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On 29 March 1974 Mariner 10 became the first spacecraft to fly by Mercury, that saw a spacecraft for the first and last time in the 20th century.
== Orbital launches ==
== Suborbital launches ==
== Deep Space Rendezvous ==
== EVAs ==
== References ==
=== Footnotes ===

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In 1975, several notable events occurred in spaceflight, including the launches of Venera 9 and 10 and their Venus arrivals, the launches of the Viking Mars missions, the joint American-Soviet Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), the failure of Soyuz 7K-T 39, and the launch of Aryabhatta, India's first satellite.
The Venera 9 mission was launched 8 June 1975 and on 20 October 1975 became the first spacecraft to orbit Venus; two days later its lander returned the first images from the surface of any planet (other than Earth).
Venera 10 was launched on 14 June 1975; it entered orbit of Venus on 23 October 1975 and its lander arrived on the surface of Venus on 25 October 1975. Both Venera 9 and Venera 10 returned various scientific observations of Venus and black-and-white television pictures from the planet's surface.
Viking 1 was launched on 20 August 1975 and Viking 2 was launched 9 September 1975. This orbiter/lander mission was to photograph the surface of Mars in 1976.
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was a collaboration between the United States and the Soviet Union that saw an end to the space race. The mission was launched on 15 July 1975, with the Soyuz returning on 21 July and Apollo on 24 July.
On 5 April, Soyuz 7K-T 39 aborted after the second and third stages failed to separate, with the crew pulling over 21 g on a ballistic reentry.
On 19 April, the first Indian satellite, Aryabhatta, was launched on a Soviet Kosmos-3M.
== Launches ==
== Deep space rendezvous ==
== EVAs ==
== References ==
=== Footnotes ===

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The Aitym Formation is a geological formation in Uzbekistan which possibly dates to the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous period.
The formation has not been precisely dated. However, certain fossils suggest the formation was deposited during the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous period.
== Fossil content ==
A diverse fauna has been unearthed from the Aitym Formation including oysters, ammonites and many marine vertebrates, including an abundant assemblage of chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fish), a rarer assemblage of osteichthyans (bony fish), and rather infrequent finds of plesiosaurs, and sea turtles. Terrestrial vertebrate remains are extremely rare in the formation. A few bones of salamanders, lizards, crocodiles, possibly terrestrial turtle remains, dinosaurs (including birds), and mammals have been found in the formation.
=== Mammals ===
=== Molluscs ===
=== Amphibians ===
== References ==

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Allan J. Hamilton (born November 16, 1950) is an American physician and medical consultant to ABC's medical drama Grey's Anatomy based in Tucson, Arizona. A professor of Neurosurgery at the University of Arizona College of Medicine – Tucson, Dr. Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons in 1994. In 1995, Dr. Hamilton was promoted to Chief of Neurosurgery and became Chairman of the Department of Surgery in 1998. He currently holds a tenured professorship in Neurosurgery, as well as additional professorships in the Departments of Psychology, Radiation Oncology, and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
His book The Scalpel and the Soul: Encounters with Surgery, the Supernatural, and the Healing Power of Hope was released in March 2008. It has been translated into several languages. He is currently at work on a second book on spirituality and horsemanship, specifically on the sexual impulses of mature mares.
== Background ==
Hamilton grew up in Queens, New York, in the neighborhood of Kew Gardens, and received his undergraduate degree at Ithaca College. After graduation, Hamilton worked as a janitor at a church and veterinary hospital in Utica, New York before getting a job teaching English at Whitesboro High School outside Utica. Hamilton went on to earn his medical degrees at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts. He completed his residency in neurological surgery at the Massachusetts General Hospital. After completing his residency, Hamilton moved his family from Boston to Arizona, where he now resides.
In 1984, Dr. Hamilton joined the US Army and from 1986 to 1988 worked for the Altitude Research Division of the United States Army Research Institute for Environmental Medicine. He led research efforts to evaluate the effect of the shortage of oxygen on brain function when troops must be rapidly deployed to high altitude. Three times, Dr. Hamilton was called to active duty in the Army, including in November 1990, when Dr. Hamilton was called up for the third time as part Operation Desert Storm.
== Medical practice ==
Hamilton joined the faculty at the University of Arizona in the summer of 1990. Dr. Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons in 1994. In 1995, Dr. Hamilton was promoted to Chief of Neurosurgery and became the Chairman of the entire Department of Surgery in 1998. He currently holds a tenured professorship in Neurosurgery, as well as additional professorships in the Departments of Psychology, Radiation Oncology, and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering. Dr. Hamilton has given more than three hundred public speeches and addresses. He has authored more than 60 peer-reviewed articles, a dozen book chapters, and a monograph on chemotherapy polymer delivery systems for brain tumors. Dr. Hamilton has led more than a half dozen clinical research trials on brain tumors and achieved national prominence for his work in developing computer-guided methodology for safely guiding neurosurgical probes to targets deep inside the brain.
== Accomplishments ==
Dr. Hamilton invented the first device capable of using computer guidance systems to deliver very accurate, high intensity beams of radiation to targets outside the brain. He developed the technology precisely enough so as it could be employed for the first time to eliminate tumors around the spinal cord. For his pioneering work, Dr. Hamilton received numerous awards in neurosurgery, including the Bernard Cosman Award for Innovation in Neurosurgery from the American Society of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery. He became the first American to receive the Lars Leksell Award, one of the highest international honors in the field of neurosurgery, bestowed upon him in Berlin in 1995 by the European Society of Neurosurgery. Dr. Hamilton is a past Fellow of the International Albert Schweitzer Foundation for his medical work in Gabon, Africa. His physician peers have selected him as one of the Best Doctors in America from 1995 to 2008. In 2000, he was chosen as one of the Leading Intellects and Thinkers of the 21st Century. Dr. Hamilton has appeared on television programs including MSNBC, CNN, PBS, and the Discovery Channel and has been featured in national newspapers such as the New York Times, USA Today, and Newsweek magazine.
== TV works ==
Between 2008 and 2020 Dr. Hamilton has served as medical consultant/senior medical consultant on the TV series Grey's Anatomy (280 episodes as of April 2020). He was also a consultant/medical consultant on four episodes of the show Private Practice in 2012–2013.
== Books ==
Hamilton, AJ (2008). The Scalpel and the Soul: Encounters with Surgery, the Supernatural, and the Healing Power of Hope. New York: Tarcher/Penguin Books. ISBN 978-1-58542-615-7.
Hamilton, AJ (2025). Cerebral Entanglements: How the Brain Shapes Our Public and Private Lives. New York: Post Hill Press. ISBN 979-8-88845-948-5.
== Journal articles ==
In order from most recent to oldest print publication date:

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Molzahn, Allyson G.; Lovett, Marissa K.; Biffar, David; de Oliveira Almeida, Gustavo; Hamilton, Allan J. (October 2024) [First published online August 4, 2024]. "The Effect of Time Pressure on Surgical Skill Retention in Novices: A Randomized Controlled Trial". Surgical Innovation. 31 (5): 541–549. doi:10.1177/15533506241273359. ISSN 1553-3514. PMID 39097818.
Zhu, Xi; Suarez-Jimenez, Benjamin; Zilcha-Mano, Sigal; Lazarov, Amit; Arnon, Shay; Lowell, Ari L.; Bergman, Maja; Ryba, Matthew; Hamilton, Allan J.; Hamilton, Jane F.; Turner, J. Blake; Markowitz, John C.; Fisher, Prudence W.; Neria, Yuval (April 15, 2021). "Neural changes following equine-assisted therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A longitudinal multimodal imaging study". Human Brain Mapping. 42 (6): 1930–1939. doi:10.1002/hbm.25360. ISSN 1097-0193. PMC 7978114. PMID 33547694. Clinical trial number NCT03068325 at ClinicalTrials.gov.
Lee, Sangyoon; Hua, Hong; Nguyen, Mike; Hamilton, Allan J. (February 2021) [First published online September 7, 2020]. "Further Comparison of 4 Display Modes for a Multi-Resolution Foveated Laparoscope". Surgical Innovation. 28 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1177/1553350620957799. ISSN 1553-3514. PMC 7936989. PMID 32895010.
Lee, Sangyoon; Hua, Hong; Nguyen, Mike; Hamilton, Allan J. (January 2019) [Received: 1 May 2018 / Accepted: 5 September 2018 / Published online: 11 September 2018]. "Comparison of six display modes for a multi-resolution foveated laparoscope". Surgical Endoscopy. 33 (1): 341–351. doi:10.1007/s00464-018-6445-0. ISSN 1432-2218. PMC 7523741. PMID 30206684.
Grisham, Lisa M.; Vickers, Valerie; Biffar, David E.; Prescher, Hannes; Battaglia, Norma J.; Jarred, John E.; Reid, Sirandon A. H.; Hamilton, Allan J. (September–October 2016) [Available online 15 April 2016, Version of Record 14 September 2016.]. "Feasibility of Air Transport Simulation Training: A Case Series". Air Medical Journal. 35 (5): 308–313. doi:10.1016/j.amj.2016.02.008. ISSN 1532-6497. PMID 27637443.
Amini, Richard; Kartchner, Jeffrey Z.; Stolz, Lori A.; Biffar, David; Hamilton, Allan J.; Adhikari, Srikar (September 15, 2015) [Received: 2015-02-20; Accepted: 2015-07-07; Online: 2015-09-15; Published: 2015-09-15.]. "A novel and inexpensive ballistic gel phantom for ultrasound training". World Journal of Emergency Medicine. 6 (3): 225–228. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2015.03.012. ISSN 1920-8642. PMC 4566015. PMID 26401186. Zhejiang ICP Number: 13029887-3.
Hamilton, Allan J.; Prescher, Hannes; Biffar, David E.; Poston, Robert S. (July 2015). "Simulation trainer for practicing emergent open thoracotomy procedures". The Journal of Surgical Research. 197 (1): 78–84. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2015.04.037. ISSN 1095-8673. PMID 25959836.
Prescher, Hannes; Grover, Emily; Mosier, Jarrod; Stolz, Uwe; Biffar, David E.; Hamilton, Allan J.; Sakles, John C. (March 2015) [Accepted: June 16, 2014; Revised: June 10, 2014; Received: May 08, 2014; Published Online: 13 March 2015]. "Telepresent intubation supervision is as effective as in-person supervision of procedurally naive operators". Telemedicine Journal and e-Health. 21 (3): 170–175. doi:10.1089/tmj.2014.0090. eISSN 1556-3669. ISSN 1530-5627. PMID 25490615.
Prescher, Hannes; Biffar, David E.; Galvani, Carlos A.; Rozenblit, Jerzy W.; Hamilton, Allan J. (September 2014) [Published Online: 5 September 2014]. "Evaluation of a navigation grid to increase the efficacy of instrument movement during laparoscopic surgery". Journal of Laparoendoscopic & Advanced Surgical Techniques. Part A. 24 (9): 656–659. doi:10.1089/lap.2014.0016. eISSN 1557-9034. ISSN 1092-6429. PMID 25010921.
Thompson, Jess L.; Grisham, Lisa M.; Scott, Jeanne; Mogan, Chris; Prescher, Hannes; Biffar, David; Jarred, John; Meyer, Robyn J.; Hamilton, Allan J. (April 2014). "Construction of a reusable, high-fidelity model to enhance extracorporeal membrane oxygenation training through simulation". Advances in Neonatal Care. 14 (2): 103–109. doi:10.1097/ANC.0000000000000054. ISSN 1536-0911. PMID 24675629.
Feng, Chuan; Rozenblit, Jerzy W.; Hamilton, Allan J. (November 2010) [Received: 21 July 2009 / Accepted: 11 March 2010 / Published online: 2 April 2010]. "A computerized assessment to compare the impact of standard, stereoscopic, and high-definition laparoscopic monitor displays on surgical technique". Surgical Endoscopy. 24 (11): 2743–2748. doi:10.1007/s00464-010-1038-6. ISSN 1432-2218. PMID 20361211.
Salkini, Mohamad W.; Hamilton, Allan J. (March 2010) [Published Online: 24 March 2010]. "The effect of age on acquiring laparoscopic skills". Journal of Endourology. 24 (3): 377–379. doi:10.1089/end.2009.0155. ISSN 1557-900X. PMID 19839781.
Krupinski, Elizabeth A.; Patel, Bhavika; Berger, William; Hamilton, Allan J.; Knapp, Alyson E.; Becker, Gary J.; Gatenby, Robert A. (2009). "Assessing radiology resident preparedness to manage IV contrast media reactions using simulation technology". Ebook: Medicine Meets Virtual Reality 17 / NextMed: Design for/the Well Being. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. 142: 139–141. ISBN 978-1-58603-964-6. ISSN 0926-9630. PMID 19377133. (print), 978-1-60750-402-3 (online).
(Note: The affiliation here is stated as "Division of Neurosurgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona 85013-4496, USA", so this may or may not be the same Allan J. Hamilton.) Zabramski, Joseph M.; Whiting, Donald; Darouiche, Rabih O.; Horner, Terry G.; Olson, Jeffrey; Robertson, Claudia; Hamilton, Allan J. (April 2003). "Efficacy of antimicrobial-impregnated external ventricular drain catheters: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial". Journal of Neurosurgery. 98 (4): 725–730. doi:10.3171/jns.2003.98.4.0725. ISSN 0022-3085. PMID 12691395.
== References ==
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
== External links ==
Official website
Allan J. Hamilton at the University of Arizona College of Medicine - Tucson
Bridging Medicine and Spirituality - Interview with Dr. Allan Hamilton

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This list gives an overview of the classification of non-silicate minerals and includes mostly International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association series of articles and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, not IMA approved minerals, not named minerals are mostly excluded. Mostly major groups only, or groupings used by New Dana Classification and Mindat.
== Classification of minerals ==
=== Introduction ===
The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series) between New Dana Classification and mindat.org. Category, class and supergroup name endings are used as layout tools in the list as well.
Abbreviations
"*" – Mineral not IMA-approved.
"?" – IMA discredited mineral name.
"REE" – Rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu)
"PGE" – Platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt)
=== Category 01 ===
Elements: Metals and Alloys, Carbides, Silicides, Nitrides, Phosphides
Category:Diamond
Category:Gold
==== Class: Native elements ====
Category:Carbide minerals
Osbornite group carbides and nitrides
Osbornite TiN, Khamrabaevite (Ti,V,Fe)C, Niobocarbide (Nb,Ta)C, Tantalcarbide TaC
Category:Phosphide minerals
Barringerite group phosphides
Barringerite (Fe,Ni)2P, Schreibersite (Fe,Ni)3P, Nickelphosphide (Ni,Fe)3P, Allabogdanite (Fe,Ni)2P, Melliniite (Ni,Fe)4P, Monipite MoNiP
Copper group/ Gold group
Gold Au, Silver Ag, Copper Cu, Lead Pb, Aluminium Al, Maldonite Au2Bi
Silver Amalgam Alloys
Amalgam* Ag2Hg3, Moschellandsbergite Ag2Hg3, Schachnerite Ag1.1Hg0.9, Paraschachnerite Ag3Hg2, Luanheite Ag3Hg, Eugenite Ag9Hg2, Weishanite (Au,Ag)3Hg2
Iron-Nickel group
Iron Fe, Kamacite? alpha-(Fe,Ni), Taenite gamma-(Fe,Ni), Tetrataenite FeNi, Awaruite Ni2Fe to Ni3Fe, Nickel Ni, Wairauite CoFe
Suessite group silicides
Suessite (Fe,Ni)3Si, Gupeiite Fe3Si, Xifengite Fe5Si3, Hapkeite Fe2Si, Luobusaite Fe0.83Si2, Mavlyanovite Mn5Si3, Brownleeite MnSi
Platinum group (Space group Fm3m)
Platinum Pt, Iridium (Ir,Os,Ru,Pt), Rhodium (Rh,Pt), Palladium Pd,Pt
Osmium group (Space group P63/mmc)
Osmium (Os,Ir), Ruthenium (Ru,Ir,Os), Rutheniridosmine (Ir,Os,Ru), Hexaferrum (Fe,Os,Ru,Ir), Hexamolybdenum (Mo,Ru,Fe,Ir,Os), IMA2008-055 (Ni,Fe,Ir)
Tetraferroplatinum group (Space group P4/mmm)
Tetraferroplatinum PtFe, Tulameenite Pt2FeCu, Ferronickelplatinum Pt2FeNi, Potarite PdHg
Isoferroplatinum group (Space group Pm3m)
Isoferroplatinum (Pt,Pd)3(Fe,Cu), Rustenburgite (Pt,Pd)3Sn, Atokite (Pd,Pt)3Sn, Zvyagintsevite Pd3Pb, Chengdeite Ir3Fe, Yixunite Pt3In
Arsenic group
Arsenic As, Antimony Sb, Stibarsen SbAs, Bismuth Bi, Stistaite SnSb
Carbon polymorph group (IMA-CNMNC discourages a grouping of diamond and graphite, Mills et al. (2009))
Graphite C, Chaoite C, Fullerite C60, (Diamond C, Lonsdaleite C)
=== Category 02 ===
Sulfides, Sulfosalts, Sulfarsenates, Sulfantimonates, Selenides, Tellurides
==== Class: Sulfide minerals - including Selenides and Tellurides ====
Chalcocite-Digenite group ([Cu]2−x S] formulae)
Chalcocite Cu2S, Djurleite Cu31S16, Digenite Cu9S5, Roxbyite Cu1.78S, Anilite Cu7S4, Geerite Cu8S5, Spionkopite Cu1.4S
Joseite group (Trigonal: R-3m)
Joseite Bi4(S,Te)3, Joseite-B Bi4(S,Te)3, Ikunolite Bi4(S,Se)3, Laitakarite Bi4(Se,S)3, Pilsenite Bi4Te3, Poubaite PbBi2Se2(Te,S)2, Rucklidgeite (Bi,Pb)3Te4, Babkinite Pb2Bi2(S,Se)3
Pentlandite group (Isometric: Fm3m)
Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8, Argentopentlandite Ag(Fe,Ni)8S8, Cobaltpentlandite Co9S8, Shadlunite (Pb,Cd)(Fe,Cu)8S8, Manganoshadlunite (Mn,Pb)(Cu,Fe)8S8, Geffroyite (Ag,Cu,Fe)9(Se,S)8
Galena group (Isometric: Fm3m, IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009))
Galena PbS, Clausthalite PbSe, Altaite PbTe, Alabandite MnS, Oldhamite (Calcium sulfide) (Ca,Mg,Fe)S, Niningerite (Mg,Fe2+,Mn)S, Borovskite Pd3SbTe4, Crerarite (Pt,Pb)Bi3(S,Se)4−x (x~0.7), Keilite (Fe,Mn,Mg,Ca,Cr)S
Sphalerite group (Isometric: F4-3m)
Sphalerite (Zn,Fe)S, Stilleite ZnSe, Metacinnabar HgS, Tiemannite HgSe, Coloradoite HgTe, Hawleyite CdS, Rudashevskyite (Fe,Zn)S
Wurtzite group (Hexagonal: P63mc)
Wurtzite (Zn,Fe)S, Greenockite CdS, Cadmoselite CdSe, Rambergite MnS
Nickeline group (Hexagonal: P63/mmc)
Nickeline NiAs, Breithauptite NiSb, Sederholmite NiSe, Hexatestibiopanickelite (Ni,Pd)(Te,Sb), Sudburyite (Pd,Ni)Sb, Kotulskite Pd(Te,Bi), Sobolevskite PdBi, Stumpflite Pt(Sb,Bi), Langisite (Co,Ni)As, Freboldite CoSe, Achavalite FeSe, Sorosite Cu(Sn,Sb), Vavrinite Ni2SbTe2
Chalcopyrite group (Tetragonal: I-42d)
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2, Eskebornite CuFeSe2, Gallite CuGaS2, Roquesite CuInS2, Lenaite AgFeS2, Laforetite AgInS2
Stannite group (Tetragonal: I-42m) A2BCS type
Stannite Cu2FeSnS4, Cernyite Cu2CdSnS4, Briartite Cu2(Zn,Fe)GeS4, Kuramite Cu3SnS4, Sakuraiite (Cu,Zn,Fe,In,Sn)4S4, Hocartite Ag2FeSnS4, Pirquitasite Ag2ZnSnS4, Velikite Cu2HgSnS4, Kesterite Cu2(Zn,Fe)SnS4, Ferrokesterite Cu2(Fe,Zn)SnS4, Barquillite Cu2CdGeS4
Thiospinel group, AB2X4 (Isometric: Fd3m)
Bornhardtite Co2+(Co3+)2Se4, Cadmoindite CdIn2S4, Carrollite Cu(Co,Ni)2S4, Cuproiridsite CuIr2S4, Cuprorhodsite CuRh2S4, Daubréelite Fe2+Cr2S4, Ferrorhodsite (Fe,Cu)(Rh,Ir,Pt)2S4, Fletcherite (mineral) Cu(Ni,Co)2S4, Florensovite Cu(Cr1.5Sb0.5)S4, Greigite Fe2+(Fe3+)2S4, Indite Fe2+In2S4, Kalininite ZnCr2S4, Linnaeite Co2+(Co3+)2S4, Malanite Cu(Pt,Ir)2S4, Polydymite NiNi2S4, Siegenite (Ni,Co)3S4, Violarite Fe2+(Ni3+)2S4, Trustedtite Ni3Se4, Tyrrellite (Cu,Co,Ni)3Se4
Tetradymite group (Trigonal: R-3m)
Tetradymite Bi2Te2S, Tellurobismuthite Bi2Te3, Tellurantimony Sb2Te3, Paraguanajuatite Bi2(Se,S)3, Kawazulite Bi2(Te,Se,S)3, Skippenite Bi2Se2(Te,S), Vihorlatite Bi24Se17Te4
Pyrite group (Isometric: Pa3)
Pyrite FeS2, Vaesite NiS2, Cattierite CoS2, Penroseite (Ni,Co,Cu)Se2, Trogtalite CoSe2, Villamaninite (Cu,Ni,Co,Fe)S2, Fukuchilite Cu3FeS8, Krutaite CuSe2, Hauerite MnS2, Laurite RuS2, Aurostibite AuSb2, Krutovite NiAs2, Sperrylite PtAs2, Geversite Pt(Sb,Bi)2, Insizwaite Pt(Bi,Sb)2, Erlichmanite OsS2, Dzharkenite FeSe2, Gaotaiite Ir3Te8, Mayingite IrBiTe
Marcasite group (Orthorhombic: Pnnm)
Marcasite FeS2, Ferroselite FeSe2, Frohbergite FeTe2, Hastite? CoSe2, Mattagamite CoTe2, Kullerudite NiSe2, Omeiite (Os,Ru)As2, Anduoite (Ru,Os)As2, Lollingite FeAs2, Seinajokite (Fe,Ni)(Sb,As)2, Safflorite (Co,Fe)As2, Rammelsbergite NiAs2, Nisbite NiSb2
Cobaltite group (Cubic or pseudocubic crystals)
Cobaltite CoAsS, Gersdorffite NiAsS, Ullmannite NiSbS, Willyamite (Co,Ni)SbS, Tolovkite IrSbS, Platarsite (Pt,Rh,Ru)AsS, Irarsite (Ir,Ru,Rh,Pt)AsS, Hollingworthite (Rh,Pt,Pd)AsS, Jolliffeite (Ni,Co)AsSe, Padmaite PdBiSe, Michenerite (Pd,Pt)BiTe, Maslovite PtBiTe, Testibiopalladite PdTe(Sb,Te), Changchengite IrBiS, Milotaite PdSbSe, Kalungaite PdAsSe
Arsenopyrite group (Monoclinic: P21/c (Pseudo-orthorhombic))
Arsenopyrite FeAsS, Gudmundite FeSbS, Osarsite (Os,Ru)AsS, Ruarsite RuAsS, Iridarsenite (Ir,Ru)As2, Clinosafflorite (Co,Fe,Ni)As2
Molybdenite group
Drysdallite Mo(Se,S)2, Molybdenite MoS2, Tungstenite WS2
Skutterudite group
Ferroskutterudite (Fe,Co)As3; Nickelskutterudite NiAs2-3; Skutterudite (Co,Fe,Ni)As2-3; Kieftite CoSb3
==== Class: Sulfosalt minerals ====
Colusite group
Colusite Cu12-13V(As,Sb,Sn,Ge)3S16, Germanocolusite Cu13V(Ge,As)3S16, Nekrasovite Cu+26V2(Sn,As,Sb)6S32, Stibiocolusite Cu13V(Sb,As,Sn)3S16
Cylindrite group
Cylindrite Pb3Sn4FeSb2S14, Franckeite (Pb,Sn)6Fe2+Sn2Sb2S14, Incaite Pb4Sn4FeSb2S15, Potosiite Pb6Sn2FeSb2S14, Abramovite Pb2SnInBiS7, Coiraite (Pb,Sn)12.5As3Sn5FeS28
Hauchecornite group (Tetragonal: P4/nnn or I4/mmm)
Hauchecornite Ni9Bi(Sb,Bi)S8, Bismutohauchecornite Ni9Bi2S8, Tellurohauchecornite Ni9BiTeS8, Arsenohauchecornite Ni18Bi3AsS16, Tucekite Ni9Sb2S8
Tetrahedrite group (Isometric: I-43m)
Tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)12Sb4S13, Tennantite (Cu,Fe)12As4S13, Freibergite (Ag,Cu,Fe)12(Sb,As)4S13, Hakite (Cu,Hg)3(Sb,As)(Se,S)3, Giraudite (Cu,Zn,Ag)12(As,Sb)4(Se,S)13, Goldfieldite Cu12(Te,Sb,As)4S13, Argentotennantite (Ag,Cu)10(Zn,Fe)2(As,Sb)4S13
Proustite group
Proustite Ag3AsS3, Pyrargyrite Ag3SbS3
Aikinite group (Orthorhombic containing Pb, Cu, Bi, and S)
Aikinite PbCuBiS3, Krupkaite PbCuBi3S6, Gladite PbCuBi5S9, Hammarite Pb2Cu2Bi4S9 (?), Friedrichite Pb5Cu5Bi7S18, Pekoite PbCuBi11(S,Se)18, Lindstromite Pb3Cu3Bi7S15, Salzburgite Cu1.6Pb1.6Bi6.4S12
Lillianite group (Orthorhombic, AmBnS6 where A=Pb, Ag, Mn and B=Sb, Bi)
Lillianite Pb3Bi2S6, Bursaite? Pb5Bi4S11, Gustavite PbAgBi3S6 (?), Andorite PbAgSb3S6, Uchucchacuaite AgPb3MnSb5S12, Ramdohrite Ag3Pb6Sb11S24, Roshchinite Ag19Pb10Sb51S96 or Pb(Ag,Cu)2(Sb,As)5S10, Fizelyite Pb14Ag5Sb21S48
Matildite group
Matildite AgBiS2, Bohdanowiczite AgBiSe2, Volynskite AgBiTe2, Zlatogorite CuNiSb2
Sartorite group
Sartorite PbAs2S4, Guettardite Pb(Sb,As)2S4, Twinnite Pb(Sb,As)2S4, Marumoite Pb32As40S92
Pavonite group (Monoclinic: C/2c bismuth sulfosalts)
Pavonite (Ag,Cu)(Bi,Pb)3S5, Makovickyite Ag1.5Bi5.5S9, Benjaminite (Ag,Cu)3(Bi,Pb)7S12, Mummeite Cu0.58Ag3.11Pb1.10Bi6.65S13, Borodaevite Ag5(Bi,Sb)9S16, Cupropavonite AgPbCu2Bi5S10, Cupromakovickyite Cu4AgPb2Bi9S18, Kudriavite (Cd,Pb)Bi2S4, IMA2008-058 Ag5Bi13S22, IMA2005-036 Cu8Pb4Ag3Bi19S38

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=== Category 03 ===
Halogenides, Oxyhalides, Hydroxyhalides
Atacamite group
Polymorths of Cu2[(OH)3|Cl]: Atacamite, Botallackite, Clinoatacamite, Paratacamite
Gillardite Cu3Ni(OH)6Cl2, Haydeeite Cu3Mg(OH)6Cl2, Herbertsmithite Cu3Zn[(OH)3|Cl]2, Kapellasite Cu3Zn[(OH)3|Cl]2
Fluorite group
Fluorite CaF2, Fluorocronite PbF2, Frankdicksonite BaF2, Tveitite-(Y) Ca1−xYxF2+x (x~0.3), IMA2009-014 SrF2
Halite group (IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009))
Halite NaCl, Sylvite KCl, Villiaumite NaF, Carobbiite KF, Griceite LiF
Chlorargyrite group
Bromargyrite AgBr, Chlorargyrite AgCl, Marshite CuI, Miersite (Ag,Cu)I, Nantokite CuCl
Lawrencite group
Chloromagnesite MgCl2, Lawrencite (Fe2+,Ni)Cl2, Scacchite MnCl2, Tolbachite CuCl2
Matlockite group
Bismoclite (BiO)Cl, Daubréeite (BiO)(OH,Cl), Laurionite PbCl(OH), Paralaurionite PbCl(OH), Rorisite CaFCl, Zavaritskite (BiO)F, Matlockite PbFCl
Challacolloite group
Challacolloite KPb2Cl5, Hephaistosite TlPb2Cl5, Steropesite Tl3BiCl6, Panichiite (NH4)2SnCl6
Chukhrovite group
Chukhrovite-(Y) Ca3(Y,Ce)Al2(SO4)F13•10H2O, Chukhrovite-(Ce) Ca3(Ce,Y)Al2(SO4)F13•10H2O, Meniaylovite Ca4AlSi(SO4)F13•12H2O, Chukhrovite-(Nd) Ca3(Nd,Y)Al2(SO4)F13•12H2O
=== Category 04 ===
Oxides and Hydroxides, Vanadates, Arsenites, Antimonites, Bismuthites, Sulfites, Iodates
Category:Vanadate minerals
Periclase group (Isometric: Fm3m, IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009))
Periclase MgO, Bunsenite NiO, Manganosite MnO, Monteponite CdO, Lime CaO, Wustite FeO, Hongquiite* TiO
Hematite group/ Corundum group (Rhombohedral: R-3c)
Corundum Al2O3 (Sapphire, Ruby), Eskolaite Cr2O3, Hematite Fe2O3, Karelianite V2O3, Tistarite Ti2O3
Perovskite group
Perovskite CaTiO3, Latrappite (Ca,Na)(Nb,Ti,Fe)O3, Loparite-(Ce) (Ce,Na,Ca)2(Ti,Nb)2O6, Lueshite NaNbO3, Tausonite SrTiO3, Isolueshite (Na,La,Ca)(Nb,Ti)O3, Barioperovskite BaTiO3, Lakargiite CaZrO3
Ilmenite group
Ilmenite Fe2+TiO3, Geikielite MgTiO3, Pyrophanite MnTiO3, Ecandrewsite (Zn,Fe2+,Mn2+)TiO3, Melanostibite Mn(Sb5+,Fe3+)O3, Brizziite-III NaSb5+O3, Akimotoite (Mg,Fe)SiO3
Rutile group (Tetragonal: P4/mnm)
Rutile TiO2, Ilmenorutile (Ti,Nb,Fe3+)O2, Struverite? (Ti,Ta,Fe3+)O2, Pyrolusite MnO2, Cassiterite SnO2, Plattnerite PbO2, Argutite GeO2, Squawcreekite? (Fe3+,Sb 5+,W6+)O4•H2O
Multiple Oxides with O19 groups/ Magnetoplumbite group
Hibonite (Ca,Ce)(Al,Ti,Mg)12O19, Yimengite K(Cr,Ti,Fe,Mg)12O19, Hawthorneite Ba[Ti3Cr4Fe4Mg]O19, Magnetoplumbite Pb(Fe3+,Mn3+)12O19, Haggertyite Ba[(Fe2+)6Ti5Mg]O19, Nezilovite PbZn2(Mn4+,Ti4+)2(Fe3+)8O19, Batiferrite Ba(Ti2(Fe3+)8(Fe2+)2)O19, Barioferrite Ba(Fe3+)12O19, Plumboferrite Pb2(Fe3+)(11-x)(Mn2+)xO(19-2x) x = 1/3, IMA2009-027 (Fe,Mg)Al12O19
Cryptomelane group (Hard black, fine-grained)
Hollandite Ba(Mn4+,Mn2+)8O16, Cryptomelane K(Mn4+,Mn2+)8O16, Manjiroite (Na,K)(Mn4+,Mn2+)8O16•nH2O, Coronadite Pb(Mn4+,Mn2+)8O16, Strontiomelane Sr(Mn4+)6Mn3+2O16, Henrymeyerite BaFe2+Ti7O16
Aeschynite group
Aeschynite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca,Fe)(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH)6, Nioboaeschynite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca)(Nb,Ti)2(O,OH)6, Aeschynite-(Y) (Y,Ca,Fe)(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH)6, Tantalaeschynite-(Y) (Y,Ce,Ca)(Ta,Ti,Nb)2O6, Aeschynite-(Nd) (Nd,Ce)(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH)6, Nioboaeschynite-(Nd) (Nd,Ce)(Nb,Ti)2(O,OH)6, Nioboaeschynite-(Y) [(Y,REE),Ca,Th,Fe](Nb,Ti,Ta)2(O,OH)6
Crichtonite group (ABC18 T2 O38)
Landauite NaMnZn2(Ti,Fe3+)6Ti12O38, Loveringite (Ca,Ce)(Ti,Fe3+,Cr,Mg)21O38, Crichtonite (Sr,La,Ce,Y)(Ti,Fe3+,Mn)21O38, Senaite Pb(Ti,Fe,Mn)21O38, Davidite-(La) (La,Ce,Ca)(Y,U)(Ti,Fe3+)20O38, Davidite-(Ce) (Ce,La)(Y,U)(Ti,Fe3+)20O38, Mathiasite (K,Ca,Sr)(Ti,Cr,Fe,Mg)21O38, Lindsleyite (Ba,Sr)(Ti,Cr,Fe,Mg)21O38, Dessauite (Sr,Pb)(Y,U)(Ti,Fe3+)20O38, Cleusonite Pb(U4+,U6+)(Ti,Fe2+,Fe3+)20(O,OH)38, Gramaccioliite-(Y) (Pb,Sr)(Y,Mn)Fe2(Ti,Fe)18O38
==== Spinel group ====
AB2O4
Aluminum subgroup
Spinel MgAl2O4, Galaxite (Mn,Mg)(Al,Fe3+)2O4, Hercynite Fe2+Al2O4, Gahnite ZnAl2O4
Iron subgroup
Magnesioferrite MgFe3+2O4, Jacobsite (Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg)(Fe3+,Mn3+)2O4, Magnetite Fe2+(Fe3+)2O4, Franklinite (Zn,Mn2+,Fe2+)(Fe3+,Mn3+)2O4, Trevorite Ni(Fe3+)2O4, Cuprospinel (Cu,Mg)(Fe3+)2O4, Brunogeierite (Ge2+,Fe2+)(Fe3+)2O4
Chromium subgroup
Magnesiochromite MgCr2O4, Manganochromite (Mn,Fe2+)(Cr,V)2O4, Chromite Fe2+Cr2O4, Nichromite (Ni,Co,Fe2+)(Cr,Fe3+,Al)2O4, Cochromite (Co,Ni,Fe2+)(Cr,Al)2O4, Zincochromite ZnCr2O4
Vanadium subgroup
Vuorelainenite (Mn2+,Fe2+)(V3+,Cr3+)2O4, Coulsonite Fe2+(V3+)2O4, Magnesiocoulsonite Mg(V3+)2O4
Titanium subgroup
Qandilite (Mg,Fe2+)2(Ti,Fe3+,Al)O4, Ulvospinel Ti(Fe2+)2O4
Taaffeite group
Magnesiotaaffeite-2N2S Mg3Al8BeO16, Magnesiotaaffeite-6N3S (Mg,Fe2+,Zn)2Al6BeO12, Ferrotaaffeite-6N3S (Fe2+,Zn,Mg)2Al6BeO12
Kusachiite CuBi2O4, Iwakiite Mn2+(Fe3+,Mn3+)2O4, Hausmannite Mn2+(Mn3+)2O4, Hetaerolite Zn(Mn3+)2O4, Hydrohetaerolite Zn2(Mn3+)4O8•H2O, Minium (Pb2+)2Pb4+O4, Chrysoberyl BeAl2O4, Marokite Ca(Mn3+)2O4, Filipstadite (Mn2+,Mg)4Sb5+Fe 3+O8, Tegengrenite (Mg,Mn2+)2(Sb5+)0.5(Mn3+,Si,Ti)0.5O4, Yafsoanite Ca3Te2Zn3O12, Xieite FeCr2O4
==== Nickel-Strunz 04.DH mineral family ====
IMA/CMNMC revised the Pyrochlore supergroup 2010.
Pyrochlore supergroup
Pyrochlore group (D atom is Nb)
Fluorcalciopyrochlore (Ca,[ ])2Nb2(O,OH)6F, Fluorkenopyrochlore ([ ],Na,Ce,Ca)2(Nb,Ti)2O6F, Fluornatropyrochlore (Na,REE,Ca)2Nb2(O,OH)6F, Fluorstrontiopyrochlore (Sr,[ ])2Nb2(O,OH)6F, Hydropyrochlore (H2O,[ ])2Nb2(O,OH)6(H2O), Hydroxycalciopyrochlore (Ca,[ ])2Nb2(O,OH)6(OH), Kenoplumbopyrochlore (Pb,[ ])Nb2O6([ ],O), Oxycalciopyrochlore Ca2Nb2O6O, Oxynatropyrochlore (Na,Ca,U)2Nb2O6(O,OH), Oxyplumbopyrochlore Pb2Nb2O6O, Oxyyttropyrochlore-(Y) (Y,[ ])2Nb2O6O
Microlite group (D atom is Ta)
Fluorcalciomicrolite (Ca,Na)2Ta2O6F, Fluornatromicrolite (Na,Ca,Bi)2Ta2O6F, Hydrokenomicrolite ([ ],H2O)2Ta2(O,OH)6H2O, Hydromicrolite (H2O,[ ])2Ta2(O,OH)6H2O, Hydroxykenomicrolite ([ ],Na,Sb3+)2Ta2O6(OH), Kenoplumbomicrolite (Pb,[ ])2Ta2O6([ ],O,OH), Oxycalciomicrolite Ca2Ta2O6O, Oxystannomicrolite Sn2Ta2O6O, Oxystibiomicrolite (Sb3+,Ca)2Ta2O6O
Romeite group (D atom is Sb)
Cuproromeite Cu2Sb2(O,OH)7, Fluorcalcioromeite (Ca,Sb3+)2(Sb5+,Ti)2O6F, Fluornatroromeite (Na,Ca)2Sb2(O,OH)6F, Hydroxycalcioromeite (Ca,Sb3+)2(Sb5+,Ti)2O6(OH), Oxycalcioromeite Ca2Sb2O6O, Oxyplumboromeite Pb2Sb2O6O, Stibiconite Sb3+Sb+62O6(OH)
Betafite group (D atom is Ti): Calciobetafite Ca2(Ti,Nb)2O6O, Oxyuranobetafite (U,Ca,[ ])2(Ti,Nb)2O6O
Elsmoreite group (D atom is W): Hydrokenoelsmoreite [ ]2W2O6(H2O)
Cesstibtantite group
Cesstibtantite (Cs,Na)SbTa4O12, Natrobistantite (Na,Cs)Bi(Ta,Nb,Sb)4O12
Brannerite-Thorutite series, Orthobrannerite-Thorutite series:
Brannerite (U4+,REE,Th,Ca)(Ti,Fe3+,Nb)2(O,OH)6, Orthobrannerite U4+U6+Ti4O12(OH)2, Thorutite (Th,U,Ca)Ti2(O,OH)6
==== Class: Hydroxides and oxides containing hydroxyl ====
Diaspore group (Orthorhombic, Pnma or Pnmd)
Diaspore AlO(OH), Goethite Fe3+O(OH), Groutite Mn3+O(OH), Montroseite (V3+,Fe3+,V4+)O(OH), Bracewellite Cr3+O(OH), Tsumgallite GaO(OH)
Brucite group (Rhombohedral: P-3m1)
Brucite Mg(OH)2, Amakinite (Fe2+,Mg)(OH)2, Pyrochroite Mn(OH)2, Portlandite Ca(OH)2, Theophrastite Ni(OH)2
Wickmanite group
(Cubic or Trigonal, 2+ cations containing Sn)
Wickmanite Mn2+Sn4+(OH)6, Schoenfliesite MgSn4+(OH)6, Natanite Fe2+Sn4+(OH)6, Vismirnovite ZnSn4+(OH)6, Burtite CaSn(OH)6, Mushistonite (Cu,Zn,Fe)Sn4+(OH)6
(Tetragonal: P42/n)
Stottite Fe2+Ge(OH)6, Tetrawickmanite Mn2+Sn4+(OH)6, Jeanbandyite (Fe3+,Mn2+)Sn4+(OH)6, Mopungite NaSb(OH)6
=== Category 05 ===
Carbonates and Nitrates
Calcite group (Trigonal: R-3c)
Calcite CaCO3, Magnesite MgCO3, Siderite Fe2+CO3, Rhodochrosite MnCO3, Spherocobaltite CoCO3, Smithsonite ZnCO3, Otavite CdCO3, Gaspeite (Ni,Mg,Fe2+)CO3
Aragonite group (Orthorhombic: Pmcn)
Aragonite CaCO3, Witherite BaCO3, Strontianite SrCO3, Cerussite PbCO3
Dolomite group
Ankerite Ca(Fe2+,Mg,Mn2+)(CO3)2, Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2, Kutnohorite Ca(Mn,Mg,Fe)(CO3)2, Minrecordite CaZn(CO3)2
Burbankite group
Hexagonal
Burbankite (Na,Ca)3(Sr,Ba,Ce)3(CO3)5, Khanneshite (NaCa)3(Ba,Sr,Ce,Ca)3(CO3)5, Calcioburbankite Na3(Ca,REE,Sr)3(CO3)5, Sanromanite Na2CaPb3(CO3)5
Monoclinic
Rémondite-(Ce) Na3(Ce,La,Ca,Na,Sr)3(CO3)5, Petersenite-(Ce) (Na,Ca)4(Ce,La,Nd)2(CO3)5, Rémondite-(La) Na3(La,Ce,Ca)3(CO3)5
Rosasite group
Rosasite (Cu,Zn)2(CO3)(OH)2, Glaukosphaerite (Cu,Ni)2(CO3)(OH)2, Kolwezite (Cu,Co)2(CO3)(OH)2, Zincrosasite (Zn,Cu)2(CO3)(OH)2, Mcguinnessite (Mg,Cu)2(CO3)(OH)2
Malachite group
Malachite Cu2(CO3)(OH)2, Nullaginite Ni2(CO3)(OH)2, Pokrovskite Mg2(CO3)(OH)2•0.5H2O, Chukanovite Fe2(CO3)(OH)2
Ancylite group
Ancylite-(Ce) SrCe(CO3)2(OH)•H2O, Calcioancylite-(Ce) CaCe(CO3)2(OH)•H2O, Calcioancylite-(Nd) CaNd(CO3)2(OH)•H2O, Gysinite-(Nd) Pb(Nd,La)(CO3)2(OH)•H2O, Ancylite-(La) Sr(La,Ce)(CO3)2(OH)•H2O, Kozoite-(Nd) (Nd,La,Sm,Pr)(CO3)(OH), Kozoite-(La) La(CO3)(OH)
Sjogrenite-Hydrotalcite group
Sjogrenite subgroup: Hexagonal
Manasseite Mg6Al2[(OH)16|CO3]·4H2O, Barbertonite Mg6(Cr,Al)2[(OH)16|CO3]·4H2O, Sjogrenite Mg6(Fe3+)2[(OH)16|CO3]·4H2O, Zaccagnaite Zn4Al2(OH)12(CO3)•3H2O, Fougerite (Fe2+,Mg)6(Fe3+)2(OH)18·4H2O
Hydrotalcite subgroup: Rhombohedral I, Mg6(R3+)2(OH)16CO3·4H2O, where R3+ = Al, Cr, or Fe
Hydrotalcite Mg6Al2[(OH)16CO3]·4H2O, Stichtite Mg6Cr2[(OH)16|CO3]·4H2O, Pyroaurite Mg6Fe3+2[(OH)16|CO3]·4H2O, Desautelsite Mg6(Mn3+)2[(OH)16|CO3]·4H2O, Droninoite Ni3Fe3+Cl(OH)8•2H2O, Hydrowoodwardite Cu1−xAlx[(OH)2|(SO4)x/2]·nH2O, Iowaite Mg4Fe(OH)8OCl·4H2O
Hydrotalcite subgroup: Rhombohedral II
Reevesite Ni6(Fe3+)2(CO3)(OH)16•4H2O, Takovite Ni6Al2(OH)16(CO3,OH)•4H2O, Comblainite (Ni2+)6(Co3+)2(CO3)(OH)16•4H2O
Tundrite group
Tundrite-(Ce) Na2Ce2TiO2(SiO4)(CO3)2, Tundrite-(Nd) Na3(Nd,La)4(Ti,Nb)2(SiO4)2(CO3)3O4(OH)•2H2O
Category:Nitrate minerals
=== Category 06 ===
Borates
Ludwigite group (Space group: Pbam)
Ludwigite Mg2Fe3+BO5, Vonsenite Fe2+2Fe3+BO5, Azoproite (Mg,Fe2+)2(Fe3+,Ti,Mg)BO5, Bonaccordite Ni2Fe3+BO5, Chestermanite Mg2(Fe3+,Mg,Al,Sb5+)BO3O2, Fredrikssonite Mg2(Mn3+,Fe3+)O2(BO3)
Boracite group (Tecto-heptaborates)
(Orthorhombic: Rca21)
Boracite Mg3B7O13Cl, Ericaite (Fe2+,Mg,Mn)3B7O13Cl, Chambersite Mn3B7O13Cl
(Trigonal: R3c)
Congolite (Fe2+,Mg,Mn)3B7O13Cl, Trembathite (Mg,Fe2+)3B7O13Cl
Inderite group (Neso-triborates)
Inyoite Ca2B6O6(OH)10•8H2O, Inderborite CaMg[B3O3(OH)5]2•6H2O, Inderite MgB3O3(OH)5•5H2O, Kurnakovite Mg(H4B3O7)(OH)·5H2O, Meyerhofferite Ca2(H3B3O7)2·4H2O, Solongoite Ca2 (H3B3O7)(OH)Cl
Santite group (Neso-pentaborates)
Santite KB5O6(OH)4•2(H2O), Ramanite-(Rb) Rb[B5O6(OH)4]•2H2O, Ramanite-(Cs) Cs[B5O6(OH)4]•2H2O
Hilgardite group (Tecto-pentaborates)
Hilgardite Ca2B5O9Cl•H2O, Kurgantaite CaSr[B5O9]Cl•H2O, IMA2007-047 Pb2[B5O9]Cl•0.5H2O
Pringleite group
Pringleite Ca9B26O34(OH)24Cl4•13H2O, Ruitenbergite Ca9B26O34(OH)24Cl4•13H2O, Brianroulstonite Ca3[B5O6(OH)6](OH)Cl2•8H2O, Penobsquisite Ca2Fe2+[B9O13(OH)6]Cl•4H2O, Walkerite Ca16(Mg,Li,[ ])2[B13O17(OH)12]4Cl6•28H2O

