fish that retain their eggs inside the body and give birth to live, free-swimming young. They are especially prized by aquarium owners. Among aquarium fish, livebearers are nearly all members of the family Poeciliidae and include: guppy, molly, platy, endler’s and swordtails.
+The advantages of livebearing to the aquarist are that the newborn juvenile fish are larger than newly-hatched fry, have a lower chance of mortality and are easier to care for. Unusual livebearers include seahorses and pipefish, where the males care for the young, and certain cichlids that are mouthbrooders, with the parent incubating the eggs in the buccal cavity.
+
+
+== Common aquarium livebearers ==
+Species of interest to aquarists are almost always members of the family Poeciliidae, most commonly guppies, mollies, platies, swordtails, Endler's livebearer, and mosquitofish. Most of these are ovoviviparous, with the developing embryos receiving no nourishment from the parent fish, but a few are viviparous, receiving food from the maternal blood supply. 
+Because the newborn fish are large compared to the fry of oviparous fish, which are those that lay eggs, newborn fish of livebearers are easier to feed than the fry of egg-laying species, such as characins and cichlids. This makes them much easier to raise, and for this reason, aquarists often recommend them for beginning fish breeder hobbyists. The larger livebearer fry makes them far less vulnerable to predation, as the parents often eat fry if hungry. With the sufficient cover in the way of plants or porous objects, they can sometimes mature in a community tank.
+
+
+== Ovoviviparous and viviparous fish compared ==
+Most of the Poeciliidae are ovoviviparous, that is, while the eggs are retained inside the body of the female for protection, the eggs are essentially independent of the mother and she does not provide them with any nutrients. In contrast, fish such as splitfins and halfbeaks are viviparous, with the eggs receiving food from the maternal blood supply through structures analogous to the placenta of placental mammals.
+
+
+== Aberrant livebearers and mouthbrooders ==
+Seahorses and pipefish can be defined as livebearers, although in these cases the males incubate the eggs rather than the females. In many cases, the eggs are dependent on the male for oxygen and nutrition so these fish can be further defined as viviparous livebearers. 
+Many cichlids are mouthbrooders, with the female (or more rarely the male) incubating the eggs in the mouth. Compared with other cichlids, these species produce fewer but bigger eggs, and when they emerge, the fry is better developed and has higher survivability. Because the eggs are protected from the environment but do not absorb nutrients from the parent, this condition is analogous to, though not identical with, ovoviviparity.
+
+
+== Livebearer fish gallery ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+American Livebearer Association
+British Livebearer Association
+Keeping & Breeding Halfbeaks Includes growth rate chart and pictures of newborn fish.
+How to Keep Livebearers

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+---
+title: "Macquarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:05.280728+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Macquarium is an aquarium made from, or made to sit within, the shell of an Apple Macintosh computer. The term was coined by computer writer Andy Ihnatko as a joke at the outdated Macintosh 512K; Macquariums have since been built both by Ihnatko himself and by others.
+
+
+== History ==
+In the early 1990s, a user wrote into MacUser's help column asking how best to upgrade a Macintosh 512K. Columnist Andy Ihnatko jokingly responded that it should be turned into a fishtank. This resulted in eleven reader letters inquiring how to actually do it, leading Ihnatko to test it for himself.
+Ihnatko originally designed his Macquarium to use the Compact Macintosh-style shell. In the early 1990s, several Mac models in this form factor (such as the Macintosh 128K, Macintosh 512K and Macintosh Plus) were becoming obsolete, and Ihnatko considered that turning one into an aquarium might be "the final upgrade", as well as an affordable way to have a color Compact Mac. Ihnatko has mentioned in interviews that he saw attempts to build Macintosh aquariums at trade shows that, among other drawbacks, suffered from noticeable water level lines across the "screen" that spoiled the illusion of a "really good screensaver". This drove him to design a version without a visible water line, and which allowed the external case of the donor Mac to remain intact.
+Ihnatko's slant-front tank design, made of glass, had a nominal capacity of approximately 10 liters (2.2 UK gallons or 2.5 US gallons). Some subsequent designs have utilized acrylic glass or lexan. Because of its small capacity relative to most other aquariums, the Macquarium is considered a form of nano aquarium, which requires a higher level of diligence to maintain proper water chemistry and cleanliness. The parts for some of Ihnatko's Macquariums were constructed with parts from two sources located near Apple's headquarters in Cupertino, California. For these aquariums, Ihnatko used the case of the Macintosh as the tank and sealed the screen and vent holes to be watertight.  
+In 1992, Ihnatko published a guide, The Original Macquarium, on how to build and maintain one. A year later, Ihnatko and his Macquarium were featured in an episode of the cable program Mac Today, in which Bob LeVitus interviewed Ihnatko. In 2001, Ihnatko released an updated version of his guide for the iMac. It was later reported that both Apple co-founder Steve Jobs and talk show host Jay Leno had iMacquariums.
+
+
+== Construction ==
+Macquariums are often stocked with 2–3 goldfish, which do not require tank heaters and are cheap. However, because goldfish grow large, have high oxygen requirements, and are messy eaters, they require much larger tanks for long-term survival. As such, Siamese fighting fish and small shrimp are better options for Macquariums.
+Other Mac models have similarly been turned into aquariums, such as the Macintosh TV, the Apple Lisa, and the Power Mac G4 Cube. Various iMac models, such as the iMac G3, have been used to make "iMacquariums". By 1995, a Macquarium based on a Macintosh LC 575 appeared in a Macintosh magazine titled "Macquarium '95".
+
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+iMacquariums built out of G3 iMacs
+Guide to MacQuarium construction, setup, and upkeep
+The Original Macquarium, Andy Ihnatko's original guide to converting a Classic form Mac
+Macquarium construction diary with photos and tips

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maribor_Aquarium_and_Terrarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Maribor Aquarium and Terrarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maribor_Aquarium_and_Terrarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:06.429700+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aquarium-Terrarium Maribor (Slovene: Akvarij–terarij Maribor) began operations in 1953. During the interwar period, the building housed the Park Café.
+In the terrarium, there are more than 100 different reptiles, amphibians and insects.
+The owner of the aquarium-terrarium is the urban municipality of Maribor, managed by the company Snaga. The acting head of professional and organizational tasks is Branko Kolar.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Piran Aquarium
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Books ==
+Zagoršćak, Vesna (2013). Akvarij - terarij Maribor: 60 let. Nigrad. ISBN 978-961-281-164-8.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammal_park-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
+---
+title: "Marine mammal park"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammal_park"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:07.608387+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A marine mammal park (also known as marine animal park and sometimes oceanarium) is a commercial theme park or aquarium where marine mammals such as dolphins, beluga whales and sea lions are kept within water tanks and displayed to the public in special shows. A marine mammal park is more elaborate than a dolphinarium, because it also features other marine mammals and offers additional entertainment attractions. It is thus seen as a combination of a public aquarium and an amusement park. Marine mammal parks are different from marine parks, which include natural reserves and marine wildlife sanctuaries such as coral reefs, particularly in Australia.
+
+
+== History ==
+Sea Lion Park opened in 1895 at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York with an aquatic show featuring 40 sea lions. It closed in 1903.
+The second marine mammal park, then called an oceanarium, was established in St. Augustine, Florida in 1938. It was initially a large water tank used to exhibit marine mammals for filming underwater movies, and only later became a public attraction. Today Marineland of Florida claims to be "the world's first oceanarium."
+In November 1961, Marineland of the Pacific on the Palos Verdes Peninsula near Los Angeles became the first park to display an orca in captivity, although the orca named Wanda died after two days. The Vancouver Aquarium had the second orca held alive in captivity, Moby Doll, for three months in 1964.
+Between the 1970s and the 1990s, technical advances and the public's increasing interest in aquatic environments prompted a shift to large marine mammal parks with cetaceans (mostly orcas and other species of dolphin) as attractions. Within this time, SeaWorld USA emerged, with operations in Orlando, Florida, San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas and Aurora, Ohio (the Ohio location has since ceased operations).
+On July 13, 1865, P. T. Barnum's museum in New York City caught fire and killed two captive beluga whales, which were boiled alive in their tank.
+
+
+== List of parks ==
+
+
+=== Asia ===
+
+
+=== Australia ===
+
+
+=== Europe ===
+
+
+=== North America ===
+
+
+=== South America ===
+
+
+== Criticism and animal welfare ==
+
+Many animal welfare groups, such as the WSPA, consider keeping whales and dolphins in captivity a form of abuse. The main argument is that whales and dolphins do not have enough freedom of movement within their artificial environments. The existence of marine mammal parks is thus very controversial.
+Although sizable pools for whales and dolphins require an extraordinarily technical and financial expenditure and are thus very difficult to maintain, many marine mammal parks endeavour to improve the conditions of captivity and attempt to engage in public education as well as scientific studies. For that purpose, many marine mammal parks joined the Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums, an international association dedicated to a high standard of care of marine mammals. It was founded in 1987 and established offices near Washington, D.C. in 1992. One report found that there is little objective evidence to indicate that marine mammal parks further public knowledge.
+In 2010, the practice of keeping animals in captivity as trained show performers was heavily criticized when a trainer was killed by an orca whale at SeaWorld Orlando in Florida. Orca attacks were documented in the 2013 film Blackfish. In 2015, the California Coastal Commission banned the breeding of captive killer whales.
+
+
+== Captivity of marine mammals ==
+Animal captivity is the capturing and holding of an animal. Animals have been held captive for entertainment purposes and domestication. As of 2016, 63 whales and dolphins who are held captive have significantly less space than they would have in the wild. Marine mammals in captivity have demonstrated behavioral changes in response to the death or separation of a pod mate or family member.