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title: "Classification of non-silicate minerals"
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=== Category 07 ===
Sulfates, Selenates, Chromates, Molybdates, Wolframates, Niobates
Barite group
Barite BaSO4, Celestine SrSO4, Anglesite PbSO4
Blodite group
Blodite Na2Mg(SO4)2•4H2O, Nickelblodite Na2(Ni,Mg)(SO4)2•4H2O, Leonite K2Mg(SO4)2•4H2O, Mereiterite K2Fe2+(SO4)2•4H2O, Changoite Na2Zn(SO4)2•4H2O
Alum group, XAl(SO4)2·12H2O
Alum-(K) KAl[SO4]2·12H2O, Alum-(Na) NaAl[SO4]2·12H2O, Tschermigite (NH4)Al(SO4)2•12H2O, Lonecreekite (NH4)(Fe3+,Al)(SO4)2•12H2O, Lanmuchangite TlAl(SO4)2•12H2O
Voltaite group
Voltaite K2(Fe2+)5(Fe3+)3Al(SO4)12•18H2O, Zincovoltaite K2Zn5(Fe3+)3Al(SO4)12•18H2O, Pertlikite K2(Fe2+,Mg)2(Mg,Fe3+)4(Fe3+)2Al(SO4)12•18H2O
Aluminite group
Aluminite Al2(SO4)(OH)4•7(H2O), Mangazeite Al2(SO4)(OH)4•3H2O
Zippeite group
Zippeite K4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•4H2O, Natrozippeite Na4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•4H2O, Magnesiozippeite Mg(H2O)3.5(UO2)2(SO4)O2, Nickelzippeite (Ni2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Zinc-zippeite (Zn2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Cobaltzippeite (Co2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Marecottite Mg3(H2O)18[(UO2)4O3(SO4)2]2•10H2O, Pseudojohannite Cu6.5[(UO2)4O4(SO4)2]2(OH)5•25H2O, IMA2009-008 Y2[(UO2)8O6(SO4)4(OH)2]•26H2O
Copiapite group
Copiapite Fe2+(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Magnesiocopiapite Mg(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Cuprocopiapite Cu(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Ferricopiapite (Fe3+)2/3(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Calciocopiapite Ca(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•19H2O, Zincocopiapite Zn(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•18H2O, Aluminocopiapite Al2/3(Fe3+)4(SO4)6O(OH)2•20H2O
Pb, Zn tellurates
Cheremnykhite Zn3Pb3Te4+O6(VO4)2, Kuksite Pb3Zn3Te6+O6(PO4)2, Dugganite Pb3Zn3Te(As,V,Si)2(O,OH)14, Joelbruggerite Pb3Zn3Sb5+As2O13(OH)
"Halotrichite" supergroup
Hydrated acid and sulfates where A(B)2(XO4)4·xH2O
Halotrichite group
Pickeringite MgAl2(SO4)4•22H2O, Halotrichite Fe2+Al2(SO4)4•22H2O, Apjohnite MnAl2(SO4)4•22H2O, Dietrichite (Zn,Fe2+,Mn)Al2(SO4)4•22H2O, Bilinite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•22H2O, Redingtonite (Fe2+,Mg,Ni)(Cr,Al)2(SO4)4•22H2O, Wupatkiite (Co,Mg,Ni)Al2(SO4)4•22H2O
Ransomite Cu(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•6H2O, Romerite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•14H2O, Lishizhenite Zn(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•14H2O
==== "Kieserite" supergroup ====
Hydrated acid and sulfates where AXO4·xH2O
Kieserite group
Kieserite MgSO4•H2O, Szomolnokite Fe2+SO4•H2O, Szmikite MnSO4•H2O, Poitevinite (Cu,Fe2+,Zn)SO4•H2O, Gunningite (Zn,Mn)SO4•H2O, Dwornikite (Ni,Fe2+)SO4•H2O, Cobaltkieserite CoSO4•H2O
Rozenite group (Monoclinic)
Rozenite Fe2+SO4•4H2O, Starkeyite MgSO4•4H2O, Ilesite (Mn,Zn,Fe2+)SO4•4H2O, Aplowite (Co,Mn,Ni)SO4•4H2O, Boyleite (Zn,Mg)SO4•4H2O, IMA2002-034 CdSO4•4H2O
Chalchanthite group (Triclinic: P-1)
Chalcanthite CuSO4•5H2O, Siderotil Fe2+SO4•5H2O, Pentahydrite MgSO4•5H2O, Jokokuite MnSO4•5H2O
Hexahydrite group (Space group: C2/c)
Hexahydrite MgSO4•6H2O, Bianchite (Zn,Fe2+)(SO4)•6H2O, Ferrohexahydrite Fe2+SO4•6H2O, Nickelhexahydrite (Ni,Mg,Fe2+)(SO4)•6H2O, Moorhouseite (Co,Ni,Mn)SO4•6H2O, Chvaleticeite (Mn2+,Mg)SO4•6H2O
Melanterite group (Heptahydrates, Monoclinic: P21/c)
Melanterite Fe2+SO4•7H2O, Boothite CuSO4•7H2O, Zincmelanterite (Zn,Cu,Fe2+)SO4•7H2O, Bieberite CoSO4•7H2O, Mallardite Mn2+SO4•7H2O, Alpersite (Mg,Cu)SO4•7H2O
Epsomite group
Epsomite MgSO4·7H2O, Goslarite ZnSO4·7H2O, Morenosite NiSO4·7H2O
Minasragrite group
(Monclinic and Triclinic)
Minasragrite VO(SO4)•5H2O, Bobjonesite VO(SO4)H2O3, Anorthominasragrite V4+O(SO4)H2O5
(Orthorhombic)
Stanleyite (V4+O)SO4•6(H2O), Orthominasragrite VO(SO4)•5(H2O)
Bassanite 2CaSO4•H2O, Gypsum CaSO4•2H2O, Sanderite MgSO4•2H2O, Bonattite CuSO4•3H2O, Retgersite NiSO4•6H2O, Meridianiite MgSO4•11H2O
==== Alunite supergroup - Part I ====
Category:Alunite group, A1+(B[3])3(SO4)2(OH)6
Alunite KAl3[(OH)3|SO4]2, Ammonioalunite (NH4)Al3[(OH)3|SO4]2, Ammoniojarosite (NH4)(Fe3+)3(SO4)2(OH)6, Argentojarosite Ag(Fe3+)3(SO4)2(OH)6, Beaverite-Cu Pb(Fe3+,Cu)3(SO4)2(OH)6 (Fe3+:Cu ≈ 2:1), Beaverite-Zn Pb((Fe3+)2Zn)(SO4)2(OH)6, Dorallcharite (Tl,K)(Fe3+)3(SO4)2(OH)6, Huangite Ca0.5Al3(SO4)2(OH)6, Hydroniumjarosite (H3O)(Fe3+)3(SO4)2(OH)6, Jarosite K(Fe3+)3[(OH)3|SO4]2, Natroalunite (Na,K)Al3[(OH)3|SO4], Natrojarosite Na(Fe3+)3(SO4)2(OH)6, Osarizawaite PbCuAl2(SO4)2(OH)6, Plumbojarosite Pb(Fe3+)6(SO4)4(OH)12, Schlossmacherite (H3O,Ca)Al3(AsO4,SO4)2(OH)6, Walthierite Ba0.5Al3(SO4)2(OH)6, Mills et al. (2009)
=== Category 08 ===
Phosphates, Arsenates, Polyvanadates
Category:Arsenate minerals
==== Class: Anhydrous phosphates ====
Triphylite group
Triphylite LiFe2+PO4, Lithiophilite LiMnPO4, Natrophilite NaMnPO4
Retzian series
Retzian-(Ce) Mn2Ce(AsO4)(OH)4, Retzian-(Nd) Mn2(Nd,Ce,La)(AsO4)(OH)4, Retzian-(La) (Mn,Mg)2(La,Ce,Nd)(AsO4)(OH)4
===== "Alluaudite-Wyllieite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. (A+ B2+)5 (XO4)3
Berzeliite group
Berzeliite (Ca,Na)3(Mg,Mn)2(AsO4)3, Manganberzeliite (Ca,Na)3(Mn,Mg)2(AsO4)3, Palenzonaite (Ca,Na)3Mn2+(V5+,As5+,Si)3O12, Schaferite NaCa2Mg2(VO4)3
Alluaudite-Wyllieite group (Alluaudite subgroup I)
Caryinite (Na,Pb)(Ca,Na)(Ca,Mn2+)(Mn2+,Mg)2(AsO4)3, Arseniopleite (Ca,Na)(Na,Pb)Mn2+(Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)2(AsO4)3
Alluaudite-Wyllieite group (Alluaudite subgroup II/ Hagendorfite subgroup)
Ferrohagendorfite* (Na,Ca)2Fe2+(Fe2+,Fe3+)2(PO4)3, Hagendorfite NaCaMn(Fe2+,Fe3+,Mg)2(PO4)3, Varulite NaCaMn(Mn,Fe2+,Fe3+)2(PO4)3, Maghagendorfite NaMgMn(Fe2+,Fe3+)2(PO4)3, Ferroalluaudite NaCaFe2+(Fe2+,Mn,Fe3+,Mg)2(PO4)3, Alluaudite NaCaFe2+(Mn,Fe2+,Fe3+,Mg)2(PO4)3, Odanielite Na(Zn,Mg)3H2(AsO4)3, Johillerite Na(Mg,Zn)3Cu(AsO4)3, Nickenichite Na0.8Ca0.4(Mg,Fe3+,Al)3Cu0.4(AsO4)3, Yazganite Na(Fe3+)2(Mg,Mn)(AsO4)3•H2O, IMA2008-054 NaCaMn2(PO4)[PO3(OH)]2, IMA2008-064 Na16(Mn2+)25Al8(PO4)30
Alluaudite-Wyllieite group (Wyllieite subgroup)
Ferrowyllieite (Na,Ca,Mn)(Fe2+,Mn)(Fe2+,Fe3+,Mg)Al(PO4)3, Wyllieite (Na,Ca,Mn2+)(Mn2+,Fe2+)(Fe 2+, Fe3+,Mg)Al(PO4)3, Rosemaryite (Na,Ca,Mn2+)(Mn2+,Fe2+)(Fe3+,Fe2+,Mg)Al(PO4)3, Qingheiite Na2(Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)(Al,Fe3+)(PO4)3, Bobfergusonite Na2(Mn2+)5Fe3+Al(PO4)6, Bradaczekite NaCu4(AsO4)3, Ferrorosemaryite [ ]NaFe2+Fe3+Al(PO4)3
Fillowite group
Fillowite Na2Ca(Mn,Fe2+)7(PO4)6, Johnsomervilleite Na2Ca(Mg,Fe2+,Mn)7(PO4)6, Chladniite Na2Ca(Mg,Fe2+)7(PO4)6, Galileiite Na(Fe2+)4(PO4)3, Xenophyllite Na4Fe7(PO4)6, Stornesite-(Y) (Y, Ca)[ ]2Na6(Ca,Na)8(Mg,Fe)43(PO4)36
Nabiasite BaMn9[(V,As)O4]6(OH)2
===== "Whitlockite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. (A+ B2+)3 (XO4)2
Sarcopside group
Sarcopside (Fe2+,Mn,Mg)3(PO4)2, Farringtonite Mg3(PO4)2, Chopinite (Mg,Fe)3(PO4)2
Whitlockite group
Whitlockite Ca9(Mg,Fe2+)(PO4)6(PO3OH), Strontiowhitlockite Sr7(Mg,Ca)3(PO4)6[PO3(OH)], Merrillite-(Ca)* (Ca,[ ])19Mg2(PO4)14, Merrillite Ca18Na2Mg2(PO4)14, Merrillite-(Y)* Ca16Y2Mg2(PO4)14, Ferromerrillite Ca9NaFe(PO4)7, Tuite Ca3(PO4)2, Bobdownsite Ca9Mg(PO3F)(PO4)6
Xanthiosite Ni3(AsO4)2, Graftonite (Fe2+,Mn,Ca)3(PO4)2, Beusite (Mn2+,Fe2+,Ca,Mg)3(PO4)2, Stanfieldite Ca4(Mg,Fe2+,Mn)5(PO4)6, Hurlbutite CaBe2(PO4)2, Stranskiite Zn2Cu2+(AsO4)2, Keyite (Cu2+)3(Zn,Cu)4Cd2(AsO4)6•2H2O, Lammerite Cu3[(As,P)O4]2, Mcbirneyite Cu3(VO4)2, Tillmannsite (Ag3Hg)(V,As)O4, IMA2009-002 Cu3(AsO4)2
===== "Monazite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. A+ XO4
Berlinite group
Berlinite AlPO4, Alarsite AlAsO4, Rodolicoite Fe3+PO4
Monazite group (Monoclinic: P21/n)
Monazite-(Ce) (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4, Monazite-(La) (La,Ce,Nd)PO4, Cheralite-(Ce)? (Ce,Ca,Th)(P,Si)O4, Brabantite? CaTh(PO4)2, Monazite-(Nd) (Nd,Ce,La)(P,Si)O4, Gasparite-(Ce) CeAsO4, Monazite-(Sm) SmPO4
Lithiophosphate group
Lithiophosphate Li3PO4, Olympite LiNa5(PO4)2, Nalipoite NaLi2PO4
Zenotime group (Tetragonal: I41/amd)
Xenotime-(Y) YPO4, Chernovite-(Y) YAsO4, Wakefieldite-(Y) YVO4, Wakefieldite-(Ce) (Ce3+,Pb2+,Pb4+)VO4, Pretulite ScPO4, Xenotime-(Yb) YbPO4, Wakefieldite-(La) LaVO4, Wakefieldite-(Nd) NdVO4
Heterosite Fe3+PO4, Purpurite Mn3+PO4, Rooseveltite BiAsO4, Tetrarooseveltite BiAsO4, Pucherite BiVO4, Clinobisvanite BiVO4, Dreyerite BiVO4, Ximengite BiPO4, Kosnarite K(Zr4+)2(PO4)3, Petewilliamsite (Ni,Co,Cu)30(As2O7)15
===== "Adelite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A B)2 (XO4) Zq
Adelite group
Adelite CaMg(AsO4)(OH), Conichalcite CaCu(AsO4)(OH), Austinite CaZn(AsO4)(OH), Duftite-beta? PbCu(AsO4)(OH), Gabrielsonite PbFe2+(AsO4)(OH), Tangeite CaCu(VO4)(OH), Nickelaustinite Ca(Ni,Zn)(AsO4)(OH), Cobaltaustinite CaCo(AsO4)(OH), Arsendescloizite PbZn(AsO4)(OH), Gottlobite CaMg(VO4,AsO4)(OH)
Descloizite group
Descloizite PbZn(VO4)(OH), Mottramite PbCu(VO4)(OH), Pyrobelonite PbMn(VO4)(OH), Cechite Pb(Fe2+,Mn)(VO4)(OH), Duftite-alpha PbCu(AsO4)(OH)
Herderite group
Herderite CaBe(PO4)F, Hydroxylherderite CaBe(PO4)(OH), Vayrynenite MnBe(PO4)(OH,F), Bergslagite CaBe(AsO4)(OH)
Lacroixite group
Lacroixite NaAl(PO4)F, Durangite NaAl(AsO4)F, Maxwellite NaFe3+(AsO4)F
Tilasite group
Tilasite CaMg(AsO4)F, Isokite CaMg(PO4)F, Panasqueiraite CaMg(PO4)(OH,F)
Amblygonite group
Amblygonite (Li,Na)Al(PO4)(F,OH), Montebrasite? LiAl(PO4)(OH,F), Natromontebrasite? (Na,Li)Al(PO4)(OH,F)
Dussertite group
Dussertite Ba(Fe3+)3(AsO4)2(OH)5, Florencite-(Ce) CeAl3(PO4)2(OH)6, Florencite-(La) (La,Ce)Al3(PO4)2(OH)6, Florencite-(Nd) (Nd,Ce)Al3(PO4)2(OH)6
Arsenoflorencite group
Arsenoflorencite-(Ce) (Ce,La)Al3(AsO4)2(OH)6, Arsenoflorencite-(Nd)* (Nd,La,Ce,Ba)(Al,Fe3+)3(AsO4,PO4)2(OH)6, Arsenoflorencite-(La)* (La,Sr)Al3(AsO4,SO4,PO4)2(OH)6, Graulichite-(Ce) Ce(Fe3+)3(AsO4)2(OH)6
Waylandite group
Waylandite BiAl3(PO4)2(OH)6, Eylettersite (Th,Pb)(1-x)Al3(PO4,SiO4)2(OH)6 (?), Zairite Bi(Fe3+,Al)3(PO4)2(OH)6, Arsenogorceixite BaAl3AsO3(OH)(AsO4,PO4)(OH,F)6
Babefphite BaBe(PO4)(F,O), Brazilianite NaAl3(PO4)2(OH)4, Tavorite LiFe3+(PO4)(OH), Vesignieite Cu3Ba(VO4)2(OH)2, Bayldonite (Cu,Zn)3Pb(AsO3OH)2(OH)2, Curetonite Ba4Al3Ti(PO4)4(O,OH)6, Thadeuite (Ca,Mn2+)(Mg,Fe2+,Mn3+)3(PO4)2(OH,F)2, Leningradite Pb(Cu2+)3(VO4)2Cl2, Arctite Na2Ca4(PO4)3F, Wilhelmkleinite Zn(Fe3+)3(AsO4)2(OH)2, Artsmithite Hg+4Al(PO4)1.74(OH)1.78
===== "Olivenite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A)2 (XO4) Zq
Zwieselite group
Zwieselite (Fe2+,Mn)2(PO4)F, Triplite (Mn,Fe2+,Mg,Ca)2(PO4)(F,OH), Magniotriplite? (Mg,Fe2+,Mn)2(PO4)F
Wagnerite group
Wagnerite (Mg,Fe2+)2(PO4)F, Hydroxylwagnerite Mg2(PO4)(OH)
Wolfeite group
Wolfeite (Fe2+,Mn2+)2(PO4)(OH), Triploidite (Mn,Fe2+)2(PO4)(OH), Sarkinite (Mn2+)2(AsO4)(OH), Stanekite Fe3+(Mn,Fe2+,Mg)(PO4)O, Joosteite (Mn2+,Mn3+,Fe3+)2(PO4)O
Satterlyite group
Satterlyite (Fe2+,Mg)2(PO4)(OH), Holtedahlite Mg12(PO3OH,CO3)(PO4)5(OH,O)6
Olivenite group
Olivenite subgroup
Adamite Zn2(AsO4)(OH), Eveite (Mn2+)2[OH|AsO4], Libethenite Cu2PO4OH, Olivenite Cu2[OH|AsO4], Zincolivenite CuZn(AsO4)(OH), Zincolibethenite CuZn(PO4)OH
Tarbuttite subgroup
Tarbuttite Zn2PO4OH, Paradamite Zn2[OH|AsO4]
Althausite Mg2(PO4)(OH,F,O), Augelite Al2(PO4)(OH)3, Arsenobismite? Bi2(AsO4)(OH)3, Angelellite (Fe3+)4(AsO4)2O3, Spodiosite? Ca2(PO4)F
===== "Arrojadite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A B)m (XO4)4 Zq
Palermoite group
Palermoite (Sr,Ca)(Li,Na)2Al4(PO4)4(OH)4, Bertossaite Li2CaAl4(PO4)4(OH)4
Arrojadite group (Arrojadite subgroup) (Al in Al site, OH in W site, Fe in M site)
Arrojadite KNa4Ca(Mn2+)4(Fe2+)10Al(PO4)12(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(KNa) KNa4Ca(Fe,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(KFe) KNa2CaNa2(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(NaFe) NaNa2CaNa2(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(BaNa) BaFe2+Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(BaFe) (Ba,K,Pb)Na3(Ca,Sr)(Fe2+,Mg,Mn)14Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(SrFe) SrFe2+Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2, Arrojadite-(PbFe) PbFe2+Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(OH,F)2
Arrojadite group (Fluorarrojadite subgroup) (Al in Al site, F in W site, Fe in M site)
Fluorarrojadite-(KNa) KNa4Ca(Fe,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(F,OH)2, Fluorarrojadite-(BaNa) BaFe2+Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(F,OH)2, Fluorarrojadite-(BaFe) (Ba,K,Pb)Na3(Ca,Sr)(Fe2+,Mg,Mn)14Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(F,OH)2
Arrojadite group (Dickinsonite subgroup) (Fe in Al site, OH in W site, Fe in M site)
Dickinsonite? KNa4Ca(Mn2+,Fe2+)14Al(PO4)12(OH)2, Dickinsonite-(KMnNa) KNaMnNa3Ca(Mn,Fe,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO4)(OH,F)2, Dickinsonite-(KNaNa) KNaNa4Ca(Mn,Fe,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO4)(OH,F)2, Dickinsonite-(KNa) KNa4Ca(Mn,Fe,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO4)(OH,F)2, Dickinsonite-(NaNa) Na2Na4Ca(Mn,Fe,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO4)(OH,F)2
Ferri-arrojadite-(BaNa) BaFe2+Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)13Al(PO4)11(PO3OH)(F,OH)2
Lulzacite Sr2Fe2+(Fe2+,Mg)2Al4(PO4)4(OH)10
===== "Apatite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A)5 (XO4)3 Zq
Morelandite group
Morelandite (Ba,Ca,Pb)5(AsO4,PO4)3Cl, Alforsite Ba5(PO4)3Cl
Clinomimetite group
Clinomimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl, Apatite-(CaOH)-M (Ca,Na)5[(P,S)O4]3(OH,Cl)
Apatite group
Apatite* Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl), Apatite-(CaF) Ca5(PO4)3F, Apatite-(CaCl) Ca5(PO4)3Cl, Apatite-(CaOH) Ca5(PO4)3(OH), Carbonate-fluorapatite? Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F, Carbonate-hydroxylapatite? Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH), Belovite-(Ce) (Sr,Ce,Na,Ca)5(PO4)3(OH), Belovite-(La) (Sr,La,Ce,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH), Kuannersuite-(Ce) Ba6Na2REE2(PO4)6FCl, Apatite-(SrOH) (Sr,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH), Fluorcaphite (Ca,Sr,Ce,Na)5(PO4)3F, Deloneite-(Ce) NaCa2SrCe(PO4)3F, Phosphohedyphane Ca2Pb3(PO4)3Cl, IMA2008-009 Sr5(PO4)3F, IMA2008-068 Ca2Pb3(PO4)3F
Svabite group
Svabite Ca5(AsO4)3F, Turneaureite Ca5[(As,P)O4]3Cl, Johnbaumite Ca5(AsO4)3(OH), Fermorite (Ca,Sr)5(AsO4,PO4)3(OH)
Hedyphane Ca2Pb3(AsO4)3Cl, Phosphohedyphane Ca2Pb3(PO4)3Cl
Pyromorphite group
Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl, Mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl, Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl, Hydroxylpyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3OH

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---
title: "Classification of non-silicate minerals"
chunk: 4/4
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---
===== "Rockbridgeite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A B)5 (XO4)3 Zq
Kulanite group
Kulanite Ba(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Penikisite BaMg2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Bjarebyite (Ba,Sr)(Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg)2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Perloffite Ba(Mn,Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)3(OH)3, Johntomaite Ba(Fe2+,Ca,Mn2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)3(OH)3
Rockbridgeite group
Rockbridgeite (Fe2+,Mn)(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5, Frondelite Mn2+(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5, Plimerite Zn(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5
Griphite Ca(Mn,Na,Li)6Fe2+Al2(PO4)6(F,OH)2
===== "Lazulite" supergroup =====
Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A2+ B2+)3 (XO4)2 Zq
Lazulite group
Lazulite MgAl2(PO4)2(OH)2, Scorzalite (Fe2+,Mg)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2, Hentschelite Cu2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2, Barbosalite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2
Lipscombite group
Lipscombite (Fe2+,Mn2+)(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2, Zinclipscombite Zn(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2
Goedkenite group
Goedkenite (Sr,Ca)2Al(PO4)2(OH), Bearthite Ca2Al(PO4)2(OH), Gamagarite Ba2(Fe3+,Mn3+)(VO4)2(OH), Tokyoite Ba2Mn(VO4)2(OH)
Carminite group
Carminite Pb(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2, Sewardite Ca(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2
Mounanaite group
Mounanaite Pb(Fe3+)2(VO4)2(OH)2, Krettnichite Pb(Mn3+)2(VO4)2(OH)2
Preisingerite group
Preisingerite Bi3(AsO4)2O(OH), Schumacherite Bi3[(V,As,P)O4]2O(OH)
Jagowerite BaAl2(PO4)2(OH)2, Melonjosephite CaFe2+Fe3+(PO4)2(OH), Samuelsonite (Ca,Ba)Ca8(Fe2+,Mn)4Al2(PO4)10(OH)2, Petitjeanite (Bi3+)3(PO4)2O(OH), Drugmanite Pb2(Fe3+,Al)H(PO4)2(OH)2
==== Class: Hydrated phosphates ====
Hureaulite group
Hureaulite Mn5(PO3OH)2(PO4)2•4H2O, Sainfeldite Ca5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, Villyaellenite (Mn2+)5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, IMA2008-047 Cd3Zn2(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, IMA2008-066 Mn5(H2O)4(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2
Lindackerite group
Lindackerite CuCu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•~9H2O, Braithwaiteite NaCu5(Ti,Sb)2O2(AsO4)4[AsO3(OH)]2•8H2O, Veselovskyite (Zn,Cu,Co)Cu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•9H2O, IMA2008-010 CaCu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•10H2O
Struvite group
Struvite (NH4)MgPO4•6H2O, Struvite-(K) KMg(PO4)•6H2O, Hazenite KNaMg2(PO4)2•14H2O
Autunite group
Formula: A(UO2)2(XO4)2·(10-12)H2O
A = Cu, Ca, Ba, or Mg; X = P or As.
Autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Heinrichite Ba(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Kahlerite Fe2+(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Novacekite-I Mg(UO2)2(AsO4)2•12H2O, Sabugalite HAl(UO2)4(PO4)4•16H2O, Saleeite Mg(UO2)2(PO4)2•10H2O, Torbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2•(8-12)H2O, Uranocircite Ba(UO2)2(PO4)2•12H2O, Uranospinite Ca(UO2)2(AsO4)2•10H2O, Zeunerite Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-16)H2O
Meta-autunite group
Formula: A(UO2)2(XO4)2·nH2O (n = 6, 7 or 8)
A = Cu, Ca, Ba, or Mg and X = P or As.
Abernathyite K2(UO2)2(AsO4)2·6H2O, Bassetite Fe2+(UO2)2(PO4)2·8H2O, Chernikovite (H3O)2(UO2)2(PO4)2·6H2O, Lehnerite Mn2+(UO2)2(PO4)2·8H2O, Meta-ankoleite K2(UO2)2(PO4)2·6H2O, Meta-autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·(6-8)H2O, Metakahlerite Fe2+(UO2)2(AsO4)2•8H2O, Metakirchheimerite Co(UO2)2(AsO4)2•8H2O, Metalodevite Zn(UO2)2(AsO4)2•10H2O, Metanovacekite Mg(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(4-8)H2O, Metatorbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2•8H2O, Metauranocircite Ba(UO2)2(PO4)2•(6-8)H2O, Metauranospinite Ca(UO2)2(AsO4)2•8H2O, Metazeunerite Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2•8H2O, Natrouranospinite (Na2,Ca)(UO2)2(AsO4)2•5H2O, Sodium Meta-autunite Na2(UO2)2(PO4)2•(6-8)H2O, Uramarsite (NH4,H3O)2(UO2)2(AsO4,PO4)2•6H2O, Uramphite (NH4)(UO2)(PO4)•3H2O
Vivianite group
Vivianite (Fe2+)3(PO4)2•8H2O, Baricite (Mg,Fe2+)3(PO4)2•8H2O, Erythrite Co3(AsO4)2•8H2O, Annabergite Ni3(AsO4)2•8H2O, Köttigite Zn3(AsO4)2•8H2O, Parasymplesite (Fe2+)3(AsO4)2•8H2O, Hornesite Mg3(AsO4)2•8H2O, Arupite (Ni,Fe2+)3(PO4)2•8H2O, Pakhomovskyite Co3(PO4)2•8H2O
Walpurgite group
Walpurgite Bi4(UO2)(AsO4)2O4•2H2O, Orthowalpurgite (UO2)Bi4O4(AsO4)2•2H2O, Phosphowalpurgite (UO2)Bi4(PO4)O4•2H2O
Roscherite group
Roscherite Ca(Mn2+,Fe2+)5Be4(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O, Zanazziite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)(Mg,Fe2+,Al,Mn,Fe3+)4Be4(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O, Greifensteinite Ca2Be4(Fe2+,Mn)5(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O, Atencioite Ca2Fe2+[ ]Mg2(Fe2+)2Be4(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O, Guimaraesite Ca2(Zn,Mg,Fe)5Be4(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O, Footemineite Ca2Mn2+(Mn2+)2(Mn2+)2Be4(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O, Ruifrancoite Ca2([ ],Mn)2(Fe3+,Mn,Mg)4Be4(PO4)6(OH)4•6H2O
Pharmacosiderite group
Pharmacosiderite K(Fe3+)4(AsO4)3(OH)4•(6-7H)2O, Alumopharmacosiderite KAl4(AsO4)3(OH)4•6•5H2O, Bariopharmacosiderite Ba(Fe3+)4(AsO4)3(OH)5•5H2O, Barium-alumopharmacosiderite? BaAl4(AsO4)3(OH)5•5H2O, Natropharmacosiderite (Na,K)2(Fe3+)4(AsO4)3(OH)5•7H2O
08.CE.75 group
Malhmoodite FeZr(PO4)2·4H2O, Zigrasite ZnZr(PO4)2·4H2O, Unnamed (Ca-analogue of zigrasite) CaZr(PO4)2·4H2O
"Variscite" supergroup
Hydrated phosphates, etc. where A3+ XO4 · xH2O
Variscite group
Variscite AlPO4•2H2O, Strengite Fe3+PO4•2H2O, Scorodite Fe3+AsO4•2H2O, Mansfieldite AlAsO4•2H2O, Yanomamite In(AsO4)•2H2O
Metavariscite group
Metavariscite AlPO4•2H2O, Phosphosiderite Fe3+PO4•2H2O, Kolbeckite ScPO4•2H2O
Rhabdophane group
Rhabdophane-(Ce) (Ce,La)PO4•H2O, Rhabdophane-(La) (La,Ce)PO4•H2O, Rhabdophane-(Nd) (Nd,Ce,La)PO4•H2O, Grayite (Th,Pb,Ca)PO4•H2O, Brockite (Ca,Th,Ce)(PO4)•H2O, Tristramite (Ca,U4+,Fe3+)(PO4,SO4)•2H2O
Ningyoite group
Ningyoite (U,Ca,Ce)2(PO4)2•(1-2)H2O, Lermontovite U4+(PO4)(OH)•H2O (?), Vyacheslavite U4+(PO4)(OH)•2.5H2O
Koninckite Fe3+PO4•3H2O (?), Kankite Fe3+AsO4•3.5H2O, Steigerite AlVO4•3H2O, Churchite-(Y) YPO4•2H2O, Churchite-(Nd) Nd(PO4)•2H2O, Parascorodite Fe3+AsO4•2H2O, Serrabrancaite MnPO4•H2O
"Mixite" supergroup
Hydrated phosphates, etc., containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A)2 (XO4) Zq · xH2O
Mixite group (Arsenate series)
Mixite BiCu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Agardite-(Y) (Y,Ca)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Agardite-(La) (La,Ca)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Agardite-(Nd) (Pb,Nd,Y,La,Ca)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Agardite-(Dy) (Dy,La,Ca)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Agardite-(Ca) CaCu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Agardite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Goudeyite (Al,Y)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Zalesiite (Ca,Y)Cu6[(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)(OH)6]•3H2O, Plumboagardite (Pb,REE,Ca)Cu6(AsO4)3(OH)6•3H2O
Mixite group (Phosphate series)
Petersite-(Y) (Y,Ce,Nd,Ca)Cu6(PO4)3(OH)6•3H2O, Calciopetersite CaCu6[(PO4)2(PO3OH)(OH)6]•3H2O
Zapatalite Cu3Al4(PO4)3(OH)9•4H2O, Juanitaite (Cu,Ca,Fe)10Bi(AsO4)4(OH)11•2H2O
===== "Brackebushite" supergroup =====
Hydrated phosphates, etc. where A2+ (B2+)2 (XO4) · xH2O
Fairfieldite subgroup
Fairfieldite Ca2(Mn,Fe2+)(PO4)2•2H2O, Messelite Ca2(Fe2+,Mn)(PO4)2•2H2O, Collinsite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)(PO4)2•2H2O, Cassidyite Ca2(Ni,Mg)(PO4)2•2H2O, Talmessite Ca2Mg(AsO4)2•2H2O, Gaitite Ca2Zn(AsO4)2•2H2O, Roselite-beta Ca2(Co,Mg)(AsO4)2•2H2O, Parabrandtite Ca2Mn2+(AsO4)•2H2O, Hillite Ca2(Zn, Mg)[PO4]2•2H2O, Nickeltalmessite Ca2Ni(AsO4)2•2H2O
Roselite subgroup
Roselite Ca2(Co,Mg)(AsO4)2•2H2O, Brandtite Ca2(Mn,Mg)(AsO4)2•2H2O, Zincroselite Ca2Zn(AsO4)2•2H2O, Wendwilsonite Ca2(Mg,Co)(AsO4)2•2H2O, Manganlotharmeyerite Ca(Mn3+,Mg,)2(AsO4)2(OH,H2O)2
Brackebushite group
Brackebuschite Pb2(Mn,Fe2+)(VO4)2(OH), Arsenbrackebuschite Pb2(Fe2+,Zn)(AsO4)2•H2O, Feinglosite Pb2(Zn,Fe)[(As,S)O4]2•H2O, Calderonite Pb2Fe3+(VO4)2(OH), Bushmakinite Pb2Al(PO4)(VO4)(OH)
Helmutwinklerite subgroup
Tsumcorite PbZnFe2+(AsO4)2•H2O, Helmutwinklerite PbZn2(AsO4)2•2H2O, Thometzekite Pb(Cu,Zn)2(AsO4)2•2H2O, Mawbyite Pb(Fe3+Zn)2(AsO4)2(OH,H2O)2, Rappoldite Pb(Co,Ni,Zn,)2(AsO4)2•2H2O, Schneebergite Bi(Co,Ni)2(AsO4)2(OH,H2O)2, Nickelschneebergite Bi(Ni,Co)2(AsO4)2(OH,H2O)2, Cobalttsumcorite Pb(Co,Fe)2(AsO4)2(OH,H2O)2
Unnamed group
Wicksite NaCa2(Fe2+,Mn2+)4MgFe3+(PO4)6•2H2O, Bederite ([ ],Na)Ca2(Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)2(Fe3+,Mg2+,Al)2Mn2+2(PO4)6•2H2O, Tassieite (Na,[ ])Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)2(Fe3+,Mg)2(Fe2+,Mg)2(PO4)6•2H2O
Anapaite Ca2Fe2+(PO4)2•4H2O, Prosperite CaZn2(AsO4)2•H2O, Parascholzite CaZn2(PO4)2•2H2O, Scholzite CaZn2(PO4)2•2H2O, Phosphophyllite Zn2(Fe2+,Mn)(PO4)2•4H2O, Cabalzarite Ca(Mg,Al,Fe2+)2(AsO4)2(H2O,OH)2, Grischunite NaCa2(Mn2+)5Fe3+(AsO4)6•2H2O
===== "Turquoise" supergroup =====
Hydrated phosphates, etc., containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A)3 (XO4)2 Zq · xH2O
Burangaite group
Burangaite (Na,Ca)2(Fe2+,Mg)2Al10(PO4)8(OH,O)12•4H2O, Dufrenite Fe2+(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5•2H2O, Natrodufrenite Na(Fe3+,Fe2+)(Fe3+,Al)5(PO4)4(OH)6•2H2O, Matioliite NaMgAl5(PO4)4(OH)6•2H2O, IMA2008-056 NaMn2+(Fe3+)5(PO4)4(OH)6•2H2O
Souzalite group
Souzalite (Mg,Fe2+)3(Al,Fe3+)4(PO4)4(OH)6•2H2O, Gormanite Fe2+3Al4(PO4)4(OH)6•2H2O, Andyrobertsite KCdCu5(AsO4)4[As(OH)2O2]•2H2O, Calcioandyrobertsite-1M KCaCu5(AsO4)4[As(OH)2O2]•2H2O, Calcioandyrobertsite-2O KCaCu5(AsO4)4[As(OH)2O2]•2H2O
Turquoise group
Aheylite (Fe2+,Zn)Al6[(OH)4|(PO4)2]2·4H2O, Chalcosiderite Cu(Fe3+,Al)6[(OH)4|(PO4)2]2·4H2O, Faustite (Zn,Cu)Al6[(OH)4|(PO4)2]2·4H2O, Planerite Al6[(OH)4|HPO4|PO4]2·4H2O, Turquoise Cu(Al,Fe3+)6[(OH)4|(PO4)2]2·4H2O
Unnamed group
Sampleite NaCaCu5(PO4)4Cl•5H2O, Lavendulan NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl•5H2O, Zdenekite NaPb(Cu2+)5(AsO4)4Cl•5H2O, Mahnertite (Na,Ca)(Cu2+)3(AsO4)2Cl•5H2O, Lemanskiite NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl•5H2O
Duhamelite? Pb2Cu4Bi(VO4)4(OH)3•8H2O, Santafeite (Mn,Fe,Al,Mg)2(Mn4+,Mn2+)2(Ca,Sr,Na)3(VO4,AsO4)4(OH)3•2H2O, Ogdensburgite Ca2(Zn,Mn)(Fe3+)4(AsO4)4(OH)6•6H2O, Dewindtite Pb3[H(UO2)3O2(PO4)2]2•12H2O
===== "Overite" supergroup =====
Hydrated phosphates, etc., containing hydroxyl or halogen where (AB)4 (XO4)3 Zq · xH2O
Overite group
Overite CaMgAl(PO4)2(OH)•4H2O, Segelerite CaMgFe3+(PO4)2(OH)•4H2O, Manganosegelerite (Mn,Ca)(Mn,Fe2+,Mg)Fe3+(PO4)2(OH)•4H2O, Lunokite (Mn,Ca)(Mg,Fe2+,Mn)Al(PO4)2(OH)•4H2O, Wilhelmvierlingite CaMn2+Fe3+(PO4)2(OH)•2H2O, Kaluginite* (Mn2+,Ca)MgFe3+(PO4)2(OH)•4H2O, Juonniite CaMgSc(PO4)2(OH)•4H2O
Jahnsite group
Jahnsite-(CaMnMg) CaMnMg2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Jahnsite-(CaMnFe) CaMn2+(Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Jahnsite-(CaMnMn) CaMn2+(Mn2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Jahnsite-(MnMnMn)* MnMnMn2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O
Whiteite group
Whiteite-(CaFeMg) Ca(Fe2+,Mn2+)Mg2Al2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Whiteite-(MnFeMg) (Mn2+,Ca)(Fe2+,Mn2+)Mg2Al2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Whiteite-(CaMnMg) CaMn2+Mg2Al2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Rittmannite Mn2+Mn2+Fe2+Al2(OH)2(PO4)4•8H2O, Jahnsite-(CaFeFe) (Ca,Mn)(Fe2+,Mn2+)(Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Jahnsite-(NaFeMg) NaFe3+Mg2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Jahnsite-(CaMgMg) CaMgMg2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O, Jahnsite-(NaMnMg) NaMnMg2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•8H2O
Leucophosphite group
Leucophosphite K(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)•2H2O, Tinsleyite KAl2(PO4)2(OH)•2H2O, Spheniscidite (NH4,K)(Fe3+,Al)2(PO4)2(OH)•2H2O
Montgomeryite group
Montgomeryite Ca4MgAl4(PO4)6(OH)4•12H2O, Kingsmountite (Ca,Mn2+)4(Fe2+,Mn2+)Al4(PO4)6(OH)4•12H2O, Calcioferrite Ca4Fe2+(Fe3+,Al)4(PO4)6(OH)4•12H2O, Zodacite Ca4Mn2+(Fe3+)4(PO4)6(OH)4•12H2O, Angastonite CaMgAl2(PO4)2(OH)4•7H2O
Strunzite group
Strunzite Mn2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•6H2O, Ferrostrunzite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•6H2O, Ferristrunzite Fe3+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)3•5H2O
Laueite group
Laueite Mn2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Stewartite Mn2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Pseudolaueite Mn2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•(7-8)H2O, Ushkovite Mg(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Ferrolaueite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O
Gatumbaite group
Gatumbaite CaAl2(PO4)2(OH)2•H2O, Kleemanite ZnAl2(PO4)2(OH)2•3H2O
Vanuralite group
Vanuralite Al(UO2)2(VO4)2(OH)•11H2O, Metavanuralite Al(UO2)2(VO4)2(OH)•8H2O, Threadgoldite Al(UO2)2(PO4)2(OH)•8H2O, Chistyakovaite Al(UO2)2(AsO4)2(F,OH)•6.5H2O
Vauxite group
Vauxite Fe2+Al2(PO4)2(OH)2•6H2O, Paravauxite Fe2+Al2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Sigloite Fe3+Al2(PO4)2(OH)3•5H2O, Gordonite MgAl2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Mangangordonite (Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Kastningite (Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Maghrebite MgAl2(AsO4)2(OH)2•8H2O
Bermanite group
Bermanite Mn2+(Mn3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, Ercitite Na2(H2O)4[(Mn3+)2(OH)2(PO4)2]
Arthurite group/ Whitmoreite group
Whitmoreite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, Arthurite Cu(Fe3+)2(AsO4,PO4,SO4)2(O,OH)2•4H2O, Ojuelaite Zn(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, Earlshannonite (Mn,Fe2+)(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, Gladiusite (Fe2+)2(Fe3+,Mg)4(PO4)(OH)13•H2O, Cobaltarthurite Co(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, Kunatite Cu(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2•4H2O, Bendadaite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2•4H2O
Sincosite group
Sincosite Ca(V4+O)2(PO4)2•5H2O, Phosphovanadylite (Ba,Ca,K,Na)x[(V,Al)4P2(O,OH)16]•12H2O x~0.66, Bariosincosite Ba(V4+O)2(PO4)2•4H2O
Paulkerrite group
Paulkerrite K(Mg,Mn)2(Fe3+,Al)2Ti(PO4)4(OH)3•15H2O, Mantienneite KMg2Al2Ti(PO4)4(OH)3•15H2O, Matveevite? KTiMn2(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)3•15H2O, Benyacarite (H2O,K)2Ti(Mn2+,Fe2+)2(Fe3+,Ti)2Ti(PO4)4(O,F)2•14H2O
Keckite Ca(Mn,Zn)2(Fe3+)3(PO4)4(OH)3•2H2O, Minyulite KAl2(PO4)2(OH,F)•4H2O, Giniite Fe2+(Fe3+)4(PO4)4(OH)2•2H2O, Metavauxite Fe2+Al2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Metavauxite Fe2+Al2(PO4)2(OH)2•8H2O, Xanthoxenite Ca4(Fe3+)2(PO4)4(OH)2•3H2O, Beraunite Fe2+(Fe3+)5(PO4)4(OH)5•4H2O, Furongite Al2(UO2)(PO4)3(OH)2•8H2O, Mcauslanite H(Fe2+)3Al2(PO4)4F•18H2O, Vochtenite (Fe2+,Mg)Fe3+[(UO2)(PO4)]4(OH)•(12-13)H2O
===== Alunite supergroup - Part II =====
Beudantite group, AB3(XO4)(SO4)(OH)6
Beudantite PbFe3[(OH)6|SO4|AsO4], Corkite PbFe3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6, Gallobeudantite PbGa3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6, Hidalgoite PbAl3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6, Hinsdalite PbAl3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6, Kemmlitzite (Sr,Ce)Al3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6, Svanbergite SrAl3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6, Weilerite BaAl3H[(As,P)O4]2(OH)6, Woodhouseite CaAl3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6
Dussertite group/ Arsenocrandallite group
Arsenocrandallite (Ca,Sr)Al3[(As,P)O4]2(OH)5•H2O, Arsenoflorencite-(Ce) (Ce,La)Al3(AsO4)2(OH), Arsenogorceixite BaAl3AsO3(OH)(AsO4,PO4)(OH,F)6, Arsenogoyazite (Sr,Ca,Ba)Al3(AsO4,PO4)2(OH,F)5•H2O, Dussertite Ba(Fe3+)3(AsO4)2(OH)5, Graulichite-(Ce) Ce(Fe3+)3(AsO4)2(OH)6, Philipsbornite PbAl3(AsO4)2(OH)5•H2O, Segnitite Pb(Fe3+)3H(AsO4)2(OH)6
Plumbogummite group/ Crandallite group
Benauite HSr(Fe3+)3(PO4)2(OH)6, Crandallite CaAl3[(OH)5|(PO4)2]·H2O, Eylettersite (Th,Pb)(1-x)Al3(PO4,SiO4)2(OH)6(?), Florencite-(Ce) CeAl3(PO4)2(OH)6, Florencite-(La) LaAl3(PO4)2(OH)6, Florencite-(Nd) (Nd,La,Ce)Al3(PO4)2(OH)6, Gorceixite BaAl3(PO4)(PO3OH)(OH)6, Goyazite SrAl3(PO4)2(OH)5•H2O, Kintoreite Pb(Fe3+)3(PO4)2(OH,H2O)6, Plumbogummite PbAl3(PO4)2(OH)5•H2O, Springcreekite BaV3(PO4)2(OH,H2O)6, Waylandite BiAl3(PO4)2(OH)6, Zairite Bi(Fe3+,Al)3(PO4)2(OH)6, Mills et al. (2009)
==== Class: Non simple phosphates ====
Stibiconite group
Stibiconite Sb3+(Sb5+)2O6(OH), Bindheimite Pb2Sb2O6(O,OH), Romeite (Ca,Fe2+,Mn,Na)2(Sb,Ti)2O6(O,OH,F), Hydroxycalcioroméite (Lewisite) (Ca,Fe2+,Na)2(Sb,Ti)2O7, Monimolite (Pb,Ca)2Sb2O7, Stetefeldtite Ag2Sb2O6(O,OH), Bismutostibiconite Bi(Sb5+,Fe3+)2O7, Partzite Cu2Sb2(O,OH)7 (?)
Rossite group
Rossite CaV2O6•4H2O, Metarossite CaV2O6•2H2O, Ansermetite MnV2O6•4H2O
Pascoite group
Pascoite Ca3V10O28•17H2O, Magnesiopascoite Ca2Mg[V10O28]•16H2O
Vanadium oxysalts (Hydrated)
Hewettite group
Hewettite CaV6O16•9H2O, Metahewettite CaV6O16•3H2O, Barnesite Na2V6O16•3H2O, Hendersonite Ca1.3V6O16•6H2O, Grantsite Na4Cax(V4+)2xV5+(12-2x)O32•8H2O
Straczekite group
Straczekite (Ca,K,Ba)(V5+,V4+)8O20•3H2O, Corvusite (Na,Ca,K)V8O20•4H2O), Fernandinite CaV8O20•4H2O, Bariandite Al0.6V8O20•9H2O, Bokite (Al,Fe3+)1.3(V4+,Fe)8O20•4.7H2O, Kazakhstanite (Fe3+)5(V4+)3(V5+)12O39(OH)9•9H2O
Schubnelite Fe2+(V5+O4)H2O, Fervanite (Fe3+)4(VO4)4•5H2O, Bannermanite (Na,K)0.7(V5+)6O15, Melanovanadite Ca(V4+)2(V5+)2O10•5H2O
Anhydrous Molybdates and Tungstates where A XO4
Wolframite series
Wolframite* (Fe,Mn)WO4, Hubnerite MnWO4, Ferberite Fe2+WO4, Sanmartinite (Zn,Fe2+)WO4, Heftetjernite ScTaO4
Scheelite series
Scheelite CaWO4, Powellite CaMoO4
Wulfenite Series
Wulfenite PbMoO4, Stolzite PbWO4
Raspite PbWO4
=== Category 10 ===
Organic Compounds
Category:Coal
Category:Oil shale
==== Class: Organic minerals ====
Category:Oxalate minerals
=== Extras ===
Rocks, ores and other mixtures of minerals
Lapislazuli*, Psilomelane*, Olivine* (Fayalite-Forsterite Series)
Ice
Liquids: Water, Mercury Hg, Asphaltum*
Amorphous solids: Polycrase, Pyrobitumen*, Amber*
Vitreous (melts by heating): Tektite, Obsidian
== See also ==
Classification of silicate minerals – List of IMA recognized minerals and groupings
Crystal system – Classification of crystalline materials by their three-dimensional structural geometry
List of rock types
== References ==

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title: "Classification of silicate minerals"
chunk: 1/3
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---
This list gives an overview of the classification of minerals (silicates) and includes mostly International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association series of articles and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, non-IMA approved minerals and non-named minerals are mostly excluded.
== Classification of minerals ==
=== Introduction ===
The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series) between New Dana Classification and mindat.org. Category, class and supergroup name endings are used as layout tools in the list as well.
==== Abbreviations ====
"*" – mineral not IMA-approved.
"Q" – doubtful/questionable.
Rn – renaming.
Rd – redefinition.
"REE" – rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu).
"PGE" – platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt).
"s.p." – special procedure.
=== Category '9': silicate minerals ===
Unclassified silicates
==== Subclass '9.A': nesosilicates ====
Zircon group: MSiO4 (a group of simple tetragonal silicates where M = tetravalent Zr, Th, or Hf)
Hafnon HfSiO4, Stetindite Ce[SiO4], Thorite (Th,U)SiO4, Zircon ZrSiO4, Coffinite U(SiO4)1−x(OH)4x, Thorogummite Th(SiO4)1−x(OH)4x, IMA2008-035 CeSiO4
Olivine group
Calcio-Olivine Ca2SiO4, Fayalite (Fe2+)2[SiO4], Forsterite Mg2[SiO4], Laihunite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SiO4)2, Liebenbergite (Ni,Mg)2[SiO4], Olivine (Mg,Fe2+)2[SiO4], Tephroite (Mn2+)2[SiO4]
Phenakite group
Phenakite Be2SiO4, Willemite Zn2SiO4, Eucryptite LiAlSiO4
Al2(SiO4)O
Sillimanite subgroup
Sillimanite Al[6]Al[4]OSiO4, Mullite Al(4+2x)Si(2−2x)O(10−x) (x=0.17 to 0.59), Boromullite Al4.5SiB0.5O9.5
Andalusite subgroup
Andalusite Al[6]Al[5]OSiO4, Kanonaite (Mn3+,Al)AlSiO5, Yoderite Mg2(Al,Fe3+)6Si4O18(OH)2
Kyanite Al[6]Al[6]OSiO4
Titanite group
Titanite CaTiSiO5, Malayaite CaSnOSiO4, Vanadomalayaite CaVOSiO4
Cerite group
Cerite-(Ce) (Ce3+)9Fe3+(SiO4)6[(SiO3)(OH)](OH)3, Cerite-(La) (La,Ce,Ca)9(Mg,Fe3+)(SiO4)6[SiO3(OH)](OH)3, Aluminocerite-(Ce) (Ce,REE,Ca)9(Al,Fe3+)(SiO4)3[SiO3(OH)]4(OH)3
Silicate apatites
Ellestadite* Ca5(SiO4,PO4,SO4)3(F,OH,Cl), Britholite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca,Th,La,Nd)5(SiO4,PO4)3(OH,F), Britholite-(Y) (Y,Ca)5(SiO4,PO4)3(OH,F), Ellestadite-(F) Ca5(SiO4,PO4,SO4)3(F,OH,Cl), Ellestadite-(OH) Ca5(SiO4,SO4)3(OH,Cl,F), Ellestadite-(Cl) Ca5(SiO4,PO4,SO4)3(Cl,OH,F), Mattheddleite Pb20(SiO4)7(SO4)4Cl4, Karnasurtite-(Ce) (Ce,La,Th)(Ti,Nb)(Al,Fe3+)(Si,P)2O7(OH)4·3(H2O) (?), Fluorbritholite-(Ce) (Ca,Ce,La,Na)5(SiO4,PO4)3(OH,F), Fluorcalciobritholite (Ca,REE)5[(Si,P)O4]3F
Uranophane group
Kasolite Pb(UO2)SiO4·H2O, Uranophane Ca(UO2)2SiO3(OH)2·5H2O, Sklodowskite (H3O)2Mg(UO2)2(SiO4)2·4H2O, Cuprosklodowskite Cu[(UO2)(SiO2OH)]2·6H2O, Boltwoodite HK(UO2)(SiO4)·1.5H2O, Natroboltwoodite (H3O)(Na,K)(UO2)SiO4·H2O, Oursinite (Co,Mg)(H3O)2[(UO2)SiO4]2·3H2O, Swamboite U7+H6(UO2)6(SiO4)6·30H2O, Uranophane-beta Ca[(UO2)SiO3(OH)]2·H2O
Datolite group
Datolite series
Datolite CaBSiO4(OH), Hingganite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca)2([ ],Fe)Be2Si2O8[(OH),O]2, Hingganite-(Y) Y2([ ])Be2Si2O8(OH)2, Hingganite-(Yb) (Yb,Y)2([ ])Be2Si2O8(OH)2, Calcybeborosilite-(Y) (REE,Ca)2[ ](B,Be)2(SiO4)2(OH,O)2
Homilite series
Bakerite Ca4B4(BO4)(SiO4)3(OH)3·H2O, Gadolinite-(Ce) (Ce,La,Nd,Y)2Fe2+Be2Si2O10, Gadolinite-(Y) Y2Fe2+Be2Si2O10, Calciogadolinite? CaREE(Fe3+)Be2Si2O10, Homilite Ca2(Fe2+,Mg)B2Si2O10, Minasgeraisite-(Y) CaY2Be2Si2O10
Hellandite group
Hellandite-(Y) (Ca,REE)4(Y,Ce)2(Al,[ ])2[Si4B4O22](OH)2
Tadzhikite-(Y) Ca4(Y,Ce)2(Ti,Al,Fe3+,[ ])2[Si4B4O22](OH)2
Tadzhikite-(Ce) Ca4(Ce,Y)2(Ti,Al,Fe3+,[ ])2[Si4B4O22](OH)2
Hellandite-(Ce) (Ca3REE)4Ce2Al[ ]2[Si4B4O22](OH)2
Mottanaite-(Ce) Ca4(Ce,Ca)2AlBe2[Si4B4O22]O2
Ciprianiite Ca4[(Th,U)(REE)]2(Al,[ ])2[Si4B4O22](OH,F)2
Piergorite-(Ce) Ca8Ce2(Al0.5(Fe3+)0.5)([ ],Li,Be)2Si6B8O36(OH,F)2
Vicanite group
Vicanite-(Ce) (Ca,Ce,La,Th)15As5+(As3+0.5,Na0.5)Fe3+Si6B4O40F7
Hundholmenite-(Y) (Y,REE,Ca,Na)15(Al,Fe3+)Cax(As3+)1−x(Si,As5+)Si6B3(O,F)48
Proshchenkoite-(Y) (Y,REE,Ca,Na,Mn)15Fe2+Ca(P,Si)Si6B3(O,F)48
===== "Garnet" supergroup =====
Nesosilicate insular SiO4 groups only with cations in [6] and >[6] coordination
Garnet group, X3Z2(TO4)3 (X = Ca, Fe, etc., Z = Al, Cr, etc., T = Si, As, V, etc.)
Pyralspite series
Pyrope Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, Almandine (Fe2+)3Al2(SiO4)3, Spessartine (Mn2+)3Al2(SiO4)3, Knorringite Mg3Cr2(SiO4)3, Majorite Mg3(Fe,Al,Si)2(SiO4)3, Calderite (Mn2+,Ca)3(Fe3+,Al)2(SiO4)3
Ugrandite series
Andradite Ca3(Fe3+)2(SiO4)3, Grossular Ca3Al2(SiO4)3, Uvarovite Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3, Goldmanite Ca3(V,Al,Fe3+)2(SiO4)3, Yamatoite? (Mn2+,Ca)3(V3+,Al)2(SiO4)3
Schorlomite – Kimzeyite series
Schorlomite Ca3(Ti,Fe3+,Al)2[(Si,Fe3+,Fe2+)O4]3, Kimzeyite Ca3(Zr,Ti)2(Si,Al,Fe3+)3O12, Morimotoite Ca3TiFe2+Si3O12
Hydrogarnet
Hibschite Ca3Al2(SiO4)3−x(OH)4x (x=0.2 to 1.5), Katoite Ca3Al2(SiO4)3−x(OH)4x (x=1.5 to 3)
Tetragonal hydrogarnet
Henritermierite Ca3(Mn,Al)2(SiO4)2(OH)4, Holtstamite Ca3(Al,Mn3+)2(SiO4)2(OH)4
Bredigite Ca7Mg(SiO4)4, Merwinite Ca3Mg(SiO4)2, Wadalite Ca6Al5Si2O16Cl3, Rondorfite Ca8Mg(SiO4)4Cl2
===== "Humite" supergroup =====
Nesosilicate insular SiO4 groups and O, OH, F, and H2O with cations in [6] coordination only
Topaz group
Topaz Al2SiO4(F,OH)2, Krieselite (Al,Ga)2(Ge,C)O4(OH)2
Humite, general formula An(SiO4)m(F,OH)2
Chondrodite series
Alleghanyite (Mn2+)5(SiO4)2(OH,F)2, Chondrodite (Mg,Fe,Ti)5(SiO4)2(F,OH,O)2, Reinhardbraunsite Ca5(SiO4)2(OH,F)2, Ribbeite Mn5(SiO4)2(OH)2, Kumtyubeite Ca5(SiO4)2F2
Humite series
Humite (Mg,Fe2+)7(SiO4)3(F,OH)2, Leucophoenicite (Mn,Ca,Mg,Zn)(SiO4)3(OH)2, Manganhumite (Mn,Mg)7(SiO4)3(OH)2, Chegemite Ca7(SiO4)3(OH)2
Clinohumite series
Clinohumite (Mg,Fe2+)9(SiO4)4(F,OH)2, Jerrygibbsite (Mn,Zn)9(SiO4)4(OH)2, Sonolite Mn9(SiO4)4(F,OH)2, Hydroxylclinohumite Mg9(SiO4)4[(OH,F)2
Norbergite Mg3(SiO4)(F,OH)2
Chloritoid group
Chloritoid (Fe2+,Mg,Mn)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4, Magnesiochloritoid MgAl2SiO5(OH)2, Ottrelite (Mn,Fe2+,Mg)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4, Carboirite-VIII Fe2+(Al,Ge)2O[(Ge,Si)O4](OH)2
==== Subclass '9.B': sorosilicates ====
Epidote supergroup, {A2}{M3}(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH)
Epidote group
Clinozoisite Ca2Al3(SiO4)3(OH)=Ca2AlAl2(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH), Niigataite CaSrAl3(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Epidote Ca2Fe3+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Hancockite CaPb(Al2Fe3+)(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Mukhinite Ca2Al2V3+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Piemontite Ca2Mn3+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Piemontite-(Sr) CaSrMn3+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Tweddillite CaSrMn3+2Al(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH)
Allanite group
Allanite-(Ce) CaCeAl2Fe2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Allanite-(La) CaLaFe2+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Allanite-(Y) CaYAl2Fe2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Dissakisite-(Ce) CaCeMgAl2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Dissakisite-(La) CaLaMgAl2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Ferriallanite-(Ce) CaCe3+Fe2+Fe3+Al(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH), Manganiandrosite-(Ce) (Mn2+,Ca)(Ce,REE)AlMn3+Mn2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Manganiandrosite-(La) Mn2+La3+AlMn3+Mn2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Vanadoandrosite-(Ce) Mn2+Ce3+V3+AlMn2+O(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH)
Dollaseite group
Dollaseite-(Ce) CaCeMg2Al(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH)F, Khristovite-(Ce) CaCe3+(MgAlMn2+)(Si2O7)(SiO4)F(OH), Mills et al. (2009)
==== Subclass '9.C': cyclosilicates ====
Tourmaline group
Alkali-Deficient Tourmaline subgroup - Foitite subgroup
Foitite [ ][(Fe2+)2(Al,Fe3+)][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Magnesiofoitite [ ][Mg2(Al,Fe3+)][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Rossmanite [ ][LiAl2][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Oxy-Rossmanite [ ][LiAl2]Al6(OH)3O(BO3)3[Si6O18]
Calcic Tourmaline subgroup - Liddicoatite subgroup
Liddicoatite [Ca][Li2Al][Al6][(OH)3|F|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Uvite CaMg3(Al5Mg)(Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)4, Feruvite [Ca][(Fe2+,Mg)3][MgAl5][(OH)3|F|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Hydroxyuvite (IMA2000-030 was not approved, but suspended) CaMg3(Al5Mg)(Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)3(OH)
Ferric Tourmaline subgroup - Buergerite subgroup
Buergerite [Na][(Fe3+)3][Al6][O3|F|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Povondraite [Na][(Fe3+)3][(Fe3+)4Mg2][(OH)3|O|(BO3)3|Si6O18]
Lithian Tourmaline subgroup - Elbaite subgroup
Olenite NaAl9B3Si6O27O3OH, Oxy-Dravite Na(MgAl2)(MgAl5)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O, Elbaite Na(Al1.5Li1.5)Al6(OH)3(OH)(BO3)3Si6O18
Sodic Tourmaline subgroup - Schorl subgroup
Dravite [Na][Mg3][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Fluor-Dravite NaMg3Al6(OH)3F(BO3)3(Si6O18), Schorl [Na][(Fe2+)3][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Schorl-(F) [Na][(Fe2+)3][Al6][(OH)3|F,OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Chromdravite [Na][Mg3][(Cr3+,Fe3+)6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Vanadiumdravite [Na][Mg3][(V3+)6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18]
Eudialyte group
Carbokentbrooksite (Na,[ ])12(Na,Ce)3Ca6Mn3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(OH)3(CO3)•H2O
Eudialyte Na4(Ca,Ce)2(Fe2+,Mn,Y)ZrSi8O22(OH,Cl)2 (?)
Feklichevite Na11Ca9(Fe3+,Fe2+)2Zr3Nb[Si25O73](OH,H2O,Cl,O)5
Ferrokentbrooksite Na15Ca6(Fe,Mn)3Zr3NbSi25O73(O,OH,H2O)3(Cl,F,OH)2
Georgbarsanovite Na12(Mn,Sr,REE)3Ca6(Fe2+)3Zr3NbSi25O76Cl2•H2O
Golyshevite (Na,Ca)10Ca9(Fe3+,Fe2+)2Zr3NbSi25O72(CO3)(OH)3•H2O
Ikranite (Na,H3O)15(Ca,Mn,REE)6(Fe3+)2Zr3([ ],Zr)([ ],Si)Si24O66(O,OH)6Cl•2-3H2O
Johnsenite-(Ce) Na12(Ce,REE,Sr)3Ca6Mn3Zr3W(Si25O73)(CO3)(OH,Cl)2
Kentbrooksite (Na,REE)15(Ca,REE)6Mn2+Zr3NbSi25O74F2•2H2O
Khomyakovite Na12Sr3Ca6Fe3Zr3W(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(OH,Cl)2
Manganokhomyakovite Na12Sr3Ca6Mn3Zr3W(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(OH,Cl)2
Mogovidite Na9(Ca,Na)6Ca6Fe2Zr3[ ]Si25O72(CO3)(OH)4
Oneillite Na15Ca3Mn3(Fe2+)3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(OH,Cl)2
Raslakite Na15Ca3Fe3(Na,Zr)3Zr3(Si,Nb)(Si25O73)(OH,H2O)3(Cl,OH)
Rastsvetaevite Na27K8Ca12Fe3Zr6Si52O144(O,OH,H2O)6Cl2
Taseqite Na12Sr3Ca6Fe3Zr3NbSi25O73(O,OH,H2O)3Cl2
Zirsilite-(Ce) (Na,[ ])12(Ce, Na)3Ca6Mn3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(OH)3(CO3)•H2O
Alluaivite Na19(Ca,Mn2+)6(Ti,Nb)3(Si3O9)2(Si10O28)2Cl•2H2O
Andrianovite Na12(K,Sr,Ce)3Ca6Mn3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(O,H2O,OH)5
Aqualite (H3O)8(Na,K,Sr)5Ca6Zr3Si26O66(OH)9Cl
Dualite Na30(Ca,Na,Ce,Sr)12(Na,Mn,Fe,Ti)6Zr3Ti3MnSi51O144(OH,H2O,Cl)9
Labyrinthite (Na,K,Sr)35Ca12Fe3Zr6TiSi51O144(O,OH,H2O)9Cl3, Mills et al. (2009)
==== Subclass '9.D': inosilicates ====
===== Single chain inosilicates =====
Astrophyllite group
Astrophyllite K2Na(Fe2+,Mn)7Ti2Si8O26(OH)4
Magnesioastrophyllite K2Na[Na(Fe2+,Fe3+,Mn)Mg2]Ti2Si8O26(OH)4F
Hydroastrophyllite (H3O,K)2Ca(Fe3+,Mn)5-6Ti2Si8O26(OH)4F
Niobophyllite K2Na(Fe2+,Mn)7(Nb,Ti)2Si8O26(OH)4(F,O)
Zircophyllite K2(Na,Ca)(Mn,Fe2+)7(Zr,Nb)2Si8O26(OH)4F
Kupletskite K2Na(Mn,Fe2+)7(Ti,Nb)2Si8O26(OH)4F
Kupletskite-(Cs) (Cs,K)2Na(Mn,Fe2+,Li)7(Ti,Nb)2Si8O26(OH)4F
Niobokupletskite K2Na(Mn,Zn,Fe)7(Nb,Zr,Ti)2Si8O26(OH)4(O,F), Mills et al. (2009)
Sapphirine supergroup
Sapphirine group
Khmaralite (Mg,Al,Fe)16(Al,Si,Be)12O40, Sapphirine (Mg,Al)8(Al,Si)6O20
Aenigmatite group
Aenigmatite (Na,Ca)4(Fe2+,Ti,Mg)12Si12O40, Krinovite NaMg2CrSi3O10, Wilkinsonite Na2(Fe2+)4(Fe3+)2Si6O20
Rhoenite group
Dorrite Ca2Mg2(Fe3+)4(Al,Fe3+)4Si2O20, Hogtuvaite (Ca,Na)2(Fe2+,Fe3+,Ti,Mg,Mn)6(Si,Be,Al)6O20, Makarochkinite Ca2(Fe2+)4Fe3+TiSi4BeAlO20, Rhonite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Ti)6(Si,Al)6O20, Serendibite Ca2(Mg,Al)6(Si,Al,B)6O20, Welshite Ca4Mg9Sb3O4[Si6Be3AlFe2O36]
Surinamite (Mg,Fe2+)3Al4BeSi3O16, Mills et al. (2009)
====== Pyroxene supergroup ======
Orthopyroxene group
Donpeacorite (Mn2+,Mg)Mg[SiO3]2, Enstatite MgSiO3, Ferrosilite, FeSiO3
Clinopyroxene group
Aegirine NaFe3+Si2O6, Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2+,Al,Fe3+,Ti)[(Si,Al)2O6], Clinoenstatite MgSiO3, Clinoferrosilite Fe2+SiO3, Diopside CaMg[Si2O6], Esseneite CaFe3+[AlSiO6], Grossmanite CaTi3+AlSiO6, Hedenbergite CaFe2+[Si2O6], Jadeite Na(Al,Fe3+)[Si2O6], Jervisite (Na,Ca,Fe2+)(Sc,Mg,Fe2+)[Si2O6], Johannsenite CaMn2+[Si2O6], Kanoite Mn2+(Mg,Mn2+)[Si2O6], Kosmochlor NaCr[Si2O6], Kushiroite CaAl[Si2O6], Namansilite NaMn3+[Si2O6], Natalyite Na(V3+,Cr)[Si2O6], Petedunnite Ca(Zn,Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)[Si2O6], Pigeonite (Mg,Fe2+,Ca)(Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6, Spodumene LiAlSi2O6
===== Multiple chain inosilicates =====
Note: the amphibole subcommittee (CNMNC/ IMA) published many reports (IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2003 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p.), renaming and redefining many minerals. Working draft: rruff.info, mindat.org and mineralienatlas.de are not up to date yet.

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title: "Classification of silicate minerals"
chunk: 2/3
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---
====== Amphibole supergroup ======
w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: calcic subgroup
Cannilloite root name: fluoro-cannilloite CaCa2Mg4Al(Si5Al3)O22(OH)2 (1993-033, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from cannilloite)
Edenite root name: edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1839, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-edenite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), fluoro-edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(F,OH)2|AlSi7O22] (IMA 1994-059, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Hastingsite root name: hastingsite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1896, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-fluoro-hastingsite (Na,K)Ca2(Mg,Fe3+,Ti)5(Si,Al)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-magnesiohastingsite), magnesio-hastingsite Na[Ca2][Mg4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1928, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohastingsite), potassic-fluoro-hastingsite KCa2((Fe2+)2,Mg2,Fe3+)S5(Si6Al2)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-006, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassichastingsite), potassic-chloro-hastingsite KCa2(Mg4Al)(Si6Al2)O22Cl2 (IMA 2005-007, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from chloro-potassicpargasite, syn. dashkesanite), potassic-magnesio-hastingsite (K,Na)Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,Cl)2 (IMA 2004-027b, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-magnesiohastingsite)
Joesmithite PbCa2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)5Si6Be2O22(OH)2 (1968, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Magnesio-hornblende root name: ferro-hornblende [Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1930, IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p. Rn from ferro-hornblende, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrohornblende), magnesio-hornblende [Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1965, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohornblende)
Pargasite root name: chromio-pargasite (IMA 2011-023, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ehimeite), ferro-pargasite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1961, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferropargasite), fluoro-pargasite NaCa2(Mg3Fe2+Al)5(Si6Al2O22)F2 (IMA 2003-050, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoropargasite), pargasite [Na][Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1815, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), potassic-chloro-pargasite KCa2((Fe2+)3MgFe3+)(Si6Al2)S8O22Cl2 (IMA 2001-036, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from chloro-potassichastingsite), potassic-ferro-pargasite KCa2((Fe2+)4Al)Si6Al2O22(OH)2 (IMA 2007-053, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-ferropargasite), potassic-fluoro-pargasite (IMA 2009-091, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassic-pargasite), potassic-pargasite [K][Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (IMA 1994-046, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassicpargasite)
Sadanagaite root name: potassic-ferro-ferri-sadanagaite [K][Ca2][(Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2][(OH)2|Al3Si5O22] (IMA 1997-035, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-ferrisadanagaite), potassic-ferro-sadanagaite KCa2Fe2+3(Al,Fe3+)2(Si5Al3)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1980-027, 2004 Rd, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd Rn from sadanagaite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassicsadanagaite), potassic-sadanagaite (K,Na)Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Al,Ti)5[(Si,Al)8O22] (IMA 1982-102, 2004 Rd, IMA 2003 s.p. Rn from magnesio-sadanagaite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-magnesiosadanagaite), sadanagaite [Na][Ca2][Mg3Al2][(OH)2|Al3Si5O22] (1984, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd Rn from sadanagaite, IMA 2002-051, 2004 Rn from potassic-magnesiosadanagaite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiosadanagaite)
Tremolite-actinolite root name: actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)5(Si8O22)(OH)2 (1794, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-actinolite [Ca2][(Fe2+,Mg)5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), tremolite [Ca2][Mg5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1789, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Tschermakite root name: tschermakite [Ca2][Mg3Fe3+Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1945, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: lithium subgroup
Clino-holmquistite root name: clino-ferro-ferri-holmquistite ☐Li2((Fe3+)2(Fe2+)3)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 1997 s.p., 2001-066, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferri-clinoferroholmquistite)
Holmquistite root name: ferro-holmquistite ☐(Li2(Fe2+)3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2004-030, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), holmquistite ☐(Li2Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1913, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Pedrizite root name: ferri-pedrizite NaLi2((Fe3+)2Mg2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-032, IMA 2003 s.p. discredited, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd revalidated), ferro-ferri-pedrizite NaLi2((Fe3+)2(Fe2+)3)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2003 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from sodic-ferro-ferripedrizite), ferro-fluoro-pedrizite NaLi2(Fe2+)2Al2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2008-070, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-sodic-ferropedrizite), fluoro-pedrizite NaLi2(Mg2Al2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2004-002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-sodic-pedrizite)
w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: Mg-Fe-Mn subgroup
Anthophyllite root name: anthophyllite ☐Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 (1801, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-anthophyllite ☐(Fe2+)7Si8O22(OH)2 (1821, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), proto-anthophyllite (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-065, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), protoferro-anthophyllite (Fe2+,Mn2+)2(Fe2+,Mg)5(Si4O11)2(OH)2 (IMA 1986-006, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), protomangano-ferro-anthophyllite (Mn2+,Fe2+)2(Fe2+,Mg)5(Si4O11)2(OH)2 (IMA 1986-007, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Gedrite root name: ferro-gedrite ☐(Fe2+)5Al2Si6Al2O22(OH)2 (1939, IMA 1978 s.p. Rn, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrogedrite), gedrite ☐Mg5Al2Si6Al2O22(OH)2 (1836, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Minerals: cummingtonite ☐Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 (1824, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), grunerite ☐(Fe2+)7Si8O22(OH)2 (1853, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: sodic subgroup
Arfvedsonite root name: arfvedsonite NaNa2((Fe2+)4Fe3+)Si8O22(OH)2 (1823, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-arfvedsonite NaNa2(Mg4Fe2+)Si8O22(OH)2 (1957, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite NaNa2(Mg,Fe2+)4Fe3+[Si8O22](F,OH)2 (IMA 1998-056, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-magnesio-arfvedsonite), potassic-arfvedsonite KNa2(Fe2+)4Fe3+Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2003-043, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), potassic-magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite KNa2(Mg4Fe3+)Si8O22F2 (IMA 1985-023, 2006 Rn from potassium fluor-magnesio-arfvedsonite, 2010 Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassic-magnesio-arfvedsonite)
Eckermannite root name: eckermannite NaNa2(Mg4Al)Si8O22(OH)2 (1942, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), mangano-ferri-eckermannite NaNa2(Mn2+)4(Fe3+,Al)Si8O22(OH)2 (1968-028, IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from kôzulite)
Glaucophane root name: ferro-glaucophane ☐Na2((Fe2+)3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1957, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferroglaucophane), glaucophane ☐Na2(Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1963, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Leakeite root name: ferri-fluoro-leakeite NaNa2(Mg2Fe3+2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2009-085, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoroleakeite), ferri-leakeite Na(NaLi)(Mg2(Fe3+)2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-069, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferriwhittakerite), ferro-ferri-fluoro-leakeite NaNa2((Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 1993-026, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-ferroleakeite), fluoro-leakeite NaNa2(Mg2Al2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2009-012, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-aluminoleakeite), potassic-ferri-leakeite KNa2Mg2(Fe3+)2LiSi8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-049, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassicleakeite), potassic-leakeite KNa2(Mg2Al2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (2002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), potassic-mangani-leakeite KNa2(Mg2Mn3+2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 1992-032, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from kornite)
Nybøite root name: ferro-ferri-nybøite NaNa2(Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferric-ferronyboite), fluoro-nybøite NaNa2(Al2Mg3)(Si7Al)O22(F,OH)2 (IMA 2002-010, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoronybøite), nybøite NaNa2(Mg3Al2)Si7AlO22(OH)2 (1981, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Riebeckite root name: fluoro-riebeckite ☐Na2(Fe2+3Fe3+2)Si8O22F2 (1966, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-riebeckite ☐Na2[(Mg,Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2]Si8O22(OH)2 (1957, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), riebeckite ☐Na2((Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1888, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: sodic-calcic subgroup
Barroisite root name: barroisite [CaNa][Mg3AlFe3+][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1922, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Katophorite root name: ferri-fluoro-katophorite Na(NaCa)(Mg4Fe3+)(Si7Al)O22F2 (IMA 2012 s.p.), ferri-katophorite Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mg)4Fe3+(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrikatophorite), ferro-katophorite Na(NaCa)(Fe2+4Al)(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (1894, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn), katophorite Na(NaCa)(Mg4Al)(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (1894, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Richterite root name: ferro-richterite Na[CaNa][(Fe2+)5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrorichterite), fluoro-richterite Na(CaNa)Mg5[Si8O22]F2 (IMA 1992-020, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluororichterite), potassic-fluoro-richterite K[CaNa][Mg5][(F,OH)2|Si8O22] (IMA 1986-046, IMA 2004 s.p. Rn from potassium-fluorrichterite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassicrichterite), richterite Na[CaNa][Mg5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1865, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Taramite root name: ferro-taramite Na[CaNa][(Fe2+)3Al2][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (IMA 2006-023, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from aluminotaramite), fluoro-taramite Na2CaMg3Al2(Si6Al2)O22F2 (IMA 2006-025, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-alumino-magnesiotaramite), potassic-ferro-ferri-taramite K(CaNa)(Fe2+3Fe3+2)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1964-003, IMA 1978 s.p. Rn from mboziite, IMA 1997 s.p. Rn from ferri-taramite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferritaramite, Erratum 2013 Rd Rn from ferro-ferri-taramite), potassic-ferro-taramite K(CaNa)(Fe2+3Al2)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 (IMA 2007-015, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-aluminotaramite), taramite Na2CaMg3Al2(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 (IMA 2006-024, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from alumino-magnesiotaramite)
Winchite root name: ferri-winchite (☐,Na)(Na,Ca)2(Mg,Fe2+)4Fe3+[Si8O22](OH)2 (IMA 2004-034, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferriwinchite), ferro-winchite [CaNa][(Fe2+)4(Al,Fe3+)][(OH)2|Si8O22] (IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrowinchite), winchite [CaNa][Mg4(Al,Fe3+)][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1906, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: Na-Mg-Fe-Mn subgroup
Ghoseite root name: ferri-ghoseite Na(NaMn2+)(Mg4Fe3+)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2003-066, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from parvowinchite)
w(O)-dominant amphibole group
Kaersutite root name: ferri-kaersutite NaCa2(Mg3Fe3+Ti)(Si6Al2)O22O2 (IMA 2011-035, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrikaersutite), kaersutite NaCa2(Mg4Ti)(Si6Al2)O23(OH) (IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd)
Minerals: mangani-dellaventuraite NaNa2(Mg2,Mn3+,Li,Ti)Si8O22O2 (IMA 2003-061, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from dellaventuraite), mangano-mangani-ungarettiite NaNa2((Mn2+)2(Mn3+)3)Si8O22O2 (IMA 1994-004, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ungarettiite)

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---
title: "Classification of silicate minerals"
chunk: 3/3
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---
==== Subclass '9.E': phyllosilicates ====
Category:Clay minerals group
Category:Medicinal clay
Category:Mica group
Category:Serpentine group/ Kaolinite-Serpentine group
Category:Smectite group/ Montmorillonite group
Pyrophyllite-Talc group
Chlorite group: Clinochlore, Nimite, Pennantite, Baileychlore, Cookeite, Donbassite, Gonyerite, Odinite, Sudoite, Orthochamosite
==== Subclass '9.F': tectosilicates ====
===== Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O =====
Category:Quartz varieties
Feldspar family
Feldspathoid family
Sodalite group
Helvine group
Category:Cancrinite group
===== Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O =====
Category:Zeolite group
Alflarsenite NaCa2Be3Si4O13(OH)•2H2O
Zeolites with T5O10 Units – fibrous zeolites
Natrolite subgroup
Gonnardite (Na,Ca)2(Si,Al)5O10·3H2O, Mesolite Na2Ca2Si9Al6O30·8H2O, Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O, Paranatrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·3H2O, Scolecite CaAl2Si3O10·3H2O
Tetranatrolite? Na2[Al2Si3O10]•2H2O, Thomsonite-Sr (Sr,Ca)2Na[Al5Si5O20]•7H2O, Thomsonite-Ca NaCa2Al5Si5O20•6H2O, Kalborsite K6Al4Si6BO20(OH)4Cl, Edingtonite BaAl2Si3O10•4H2O
Chains of single connected 4-membered rings
Ammonioleucite (NH4,K)AlSi2O6, Leucite KAlSi2O6, Analcime NaAlSi2O6•H2O, Hsianghualite Ca3Li2Be3(SiO4)3F2, Lithosite K6Al4Si8O25•H2O, Pollucite (Cs,Na)2Al2Si4O12•H2O, Wairakite CaAl2Si4O12•2H2O, Laumontite CaAl2Si4O12•4H2O, Yugawaralite CaAl2Si6O16•4H2O, Roggianite Ca2[Be(OH)2Al2Si4O13]•2.5H2O, Goosecreekite CaAl2Si6O16•5H2O, Montesommaite (K,Na)9Al9Si23O64•10H2O, Partheite Ca2Al4Si4O15(OH)2•4H2O
Chains of doubly connected 4-membered rings
Amicite K2Na2Al4Si4O16•5H2O, Garronite Na2Ca5Al12Si20O64•27H2O, Gobbinsite (Na2,Ca)2K2Al6Si10O32•12H2O, Gismondine Ca2Al4Si4O16•9H2O, Harmotome (Ba,Na,K)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Na (Na,K,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Ca (Ca,K,Na)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-K (K,Na,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Merlinoite (K,Ca,Na,Ba)7Si23Al9O64•23H2O, Mazzite-Mg K2CaMg2(Al,Si)36O72•28H2O, Mazzite-Na Na8Al8Si28O72•30H2O, Perlialite K8Tl4Al12Si24O72•20H2O, Boggsite NaCa2(Al5Si19O48)•17H2O, Paulingite-Ca (Ca,K,Na,Ba)5[Al10Si35O84]•34H2O, Paulingite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O, Paulingite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O
Chains of 6-membered rings – tabular zeolites
Gmelinite-Ca (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Gmelinite-K (K,Na,Ca)6(Al7Si17O48)•22H2O, Gmelinite-Na (Na2,Ca)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Chabazite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Ca (Ca0.5,Na,K)4[Al4Si8O24]•12H2O, Chabazite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Sr (Sr,Ca,K2,Na2)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Herschelite? (Na,Ca,K)AlSi2O6•3H2O, Willhendersonite KCaAl3Si3O12•5H2O, Levyne-Ca (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Levyne-Na (Na2,Ca,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Bellbergite (K,Ba,Sr)2Sr2Ca2(Ca,Na)4Al18Si18O72•30H2O, Erionite-Ca (Ca,K2,Na2)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Erionite-K (K2,Ca,Na2)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Erionite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Wenkite Ba4Ca6(Si,Al)20O39(OH)2(SO4)3•nH2O (?), Offretite (K2,Ca,Mg)2.5Al5Si13O36•15H2O, Faujasite-Ca (Ca,Na2,Mg)3.5[Al7Si17O48]•32H2O, Faujasite-Mg (Mg,Na2,Ca)3.5[Al7Si17O48]•32H2O, Faujasite-Na (Na2,Ca,Mg)3.5[Al7Si17O48]•32H2O, Maricopaite Pb7Ca2(Si,Al)48O100•32H2O, Mordenite (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si10O24•7H2O, Dachiardite-Ca (Ca,Na2,K2)5Al10Si38O96•25H2O, Dachiardite-Na (Na2,Ca,K2)4Al4Si20O48•13H2O, Epistilbite CaAl2Si6O16•5H2O, Ferrierite-K (K,Na)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36•9H2O, Ferrierite-Mg (Mg,Na,K)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36•9H2O, Ferrierite-Na (Na,K)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36•9H2O, Bikitaite Li2[Al2Si4O12]•2H2O
Chains of T10O20 tetrahedra
Clinoptilolite-Na (Na,K,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Clinoptilolite-K (Na,K,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Clinoptilolite-Ca (Ca,Na,K)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-Ba (Ba,Ca,K,Na,Sr)5Al9Si27O72•22H2O, Heulandite-Ca (Ca,Na)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-K (K,Na,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-Na (Na,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-Sr (Sr,Na,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Stilbite-Ca NaCa4[Al8Si28O72]•nH2O (⁠
28
≤
n
≤
32
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle 28\leq n\leq 32}
⁠), Stilbite-Na Na3Ca3[Al8Si28O72]•nH2O (⁠
28
≤
n
≤
32
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle 28\leq n\leq 32}
⁠), Barrerite (Na,K,Ca)2Al2Si7O18•6H2O, Stellerite CaAl2Si7O18•7H2O, Brewsterite-Ba (Ba,Sr)Al2Si6O16•5H2O, Brewsterite-Sr (Sr,Ba)Al4Si12O32•10H2O
Other rare zeolites
Terranovaite (Na,Ca)8(Si68Al12)O160•29H2O, Gottardiite Na3Mg3Ca5Al19Si117O272•93H2O, Lovdarite K2Na6Be4Si14O36•9H2O, Gaultite Na4Zn2Si7O18•5H2O, Chiavennite CaMnBe2Si5O13(OH)2•2H2O, Tschernichite (Ca,Na)(Si6Al2)O16•(4-8)H2O, Mutinaite Na3Ca4Si85Al11O192•60H2O, Tschortnerite Ca4(Ca,Sr,K,Ba)3Cu3(OH)8[Si12Al12O48]•xH2O, ⁠
x
≥
20
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle x\geq 20}
⁠, Thornasite Na12Th3[Si8O19]4•18H2O, Direnzoite NaK6MgCa2(Al13Si47O120)•36H2O
Unclassified zeolites
Cowlesite CaAl2Si3O10•(5-6)H2O, Mountainite (Ca,Na2,K2)2Si4O10•3H2O
==== Subclass: Germanates ====
== See also ==
Classification of non-silicate minerals – List of IMA recognized minerals and groupings
Crystal system – Classification of crystalline materials by their three-dimensional structural geometry
List of rock types
== References ==

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---
title: "Concepticon"
chunk: 1/1
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:23.469181+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---
Concepticon is an open-source online lexical database of linguistic concept lists (word lists). It links concept labels (i.e., word list glosses) in concept lists (i.e., word lists) to concept sets (i.e., standardized word meanings).
It is part of the Cross-Linguistic Linked Data (CLLD) project, which is hosted by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Jena, Germany. Version 1.0 was released in 2016.
== Concept ==
Concept lists in the Concepticon include:
Swadesh list (100 items, 207 items, etc.)
Swadesh–Yakhontov list
Dolgopolsky list
Leipzig–Jakarta list
ASJP list
== See also ==
Conceptualization (information science)
Ontology (information science)
Intercontinental Dictionary Series
== References ==
List, Johann Mattis & Rzymski, Christoph & Greenhill, Simon & Schweikhard, Nathanael & Pianykh, Kristina & Tjuka, Annika & Hundt, Carolin & Forkel, Robert (eds.) 2021. CLLD Concepticon 2.5.0 [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.4911605
== External links ==
Official website
Langavia Dictionary
Synonyms Dictionary
Concepticon on GitHub