+
+
+=== Dolphins ===
+Captive dolphins are six times more likely to die than those in the wild because of the stress and poor treatment that they endure, living on average 40 years less in captivity than they would in the wild. The stress of captivity prevents dolphin reproduction, with rare exceptions. Dolphins in their natural habitat spend approximately 80% of their time deep underwater and swim about 40 miles per day. Dolphins in captivity spend about 80% of their time above water and swim just a few miles per day.
+
+
+=== Orcas ===
+
+In the wild, orcas swim about 100 miles per day and only spend approximately 10% of their lives at the surface of the ocean. In captivity, orcas cannot swim to their necessary depth, causing sunburn and blisters. The extended exposure to open air can cause the dorsal fin to collapse. As of 2016, 63 orcas are in captivity in the U.S. Studies show that nearly all captive orcas die for reasons other than old age. Twelve orcas have died at Sea World since 1970. SeaWorld San Diego has recorded 17 orca deaths since 1971. The orcas often die from pregnancy, disease and stress.[1]
+The orca brain is among the largest and most complex of all marine mammals. Orcas appear to understand that they are in captivity under human care, and they depend on their pod mates and family for survival; it is rare for them to survive on their own. An orca named Loita at the Miami Seaquarium, captured at four years old and in captivity for almost 50 years, was set to be released but died in the summer of 2023 before she could be freed.
+
+
+=== Prevention of captivity ===
+The U.S. Congress passed the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 to protect animals who are under human care. The Marine Mammal Protection Act, signed into law in 1972 by President Richard Nixon, prohibits the capture of marine mammals.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Animal theme park
+List of dolphinariums
+WSPA
+Marine Mammal Protection Act
+Marine mammal training
+Captivity (animal)  
+Captivity
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Lou Jacobs, Wonders of an oceanarium: The story of marine life in captivity. Golden Gate Junior Books, 1965.
+Joanne F. Oppenheim, Oceanarium. Bantam Books, 1994. ISBN 0-553-09520-X
+Reed M. Swim with Dolphins Guide: A Guide to Wild Dolphin Swims, Dolphin Swim Resorts and Dolphin Assisted Therapy 2012.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums
+Recommended EAAM dolphin housing standards
+Site sur les différents orques et leur mode de reproduction évitant la consanguinité. (in French)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano_aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Nano aquarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano_aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:08.795914+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nano aquariums are aquariums with the emphasis on small scale inhabitants inside smaller sized aquariums. They can be either freshwater nano aquariums or saltwater nano aquariums. Nano fish species are chosen from any smaller sized species of tropical fish. Other possible inhabitants are freshwater and seawater shrimps. Any plants for a nano aquarium also have to be of the smaller species.
+The marine nano aquarium is more difficult to maintain than the nano freshwater aquarium.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Nano reefs
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paludarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Paludarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paludarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:09.974525+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A paludarium is a type of vivarium that incorporates both terrestrial and aquatic elements. Paludaria (or paludariums) usually consist of an enclosed container in which organisms specific to the biome being simulated are kept. They may be maintained for purely aesthetic reasons or for scientific or horticultural purposes. The word 'paludarium' comes from the Latin word 'palus' meaning marsh or swamp and '-arium' which refers to an enclosed container.
+Paludaria can range in size from small, easily displayed boxes to biospheres large enough to contain entire trees. A prominent example of a very large paludarium is the tropical rainforest exhibit at the Montreal Biodome.
+
+
+== Flora and fauna ==
+Since paludaria encompass water, land and air, many different types of fauna can be encompassed in the enclosure. While amphibians, fish and reptiles are the most common, people have kept insects and even birds in them. The animals that are most suited for a paludarium are the animals that naturally live in water/land type environments, swamps, marshes or mangroves. It is like an ecosystem that is placed inside an enclosed container.
+Flora suited for paludaria include plants that thrive in very humid environments or wetland areas. A common plant is the genus Anubias which is hardy and easy to maintain. The water-filled portion can also support many aquatic species.
+
+
+== Design ==
+Paludaria are made using an enclosure that can handle large amounts of water without leaks. The land portion is typically added before the water. The land portion may occupy one side of the tank, with water on the other side, or may be made to resemble an island surrounded by water on all sides. The areas occupied by land and by water must each be sufficiently large to meet the needs of the animals who will inhabit them.
+Paludaria can be made from small modifications to existing vivaria, by either adding water to a terrarium or land to an aquarium. If the land area is small, the setup may instead be a riparium.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Ecosphere
+Closed ecological system
+Ecosystem
+Biome
+Biosphere
+Biosphere 2
+Biosphere 3
+Eden Project
+Wardian case
+Vivarium
+Aquascaping

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguinarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Penguinarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguinarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:11.136213+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A penguinarium is a vivarium for penguins intended to simulate aspects of their natural environment.
+Penguinariums date back at least to 1968, when the Detroit Zoo opened the first in North America and possibly the world. The Detroit penguinarium was expanded in 2015 with a US$21 million overhaul funded in part by a US$10 million donation, the largest in the zoo's history, from a single donor. In April 2016, the Polk Penguin Conservation Center opened at the Detroit Zoo becoming the world's largest penguinarium. However, the exhibit temporarily closed in 2019 for waterproofing repairs as the penguins were moved back into the 1968 exhibit. The conservation center reopened on February 14, 2022.
+As of 2005, the world's second largest penguinarium was located on the Spanish island of Tenerife, where twelve tons of artificial snow were generated daily for the penguins at Loro Parque aquarium.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piran_Aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "Piran Aquarium"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piran_Aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:12.341179+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Piran Aquarium (Slovene: Akvarij Piran; Italian: Acquario di Pirano) is a aquarium in Piran, Slovenia, operating since 1964. It stands opposite from the maritime museum, and directly next to the inner quay of the Piran port. It is part of the science center at the University of Primorska. Since 2016 it has been run by veterinarian Manja Rogelja.
+Before 1991, the aquarium was visited by up to 60,000 visitors a year, many of them Croatian schoolchildren, but then the number of visitors halved. Besides Germans and Hungarians, the majority are Slovenians, with Italian visitors being rare.
+On 20 March 2007, Minister of Sport Milan Zver, Mayor of Piran Tomaž Gantar and director of Hotel Piran Ana Žerjal signed a letter of intent for the renovation. The ministry financed the renovation of the aquarium's interior. The building was demolished and rebuilt.
+During the regular winter closure in 2022, the aquarium renovated the main visitor area and souvenir shop, and they began creating an interactive children's corner. The rooms were painted in marine shades.
+
+
+== Postage Stamps ==
+In October 2022, the aquarium released motifs for sea cauliflowers, and in April 2023, released motifs for seahorses.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Maribor Aquarium and Terrarium

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_aquarium-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Public aquarium"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:13.560222+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A public aquarium (pl. aquaria; or public water zoo) is the aquatic equivalent of a zoo, which houses living aquatic animal and plant specimens for public viewing. Most public aquariums feature tanks larger than those kept by home aquarists, as well as smaller tanks.
+Since the first public aquariums were built in the mid-19th century, they have become popular and their numbers have increased. Most modern accredited aquariums stress conservation issues and educating the public.
+
+== History ==
+
+The first public aquarium was opened in London Zoo in May 1853; the Fish House, as it came to be known, was constructed much like a greenhouse. P.T. Barnum quickly followed in 1856 with the first American aquarium as part of his established Barnum's American Museum, which was located on Broadway in New York City before it burned down. In 1859, the Aquarial Gardens were founded in Boston. A number of aquariums then opened in Europe, such as the Jardin d'Acclimatation in Paris and the Viennese Aquarium Salon (both founded 1860), the Marine Aquarium Temple as part of the Zoological Garden of Hamburg in Hamburg (1864), as well as aquariums in Berlin (1869) and Brighton (1872).
+The old Berlin Aquarium opened in 1869. The building site was to be Unter den Linden (along a major avenue), in the centre of town, not at the Berlin Zoo. The aquarium's first director, Alfred Brehm, former director of the Hamburg Zoo from 1863 to 1866, served until 1874. With its emphasis on education, the public aquarium was designed like a grotto, part of it made of natural rock. The Geologische Grotte depicted "the strata of the earth's crust". The grotto also featured birds and pools for seals. The Aquarium Unter den Linden was a three-story building. Machinery and water tanks were on the ground floor, and aquarium basins for the fish on the first floor. Because of Brehm's special interest in birds, a huge aviary, with cages for mammals placed around it, was located on the second floor. The facility closed in 1910.
+The Artis aquarium at Amsterdam Zoo was constructed inside a Victorian building in 1882, and was renovated in 1997. At the end of the 19th century the Artis aquarium was considered state-of-the-art, as it was again at the end of the 20th century.
+Before its closing on 30 September 2013, the oldest American aquarium was the National Aquarium in Washington, D.C., founded in 1873. This was followed by the opening of other public aquariums: San Francisco (Woodward's Gardens, 1873–1890), Woods Hole (Woods Hole Science Aquarium, 1885), New York City (New York Aquarium, 1896–present), San Diego (Scripps, 1903), Honolulu (Waikiki Aquarium, 1904–present), Detroit (Belle Isle Aquarium, 1904–2005, 2012–Present), Philadelphia (Philadelphia Aquarium, 1911–1962), San Francisco (Steinhart Aquarium, 1923), Chicago (Shedd Aquarium, 1929). For many years, the Shedd Aquarium was the largest in the United States until the Georgia Aquarium in Atlanta opened in 2005. Entertainment and aquatic circus exhibits were combined as themes in Philadelphia's Aquarama Aquarium Theater of the Sea (1962–1969) and Camden's re-invented Adventure Aquarium 2005, formerly the New Jersey State Aquarium (1992).
+The first Japanese public aquarium, a small freshwater aquarium called "Uonozoki" (now Tokyo Sea Life Park), was opened at the Ueno Zoo in 1882.