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title: "Cyrillic alphabets"
chunk: 1/6
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets"
category: "reference"
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00"
instance: "kb-cron"
---
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the theologians Cyril and Methodius. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. The creator is Saint Clement of Ohrid from the Preslav literary school in the First Bulgarian Empire.
Some of these are illustrated below; for others, and for more detail, see the links. Sounds are transcribed in the IPA. While these languages largely have phonemic orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian ⟨г⟩ is pronounced /v/ in a number of words, an orthographic relic from when they were pronounced /ɡ/ (e.g. его yego 'him/his', is pronounced [jɪˈvo] rather than [jɪˈɡo]).
Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially й (y/j/i), but also г (gh/g/h) and ж (zh/j).
Unlike the Latin script, which is usually adapted to different languages by adding diacritical marks/supplementary glyphs (such as acutes and carons) to standard Roman letters, by assigning new phonetic values to existing letters (e.g. ⟨q⟩, whose original value in Latin was /kʷ/, represents /g/ in Azerbaijani, /t͡ɕʰ/ in Mandarin Chinese Pinyin, /q/ in a lot of other languages and /ǃ/ in some Bantu languages), or by the use of digraphs (such as ⟨sh⟩), the Cyrillic script is usually adapted by the creation of entirely new letter shapes. However, in some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as Chuvash, umlauts and breves also were used.
Bulgarian and Bosnian Sephardim without Hebrew typefaces occasionally printed Judeo-Spanish in Cyrillic.
== Spread ==
Non-Slavic alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for Caucasian languages. The first few of these alphabets were developed by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of Idel-Ural (Mari, Udmurt, Mordva, Chuvash, and Kerashen Tatars) in the 1870s. Later, such alphabets were created for some of the Siberian and Caucasus peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the 1930s, some of those languages were switched to the New Turkic Alphabet. All of the peoples of the former Soviet Union who had been using an Arabic or a different Asian script also adopted Cyrillic alphabets, and during the Great Purge in the late 1930s, all of the Latin alphabets of the peoples of the Soviet Union were switched to Cyrillic as well (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940, and were not affected by this change). The Abkhazian and Ossetian languages were switched to the Mkhedruli script, but after the death of Joseph Stalin, both also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the Gagauz language, which had used Greek script before.
In Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, the use of Cyrillic to write local languages has often been a politically controversial issue since the collapse of the Soviet Union, as it evokes the era of Soviet rule and Russification. Some of Russia's peoples such as the Tatars have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law. A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to either a Roman-based orthography or a return to a former script.
Cyrillic alphabets continue to be used in several Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Belarusian) and non-Slavic (Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Gagauz, Mongolian) languages.
== Common letters ==
The following table lists the Cyrillic letters which are used in the alphabets of most of the national languages which use a Cyrillic alphabet. Exceptions and additions for particular languages are noted below.
== Slavic languages ==
Cyrillic alphabets used by Slavic languages can be divided into two categories:
West South Slavic languages, such as all varieties of Serbo-Croatian, often share the following letters, among others: Ј, Љ, Њ
East South Slavic languages and East Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Russian, often share the following letters, among others: Й, Щ, Ь (soft sign), Ю, Я
=== South Slavic ===
==== Bulgarian ====
The Bulgarian alphabet shows the following features:

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The Bulgarian names for the consonants are [bɤ], [kɤ], [ɫɤ] (bǔ, kǔ, lǔ) etc. instead of [bɛ], [ka], [ɛl] (be, ka, el) etc.
Е represents /ɛ/ and is called "е" [ɛ]. Unlike in other Slavic languages, the sound [jɛ] does not exist in native words, being replaced with Е in most cases.
The sounds /dʒ/ (/d͡ʒ/) and /dz/ (/d͡z/) are represented by the digraphs дж and дз respectively, as in Belarusian and Ukrainian.
Short I (Й, й) represents /j/, as in Russian.
Щ represents /ʃt/ (/ʃ͡t/) and is called "щъ" [ʃtɤ] ([ʃ͡tɤ]).
Ъ represents the vowel /ɤ/, and is called "ер голям" (IPA: [ˈɛr ɡoˈʎam]) ('big er'). Despite the official name being "big er", the letter is only referred to as that in the context of the alphabet, and is usually called /ɤ/ in common speech. The vowel Ъ /ɤ/ is sometimes approximated to the /ə/ (schwa) sound found in many languages for easier comprehension of its Bulgarian pronunciation for foreigners, but it is actually a back vowel, not a central vowel.
Ь is used on rare occasions (only after a consonant [and] before the vowel "о"), such as in the words 'каньон' (canyon), 'шофьор' (driver/chauffeur), etc. It represents the sound [j], unless after Г, К and Л, in which case it palatalizes them to [ɟ], [c] and [ʎ]. It is called "ер малък" [ˈɛr ˈmalɐk] ('small er').
Before 1945, the letter Ѣ (yat) was used. In eastern dialects, the letter would be pronounced as [ɛ] or [ja] depending on the context, while in western dialects, it would be pronounced almost exclusively as [ɛ]. This led to cases in which words such as млѣко (Modern Bulgarian: мляко) would be pronounced as "mlyako" in the east, but as "mleko" in the west. In 1945, the letter was abolished and replaced by Я or Е, depending on its use in the eastern dialects. The letter is also referred to as "е двойно" (double e).
Before 1945, the letter Ѫ (big yus) was used. In early Bulgarian, the letter represented the nasal vowel [ɔ̃]. By the late 18th century however, the sound had shifted to /ɤ/, the same sound as Ъ, and was mostly used in its etymological locations. There are no differences between the two, apart from the fact that Ѫ can be used at the end of words. In 1945, the letter was abolished along with Ѣ (yat) and was replaced by А or Ъ. It is sometimes referred to as "голяма носовка" (big nasal sign) and "ъ широко" (wide ъ).
For a brief period, the letter Ѭ (iotated big yus) was used, during the use of the Drinov Orthography, and represented the sound [jɐ] or /jɤ/ in words verb conjugations, for example in търпѭ (IPA: /tɐrˈpjɤ/). The letter Ѫ was also used for the same purpose alongside its normal usage. In 1899, both letters replaced in verb conjugations by Я and А in all cases as part of the new Ivanchov Orthography.
The Cyrillic alphabet was originally developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th – 10th century AD at the Preslav Literary School.
It has been used in Bulgaria (with modifications and exclusion of certain archaic letters via spelling reforms) continuously since then, superseding the previously used Glagolitic alphabet, which was also invented and used there before the Cyrillic script overtook its use as a written script for the Bulgarian language. The Cyrillic alphabet was used in the then much bigger territory of Bulgaria (including most of today's Serbia), North Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania, Northern Greece (Macedonia region), Romania and Moldova, officially from 893. It was also transferred from Bulgaria and adopted by the East Slavic languages in Kievan Rus' and evolved into the Russian alphabet and the alphabets of many other Slavic (and later non-Slavic) languages. Later, some Slavs modified it and added/excluded letters from it to better suit the needs of their own language varieties.
==== Serbian ====
South Slavic Cyrillic alphabets (with the exception of Bulgarian) are generally derived from Serbian Cyrillic. It, and by extension its descendants, differs from the East Slavic ones in that the alphabet has generally been simplified: Letters such as Й, Я, Ю, and Щ representing /j/, /ja/, /ju/, and /ɕ(ː)/ in Russian, respectively, have been removed. Instead, these are represented by the letter ⟨Ј⟩ and digraphs ⟨ја⟩, ⟨ју⟩, and ⟨шч/шт⟩, respectively. Additionally, the letter Е, representing /je/ in Russian, is instead pronounced /e/ or /ɛ/, with /je/ being represented by ⟨је⟩. Alphabets based on the Serbian that add new letters often do so by adding an acute accent ⟨´⟩ over an existing letter.
The Serbian alphabet shows the following features:
E represents /ɛ/.
Between Д and E is the letter Dje (Ђ, ђ), representing /dʑ/, which looks like Tshe, except that the loop of the h curls farther and dips downwards.
Between И and К is the letter Je (Ј, ј), representing /j/, which looks like the Latin letter J.
Between Л and М is the letter Lje (Љ, љ), representing /ʎ/, which looks like a ligature of Л and the Soft Sign.
Between Н and О is the letter Nje (Њ, њ), representing /ɲ/, which looks like a ligature of Н and the Soft Sign.
Between Т and У is the letter Tshe (Ћ, ћ), representing /tɕ/ and looks like a lowercase Latin letter h with a bar. On the uppercase letter, the bar appears at the top; on the lowercase letter, the bar crosses the top at half of the vertical line.
Between Ч and Ш is the letter Dzhe (Џ, џ), representing /dʒ/, which looks like Tse but with the descender moved from the right side of the bottom bar to the middle of the bottom bar.
Ш is the last letter.
Certain letters are handwritten differently, as seen in the adjacent image.
==== Montenegrin ====
The Montenegrin alphabet differs from Serbian in the following ways:

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Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter З́, which represents /ʑ/ (voiced alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ź ź⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Zj zj⟩ or ⟨Žj žj⟩.
Between Es (С с) and Te (Т т) is the letter С́, which represents /ɕ/ (voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ś ś⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Sj sj⟩ or ⟨Šj šj⟩.
The letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), from Macedonian, is used in scientific literature when representing the /d͡z/ phoneme, although it is not officially part of the alphabet. A Latin equivalent was proposed that looks identical to Ze (З з).
==== Macedonian ====
The Macedonian alphabet differs from Serbian in the following ways:
Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), which looks like the Latin letter S and represents /d͡z/.
Dje (Ђ ђ) is replaced by Gje (Ѓ ѓ), which represents /ɟ/ (voiced palatal stop). In some dialects, it represents /d͡ʑ/ instead, like Dje. It is written ⟨Ǵ ǵ⟩ in the corresponding Macedonian Latin alphabet.
Tshe (Ћ ћ) is replaced by Kje (Ќ ќ), which represents /c/ (voiceless palatal stop). In some dialects, it represents /t͡ɕ/ instead, like Tshe. It is written ⟨Ḱ ḱ⟩ in the corresponding Macedonian Latin alphabet.
Lje (Љ љ) often represents the consonant cluster /lj/ instead of /ʎ/.
Certain letters are handwritten differently, as seen in the adjacent image.
==== Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian ====
Ćiro Truhelka claimed Serbo-Croatian language briefly used the Cyrillic script in areas with large Croatian or Bosnian speaking populations. There is a controversy in naming. Bosniak scholars call it Bosnian Script. Serb scholars call it Serbian script, as part of variant of Serbian Cyrillic and deem the term "bosančica" Anti-Serb Austro-Hungarian propaganda. Croat scholars call it Croatian Cyrillic
=== East Slavic ===
==== Russian ====
The Russian alphabet shows the following features:
Yo (Ё ё) indicates /jo/.
As /f/ is not a native phoneme, the letter Ef (Ф ф) is generally restricted to loanwords/borrowed words.
Zhe (Ж ж) and Sha (Ш ш) indicate sounds that are retroflex.
Shcha (Щ щ) indicates /ɕ(ː)/.
The hard sign¹ (Ъ ъ), called “твёрдый знак” in Russian, indicates the lack of palatalization in a context where the consonant would usually be palatalized².
Yery (Ы ы) indicates [ɨ] (an allophone of /i/).
E (Э э) indicates /ɛ/.
Notes:
In the pre-reform Russian orthography, in Old Russian and in Old Church Slavonic the letter is called yer. Historically, the "hard sign" takes the place of a now-absent vowel, which is still preserved as a distinct vowel in Bulgarian (which represents it with ъ) and Slovene (which is written in the Latin alphabet and writes it as e), but only in some places in the word.
When an iotated vowel (vowel whose sound begins with [j]) follows a consonant, the consonant is palatalized. The hard sign indicates that this does not happen, and the [j] sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The soft sign indicates that the consonant should be palatalized in addition to a [j] preceding the vowel. The soft sign also indicates that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatalized. Examples: та ([ta]); тя ([tʲa]); тья ([tʲja]); тъя ([tja]); т (/t/); ть ([tʲ]).
Before 1918, there were four extra letters in use: Іі (replaced by Ии), Ѳѳ (Фита "Fita", replaced by Фф), Ѣѣ (Ять "Yat", replaced by Ее), and Ѵѵ (ижица "Izhitsa", replaced by Ии); these were eliminated by reforms of Russian orthography.
==== Belarusian ====
The Belarusian alphabet shows the following features:
He or Ge (Г г) represents a voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ (rarely also a voiced velar plosive /ɡ/).
Yo (Ё ё) represents /jo/, just like in Russian.
I (І і), also known as the dotted I or decimal I, resembles the Latin letter I. Unlike most Cyrillic alphabets, "И" is not used.
Short I (Й й), however, uses the base И glyph.
Short U (Ў ў) is the letter У with a breve and represents /w/, or like the u part of the diphthong in loud. The use of the breve to indicate a semivowel is analogous to the Short I (Й).
A combination of Sh and Ch (ШЧ шч) is used where those familiar only with Russian and or Ukrainian would expect Shcha (Щ щ).
Yery (Ы ы) represents /ɨ/, similarly to in Russian.
E (Э э) represents /ɛ/, just like in Russian.
An apostrophe (’) is used to indicate the lack of palatalization of the preceding consonant. This orthographical symbol is used instead of the traditional Cyrillic letter Yer (Ъ), also known as the hard sign.
The letter combinations Dzh (Дж дж) and Dz (Дз дз) appear after D (Д д) in the Belarusian alphabet in some publications. These digraphs represent the affricates Дж /d͡ʒ/ and Дз /d͡z/ correspondingly.
Before 1933, the letter Ґ ґ (Ge) was used for /ɡ/, although its use was optional.
==== Ukrainian ====
The Ukrainian alphabet shows the following features:

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Ve (В в) represents /ʋ/ (which may be pronounced [w] in a word final position and before consonants).
He (Г г) represents a breathy-voiced glottal transition, (/ɦ/), similar to the respective sound in Belarusian.
Ge (Ґ ґ) appears after He, representing /ɡ/. It looks like He with an "upturn" pointing up from the right side of the top bar. This letter is generally restricted to loanwords/borrowed words. (This letter was removed in Soviet Ukraine in 1933–1990, so it may be missing from older Cyrillic fonts.)
E (Е е) represents /ɛ/.
Ye (Є є) appears after E and represents the sound /jɛ/.
I (И и) represents the sound /ɪ/, unlike in Russian.
Dotted I (І і) appears after И and represents the sound /i/, as in Belarusian.
Yi (Ї ї) appears after I and represents the sound /ji/.
Jot (Й й) represents /j/, as in Russian
Shcha (Щ, щ) represents the cluster /ʃt͡ʃ/.
An apostrophe (’) is used to mark the lack of palatalization of the preceding consonant before Ya (Я, я), Yu (Ю, ю), Ye (Є, є), Yi (Ї, ї), the same as how it is used in Belarusian.
Before 1990, Ь was positioned at the end of the alphabet rather than in its current position after Щ; the original order may still show up in historic documents.
As in Belarusian Cyrillic, the sounds /dʒ/, /dz/ are represented by digraphs Дж and Дз respectively.
==== Carpathian Rusyn ====
The Carpathian Rusyn language is spoken by the Carpatho-Rusyns in Carpathian Ruthenia, Slovakia, and Poland.
The Carpathian Rusyn alphabet differs from Ukrainian in that the letters Ё, Ы, and the hard sign (Ъ), from Russian, are also used, and the order is slightly different.
=== West Slavic ===
==== Pannonian Rusyn ====
The Pannonian Rusyn language is spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns.
This alphabet uses all the letters of the Ukrainian alphabet except Dotted I (І і). Note that Pannonian Rusyn is a West Slavic language despite its name.
== Non-Slavic Indo-European languages ==
=== Romance languages ===
==== Romanian and Moldovan ====
The Romanian language used the Cyrillic script up to the 19th century (see Romanian Cyrillic alphabet).
The Moldovan language (an alternative name of the Romanian language in Bessarabia, Moldavian ASSR, Moldavian SSR and Moldova) used varieties of the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet in 1812–1918, and the Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet (derived from the Russian alphabet and standardised in the Soviet Union) in 1924–1932 and 1938–1989. Nowadays, this alphabet is still official in the unrecognized republic of Transnistria (see Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet).
==== Ladino ====
Ladino uses the Cyrillic script in occasional Bulgarian Sephardic publications.
=== Indo-Aryan ===
==== Romani ====
Romani is written in Cyrillic in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and the former USSR.
=== Iranian ===
==== Kurdish ====
Kurds in the former Soviet Union use a Cyrillic alphabet:
==== Ossetic ====
The Ossetic language has officially used the Cyrillic script since 1937.
==== Tajik ====
The Tajik alphabet is written using a Cyrillic-based alphabet.
==== Other ====
Judeo-Tat
Yaghnobi
Yazghulami
== Uralic languages ==
Uralic languages using the Cyrillic script (currently or in the past) include:
Finnic: Karelian until 1921 and 1937–1940 (Ludic, Olonets Karelian); Veps; Votic
Sami: Kildin Sami and Ter Sami in Russia (since the 1980s)
Komi (Zyrian (since the 17th century, modern alphabet since the 1930s); Permyak; Yodzyak)
Udmurt
Khanty
Mansi (writing has not received distribution since 1937)
Samoyedic: Enets; Yurats; Nenets since 1937 (Forest Nenets; Tundra Nenets); Nganasan; Kamassian; Koibal; Mator; Selkup (since the 1950s; not used recently)
Mari, since the 19th century (Hill; Meadow)
Mordvin, since the 18th century (Erzya; Moksha)
Other: Merya; Muromian; Meshcherian
=== Karelian ===
The Karelian language was written in the Cyrillic script in various forms until 1940 when publication in Karelian ceased in favor of Finnish, except for Tver Karelian, written in a Latin alphabet. In 1989 publication began again in the other Karelian dialects and Latin alphabets were used, in some cases with the addition of Cyrillic letters such as ь.
=== Kildin Sámi ===
Over the last century, the alphabet used to write Kildin Sámi has changed three times: from Cyrillic to Latin and back again to Cyrillic. Work on the latest version of the official orthography commenced in 1979. It was officially approved in 1982 and started to be widely used by 1987.
=== Komi-Permyak ===
The Komi-Permyak Cyrillic alphabet:
=== Mari alphabets ===
Meadow Mari Cyrillic alphabet:
Hill Mari Cyrillic alphabet
== Turkic languages ==
=== Azerbaijani ===
Latin Alphabet (as of 1992)
Aa, Bb, Cc, Çç, Dd, Ee, Əə, Ff, Gg, Ğğ, Hh, Xx, Iı, İi, Jj, Kk, Qq, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Üü, Vv, Yy, Zz
=== Bashkir ===
The Cyrillic script was used for the Bashkir language after the winter of 1938.
=== Chuvash ===
The Cyrillic alphabet is used for the Chuvash language since the late 19th century, with some changes in 1938.
The Cyrillic letters Бб, Гг, Дд, Ёё, Жж, Зз, Оо, Фф, Цц, Щщ and Ъъ are not used in native Chuvash words, but only for Russian loans.
=== Kazakh ===
Kazakh can be alternatively written in the Latin alphabet. Latin is expected to entirely replace Cyrillic by the 2030s, alongside the modified Arabic alphabet (in the People's Republic of China, Iran and Afghanistan).
Ә ә = /æ/
Ғ ғ = /ʁ/ (voiced uvular fricative)
Е е = /jɪ/
И и = /ɪj/, /ɘj/
Қ қ = /q/ (voiceless uvular plosive)
Ң ң = /ŋ/, /ɴ/
О о = /o/, /ʷo/, /ʷʊ/
Ө ө = /œ/, /ʷœ/, /ʷʏ/
У у = /ʊw/, /ʉw/, /w/
Ұ ұ = /ʊ/
Ү ү = /ʉ/, /ʏ/
Һ һ = /h/
Щ щ = /ʃʃ/
Ы ы = /ɯ/, /ә/
І і = /ɪ/, /ɘ/
The Cyrillic letters Вв, Ёё, Цц, Чч, Ъъ, Ьь and Ээ are not used in native Kazakh words, but only for Russian loans.
=== Kyrgyz ===
Kyrgyz has also been written in Latin and in Arabic.

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Ң ң = /ŋ/ (velar nasal)
Ү ү = /y/ (close front rounded vowel)
Ө ө = /œ/ (open-mid front rounded vowel)
Bold letters are used only in loanwords.
=== Tatar ===
Tatar has used Cyrillic since 1939, but the Russian Orthodox Tatar community has used Cyrillic since the 19th century. In 2000 a new Latin alphabet was adopted for Tatar, but it is used generally on the Internet.
Ә ә = /æ/
Ң ң = /ŋ/
Ө ө = /œ/
У у = /uw/, /yw/, /w/
Ү ү = /y/
Һ һ = /h/
Җ җ = /ʑ/
The Cyrillic letters Ёё, Цц, Щщ are not used in native Tatar words, but only for Russian loans.
=== Turkmen ===
Turkmen, written 1940–1994 exclusively in Cyrillic, since 1994 officially in Roman, but in everyday communication Cyrillic is still used along with Roman script.
=== Uzbek ===
From 1941 the Cyrillic script was used exclusively. In 1998 the government has adopted a Latin alphabet to replace it. The deadline for making this transition has however been repeatedly changed, and Cyrillic is still more common. It is not clear that the transition will be made at all.
В в = /w/
Ж ж = /dʒ/
Ф ф = /ɸ/
Х х = /χ/
Ъ ъ = /ʔ/
Ў ў = /ө/
Қ қ = /q/
Ғ ғ = /ʁ/
Ҳ ҳ = /h/
In addition to the letters from the Russian alphabet, А–Я, except for Щ and Ы, the Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet includes Ў, Қ, Ғ and Ҳ at the end. They are distinct letters in the Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet and are sorted after Я as shown above.
=== Yakut ===
Several Cyrillic alphabets have been used to write Yakut, but the current alphabet was adopted in 1939.
Letters in Bold are only used in Russian Loanwords.
=== Other ===
Altai
Crimean Tatar (1938–1991, now mostly replaced by Roman)
Gagauz (1957–1990s, exclusively in Cyrillic, since 1990s officially in Roman, but in reality in everyday communication Cyrillic is used along with Roman script)
Karachay-Balkar
Karakalpak (1940s–1990s)
Karaim (20th century)
Khakas
Kumyk
Nogai
Tuvan
Uyghur – Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet (Uyghur Siril Yëziqi). Used along with Uyghur Arabic alphabet (Uyghur Ereb Yëziqi), New Script (Uyghur Yëngi Yëziqi, Pinyin-based), and modern Uyghur Latin alphabet (Uyghur Latin Yëziqi).
Dolgan
Balkan Gagauz Turkish
Urum
Siberian Tatar
Siberian Turkic
== Caucasian languages ==
=== Northwest Caucasian languages ===
Living Northwest Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets.
==== Abaza ====
Abaza is a Caucasian language, spoken by Abazins in the Karachay-Cherkessia Republic, Russia.
Digraphs in parentheses are dialectal, and are therefore absent from the literary language and the official alphabet.
==== Abkhaz ====
Abkhaz is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia.
For older conventions, see Abkhaz alphabet.
==== Adyghe ====
Adyghe is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republic of Adygea, Russia.
Letters in parentheses are only used in digraphs.
==== Kabardian ====
Kabardian is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia.
=== Northeast Caucasian languages ===
Northeast Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets.
==== Avar ====
Avar is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republic of Dagestan, of the Russian Federation, where it is co-official together with other Caucasian languages like Dargwa, Lak, Lezgian and Tabassaran. All these alphabets, and other ones (Abaza, Adyghe, Chechen, Ingush, Kabardian) have an extra sign: palochka (Ӏ), which gives voiceless occlusive consonants its particular ejective sound.
В = /w/
гъ = /ʁ/
гь = /h/
гӀ = /ʕ/
къ = /qːʼ/
кӀ = /kʼ/
кь = /t͡ɬːʼ/
кӀкӀ = /t͡ɬː/, is also written ЛӀ лӀ.
кк = /ɬ/, is also written Лъ лъ.
тӀ = /tʼ/
х = /χ/
хъ = /qː/
хь = /x/
хӀ = /ħ/
цӀ = /t͡sʼ/
чӀ = /t͡ʃʼ/
Double consonants, called "fortis", are pronounced longer than single consonants (called "lenis").
==== Lezgian ====
Lezgian is spoken by the Lezgins, who live in southern Dagestan and northern Azerbaijan. Lezgian is a literary language and an official language of Dagestan.
==== Other ====
Chechen (since 1938, also with Roman 1991–2000, but switch back to Cyrillic alphabets since 2001.)
Dargwa
Lak
Tabassaran
Ingush
Archi
== Mongolian ==
The Mongolic languages include Khalkha (in Mongolia; Cyrillic is official since 1941, in practice from 1946), Buryat (around Lake Baikal; Cyrillic is used since the 1930s) and Kalmyk (northwest of the Caspian Sea; Cyrillic is used in various forms since the 1920-30s). Khalkha Mongolian is also written with the Mongol vertical alphabet, which was the official script before 1941. Since the beginning of the 1990s Mongolia has been making attempts to extend the rather limited use of Mongol script and the most recent National Plan for Mongol Script aims to bring its use to the same level as Cyrillic by 2025 and maintain a dual-script system (digraphia).
=== Overview ===
This table contains all the characters used.
Һһ is shown twice as it appears at two different locations in Buryat and Kalmyk
=== Khalkha ===
В в = /w/
Е е = /jɛ/, /jœ/
Ё ё = /jo/
Ж ж = /dʒ/
З з = /dz/
Ий ий = /iː/
Й й = the second element of closing diphthongs (ай, ой, etc.) and long /iː/ (ий), it never indicates /j/ in native words
Н н = /n-/, /-ŋ/
Ө ө = /œ/
У у = /ʊ/
Ү ү = /u/
Ы ы = /iː/ (in suffixes after a hard consonant)
Ь ь = palatalization of the preceding consonant
Ю ю = /ju/, /jy/
Long vowels are indicated with double letters. The Cyrillic letters Кк, Пп, Фф and Щщ are not used in native Mongolian words, but only for Russian or other loans (Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words).

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=== Buryat ===
The Buryat (буряад) Cyrillic script is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Пп, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words (Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words).
Е е = /jɛ/, /jœ/
Ё ё = /jo/
Ж ж = /dʒ/
Й й = the second element of closing diphthongs (ай, ой, etc.), it never indicates /j/ in native words
Н н = /n-/, /-ŋ/
Өө өө = /œː/, ө does not occur in short form in literary Buryat based on the Khori dialect
У у = /ʊ/
Ү ү = /u/
Һ һ = /h/
Ы ы = /ei/, /iː/
Ю ю = /ju/
=== Kalmyk ===
The Kalmyk (хальмг) Cyrillic script differs from Khalkha in some respects: there are additional letters (Әә, Җҗ, Ңң, Һһ), letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = /xaʎmaɡ/). Жж and Пп are used in loanwords only (Russian, Tibetan, etc.), but Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words.
Ә ә = /æ/
В в = /w/
Һ һ = /ɣ/
Е е = /ɛ/, /jɛ-/
Җ җ = /dʒ/
Ң ң = /ŋ/
Ө ө = /ø/
У у = /ʊ/
Ү ү = /u/
== Sino-Tibetan ==
=== Dungan language ===
Since 1953.
Letters in bold are used only in Russian loanwords.
== Tungusic languages ==
Even
Evenk (since 1937)
Nanai
Udege (Udihe) (since late 1980s)
Orok (since 2007)
Ulch (since late 1980s)
== Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages ==
=== Chukchi language ===
Since 1936.
=== Koryak language ===
Since 1936.
=== Itelmen language ===
Since late 1980s.
=== Alyutor language ===
== Eskaleut languages ==
=== Aleut language ===
=== Central Siberian Yupik language ===
==== Chaplino dialect ====
The letters Ӷ ӷ, Ӄ ӄ, Ӈ ӈ, Ӽ ӽ are sometimes replaced by Гʼ гʼ, Кʼ кʼ, Нʼ нʼ, Хʼ хʼ or Ґ ґ, Қ қ, Ң ң, Ҳ ҳ.
=== Sirenik language ===
Letters in bold are used only in Russian loanwords.
=== Other ===
Naukan Yupik
== Other languages ==
Ainu (in Russia)
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (Aisor)
Ket (since 1980s)
Nivkh
Tlingit (in Russian Alaska)
Yukaghirs (Tundra Yukaghir, Forest Yukaghir)
== Constructed languages ==
=== International auxiliary languages ===
Interslavic
Lingua Franca Nova
=== Fictional languages ===
Brutopian (Donald Duck stories)
Syldavian (The Adventures of Tintin)
== Summary table ==
Cyrillic Letters:
== See also ==
List of Cyrillic letters
Cyrillic script
Cyrillic script in Unicode
Old Church Slavonic
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Ivan G. Iliev. Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet. Plovdiv. 2012. Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet
Philipp Ammon: Tractatus slavonicus. in: Sjani (Thoughts) Georgian Scientific Journal of Literary Theory and Comparative Literature, N 17, 2016, pp. 248–56
Appendix:Cyrillic script, Wiktionary
== External links ==
Cyrillic Alphabets of Slavic Languages review of Cyrillic charsets in Slavic Languages.

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The Dolgopolsky list is a word list compiled by Aharon Dolgopolsky in 1964 based on a study of 140 languages from across Eurasia. It lists the 15 lexical items that he found have the most semantic stability, i.e. the 15 words least likely to be replaced.
== List ==
The words, with the first being the most stable, are:
I/me
two/pair
you (singular, informal)
who/what
tongue
name
eye
heart
tooth
no/not
nail (finger-nail)
louse/nit
tear/teardrop
water
dead
The first item in the list, I/me, has been replaced in none of the 140 languages during their recorded history; the fifteenth, dead, has been replaced in 25% of the languages. The twelfth item, louse/nit, is well kept in the North Caucasian languages, Dravidian and Turkic, but not in some other proto-languages.
The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 lexical items includes all but five of these words: two/pair, heart, nail (fingernail), tear, die/dead.
== See also ==
Swadesh list
Comparative linguistics
== References ==
Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000). The dictionary of historical and comparative linguistics. p. 96.
== External links ==
Concepticon

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Father has been used as both title and honorific in various languages, synonyms and historical contexts. It may sometimes denote a title of authority or of honour.
== List of uses of "father" in various languages ==
=== By culture and/or language ===
Ab (Semitic)
Bwana ("our father"), from Swahili, meaning an important person or safari leader
Abu in Kunya (Arabic), used as epithet for "father of X"
Baba, mark of respect in:
Indian honorific Hindu and Sikh
Baba (honorific) in Persian language
In Malaysia as an honorific of respect to address Chinese people born in the British Straits Settlements
Batko, a Ukrainian honorific meaning "father"
List of people considered father or mother of a field
Founding father
Father of the Nation/Father of the Country
Pater Patriae
Fathers of Confederation
Founding fathers of the European Union
Founding Fathers of the United States
Pater familias (Latin), title for head of household in Ancient Rome
=== Personifications ===
Father Time
Father Christmas
Ded Moroz ("Father Frost")
=== By religion ===
God the Father
==== Buddhism ====
Abbot (Buddhism) a title for a monk who holds the position of administrator of a Buddhist monastery or Buddhist temple
==== Christianity ====
Patriarch (Greek, literally "father ruler") as a title for the primate of a Christian church
Pope
Church Fathers
Abbot, an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery
Father, as a honorific for a priest
Aboona ("our father") in Syriac language
Abuna ("our father") in Amharic and Tigrinya
== See also ==
List of people considered father or mother of a field

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Felix Alfred Ucko (January 4, 1919 – October 27, 1996) was an American field hockey player. He competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics and the 1956 Summer Olympics. In the 1956 games, he played alongside his brother, Kurt Ucko.
Additionally, he was a psychiatrist. He was a member of the American Psychiatric Association, the American Association of Community Psychiatrists, and other professional organizations.
== Publications ==
Ucko, Felix A. (1948). Stand der Herzchirurgie in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (Hochschulschrift/Dissertation thesis). Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main. OCLC 720559781. ⁣DNB, Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek 481675914. Katalog der Bibliotheken der Goethe-Universität PPN 272224251.
Ucko, Felix A. (December 1955). "Shock therapy can be safe". Diseases of the Nervous System. 16 (12): 373–4. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13270682. Google Books V5sBh2-Zz50C.
Ucko, Felix (October 12, 1956). "Zur Witzelsucht in Deutsche Frauen". Arbeiten aus dem Staatinstitut für Experimentelle Therapie und dem Georg Spyer Hause zu Frankfurt. 14. Jena, Germany: 92.
Ucko, F.A. (August 1962). "Clinical experience with chlorprothixene, a new psychotherapeutic agent". Diseases of the Nervous System. 23: 453–5. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13923425.
Gehl, Raymond H.; Welkind, Allen; Ucko, Felix A. (January 1966). "Providing a therapeutic climate by pairing patients. A preliminary report". Mental Hygiene. 50 (1): 36–46. ISSN 0025-9683. PMID 5901679. Google Books X1A2AAAAIAAJ. HathiTrust uc1.b3597047.
Ucko, Felix A. (September 5–11, 1966). Depression and its treatment. Depressions and related states. Fourth World Congress of Psychiatry. International Congress Series No. 150. Vol. 3: Free Communications. Amsterdam, etc.: Excerpta Medica Foundation (published May 1968). pp. 1834–1836. OCLC 460848. Google Books eyK2AAAAIAAJ, 785rAAAAMAAJ. HathiTrust uc1.b4295741, mdp.39015001636680.
Ucko, Felix A. (August 1970) [corrected 2022-10-10]. "Psychotropics in anxiety and depression: Combination or single agent?". Diseases of the Nervous System. 31 (8): 539–541. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 4394308. EBSCOhost 1971-04460-001.
== References ==
== External links ==
Felix Ucko at Olympedia

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Gardiner's sign list is a list of common Egyptian hieroglyphs compiled by Sir Alan Gardiner. It is considered a standard reference in the study of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Gardiner lists only the common forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but he includes extensive subcategories, and also both vertical and horizontal forms for many hieroglyphs. He includes size-variation forms to aid with the reading of hieroglyphs in running blocks of text. In contrast, for example, the Budge Reference has about 1,000 hieroglyphs listed in 50 pages, but with no size variations.
Gardiner does not cross-index signs; once a sign is put on one of his lists, other significant uses may be overlooked. One example of this is 𓅒 G16, nbtỉ, the ideogram for the Two Ladies, goddesses Wadjet as the cobra and Nekhbet as the white vulture. These are the protective and patron goddesses of the separate Egyptian kingdoms that joined into ancient Egypt, who were both then displayed on the uraeus of Wadjet when the unification occurred and afterward considered jointly to be the protectors of Egypt and the pharaohs. This ideogram is listed only in the bird list (G), and overlooked on the deity list (C) and the reptile list (I).
Other subcategories included by Gardiner are abbreviations and personalized forms, and also a complete subset, used on papyrus, specifically for the Book of the Dead.
== Categories ==
=== A. Man and his occupations ===
56 signs in Gardiner (1957:242–247), with A59 "man threatening with stick" inserted after A25 "man striking with left hand hanging behind back", and two variants A14* "blood interpreted as ax" of A14 "man with blood streaming from his head"; and A17* "child sitting with arms hanging down" of A17 "child sitting with hand to mouth".
=== B. Woman and her occupations ===
7 signs in Gardiner (1957:448).
=== C. Anthropomorphic deities ===
11 signs in Gardiner (1957:448f.) with the addition of five 19th Dynasty signs, C12 Amun, C17 Mont, C18 Tjanen, C19 and C20 Ptah.
=== D. Parts of the human body ===
Expected quantity: 63
=== E. Mammals ===
Expected quantity: 34
=== F. Parts of mammals ===
Expected quantity: 52
=== G. Birds ===
Expected quantity: 54
=== H. Parts of birds ===
Expected quantity: 8
=== I. Amphibious animals, reptiles, etc. ===
15 signs in Gardiner (1957:475f).
=== K. Fish and parts of fish ===
Expected quantity: 7
=== L. Invertebrates and lesser animals ===
Expected quantity: 7
=== M. Trees and plants ===
44 signs in Gardiner (1957:478–484).
=== N. Sky, earth, water ===
42 signs in Gardiner (1957:485–492).
N3 is an Old Kingdom variant of N2.
N11 "moon" has vertical (increscent and decrescent) variants, N12 is a 19th-Dynasty variant of N11.
=== O. Buildings, parts of buildings, etc. ===
51 signs (with variants, U+13250–1329A).
=== P. Ships and parts of ships ===
Expected quantity: 11
=== Q. Domestics and funerary furniture ===
Expected quantity: 7
=== R. Temple furniture and sacred emblems ===
Expected quantity: 25
=== S. Crowns, dress, staves, etc. ===
Expected quantity: 45
=== T. Warfare, hunting, and butchery ===
Expected quantity: 35
=== U. Agriculture, crafts, and professions ===
41 signs.
=== V. Rope, fiber, baskets, bags, etc. ===
40 signs (38 in Gardiner 1957).
V39 is the Tyet or "Knot of Isis".
V40 is the numeral 10 in dates.
=== W. Vessels of stone and earthenware ===
25 signs.
=== X. Loaves and cakes ===
8 signs.
=== Y. Writings, games, music ===
8 signs.
=== Z. Strokes, signs derived from Hieratic, geometrical figures ===
11 signs.
=== Aa. Unclassified ===
31 signs in Gardiner (1957).
== Unicode ==
These hieroglyphs have unicode code points and so, given a suitable font, can be displayed or printed. The block starts at U+013000 for A001.
== See also ==
Egyptian hieroglyphs
List of Egyptian hieroglyphs
Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Budge, Sir E.A.Wallis, An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, in Two Volumes, Sir E.A.Wallis Budge, (Dover Publications, Inc. New York), c 1920, Dover Edition, c 1978. (Large categorized listings of Hieroglyphs, Vol 1, pp. xcvii–cxlvii (97–147) (25 categories, 1000+ hieroglyphs), 50 pgs.)
A.H. Gardiner, Catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, from matrices owned and controlled by Dr. Alan (1928).
A.H. Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1928)", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15 (1929), p. 95.
A.H. Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1931)", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 17 (1931), pp. 245–247.
A.H. Gardiner, Supplement to the catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, showing acquisitions to December 1953 (1953).
A.H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. 3rd Ed., pub. Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1957 (1st edition 1927), pp. 438–548 (pdf).
Wilkinson, Richard, Reading Egyptian Art, A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture, Richard H. Wilkinson, with 450 Illustrations, (Thames & Hudson Ltd, London), c 1992.
== Further reading ==
Betrò, Maria Carmela (1996). Hieroglyphics: The Writings of Ancient Egypt (1st ed.). Abbeville Press Pub. pp. 251. ISBN 9780789202321.: A primer based on Gardiner's sign list, focussing on major signs in seven categories.
== External links ==
Hieroglyphic fonts
Khemet.de on Gardiner Archived 2015-10-11 at the Wayback Machine

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In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for signaling modality. In other words, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying (for example, a statement of fact, of desire, of command, etc.). The term is also used more broadly to describe the syntactic expression of modality – that is, the use of verb phrases that do not involve inflection of the verb itself.
Mood is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although the same word patterns are used for expressing more than one of these meanings at the same time in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages. (See tense–aspect–mood for a discussion of this.)
Some examples of moods are indicative, interrogative, imperative, subjunctive, injunctive, optative, and irrealis/potential. These are all finite forms of the verb. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles, which are non-finite forms of the verb, are not considered to be examples of moods.
Some Uralic Samoyedic languages have more than ten moods; Nenets has as many as sixteen. The original Indo-European inventory of moods consisted of indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Not every Indo-European language has all of these moods, but the most conservative ones such as Avestan, Ancient Greek, and Vedic Sanskrit have them all. English has indicative, imperative, conditional, and subjunctive moods.
Not all the moods listed below are clearly conceptually distinct. Individual terminology varies from language to language, and the coverage of, for example, the "conditional" mood in one language may largely overlap with that of the "hypothetical" or "potential" mood in another. Even when two different moods exist in the same language, their respective usages may blur, or may be defined by syntactic rather than semantic criteria. For example, the subjunctive and optative moods in Ancient Greek alternate syntactically in many subordinate clauses, depending on the tense of the main verb. The usage of the indicative, subjunctive, and jussive moods in Classical Arabic is almost completely controlled by syntactic context. The only possible alternation in the same context is between indicative and jussive following the negative particle lā.
The word mood in a grammatical sense comes from the Latin modus, and has no connection with the other meaning of "mood", in the sense of "emotional state", which comes from a Germanic root.
== Realis moods ==
Realis moods are a category of grammatical moods that indicate that something is actually the case. The most common realis mood is the indicative mood. Some languages have a distinct generic mood for expressing general truths.
=== Indicative ===
The indicative mood, or evidential mood, is used for factual statements and positive beliefs. It is the mood of reality. The indicative mood is the most commonly used mood and is found in all languages. Example: "Paul is eating an apple" or "John eats apples".
== Irrealis moods ==
Irrealis moods or non-indicative moods are the set of grammatical moods that indicate that something is not actually the case or a certain situation or action is not known to have happened. They are any verb or sentence mood that is not a realis mood. They may be part of expressions of necessity, possibility, requirement, wish or desire, fear, or as part of counterfactual reasoning, etc.
Irrealis verb forms are used when speaking of an event which has not happened, is not likely to happen, or is otherwise far removed from the real course of events. For example, in the sentence "If you had done your homework, you wouldn't have failed the class", had done is an irrealis verb form.
Some languages have distinct irrealis grammatical verb forms. Many Indo-European languages preserve a subjunctive mood. Some also preserve an optative mood that describes events that are wished for or hoped for but not factual.
Common irrealis moods are the conditional, the subjunctive, the optative, the jussive, and the potential. For other examples, see the main article for each respective mood.
=== Subjunctive ===
The subjunctive mood, sometimes called conjunctive mood, has several uses in dependent clauses. Examples include discussing imaginary or hypothetical events and situations, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests (the exact scope is language-specific). A subjunctive mood exists in English, though it is not an inflectional form of the verb but rather a clause type which uses the bare form of the verb also used in imperatives, infinitives, and other constructions. An example of the English subjunctive is "Jill suggested that Paul take his medicine", as opposed to the indicative sentence "Jill believes that Paul takes his medicine".
Other uses of the subjunctive in English are archaisms, as in "And if he be not able to bring a lamb, then he shall bring for his trespass..." (KJV, Leviticus 5:7). Statements such as "I will ensure that he leave immediately" often sound archaic or formal, and have been largely supplanted by constructions with the indicative, like "I will ensure that he leaves immediately".
Some Germanic languages distinguish between two types of subjunctive moods, for example, the Konjunktiv I and II in German.
1 In modern usage, the imperfect indicative usually replaces the imperfect subjunctive in this type of sentence.
The subjunctive mood figures prominently in the grammar of the Romance languages, which require this mood for certain types of dependent clauses. This point commonly causes difficulty for English speakers learning these languages.
In certain other languages, the dubitative or the conditional moods may be employed instead of the subjunctive in referring to doubtful or unlikely events (see the main article).
=== Conditional ===

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The conditional mood is used for speaking of an event whose realization is dependent upon another condition, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional sentences. In Modern English, this type of modality is expressed via a periphrastic construction, with the form would + infinitive, (for example, I would buy), and thus is a mood only in the broad sense and not in the more common narrow sense of the term "mood" requiring morphological changes in the verb. In other languages, verbs have a specific conditional inflection. In German, the conditional mood is identical to one of the two subjunctive moods (Konjunktiv II, see above).
In the Romance languages, the conditional form is used primarily in the apodosis (main clause) of conditional sentences, and in a few set phrases where it expresses courtesy or doubt. The main verb in the protasis (dependent clause) is usually in the subjunctive or in the indicative mood. However, this is not a universal trait and among others in German (as above), Finnish, and Romanian (even though the last is a Romance language), the conditional mood is used in both the apodosis and the protasis. A further example is a sentence "I would buy a house if I earned a lot of money".
Irish has conditional marking in both clauses: d'íosfadh 'would eat, would have eaten' and beadh 'would be, would have been', along with a specific irrealis conditional dá 'if', which contrasts with the realis conditional má 'if' (i.e. Ithfidh sé má bhíonn ocras air. 'He'll eat if he is hungry').
In Finnish, both clauses likewise have the conditional marker -isi-: Ostaisin talon, jos ansaitsisin paljon rahaa.
In Polish (as well as in eastern and other western Slavic languages), the conditional marker -by also appears twice: Kupiłbym dom, gdybym zarabiał dużo pieniędzy.
In Hindi, the conditional markers -ता (tā), -ती (tī), -ते (te) and -तीं (tī̃) (agreeing in gender and number with the subject and the direct object) comes twice: मैं घर खरीदता अगर बहौत पैसे कमाता। (maiṁ ghar kharīdatā agar bahaut paisē kamātā). The conditional (or contrafactual) form in Hindi corresponds to perfect conditional of Romance and the Germanic languages. So, the sentence literally translate to "I would have bought a house if I earned a lot of money."
Due to English's status as a lingua franca, a common error among second-language speakers is to use "would" in both clauses. For example, *"I would buy if I would earn...". In Dutch, for instance, inserting zouden "would" in the if-clause is not considered grammatically incorrect: ik zou een huis hebben gekocht, als ik veel geld zou verdienen.
=== Optative ===
The optative mood expresses hopes, wishes or commands and has other uses that may overlap with the subjunctive mood. Few languages have an optative as a distinct mood; some that do are Albanian, Ancient Greek, Hungarian, Kazakh, Japanese, Finnish, Nepali, and Sanskrit.
=== Imperative ===
The imperative mood expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests. In many circumstances, using the imperative mood may sound blunt or even rude, so it is often used with care. Example: "Pat, do your homework now". An imperative is used for telling someone to do something without argument. Many languages, including English, use the bare verb stem to form the imperative (such as "go", "run", "do"). Other languages, such as Seri, Hindi, and Latin, however, use special imperative forms.
In English, the second person is implied by the imperative except when first-person plural is specified, as in "Let's go" ("Let us go").
In Romance languages, a first person plural exists in the imperative mood: Spanish: Vayamos a la playa; French: Allons à la plage (both meaning: Let's go to the beach).
In Hindi, imperatives can be put into the present and the future tense. Imperative forms of Hindi verb karnā (to do) are shown in the table belowː
The prohibitive mood, the negative imperative, may be grammatically or morphologically different from the imperative mood in some languages. It indicates that the action of the verb is not permitted. For example, "Don't you go!"
In English, the imperative is sometimes used for forming a conditional sentence: for example, "go eastwards a mile, and you'll see it" means "if you go eastwards a mile, you will see it".
=== Jussive ===
The jussive, similarly to the imperative, expresses orders, commands, exhortations, but particularly to a third person not present. An imperative, in contrast, generally applies to the listener. When a language is said to have a jussive, the jussive forms are different from the imperative ones, but may be the same as the forms called "subjunctive" in that language. Latin and Hindi are examples of where the jussive is simply about certain specific uses of the subjunctive. Arabic, however, is a language with distinct subjunctive, imperative, and jussive conjugations.
=== Potential ===
The potential mood is a mood of probability indicating that, in the opinion of the speaker, the action or occurrence is considered likely. It is used in Finnish, in Japanese, in Sanskrit (where the so-called optative mood can serve equally well as a potential mood), in Northern Wu, and in the Sami languages. (In Japanese, it is often called something like tentative, since potential is used for referring to a voice indicating capability to perform the action.)
In Finnish, it is mostly a literary device, as it has virtually disappeared from daily spoken language in most dialects. Its affix is -ne-, as in *men + ne + e → mennee "(he/she/it/they(sg)) will probably go".
In Hungarian, the potential is formed by the suffix -hat/-het and it can express both possibility and permission: adhat "may give, can give"; Mehetünk? "Can we go?"
In English, it is formed by means of the auxiliaries may, can, ought, and must: "She may go."
=== Presumptive ===

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The presumptive mood is used to express presupposition or hypothesis, regardless of the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, and inevitability. It is used in Romanian, Hindi, Gujarati, and Punjabi.
In Romanian, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb vrea are used with the infinitive form of verbs. The present tense and the past tense infinitives are respectively used to form the present and the past tense of the presumptive mood.
In Hindi, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb honā (to be) are used with the perfective, habitual, and progressive aspectual participles to form the perfective presumptive, habitual presumptive, and the progressive presumptive moods. The same presumptive mood conjugations are used for present, future, and past tenses.
Note:
The translations are just the closest possible English approximations and not exact.
Only masculine conjugations are shown for Hindi.
=== Hypothetical ===
A few languages use a hypothetical mood, which is used in sentences such as "you could have cut yourself", representing something that might have happened but did not.
=== Inferential ===
The inferential mood is used to report unwitnessed events without confirming them. Often, there is no doubt as to the veracity of the statement (for example, if it were on the news), but simply the fact that the speaker was not personally present at the event forces them to use this mood.
In the Balkan languages, the same forms used for the inferential mood also function as admiratives. When referring to Balkan languages, it is often called renarrative mood; when referring to Estonian, it is called oblique mood.
The inferential is usually impossible to be distinguishably translated into English. For instance, indicative Bulgarian той отиде (toy otide) and Turkish o gitti will be translated the same as inferential той отишъл (toy otishal) and o gitmiş — with the English indicative he went.[1] Using the first pair, however, implies very strongly that the speaker either witnessed the event or is very sure that it took place. The second pair implies either that the speaker did not in fact witness it take place, that it occurred in the remote past or that there is considerable doubt as to whether it actually happened. If it were necessary to make the distinction, then the English constructions "he must have gone" or "he is said to have gone" would partly translate the inferential.
=== Interrogative ===
The interrogative (or interrogatory) mood is used for asking questions. Most languages do not have a special mood for asking questions, but exceptions include Welsh, Nenets, and Eskimo languages such as Greenlandic.
=== Deontic mood vs. epistemic mood ===
Linguists also differentiate moods into two parental irrealis categories: deontic mood and epistemic mood. Deontic mood describes whether one could or should be able to do something. An example of deontic mood is: She should/may start. On the other hand, epistemic mood describes the chance or possibility of something happening. This would then change our example to: She may have started. To further explain modality, linguists introduce weak mood. A weak deontic mood describes how a course of action is not recommended or is frowned upon. A weak epistemic mood includes the terms "perhaps" and "possibly".
== Moods in Oceanic languages ==
=== Pingelapese ===
Pingelapese is a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. e and ae are auxiliary verbs found in Pingelapese. Though seemingly interchangeable, e and ae are separate phonemes and have different uses. A Pingelapese speaker would choose to use e when they have a high degree of certainty in what they are saying and ae when they are less certain. This therefore illustrates that e and ae are mood indicators. They have no effect on the direct translation of a sentence, but they are used to alter the mood of the sentence spoken. The following example shows the difference between e and ae when applied in the same sentence.
Ngaei rong pwa Soahn e laid.
‘I heard that John was fishing (I am certain about it).’
Ngaei rong pwa Soahn ae laid.
‘I heard that John was fishing (but I am not certain about it).’
The use of ae instead of e can also indicate an interrogative sentence. This is a form of non-declarative speech that demonstrates the speaker has no commitment to the statement they are saying. The following sentence is an example.
Soahn ae laid?
‘Does John fish?’
=== Reo Rapa ===
The language we know as Reo Rapa was created as a result of the introduction of Tahitian to the Rapa monolingual community. Old Rapa words are still used for the grammar and structure of the sentence or phrase, but most common content words were replaced with Tahitian. The Reo Rapa language uses Tense–Aspect–Mood (TAM) in their sentence structure such as the imperfective TAM marker /e/ and the imperative TAM marker /a/.
For example:
=== Mortlockese ===
Mortlockese is an Austronesian language made up of eleven dialects over the eleven atolls that make up the Mortlock Islands in Micronesia. Various TAM markers are used in the language. Mood markers include the past tense hortative (marking encouragement or to urge) aa, the hortative kɞ which denotes a polite tone, min or tin to stress the importance of something, and the word tɞ to denote warning or caution. Each of these markers is used in conjunction with the subject proclitics except for the aa marker.
== See also ==
Articles on specific grammatical moods
Grammatical conjugation
Grammatical modality
Polarity item
Nominal TAM
== References ==
== External links ==
Mood in Biblical Greek
From SIL International:
Deontic modality
Volitive modality: imprecative mood, optative mood
Directive modality: deliberative mood, imperative mood, immediate imperative mood, jussive mood, obligative mood, permissive mood, precative mood, prohibitive mood
Epistemic modality
judgment modality: assumptive mood, declarative mood, deductive mood, dubitative mood, hypothetical mood, interrogative mood, speculative mood
Irrealis modality: subjunctive mood

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The American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001) proposed a set of linguistic universals based primarily on a set of 30 languages. The following list is verbatim from the list printed in the appendix of Greenberg's Universals of Language and "Universals Restated", sorted by context.
The numbering is fixed to keep Greenberg's number associations as these are commonly referenced by number; e.g.: "Greenberg's linguistic universal number 12".
== Typology ==
"In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is almost always one in which the subject precedes the object."
"In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes."
"Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional."
"With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional."
"If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise follows the noun."
"All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative basic order."
== Syntax ==
== Morphology ==
== References ==

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Janice Carson Beatley (March 18, 1919 – November 14, 1987) was an American botanist, known for her fieldwork on the forests of Ohio and the flora of the Nevada Atomic Test Site. Beatley was Professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati. She has three plant species named in her honour including Astragalus beatleyae.
== Early life and education ==
Janice Carson Beatley was born in Columbus, Ohio to Earle Beatley and Alice Elizabeth (Carson) Beatley. In 1935, she graduated from North High School in Columbus, then went on to obtain three degrees from Ohio State University, a B.A. in zoology (1940), and a M.S. (1948) and a PhD (1953), both in botany with research in plant ecology.
== Career ==
During her early career, Beatley conducted extensive studies of the forests of central and southern Ohio, including a survey of more than 1000 species of wintergreen herbaceous flora. This work, published as "The winter-green herbaceous flowering plants of Ohio" (1956), is believed to be the first comprehensive study of its kind in North America. Other extensive studies of Ohio vegetation followed, but in 1960, Beatley's focus shifted to the Atomic Test Site of south-central Nevada, where she would work for the next 13 years. Her studies there included identification and mapping of native and non-native plant species, as well as the effects of environmental factors, such as precipitation and radioactive dust, on the local flora. Later, she would return to Ohio, but continue her research in Nevada. Over the course of her career, Beatley undertook academic and research positions for several institutions, including: University of Tennessee, East Carolina College, North Carolina State University and New Mexico Highlands University. Over the course of her career, she collected over 10,000 herbarium specimens, which are deposited in herbarium collections across the US.
From 1960 to 1973 she was a research ecologist at the University of California, Los Angeles and the Nevada Test Site at Mercury, Nevada. She moved on to become a professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati from 1973 to 1987. She was also a research associate at the Herbarium of the Ohio State University (1983-1987).
Her work at the Nevada test site began in 1962 when she created 68 study sites. The intention had been to study the effect of radiation on the plants, but this plan had to be changed when the United States abandoned atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in 1963. The sites however became important because they recorded change. She published reports up to 1980 but much of her data was never published but it was all transferred to the USGS after she died. It was "an ideal place to conduct long-term ecosystem research".
Beatley was a member of many professional scientific bodies, as well as an active supporter of several environmental protection organizations. Three plant species are named for her: Astragalus beatleyae Barneby, Eriogonum beatleyae Reveal, and Phacelia beatleyae Reveal and Constance. Beatley died of pneumonia on November 14, 1987. In the years following, the Janice Carson Beatley Herbarium Fund was created in her honor at The Ohio State University.
== Publications ==
A selection of the most widely held works by Beatley:
Beatley also conducted research on the sunflowers of Tennessee and the buckeyes of Ohio, among others.
=== Standard author abbreviation ===
== References ==

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Alexandros Makriyannis is a professor in the Department of Medicinal Chemistry at Northeastern University, where his research group has synthesized many new compounds with cannabinoid activity. Some of those are:
== See also ==
List of CP cannabinoids
List of JWH cannabinoids
List of HU cannabinoids
List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids
== References ==

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title: "List of African-American inventors and scientists"
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This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African-Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine.
== History ==
African-Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African-Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation. Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions.
Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from peanuts that were useful for the house and farm. He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP.
A later renowned scientist was Percy Lavon Julian, a research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine, and a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones, steroids, progesterone, and testosterone, from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work would lay the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills.
A contemporary example of a modern-day inventor is Lonnie George Johnson, an engineer. Johnson invented the Super Soaker water gun, which was the top-selling toy in the United States from 1991 to 1992. In 1980 Johnson formed his own law firm and licensed the Super Soaker water gun to Larami Corporation. Two years later, the Super Soaker generated over $200 million in retail sales and became the best selling toy in North America. Larami Corporation was eventually purchased by Hasbro, the second largest toy manufacturer in the world. Over the years, Super Soaker sales have totaled close to one billion dollars. Johnson reinvested a majority of his earnings from the Super Soaker into research and development for his energy technology companies – "It's who I am, it's what I do." As of 2019, Johnson holds over 120 patents, with more pending, and is the author of several publications on spacecraft power systems.
== List ==
P
== See also ==
== References ==
202 US3609467 US3547423
== External links ==
The Faces of Science: African Americans in the Sciences
The Black Inventor Online Museum
LittleAfrica.com website
Black Lives in Astronomy: Guide to Black Astronomers
Top List of Black Inventions That Changed The World

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This is a list of Albanian inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises individuals from Albania, the Albanian diaspora, and those of Albanian heritage who have contributed to the invention, innovation, or discovery of objects, processes, or techniques, either wholly or in part while working locally or abroad. The list is arranged in alphabetical order by surname.
== A ==
Grigor Andoni: Designed and developed Albania's first armored military vehicle, Shota MRAP.
== B ==
Veso Bey: Invented the Gjirokastër alphabet.
== C ==
== D ==
== E ==
== F ==
Carol Folt: Pioneering research on the effects of dietary mercury and arsenic on human and ecosystem health. Her pioneering scientific research profoundly influenced national and global policies, leading to important recommendations on consumption, particularly regarding human health and ecosystem well-being, shaped by dietary factors.
== G ==
Karl Ritter von Ghega: Designed the Semmering railway, the first standard-gauge mountain railway in Europe, commonly known as the world's first true mountain railway. Ghega was awarded the title of (Ritter) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to the country and was appointed as the chief planner for the entire railway network of the Austrian Empire.
Savo Gjirja: Innovated methods for utilizing ethanol as an alternative engine fuel.
Rifat Gjota: Invented Gjota generators and electromotors enhancing energy efficiency and reducing usage of copper. In 1965, Gjota graduated from the Electrotechnical Faculty of the University of Skopje. He later completed his master's degree at the University of Zagreb's Faculty of Electrical Engineering and earned his doctorate from the University of Pristina's Faculty of Electrical Engineering. He became a professor at the University of Pristina.
Luigi Giura: Designed the Real Ferdinando Bridge, the first iron catenary suspension bridge in Italy, it was one of the earliest in continental Europe.
== H ==
Theodhor Haxhifilipi: Invented the Todhri alphabet.
Pranvera Hyseni: Discovered a main belt asteroid, 2020 SS13 and 2000 EK140. Officially named by the International Astronomical Union 45687 Pranverahyseni to recognize her efforts in astronomy outreach. She also founded the Astronomy Outreach of Kosovo, advancing astronomical education.
== I ==
Halil Ibrahimi: Discovered multiple caddisfly species through field collection.
== J ==
== K ==
Sabiha Kasimati: Major pioneering research on the Ichthyology of Albania. Sabiha Kasimati made very significant strides in the field of ichthyology through her research and her most notable work Fishes of Albania she cataloged and analyzed 257 fish species. Her contributions continue to serve as a vital reference for the study of the region's ichthyofauna and aquatic biodiversity.
Wilson Kokalari: Contributed to the Apollo 11 mission, and he played a major role in spacecraft design and testing. Wilson Kokalari was honored by having his name featured on a plaque carried to the Moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts, recognizing the contributions of all those involved in this historic achievement.
Grigor Konstantinidhi: Invented the Elbasan alphabet.
== L ==
== M ==
Laura Mersini-Houghton: Pioneered the multiverse hypothesis, proposing gravitational dynamics among universes.
Gjon Mili: Innovated stroboscopic and stop action photography as well as invented and developed tungsten filament lights for color photography.
Ferid Murad: Discovered the role of Nitric Oxide in relaxing blood vessels, a breakthrough that revolutionized treatments for heart disease, erectile dysfunction, and respiratory issues in premature infants. His discovery played an crucial role in the development and creation of Viagra. His discovery earned him a Nobel Prize in 1998 for Physiology or Medicine.
Mira Murati: Creator and CEO of Thinking Machines Lab and former Chief Technology Officer at OpenAI, she played an important role in developing the AI in ChatGPT, DALL-E, and Codex.
== N ==
== O ==
== P ==
Mentor Përmeti: Invented the Dajti wheat variety which improved agricultural productivity.
Afërdita Veveçka Priftaj: Discovered the mechanism governing gold atom clustering on crystal surfaces, crucial for advancements in catalysis and nanotechnology.
== Q ==
== R ==
== S ==
Lulzim Shuka: Co-discovered Epimedium alpinum subsp. albanicum, a unique plant in Kosovo's Albanian Alps, alongside Kit Tan and Besnik Hallaçi. As well as Co-discovered Tulipa albanica, a distinct tulip species in Albania, alongside Besnik Hallaçi and L. Vata.
== T ==
== U ==
== V ==
Naum Veqilharxhi: Invented the Vithkuqi alphabet.
== W ==
== X ==
Omer Xhemali: Led a research team in developing an innovative heart-regenerating patch called the RCPatch (Reinforced Cardiac Patch).
== Y ==
Klevis Ylli: Contributed to the invention and optimization of wearable biomechanical energy harvesters that convert human motion into electrical energy, advancing self-powered wearable technology.
== Z ==
== See also ==
List of Albanian inventions and discoveries
== Notes ==
== References ==

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title: "List of Apollo lunar sample displays"
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This is a list of lunar sample displays from the Apollo program that were distributed through the United States and around the world. They include samples from the Apollo 11 and Apollo 17 missions conducted by NASA in 1969 and 1972.
The Apollo 11 mission to the surface of the Moon returned a few dozen pounds/kilos of lunar material (mainly rock and dust), and the US put about 0.05 grams in small display cases and gave one apiece to the 50 U.S. states, to the nations of the world, and to political entities like the U.S. territories under administration. This was done again with an Apollo 17 sample (Lunar basalt 70017). There are a few samples from Apollo 15 on display.
== United States ==
== International ==
The display cases included a lunar sample and small flag of the respective political entity that had been to the Moon and back. Approximately 135 displays were gifted to nations of the world at that time, so nations created since then are not included and some displays have been inherited from past nations
== Footnotes ==
== See also ==
Apollo 11 goodwill messages (Messages by nations left on the Moon)
Stolen and missing Moon rocks
== References ==
== External links ==
Lunar Sample Display locations (in .pdf)
Collect Space - Moonrock list
Kentucky's Goodwill Moon rock display in the Kentucky Historical Society's objects catalog

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The following list contains notable inventions and discoveries made by ethnic Armenians, including those not born or living in modern-day Armenia and those of partial Armenian ancestry.
== List ==
Default sorted chronologically
== See also ==
List of Armenians
List of Armenian scientists
List of Armenian Nobel laureates
== References ==

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This is a list of Austrian inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Austria, and also people of predominantly Austrian heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname.
== B ==
Georg Joseph Beer, introducing a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife).
Günther Burstyn, co-inventor of the tank (independent from him William Tritton and Walter Gordon Wilson)
== C ==
Carl Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle.
Gerty Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle.
== D ==
Carl Djerassi, inventor of birth control pills
Christian Doppler, discoverer of the Doppler effect
== E ==
Paul Eisler, inventor of the printed circuit board.
== F ==
Otto Frenzl: aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952.
Sigmund Freud: neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis
Karl von Frisch: (Nobel Prize), one of the founders of modern ethology, studies on waggle dance
Paul Fürst: inventor of the Mozartkugel
== G ==
David Gestetner, inventor of the Gestetner stencil duplicator.
Adolph Giesl-Gieslingen, inventor of the Giesl ejector
== H ==
Friedrich Hayek (Nobel Prize), pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations.
Victor Francis Hess (Nobel Prize), discovered cosmic ray.
Ingeborg Hochmair, developed the first modern cochlear implant
== K ==
Eric Kandel (Nobel Prize), research on the physiological basis of memory storage in neurons.
Viktor Kaplan, inventor of the Kaplan turbine.
Wolfgang von Kempelen, inventor of The Turk, a chess-playing automaton and Wolfgang von Kempelen's Speaking Machine.
Walter Kohn (Nobel Prize) discovered Density functional theory
Karl Kordesch, jointly co-inventor of Alkaline battery (together with Canadian Lewis Urry).
Richard Kuhn (Nobel Prize), works on carotenoids and vitamins, co-discovered Soman
== L ==
Hedy Lamarr, co-invented, with composer George Antheil, an early technique for spread spectrum communications and frequency hopping.
Karl Landsteiner (Nobel Prize) discovered the main blood groups, co-discovered with Alexander S. Wiener, the Rhesus factor and co-discovered with Constantin Levaditi and Erwin Popper the polio virus.
Konrad Lorenz (Nobel Prize) one of the founders of modern ethology
== M ==
Ferdinand Mannlicher, along with Scottish Canadian James Paris Lee, Mannlicher was particularly noted for inventing the en-bloc clip charger-loading magazine system.
August Musger, inventor of slow motion.
== P ==
Wolfgang Pauli (Nobel Prize), discovered Pauli exclusion principle
Max Perutz (Nobel Prize), co-discovered with John Kendrew in studies the structures of hemoglobin and globular proteins.
Fritz Pregl (Nobel Prize), making important contributions to quantitative organic microanalysis, one of which was the improvement of the combustion train technique for elemental analysis.
== R ==
Edmund Rumpler, inventor of Rumpler Tropfenwagen
== S ==
Franz Sacher, inventor of Sachertorte
Erwin Schrödinger, discovered Schrödinger equation
Eduard Suess: discoveries in geology, continent Gondwana and Tethys Ocean was named by Suess
Stephan von Breuning, discoverer of many varieties of beetles, particularly those in the Cerambycidae family
== T ==
Gustav Tauschek, inventor of Drum memory
== V ==
Max Valier, performed the first test drive of a rocket car with liquid propulsion, the Valier-Heylandt Rak 7.
== W ==
Julius Wagner-Jauregg (Nobel Prize), discovered treatment of mental disease by inducing a fever, an approach known as pyrotherapy.
== See also ==
List of Austrian Americans
== Notes ==
Austrians have a history of aircraft and math
== References ==

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This is a list of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas, and also a list of Bulgarian inventions and creations. The list comprises people from Bulgaria and also people of predominantly Bulgarian heritage.
== Art and architecture ==
Early Renaissance of the Tărnovo Artistic School – the world famous frescos in the Boyana Church from 1239 AD have been described by Andre Grabar and many scholars, as Early Renaissance or precursors of Renaissance Art well before this period started in Italy. The murals are work of the unknown Boyana Master and his disciples who are believed to have been representatives of the Tarnovo Artistic School of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396 AD). The frescos have been compared to the work of Giotto who is generally considered the first in a line of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance. The Boyana Church has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site.
Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School – characteristic for the Second Bulgarian Empire, influenced the architecture in many countries of Southeast Europe and parts of Central Europe.
== Medicine and pharmacology ==
Stamen Grigorov – discovered Lactobacillus bulgaricus, patented bacteria used for the production of yogurt in 1905. The bacterium feeds on lactose to produce lactic acid, which is used to preserve milk. He also made a major contribution to the creation of an anti-tuberculosis vaccine.
Dimitar Paskov – created the medicine Nivalin, used for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease and various other memory impairments, in particular those of vascular origin.
Samuel Refetoff – discovered the Refetoff syndrome, resistance to thyrotropin (RTSH) and the inherited defect that affects the metabolism of thyroid hormones through mutations in SECISBP2 gene.
Ivan Mitev – discovered the sixth heart sound.
== Literature and education ==
The Early Cyrillic script created in the Pliska-Preslav Literary School in the 9th century. The Bulgarian scholars and writers, as St. Clement of Ohrid and St. Naum of Preslav, were among the most prominent and close disciples of Saints Cyril and Methodius and among the creators not only of the first Slavic alphabet – the Glagolitic (not officially used nowadays), but also of the new Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet, named after their teacher and mentor Saint Cyril. This alphabetic writing system is nowadays employed across Southeast and Eastern Europe, also in North and Central Asia. This is the major Bulgarian contribution to the European civilization produced during the Golden Age of Bulgaria during the First Bulgarian Empire, the period of the Bulgarian cultural prosperity during the reign of emperor Simeon I the Great (889–927).
The Tarnovo Literary School of the late 14th and 15th century was a major medieval Bulgarian cultural academy with important contribution to the Medieval Bulgarian literature established in the capital of Bulgaria Tarnovo. With the orthographic reform of Saint Evtimiy of Tarnovo and prominent representatives such as Gregory Tsamblak or Constantine of Kostenets. It was part of the Tarnovo School of Art which was characteristic for the culture of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The school influenced Russian, Serbian, Wallachian and Moldavian medieval culture. That is famous in Russia as the second South-Slavic influence.
Georgi Lozanov – the teaching method Suggestopedia, a portmanteau of "suggestions" and "pedagogy" used to learn foreign languages, was first developed in the 1970s and utilize positive suggestions in teaching language. In 1978, the psychiatrist Lozanov presented the method to a commission in Paris at UNESCO.
Elias Canetti – Nobel laureate in Literature 1981 "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power"
== Technology and aviation ==
The first technologically processed gold and oldest gold treasure and gold jewelry in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at Varna Necropolis.
The first Ferris wheels, the "Pleasure wheels" from Plovdiv, whose passengers rode in chairs suspended from large wooden rings turned by strong men, may have originated in 17th-century Bulgaria.
Simeon Petrov – Captain Simeon Petrov, Bulgarian Air Force, invented the world's first purpose-built air-to-surface bomb in 1912. The innovations included aerodynamically stabilized x-tail and an impact detonator. The majority of aircraft bombs to date follow Petrov's design. The Bulgarian Air Force deployed the original prototype, thus becoming the first military force in the world to conduct tactical airplane bombing in a full-scale war in 1912.
Assen Jordanoff (September 2, 1896 – October 19, 1967) was a Bulgarian inventor, engineer, and aviator. Jordanoff is considered to be the founder of aeronautical engineering in Bulgaria, as well as a contributor to the development of aviation in the United States. Inventor of:
the Airbag for aircraft pilots that is nowadays used in automobiles;
the Jordaphone – the predecessor of the modern Answering machine and Tape recorder;
the Frozen Gasoline System for airplanes;
the Reverse thrust device for jet engines.
John Vincent Atanasoff (October 4, 1903 – June 15, 1995) was a physicist and inventor of Bulgarian origin, best known for being credited with inventing the first electronic digital computer.
Peter Petroff (21 October 1919 – 27 February 2003) was a Bulgarian inventor, engineer, NASA scientist, and adventurer. He was involved in the NASA space program. Among his many accomplishments, Petroff assisted in development of one of the earliest computerized pollution monitoring system and telemetry devices for early weather and communications satellites. Petroff helped develop components of one of the world's first digital watches and an early wireless heart monitor, and many other important devices and methods.
Ivan (John) Notchev – Bulgarian aviation engineer and invertor of the jet engines of the Eagle lunar module. They provide the smooth landing of the module with the cosmonauts, and then their successful return and docking with the spacecraft waiting for them in orbit.
Angel Balevski (4 March 1910 – 15 September 1997) – famous Bulgarian inventor and engineer who developed, together with Ivan Dimov, a counter-pressure casting method which was a novelty in world foundry technology and was protected by over 100 patent documents in Bulgaria and abroad.
Roumen Antonov – invented a revolutionary continuously variable transmission, which was never produced.
== Science ==
Georgi Nadjakov – discovered the photoelectret state essential to modern photocopying.
Ivan Stranski – Prof. Stranski is considered the father of the kinetic theory of crystal growth research. The Stranski-Krastanov growth and the Kossel-Stranski model have been named after him.
Dimitar Ivanov Popov – Ivanov reaction is the chemical reaction of the dianions (endiolates) of aryl acetic acids (Ivanov reagents) with electrophiles, primarily carbonyl compounds or isocyanates.[1][2][3][4]
Dimitar Sasselov – in 2002 sighted the farthest planet from the Earth discovered until then – OGLE-TR-56b.
Boicho Kokinov – DUAL (cognitive architecture).
== See also ==
List of Bulgarian inventions and creations
== References ==

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title: "List of Chesapeake Bay rivers"
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This list of Chesapeake Bay rivers includes the main rivers draining into the Chesapeake Bay estuarine complex on the mid-Atlantic eastern coast of the United States, North America. The three largest rivers in order of both discharge and watershed area are the Susquehanna River, the Potomac River, and the James River. Other major rivers include the Rappahannock River, the Appomattox River (which flows into the lower James River), the York River (a combination of the Pamunkey and Mattaponi tributary rivers), the Patuxent River, and the Choptank River.
The entire Chesapeake Bay watershed includes portions of six states (New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware) and the District of Columbia. The watershed of the entire Chesapeake Bay covers 165,760 km2 (approximately 64,000 mi2 or 41 million acres ). With an estuary water body area of only 11,600 km2 (4,479 mi2), the land-to-water ratio is about 14:1. Therefore, the rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay have a large influence on water quality in the estuary. The rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay act as sources of nutrients and sediments from land, which affect the health of the downstream estuary. The larger rivers cross the Atlantic seaboard fall line. Over time, many large cities emerged where these rivers cross the fall line as watermills allowed for the production of material goods. Colonial-era logging, farming, and later construction of mill dams have altered streams and trapped mud in much of the Chesapeake Bay watershed.
== Largest rivers ==
[*] James values are the sums of flows and watershed areas of the James and Appomattox rivers.
[**] York values are the sums of flows and watershed areas of the Mattaponi and Pamunkey tributary rivers.
== Other tributary rivers and tidal inlets ==
In addition to the largest rivers listed above, the following rivers drain directly into the Chesapeake Bay:
=== Eastern shore tributary rivers ===
Pocomoke River
Little Annemessex River
Big Annemessex River
Manokin River
Monie Creek
Wicomico River (Maryland eastern shore)
Nanticoke River
Transquaking River
Blackwater River (Maryland)
Honga River
Little Choptank River
Miles River
Front River
Wye River (Maryland)
Chester River
Sassafras River
Elk River (Maryland)
North East River
Principio Creek
=== Western shore tributary rivers ===
Swan Creek
Romney Creek
Bush River (Maryland)
Gunpowder River
Middle River (Maryland)
Back River (Maryland)
Patapsco River
Magothy River
Whitehall Creek (Maryland)
Severn River (Maryland)
South River (Maryland)
West River (Maryland)
Rhode River
St. Marys River (Maryland)
Little Wicomico River
Great Wicomico River
Piankatank River
East River (Virginia)
North River (Mobjack Bay)
Ware River (Virginia)
Severn River (Virginia)
Poquoson River
Back River (Virginia)
Hampton River
Elizabeth River (Virginia)
Lynnhaven River
== See also ==
Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line
Atlantic seaboard watershed
Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay Program
Chesapeake Bay Foundation
Hydrology
List of rivers of the United States
List of rivers of Maryland
List of rivers of Virginia
Mid-Atlantic (United States)
Mississippi River System
Category:Tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay
== References ==

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title: "List of Cornish engineers and inventors"
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This is a list of engineers and inventors from Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.
John Arnold, watchmaker and pioneer of the marine chronometer
William Bickford, inventor of the safety fuse
Joseph Henry Collins, mining engineer, mineralogist and geologist
Sir John Coode, civil engineer
William Cookworthy, discoverer of china clay (kaolinite) in Cornwall
Sir Humphry Davy, scientist, inventor and President of the Royal Society
Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, inventor of limelight
Jonathan Hornblower, inventor of the compound engine and the steam valve
William Husband, civil and mechanical engineer
Thomas Brown Jordan, engineer
Michael Loam, inventor of the man engine
Sir Thomas Matthews, civil engineer and builder of lighthouses
William Murdoch, engineer, inventor and sometime Cornish resident
Andrew Pears, inventor of transparent soap
William Westcott Rundell, inventor and engineer from Falmouth
Adrian Stephens, inventor of the steam whistle
Richard Tangye, engineer
John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls
Joseph Thomas, architect and civil engineer
Joseph Treffry, engineer and industrialist
Henry Trengrouse, inventor of a rocket-powered maritime rescue system
Richard Trevithick, inventor, engineer and builder of the first steam locomotive
Robert Trewhella (1830-1909; it:Robert Trewhella), railway engineer and contractor
Andrew Vivian, Trevithick's cousin and collaborator, and captain of Dolcoath Mine
Arthur Woolf, inventor of the high pressure compound steam engine
== See also ==
List of Cornish scientists and inventors
== References ==

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title: "List of Cornish scientists"
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This is a list of scientists from Cornwall, a county of England, in the United Kingdom.
== Biologists ==
Henry Charlton Bastian, physiologist and neurologist
Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Nicholson Betts, Indian Army officer and ornithologist
George Carter Bignell, entomologist
William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan
William Clift, naturalist and Fellow of the Royal Society
Jonathan Couch, naturalist and physician
Richard Quiller Couch, naturalist
Frederick Hamilton Davey, botanist
Jean Golding, epidemiologist
Henry Brougham Guppy, naturalist and botanist
Charles Alexander Johns, botanist and clergyman
Oscar Kempthorne, statistician and geneticist
William Lobb, plant collector
John Keast Lord, veterinarian and naturalist
Richard Lower, blood transfusion pioneer
John Mayow, physiologist
William Noye of Paul, entomologist
Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe, entomologist
John Ralfs, botanist
Edward Hearle Rodd, ornithologist
John Coulson Tregarthen, naturalist
Ethelwynn Trewavas, ichthyologist
Sir Richard Vyvyan, Bart, MP for Cornwall and scientist
William Wagstaff, ornithologist and naturalist
Elizabeth Andrew Warren, botanist
== Earth scientists ==
William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan
Edward Budge, geologist and clergyman
Elizabeth Carne, geologist and philanthropist
Joseph Carne, geologist, industrialist and Fellow of the Royal Society
Richard Edmonds, geologist and antiquary
Robert Were Fox, geologist
William Gregor, discoverer of titanium and clergyman
John Hawkins, geologist, traveller
Robert Hunt, mineralogist and writer
Matthew Paul Moyle, meteorologist and mining writer
Charles William Peach, naturalist and geologist
Benjamin Neeve Peach, geologist
William Pengelly, geologist and archaeologist
John Arthur Phillips, geologist, metallurgist, mining engineer
== Physical scientists ==
John Couch Adams, co-discoverer of the planet Neptune
Herbert Stanley Allen, physicist
Edmund Davy, chemist
Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet, chemist and inventor
Edwin Dunkin, President of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Royal Institution of Cornwall
Antony Hewish, astronomer
Sir William Lower (1570 – 1615), astronomer and Member of Parliament
William Oliver, inventor of the Bath Oliver and a founder of the Royal Mineral Water Hospital at Bath
Roy Sambles, physicist
== Others ==
Lancelot Stephen Bosanquet, mathematician
Davies Gilbert, applied mathematician and technocrat, President of the Royal Society
John Hellins, mathematician, curate of Constantine
Sheila Oates Williams (born 1939), Australian mathematician
== See also ==
List of Cornish engineers and inventors
== References ==

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title: "List of Croatian inventors"
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This is a list of Croatian inventors.
== B ==
Zlata Bartl
Josip Belušić
Ruđer Bošković
== D ==
Ivan Đikić
Igor Dvornik
== F ==
Vilim Srećko Feller
== G ==
Marin Getaldić
== H ==
Franjo Hanaman
== J ==
Aleksandar Just
== K ==
Franjo Kajfež
Marcel pl. Kiepach
Ivo Kolin
Benedikt Kotruljević
Ferdinand Kovačević
== L ==
Antun Lučić
Ivan Lupis-Vukić
== M ==
Ante Maglica
Peter Miscovich
Andrija Mohorovičić
== P ==
Slavoljub Penkala
Herman Potočnik
Vladimir Prelog
Mario Puratić
== R ==
Mate Rimac
Lavoslav Ružička
== S ==
David Schwarz
Pavao Skalić
Marin Soljačić
== U ==
Tomislav Uzelac
== V ==
Faust Vrančić
Ivan Vučetić
== External links ==
Hrvati koji su mijenjali svijet ima ih više nego slutite, Politika plus

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title: "List of English inventors and designers"
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This is a list of English inventors and designers.
== A ==
Roma Agrawal, structural engineer who contributed to the design of The Shard building in London
Sir Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) invented the spinning frame (also known as the water frame)
Joseph Aspdin (1788–1855), Portland cement
== B ==
Roger Bacon (1214–1292), magnifying glass
Edward Barber (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch
Julia Barfield (1952– ), architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England
Trevor Baylis (1937–2018), wind-up radio
Tim Berners-Lee (1955– ), World Wide Web
== C ==
Margaret Calvert (1936– ), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom
Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823) invented the power loom
George Cayley (1773–1854), man-carrying glider, tension spoke wheels, hot air engine, continuous track "universal railway" vehicle propulsion system
Imran Chaudhri (1973– ) invented the user interface and interactions of the iPhone, also worked on the Mac, iPod, iPad, Apple TV and Apple Watch
John Clark (1785-1853) invented the first automated poetry generator, The Eureka, and patented a method to waterproof fabric for air beds and air cushions in 1813.
Terence Conran (1931–2020), Design Museum founder
Ilse Crawford (born 1962), interior and furniture designer
Samuel Crompton (1753–1827) invented the spinning mule
== D ==
Rick Dickinson (c. 1957–2018), designer of early computers, the touch-sensitive keyboard, as well as the rubber keyboard of the ZX Spectrum
Sir James Dyson (b. 1947) invented the bagless vacuum cleaner
== F ==
Michael Faraday (1791–1867), electric transformer
John Ambrose Fleming (1848–1945), vacuum diode
Tommy Flowers (1905–1998), Colossus computer, an early electronic computer
Samson Fox (1838–1903) invented the corrugated boiler flue
William Friese-Greene (1855–1921), cinematography
== G ==
Kenneth Grange (1929– ), industrial design including the InterCity 125
== H ==
James Hargreaves (c. 1720–1778) invented the spinning jenny
Sir John Harington (d. 1612) invented the first modern flushing toilet
John Harrison (1693–1776), marine chronometer
Rowland Hill (1795–1879), postage stamp
Frank Hornby (1863–1936), Meccano
== I ==
Jonathan Ive (1967– ), Chief Design Officer of Apple Inc. and designer of many of Apple's products, including the MacBook Pro, iMac, MacBook Air, Mac mini, iPod, iPod Touch, iPhone, iPad, iPad Mini, Apple Watch and iOS
== K ==
Tom Karen (1926–2022), industrial designer who designed cars, bicycles, and radios in the 1970s
Jock Kinneir (1917–1994), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom
== M ==
George William Manby (1765–1854), fire extinguisher
David Marks, architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England
== N ==
Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729) invented the atmospheric engine
Isaac Newton (1642–1727), reflecting telescope
== O ==
Jay Osgerby (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch
== P ==
Alexander Parkes (1831–1890), celluloid
Stephen Perry, rubber band
George Pocock (1774–1843) invented the 'Charvolant' (a kite-drawn carriage)
Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), soda water
== R ==
Andrew Ritchie (1947– ), Brompton bicycle
== S ==
Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842), shrapnel shell ammunition
Jedediah Strutt (1726–1797) invented the Derby Rib machine
== T ==
Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) invented the salt print and calotype photographic processes
J.J. Thomson (1856–1940), mass spectrometer
Jethro Tull (1674–1740), horse-drawn seed drill
== W ==
Edward Craven Walker (1918-2000) invented the lava lamp
Barnes Wallis (1887–1979), bouncing bomb
Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) invented jasperware
Edward Weston (1850–1936), Weston cell
Frank Whittle (1907–1996), co-inventor of the jet engine
William Winlaw (d.1796), patented agricultural machinery
Arthur Wynne (1862–1945), inventor of crossword puzzle
== See also ==
List of British innovations and discoveries
List of Cornish engineers and inventors
List of Cornish scientists
List of English inventions and discoveries
List of Welsh inventors
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Smiles, Samuel (2015). Men of Invention and Industry - English Inventors. Read Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1473371194.
== External links ==
The Brits Who Designed the Modern World Artsnight - Series 4: 7, BBC Two

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title: "List of English irregular verbs"
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This is a list of irregular verbs in the English language.
== Past tense irregular verbs ==
For each verb listed, the citation form (the bare infinitive) is given first, with a link to the relevant Wiktionary entry. This is followed by the simple past tense (preterite), and then the past participle. If there are irregular present tense forms (see below), these are given in parentheses after the infinitive. (The present participle and gerund forms of verbs, ending in -ing, are always regular. In English, these are used as verbs, adjectives, and nouns.) In the case of modal verbs the present and preterite forms are listed, since these are the only forms that exist, with the present form identical for all persons.
The right-hand column notes whether the verb is weak or strong and whether it belongs to a subclass, and links to descriptions elsewhere. Information about the development of these verbs generally can be found at English irregular verbs; details of the etymology and usage of specific verbs can be found by consulting Wiktionary.
In some cases, there are two or more possibilities for a given form. In the table, the preferred or more common usage is generally listed first, though for some words the usage is nearly equal for the two choices. Sometimes the usage depends on the dialect. In many cases, such as spell (spelt vs. spelled), learn (learnt vs. learned), and spill (spilt vs. spilled), American English and Canadian English normally use the regular form, while British English, Australian English, New Zealand English and South African English tend to favour the irregular. In other cases, such as dive (dived vs. dove) and sneak (sneaked vs. snuck), the opposite is true. The irregular form tends to indicate duration, whereas the regular form often describes a short-term action (The fire burned for weeks. vs. He burnt his finger.), and in American English, the regular form is associated with the literal sense of a verb, while the irregular form with a figurative one.
The preterite and past participle forms of irregular verbs follow certain patterns. These include ending in -t (e.g. build, bend, send), stem changes (whether it is a vowel, such as in sit, win or hold, or a consonant, such as in teach and seek, that changes), or adding the [n] suffix to the past participle form (e.g. drive, show, rise). English irregular verbs are now a closed group, which means that newly formed verbs are always regular and do not adopt any of the irregular patterns.
This list contains only those verb forms which are listed in the major dictionaries as being standard usage in modern English. There are also many thousands of archaic, non-standard and dialect variants. Modern English still has remnants of formerly irregular verbs in other parts of speech. Most obviously, adjectives like misshapen, beholden, or forlorn fossilize what were originally the past participles of the verbs shape and behold, and Old English forleosan. However, forleosan has fallen out of use and shape is now regular, so these verbs are not listed, and behold, while still irregular, can no longer be listed this participle form.
== Present tense irregular verbs ==
Though the list of verbs irregular in the preterite or past participle is long, the list of irregular present tense verbs is very short. Excepting modal verbs like "shall", "will", and "can" that do not inflect at all in the present tense, there are only four of them, not counting compounds including them:
be: I am, thou art, you are, he is, we are, they are. The contracted/reduced forms, used in unstressed positions and in particular as auxiliary verbs, are as follows: I’m, you’re, he’s, we’re, they’re.
do (and compounds such as undo and redo): I do, you do, he does, we do, they do, where "does" is pronounced (instead of ), in contrast to the used for the infinitive and the other present tense forms. The reduced forms of the verb do are pronounced /du/, /də/, /d/, or /dəz/, /dz/ for does and usually appear only in questions. The contracted forms of do are used only in the negative: I do not = I don't, you do not = you don't, he does not = he doesn't, we do not = we don't, they do not = they don't.
have: I have, you have, he has, we have, they have. If used as an auxiliary verb in the present perfect, past perfect or future perfect, its contracted forms can be used: I’ve, you’ve, he’s, we’ve, they’ve.
say (and compounds such as gainsay and naysay): I say, you say, he says, we say, they say, where "says" has the standard pronunciation (instead of ), in contrast to the used for the infinitive and other present tense forms.
== References ==
== External links ==
Wiktionary's category of English irregular verbs
Complete List of 638 English Irregular Verbs with their forms in different tenses.
Mind Our English: Strong and weak by Ralph Berry.
English Irregular Verb List A comprehensive list of English irregular verbs, including their base form, past simple, past participle, 3rd person singular, and the present participle / gerund.
Database of all irregular verbs with complete conjugation and audio.