+
+== Public aquariums today ==
+
+Modern aquarium tanks can hold millions of litres of water and can house large species, including dolphins, sharks or beluga whales. This is accomplished through thick, clear acrylic glass windows. Aquatic and semiaquatic mammals, including otters and seals are often cared for at aquariums. Some establishments, such as the Oregon Coast Aquarium or the Florida Aquarium, have aquatic aviaries. Modern aquariums also include land animals and plants that spend time in or near the water.
+For marketing purposes, many aquariums promote special exhibits, in addition to their permanent collections. Some have aquatic versions of a petting zoo. The National Aquarium in Baltimore, Maryland houses several exhibits including the Upland Tropical Rain Forest and a multiple-story Atlantic Coral Reef. The Monterey Bay Aquarium has a shallow tank filled with common types of rays which visitors are encouraged to touch.  The South Carolina Aquarium lets visitors feed the rays in their Saltmarsh Aviary exhibit.
+The largest public aquarium is the Chimelong Ocean Kingdom theme park, opened in 2014 in Hengqin, Zhuhai, with a total of 48.75 million litres (12.87 million US gal) of water. The second largest is the Marine Life Park in southern Singapore with a total of 45 million litres (12 million US gal) of water for more than 100,000 marine animals of over 800 species.
+
+== Logistics ==
+
+Most public aquariums are located close to the ocean, for a steady supply of natural seawater. An inland pioneer was Chicago's Shedd Aquarium that received seawater shipped by rail in special tank cars. The early (1911) Philadelphia Aquarium, built in the city's disused water works, had to switch to treated city water when the nearby river became too contaminated. Similarly, the recently opened Georgia Aquarium filled its tanks with fresh water from the city water system and salinated its saltwater exhibits using the same commercial salt and mineral additives available to home aquarists. The South Carolina Aquarium pulls the salt water for their exhibits right out of the Charleston harbour.
+In January 1985, Kelly Tarlton began construction of the first aquarium to include a large transparent acrylic tunnel, Kelly Tarlton's Underwater World in Auckland, New Zealand. Construction took 10 months and cost NZ$3 million. The 110-metre (360 ft) tunnel was built from one-tonne (2,200-lb) slabs of German sheet plastic that were shaped locally in an oven. A moving walkway now transports visitors through, and groups of school children occasionally hold sleepovers there beneath the swimming sharks and rays.
+According to Samantha Muka, creating new public aquariums is an expensive process, that can become so expensive as to render the project economically unsustainable, due to the logistical demands of creating environments in which aquatic animals can survive.
+
+== Activities ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_aquarium-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Public aquarium"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_aquarium"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:13.560222+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Public aquariums are often affiliated with oceanographic research institutions or conduct their research programs, and sometimes specialise in species and ecosystems that can be found in local waters. For example, the Vancouver Aquarium in Vancouver, British Columbia, is a centre for marine research, conservation, and marine animal rehabilitation, particularly for the ecosystem of the Pacific Northwest. In 1964, the Vancouver Aquarium became the second aquarium to capture an orca, Moby Doll. He survived in captivity for just under three months, and the aquarium put him on display to the public for a day, but gave greater emphasis to groundbreaking scientific research. The aquarium also captured other orcas, belugas, narwhals and dolphins. The Monterey Bay Aquarium was the first public aquarium to display a great white shark. Beginning in September 2004, the Outer Bay exhibit (now the Open Sea galleries) was the home to the first in a series of great white sharks. The shark was at the aquarium for 198 days (the previous record was 16 days). The shark was released on 31 March 2005. The Adventure Aquarium in New Jersey has hippos. The Aquarium du Québec houses polar bears.
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+== See also ==
+List of aquaria by country
+Oceanarium
+Zoo
+Freshwater aquarium
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Norfolk, Howard. My Visit to the Freshwater Public Aquarium in Havana, Cuba, Aquarticles.com, January 2004, retrieved on: 22 June 2007
+Case Studies in Aquarium History
+Sao Paulo's Aquarium (Aquário de São Paulo) - Brazil
+Public aquariums in the United States
+A map of public aquaria around the world

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Life-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,123 @@
+---
+title: "Sea Life"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:14.681296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sea Life is a chain of commercial sea life-themed aquarium attractions. As of April 2017 there are 53 Sea Life attractions (including standalone Sea Life centres, mini Sea Life features within resort theme parks, and Legoland submarine rides) around the world. The chain is owned by the British company Merlin Entertainments.
+
+
+== History ==
+Some of the aquariums now called Sea Life predate this rebrand and existed under different designations prior to their consolidation. The original named attraction was Sea Life Centre in Oban, Scotland, which opened in 1979. By 1992, nine other Sea Life units were opened.
+
+
+== Locations ==
+
+
+=== North America ===
+
+
+==== United States ====
+Sea Life Legoland California
+Sea Life Arizona
+Sea Life at Mall of America
+Sea Life Caverns at Marine Life
+Sea Life Charlotte-Concord
+Sea Life Grapevine
+Sea Life Kansas City
+Sea Life Michigan
+Sea Life New Jersey
+Sea Life Orlando
+Sea Life San Antonio
+
+
+=== Europe ===
+
+
+==== United Kingdom ====
+
+Alton Towers Resort, Staffordshire, England - Sharkbait Reef by Sea Life
+Chessington World of Adventures, England - Chessington Sea Life Centre
+Cornish Seal Sanctuary, Gweek, England
+Legoland Windsor Resort, England - Atlantis Submarine Voyage
+National Sea Life Centre, Birmingham, England
+Sea Life Blackpool, Blackpool, England
+Sea Life Brighton, Brighton, England
+Sea Life Great Yarmouth, Great Yarmouth, England
+Sea Life Hunstanton, Hunstanton, England
+Sea Life Loch Lomond, Loch Lomond, Scotland
+Sea Life London Aquarium, London, England
+Sea Life Manchester, Manchester, England
+Sea Life Scarborough, Scarborough, England
+Sea Life Weymouth, Weymouth, England
+
+
+==== Germany ====
+
+Sea Life Hanover, Hanover
+Sea Life Konstanz, Konstanz
+Sea Life Munich, Munich
+Sea Life Oberhausen, Oberhausen, This is the largest Sea Life Centre in Germany. This was the home of Paul, the octopus who correctly predicted the German national football team's results at the world cup of 2010, until his death in October 2010.
+Sea Life Speyer, Speyer
+Sea Life Timmendorfer Strand, Timmendorfer Strand
+
+
+==== Others ====
+Gardaland, Italy
+Legoland Billund, Billund, Denmark
+Sea Life Benalmádena, Benalmádena, Spain
+Sea Life Blankenberge, Blankenberge, Belgium
+Sea Life Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
+Sea Life Paris, Paris, France
+Sea Life Porto, Porto, Portugal
+Sea Life Scheveningen, The Hague, Netherlands
+
+
+=== Asia ===
+In November 2015, Merlin Entertainments announced that over the next 10 years it would invest £50 million in India, some of which will be used to open Sea Life centres. In January 2017, Merlin Entertainments Indian subsidiary stated that it was in discussion with real estate firms to open Sea Life centres in multiple cities in India.
+
+Sea Life Bangkok, Thailand
+Sea Life Busan, South Korea
+Sea Life Nagoya, Japan
+Sea Life Malaysia, Malaysia
+Sea Life Shanghai, China
+Sea Life Sichuan, China (expected opening in 2024, as of 2021)
+
+
+=== Oceania ===
+Kelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium, Auckland, New Zealand
+Sea Life Melbourne, Australia
+Sea Life Sunshine Coast, Australia
+Sea Life Sydney, Australia
+
+
+==== Former sites ====
+Berlin
+Rhyl, Wales - Sea Life Rhyl - sold to  SeaQuarium chain, permanently closed in November 2023
+Cuxhaven
+Hastings, England - Sea Life Hastings - sold and now belongs to the Blue Reef Aquarium chain
+Jesolo Sea Life
+Tynemouth, England - tynemouth Sea Life centre - opened in 1994. In 1999 it was sold to Aspro Parks (Aspro Ocio Group) and now belongs to the Blue Reef Aquarium chain
+Oban, Scotland - Scottish Sea Life Sanctuary - closed in October 2018
+St Andrews, Scotland - sold and now operates as the St Andrews Aquarium
+Königswinter, Germany - closed in December 2022
+Weston-super-Mare, United Kingdom - sold to SeaQuarium Ltd which operated it until its closure in 2019
+Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland - closed in December 2023
+Manly, Australia - Manly Sea Life Sanctuary - Closed in January 2018
+Sea Life Istanbul, Turkey - Closed on 1 January 2025
+
+
+== Controversies ==
+Sea Life centres have been criticised over animal welfare, with the Marine Conservation Society calling a 30% per annum mortality rate "disturbing." The charity Freedom for Animals has criticised Sea Life over their conservation claims and also for the presence of beluga whales at attractions.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_tunnel-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Shark tunnel"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_tunnel"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:15.907169+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A shark tunnel (or aquarium tunnel, acrylic tunnel and exhibit tunnel) is an underwater tunnel that passes through an aquarium, typically with sharks and related aquatic life.
+They are usually made of thick acrylic glass. The first aquarium tunnel in the world was installed in 1985 at Kelly Tarlton's Underwater World in Auckland, New Zealand.
+Most aquarium tunnels are cylindrical in shape, though tunnels can be made elliptical (to make them wider and still keep the top of the tunnel closer to the visitors), or even square.
+
+
+== List of aquariums with shark tunnels ==
+This list is sorted alphabetically by aquarium name.
+
+† — Estimated based on top of tunnel being 4 ft (1.2 m) under the surface and 9 ft (2.7 m) to bottom of tunnel.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Ithaa, an underwater restaurant in the Maldives.
+List of Aquaria
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks_in_captivity-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+---
+title: "Sharks in captivity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks_in_captivity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:17.046548+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Several species of sharks are kept in captivity in public aquaria. In home aquaria, size constraints mean that only the smallest sharks are typically viable as pets.