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title: "List of German inventors and discoverers"
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This is a list of German inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Germany or German-speaking Europe, and also people of predominantly German heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname.
For the list containing items and ideas invented and/or discovered by Germans, see list of German inventions and discoveries.
== A ==
Ernst Abbe: Invented the first refractometer, and many other devices. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today.
Franz Carl Achard: Developed a process to produce sugar from sugar beet. Built the first factory for the process in 1802.
Robert Adler: Invented a better television remote control.
Konrad Adenauer: Invented soya sausage (1916; "Kölner Wurst") and, together with Jean and Josef Oebel, [coarse] wholemeal bread (1917; Kölner Brot).
Georgius Agricola: Named "the father of mineralogy".
Wilhelm Albert: Invented the wire rope 1834.
Kurt Alder: Discovery of the Diels–Alder reaction, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950.
Richard Altmann: Discovery of the Mitochondrion
Alois Alzheimer: Psychiatrist who discovered Alzheimer's disease, a degeneration of the brain in old age.
Momme Andresen (1857-1951): industrial research chemist who made inventions relating to photography
Ottomar Anschütz: in 1883 he patented a camera with an internal roller blind shutter mechanism, just in front of the photographic plate. Thus the focal-plane shutter in modern recognizable form was born.
Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe: Invented the gyrocompass in 1907.
Manfred von Ardenne: Self-taught researcher, applied physicist, and inventor. 600 patents in fields including television and radio, electron microscopy, medical technology, nuclear technology, and plasma physics.
Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander: cataloged all stars brighter than approximately magnitude 9.5 and north of -2 degrees in the Bonner Durchmusterung, the first large-scale modern star catalog.
Leo Arons: Mercury-vapor lamp together with Peter Cooper Hewitt.
Leopold Auerbach: Discovery of Plexus myentericus Auerbachi, or Auerbach's plexus.
Max Abraham: Physicist. Worked as Max Planck's assistant for three years. Developed theories on electrons.
== B ==

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Walter Baade: astronomer. With Fritz Zwicky, he identified supernovae as a new category of astronomical objects
Karl Ernst von Baer: discovered mammal ovum.
Ralph Baer: Inventor of the first home video game console.
Adolf von Baeyer: Chemist. Synthesized indigo, discovered the phthalein dyes, and investigated polyacetylenes, oxonium salts, nitroso compounds (1869) and uric acid derivatives (1860 and onwards) including the discovery of barbituric acid (1864). Nobel laureate 1905.
Otto Bayer: Chemist. Invented polyurethane.
Albert Ballin: Father of modern cruise ship travel
Heinrich Band: Developed a musical instrument and called it bandoneón in 1846. It is still used in most tango orchestras.
Heinrich Barkhausen: Discovered what is now called the Barkhausen effect, to describe the phenomenon, which is caused by rapid changes of size of magnetic domains in 1919, and Barkhausen stability criterion.
Oskar Barnack: The father of the first mass marketed 35mm camera and Leica.
Heinrich Anton de Bary: Father of Phytopathology, the science of plant diseases and modern Mycology. Coined the word symbiosis in 1879.
Karl Adolph von Basedow: Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease
Andreas Friedrich Bauer: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Friedrich Koenig
Wilhelm Bauer: Inventor and engineer, who built several hand-powered submarines.
Eugen Baumann: He was one of the first people to create polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and, together with Carl Schotten, he discovered the Schotten-Baumann reaction.
Hans Beck: Inventor of the toy Playmobil.
Georg Bednorz: Physicist, discovered high-temperature superconductivity in ceramics, shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Martin Behaim: Inventor of the first globe of the world (Erdapfel) between 1491 and 1493.
Alexander Behm: Inventor of echo sounding. The patent was granted in 1913.
Emil Adolf von Behring: physiologist. Discovered the diphtheria antitoxin. It was the world's first cure for a disease (1891). He was awarded history's first Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine in 1901.
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen: Navigator and explorer. Discovered the land mass of Antarctica on January 28, 1820.
Melitta Bentz: entrepreneur. She is an inventor of the coffee filter, 1908.
Bertha Benz: invented brake lining.
Karl Benz: industrialist. Father and inventor of the gasoline-powered automobile, 1885 (Benz Patent-Motorwagen), and pioneering founder of automobile manufacturing.
Albrecht Berblinger: engineer. Inventor of the spring prosthesis and hang-glider (1811).
Hans Berger: a German neurologist, best known as the inventor of electroencephalography (EEG) (the recording of "brain waves") in 1924, coining the name, and the discoverer of the alpha wave rhythm known as "Berger's wave"
Emil Berliner: He is best known for developing the microphone and disc recording gramophone.
Friedrich Bessel: astronomer; he is credited with being the first to use parallax in calculating the distance to a star.
Hans Bethe: Nuclear physicist and Nobel laureate in physics 1967. During World War II, he was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret Los Alamos laboratory which developed the first atomic bombs.
Albert Betz: physicist. Betz's law, 1913
Heinz Billing: Computer scientist. He invented the magnetic drum memory and built prototype laser interferometric gravitational wave detector in Garching, Munich.
Gerd Binnig: Physicist. Design of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) with Heinrich Rohrer. Nobel laureate 1986.
Otto von Bismarck: Under his reign, the German Empire (1871–1918) became the first modern welfare state in the world, when he e.g. innovatively implemented the following: health insurance (1883), accident insurance (1884), pension insurance (1889).
Ludwig Blattner: developed the Blattnerphone, the first magnetic tape recorder (using steel tape) whilst working in Britain in the late 1920s.
Günter Blobel: biologist, discovered signal peptides. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1999.
Walter Bock: chemist, Styrene-butadiene
Max Bockmühl: chemist, he developed Methadone together with German Gustav Ehrhart in 1937 in Germany, working for I.G. Farbenindustrie AG at the Farbwerke Hoechst
Johann Elert Bode: astronomer, Discovered the Titus-Bode Law
Ludwig Bölkow: Aeronautical pioneer. Was instrumental in the development of the Me 262, developed a new rotorhead concept for helicopters.
Max Born: Physicist and mathematician. Groundbreaking work in quantum mechanics. Nobel laureate 1954 with Walther Bothe. His Ph.D. student Delbrück, and six of his assistants (Fermi, Heisenberg, Goeppert-Mayer, Herzberg, Pauli, Wigner) went on to win Nobel Prizes. His Ph.D. student J. Robert Oppenheimer led the project to develop the atomic bomb.
Manfred Börner: Physicist. Developed the first working fiber-optical data transmission system in 1965. Received a patent for an "electro-optical transmission system utilizing lasers".
Carl Bosch: Chemist and Nobel laureate, discovered the processes of industrial high-pressure chemistry.
Robert Bosch: industrialist, engineer. He invented, engineered and launched various innovations for the motor vehicle.
Walther Bothe: Nuclear physicist, who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1954 with Max Born.
Johann Friedrich Böttger: alchemist. He was generally acknowledged as the inventor of European porcelain although more recent sources ascribe this to Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. Böttger is still credited with developing the manufacture of porcelain in Europe.
Theodor Boveri: biologist, described Centrosome.
Karlheinz Brandenburg: Inventor and audio engineer; father of audio compression format MPEG Audio Layer 3, more commonly known as MP3.
Karl Ferdinand Braun: Inventor of the CRT oscilloscope in 1897. Braun contributed significantly to the development of radio and television technology: he shared with Guglielmo Marconi the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Wernher von Braun: The preeminent rocket engineer of the 20th century. Developed the V-2 rocket for Germany. Built Saturn V rocket in USA which put man on the moon.
Adolf Brix: developed the unit for specific gravity of liquids, degree Brix (°Bx).
Korbinian Brodmann: neurologist, Brodmann area in brain
Walter Bruch: PAL, colour encoding system for analogue television
Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn: Inventor of Taximeter
Ernst Büchner: Chemist and inventor of Büchner flask and Büchner funnel.
Robert Bunsen: Chemist who developed the Bunsen burner, and with Gustav Kirchhoff he invented the spectrometer (1859) and discovered caesium (1860) and rubidium (1861).
Wilhelm Busch: Caricaturist, painter and poet; father of comics.
Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann: musical instrument maker. Pioneer and promoter of the harmonica.
Adolf Busemann: aerospace engineer. Discovered the effect of swept wing for modern aircraft in 1935.
Adolf Butenandt: biochemist. Discovered primary female sex hormones. Shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Leopold Ruzicka in 1939.
Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes: Founder of synoptic meteorology. As an astronomer, he was noted for demonstrating that meteors occur in the upper atmosphere and thus not really a meteorological phenomenon.
Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer: German chemist, who, together with Paul Harteck, discovered the spin isomers of hydrogen, orthohydrogen and parahydrogen in 1929.

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== C ==
Georg Cantor: Mathematician, discoverer of the set theory (1870s), which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics.
Ernst Boris Chain: biochemist, co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on penicillin (together with Fleming).
Carl von Clausewitz: The father of modern military theory.
Rudolf Clausius: Mathematician and physicist known for the Second law of thermodynamics.
Justus Claproth: Jurist and inventor of recyclable paper and deinking.
Nicolaus Copernicus: Astronomer, formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the centre.
Manfred Curry: German American yachtsman, developed the cam cleat used on sailboats to easily and quickly secure a rope, discoverer of the pseudoscientific phenomenon of "geomagnetic lines" called the Curry Grid.
== D ==
Gottlieb Daimler: Invented the first high-speed internal combustion petrol engine and the first four-wheel automobile, also the first internal combustion motorcycle, the Reitwagen.
Adolf "Adi" Dassler: Sports shoes with and without spikes; founder of Adidas.
Rudolf Dassler: First sport shoes with screw-in shoe spikes, 1949; founder of Puma.
Hans Georg Dehmelt: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989.
Max Delbrück: German American biophysicist. He was awarded the Nobel prize for discovering that bacteria become resistant to viruses (phages) as a result of genetic mutations.
Johann Christoph Denner: Woodwind instrument maker, inventor of the clarinet.
Jürgen Dethloff: Inventor and engineer, co-inventor of the Smart card (together with Helmut Gröttrup).
Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach: Pioneer of skin transplantation and cosmetic surgery.
Ernst Dickmanns: Developer of the first driverless car.
Otto Diels: Diels–Alder reaction (together with Kurt Alder), a method for diene synthesis. The pair was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950 for their work.
Rudolf Diesel: Inventor of the diesel engine 1893.
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, inventor of Döbereiner's lamp, 1823
Gerhard Domagk: Discovery of what would become the first commercially available antibiotic.
Christian Doppler: Discovered the Doppler effect.
Walter Robert Dornberger: Co-inventor of the V-2 rocket.
Karl Drais: Inventor of the bicycle and typewriter (1821) among other things.
Peter Ferdinand Drucker: Invented the science of modern management.
== E ==
Paul Ehrlich: Scientist in the fields of hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy, and Nobel laureate. Developed an effective treatment against syphilis.
Caroline Eichler: Inventor, first woman to receive a patent (for her leg prosthesis)
Albert Einstein: Father of Theoretical Physics, inventor and discoverer.
Ludwig Elsbett: Developed new concepts for Diesel engines which drastically enhanced efficiency.
Douglas Engelbart: German American inventor of the computer mouse.
Evaristo Conrado Engelberg: Inventor in 1885 of a machine used to remove the husks from rice and coffee, the Engelberg huller.
Friedrich Engels: He invented together with Karl Marx the economic and sociopolitical worldview Marxism.
Joseph "Jo" Benedict Engl: German physicist and inventor who pioneered cinematographic technology in the early 1920s. The "Tonfilmprojektor" of Tri-Ergon is to date part of the permanent exhibition at the German Museum in Munich as one of Germany's major technological accomplishments.
Hugo Erdmann: Chemist who discovered, together with his doctoral advisor Jacob Volhard, the Volhard-Erdmann cyclization. In 1898 he was the first who coined the term noble gas (the original noun is Edelgas in German).
Hugo Erfurt: Ingrain wallpaper
Emil Erlenmeyer: German chemist known for contributing to the early development of the theory of structure, formulating the Erlenmeyer rule, and designing the Erlenmeyer flask or the conical flask, a type of chemical flask, which is named after him.
Gerhard Ertl: German physicist who laid the foundation of modern surface chemistry, which has helped explain how fuel cells produce energy without pollution, how catalytic converters clean up car exhausts and even why iron rusts, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said. Nobel laureate as of 2007.
Leonhard Euler: Swiss mathematician and physicist. One of the most influential mathematicians of the 18th century.
== F ==

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Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit: Fahrenheit, temperature scale, Fahrenheit hydrometer
Gerd Faltings: Mathematician known for his work in arithmetic algebraic geometry, Fields Medal in 1986 for proving the Mordell conjecture.
Otto Feick: Wheel gymnastics in 1925.
Wilhelm Emil Fein: Invented the electrically driven hand drill in 1895.
Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick: Glass Contact lenses
Richard Fiedler: Invented the modern flamethrower in 1901.
Artur Fischer: Invented the (split) wallplug made of plastic in 1958. He invented flash light photography. Fischer held over 1100 patents and currently holds the records for most patents for any single human, even more than Thomas Alva Edison. Further inventions are (bone-)plugs for fixing bone fractures and one of Fischer's most recent inventions is a gadget that makes it possible to hold and cut the top off an egg of any size.
Hermann Emil Fischer: German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms. He is known for study of sugars & purines.
Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch: Invented a process in 1925 to turn coal into synthesis gas, and still further into liquid hydrocarbons. The process is a key component in modern gas to liquids processes.
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig: He discovered the pinacol coupling reaction, mesitylene, diacetyl and biphenyl.
Irmgard Flügge-Lotz: She worked on what she called "discontinuous automatic control", which laid the foundation for automatic on-off aircraft control systems in jets.
Werner Forssmann: Performed the first human cardiac catheterisation. Shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine 1956
Joachim Frank: co-invented cryo-electron microscopy. Shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2017
Joseph von Fraunhofer: Discovery of the dark absorption lines known as Fraunhofer lines in the Sun's spectrum, which laid foundation for modern astronomy and astrophysics, and for making excellent optical glass and achromatic telescope lenses.
Gottlob Frege: He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy. Had influence on Carnap, Russell, and Wittgenstein
Otto Frenzl: Aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952.
Sigmund Freud: Neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis.
Nikolaus Friedreich: Discovery of Friedreich-Auerbach disease (together with Leopold Auerbach)
Friedrich Fröbel: Pedagogue, who laid the foundation for modern education. He created the concept of the kindergarten.
Klaus Fuchs: Theoretical physicist involved with the Manhattan Project; at the same time Soviet spy.
Johann Carl Fuhlrott: Had the insight to recognize the Neanderthal bones for what they were: the remains of a previously unknown type of humans. He (together with Schaafhausen) is considered to be the father of paleoanthropology.
== G ==
Johann Galle: astronomer, discovery of planet Neptune
Hermann Ganswindt: Inventor and spaceflight scientist, whose inventions (such as the dirigible, the helicopter, and the internal combustion engine) are thought to have been ahead of his time.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss: German mathematician and physical scientist who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, electrostatics, astronomy and optics. Sometimes referred to as "the Prince of Mathematicians".
Hans Geiger: Inventor of the Geiger–Müller counter in 1928. It detects the emission of nuclear radiation through the ionization produced in a low-pressure gas in a Geiger–Müller tube. Further improved by Walther Müller.
Heinrich Geißler: Inventor of the Geissler tube.
Reinhard Genzel: Astrophysicist, he and his group were the first to track the motions of stars at the centre of the Milky Way and show that they were orbiting a very massive object, probably a supermassive black hole.
Walter Gerlach: Physicist who co-discovered spin quantization in a magnetic field, the Stern–Gerlach effect.
Edmund Germer: Inventor of the neon lamp (Neonlampe).
Max Giese: Inventor of the first concrete pump in 1928.
Heinrich Göbel: Inventor of Hemmer for Sewing Machines, 1865, Vacuum Pump (Improvement of the Geissler-System of vacuum pumps, 1881 and Electric Incandescent Lamp (sockets to connect the filament of carbon and the conducting wires), 1882
Kurt Gödel: Important discoveries in math and logic, such as the incompleteness theorems
Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Physicist. Nobel laureate in Physics 1963 for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus together with J. Hans D. Jensen. The unit for the two-photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert-Mayer (GM) unit.
Konrad Grebe: Coal-machine (Kohlenhobel)
Heinrich Greinacher: German-Swiss physicist. He is regarded as an original experimenter and is the developer of the magnetron and the Greinacher multiplier; Cockcroft-Walton-Generator in 1914.
Brothers Grimm: Academic pioneers of philology, linguistics, and storytelling. Worked together on the most comprehensive dictionary of the German language Deutsches Wörterbuch. Jacob Grimm: Philologist and linguist. Described first what is now known as Grimm's law, the first scientific research into sound change in 1822.
Georg Friedrich Grotefend: Deciphering of cuneiform
Alexander Grothendieck: Mathematician and the central figure behind the creation of the modern theory of algebraic geometry; Fields Medalist (1966).
Helmut Gröttrup: smart card (together with Jürgen Dethloff)
Walter Gropius: Pioneer of modern architecture. Founder of the Bauhaus. First modern industrial building designed in 1910.
Peter Grünberg: Physicist. Discovered giant magnetoresistance with Albert Fert. The discovery is used in gigabyte hard disk drives for computers. Nobel laureate 2007.
Heinz Guderian: The father of modern mechanized warfare, inventor of the Blitzkrieg strategy.
Otto von Guericke: Groundbreaking research into air pressure. Invented the vacuum pump in 1650.
Beno Gutenberg: Together with American Charles Francis Richter he invented Richter magnitude scale.
Johannes Gutenberg: Inventor of the technology of printing with movable type in 1439. The first book so printed was the Gutenberg Bible.
Aristid von Grosse: He was able to isolate protactinium oxide and was later able to produce metallic protactinium by decomposition of protactinium iodide.
Johann Rudolf Glauber: German-Dutch alchemist who was one of the first chemical engineers. His discovery of sodium sulfate in 1625 led to the compound being named after him: "Glauber's salt".
== H ==

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Fritz Haber: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered synthetic ammonia and chemical warfare.
Theodor W. Hänsch: Physicist, developed laser-based precision spectroscopy further to determine optical frequency extremely accurately. Nobel laureate in 2005.
Otto Hahn: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. Considered to be "the father of nuclear chemistry" and the "founder of the atomic age". Discovered many isotopes, Protactinium and nuclear fission.
Samuel Hahnemann: Physician, best known for creating a system of alternative medicine called homeopathy.
Harald zur Hausen: Virologist, discovered the role of papilloma viruses in the development of cervical cancer. His research made the development of a vaccine against papilloma possible, which will drastically reduce cervical cancer in future. Nobel laureate as of 2008.
Werner Heisenberg: Theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to quantum mechanics. Discovered a particle's position and velocity cannot be known at the same time. Discovered atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons.
Wolfgang Helfrich: Co-inventor of Twisted nematic field effect.
Rudolf Hell: Inventor of an early printer and fax machine (Hellschreiber).
Richard Hellmann: Hellmann's (Blue Ribbon) Mayonnaise, 1905.
Hermann von Helmholtz: Discovered the principle of conservation of energy.
Peter Henlein: Inventor of the portable watch.
Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel (William Herschel): Discovered the planet Uranus and infrared radiation among other things.
Heinrich Hertz: Physicist, Discoverer of electromagnetic/radio waves.
Otto Herzog: First use of the Carabiner in mountain climbing which substantially enhanced security for mountaineers.
Victor Francis Hess: Discovered Cosmic rays. Also won the Nobel Prize.
David Hilbert: Influential mathematician who discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas in math.
Albert Hofmann: German-Swiss; Discovered the chemical properties of chitin and lysergic acid diethylamide.
Wilhelm Hofmeister: Discovery of the Alternation of generations
Felix Hoffmann: Isolated acetylsalicylic acid, a painkiller marketed under the name Aspirin (Bayer), 1897. In some English speaking countries marketed under the name disprin.
Herman Hollerith: a German American statistician who developed a mechanical tabulator based on punched cards
Gottlob Honold: Inventor of the spark plug and the modern internal combustion engine, as well as headlights.
Horten brothers: Designed some of the most advanced aircraft of the 1930s and '40s, including the world's first jet-powered flying wing, the Horten Ho 229.
Christian Hülsmeyer: German inventor of the Telemobilskop, a radio-based detector of remote objects; a 1904 precursor of radar.
Alexander von Humboldt: Naturalist and explorer. His quantitative work on botanical geography was foundational to the field of biogeography.
Wilhelm von Humboldt: Originator of the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
Erich Huzenlaub: Huzenlaub Process for parboiling
Johannes Heidenhain: Invented the Metallur process. This lead-sulfide copying process made it possible for the first time to make exact copies of an original grating on a metal surface for industrial use. By 1943, Heidenhain was producing linear scales with accuracy of ± 15 μm and circular scale disks with accuracy of ± 3 angular seconds.
Karl Andreas Hofmann: German inorganic chemist who is best known for his discovery of a family of clathrates which consist of a 2-D metal cyanide sheet, with every second metal also bound axially to two other ligands. These materials have been named 'Hofmann clathrates' in his honour.
== I ==
Ernst Ising: physicist who developed Ising model.
Otmar Issing: Economist who invented the "pepet pillar" decision algorithm now used by the ECB.
== J ==
J. Hans D. Jensen: Nuclear physicist, proposed the nuclear shell model, shared 1963 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Hugo Junkers: Pioneer of all-metal aircraft construction with the Junkers J 1 (1915–16).
== K ==

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Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer : Introduction of the transverse incision technique to minimize bleeding by modern Caesarean section
Donald J. Kessler: Astrophysicist, known for developing the Kessler syndrome.
Hermann Kemper: Invented the magnetic levitation train. Patent granted in 1934.
Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion.
Wolfgang Ketterle: German-American physicist who developed an "atom laser", amongst other breakthroughs. Nobel laureate 2001.
Erhard Kietz: Pioneer discoverer of video technology.
Gustav Kirchhoff: Discovery of the principles upon which spectroscopy is founded. He contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts (one in circuit theory, and one in spectroscopy) are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him; there is also a Kirchhoff's Law in thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen, who both invented the spectrometer in 1859.
Martin Heinrich Klaproth: Discovered the element Uranium.
Klaus von Klitzing: Physicist, known for discovery of the integer quantum Hall effect, 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Ludwig Knorr: Chemist, who together with Carl Paal, discovered the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and the Knorr quinoline synthesis and Knorr pyrrole synthesis.
Robert Koch: Physician, discoverer, inventor and Nobel Prize winner. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis (1877), the tuberculosis bacillus (1882), and Vibrio cholerae (1883), and for his development of Koch's postulates.
Friedrich Koenig: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Andreas Friedrich Bauer)
Alfred Körte and Gustav Körte: discovered Gordium, 1900
Franz Kolb: Plasticine
Arthur Korn: Inventor involved in development of the fax machine, specifically the transmission of photographs or telephotography, known as the Bildtelegraph.
Albrecht Kossel: determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids
Max Kramer: Aircraft engineer. Developed the first operational guided bomb in 1942/43. This first smart bomb was radio controlled and joy-stick operated.
Hans Adolf Krebs: discovered two important chemical reactions in the body, namely the urea cycle and the citric acid cycle.
Wilhelm Krische: Galalith
Julius H. Kroehl: Inventor and engineer, who built the first functioning submarine in the world.
Herbert Kroemer: Physicist, shared the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics.
Werner Krüger: Developed the Krueger flap, a lift enhancement device in modern aircraft wings in 1943.
Alfred Krupp: Pioneer in metal casting and metal working process and procedures.
Adam Johann von Krusenstern: Navigator and explorer, led the first Russian expedition to circumnavigate the Earth.
Dietrich Küchemann: Aeronautical pioneer, developed wings for supersonic speed, such as delta wings as used in the Concorde.
Heinz Kunert: Defogger for automobiles.
Felix Klein: Invented the Erlangen Program, classifying geometries by their underlying symmetry groups, was a highly influential synthesis of much of the mathematics of the day. Also invented the Klein bottle, Beltrami-Klein model and wrote Klein's encyclopedia.
== L ==
Albert Ladenburg: isolated hyoscine
Eugen Langen: Entrepreneur, engineer and inventor, involved in the development of the petrol engine and the Wuppertal monorail.
Paul Langerhans: Islets of Langerhans, Langerhans cells
Max von Laue: Discoveries regarding the diffraction of X-rays in crystals.
Ernst Lecher: He is remembered for developing an apparatus— "Lecher lines"—to measure the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic waves.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Philosopher known for discovering the mathematical field of calculus and coherently laying down its basic operations in 1684. The modern binary number system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire.
Emil Lerp: inventor of transportable gasoline chainsaw, 1927
Georg Christoph Lichtenberg: German scientist credited with the development of the electrophorus. he is remembered for his posthumously published notebooks, which he himself called Sudelbücher, a description modeled on the English bookkeeping term "scrapbooks", and for his discovery of the strange tree-like electrical discharge patterns now called Lichtenberg figures.
Justus von Liebig: German chemist who made contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry.
Otto Lilienthal: Father of Aviation and first successful aviator. Main discovery was the properties and shape of the wing.
Carl von Linde: Engineer who, among other things, developed refrigeration and gas separation technologies.
Alexander Lippisch: Pioneer of aerodynamics, his most famous design is the Messerschmitt Me 163.
Ernst Litfaß: free-standing cylindrical advertising column.
Friedrich Loeffler: discovered the organism causing diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheriae) and the cause of foot-and-mouth disease (Aphthovirus). His description of the diphtheria bacillus, published in 1884.
Johann Benedict Listing: German mathematician who was a doctoral student under Carl Friedrich Gauss, he first introduced the term "topology", in a famous article published in 1847, although he had used the term in correspondence some years earlier. He (independently) discovered the properties of the half-twisted strip at the same time (1858) as August Ferdinand Möbius, and went further in exploring the properties of strips with higher-order twists (paradromic rings). He discovered topological invariants which came to be called Listing numbers. He also framed the Listing's law.
Hans Luedtke: German organist, musicologist and inventor who developed "Oskalyd" extended organs and keyboards with hexagonal keys arranged like honeycombs.
== M ==

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Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Maria Goeppert Mayer was a German-born American theoretical physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. She was the second woman to win a Nobel Prize in physics, after Marie Curie
Georg Hans Madelung: Academic and aeronautical engineer; a participant in the development of the Junkers F.13.
Karl Marx: Political economist and philosopher, who defined the political/economical background of capitalism and discovered the mechanics of Marxism.
J. Heinrich Matthaei: Together with Marshall Nirenberg, they show that a sequence of nucleotide can encode particular amino acid, laying the foundations for deciphering the genetic code.
Wilhelm Maybach: Together with Gottlieb Daimler the first gasoline-powered motorcycle, power-engine boat and later, 1902, the Mercedes car model.
Ottomar von Mayenburg: Inventor of "Chlorodont", the first commercial brand of toothpaste.
Georg Meissner: Discovered Meissner's plexus.
Lise Meitner: Nuclear physicist, who, together with Otto Frisch, provided a theoretical account of nuclear fission.
Julius Lothar Meyer: With Mendeleev he developed the periodic classification of the elements in order of their atomic weight.
Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer: He discovered the Triassic predator Teratosaurus, the earliest bird Archaeopteryx lithographica (1861), the pterosaur Rhamphorhynchus, and the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus
Gregor Mendel: Discoveries in genetics. Mendel demonstrated that the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. First published in 1865.
Ottmar Mergenthaler: Inventor who has been called a second Gutenberg because of his invention of the Linotype machine.
Otto Metzger: Inventor of an impact-extrusion process for forming seamless zinc and brass cans.
Rudolf Mössbauer: physicist, discovered Mössbauer effect, shared Nobel Prize in Physics 1961.
Johannes Peter Müller: Discoveries in physiology.
August Ferdinand Möbius: German mathematician and theoretical astronomer. He is best known for his discovery of the Möbius strip, independently discovered by Johann Benedict Listing around the same time. The Möbius configuration, formed by two mutually inscribed tetrahedra, is also named after him. Möbius was the first to introduce homogeneous coordinates into projective geometry. Many mathematical concepts are named after him, including the Möbius plane, the Möbius transformations, important in projective geometry, and the Möbius transform of number theory. His interest in number theory led to the important Möbius function μ(n) and the Möbius inversion formula. In Euclidean geometry, he systematically developed the use of signed angles and line segments as a way of simplifying and unifying results.
Karl Mollweide: German mathematician and astronomer. In trigonometry, he discovered the formula known as Mollweide's formula. He invented a map projection called the Mollweide projection.
Walther Meissner: He established the world's third largest helium-liquifier, and discovered in 1933 the Meissner effect, damping of the magnetic field in superconductors.
== N ==
Thomas Nast: The German American "Father of the American Cartoon".
Walther Nernst: Inventor of the Nernst lamp and Nobel laureate 1920 in Chemistry.
Karl Nessler: Inventor of the permanent wave.
Paul Gottlieb Nipkow: Technician and inventor, the "spiritual father" of the core element of first generation television technology.
Emmy Noether: Mathematician. Groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics (Noether's theorem). Considered by many as the most influential woman in the history of mathematics.
== O ==
Hermann Oberth: Pioneer of rocket science and discoverer of the Oberth effect.
Georg Ohm: physicist and mathematician, discoverer of the Ohm's law and Ohm's acoustic law
August Oetker: Pharmacist. He was the first to sell baking powder in small packets to households instead of bakeries (as others before him) and thus made it the popular product we know today.
Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain: The modern jet engine in 1933, patented in 1936. Frank Whittle had developed a similar concept independently in 1928/1929.
Wilhelm Ostwald: German chemist who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities. Ostwald, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, and Svante Arrhenius are usually credited with being the modern founders of the field of physical chemistry.
Nicolaus August Otto: Inventor of the first internal-combustion engine to efficiently burn fuel directly in a piston chamber.
== P ==

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Wolfgang Paul: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989.
Hans von Pechmann: Chemist, renowned for his discovery of diazomethane in 1894. Pechmann condensation and Pechmann pyrazole synthesis.
Rudolf Peierls: nuclear physicist.
Julius Richard Petri: Bacteriologist who is generally credited with inventing the Petri dish while working as assistant to Robert Koch.
Emil Pfeiffer: Discovery of Infectious mononucleosis
Fritz Pfleumer: Inventor of magnetic tape for recording sound. He built the world's first practical tape recorder, called Magnetophon K1.
Joseph Pilates: inventor of the physical fitness system named after him: Pilates
Max Planck: Physicist, Scientist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century.
Robert Wichard Pohl: In 1938, together with Rudolf Hilsch, built first functioning solid-state amplifier using salt as the semiconductor.
Ludwig Prandtl: First to explain the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining in aircraft in 1904. He established and headed the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt in Göttingen, now Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization. During his tenure the first wind tunnel in Germany was built here, thereby establishing a specific design for wind tunnels (Göttingen type).
Johann Friedrich Pfaff: One of Germany's most eminent mathematicians during the 19th century. He studied mathematical series and integral calculus, and is noted for his work on partial differential equations of the first order (Pfaffian systems as they are now called) which became part of the theory of differential forms.
Julius Plücker: Framed the Plücker formula. He made fundamental contributions to the field of analytical geometry and was a pioneer in the investigations of cathode rays that led eventually to the discovery of the electron. He also vastly extended the study of Lamé curves.
Harald Popp: Inventor and audio engineer; father of audio compression format MPEG Audio Layer 3, more commonly known as MP3.
== R ==
Adolf Rambold: Inventor of modern tea bag.
Johann Philipp Reis: Inventor of the first phone transmitter in 1861, he also invented the term Telephone.
Josef Rodenstock: Founder of Rodenstock, manufacturer of optical systems, ophthalmic lenses and spectacles frames.
Ralf Reski: Moss bioreactor (1998).
Paul Julius Freiherr von Reuter: Communications pioneer.
Fritz Reiche: Was a student of Max Planck and a colleague of Albert Einstein, who was active in, and made important contributions to the early development of quantum mechanics including co-authoring the Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule.
Hans Reichel: Musical instrument inventor. Inventor of the daxophone and various overtone guitars.
Bernhard Riemann: Mathematician, who made lasting contributions to analysis, number theory, and differential geometry.
Johann Wilhelm Ritter: Physicist and discoverer of Ultraviolet.
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen: Physicist and discoverer of x-rays/Röntgen rays (8 November 1895), this earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.
Arthur Rudolph: Rocket engineer who, together with Wernher von Braun, played a key role in the development of the V-2 rocket.
Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff: German instrument maker who commercialized the induction coil (often referred to as the Ruhmkorff coil).
Ernst Ruska: Physicist, developed the first electron microscope in 1933. Nobel laureate 1986.
Karl Wilhelm Rosenmund: He discovered the Rosenmund reduction, which is the reduction of acyl chlorides to aldehydes over palladium-on-carbon catalyst. The Rosenmund-von Braun reaction, the conversion of an aryl bromide to an arylnitrile is also named after him.
== S ==
Carl Wilhelm Scheele: Oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first), identification of molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen and chlorine
Arthur Scherbius: Developed the mechanical cipher machine Enigma. Patent granted in 1918.
Wilhelm Schickard: mechanical calculator in 1623.
Paul Schlack: Invented Nylon 6.
Friedrich Albert Moritz Schlick: Was a German philosopher, physicist and the founding father of logical positivism and the Vienna Circle.
Heinrich Schliemann: One of the fathers of modern archaeology, among other things he discovered Homeric Troy.
Hugo Schmeisser: Developed the first modern assault rifle StG 44 in 1942.
Bernhard Schmidt: Developed a photographic telescope with minimal optical errors: the Schmidt camera.
Paul Schmidt: Developed since 1928 his idea of a new drive, the "pulsating incineration", also used in the V-1 flying bomb (engine was called "Argus-Schmidtrohr"); pulsejet was a development by Schmidt.
Christian Friedrich Schönbein: Professor Schönbein is credited with four scientific advances: Ozone, Gun cotton, Collodion and Fuel cell
Johann Lukas Schönlein: Professor of medicine, he discovered among other things the parasitic cause of ringworm or favus (Achorion Schönleinii).

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Otto Schoetensack: Named the Homo heidelbergensis.
Otto Schott: Inventor of borosilicate glass. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today.
Walter H. Schottky: Played a major early role in developing the theory of electron and ion emission phenomena, invented the screen-grid vacuum tube and the pentode.
Johannes Heinrich Schultz: developed the desensitization-relaxation technique called Autogenic training.
Marx Schwab: Silversmith, invented coining with the screw press around 1550.
Theodor Schwann: Discovery of properties of cells in animals.
Karl Schwarzschild: astronomer, Schwarzschild metric, Deriving the Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius
Alois Senefelder: He invented the printing technique of lithography in 1796.
Friedrich Sertürner: First to isolate morphine from the opium poppy in 1803/1804, discovering morphine.
Philipp Franz von Siebold: Physician and naturalist, detailed description and collection of the Japanese flora and fauna. Introduced Western medicine to Japan and opened a medical school.
Ernst Werner von Siemens: Dynamo, pointer telegraph that used a needle to point to the right letter, first electric elevator, trolleybus.
Max Skladanowsky: Bioscop, German inventor and early filmmaker.
Friedrich Soennecken: Invented Hole punch and ring binder.
Arnold Sommerfeld: Theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics.
Johannes Stark: Discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields" (the latter is known as the Stark effect).
Jack Steinberger: German-American-Swiss physicist, co-discovered the muon neutrino, shared 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Georg Wilhelm Steller: Chief naturalist on Vitus Bering's expedition during which Alaska was discovered (1741) and pioneer of Alaskan Natural History. Steller's sea cow (now extinct) was named after him.
Otto Stern: Nobel laureate; contributed to the discovery of spin quantization in the Stern–Gerlach experiment with Walther Gerlach in 1922.
Heinrich Stölzel: Developed the valve for brass instruments which is used today in 1818. Friedrich Blühmel had made a similar development independently at the same time.
Horst Ludwig Störmer: German-American physicist. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1998 for the discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations.
Levi Strauss: The German American father of blue jeans.
Ernst Stromer: Discovery and Describing of Aegyptosaurus, Bahariasaurus, Carcharodontosaurus, and the largest known theropod, Spinosaurus aegyptiacus. Stromer also described the giant crocodilian Stomatosuchus.
Friedrich Wilhelm "Fritz" Strassmann: German chemist who, with Otto Hahn in early 1939, identified barium in the residue after bombarding uranium with neutrons, results which, when confirmed, demonstrated the previously unknown phenomenon of nuclear fission.
Hubertus Strughold: German-born physiologist and prominent medical researcher. For his role in pioneering the study of the physical and psychological effects of manned spaceflight he became known as "The Father of Space Medicine".
Thomas C. Südhof: biochemist, discovered how molecule signals instruct vesicles to release their cargo in cell. Shared the Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013.
== T ==
Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus: He is considered to have been the inventor of European porcelain.
Oscar Troplowitz: He invented adhesive tape, Leukoplast.
== U ==
Dietrich "Diedrich" Uhlhorn: Engineer, mechanic and inventor, who invented the first mechanical tachometer (1817), between 1817 and 1830 inventor of the Presse Monétaire (level coin press known as Uhlhorn Press) which bears his name.
== V ==
Abraham Vater: Professor of anatomy; Ampulla of Vater.
Richard Vetter: Developed the most fuel efficient condensing boiler for heating systems in 1980. Used in many houses in Europe.
Rudolf Virchow: "Father of modern pathology"; numerous discoveries in the area of medicine.
Hans Vogt: Invented sound-on-film (idea 1905) together with Jo Engl and Joseph Massolle, first sound-on-film for the public on 17 September 1922 in Filmtheater Alhambra, Berlin, Germany.
Woldemar Voigt (often: Waldemar Voigt): Physicist, who taught at the Georg August University of Göttingen. He worked on crystal physics, thermodynamics and electro-optics. He discovered the Voigt effect in 1898.
Woldemar Voigt (engineer): Chief designer at Messerschmitt's Oberammergau offices and pioneer of the Me 163 and Me 264, project leader of the development of Me P. 1101, Me P. 1106, Me P. 1110, Me P. 1111, Me P. 1112 and Me P. 1116.
Jacob Volhard: Chemist who discovered, together with his student Hugo Erdmann, the Volhard–Erdmann cyclization.
== W ==
Martin Waldseemüller: Cartographer, used the name "America" on his map Universalis Cosmographia in honour of the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci. The map was drawn at St-Die in 1507 and it was the first time "America" was used on a map.
Otto Wallach: Chemist who researched, amongst others, alicyclic compounds. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1910.
Hellmuth Walter: Engineer who pioneered research into rocket engines and gas turbines.
August von Wassermann: Developed a complement fixation test for the diagnosis of syphilis in 1906
Felix Wankel: Inventor of the Rotary Motor.
Max Weber: Discovered the mass effects of capitalism and modernity.
Wilhelm Eduard Weber: Inventor of the first electromagnetic telegraph together with Carl Friedrich Gauss.
Alfred Wegener: He is most notable for proposing continental drift in 1912
Wilhelm Weinberg: Hardy–Weinberg principle
Gustav Weißkopf: Aviation pioneer, designer and builder of early aircraft and engines, is reported to be the first flying a powered aircraft in 1901
Rainer Weiss: born in Berlin, American physiscist who invented laser interferometric gravitational wave detectors. Shared the Nobel Prize for Physics 2017.
Johan Wilcke: Inventor of the electrophorus
Hugo Winckler: Discovery of Hattusa
Clemens Alexander Winkler: Chemist who discovered the element germanium in 1886.
August Wöhler: Investigated fatigue phenomena in the behavior of materials
Friedrich Wöhler: The first to synthesize urea. Wöhler is regarded as a pioneer in organic chemistry.
Heinrich Wöhlk: Contact lenses in PMMA
Theodor Wulf: Cosmic ray (together with Austrian Victor Hess)
== Z ==
Hermann Zapf: Pioneer of computer typography and creator of many well-known typefaces.
Carl Zeiss: Pioneered glass casting and allied procedures and processes for high quality optics.
Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin (1838–1917): Inventor of the airship named after him. Start of the airship LZ1 in 1900.
Karl Zimmer: Discovered the effects of ionizing radiation on DNA in 1935.
Karl Ziegler:He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963, with Giulio Natta, for work on polymers.
Konrad Zuse: Inventor of the first functional program-controlled Turing-complete computer in 1941, and the first high-level programming language Plankalkül in 1942.
== See also ==
German inventions and discoveries
List of German Americans
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
"Made in Germany"
German Inventions - Discoveries
German inventors—"Made in Germany"

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This is a list of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Since 1977, Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (abbreviated GSSPs) are internationally agreed upon reference points on stratigraphic sections of rock which define the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale. They are selected by the International Commission on Stratigraphy based on multiple factors, but their accessibility and the degree to which they are representative of the same boundary on sections worldwide are among the most important.
Since GSSPs require well-preserved sections of rock without interruptions in sedimentation, and since most are defined by different stages of animal life, defining them becomes progressively more difficult as one goes farther back in time.
== Organization of this list ==
This list is divided first into the geologic eras of the Phanerozoic (the Cenozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Paleozoic) and then into the geologic periods of each era. Each period is marked below the era bar on top of its subdivided epochs and stages. Each stage is assigned an age in mya, an acronym for million years ago, which is the age at which it began. Most of these ages are derived from astronomical cycles in sediments, magnetic data, biostratigraphic data, and radiometric dating methods. The GSSP assigned to each stage is that stage's lower boundary and oldest point.
Ages are given in "million year ago" (mya). They are obtained with different radiometric dating methods depending on the type of rock and its age. Ages that have a tilde (~) prefix are approximate ages for GSSPs that have not been defined or not been accurately dated.
The Status column has a "golden spike" for every GSSP which has been formally agreed by the ICS. Those without have only candidate sections which have not yet been formally ratified. The clock stands for times that are currently defined only by an age.
The "Defining markers" column lists the evidence in the rock used to define the boundary. (Ideally, these are applicable in rock sections worldwide.) Most of the boundaries rely on the fossil record (biologic), paleomagnetic data (magnetic), and/or climate data determined by carbon and oxygen isotopes.
== List ==
=== Cenozoic ===
==== Quaternary ====
==== Neogene ====
==== Paleogene ====
=== Mesozoic ===
==== Cretaceous ====
==== Jurassic ====
==== Triassic ====
=== Paleozoic ===
==== Permian ====
==== Carboniferous ====
==== Devonian ====
==== Silurian ====
==== Ordovician ====
==== Cambrian ====
=== Precambrian ===
==== Proterozoic ====
==== Archean and Hadean ====
== See also ==
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
Geologic Time Scale
History of the Earth
Geological history of Earth
== References ==
== External links ==
International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)

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This is a list of Italian inventors:
== A ==
Archimedes
Giovanni Battista Amici
== B ==
Flavio Baracchini
Eugenio Barsanti
Robert Ludvigovich Bartini
Enrico Bernardi
Gianni Bettini
Alfonso Bialetti
Lucio Bini
Augusto Bissiri
Claudio Bordignon
Enea Bossi, Sr.
Giovanni Branca
Francesco Antonio Broccu
Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli
Tito Livio Burattini
Carlo Felice Buzio
== C ==
Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti
Tullio Campagnolo
Secondo Campini
Mario Capecchi
Arturo Caprotti
Gerolamo Cardano
Antonio Benedetto Carpano
Giovanni Caselli
Ugo Cerletti
Leonardo Chiariglione
Alberto Ciaramella
Giuseppe Cipriani
Francesco Cirio
Bartolomeo Cristofori
Alessandro Cruto
== D ==
Luigi Dadda
Salvino D'Armate
Corradino D'Ascanio
Leonardo da Vinci
Raimondo di Sangro
Giuseppe Donati
== F ==
Francesco Faà di Bruno
Fabio Perini
Gabriele Falloppio
Federico Faggin
Enrico Fermi
Salvatore Ferragamo
Galileo Ferraris
Pietro Ferrero
Carlo Forlanini
Enrico Forlanini
== G ==
Galileo Galilei
Luigi Galvani
Gasparo da Salò
Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri
Flavio Gioja
Giuseppe di Giugno
Guido of Arezzo
== J ==
Candido Jacuzzi
== K ==
Pedro Kanof
== L ==
Ruggero Lenci
Leonardo da Vinci
Domingo Liotta
Cesare Lombroso
Vincenzo Lunardi
Giovanni Luppis
== M ==
Amatino Manucci
Innocenzo Manzetti
Guglielmo Marconi
Felice Matteucci
Antonio Meucci
Guido Monaco
Maria Montessori
Angelo Moriondo
== N ==
Giulio Natta
== P ==
Antonio Pacinotti
Luigi Palmieri
Enzo Paoletti
Pier Giorgio Perotto
Ignazio Porro
Giambattista della Porta
Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli
== R ==
Giuseppe Ravizza
== S ==
Sanctorius
Raimondo di Sangro
Antonio Sant'Elia
Ascanio Sobrero
Nazareno Strampelli
== T ==
Gasparo Tagliacozzi
Teseo Tesei
Luigi Torchi
Evangelista Torricelli
Pellegrino Turri
Juanelo Turriano
== V ==
Alessandro Volta
Andrew Viterbi
== Z ==
Ildebrando Zacchini
Giuseppe Zamboni
Girolamo Zenti

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title: "List of National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees"
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The National Inventors Hall of Fame (NIHF) is an American not-for-profit organization, founded in 1973, which recognizes individual engineers and inventors who hold a U.S. patent of significant technology.
The inventor list constitutes historic persons from the past three centuries in addition to living inductees. Nominees must hold a U.S. patent of significant contribution to public welfare, and which advances science and the useful arts. John Fitch (anno 1743) was the earliest born inventor inducted into the NIHF.
== Inductees ==
== References ==
== External links ==
The official website of the National Inventors Hall of Fame

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title: "List of New Zealand inventors"
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The following is a list of New Zealand inventors and inventions.
Godfrey Bowen – developer of an improved sheep-shearing technique
John Britten – designer of the Britten motorcycle
Thomas Brydone and William Soltau Davidson – refrigerated shipping pioneers
Morton Coutts – invented the continuous fermentation method of brewing
Bill Gallagher – developer of the electric fence and founder of Gallagher Group Limited
Ernest Godward – improved eggbeater
A. J. Hackett – popularised of commercial Bungy jumping
Bill Hamilton – developed the modern jetboat
Frederick Hanson – inventor of chipseal, known in New Zealand as tar seal
Peter Lynn – leading kitemaker, aeronautical theoretician and inventor of the tipping blade portable sawmill
Colin Murdoch – inventor of the disposable syringe and the tranquilliser gun
Richard Pearse – aviation pioneer
Bill Pickering – rocketry and space pioneer, former NASA Jet Propulsion Lab director
Alan Prichard – pioneer of aerial topdressing
Bill Robinson – inventor of the lead rubber bearing used for seismic base isolation in earthquake engineering
== References ==

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The Penrose Medal was created in 1925 by R.A.F. Penrose, Jr., as the top prize awarded by the Geological Society of America. Originally created as the Geological Society of America Medal it was soon renamed the Penrose Medal by popular assent of the society's membership, and was first awarded in 1927. It is awarded only at the discretion of the GSA council, "in recognition of eminent research in pure geology, for outstanding original contributions or achievements that mark a major advance in the science of geology."
== Award winners ==
Source: GSA
== See also ==
Category:Penrose Medal winners
List of geology awards
Prizes named after people
== References ==

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title: "List of Polish inventors and discoverers"
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This is a list of Polish inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises people from Poland and of Polish origin, and also people of predominantly Polish heritage, in alphabetical order of surname.
== A ==
Bruno Abakanowicz: invented integrapf, a mechanical analog computing device for plotting the integral of a graphically defined function.
Osman Achmatowicz Jr.: specialist in the field of organic chemistry. Inventor of the Achmatowicz reaction.
Karol Adamiecki: management theorist. Together with Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Fayola the creator of organisation and management science. In 1925 Adamiecki founded the Polish Institute of Scientific Management.
Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz: pathologist. His research of the variable vascularity of the spinal cord was an important contribution to the development of modern clinical vascular surgery. He is known for Artery of Adamkiewicz and Adamkiewicz reaction.
Henryk Arctowski: scientist and explorer. Living in exile for a large part of his life, he was one of the first persons to reach Antarctica during winter and became an internationally renowned meteorologist.
== B ==
Joseph Babinski: neurologist, discoverer of the Babinski reflex.
Stefan Banach: considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians, creator of Banach space. He was one of the founders of modern functional analysis, and an original member of the Lwów School of Mathematics. His major work was the 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires (Theory of Linear Operations), the first monograph on the general theory of functional analysis.
Feliks Barański: pioneer and the specialist in the field of Differential equations.
Jan Józef Baranowski: took part in the Great Emigration. Invented Railway signal device, ticket machine and gas meter.
Mieczysław G. Bekker: co-authored the general idea and vitally contributed to the design and construction of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) used by NASA in missions Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 on the Moon. He was the author of several patented inventions in the area of off-the-road vehicles, including those for extraterrestrial use.
Benedict of Poland: Polish Franciscan friar, explorer, and interpreter, participant of the pioneering European trip to the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century.
Edmund Biernacki: physician, the first one to note a relationship between the sedimentation rate of red blood cells in a human blood sample and the general condition of the organism. This method is now known as the Biernacki Reaction.
Michał Borysiekiewicz: invented the first "electronic eye" for blind people.
Michał Boym: 17th-century Jesuit missionary, scientist and explorer, who was the first in Europe to describe Korea as a peninsula, as until then it was believed to be an island, and the first in Europe to establish the factual location of a number of Chinese cities and the Great Wall of China.
Josef Božek: managed to put into operation one of the first steam engines in the Czech lands.
Stefan Bryła: designed and built the first welded road bridge in the world.
Janusz Brzozowski: computer scientist known for developing the Brzozowski derivative and Brzozowski's algorithm.
Tytus Liwiusz Burattini: inventor of the micrometer.
== C ==
Maria Skłodowska-Curie: conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences – physics and chemistry. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris.
Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik): mathematician, physician, translator, diplomat. Most commonly known as an astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe included in his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres).
Napoleon Cybulski:, physiologist, discoverer of adrenaline, one of pioneers of endocrinology and electroencephalography.
Jan Czochralski: chemist, invented the Czochralski process, commonly used for growing crystals and in the production of semiconductor wafers.
== D ==
Marian Danysz: physicist, co-discovered the hypernucleus.
Kazimierz Dąbrowski: psychologist, psychiatrist, and physician, author of the theory of "positive disintegration".
Henryk Derczyński: a photographer, created an isohelia technology, a technique that sharpens contrasts and defines three-dimensional images.
Stefan Drzewiecki: engineer and inventor, built the first submarine in the world with electric battery-powered propulsion.
Jarosław Duda: computer scientist, a graduate of Jagiellonian University and inventor of Asymmetric numeral systems (ANS), a family of entropy encoding methods widely used in data compression.
Jan Dzierżon: apiarist who discovered the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in bees and designed the first successful movable-frame beehive (1838).
== E ==
Artur Ekert: physicist; one of the pioneers of quantum cryptography.
== F ==
Maksymilian Faktorowicz: founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company, popularized the term "make-up", had perfected the first cosmetic specifically created for motion picture use—a thinner greasepaint in cream form and largely developed the modern cosmetics industry in the United States.
Kazimierz Fajans: physical chemist, pioneer in the science of radioactivity and the discoverer of chemical element protactinium.
Edward Flatau: neurologist.
Julius Fromm: chemist, entrepreneur, one of the inventors of the rubber condom.
Casimir Funk:, biochemist, the first to formulate (1912) the concept and the term of vitamins originally calling them "vital amins"/"vit- amins" discovered first vitamins, i.e B1
== G ==
Leo Gerstenzang: Polish-American inventor who in 1923 created the first contemporary cotton swab or Q-Tips.
Ludwik Gross: virologist. He discovered two different tumor viruses — murine leukemia virus and mouse polyomavirus — capable of causing cancers in laboratory mice.
Ryszard Gryglewski: physician and pharmacologist. He co-discovered prostacyclin (1976), which set off many further scientific discoveries.
Andrzej Grzegorczyk: mathematician and logician, who introduced the Grzegorczyk hierarchy, a hierarchy of functions used in computability theory.
Rudolf Gundlach: military engineer, inventor and tank designer, inventor of the Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV also known as the Gundlach Periscope.

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== H ==
Józef Hofmann: musician, invented Paper clips.
Johannes Hevelius: astronomer who gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers.
== J ==
Stefania Jabłońska: physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize.
Wojciech Jastrzębowski: scientist, naturalist and inventor, one of the fathers of ergonomics.
Walery Jaworski: one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland who made one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori and published those findings in 1899 in a book titled Podręcznik chorób żołądka (Handbook of Gastric Diseases).
== K ==
Jacek Karpiński: pioneer in computer engineering and computer science. He became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition. In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202.
Adam Adamandy Kochański: mathematician, physicist, clockmaker, who found an approximation of π today called the Kochański's Approximation. He also suggested replacing the clock's pendulum with a spring, constructed a clock with a magnetic pendulum, and was the author of the world's first systematic paper on the construction of clocks.
Jerzy Konorski: neurophysiologist, discoverer of secondary conditioned reflexes and operant conditioning. He also proposed the idea of gnostic neurons, a concept similar to the grandmother cell. He coined the term neural plasticity.
Hilary Koprowski: virologist and immunologist, who developed the world's first effective live polio vaccine.
Kazimierz Kordylewski: astronomer, discoverer of the Kordylewski clouds.
Józef Kosacki: invented the Polish mine detector, a first man-portable device used by the allied forces during the World War II.
Tadeusz Kościuszko: Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and American war hero and military leader, military engineer, colonel in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, creator of the West Point state-of-the-art Fortifications, prepared a national Kosciuszko Uprising in Poland against the Russian Empire and acted as the Supreme Commander.
Tadeusz Krwawicz: ophthalmologist who pioneered the use of cryosurgery in ophthalmology.
Stefan Kudelski: audio engineer known for creating the Nagra series of professional audio recorders later sold to British BBC, American stations NBC, ABC, CBS, but also plenty of radio stations including famous Radio Luxembourg. Kudelski received prestigious Oscar Awards in 1965, 1977, 1978, and 1990. He also won two Emmy Awards in 1984 and 1986.
Jerzy Kukuczka: alpinist, the second man in history to climb all fourteen Eight-thousanders including three as first ascents, established a new route on K2 in alpine style called the "Polish line".
Wojciech Kurtyka: mountaineer, alpinist, one of the alpine style climbing pioneers, after climbing through the "Shining Wall" on Gasherbrum IV the Climbing magazine declared beat the wall to get the greatest achievement of mountaineering in the twentieth century.
Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014): American chemist of Polish origin, inventor of Kevlar.
== L, Ł ==
Ignacy Łukasiewicz: invented kerosene lamp, designed and built both world's first oil refinery and oil well. Introduced the first modern street lamp in Europe.
Jan Łukasiewicz: invented RPN (Reverse Polish Notation) used in professional Calculators as well as by Computers in order to determine the order of mathematical operations without using parentheses.
== M ==
Ernest Malinowski: civil engineer best known for constructing the Ferrocarril Central Andino in the Peruvian Andes, the world's highest railway at the time.
Henryk Manguski: a telecommunications engineer who worked for Motorola in Chicago. He was the inventor of the first Walkie-Talkies and one of the authors of his company success in the fields of radio communication.
Benoit Mandelbrot: mathematician of Polish descent, known for developing a theory of "roughness and self-similarity" and significant contributions to fractal geometry and chaos theory; Mandelbrot set.
Krzysztof Matyjaszewski: chemist, who discovered atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP).
Jan Mikulicz-Radecki: surgeon, inventor of new operating techniques and tools, one of the pioneers of antiseptics and aseptic techniques. He is also the inventor of surgical mask.
Ludwik Młokosiewicz: explorer, zoologist and botanist, who discovered 60 species of plants and animals in Georgia and the Caucasus.
Aleksander Możajski: Polish-Russian military officer, built world's first plane.
== N ==
Jan Nagórski: engineer and pioneer of aviation, the first person to fly an airplane in the Arctic and the first aviator to perform a loop with a flying boat.
== O ==
Karol Olszewski: chemist, the first (alongside Zygmunt Wróblewski) to liquefy oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a stable state (not, as had been the case up to then, in a dynamic state in the transitional form as vapour) (1833).
Stanisław Olszewski: engineer and inventor, co-creator of modern electric arc welding.
== P ==
Bohdan Paczyński: astronomer, credited with the development of a new method of detecting space objects and establishing their mass using the gravitational lenses effect.
Antoni Patek: pioneer in watchmaking and the creator of the Patek Philippe & Co.
Janusz Pawliszyn: chemist, inventor of solid-phase microextraction (SPME).
Jerzy Pniewski: physicist, co-discovered the hypernucleus.
Kazimierz Pułaski: Polish nobleman, soldier and military strategist, a general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, the creator and the head of the Pulaski Cavalry Legion and reformer of the American cavalry. He distinguished himself throughout the revolution, most notably when he saved the life of George Washington. One of only eight people in the history to be awarded honorary United States citizenship.
Kazimierz Prószyński: patented the first film camera, the Pleograph, before the Lumière brothers, and later went on to improve the cinema projector for the Gaumont company, as well as invent the widely used hand-held Aeroscope camera.
Antoni Przybylski: Polish-Australian astronomer best known for discovering Przybylski's Star.

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== R ==
Tadeusz Reichstein: Polish-Swiss chemist and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate (1950), who was awarded for his work on the isolation of cortisone.
Zbigniew Religa: a pioneer in human heart transplantation in Poland, he led the team that performed the first successful heart transplantation in the country, and in June 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses.
Marian Rejewski: mathematician and cryptologist who reconstructed the sight-unseen German military Enigma cipher machine.
Jerzy Rudlicki: aerospace engineer and pilot. He is best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail in 1930, which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system.
Ludwik Rydygier: surgeon, who performed the first in Poland and second in the world successful surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, and the first peptic ulcer resection in the world.
== S ==
Andrew Schally: endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977) whose research contributed to the discovery that the hypothalamus controls hormone production and release by the pituitary gland, which controls the regulation of other hormones in the body.
Michael Sendivogius: pioneer of chemistry, who developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds, and discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance—later called oxygen.
Tadeusz Sendzimir: metallurgist, revolutionised galvanisation and rolling process.
Kazimierz Siemienowicz: military engineer, one of pioneers of rocketry, author of Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, a work that served as the principal artillery manual in Europe from the mid-16th to the mid-18th centuries, also containing the first printed design of a multistage rocket.
Maria Siemionow: transplant surgeon and scientist who led a team of eight surgeons through the world's first near-total face transplant.
Hugo Steinhaus: mathematician, specialist in the field of functional analysis.
Abraham Stern: inventor of the mechanical calculator, topography machine, agriculture machines.
Josephus Struthius: professor of medicine and personal doctor of Polish kings, who was among the first to provide a visual representation of the human pulse and used it for diagnostic purposes.
Paweł Edmund Strzelecki: explorer most commonly known for his early explorations of Australia, particularly the Snowy Mountains and Tasmania. Climbed and named the highest Australian peak – Mount Kosciuszko.
Jan Szczepanik: inventor, with several hundred patents and over 50 discoveries to his name; his inventions founded ground for radio and TV broadcasting.
Wacław Szybalski: medical researcher, geneticist and oncologist. He conducted research on drug resistance and molecular genetics and is known for the Szybalski's rule.
== Ś ==
Jędrzej Śniadecki: writer, physician, chemist, biologist and philosopher. He was the first person who linked rickets to lack of sunlight (1822). He also created modern Polish terminology in the field of chemistry.
Władysław Świątecki: physicist noted for pioneering research in nuclear physics including the nuclear shell model and for independently predicting the existence of the so-called island of stability.
== T ==
Władysław Tryliński: transportation engineer who invented trylinka, the hexagonal concrete block widely used in the construction of roads in Poland due to its low cost and durability, becoming a synonym for sidewalks made of them.
Jacek Trzmiel: was a Polish American businessman, best known for founding Commodore International. Tramiel later formed Atari Corporation after he purchased the remnants of the original Atari, Inc. from its parent company.
Abraham Icek Tuszyński: entrepreneur, founder of the most prestigious movie theater in the Netherlands – the Tuschinski Theater in Amsterdam.
== U ==
Stanisław Ulam was a mathematician of the Lwów School of Mathematics and a member of the Manhattan Project. He was assigned to Edward Teller's group, where he worked on Teller's "Super" bomb for Teller and Enrico Fermi. With the aid of a cadre of female "computers", including his wife Françoise Aron Ulam, he found that Teller's "Super" design was unworkable. In January 1951, Ulam and Teller came up with the Teller–Ulam design, which is the basis for all thermonuclear weapons. Ulam discovered the concept of the cellular automaton, invented the Monte Carlo method of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion. In pure and applied mathematics, he proved some theorems and proposed several conjectures.
== W ==
Warner Brothers (Bracia Wonsal): American-naturalized brothers of Polish-Jewish origin, created the Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc., one of the biggest and most successful media corporations in the world being one of the "Big Six" American film studios.
Rudolf Weigl: biologist, physician and inventor, known for creating the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus.
Krzysztof Wielicki: regarded as one of the greatest mountaineers in history. He performed the first winter ascents on Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, and Lhotse.
Anna Wierzbicka: linguist; known for her work in semantics, pragmatics and cross-cultural linguistics; she's credited with formulating the theory of natural semantic metalanguage and the concept of semantic primes.
Mieczysław Wolfke: the forerunner of holography and television.
Zygmunt Wróblewski: chemist: the first (alongside Karol Olszewski) to liquefy oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a stable state (not, as had been the case up to then, in a dynamic state in the transitional form as vapour) (1833).
== Z ==
Ludwik Zamenhof: creator of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language in the world.
Casimir Zeglen, inventor of one of the first bulletproof vests.
Witold Zglenicki: geologist and inventor. Pioneer of oil extraction from sea bottom.
== See also ==
List of Poles
List of Polish Nobel laureates
Timeline of Polish science and technology
== References ==

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Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Taínos who inhabit the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops.
In 1581, Juan Ponce de León II, the grandson of the Conquistador Juan Ponce de León, studied an eclipse and its effects on the island and was able to establish the exact geographical coordinates of San Juan with his observations.
During the 19th century the economies of many countries in the world suffered from the spread of crop failures. Puerto Rico, whose economy depended heavily on its agriculture, felt the effects of some of the crop diseases. Scientists such as Agustín Stahl, Fermín Tangüis and Fernando López Tuero conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of agriculture, botany, ethnology and zoology. The findings of their investigations helped Puerto Rico's agricultural industry.
With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine.
There are many Puerto Rican scientists involved in the American space program at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). According to an article written by Margarita Santori Lopez for the official newspaper of the University of Puerto Rico's Mayagüez Campus, "Prensa RUM", as of 2003, of the 115 Hispanics working at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, 70 were Puerto Ricans or of Puerto Rican descent. According to a research conducted during the period of 1990 to 1998 by Puerto Rican scientists in science and technology, Puerto Rican scientific production was greater than in any other Caribbean country and the sixth largest in all of Latin America.
The following is a list of some of Puerto Rico's notable scientists and inventors with short profiles that include the scientific contributions, inventions and achievements in their respective fields. The list is not limited to people born in Puerto Rico, it also includes people who are of full or partial Puerto Rican ancestry, and many long-term residents and who have made Puerto Rico their home, and who are recognized for their life and/or work.
== Aerospace ==
Roberto Alemán is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. As Environmental Instruments Director, he directs everything that is related to the environmental instruments that the United States provides to the European Space Agency in order to operate the MetOp, a European satellite that provides environmental information to both Europe and the United States.
Adán Rodríguez-Arroyo is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. Rodríguez-Arroyo is the Communications System Lead Engineer for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Mission, to be launched in 2008. He was in charge of the design of the communications systems of the "Global Precipitation Measurement" satellite.
Anthony M. Busquets is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. He is involved in the development and application of multifunction control/display switch technology in 1983 and Development and application of a microprocessor-based I/O system for simulator use in 1984. He is the author and or co-author of over 13 conference papers and NASA formal publications in the areas of cockpit controls and displays, use of stereoscopy in flight displays and pictorial flight displays for situation awareness enhancement.
Juan R. Cruz is an aerospace engineer and Aero Space Technologist at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia who helped design and qualification of the supersonic parachute for the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) project. Cruz is a senior aerospace engineer in the Exploration Systems Engineering Branch at the NASA Langley Research Center. His responsibilities are focused on research and development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. He was a member of the highly successful Mars Exploration Rover (MER) project that placed two rovers on the surface of Mars in 2004. His contributions to the MER project were centered on the design and qualification of the supersonic parachute. Cruz is also a member of the Phoenix (Mars 2007), Mars Science Laboratory (Mars 2009), and Crew Exploration Vehicle EDL teams. He has undertaken research on advanced missions to Mars, including robotic airplanes, as well as having been a technical reviewer for the Genesis, Huygens, and Stardust missions. Prior to his involvement with exploration programs he conducted research on high-altitude unmanned aircraft.
Orlando Figueroa is a mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and the former Director of Solar System Exploration Division and Mars Exploration at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Figueroa headed the cryogenic technology section, played a key role on the Cosmic Background Explorer mission, and managed a Space Shuttle Helium on Orbit Mission. He is the manager for the Small Explorers (SMEX) project, manager for the Explorers Program, and Director of Systems Technology and Advanced Concept Directorate. He is currently the Director, Applied Engineering & Technology at the NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center (as the "Director of Engineering" he manages the full scope of engineering activities at Goddard).

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Olga D. González-Sanabria is a scientist and inventor. She is the highest ranking Hispanic at NASA Glenn Research Center, and a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame. As Director of the Engineering and Technical Services, she is responsible for planning and directing a full range of integrated services including engineering, fabrication, testing, facility management and aircraft services for the Glenn Research Center. She played an instrumental role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system. Among the technical reports that she has authored and or co-authored are:1. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells (1987)2. Component variations and their effects on bipolar nickel-hydrogen cell performance (1987)3. NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program – Issues and actions (1988)4. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells 2 (1988)5. Energy storage considerations for a robotic Mars surface sampler (1989)
Amri Hernández-Pellerano is an electronics engineer and scientist who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. She designed the power systems electronics for the WMAP mission. WMAP is a NASA Explorer mission satellite that measures the temperature of the cosmic background radiation over the full sky with unprecedented accuracy.
Carlos Ortiz Longo (born August 18, 1962) is a Mechanical and Materials Science Engineer, Air Transport Pilot, and Flight Instructor. He is a retired NASA Johnson Space Center Engineer, and pilot. His expertise includes Thermal Analysis, Thermal Design, High Speed Atmospheric Thermal Protection Systems, Materials Engineering, Mechanical Behavior of High Temperature Structural Ceramics, Mechanical Testing of Materials, Structural Mechanics, Astronaut Crew Health Care Systems, Rocket Engine Testing, Project Management, and System Management. Ortiz Longo is currently an Airline Pilot for a major airline. Ortiz Longo reached finalist status in the Astronaut Selection program (top 4% of qualified applicants who are invited to the Johnson Space Center in Houston for final interviews), for Astronaut Candidate Class 16 in 1996. Ortiz Longo was awarded the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal. To be awarded the medal, a NASA employee must make substantial contributions characterized by a substantial and significant improvement in operations, efficiency, service, financial savings, science, or technology that directly contribute to the mission of NASA For civilians, the decoration is typically bestowed to mid-level and senior NASA administrators who have supervised at least four to five successful NASA missions. Astronauts may be awarded the decoration after two to three space flights.
Mercedes Reaves is a research engineer and scientist. She is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. She must select and apply tools to analyze complex thin film structures characterized by wrinkling, geometric and material nonlinear behavior. She is also responsible for planning experimental studies to validate analytical techniques and study solar sails dynamics.
Miriam Rodon-Naveira is a scientist and the first Hispanic woman to hold the Deputy Directorship for the Environmental Sciences Division within the National Exposure Research Laboratory. She is responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining research and educational activities in support of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center mission. She holds a doctorate in Biology–Aquatic Microbial Ecology.
Pedro Rodríguez is a scientist, inventor, mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and the Director of a test laboratory at NASA. He invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Rodriguez was the leader of the Solid Rocket Booster accident investigation team following the Space Shuttle Columbia accident in February 2003 and was also the project manager for the Space Launch Initiative program. Rodriguez is currently the Director of the test laboratory in the Engineering Directorate at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. He is responsible for the engineering services and facilities for environmental, structural, and propulsion testing of NASA programs assigned to the Marshall Space Flight Center. Among his duties are: research, development, qualification, and acceptance testing of critical space and flight hardware, as well as the testing of relevant development hardware.
Felix Soto Toro is a scientist, astronaut applicant and an electrical designs engineer in NASA, who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS)(Electronic 3D measuring system). At the Kennedy Space Center, Soto reviews, designs, builds, tests and implements engineering designs used in the Space Shuttle and Payload Operations Development Laboratories. The main project he developed was the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS)(Electronic 3D measuring system), which consists of a simplified, robust, centrally operated and portable system that automatically measures the spherical coordinates offset between the trunnion and their supports during transfer operations. This system has the potential to become a NASA project with commercial applications. Soto earned his Doctorate of Philosophy degree in electrical engineering and has applied to become an astronaut candidate.
== Agriculture ==
In the 19th Century, Puerto Rico's economy depended on its agricultural industry. Among the products that Puerto Rico exported were tobacco, cotton, ginger, pineapples and citrus fruits. The two main agricultural products whose production dominated the island's economy were sugar and coffee.
Coffee industry
In the 1860s, the Mariani family of Yauco created a machine out of a cotton gin that was used in the dehusking of coffee. This represented a significant improvement in Puerto Rico's coffee appearance and an opportunity to stand out in the international coffee market.
Cotton industry

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Fermín Tangüis (1851–1930) was a Puerto Rican businessman, agriculturist and scientist who in 1901 developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tanguis cotton in Peru when that nation's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known some places as "cotton wilt" and in others as "Fusarium wilt" (Fusarium vasinfectum) saving that nation's cotton industry. Tangüis began to study some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed that produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water. The cotton grown in Peru (Egyptian cotton) before the fungus plague grew only once a year; the Tangüis cotton grows six times a year. This type of fiber showed a better resistance and performance than other fibers. Tangüis cotton grows in Canete's valley (south of Lima) and in the Central Coast of Peru. The success of the Tangüis cotton, which is also known in Peru as "Oro Blanco" (White Gold), saved the cotton industry of that nation.
Coconut industry
Ramón López Irizarry (1897–1982) was an educator and scientist who invented an easier way to extract the cream from the coconut pulp. He was a professor of agricultural sciences at the University of Puerto Rico in the late 1940s when the Government of Puerto Rico gave a grant to the University of Puerto Rico (Universidad de Puerto Rico) to help assist in the development of Puerto Rican industries. In 1949, Lopez-Irizarry, with the use of some of these funds, was able to work in his laboratory on an idea that he had. Lopez-Irizarry set out to find an easier way to extract the cream from the coconut pulp. The heart of the coconut has always been an important ingredient in many of the desserts in Puerto Rico. The main problem was extracting the coconut cream from the pulp, which was a difficult task. Lopez-Irizarry discovered an easier way by blending the cream from the hearts of the Caribbean coconuts with an exact proportion of natural cane sugar. He used his discovery in the development of "Coco Lopez", a coconut product that is used in many popular drinks.
Sugar industry
Fernando López Tuero was an agricultural scientist and agronomist who saved the sugar industry of Puerto Rico when he discovered the bug (believed at first to be a germ) that was destroying the island's sugar canes. In the latter part of the 19th Century, an epidemic was affecting the agricultural industry of Puerto Rico. Among the crops affected was the sugar cane, whose main product "sugar" was vital to Puerto Rico's economy. The Spanish colonial government, created an emergency commission composed of scientists, which included Agustín Stahl and Fernando López Tuero, to study the situation. Agustín Stahl concluded that the epidemic was caused by a "germ" in the terrain, however his findings were inconclusive. In 1894, Fernando López Tuero, who was the head agronomist of the Agronomical Station of Río Piedras, discovered that the cause of the epidemic was the white grub (Phyllophaga). Phyllophaga is a very large genus (more than 260 species) of New World scarab beetles in the subfamily Melolonthinae. These beetles are nocturnal, coming to lights in great numbers. The adults are chafers, feeding on foliage of trees and shrubs. They may cause significant damage when emerging in large numbers. The larvae (called white grubs) feed on the roots of grasses and other plants.
== Archaeology ==
Ricardo Alegría is a scholar, cultural anthropologist and archeologist known as the "Father of Modern Puerto Rican Archaeology". He is credited with being a pioneer in the anthropology of the Taino culture and the African heritage in Puerto Rico. His extensive studies have helped historians to understand how the Taínos lived and suffered, before and after the Spanish Conquistadores arrived in the island. Alegría estimated that about one third of all Puerto Ricans (2 million out of 6 million) have Taíno blood and therefore the Taínos were not completely extinct and some had to survive. Recently, the results of recent DNA studies have proved him right.
== Astronomy ==
Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who, in 1959, discovered a Galactic Cluster "Blanco 1", which was named after him. Blanco was the second Director of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, which has the largest 4-m telescope in the Southern Hemisphere, In 1995, the telescope was dedicated in his honor and is known as the Blanco 4m
Sixto González was the first Puerto Rican to be named Director of the Arecibo Observatory, the world's largest single dish radio telescope. In 2001, Gonzalez was named assistant director for space and atmospheric sciences at the telescopic facility. On September 29, 2003, Gonzalez became the first Puerto Rican to be named Director of the observatory. The appointment was made by Robert Brown, director of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (NAIC). Gonzalez was responsible for the overall management of the facility, including the executions of basic policy that maintains the observatory at the front of research in astronomy, planetary studies and atmospheric science. He stepped down as Director on September 15, 2006.
== Astrophysics ==
Neil deGrasse Tyson is an astrophysicist and television and radio host. deGrasse Tyson, whose mother is Puerto Rican, is the director of the Hayden Planetarium in New York City. deGrasse Tyson is the host of the PBS series "Cosmos: A Personal Voyage".

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Enectalí Figueroa-Feliciano is a mechanical engineer, Astronaut applicant and an Associate Professor of Physics at Northwestern University and the author of various papers including "Position-sensitive low-temperature detectors". Figueroa's research interests revolve around the development of high-energy-resolution imaging spectrometers for space-borne applications in experimental astrophysics and cosmology. Figueroa pioneered the development of position-sensitive detectors that will provide an order of magnitude more pixels (and thus larger field of view) than traditional single-pixel X-ray microcalorimeters." He is an expert and researcher on dark matter. and a researcher with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a professor of physics Northwestern University.
Adolfo Figueroa-Viñas is the first Puerto Rican astrophysicist at NASA working in solar plasma physics. As a senior research scientist, he is involved in many NASA missions, such as Wind, SOHO, Cluster and MMS projects, in which he is the author and co-author of numerous scientific papers in his field. Figueroa-Viñas has served as Guest Co-Investigator of the International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE-1) mission and the Voyagers program. He is currently a Co-Investigator in the WIND/SWE experiment of the International Solar Terrestrial Program (ISTP) and the Space Physics Theory Program grant entitled The Role of Turbulence in Heliospheric Plasmas. Viñas has participated in the organizing committee of "La Conferencia Espacial de las Américas" held in Costa Rica, Chile and Uruguay. He is the recipient of the NASA Special Service Award.
== Biochemistry ==
Nitza Margarita Cintrón is a scientist who originated the Biochemistry Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. She is the Chief of Space Medicine and Health Care Systems Office at NASA's Johnson Space Center. In 1979, Cintron originated the Biochemistry Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. He served from 1979 to 1985 as the project scientist for the Space Lab 2 mission, which was launched in 1985 aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger. In 2004, she was named "Chief of NASA's (JSC) Space Medicine and Health Care Systems Office", the position that she currently holds.
== Botany ==
Agustín Stahl (1842–1917) conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of botany, ethnology and zoology. Stahl wrote "Estudios sobre la flora de Puerto Rico" (A study of the Puerto Rican Flora), published in six fascicles from 1883 to 1888. Copies of his plant collection with approximately 1,330 plants can be found in various botanical gardens around the world. His collections were the basis for numerous studies by specialists, some of them resulting in new taxa to science. He has a genus, Stahlia, and five valid species, Argythamnia stahlii, Senna pendula var. stahlii , Eugenia stahlii, Lyonia stahlii, and Ternstroemia stahlii, named in his honor. The genus Stahlia is represented by a single species, S. monosperma (Tul.) Urb., known to occur only in Puerto Rico and the eastern Dominican Republic. Known in Puerto Rico as Cóbana Negra, this species is currently listed as threatened in the USFW Federal Register, April 5, 1990.
== Chemistry education ==
Ingrid Montes is a professor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras campus. She attained tenure in 1998. Her research focus is on chemical education and organometallic chemistry.Montes has been Director-at-large at the American Chemical Society (ACS) since 2013. Montes founded the "Festival de Química" (Chemistry Festival) in 2005. The "Festival de Quimica" is a community outreach program created to engage the general public through chemistry demonstrations and its relation to daily life. This program was then adopted by the ACS in 2010 and in 2016, the ACS festival training was launched around the world.
== Climate change ==
Miguel Román, serves as Chief Climate Scientist and Technical Fellow at Leidos. A leading expert in the fields of satellite remote sensing, climate change, disaster risk reduction, and sustainability, Román has championed translational research and data-intensive approaches to assess and address climate-related risks. His work is internationally recognized for shedding light on the disproportionate hardships experienced by socially-vulnerable and underserved communities following major disasters. In 2022, Román was named the team leader of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) science team for NASA's Terra and Aqua missions. Román also serves as the land discipline leader for the Suomi-NPP and NOAA-20 Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) science team, a worldwide group of investigators and technical staff in charge of one of the largest and most comprehensive polar-orbiting satellite systems operated by NASA and NOAA to monitor our planet's vital signs.
== Ecology ==
Ariel Lugo is a scientist, ecologist and Director of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry within the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, based in Puerto Rico. He is a founding Member of the Society for Ecological Restoration and Member-at-Large of the Board of the Ecological Society of America. His current research is focused on assessments of the role of tropical forests in global processes and comparisons between tropical tree plantations and natural forests. He has over 300 publications in scientific journals and books and has served on federal interagency committees and frequently required to appear as an expert witness in federal court in cases considering environmental issues. He currently serves on the Editorial Boards of Conservation Ecology, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Forest Ecology and Management, Restoration Ecology, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, Acta Cientifica (Editor) and Journal of the Littoral.
== Hydrometeorology ==
Rafael L. Bras is an engineer and expert in hydrometeorology and global warming. As an engineering hydrologist, his major areas of interest include land-atmosphere interactions and geomorphology. He is considered one of the world's leading experts in global warming, and has also served as a professional consultant in multiple projects around the world. Bras has specialized in the interpretation of natural phenomena as random functions. He has been recognized for his use of modern probabilistic methods in the design of networks to monitor rainfall and river flow, and in rainfall and river discharge forecasting. Presently his interests span the areas of fluvial geomorphology and hydroclimatology.

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== Marine biology ==
Pablo Clemente-Colon is the first Puerto Rican to serve as Chief Scientist of the National Ice Center (NIC), headquartered in Alexandria Virginia, a position he has held since 2005. As such, he serves the three entities that operate the NIC, the United States Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard.
Carlos Del Castillo was the Program Scientist for the Ocean Biology and Biogeochemistry Program at NASA Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. Del Castillo is the recipient of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE) award, the highest honor bestowed by the United States government on scientists and engineers beginning their independent careers. He began working in the Mississippi River plume and in the application of remote sensors to study coastal environments. He co-edited with Richard Miller and Brent McKee, Remote Sensing of the Coastal Environment, a book that provides extensive insight on remote sensing of coastal waters from aircraft and space-based platforms
Antonio A. Mignucci-Giannoni is a biological oceanographer specializing in the biology, management and conservation of marine mammals. He is the founder of the international conservation organization Red Caribeña de Varamientos (Caribbean Stranding Network) dedicated to the care, treatment, and rehabilitation of injured or stranded marine mammals, sea turtle and sea birds. As a scientist, Mignucci is an expert in endangered tropical marine mammals and a specialist in the West Indian manatee.
== Medicine ==
José Ramón Alcalá (born 1940) is an anatomist who, in 1972, was appointed assistant professor in the Wayne School of Medicine. There he conducted research that would make him the foremost expert on cell makeup of the human eye lens. Alcalá developed laboratory methods to study the histology of ocular tissue, which ultimately helped to explain the development of cataracts, among other maladies of the eye
Gualberto Ruaño is a pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System (U.S. patent 5,427,911), used worldwide for the management of viral diseases. Ruaño is president and Founder of Genomas, a genetics-related company and now the bio-tech anchor of Hartford Hospital's Genetic Research Center; he also serves as Director of genetics research at the Center
Cardiology
Antonio Fernós-Isern (1895–1974) was the first Puerto Rican cardiologist and its longest serving resident commissioner. From 1919 to 1921, he was the Under-Secretary of Health; from 1921 to 1923 the Director of Health in city; from 1923 to 1929 he was once again Under-Secretary of Health and from 1930 to 1933 the Secretary of Health of Puerto Rico. In 1933, Fernos-Isern resigned as health commissioner and went to New York, where he completed his residency in cardiology at Columbia University and thus became the "first" Puerto Rican cardiologist. He returned to Puerto Rico and became a professor at the "School of Tropical Medicine of Puerto Rico", where he had previously served as assistant and associate professor.
Ramón M. Suárez Calderon (1895–1981) was a cardiologist and scientist whose investigations led him to identify the proper and effective treatment of a type of anemia known as Tropical Espru, the application of complex methods, such as electrocardiography and radioisotope, to be used in clinics and the identification and treatment of the disease that causes heart rheumatism.
Embryology
Endocrinology
Pedro Beauchamp is the first Puerto Rican specialist certified by the American Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Board who in 1985 performed the first in vitro fertilization (IVF) technique in Puerto Rico. In 1982, Beauchamp was responsible and is credited with delivering the first triplets born by in-vitro fertilization in the United States and the first in-vitro baby born in Argentina. His work is known as GIFT (in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer) and TET (Tubal Embryo Transfer). Beauchamp returned to Puerto Rico in 1985 and established his practice in reproductive endocrinology and infertility in the city of Bayamón. In 1986, he delivered the first child born from the in-vitro fertilization procedure in all of Puerto Rico at the Regional Hospital of Bayamón.
Immunology
Angel M. Marchand a Case Western-trained physician and one of the first Puerto Rican doctors board-certified in allergy and immunology, dedicated his life to researching tropical allergies and developing vaccines that would effectively prevent or minimize allergic reactions to substances prevalent in tropical environments in Puerto Rico, the Caribbean and other tropical areas of the world.
Nephrology
Manuel Martínez Maldonado a nephrologist, is the executive vice president for research at the University of Louisville. Martínez-Maldonado has authored numerous scientific publications. His research interests are the regulation of blood pressure and the effect of high blood pressure on the kidneys. He also focuses on the renin angiotensin system, a hormone system that helps regulate long-term blood pressure and blood volume in the body and is controlled primarily by the kidneys.
Odontology
Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas (1888–1932) was an odontologist (dentist), scientist and a Major in the U.S. Army who discovered the bacteria that causes dental caries. Rodríguez Vargas was assigned to the Army Dental Corps as an educator and investigator of the bacteriological aspects of dental diseases. His research led him to discover the bacteria that causes dental caries. According to his investigations, three types of the Lactobacillus species, during the process of fermentation, are the causes of cavities. In December 1922, he published an original and fundamental work on the specific bacteriology of dental caries. His findings were published in the December issue of the Military Dental Journal titled "The Specific Study of the Bacteriology of Dental Cavities". Rodríguez Vargas also developed the techniques and methods of analysis. On September 28, 1928, Rodriguez Vargas published in the "Journal of the American Medical Association" his findings in the effectiveness of Iodine and other chemical agents as disinfectants of the mucous membranes of the mouth. Since then, other scientists have used the findings of his investigations as the basis in the study of the bacteriology of dental caries.
Oncology

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Isaac González Martínez (1871–1954) was one of the first urologist in Puerto Rico and pioneer in the fight against cancer in the island. González Martínez conducted many investigations and experiments in parasitology, bilharzia, leprosy and typhoid fever. González Martínez and Bailey K. Ashford formed the first commission in Puerto Rico to study the causes of anemia. In 1914, he was named director of the biological laboratory of the sanitation service of Puerto Rico. In 1935, González Martínez founded The Puerto Rican League against Cancer. He also promoted the construction of Puerto Rico's first hospital specializing in oncology.
Organ transplantation
Iván González Cancel is a cardiovascular and thoracic surgeon who is credited with the realization of the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. He participated in his first heart transplant at the University of Pittsburgh. González Cancel returned to Puerto Rico in 1993 and was named Director of the Department of Surgery of the Cardiovascular Center of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (Centro Cardiovascular de Puerto Rico y el Caribe). González Cancel implemented a cardiovascular program in the institution and on June 27, 1999, with the help of Hector Banchs Pieretti performed the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico.
Diego R. Solís is the founder and director of the "Centro de Cirugias de Higado y Pancreas" (Liver and Pancreas Surgery Center), performed the first simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplant in Puerto Rico. On March 9, 2007, Solís performed, in the "Hospital Auxilio Mutuo" (Mutual Aid Hospital), the first simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplant in Puerto Rico, a procedure that lasted eight hours. Solís, who is also the director of the pancreas transplant program of said institution, has made numerous scientific investigations in the field of hepatobiliar surgery with a special interest in the causes and treatment of advanced tumors of the liver.
Eduardo Santiago Delpín is a surgeon who wrote the first book in Spanish about organ transplants. Santiago Delpin is the founder of the Latin American Transplant Register, The Pan-American Society of Dialysis and Transplants, plus the Latin American and Caribbean Society of Transplants. He is a professor of surgery at the University of Puerto Rico and program director of transplantation of organs of the "Hospital Auxilio Mutuo" (Mutual Aid Hospital). His book, Organ transplantation, the first to be published in Spanish on the topic, won the Prize of Graphic Arts in Mexico and sold out in a year and a half. It covers the history of transplants in different countries, their conditions and their effects religious, ethical, psychological and cultural aspects in addition to considering immunological and clinical procedure. The book now is in its second edition.
Pediatrics
Antonia Coello Novello is a pediatrician who served as the 14th Surgeon General of the United States from 1990 to 1993. In 1978, Novello joined and received a commission in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) rising all the way up to flag officer/medical director grade. Her first assignment being as a project officer at the National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism and Digestive Diseases of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). She held various positions at NIH, rising to the medical director/flag rank in the PHSCC and to the job of deputy director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) in 1986. She also served as Coordinator for AIDS Research for NICHD from September 1987. In this role, she developed a particular interest in pediatric AIDS. Novello made major contributions to the drafting and enactment of the Organ Transplantation Procurement Act of 1984 while assigned to the United States Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources, working with the staff of committee chairman Orrin Hatch. She was the first woman and the first Hispanic (Puerto Rican) to hold the position of Surgeon General.
Milagros (Mili) J. Cordero is a licensed, registered occupational therapist with board certification in Pediatrics. She is the founder and President of ITT'S for Children, a professional group that assists and empowers parents to develop a better understanding of the strengths and needs of their children and to enhance their children's development to the full extent of their capability. Cordero is certified in the use of SAMONAS and Tomatis sound therapies. She is a member of the national DIR Institute faculty and serves as vice-chair to Georgia's State Interagency Coordinating Council for the Babies Can't Wait Program, the professional advisory council of the National Cornelia De Lange Association, and the board of the Frazer Center in Atlanta, Georgia.
Public health
Helen Rodríguez-Trías was a pediatrician and activist. She was the first Latina president of The American Public Health Association, a founding member of the Women's Caucus of the American Public Health Association and the recipient of the Presidential Citizen's Medal. She testified before the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare for passage of federal sterilization guidelines. The guidelines, which she drafted, require a woman's written consent to sterilization, offered in a language they can understand, and set a waiting period between the consent and the sterilization procedure. She is credited with helping to expand the range of public health services for women and children in minority and low-income populations in the United States, Central and South America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
Teratology

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José F. Cordero is a pediatrician, epidemiologist, teratologist and Dean of the Graduate School of Public Health at the University of Puerto Rico. Cordero was an Assistant Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service and the Founding Director of the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD) at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1994, Cordero was appointed deputy director of the National Immunization Program, where he made important and long-lasting contributions in many areas of one of the nation's most successful public health programs. In 2001, he was named the first director of the NCBDDD that was created by the Children's Health Act of 2000. In a few years, NCBDDD became a leading international institution devoted to research and prevention of birth defects and developmental disabilities and health promotion of people of ages living with disabilities. Cordero, whose work has been published in many national and international journals, has promoted the eradication of rubella (German measles), a major cause of birth defects that can be prevented through vaccination. He has also promoted research to determine the causes of birth defects and developmental disabilities, and has promoted efforts to prevent serious birth defects (such as use of folic acid to prevent spina bifida). He is a strong supporter of programs that promote wellness of persons with disabilities. In 2017, Cordero was awarded the Sedgwick Memorial Medal from the American Public Health Association.
== Microbiology ==
Monserrate Román is a scientist in NASA who helped NASA build part of the International Space Station. She is the Chief Microbiologist for the Environmental Control and Life Support System project who determines how microbes will behave under different situations and in different locations, such as the nooks and crannies of the Space Station. Roman was a member of the team that built the International Space Station. The Station was designed with materials that are microbe-resistant. Temperature and humidity are controlled to discourage microbe growth. Roman must study an international, multicultural group of the microbes, since crewmembers, visitors, experiments and hardware hail from 15 Station partner countries and comes with his or her own unique set of microbes.
== Mycology ==
Carlos E. Chardón (1897–1965) a.k.a. the "Father of Mycology in Puerto Rico" Chardón is the first Puerto Rican mycologist. In 1922, he discovered the aphid "Aphis maidis", the vector of the mosaic of sugar cane. He was also the first Puerto Rican to hold the position of Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico. Chardón was involved in the organization of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration (PRRA) and initiated a project known as the Plan Chardón, which involved a plan for the development of Agriculture Technicians.
== Nanotechnology ==
Yajaira Sierra Sastre was chosen to take part in a new NASA project, called "HI-SEAS", an acronym for "Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation", that will help to determine why astronauts do not eat enough, having noted that they get bored with spaceship food and end up with problems like weight loss and lethargy that put their health at risk. She lived for four months (March 2013 – August 2013) isolated in a planetary module, which simulated what life will be like for astronauts at a future base on Mars at a base, in Hawaii. According to Sierra Sastre part of the food study will include an attempt to control the exposure to fresh air, evaluate how their senses of smell and taste change over time in isolation, and find out what role food plays in the crew's spirits and state of mind. Sierra Sastre is an aspiring astronaut.
== Physics ==
Mayda Velasco is a professor of physics at Northwestern University. Her research is centered in particle physics. She plays a leadership role in the CMS experiment at the CERN LHC. She is currently the director of the Colegio de Física Fundamental e Interdiciplinaria de las Américas (COFI) located in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

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== Psychology ==
Carlos Albizu Miranda (1920–1984) was one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States and the first Hispanic educator to have a North American University renamed in his honor. Albizu Miranda, cousin of the Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos, was born in Ponce. In 1953, he earned his doctorate degree (PhD) in Clinical Psychology from Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, becoming one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States. He was concerned that the universities in Puerto Rico did not offer graduate programs in psychology and that the few students who pursued a career as psychologist had to study outside of Puerto Rico, where they were trained with models and techniques that were not always sensitive to the needs and sociocultural characteristics of Hispanic clients. In 1966, he established in San Juan, Puerto Rico, the first independent professional school of psychology in North America, initially known as the "Instituto Psicológico de Puerto Rico" (Puerto Rican Institute of Psychology), which is modeled after the institutes of psychology in Europe where the practice and internship are done at the same time. The American Psychological Foundation Awards for 1980 presented Albizu Miranda with the "Award for the Development of Psychology Education in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean". On January 1, 2000, the Board of Trustees of the Caribbean Center for Advanced Studies, which includes the Miami Institute of Psychology, renamed the two-campus institution "Carlos Albizu University".
Joseph O. Prewitt Díaz a humanitarian psychologist developed the psychosocial support program within the American Red Cross, used in Central and South America as well as the 2001 Gujarat earthquake and the South Asia tsunami response and reconstruction, considered the leader of the second generation of humanitarian psychology, who systematized the staff development process of psychosocial responders for Central and South America as well as South Asian countries. A native of Cayey, Puerto Rico he was the recipient of the 2008 APA International Humanitarian Award. as well as the Kellogg Foundation National Fellowship in 1983–1985, and the participated in the 1986 Woodrow Wilson Hispanic Leadership Fellows Program at Princeton University.
== Physiology ==
María Cordero Hardy, born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, is a physiologist. Physiology is the study of life, specifically, how cells, tissues, and organisms function. She is a scientist who did her research on vitamin E. Her work helped other scientists understand about how vitamin E works in the human body. She is now a professor at Louisiana State University and teaches students how to be medical technologists. A medical technologist is a person who studies your blood and other body fluids in the human body.
== Rocket scientist ==
Lissette Martinez is an electrical engineer and rocket scientist. Martinez is the lead electrical engineer for the Space Experiment Module program at the Wallops Flight Facility, located in Virginia, which is part of NASA's Goddard Flight Facility. She is responsible for providing electrical engineering support to Code 870 Space Experiment Module (SEM) program. She also is responsible for the testing of ground and flight hardware. Martinez works with students around the world, helping them with science experiments that will actually ride along on Space Shuttle missions and blast into space. Martinez was a member of the team that launched a rocket from White Sands, New Mexico in 1999 to gather information on the Hale–Bopp Comet. She was featured in the November 2002 issue of Latina magazine.
== Space exploration ==
Joseph M. Acaba is a teacher, hydrogeologist, and the first Puerto Rican NASA astronaut. In May 2004 he became the first person of Puerto Rican heritage to be named as a NASA astronaut candidate when he was selected as a member of NASA Astronaut Training Group 19. He completed his training on February 10, 2006, and is currently assigned to STS-119, which launched on March 15, 2009, to deliver the final set of solar arrays to the International Space Station. Acaba carried a Puerto Rican Flag aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery during his flight.
== Space physics ==
Ramón E. López is a space physicist and author, played an instrumental role in the implementation of a hands-on science program in elementary and middle grades Montgomery County Public Schools (MCPS) in Maryland. Lopez, who leads a research group that is working in both space physics and science education, is the co-author of a book on space weather entitled Storms from the Sun, which discusses the magnetic properties of the sun and solar wind and how these effect the magnetosphere of earth. Lopez is the 2002 recipient of the Nicholson Medal for Human Outreach, which recognizes the humanitarian aspect of physics and physicists.
== Zoology ==
Juan A. Rivero was a scientist and zoologist who discovered over a hundred animal species and founded the Dr. Juan A. Rivero Zoo at the University of Puerto Rico's Mayagüez Campus. Rivero served as an assistant plant physiologist, instructor, assistant professor and associate professor before becoming a full professor of biology at UPR-Mayagüez in 1958. After founding the institution's zoo in 1954, he served as its first director, as well as founder and director of the UPR's Institute of Marine Biology. From 1959 to 1960 he served as director of the biology department and from 1962 to 1966, as dean of arts and sciences, oversaw the work of over 200 faculty members and a two million-dollar annual budget. Between 1966 and 1968, he served as a research associate at Harvard University and visiting scientist at the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Investigation. Rivero discovered over a hundred animal species, particularly amphibians and reptiles, many of which were named in his honor, and has written over 200 papers and articles and numerous books.