+
+
+== Public aquaria ==
+Until recently only a few benthic species of shark, such as horn sharks, leopard sharks, catsharks, and zebra sharks, had survived in aquarium conditions for up to a year or more. This gave rise to the belief that sharks, as well as being difficult to capture and transport, were difficult to care for. A better knowledge of sharks has led to more species (including the large pelagic sharks) being able to be kept for far longer. At the same time, transportation techniques have improved and long distance movement of sharks is becoming easier. Several attempts to keep a great white shark in captivity have been made, but most specimens died or had to be released after a short time. One example, placed in the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Japan, only survived for three days.  The longest a great white was held in captivity was at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, in September 2004. A young female was kept in an outdoor tank for 198 days before releasing her back into the wild. In the following years, the Monterey Bay Aquarium hosted five more juvenile white sharks for temporary stays before ending its program in 2011.
+
+
+=== Behavior ===
+When introduced to their new habitat some mature sharks have refused food despite the abundance and variety of feeding methods used. 
+Sharks are usually seen to live a solitary existence, rarely moving about in group events, although, a tank could house up to four or five species during the same time period. 
+It has been commonly seen that lemon and nurse sharks occupy the bottom of the tank floor. Occasionally, they will take a swim no more than two or three feet off the bottom. Bull sharks, sandbar sharks, and sand tiger sharks continuously swim at mid-depth. Larger tiger sharks inhabit the upper region of the tank where their dorsal fin is breaking the surface frequently. 
+Swimming patterns seen from sharks in captivity are that of blacktip, bull, and lemon sharks being active 24 hours and those of sandbars, nurse and sand tigers being active at certain times of the day/night. However, within some aquaria this could be attributed to the different feeding times of these species. 
+In captivity, sandbar, sand tiger, and nurse sharks are predicted to be less aggressive in that no aggressive biting is seen after feeding. The foremost behavior observed from those in captivity was curiosity, reasonings being due to less competition for food and lack of stimulation.
+
+
+== Home aquaria ==
+
+Most species of shark are not suitable for domestic aquaria and not every species of shark sold by pet stores make good inhabitants for personal aquaria. Some species of sharks can also be kept well in home saltwater aquaria. Uninformed or unscrupulous dealers sometimes sell juvenile sharks like the nurse shark, which upon reaching adulthood will have far outgrown typical home aquaria. Public aquaria are generally not interested in accepting donated specimens that have overgrown their housing and some shark owners have been tempted to release them into the wild.
+
+
+=== Housings ===
+However, some species of shark can make prized additions to home aquaria. Species appropriate to home aquaria represent considerable spatial and financial investments as they generally approach adult lengths of 3 feet and can live up to 25 years. Sharks must be housed in aquaria at or exceeding 180 gallons in volume, with more active species requiring more space. Surface area is an even more significant consideration for aquarists than volume as it is the determining factor for the amount of oxygen that ends up being dissolved in the water, and therefore critical to the sharks' respiration. Choice of aquarium substrate is also important because a sharp, rough bed can irritate a shark's soft underbelly, or in severe cases lead to fatal infections. Shark aquaria are generally advised to be decorated "conservatively" in order to leave space for the animal to move more freely during daily activities. A cave, however, is often an appropriate addition for some shy species.
+
+
+=== Diet and nutrition ===
+Sharks are very frequently overfed by amateur aquarists, which can lead to obesity or unnaturally fast growth rates. Captive sharks are healthiest when fed at levels similar to their food intake in the wild. Usually this amounts to 1-3% of their body weight weekly. However, aquarium conditions and species disposition are considered by conscientious aquarists when feeding captive sharks. Relatively sedentary species, such as wobbegongs can live on feedings occurring once or twice weekly. More active species may require to be fed three or four times per week to maintain satisfactory health. Sharks living in cooler water have slower metabolisms than sharks in warmer water housings and therefore require less food.
+The most common staple food provided to captive sharks in home aquaria is frozen fish. The freezing process used to store foods for sharks often results in the food items losing nutrient value. Lost nutrients are replaced by vitamin supplements, which are marketed commercially, sometimes by companies generally associated with more typical pet foods (such as Purina Mills). Uncorrected nutrient deficiencies inherent in the frozen food diet can cause considerable detriment to the health of captive specimens. Conditions such as popeye, ascites, and anemia are known to occur in captive sharks that are deficient in some essential vitamin. Vitamin B deficiency results in a treatable condition where the shark's back arches and it swims in a circular motion.
+Feeding sharks frozen non-marine fish can result in deficiencies of omega-3 fatty acids, which can result in "fat infiltration of the liver," which can impede the organ's function seriously enough for major health issues.
+
+
+=== In community tanks ===
+Sometimes sharks are unwittingly put in harm's way when aquarists include potentially dangerous tankmates in the same aquarium. Hobbyists generally don't think of other fish being a threat to sharks, but triggerfish, angel fish, puffers, and wrasses can all injure them. A large grouper is capable of consuming smaller sharks. Sometimes docile bottom feeding sharks are put at risk because of the fish that feed on the ocean bottom, sedentary sharks are simply an extension of the substrate." Another problem aquarists keeping sharks with other types of fish have encountered is that the smaller, more passive aquarium-friendly shark species often have difficulty competing with their tankmates for the food provided by the aquarist. Sharks are predatory themselves and may maul or consume tankmates smaller or weaker than themselves.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Aquarium
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimp_mix-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Shrimp mix"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimp_mix"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:18.205899+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Shrimp mix, also known as European shrimp mix, is a frozen fish feed used for fish with special dietary requirements, e.g. Tropheus, which are difficult to maintain using normal fish feed. The basic version is intended for herbivorous fish and is made by blending equal amounts of whole shrimp and green peas to a smooth paste, adding a vitamin supplement, and using either agar-agar or gelatin as binder. There are numerous variants tailored to the specific needs of different species. Common variants replace part of the shrimp or peas with fish meat, spinach, spirulina, or mussel meat, goat heart, and add astaxanthin, ascorbic acid, or garlic.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Aquarium fish feed
+Commercial fish feed
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularity_Rising-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Singularity Rising"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularity_Rising"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:01.338115+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Singularity Rising: Surviving and Thriving in a Smarter, Richer, and More Dangerous World is a book by James D. Miller that covers a broad spectrum of topics associated with the technological singularity, including cognitive enhancement and AI.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Histories_of_Medicine-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Histories_of_Medicine"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:48:32.647654+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:04.844011+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Something_Big_Is_Happening-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Something Big Is Happening"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Something_Big_Is_Happening"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:07.182366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Something Big Is Happening" is an essay by Matt Shumer, an AI entrepreneur, about the impact of artificial intelligence, published in February 2026, that has since been reportedly viewed more than 80 million times and widely discussed. Shumer noted that the technology has crossed an important threshold, where AI has become capable of creating self-improving systems. Referring to one the most recent AI models, he wrote: "It was making intelligent decisions. It had something that felt, for the first time, like judgment. Like taste." Speaking to CNBC's Power Lunch, Shumer said that his "core message" is "people in the workforce should start to use and experiment with AI tools so they can understand what’s coming".  
+Even as the essay was widely shared and discussed, the essay also elicited criticism. Paulo Carvao, in an essay published by the Forbes Magazine stated that some of his advice is sound, but added: "It reads at times like a sales pitch. He urges readers to subscribe to the most advanced AI tools. He implies that those with access to premium models will outpace those without. He frames paid AI subscriptions as a form of insurance against obsolescence." Writing in The Guardian, Dan Milmo and Aisha Down mentioned Shumer as having a history of AI hype and stated, "He previously excited the internet by announcing the release of the world's "top open-source model", which it was not". Many workers in the technology sector criticized the article in blog posts shared on Hacker News; Edward Zitron commented that "while coding LLMs can test products, or scan/fix some bugs, this suggests they A) do this autonomously without human input, B) they do this correctly every time (or ever!)." In an article alluding to Shumer's original post, Ari Colaprete wrote "the LLM is fundamentally a writing machine, it does everything via text, and if you make it produce writing that exists purely to serve some sort of mechanical function, and you train it to succeed in that task, then it will tend to do so, even with vast intricacy."
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The February 9 2026 original essay by Matt Shumer on shumer.dev.
+The February 10 2026 popular post on X by Matt Shumer.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul,_Mind,_Body_Medicine-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Soul, Mind, Body Medicine"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul,_Mind,_Body_Medicine"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:08.390879+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Soul, Mind, Body Medicine: A Complete Soul Healing System for Optimum Health and Vitality is a self-help book written by spiritual healer Zhi Gang Sha which provides a controversial interpretation of Traditional Chinese medicine and quantum physics. Published in 2006, within three weeks of its release the book was placed in the top five of The New York Times Best Seller list.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Self-healing
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sump_(aquarium)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Sump (aquarium)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sump_(aquarium)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:19.377870+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In fishkeeping, a sump is an accessory aquarium tank in which mechanical equipment is kept. A remote sump allows for a clutter-free display tank.
+It is found mainly in a reef aquarium or marine aquarium. The sump sits below the main tank, and is used as a filter, as well as a holding place for unsightly, miscellaneous equipment such as protein skimmers, calcium reactors, and heaters. The main advantage of having a sump plumbed into an aquarium is the increase of water volume in the system, making it more stable and less prone to fluctuations of pH and salinity, and also mitigating the effects of nutrient buildup or the unintentional introduction of foreign substances. In addition, some sumps have a compartment that can be converted into a refugium, helping to filter out excess nutrients such as nitrates.
+A sump can also improve aeration of the water in the aquarium. Water movement between the sump and the display tank helps with gas exchange between the water and air. Increased dissolved oxygen is beneficial to fish and can also aid in avoiding Cyanobacteria outbreaks.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thank_God_for_Evolution-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Thank God for Evolution"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thank_God_for_Evolution"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:14.370816+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Thank God for Evolution is a book by Michael Dowd that argues for a marriage of science and religion within an evolutionary paradigm.
+It was published by Council Oak Books in November 2006 and acquired in spring 2007 by Viking Penguin. In the book and in his sermons, Dowd presents evolution as a sacred epic of emerging complexity that can be seen as "14 billion years of grace."
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sirens_of_Mars-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "The Sirens of Mars"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sirens_of_Mars"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:02.476736+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Sirens of Mars is a 2020 non-fiction book by Sarah Stewart Johnson, focused on the search for life on Mars.
+
+
+== Content and development ==
+The book combines elements of memoir from Johnson with the history and science of attempts to discover life on Mars. The book grew out of miscellaneous notes and observations written down by Johnson which she determined were valuable but not necessarily suitable for strictly scientific publications.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Kirkus Reviews referred to the book as a "...vivid, poetic account that leaves readers eager to see what's next in the quest to find extraterrestrial life." Hannah Wakeford, writing for BBC Sky at Night, suggested the book could have been improved with the addition of more maps and photographic material. She did, however, refer to it as "...a must-read for fans of our Martian neighbour".
+
+
+== See also ==
+The Sirens of Titan, a science fiction novel by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Solar_System_and_Back-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "The Solar System and Back"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Solar_System_and_Back"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:06.035170+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Solar System and Back (1970) is a collection of science essays by American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It is the seventh in a series of books reprinting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+"Nothing" (March 1959)
+"The First Metal" (December 1967)
+"The Seventh Metal" (January 1968)
+"The Predicted Metal" (February 1968)
+"The Seventh Planet" (March 1968)
+"The Dance of the Sun" (April 1968)
+"Backward, Turn Backward—" (May 1968)
+"Counting Chromosomes" (June 1968)
+"Little Lost Satellite" (July 1968)
+"The Terrible Lizards" (August 1968)
+"The Dying Lizards" (September 1968)
+"Little Found Satellite" (October 1968)
+"The Planetary Eccentric" (November 1968)
+"View from Amalthea" (December 1968)
+"The Dance of the Satellites" (January 1969)
+"Uncertain, Coy, and Hard to Please" (February 1969)
+"Just Right" (March 1969)
+"The Incredible Shrinking People" (April 1969)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Asimovonline.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stars_in_Their_Courses-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+---
+title: "The Stars in Their Courses"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stars_in_Their_Courses"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:10.765251+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Stars in Their Courses is a collection of seventeen scientific essays by American writer Isaac Asimov. It is the eighth in a series of books collecting his essays from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction (May 1969 to September 1970). Doubleday & Company first published the collection in 1971.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+Introduction
+Part A: Astronomy
+"The Stars in their Courses"
+"The Lop-sided Sun"
+"The Lunar Honor-roll"
+"Worlds in Confusion"
+Part B: Physics
+"Two at a Time"
+"On Throwing a Ball"
+"The Man Who Massed the Earth"
+"The Luxon Wall"
+"Playing the Game"
+"The Distance of Far"
+Part C: Chemistry
+"The Multiplying Elements"
+"Bridging the Gaps"
+"The Nobel Prize That Wasn't"
+Part D: Sociology
+"The Fateful Lightning"
+"The Sin of the Scientist"
+"The Power of Progression"
+"My Planet, 'tis of Thee—"
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Asimovonline.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Subatomic_Monster-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+---
+title: "The Subatomic Monster"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Subatomic_Monster"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:11.933532+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Subatomic Monster (1985) is a collection of seventeen nonfiction science essays  by American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It was the eighteenth of a series of books collecting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, these being first published between June 1983 and October 1984. It was first published by Doubleday & Company in 1985.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+"The Properties of Chaos" (June 1983)
+"Green, Green, Green is the Color ..." (July 1983)
+"What Truck?" (August 1983)
+"Where All the Sky is Sunshine" (September 1983)
+"Updating the Satellites" (October 1983)
+"More Thinking about Thinking" (November 1983)
+"Arm of the Giant" (December 1983)
+"The World of the Red Sun" (January 1984)
+"The Subatomic Monster" (February 1984)
+"Love Makes the World Go Round!" (March 1984)
+"E Pluribus Unum" (April 1984)
+"Up We Go" (May 1984)
+"The Two Masses" (June 1984)
+"The Victorious General" (July 1984)
+"Coming Full Circle" (August 1984)
+"The Different Years of Time" (September 1984)
+"The Different Years of the Universe" (October 1984)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Asimovonline.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun_Shines_Bright_(book)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+---
+title: "The Sun Shines Bright (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun_Shines_Bright_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:13.143819+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Sun Shines Bright is a collection of seventeen nonfiction science essays  by American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It was the fifteenth of a series of books collecting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction. It was first published by Doubleday & Company in 1981.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+The Sun
+Out, Damned Spot!
+The Sun Shines Bright
+The Noblest Metal of Them All
+The Stars
+How Little?
+Siriusly Speaking
+Below the Horizon
+The Planets
+Just Thirty Years
+The Moon
+A Long Day's Journey
+The Inconstant Moon
+The Elements
+The Useless Metal
+Neutrality!
+The Finger of God
+The Cell
+Clone, Clone of My Own
+The Scientists
+Alas, All Human
+The People
+The Unsecret Weapon
+More Crowded!
+Nice Guys Finish First!
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Dave Langford reviewed The Sun Shines Bright for White Dwarf #44, and stated that "Each essay presents some interesting insight or viewpoint, usually scientific; most of them, alas, are padded and smothered with great wads of facts, statistics and numbers in general, the result being relatively dull."
+
+
+== Reviews ==
+Review by David Langford [as by Dave Langford] (1983) in Paperback Inferno, Volume 7, Number 1
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Asimovonline.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_the_Moon-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+---
+title: "The Tragedy of the Moon"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_the_Moon"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:17.970709+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Tragedy of the Moon is a collection of seventeen nonfiction science essays  by American writer and scientist Isaac Asimov. It was the tenth of a series of books collecting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, these being first published between March 1972 and July 1973. It was first published by Doubleday & Company in 1973.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+A — About the Moon
+1 — The Tragedy of the Moon
+2 — The Triumph of the Moon
+3 — Moon Over Babylon
+4 — The Week Excuse
+B — About Other Small Worlds
+5 — The World Ceres
+6 — The Clock in the Sky
+C — About Carbon
+7 — The One and Only
+8 — The Unlikely Twins
+D — About Micro-organisms
+9 — Through The Microglass
+10 — Down From The Amoeba
+11 — The Cinderella Compound
+E — About the Thyroid Gland
+12 — Doctor, Doctor, Cut My Throat
+F — About Society
+13 — Lost in Non-Translation
+14 — The Ancient and the Ultimate
+15 — By The Numbers
+G — And (You Guessed It!) About Me
+16 — The Cruise And I (July 1973)
+17 — Academe And I
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Asimovonline.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_UFO_Files-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "The UFO Files"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_UFO_Files"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:21.562959+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The UFO Files: The Inside Story of Real-Life Sightings, published by The National Archives in 2009, is an official history of British UFO reports. 
+The author, David Clarke, is a senior lecturer in journalism at Sheffield Hallam University. The book delves into the United Kingdom's historical relationship with unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and the public's fascination with extraterrestrial phenomena.
+The book includes a detailed analysis of declassified UFO files from the Ministry of Defence, covering a period from the 1950s to the early 2000s. Topics include alleged UFO sightings, official investigations, and the Ministry of Defence evolving stance on the potential threat posed by UFOs. Notable cases, such as the Rendlesham Forest Incident and the Battle of Los Angeles, are explored within the context of public fear and Cold War paranoia.
+David Clarke frames this narrative with skepticism, adding emphasis on the role of social and cultural factors in shaping UFO myths. His work is grounded in journalism and archival research, drawing connections between UFO phenomena and broader issues like government transparency and public trust in official institutions.
+The book was published during an international wave of UFO document declassification, coinciding with similar efforts by the United States, Canada, and France. These actions were aimed to demystify UFO sightings and address the public's curiosity about government knowledge of extraterrestrial life.
+The UFO Files remains an important resource for researchers and enthusiasts interested in the history of UFOs in the UK. Its publication marked a turning point in the public's access to previously classified government documents on the subject.
+The book forms part of an international programme of declassification of UFO documents. Clarke has worked at The National Archives as a consultant on this subject since 2008.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Torres, Luc (30 April 2018). "Looking back: UFOs |". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
+Denzler, Brenda (2001). The Lure of the Edge: Scientific Passions, Religious Beliefs, and the Pursuit of UFOs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93027-8.
+Harte, Jeremy (2011). "The UFO Files: The Inside Story of Real-life Sightings". Folklore. 122 (2): 225–226. doi:10.1080/0015587X.2011.570548. ISSN 0015-587X.
+Library of Congress Science, Technology (1991). Unidentified flying objects (UFOs). LC science tracer bullet ; TB 91-1. Washington, D.C: Science Reference Services, Science, Technology & Business Division, Library of Congress.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Newly released UFO files from the UK government at The National Archives, including a podcast and other material by the author. Retrieved 2011-03-30.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ultimate_Experiment-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ultimate_Experiment"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:37:52.543867+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:22.800343+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_as_I_See_It_(book)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "The World as I See It (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_as_I_See_It_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:32.391882+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The World as I See It is a book by Albert Einstein translated from the German by A. Harris and published in 1935 by John Lane The Bodley Head (London). The original German book is Mein Weltbild by Albert Einstein, first published in 1934 by Rudolf Kayser, with an essential extended edition published by Carl Seelig in 1954. Composed of assorted articles, addresses, letters, interviews and pronouncements, it includes Einstein's opinions on the meaning of life, ethics, science, society, religion, and politics.
+
+According to the preface of the first English edition, Albert Einstein believes in humanity, in a peaceful world of mutual helpfulness, and in the high mission of science. This book is intended as a plea for this belief at a time which compels every one of us to overhaul his mental attitude and his ideas.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The World as I See It preview on Google Books
+Essay "The World as I See It"
+Essay "Religion and Science"
+ISBN 978-0806527901

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_Science"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:20:26.891421+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:33.588986+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Be_a_Machine-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+---
+title: "To Be a Machine"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Be_a_Machine"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:15.559417+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+To Be a Machine: Adventures Among Cyborgs, Utopians, Hackers, and the Futurists Solving the Modest Problem of Death is a 2017 nonfiction book by Slate columnist and literary journalist Mark O'Connell, his debut work. Published by Granta, the book is a breezy, but skeptical, gonzo-journalistic tour of transhumanism and radical life extension. It chronicles O'Connell's travels around the world to interview prominent transhumanists.
+
+
+== Description ==
+Interviewees range from mainstream figures, such as computer scientist Stuart J. Russell, to more colorful individuals, such as Zoltan Istvan, who ran for the American Presidency on the "Immortality Ticket". Much of the book focuses on radical life extension (the desire to engineer immortality); in addition, O'Connell visits a group of "grinders" in Pittsburgh who surgically implant sensors into themselves.
+O'Connell makes it clear that he personally chooses to reject transhumanist philosophy, stating that his child playing horsy with his wife could not be "rendered in code... Their beauty was bodily, in the most profound sense, in the saddest and most wonderful sense." The book also examines existential risk from artificial general intelligence, the fear that superintelligent machines will destroy the human race. An oversimplified example would be a machine that is asked to eliminate human cancer, and does so by eliminating all humans.
+In the book's conclusion, O'Connell declines to offer any predictions about whether the hopes or fears of the transhumanists will come to pass, instead stating: "I have seen the present, and the present is strange enough to be getting along with: filled with strange people, strange ideas, strange machines."
+To Be a Machine was described by Publishers Weekly as "a stimulating overview of modern scientific realities once thought to be the exclusive purview of science fiction" and in The New York Times review it was characterised as "a wonderful, breezy romp filled with the beginnings of philosophical reflections on the meaning of the techno-utopians’ search for immortality, or as O’Connell puts it, 'solving death.'"
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+To Be a Machine (author interview by bookseller) on YouTube

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrowland_(book)-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrowland_(book)"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:41:58.750154+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:16.791880+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_pool-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Touch pool"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_pool"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:20.584288+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A touch pool or touch tank is a type of aquarium attraction in public aquariums where members of the public, especially young people, are allowed to touch the wildlife within the tanks. Tanks will be stocked with species which are not dangerous to touch to provide an opportunity for individuals to learn more about those species. These can include species like blue crabs, hermit crabs, stone crabs, sea snails and even anemones. Tanks are good for discussion and learning opportunities for children and family, helping with ecological education and understanding of ecosystems.
+Typical species in installations include rays, catsharks, flatfish, starfish, sea urchins, crabs, mollusks and other shellfish.
+Touch pools have been critiqued for how sanitary they are: humans are often touching the protective mucus of the fish and other wildlife in the tank, leading to potential health complications. Other critiques include  the quality of life for the organisms in the tank, and the lack of mimicry of real aquatic environments. Other researchers have evaluated the elevated risk of health impacts for humans who interact with the animals, through potential health concerns.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Shark tunnel
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_Documentation-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Traité de Documentation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_Documentation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:19.153786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Traité de documentation: le livre sur le livre, théorie et pratique is a landmark book by Belgian author Paul Otlet, first published in 1934.
+
+
+== Legacy ==
+The book is considered a landmark in the history of information science, with concepts predicting the rise of the World Wide Web and search engines.
+
+In [Otlet's] most famous publication of 1934, Traité de Documentation, he wrote of a desk in the form of a wheel from which different projects (workspaces) could be switched as they rotated — foreshadowing the multiple desktops and tabs of contemporary computer interfaces. Inspired by the arrival of radio, phonograph, cinema, and television, Otlet also posited that there were as yet many “inventions to be discovered,” including the reading and annotation of remote documents and computer speech.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Mundaneum
+Traité de documentation on Wikisource.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Traité de documentation at the Internet Archive
+Paul Otlet, Pioneer of Information Management
+Traité de documentation : le livre sur le livre, théorie et pratique at Google Books
+Internet Dreamers: Paul Otlet
+“The Web That Wasn’t” and “Augmenting Human Intellect”
+Internet Visionary Paul Otlet: Networked Knowledge, Decades Before Google

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_fish-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+---
+title: "Tropical fish"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_fish"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:21.777597+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Tropical fish are fish found in aquatic tropical environments around the world. Fishkeepers often keep tropical fish in freshwater and saltwater aquariums. The term "tropical fish" is not a taxonomic group, but rather is a general term for fish found in such environments, particularly those kept in aquariums.
+
+
+== Aquarium fish ==
+Tropical fish is a term commonly used to refer to fish that are kept in heated aquariums. Freshwater tropical fish are more commonly kept than saltwater tropical fish due to the common availability of fresh water sources, such as tap water, whereas salt water is not commonly available and has to be recreated by using fresh water with sea salt additions. Salt water has to be monitored to maintain the correct salinity because of the effects of evaporation. Freshwater tropical aquariums can be maintained by simply topping up with fresh water.
+Tropical fish are popular choices for aquariums due to their often bright coloration, which typically derives from both pigmented cells and iridescent cells. Tropical fish may include wild-caught specimens, individuals born in captivity including lines selectively bred for special physical features, such as long fins, or particular colorations, such as albino. Some fish may be hybrids of more than one species.
+
+
+== Freshwater tropical fish ==
+Most fish that are sold as tropical fish are freshwater species. Most species available are generally bred from fish farms in Asia and Florida where tropical temperatures make the commercial production more viable. Mass production of tropical fish from farms has led to many inexpensive fish available to aquarists. Tropical freshwater fish are the most popular group of fish because of the low price and ease of keeping in aquaria. Some species are difficult to breed in captivity and so are still sourced from the wild. These species are generally more expensive. Among the bred-in-captivity species, the most expensive freshwater species include arowanas and flowerhorn cichlids. Some male flowerhorns are sterile due to many cross breedings.
+
+
+== Saltwater tropical fish ==
+Marine fish that are sold as tropical fish are generally sourced from the wild, usually from the coral reefs around the world. This is because only a few species of marine fish have been successfully bred in captivity with any regularity. The price of marine fish coupled with the difficulty in keeping them alive in aquaria makes them less of a popular choice for aquarists to keep. However, because of the more vivid colours, patterns and behaviour of marine fish compared to freshwater fish, they are still reasonably popular. The advances in filtration technology and increase in available knowledge on how to maintain marine fish as well as the increasing number of aquarium-bred species is seeing a gradual rise in their popularity.
+
+
+== Coral reef tropical fish ==
+Many marine tropical fish, particularly those of interest to fishkeepers, are those that live among or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among ocean inhabitants, tropical fish stand out as particularly colorful. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs.
+Some recreational scuba divers keep lists of fish species they have observed while diving, especially in tropical marine environments.
+Coral reefs occupy less than 1% of the surface area of the world oceans, yet they provide a home for 25% of all marine fish species. Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99% of the world's oceans.
+However, loss and degradation of coral reef habitat, increasing pollution, and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices, are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrocinium_Chymicum-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrocinium_Chymicum"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:35.072682+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:20.364378+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nostrand's_Scientific_Encyclopedia-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nostrand's_Scientific_Encyclopedia"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:29:40.443378+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:24.038955+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_from_a_Height-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_from_a_Height"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:20:14.969421+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:25.280173+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Worldviews-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "War of the Worldviews"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Worldviews"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:26.426054+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+War of the Worldviews: Science vs. Spirituality is a book written by Deepak Chopra and Leonard Mlodinow, which was published in 2011, and is a debate between views on science and spirituality.
+
+
+== Premise ==
+The book is written as a series of  essays by each author on a mutually-agreed-upon list of 18 questions. The science worldview is represented by Mlodinow and the spirituality worldview is represented by Chopra. Each presents his side which is followed by the other person's rebuttal.
+
+
+== Overall ==
+Mlodinow suggests that "the universe operates according to laws of physics while acknowledging that science does not address why the laws exist or how they arise". Chopra says that "the laws of nature as well as mathematics share the same source as human consciousness".
+
+
+== See also ==
+The Tao of Physics
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner's_Nomenclature_of_Colours-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner's_Nomenclature_of_Colours"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:46.071082+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:27.601885+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_This_Thing_Called_Science-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "What Is This Thing Called Science?"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_This_Thing_Called_Science?"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:28.772373+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+What Is This Thing Called Science? (1976) is a  best-selling  textbook by Alan Chalmers. 
+
+
+== Overview ==
+The book is a guide to the philosophy of science which outlines the shortcomings of naive empiricist accounts of science, and describes and assesses modern attempts to replace them.  The book is written with minimal use of technical terms. What Is This Thing Called Science? was first published in 1976, and has been translated into many languages.
+
+
+== Editions ==
+What Is This Thing Called Science?, Queensland University Press and Open University Press, 1976, pp. 157 + xvii. (Translated into German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish and Chinese.)
+What Is This Thing Called Science?, Queensland University Press, Open University Press and Hackett, 2nd revised edition (6 new chapters), 1982, pp. 179 + xix. (Translated into German, Persian, French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Chinese, Japanese, Indonesian, Portuguese, Polish and Danish, Greek and Estonian.)
+What Is This Thing Called Science?, University of Queensland Press, Open University press, 3rd revised edition, Hackett, 1999. (Translated into Korean.)
+What Is This Thing Called Science?, University of Queensland Press, Open University press, 4th edition, 2013.
+
+
+== See also ==
+The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, by Thomas Kuhn
+The Logic of Scientific Discovery, by Karl Popper
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Review of What is this Thing Called Science?
+Deborah G. Mayo: Review of the third edition of What is this Thing Called Science? in the newsletter of the Australasian Society for the History, Philosophy and Social Studies of Science (AAHPSSS), 2000.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewash_(book)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Whitewash (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewash_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:30.010551+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Whitewash: The Story of a Weed Killer, Cancer, and the Corruption of Science is a 2017 non-fiction book by American investigative journalist, and former senior Reuters correspondent, Carey Gillam. It was published October 10, 2017 by Island Press, a nonprofit, environmental publisher. Whitewash details how corporate interests influence the science behind American agriculture, allowing the potentially cancer-causing Monsanto herbicide glyphosate to be used liberally throughout the industry. The book contains accounts from farm families with cancers they believe were caused by glyphosate, and scientists whose reputations were impugned for publishing writings that challenged "business interests".
+Whitewash won the 2018 Rachel Carson Book Award from the Society of Environmental Journalists as well as "Outstanding Book of the Year" from the Independent Publisher Book Awards 2018. It has been translated into Dutch and into Chinese for publication in Taiwan.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Nap-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Why We Nap"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Nap"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:31.270429+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Why We Nap: Evolution, Chronobiology, and Functions of Polyphasic and Ultrashort Sleep is a 1992 book edited by Claudio Stampi, sole proprietor of the Chronobiology Research Institute. It is frequently mentioned by "polyphasic sleepers", as it is one of the few published books about the subject of systematic short napping in extreme situations where consolidated sleep is not possible.
+According to the book, in a sleep deprived condition, measurements of a polyphasic sleeper's memory retention and analytical ability show increases as compared with monophasic and biphasic sleep (but still a decrease of 12% as compared with free running sleep). According to Stampi, the improvement is due to an extraordinary evolutionary predisposition to adopt such a sleep schedule; he hypothesizes this is possibly because polyphasic sleep was the preferred schedule of ancestors of the human race for thousands of years prior to the adoption of the monophasic schedule.
+According to EEG measurements collected by Dr. Stampi during a 50-day trial of polyphasic ultrashort sleep with a test subject and published in his book Why We Nap, the proportion of sleep stages remains roughly the same during both polyphasic and monophasic sleep schedules.  The major differences are that the ratio of lighter sleep stages to deeper sleep stages is slightly reduced and that sleep stages are often taken out of order or not at all, that is, some naps may be composed primarily of slow wave sleep while rapid eye movement sleep dominates other naps.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Why We Nap". Polyphasing. Quotes. Jan 2006. Archived from the original on 2023-07-13. Retrieved 2008-03-31.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Stands_for_Unknown-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+---
+title: "X Stands for Unknown"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Stands_for_Unknown"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:00:34.748304+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+'X' Stands for Unknown is a collection of seventeen nonfiction science essays written by Isaac Asimov. It was the seventeenth of a series of books collecting essays from The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, these being first published between January 1982 and May 1983. It was first published by Doubleday & Company in 1984.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+Physics
+1 Read Out Your Good Book in Verse (May 1982)
+2 Four Hundred Octaves (June 1982)
+3 The Three Who Died Too Soon (July 1982)
+4 X Stands for Unknown (August 1982)
+Chemistry
+5 Big Brother (September 1982)
+6 Bread and Stone (October 1982)
+7 A Difference of an 'E' (November 1982)
+8 Silicon Life After All (December 1982)
+Astronomy
+9 The Long Ellipse (January 1982)
+10 Change of Time and State (April 1982)
+11 Whatzisname's Orbit (March 1982)
+12 Ready and Waiting (February 1983)
+13 Dead Centre (April 1983)
+14 Out in the Boondocks (May 1983)
+Mathematics
+15 To Ungild Refinèd Gold (January 1983)
+16 The Circle of the Earth (February 1982)
+17 The Armies of the Night (March 1983)
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Dave Langford reviewed X Stands for Unknown for White Dwarf #79, and stated that "If you're scientifically literate you'll find the interesting bits buried in over-familiar stuff (though I always cheer Asimov when he stomps the crackpots). If not, you probably don't read books like this. That's showbiz."
+
+
+== Reviews ==
+Review by Edward James (1985) in Paperback Inferno, #55
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Asimovonline.com
+'X' Stands For Unknown at goodreads.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Yukon Harbor orca capture operation"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:22.959418+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Yukon Harbor orca capture operation was the first planned, deliberate trapping of a large group of orcas (killer whales). 15 southern resident orcas were trapped by Ted Griffin and his Seattle Public Aquarium party on February 15, 1967, in Yukon Harbor on the west side of Puget Sound, in the northwest United States. The first four orcas that had been taken into captivity had been captured singly, and mostly opportunistically. Those four were named Wanda, Moby Doll, Namu, and Shamu—who was then the only surviving one. Through them, public interest in orcas had escalated.
+The Yukon Harbor operation initiated the "peak cropping years" of the orca capture era in the Salish Sea, when large numbers of resident orcas were captured for sale. This occurred just at the time when the global whaling industry was beginning to become problematic in its viability and in social history.
+By 1967, there had been a score of attempts to capture orcas by various organizations. All of the deliberate attempts had failed, except for Ted Griffin's capture of Shamu. Many of the capture attempts had resulted in the deaths of orcas. Griffin's project was born of experiential knowledge combined with the geographical advantages of Puget Sound. His wealth of experiences led to preparations of unique equipment and methods in order to realize the deliberate capture of multiple orcas. Nonetheless, the operation would be plagued with difficulties and vicissitudes. In particular, herding and corralling the orcas (akin to dolphin drive hunting) for transfer from Yukon Harbor, where 15 were trapped, to the aquarium in Seattle proved to be a long and dramatic, 17-day process, reported daily in The Seattle Times.
+Five young southern resident orcas were taken into captivity. Three of them were infants, 11-foot (3.4 m) or less. The names eventually given to the five were Kilroy, Ramu, Katy, Kandu, and Walter the Whale—later renamed Skana. The death toll was 3 orcas, Griffin's highest besides that of the 1970 Penn Cove operation. Two orcas managed to escape from the capture nets. They were thought to be the mothers of lost calves. The remaining five orcas were released at the end of the operation.
+
+== 1967 historical background ==
+
+=== Legal situation of orcas ===
+In the US, the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966 resulted in the listing for preservation of "once-vilified predators such as the timber wolf and grizzly bear," and some marine mammal species. The fate of cetaceans, however, was left to the IWC (International Whaling Commission). To be sure, as a species the orca was not endangered. It was also considered a dangerous pest. It preyed on fish, seals, and whales, all of which were seen as valuable resources for humans.
+
+=== Whaling in the Pacific Northwest ===
+"Whale stocks were crashing," leading to "the IWC's banning of the harvest of humpbacks and blue whales in the North Pacific." Whaling in British Columbia waters was becoming unprofitable because of low whale numbers, and competition from other products in the oil, meal, and meat markets. The province's only whaling company, the Western Canada Whaling Co., "was half owned by B.C. Packers Ltd. and half by Taiyo Gyogyo Fishing Co. of Japan, the largest fishing company in the world" (since incorporated into Clover Leaf Seafoods and Maruha Nichiro respectively). The Western Canada Whaling Company operated a shore whaling station at Coal Harbour on northwest Vancouver Island. Its fleet's range was limited to 200 miles (320 kilometres), because it did not have the factory ships that allowed the Russian and Japanese fleets to operate far from their base, going "wherever the schools are most numerous." The B.C. whaling fleet's "total catch of all species" was 651 in 1966, and 496 in 1967. "The sei catch showed the heaviest decline" that year, from 350 to 89. The other species caught were 304 sperm and 103 fin whales. The Coal Harbour whaling station closed after this "disappointing harvest."
+Harming whales was beginning to become more controversial in North America. Just a week before the Yukon Harbor capture operation, the death in Newfoundland of a trapped fin whale called Moby Joe was lamented by Farley Mowat. The incident would be the subject of his 1972 book A Whale for the Killing, which would be inspirational for Greenpeace activist and orca scientist Paul Spong, whose life would be deeply affected by his relationship with Skana, who was captured in Yukon Harbor.
+
+=== Namu's legacy ===
+Following the death of Namu, Shamu was the only remaining orca in captivity. Namu had made Ted Griffin a local hero, as exemplified in a summary in The Seattle Times: "Namu lived in captivity about a year, after being towed from the British Columbia wilderness in a daring expedition that caught the attention of the world. Griffin managed to tame Namu to the point where the big killer whale permitted his owner to ride him bareback and performed several tricks. Shortly before he died, Namu was featured in a Hollywood motion picture."
+He had also put Griffin into debt. Griffin expressed mixed feelings when Namu died, saying he wished Namu had succeeded in a supposed "break for freedom" which had resulted in his death. The necropsy actually evidenced that he had been ill with an "acute bacterial infection, likely contracted from sewage runoff in Elliott Bay" where Griffin had moved him.
+Nevertheless, thousands of local fans wanted Griffin to get another orca. Aquariums all over the world also wanted Griffin to capture an orca for them. His most immediate orders would come from SeaWorld San Diego, and Portland, Oregon Boat Show producer Bob O'Loughlin, who had tried to capture orcas at Seattle even before the captivity of Moby Doll in 1964.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Yukon Harbor orca capture operation"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:22.959418+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Namu, Inc. ===
+Demand for captive orcas was not lacking, but supply was very problematic. Out of a score of deliberate capture attempts up until then, only the one which had caught Shamu had been successful. And a regular hazard of attempting to collect for aquariums was the death of animals. It appeared, however, that if anyone could catch an orca, it was Ted Griffin. "Namu, Inc., initially founded to control marketing and merchandising for the world's only captive orca, became the whale-catching arm of the Seattle Marine Aquarium" which he owned.
+
+== Griffin's preparations ==
+
+=== The project ===
+In the late summer of 1966, Ted Griffin was planning not only to find a replacement for Namu at his Seattle Public Aquarium, but also to fill orders from other enterprises. Few, if any, other humans had spent as much time observing and obsessively chasing orcas. Many years of experience had left him painfully aware of how difficult it was to catch an orca alive. It had been done deliberately only once—by himself.
+Yet during the fall salmon run when Tacoma waters "teemed with the huge mammals" which "romped to the delight of shoreline spectators," Griffin himself did not appear to be interested in catching an orca at that time. To be sure, Tacoma Park District officials, who had investigated "the feasibility of a killer whale for Tacoma," decided that "pens and whale food are too expensive." Seattle Marine Aquarium director Don Goldsberry, Griffin's assistant and a Tacoma native, said that the aquarium preferred to "wait until the spring to avoid the high cost of winter upkeep," even though during the fall salmon run was "the best time of year to hunt" the mammals. He also hinted at the aquarium's planning, saying, "We don't have enough equipment. Most of our gear soon will be coming in from the East."
+
+=== Equipment ===
+The essential issue was always that for the operation to be successful, the orcas had to stay alive. It was not like whaling, hunting, or fishing. Intriguingly, the orcas were spooked by nets, in spite of their agility. Because they had to surface to breathe, they drowned if they became entangled underwater.
+The plan was to surround them with an unusually large seine net, to trap them while avoiding entanglement. The net would not be cinched together like a normal purse seine. Instead, it would be anchored to the seafloor in a shallow bay. Furthermore, the light nylon mesh was supposed to tear if the orcas collided with it. An ongoing problem was the big tides and heavy currents of the Puget Sound area, which could cause the netting to shift. At least three times previously, that had led to escapes.
+Keeping track of the orcas when chasing them was another difficulty. They could dive into underwater darkness and give no indication of their underwater direction. The solution to this came via a Greener harpoon gun.
+This rifle was suggested and lent to Ted Griffin by the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory, a little-known section of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. "Located on the Sand Point Naval Air Station near the University of Washington, the lab was the only facility in North America devoted exclusively to the study of marine mammals. But its research focused on their commercial use. The lab’s primary mandate was managing the northern fur seal population, which migrated annually to the rookeries on Alaska’s Pribilof Islands...Funded largely by the seal hunt, the lab’s researchers supervised the annual slaughter of nearly eighty thousand animals, whose hides and meat came to Seattle for processing."
+Their theory behind Griffin's potential use of the Greener rifle was that the harpoon it fired would be too light to penetrate the blubber of a large orca and cause serious injury. Griffin would use it to attach a line with buoys to a orca. As the local orcas always stuck together in large pods, the buoys trailing behind a harpooned individual would make it possible to track a number of them.
+Crucially, to enable Griffin to spot and fire upon the fast and elusive animals, he had aircraft available "supplied by Lake Union Air Service and Seattle Helicopter Airways."
+
+=== Location ===
+Puget Sound, with all its islands, narrow waterways and shallow bays, was ideal for spotting and trapping orcas, which came as far south as Olympia. To initially find the orcas, Ted Griffin created a spotting network and appealed to the public for information, saying that the aquarium would accept collect calls with sightings.
+
+== Southern residents hunted ==
+At the start of 1967, Ted Griffin, director of the Seattle Public Aquarium on Pier 56, began actively searching for a replacement for Namu, who had died the previous July. He said, "The hottest area for killer whales at present would be the channel between Possession Point [on Whidbey Island] and Point No Point," and he asked people around Puget Sound to phone him collect when they sighted them. Throughout January, he "received dozens of phone calls" about a group of southern resident orcas there "living on the big blackmouth."
+On Saturday January 28, a call to The Seattle Times from a woman who spotted the orcas between nearby West Seattle and Vashon Island set off a hunt by Griffin's party. They picked up the orcas off Point Robinson in the afternoon, and followed them all night, but on the Sunday, in a winter storm with 70 mile-an-hour (113 kph) gusts, they lost them. On Monday morning, "they received a call from the Fauntleroy Ferry Terminal that the whales had been sighted again." They "went after them," then definitively lost them near the Agate Pass Bridge.
+
+== Yukon Harbor capture ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: "Yukon Harbor orca capture operation"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:22.959418+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== The trap ===
+Ted Griffin had lost track of the southern resident orcas in January, but on February 14 he was notified "by the Coast Guard that killer whales had been spotted at Port Angeles, Washington, headed" towards Puget Sound. When they were sighted there on the 15th, he boarded a helicopter, carrying the Greener harpoon rifle with buoys attached to the line.
+"Griffin's opportunity came when a female and her calf surfaced beneath the helicopter, prompting an adult male to push them back underwater. 'Did you see that?' Griffin yelled to the pilot. 'He's protecting them!' The aquarium owner then fired his harpoon into the bull's right flank." In the following hours, his team on the water "used the three trailing buoys to track the pod."
+
+ While north bound along the east coast of Vashon Island, the 30 or more orcas split into three groups. In a sheltered cove named Yukon Harbor on the Kitsap Peninsula south of Bainbridge Island, over depths ranging from 42 to 84 feet (13 to 26 metres), the fishing vessel Chinook laid out its 3,960-foot-long (1,210 m) modified seine net. According to a later count, 15 orcas were in a group that was pressed toward it using two boats while the seine was rapidly closed in a circle, trapping the orcas. (15 was the final count, whereas early estimates were lower, due to the orcas not all being at the surface at the same time.) The 15 trapped orcas were probably all from K Pod, an ongoing social unit of the southern residents. The page 1 photograph in The Seattle Times shows five of the southern residents surrounded by the net.
+This was the first time orcas had been trapped in this manner. From their echolocation, they would have known that the net surrounding them underwater was a dangerous physical barrier. And although it did not appear above the surface when they spy-hopped, they apparently judged they could not safely jump over the top of nets. Instead they would try to dive under them, or find a passage through them.
+A great danger to the whales' health came when a navy destroyer passed emitting powerful sonar sounds. They shrieked and breached repeatedly during the disturbance.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation-3.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Yukon Harbor orca capture operation"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_Harbor_orca_capture_operation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:01:22.959418+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Orcas being herded ===
+ February 15 had ended with a large number of southern resident orcas trapped inside a seine net, but "no one had ever attempted to sort and separate killer whales." Also, "while locals would pay to see a killer whale perform at Pier 56, they were less eager to witness a capture right in front of them." Many difficult days followed, as Ted Griffin and his party sought to corral the right orcas into smaller holding pens. "In the past several killer whales [had] been lost during this transfer." Griffin's chief assistant Don Goldsberry explained that they were targeting "whales between 13 and 16 feet (4.0 and 4.9 metres) because those are the ideal size for training or working with for scientific purposes." To the surprise of the Seattle Times reporter, "In a strange saga of the sea, Seattle's modern-day Ahab" was going to throw the big ones back, including a reportedly 30-foot (9.1-metre) bull. The Seattle Times took an especial interest in the problems of this phase of the capture operation, publishing daily reports.
+Griffin's first goal was to deliver an orca to the Portland Boat Show at the Portland Memorial Coliseum, which opened February 17. Bob O'Loughlin, who was producing the show, had been building a tank for the orca. The first attempt to drive selected orcas into a smaller, 80-by-80-foot (24-by-24-metre) holding pen failed however when they broke through the leader net being used to tighten their space.
+Griffin's team pieced together a new net using Navy surplus steel netting manufactured during the Second World War to seal off harbors from enemy submarines. The pen used to hold Namu had also utilized this steel netting. The new net was 1,200 feet (370 metres) long and 50–60 feet (15–18 metres) deep. The orcas "found their world even more restricted" on February 19 when Griffin's divers deployed the steel net within the 3,960-foot (1,210-metre) seine net, and corraled the orcas into the smaller net.
+While the Portland Boat Show was still waiting for one of the orcas, Bob O'Loughlin's children decided on the name to be given to the orca—"Walter the Whale."
+Six or seven orcas swam into the 80-by-80-foot (24-by-24-metre) holding pen on the 21st, but got out again, leaving the gate at its mouth needing repairs.
+February 22 brought a night-time drama. Two orcas had been trapped in the holding pen, which was towed closer to shore in order to transfer one to a tank truck for the trip to Portland. The Seattle Times described the incident on page one: "A 13-foot (4.0-metre) female...got a fin caught in the net...then, in a fight to get loose, wrapped herself completely in the net. The whale drowned shortly before midnight under about six feet (1.8 metres) of water." "As Griffin attempted to free the whale wrapped in the net under water, the second began darting around and also got caught in the net, Griffin said," but she managed to escape. Rather than fleeing, she immediately returned rapidly to the other orcas, and began "swimming around the outside of the net." The free orca was photographed there the following day, "squeaking" at the orcas trapped within the submarine net. She had seen a young relative, possibly her own child, die. The dead orca was turned over to the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service for studies before being rendered.
+After the orcas remained trapped in Yukon Harbor for a week, Griffin began feeding the pod 200 pounds (91 kilograms) of salmon daily.
+A controversy characteristic of the times erupted around the chairman of the University of Washington pharmacology department over his suggestion that LSD experiments could be conducted on the orcas, as a comparison with those on other dolphin species and elephants, but there is no evidence they took place.
+
+ After repairing the holding pen again, Griffin and his assistants finally, on the 24th, nine days after the start of the operation, secured their first captive, but not without further incident. This orca, transferred across Puget Sound aboard the seiner Chinook to Griffin's Pier 56 aquarium in Seattle, was "a nine-foot (2.7-metre) suckling calf," estimated to be "seven to eight months old." "The young whale's mother, a 16-footer (4.9 meters long), got tangled in Griffin's holding pen during the capture attempt. She was cut loose and released." Rather than fleeing, she joined the other free orca still swimming around the outside of the submarine net.
+By this time, Griffin had concluded that "his plans to provide a rental whale for the Portland Boat, Sports and Trailer Show" were dead.
+A second orca, a 13-foot (4.0-metre) male, was taken to the Seattle Public Aquarium on the 25th.
+These two orcas would be sold to San Diego's SeaWorld and named Kilroy (who was the calf) and Ramu.