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== Inventors ==
Puerto Rican inventors earned an average of sixteen patents per year in the late 1970s, twenty patents per year in the 1980s, and twenty-seven patents per year in the 199s. The total number of patents issued by the U.S. Patent Office has seen similar increases.
=== Aerospace ===
Olga D. González-Sanabria contributed to the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system; Mercedes Reaves contributed to the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail; Pedro Rodriguez invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis; Felix Soto Toro developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system) and Juan R. Cruz contributed in the development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions.
=== Art ===
Ileana Sánchez invented a book for the blind that brings together art and braille. Ms. Sanchez used a new technique called TechnoPrint and TechnoBraille. Rather than punch through heavy paper to create the raised dots of the Braille alphabet for the blind, these techniques apply an epoxy to the page to create not only raised dots, but raised images with texture. The epoxy melds with the page, becoming part of it, so that one cannot scrape it off with a fingernail. The images are raised so that a blind person can feel the artwork and in color, not just to attract the sighted family who will read the book with blind siblings or children, but also for the blind themselves. The book Art & the Alphabet, A Tactile Experience is co-written with Rebecca McGinnis of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Met has already incorporated the book into their Access program.
=== Engineering ===
William G. Pagán is an IBM-recognized Master Inventor, a member of the North Carolina State University Computer Science Alumni Hall of Fame, and award-winning Patent Attorney. He received a BS in Computer Science from Pace University, a Masters in Computer Science from North Carolina State University, and graduated Summa Cum Laude with his Juris Doctor from North Carolina Central University School of Law as their evening class valedictorian. As of January 1, 2019, he has been awarded over 85 U.S. patents, and is an inventor on over 130 U.S. patent applications. His patent portfolio generally covers a wide range of software methodologies for improving computer systems management, application usability, and data resiliency, among other things. He was born in New York City, New York, and worked at IBM's Research Triangle Park campus in North Carolina for nearly fifteen years. In 2010, he was declared Inventor of the Year of IBM's RTP site, beating out approximately 14,000 other IBM employees. In 2007 he was awarded a Luminary Award by HENAAC (now Great Minds in STEM) for excellence in engineering, and a Star Award by the DMTF for leadership in their industry standards working groups. In 2010, IBM recognized him with an Outstanding Technical Achievement Award for his work related to integrating the hardware-firmware-software stack of their line of Thurley-chipset servers. He is a life member of both the Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers and the North Carolina Society of Hispanic Professionals.
Asdrubal García Ortíz was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He received a BS degree in electrical engineering (magna cum laude) from the University of Puerto Rico – Mayagüez, and an MS degree in systems science and mathematics from the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis. He began his engineering career as a technology engineer for McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co., and is now an engineering staff scientist for DRS – Support Systems Inc. He has been awarded 16 U.S. Patents, is the author of 36 technical publications, and editor of 2 special issues of the international journal Mathematical and Computer Modelling, both on intelligent transportation systems. Together with fellow inventors Sunggyu Lee and John R. Wootton, Garcia Ortiz was granted various patents. A sample of these patents includes: US Patent No 6,177,885, "System and method for detecting traffic anomalies", US Patent No 7,186,345, "Systems for water purification through supercritical oxidation", and US Patent No 7,688,605, "Systems and methods for reducing the magnitude of harmonics produced by a power inverter". His areas of specialty are systems engineering, control systems, embedded systems and electronics. He is a registered Professional Engineer, a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and a member of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE).
Ricardo J. Rodriguez Moreno is a Raytheon and Great Minds in STEM recognized inventor, R6S Certified Expert, and Engineering Fellow. He received a BS and MS in Computer Engineering from University of Puerto Rico, and a Ph.D. with a Cybersecurity specialization from Nova Southeastern University College of Engineering and Computing. As of August 2016, he has been awarded 6 U.S. patents. He also holds a number of national and international patent pending inventions. He is also a frequent presenter and mentor to colleagues as well as college students, in particular in his alma mater "El Colegio" where he is cofounder and industry chair on the annual Engineering Community Summit (ECoS). He was born in San Juan Puerto Rico, raised in Carolina, and currently lives in Massachusetts, USA. Ricky Rodriguez joined Raytheon in 2001 after a short stint with Accenture. In 2010, Ricardo was awarded the Great Minds in STEM Information Technology Distinction Award for his contributions to the state of the art in Cybersecurity. Additional awards include Raytheon Authors and Inventors, Excellence in Technology, and two Science and Technology Achievement Recognition (STAR) awards, among others.
=== Electronics ===
Hydroelectric Wave-Energy Conversion System

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Jorge Negrón Crespo of San Juan, Puerto Rico, has invented a hydroelectric wave-energy conversion system. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A method and system to capture kinetic energy of the sea waves and convert it to electrical power is presented. The hydrodynamic power of the waves is converted to mechanical power after impacting and moving a special panel. The mechanical power is converted into a controlled-cycle hydraulic power to activate a hydraulic motor, which in turn activates an electrical generator."
Semiconductors
David O. Ramos of Isabela, and Martin Bresciani of Guaynabo, developed a semiconductor substrate that includes electronic circuitry and has a machined feature formed therein. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A semiconductor substrate is formed by a process which includes providing the semiconductor substrate having the electronic circuitry formed therein, and performing a machining process on the substrate to form the machined feature therein."
=== Medical technology ===
Jorge N. Amely Vélez (born 1955) – a native of San German, is an inventor who holds various patents in the field of medical technology. In 1989, Amely Vélez earned his master's degree in electrical engineering from California State University at Northridge. Among Amely Vélez's inventions are two that involve the methods and apparatuses for timing events within an implantable medical device capable of performing many concurrent processes. He authored a method to help prevent defibrillator output stage short circuit failures in implantable devices. Amely Vélez invented methods for a microprocessor based implantable device to have a configurable memory to assist in software development and patching "Read Only Memory" (ROM) based systems. He coauthored inventions in the field of rechargeable lithium silver vanadium oxide batteries for implantable devices and holds a patent for intracardiac lead impedance measurements using a painless waveform. It is a leakage detection system that includes a switch. He also holds another patent for an implantable defibrillator with sensing and pacing auto-capture capabilities. Amely Vélez has other patents pending. He is the coauthor of a patent, which is pending, for radio frequency antennas in implantable devices. The other two patents that are pending cover work related to magnetic and electric noise shielding in medical devices.
José Leandro Montalvo Guenard (born 1885) – a native of Mayagüez. In 1939, Montalvo Guenard invented an instrument that allowed eye surgeons to securely hold and readily manipulate the eye lens in operations of cataracts. He was issued US Patent 2,224,575.
=== Musical instruments ===
The cuatro is the national instrument of Puerto Rico. It belongs to the lute family of string instruments. Very little is known about the exact origin of the Cuatro.
William Richard Cumpiano is a works on the making of stringed musical instruments who also writes and teaches the art of luthiery. He has built numerous cuatros for musicians in the United States and also has crafted cuatro variants of his own design: he developed a "seis", or six-course (12-string) cuatro that can be tuned in the same string intervals as a guitar. He also developed the "thinline" cuatro with a body depth of only two inches instead of the traditional three.
=== Plastics ===
Three Puerto Rican inventors, Guanglou Cheng and Carlos A. Ramirez, both of Mayagüez and Maria Aponte of Añasco, Puerto Rico, developed biodegradable polymers. A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. Well-known examples of polymers include plastics, DNA and proteins. According to the abstract released by the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "Degradable polymides are prepared in high yield by polymerizing a monomer containing at least two anhydride groups, and a monomer containing at least two primary amine groups and at least one acidic group, in bulk or in a solvent. The polymides are very strong in terms of their mechanical properties, yet degradable under standard physiological conditions." The inventors were issued U.S. Patent No. 7,427,654.
=== Public health ===
Ceramic Water Filter
Ronald "Ron" Rivera (1948–2008) invented an inexpensive ceramic water filter used to treat gray water in impoverished communities. He established community-based factories to produce the filters around the world. The filter has been cited by the United Nations' Appropriate Technology Handbook, and tens of thousands of filters have been distributed worldwide by organizations such as International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Doctors Without Borders, UNICEF, Plan International, Project Concern International, Oxfam and USAID.
Floating Strainer
Angel Torres-Collazo of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, developed a big water floating strainer that is constructed with a rectangular frame. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A cylindrical drum is attached to each corner of the rectangular frame. Below the rectangular frame, a box-strainer is fixed. The distance between the box-strainer and the rectangular frame is adjustable so that the level at which water is drawn can be raised or lowered."
=== Soft drinks ===
Ángel Rivero Méndez (1856–1930) was a soldier, writer, journalist and a businessman who is credited with inventing the "Kola Champagne" a soft drink. After Rivero retired from the military, he founded the "Fabrica Polo Norte" (North Pole Factory) a soft drink company. Rivero is credited with the invention and elaboration of the "Kola Champagne" soda. Kola Champagne became, and still is, a very popular drink in Puerto Rico. It is also elaborated and sold in other countries, such as the United States, Colombia, Jamaica and Mexico.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ciencia Puerto Rico.: A website dedicated to the global Puerto Rican scientific community. Contains profiles of thousands of living Puerto Rican scientists.

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This is a list of Romanian Inventions and Discoveries of Romanian people or inventors/discoverers of Romanian heritage in alphabetical order.
== A ==
Ion I. Agârbiceanu: designer of the first gas laser in Romania.
Andrei Alexandrescu: pioneering work on policy-based design implemented via template metaprogramming; co-inventor of D programming language.
Ana Aslan: inventor of Gerovital, an anti-aging product widely used by famous personalities, such as Charles de Gaulle, John F. Kennedy, Indira Gandhi, Charlie Chaplin and Salvador Dalí.
Gheorghe Atanasiu: inventor of infrared monochromator and creator of the method of optical determination of heat of dissociation.
Ion Atanasiu: known as the originator of cerimetry, an analytical method based on cerium (IV) as titration reagent.
== B ==
Aurel Babeș: discovered the vaginal smear as screening test for cervical cancer.
Victor Babeș: he discovered a parasitic sporozoan of the ticks, named Babesia (of the genus Babesiidae), and which causes a rare and severe disease called babesiosis; he also discovered cellular inclusions in rabies-infected nerve cells.
Emanoil Bacaloglu: he is known for the "Bacaloglu pseudosphere". This is a surface of revolution for which the "Bacaloglu curvature" is constant.
Radu Bălescu: he worked on the statistical physics of charged particles (Bălescu-Lenard collision operator).
Alexandra Bellow: made substantial contributions to the fields of ergodic theory, probability and analysis.
George de Bothezat: inventor of the quadrotor helicopter (The Flying Octopus). He is considered one of the founders of aircraft flight dynamics.
Ștefan Burileanu: inventor of the Burileanu antiaircraft cannon.
== C ==
Ion Cantacuzino: his discoveries were relevant in the treatment of cholera, epidemic typhus, tuberculosis, and scarlet fever.
Elie Carafoli: a pioneering contributor to the field of aerodynamics.
Alexandru Ciurcu: invented alongside Just Buisson the reaction engine.
Henri Coandă: aircraft designer, discovered the Coandă effect of fluidics.
George Constantinescu: founded the Theory of Sonics, based on which he developed a number of applications including a synchronization gear. He is also known as the inventor of a mechanical torque converter, he applied to an experimental automobile as automatic transmission.
Justin Capră: engineer and inventor; machines on which he worked included a jetpack, 72 fuel-efficient cars, 15 unconventional engines and seven aircraft, among others.
== D ==
Carol Davila: invented the Davila tincture used for the treatment of cholera, an opioid-based oral solution in use for symptomatic management of diarrhea.
Anastase Dragomir: he invented the parachuted cell, a dischargeable chair from an aircraft or other vehicle, designed for emergency escapes, an early version of the modern ejection seat.
== E ==
Lazăr Edeleanu: he was the first chemist to synthesize amphetamine.
== F ==
Alexandru Froda: discovered Froda's theorem.
== G ==
Mihai Gavrilă: theoretical quantum physicist, discoverer of atomic dichotomy in ultra-intense, high frequency laser fields.
Tudor Ganea: discovered the Eilenberg−Ganea conjecture.
Billy Gladstone: among his inventions is the "Ludwig Gladstone Cymbal”, a rare jazz instrument.
Rodrig Goliescu: he built the avioplan, the first fixed-wing aircraft with a tubular fuselage and the "Aviocoleopter", the first vertical take-off and landing aircraft.
Corneliu E. Giurgea: coined the term nootropics, after discovering Piracetam and describing it as such.
== H ==
Spiru Haret: he made a fundamental contribution to the n-body problem in celestial mechanics by proving that using a third degree approximation for the disturbing forces implies instability of the major axes of the orbits, and by introducing the concept of secular perturbations in relation to this.
Horia Hulubei: he is the first physicist to obtain X-ray spectra in gases. He has important contributions in neutron physics and in the study of nuclear reactions.
== I ==
Theodor V. Ionescu: the inventor of a multiple-cavity magnetron in 1935, a hydrogen maser in 1947, 3D imaging for cinema/television in 1924 and hot deuterium plasma studies for controlled nuclear fusion in 1969, member of the Romanian Academy since 1955.
== L ==
Traian Lalescu: discovered the Lalescu sequence.
Constantin Levaditi: alongside Karl Landsteiner, he discovered in 1909 the presence of the polio virus in tissues other than nervous.
== M ==
Preda Mihăilescu: known for his proof of Catalan's conjecture.
Meinhard E. Mayer: an early contributor to the theory of vector-bosons (W and Z bosons) and electro-weak unification, which later became the Standard Model, and an early advocate of the use of fiber bundles in gauge theory.
Mina Minovici: famous for his extensive research regarding cadaverous alkaloids, putrefaction, simulated mind diseases, and criminal anthropology.
Grigore Moisil: discovered Łukasiewicz-Moisil algebras, and he was elected a Member of the Romanian Academy
Florentina I. Mosora: Romanian biophysicist who worked at first in the "Carol Davila" School of Medicine of the University of Bucharest, and subsequently in Belgium at the University of Liege; specialized in Nuclear Medicine, she applied nuclear medicine techniques and invented new methodology for the clinical investigation of type 2 diabetes.
== N ==
Mihai Nadin: he founded the world's first program in Computational Design.
Costin D. Nenițescu: he found new methods for the synthesis of pirilium salts, of carbenes, tryptamine, serotonin, two new syntheses for the indole nucleus, and a new method of polymerisation of ethylene.
== O ==
Hermann Oberth: along with the Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and the American Robert Goddard, one of the founding fathers of rocketry and astronautics.
Ștefan Odobleja: had supposedly established many of the major themes of cybernetics regarding cybernetics and systems thinking ten years before the work of Norbert Wiener was published in 1948.
== P ==

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George Emil Palade: discoverer of the ribosomes.
Nicolae Paulescu: physiologist, research on endocrine pancreas secretion.
Gheorghe Paun: prominent for work on membrane computing and the P system.
Eugen Pavel: inventor of the Hyper CD-ROM, a 3D optical data storage medium with a claimed initial capacity of 10 TB and with a theoretical capacity of 1 PB on a single disc.
Aurel Perșu: built the first car to have wheels inside its aerodynamic line.
Ion N. Petrovici: he described the Alternating Asphygmo-Pyramidal Syndrome in occlusions of the carotid arteries.
Petrache Poenaru: invented the world's first fountain pen.
Ioan Pușcaș: professor proposed the use of carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitor acetazolamide to heal peptic ulcers. In 1972 patented the first 100% efficient drug against gastroduodenal ulcer Ulcosilvanil.
Dimitrie Pompeiu: His contributions were mainly in the field of mathematical analysis, complex functions theory, and rational mechanics. In an article published in 1929, he posed a challenging conjecture in integral geometry, now widely known as the Pompeiu problem.
Nicolae Popescu: known for his contributions to Algebra and the theory of abelian categories with applications to rings and modules.
Vasile M. Popov: He is well known for having developed a method to analyze stability of nonlinear dynamical systems, now known as Popov criterion.
Alexandru Proca: He formulated the first mesonic theory of nuclear forces, including the equations for the mesonic vector field that carry his name (Proca's equations), elected post-mortem as a Member of the Romanian Academy.
Ștefan Procopiu: He established the magnetic moment and determined the physical constant of magnetic moment, named magneton. The magneton is now known as the Bohr-Procopiu magneton.
== R ==
Emil Racoviță: the founder of biospeleology.
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen: introduced into economics, inter alia, the concept of entropy from thermodynamics.
== S ==
Anghel Saligny: built the first silos in the world made of reinforced concrete.
Isaac Jacob Schoenberg: known for his discovery of splines.
Robert Steinberg: invented the Steinberg representation, the Steinberg group in algebraic K-theory, and the Steinberg groups in Lie theory that yield finite simple groups over finite fields.
Gabriel Sudan: known for the Sudan function, an important example in the theory of computation, similar to the Ackermann function.
== T ==
Ion Tănăsescu: he discovered the Lehmstedt-Tanasescu reaction, which was improved by Karl Lehmstedt.
Victor Toma: Romanian inventor of the first Romanian computer-CIFA-1, built with his team in 1955.
Nicolae Teclu: invented the Teclu burner.
Șerban Țițeica: founder of Romanian school of theoretical physics, with major contributions in thermodynamics, statistical physics, quantum mechanics and atomic physics.
== V ==
Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen: inventor of the Karpen Pile.
Aurel Vlaicu: built the first arrow-shaped airplane.
Valeria Văcărescu : mechanical engineer.
Gheorghe Vrânceanu: discovered the notion of non-holonomic spaces.
Traian Vuia: built the first fixed wing aircraft that could take off by its own power, in which he made a powered hop.
== W ==
William F. Friedman: a cryptographer that invented the Index of Coincidence method (it broke Japan's PURPLE cipher for US forces).
== See also ==
Science and technology in Romania
== External links ==
Inventatori români (in Romanian)

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This is a list of inventors from the Russian Federation, Soviet Union, Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and Grand Duchy of Moscow, including both ethnic Russians and people of other ethnicities.
This list also includes those who were born in Russia or its predecessor states but later emigrated, and those who were born elsewhere but immigrated to the country or worked there for a considerable time, (producing inventions on Russian soil).
For Russian inventions in chronological order, see the Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records.
== Alphabetical list ==
=== A ===
=== B ===
=== C ===
=== D ===
=== E ===
=== F ===
=== G ===
=== H ===
=== I ===
=== J ===
=== K ===
=== L ===
=== M ===
=== N ===
=== O ===
=== P ===
=== R ===
=== S ===
=== T ===
=== U ===
=== V ===
=== W ===
=== Y ===
=== Z ===
== See also ==
List of Russian scientists
Russian culture
Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records
== References ==

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This is a List of Serbian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas. The list comprises people from Serbia and ethnic Serb people.
== Science, Mathematics and Technology ==
Voja Antonić:
Galaksija home computer (1983).
Mihajlo Pupin:
Loading coil
Mihajlo Pupin Institute:
HRS-100
CER Computers
ATLAS-TIM AT 32
Nikola Tesla:
Induction motor
Radio-controlled model
Wireless power transfer
Plasma globe
Capacitor discharge ignition
Magnifying transmitter
Teleforce
Telegeodynamics
Teleoperation
Tesla coil
Tesla turbine
Tesla's oscillator
Tesla valve
Wardenclyffe tower
World Wireless System
Violet ray
Vacuum variable capacitor
Pioneer in alternating current research
Slobodan Ćuk:
Ćuk converter
Iván Gutman:
Graph energy
Matching polynomial
Jovan Karamata:
Karamata's inequality
Slowly varying function
Improved the Hardy–Littlewood tauberian theorem
Đuro Kurepa:
Kurepa tree
Bogdan Maglich:
Migma
Milutin Milanković:
Milankovitch cycles
Revised Julian calendar (second most accurate calendar ever written)
Calculated temperatures of the upper layers of the earths atmosphere as well as temperature conditions of planets on the inner solar system as well as depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets.
Tihomir Novakov:
Father of black carbon
Aethalometer
Vlatko Vedral:
Quantum discord
Vladimir Vukićević:
webGL
APNG
Jovan Cvijić:
Study of Karst
Father of karst geomorphology
Petar Gburčik:
Author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction
Serbo-7
Apollo (spacecraft); A team of 7 Serb engineers and scientists (known as Serbo-7) largely contributed to the Apollo project.
Roger Joseph Boscovich
Absence of atmosphere on the moon
Least absolute deviations
Valtazar Bogišić
Pioneer in the sociology of law and sociological jurisprudence.
Ivan Đaja
Pioneering work in hypothermia.
Mihajlo D. Mesarovic
Pioneering work in the field of systems theory.
Dobrivoje Božić
Inventor and constructor of the first railway air brake.
Lazar the Serb
Invented and built the first known mechanical public clock in Russia in 1404.
Slobodan Đokić
Co-creator of Azithromycin.
Pavle Savić:
Research on interactions of neutrons in chemical physics of heavy elements. which turned out to be an important step in the discovery of nuclear fission.
Ognjeslav Kostović Stepanović
Early plastics.
== Mechanics ==
Miomir Vukobratović:
Powered exoskeleton
Humanoid robot "The beginning of the development of humanoid robotics coincided with the beginning of the development of the world's first active exoskeletons at the Mihailo Pupin Institute in 1969, under the guidance of Prof. Vukobratović. Legged locomotion systems were developed first. Also, the first theory of these systems was developed in the same institute, in the frame of active exoskeletons. Hence, it can be said that active exoskeletons were the predecessors of the modern high-performance humanoid robots. The present-day active exoskeletons are developed as the systems for enhancing capabilities of the natural human skeletal system. The most successful version of an active exoskeleton for rehabilitation of paraplegics and similar disabled persons, pneumatically powered and electronically programmed was realized and tested at Belgrade Orthopedic Clinic in 1972."
Robot locomotion
Zero moment point "The zero moment point is a very important concept in the motion planning for biped robots. Since they have only two points of contact with the floor and they are supposed to walk, "run" or "jump" (in the motion context), their motion has to be planned concerning the dynamical stability of their whole body. This is not an easy task, especially because the upper body of the robot (torso) has larger mass and inertia than the legs which are supposed to support and move the robot. This can be compared to the problem of balancing an inverted pendulum."
Rajko Tomović:
Prostethic five-fingered hand
== Medicine and Pharmacology ==
Miodrag Radulovacki:
Pioneering pharmacological studies for the treatment of sleep apnea.
Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic
Pioneering research in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
== Linguistics ==
Vuk Karadžić:
Serbian Cyrillic alphabet
== Culture, Arts & Architecture ==
First Serbian uprising:
Balkan brass
A distinctive style of music originating in the Balkan region as a fusion between military music and folk music. In recent years, it has become popular in a techno-synth fusion throughout Europe, and in pop music in the Anglo sphere and throughout the world. American bands such as Fifth Harmony and Gogol Bordello have brought the style to a new audience.
Ljubomir Micić:
Zenitism
Đurađ Branković:
Serbian epic poetry
Nemanjić dynasty:
Raška architectural school
Serbo-Byzantine architecture
Lazar Hrebeljanović:
Morava architectural school
Miscellaneous:
Serbo-Byzantine Revival architecture
Kolo, a dance
== Fashion ==
Nikola Bizumić:
Hair clipper
Buzz cut
"Manual hair clippers were invented by the Serbian inventor named Nikola Bizumić. Before the advent of the electrically powered Clippers, these clippers were widely used by barbers to chop hair close and fast. The clipper accumulates hair in locks to rapidly depilate your head. This type of haircut is normal in the military in addition to among boys in schools where strict grooming conventions will be in effect."
== Military ==
Miodrag Tomić:
Dogfight
Fighter aircraft
The first aerial dogfight occurred during the Battle of Cer (15–24 August 1914), when Serbian aviator Miodrag Tomić encountered an Austro-Hungarian plane while performing a reconnaissance mission over Austro-Hungarian positions. The Austro-Hungarian pilot initially waved, and Tomić reciprocated. The Austro-Hungarian pilot then fired at Tomić with his revolver. Tomić produced a pistol of his own and fired back. Tomić managed to escape, and within several weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian planes were fitted with machine-guns.
== See also ==
List of Serbian inventions and discoveries
== References ==
== Sources ==
== External links ==
"7 Serbian Inventors of the 21st Century". Serbia.com.
"Serbian Great Minds". Serbia.com.

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This is a list of inventors and discoverers who are of Spanish origin or otherwise reside in continental Spain or one of the country's oversees territories.
== A ==
José de Acosta (1540–1600), one of the first naturalists and anthropologists of the Americas.
Andrés Alcázar (1490-1585), neurosurgeon and anatomist, designed new tools for surgical treatments.
José María Algué (1856–1930), meteorologist, inventor of the barocyclometer, the nephoscope, and the microseismograph.
José Antonio de Artigas Sanz (1887–1977), created luminescence with noble gases.
Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1553–1613), registered a design for a steam-powered water pump for use in mines.
José Luis Ayuso Fernández (1897-1992), inventor, engineer, mechanic, electrician and cinematographic projectionist. He was a pioneer in sound film industry, inventing one of the first systems to synchronize sound and video in films.
== B ==
Ignacio Barraquer (1884–1965), leading ophthalmologist, pioneer of cataract surgery.
José Ignacio Barraquer (1916–1998), leading ophthalmologist, father of modern refractive surgery, he invented the microkeratome and the cryolathe, developed the surgical procedures of keratomileusis and keratophakia.
Juan Pablo de Bonet (1573-1633), pioneer of education for the deaf, he published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ("Summary of the letters and the art of teaching speech to the mute") in 1620 in Madrid, the first modern treatise of sign language phonetics, setting out a method of oral education for deaf people and the first recognizable sign language alphabet.
== C ==
Ángel Cabrera (1879–1960), naturalist, investigated the South-American fauna.
Nicolás Cabrera (1913–1989), physicist, did important work on the theories of crystal growth and the oxidisation of metals.
Celedonio Calatayud (1880-1931) pioneered the use of radiology and electrology in Europe for both diagnostics and therapeutical purposes, introducing radiotherapy in Spain in 1906.
Manuel Cardona Castro (1934-2014), physicist, researched superconductivity and the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with a semiconductor material.
Julio Cervera Baviera (1854-1927), engineer, pioneer in the development of radio, educator, explorer, and military man. He established the second and third regular radiotelegraph service in the history of the world in 1901 and 1902 by maintaining regular transmissions between Tarifa and Ceuta for three consecutive months, and between Javea and Ibiza. Some consider him the actual inventor of the radio.
Juan de la Cierva (1895–1936), aeronautical engineer, pioneer of rotary flight, inventor of the autogyro.
Juan de la Cierva y Hoces (1929-2020) Inventor of the optical stabilizer and a founder of the company Dynalens.
Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain (born 1965), one of the pioneers of the field of quantum computing and quantum information theory.
Josep Comas i Solà (1868–1937), astronomer, discovered the periodic comet 32P/Comas Solá and 11 asteroids, and in 1907 observed limb darkening of Saturn's moon Titan (the first evidence that the body had an atmosphere).
Avelino Corma Canós (born 1951), chemist, distinguished for his world-leading work on heterogeneous catalysis, developed catalysts that are being used commercially in several industrial processes.
== D ==
Francisco Díaz de Alcalá (1527-1590), urologist and doctor, wrote the first treatises on diseases of the bladder, kidneys, and urethra; he is generally regarded as the founder of modern urology.
== E ==
Fausto de Elhúyar (1755–1833), chemist, joint discoverer of tungsten with his brother Juan José de Elhúyar in 1783.
== F ==
Carlos Fernández Casado (1905–1988), civil engineer, designer and builder of bridges and viaducts.
Jaime Ferrán (1852–1929), doctor and researcher, creator of several vaccines against diseases including cholera and tuberculosis.
== G ==
Blasco de Garay, introduced the paddlewheel as a substitute for oars
Manuel García (1805-1906) singer, music educator, and vocal pedagogue, inventor of the first laryngoscope.
Antoni de Gimbernat, (1734–1816), surgeon and anatomist, described in detail the anatomy of the inguinal and femoral regions of the human body and laid the groundwork for modern techniques of inguinal hernia repair. The lacunar ligament is named after him.
Alejandro Goicoechea Omar (1895-1984), engineer, worked for and co-founded Talgo company, where he developed the Talgo trains famous design.
Fernando Gallego Herrera, (1901-1973), civil engineer and aviator, noted for improved bridge design, an improved method for undersea tunnel construction, plans for the use of compressed air for vertical take off of aircraft in the 1930s, and the modernization of the Panama Canal.
== H ==
Francisco Hernández (1514–1587), botanist, carried out important research about the Mexican flora.
Juan de Herrera (1530-1597), architect, mathematician and geometer, designed the construction plans of El Escorial and the Cathedral of Valladolid among others and created a compass to measure length and width and a machine to cut iron.
Bartolomé Hidalgo Agüero (1530-1597), doctor, developed, described and evaluated a revolutionary healing method for stab wounds
Juan Huarte de San Juan (1529–1588), physician and psychologist, his Examen de ingenios para las ciencias was the first attempt to show the connexion between psychology and physiology.
Hassan Raza, Computer Scientist.
== H ==
Carlos Jiménez Díaz (1898–1967), doctor and researcher, leading figure in pathology.
== L ==
Rodrigo López de Segura (1540-1580), humanist and chess player, wrote one of the first definitive books about modern chess in Europe: Libro de la invencion liberal y arte del juego del axedrez.
Emilio Herrera Linares (1879-1967), military engineer and physicist, designed a pressurized space suit for stratospheric flights (escafandra estratonáutica), precedent of the modern space suits.
José Luis López Gómez (1941-) is an engineer and inventor, with several patents relating to high speed trains.
== M ==
Gregorio Marañón (1887–1960), doctor and researcher, leading figure in endocrinology.
Narcís Monturiol (1818–1885), physicist and inventor, pioneer of underwater navigation and the first successful machine powered submarine.
José Celestino Bruno Mutis (1732–1808), botanist, doctor, philosopher and mathematician, carried out relevant research about the American flora, founded one of the first astronomic observatories in America (1762).
Aureliano Maestre de San Juan (1828-1890), scientist, histologist, physician and anatomist credited as being one of the first scientists to recognize the disorder known as Kallmann syndrome.

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== O ==
Severo Ochoa (1905–1993), doctor and biochemist, achieved the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), Nobel prize Laureate (1959).
Federico Olóriz Aguilera, (1855-1912), doctor, created the primary fingerprint classification system used in Portugal and Spain prior to the use of computer filing systems.
Mateu Orfila (1787–1853), doctor and chemist, father of modern toxicology, leading figure in forensic toxicology.
Joan Oró (1923–2004), biochemist, carried out important research about the origin of life, he worked with NASA on the Viking missions.
== P ==
Julio Palacios Martínez (1891–1970), physicist and mathematician.
Isaac Peral (1851–1895), engineer and sailor, designer of the first fully operative military submarine, with electric propulsion making full propulsion feasible.
Juan Tomás Porcell (1528-1580), doctor and anatomist, carried decisive research on the Black Death and wrote influential treaties of epidemiology.
== R ==
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), father of Neuroscience, Nobel prize Laureate (1906).
Julio Rey Pastor (1888–1962), mathematician, focusing on geometry.
Wifredo Ricart (1897–1974), engineer, designer and executive manager in the automotive industry.
Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), geologist and chemist, discovered vanadium (as vanadinite) in 1801.
Pío del Río Hortega (1882–1945), neuroscientist, discoverer of the microglia or Hortega cell.
Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente (1928–1980), naturalist, leading figure in ornithology, ethology, ecology and science divulgation.
Ángela Ruiz Robles (1895-1975) teacher, writer and inventor, inventor of a mechanical precursor to the electronic book.
== S ==
Margarita Salas (1938-2019), biochemist and molecular geneticist, who discovered the order in which messenger RNA is read, as well S Φ29 phage DNA polymerase, of major use in DNA amplification.
Mónico Sánchez Moreno (1880-1961), electrical engineer, inventor and industrialist; early developer of high frequency electrical conduction equipment, mobile telephony, radiology, electrotherapy and inventor of the first portable X-ray machine in 1909.
Miguel Servet (1511–1553), known in English by his Latin name of Michael Servetus, scientist, surgeon and humanist; first European to describe pulmonary circulation.
Luis Simarro Lacabra (1851–1921), psychiatrist; developed a silver bromide modification of Camillo Golgi's silver chromate technique.
== T ==
Esteban Terradas i Illa (1883–1950), mathematician, physicist and engineer.
Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852–1936), engineer and computer scientist, pioneer of automated calculation machines, inventor of the automatic chess, pioneer of remote control, designer of the funicular over the Niagara Falls.
Eduardo Torroja (1899–1961), civil engineer, structural architect, world-famous specialist in concrete structures.
Juanelo Turriano (1500-1585) Italo-Spanish clockmaker, engineer and mathematician, he built the Artificio de Juanelo, an engine that, driven by the river itself, lifted water from the Tagus to a height of almost 100 meters.
Josep Trueta (1897–1977), doctor, his new method for treatment of open wounds and fractures helped save a great number of lives during World War II.
== U ==
Antonio de Ulloa (1716–1795), scientist, soldier and author; joint discoverer of element platinum with Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713–1773).
== V ==
Francisco Vallés (1524-1592), physician, regarded as the founder of modern anatomical pathology.
Arnold of Villanova (c. 1235–1311), alchemist and physician, he discovered that burning wood gives off a poisonous gas (later found to be carbon monoxide) and purified alcohol.
== See also ==
Science and technology in Spain
== References ==

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Swedish inventors are Swedish people who invented novel ideas, machines or tools.
In the 18th century, Sweden's Scientific Revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had emigrated from mainland Europe. In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members.
Sweden had a total of 49,974 patents as of 2015 according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, and only ten other countries had more patents than Sweden.
The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors.
== 17th century ==
Christopher Polhem (1661–1751) was a Swedish scientist, inventor and industrialist. He made significant contributions to the economic and industrial development of Sweden, particularly mining. He reinvented the Cardan joint under the name of "Polhem knot" (Polhemknut) independently of Gerolamo Cardano, an Italian mathematician who invented the knot in 1545. His greatest achievement was an automated factory powered entirely by water; automation was very unusual at the time.
The Stockholms Banco became the first European bank to print banknotes (credit creation) from 1661 onwards, founded by Johan Palmstruch. It engaged in lending as well as commercial payments which set it aside from the earlier innovations of the Amsterdam-based Wisselbank. This made Sweden one of the innovators of 17th century finance along with the Dutch Empire and the British Empire (once the Bank of England had been founded some years later in 1694).
== 18th century ==
Anders Celsius (1701–44) was an astronomer and mathematician most famous for inventing the 100-point thermometer scale, widely used across the world.
Sven Åderman is a Swedish inventor who created a musket capable of firing more rapidly than conventional weaponry of the late 18th century. This new musket was first used in the wars of King Karl XII. For his efforts King Frederick I of Sweden bestowed upon him the estate of Halltorps in the year 1723.
Jonas Lidströmer (1755–1808), was a Swedish inventor and officer in the Royal Swedish navy. He is behind a large number of mechanical devices and innovations, such as steel grinderies, ship docks, compasses etc.
Johan Patrik Ljungström (1784–1859), jeweler, inventor in gas lighting, and underwater diving pioneer
Per Georg Scheutz (1785–1873) was a 19th-century Swedish lawyer, translator, and inventor, who is best known for his pioneering work in computer technology. The best known of his inventions is the Scheutzian calculation engine, invented in 1837 and finalized in 1843.
Gustaf Erik Pasch (1788–1862) invented the safety match.
Martin von Wahrendorff (1789–1861) was a Swedish diplomat and inventor. In 1837 Wahrendorff applied for patent on a new breech calculating, later known as the Wahrendorff breech. The first breech loaded Wahrendorff gun was manufactured at Åker in 1840.
== 19th century ==
From the 1870s, engineering companies were created at an unmatched rate and engineers became considered heroes of the age. Many of the companies founded by early pioneers are still internationally familiar.

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Jonas Offrell (1803–1863) was a Swedish priest who developed a revolver at the same time and independently of Samuel Colt.
Martin Wiberg (1826–1905) is known as a computer pioneer for his 1875 invention of a machine the size of a sewing machine that could print logarithmic tables. Apart from this invention, Wiberg invented numerous other devices and gadgets, among these a cream separator and a pulse jet engine.
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896) invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes.
Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Swedish inventor and industrialist. In 1873 Palmcrantz patented the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun that later would be known as the Nordenfelt machine gun.
Willgodt Theophil Odhner (1845–1905) was a Swedish mechanic and inventor of the Odhner arithmometer, a mechanical calculator.
Lars Magnus Ericsson (1846–1926) started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world.
Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is, along with Nikola Tesla, credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system.
Johan Petter Johansson (1853–1943) built and patented the adjustable spanner/wrench in 1892.
Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) was a Swedish engineer and inventor who made important contributions to the design of steam turbines and dairy machinery. The most famous invention was the milk-cream separator. In 1883 he and others founded AB Separator (later Alfa Laval). He obtained over one hundred patents in total.
Carl Rickard Nyberg (1858–1939), inventor of the blowtorch. After Primus started producing blowtorches he also decided to make paraffin oil/kerosene cookers. The first model, called Viktoria, wasn't very successful, but the later Svea did better. Nyberg also worked on many other inventions, for instance, steam engines, aeroplanes, boat propellers and other machines. He was most famous as an aviation pioneer and he became known as "Flyg-Nyberg". From 1897, onward, outside his home in Lidingö he built and tested his Flugan (The Fly).
Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist (1862–1931) was a Swedish inventor. He designed the first sootless kerosene stove, operated by compressed air.
Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937) founded AGA, and received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve.
Jonas Patrik Ljungström (1827–1898), cartographer, and geodesist
The latter's sons Fredrik Ljungström (1875–1964) and Birger Ljungström (1872–1948) accounted for hundreds of patents each. They first invented and designed the Svea bicycle with freewheel and a rear-wheel brake (1892), still the most common type in Sweden. Subsequent to contributing to milking machines, they invented high-pressure steam boilers and a new type of steam turbine, the Ljungström turbine (patented in 1894), turbine-powered Ljungström locomotives, the air preheater, as well as inventions for sailing boats, such as the Ljungström rig.
Sven Gustaf Wingqvist (1876–1953) was a Swedish engineer, inventor and industrialist, and one of the founders of Svenska Kullagerfabriken (S.K.F.), one of the world's leading ball- and roller bearing makers. Sven Wingqvist invented the multi-row self-aligning radial ball bearing in 1907.
Hans von Kantzow (1887–1979) is known to have invented the steel alloy Kanthal. In 1931 AB Kanthal was founded for the exploitation of the invention.
One of John Ericsson's (1803–89) most important inventions was ship propellers. Ericsson became widely famous when he built the USS Monitor, an armoured battleship that in 1862 triumphed over the Confederate States' Merrimack in an American Civil War sea battle.
Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971) invented the ultracentrifugation method for determination of molecular weights in 1924.
Anders Knutsson Ångström (1888–1981) was a Swedish physicist and meteorologist who was known primarily for his contributions to the field of atmospheric radiation. He is credited with the invention of the pyranometer, the first device to accurately measure direct and indirect solar radiation.
Boris Hagelin (1892–1983) was a Swedish businessman and inventor of encryption machines.
Carl Munters (1897–1989), Swedish inventor, best known for inventing the gas absorption refrigerator. After inventing the foam plastic he started his own company and developed, among other things, new insulation materials, air conditioners, and dehumidification devices. At his death, Munters had over a thousand patents.
Carl Edvard Johansson (1864-1943) invented gauge blocks in 1896 which are the main means of industrial length standardization.

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== 20th century ==
Laila Ohlgren (1937–2014), inventor of mobile phone call-button dialling based on phone storage of the number to be dialled
Arne Asplund (1903–1993) was inventor of the Defibrator pulping refiner and the defibrator-method (also called Asplund-method) for pulping wooden chips.
Oscar Kjellberg was a Swedish inventor and industrialist. Founder of ESAB, in 1904, and Kjellberg Finsterwalde, in 1922. He invented the coated electrode used in manual metal arc welding (Swedish Patent: 27152, 29 June 1907), by dipping a bare iron wire in a thick mixture of carbonates and silicates. His pioneering of covered electrode development paved the road during the next twenty years in the research of reliable flux coated electrodes.
Nils Alwall (1904–1986), a Swedish professor was a pioneer in hemodialysis and the inventor of one of the first practical dialysis machines. Alwall pioneered the technique of ultrafiltration and introduced the principle of hemofiltration. Alwall is referred to as the "father of extracorporeal blood treatment."
Austria's Carl Hellmuth Hertz (1915–80) began research on ultrasound in medical examinations in the early 1950, thereby becoming known throughout the world. A Swedish physician, Inge Edler (b. 1911-2001) told Hertz that he wanted to devise a non-invasive method for examining the heart. Echocardiography has revolutionized cardiovascular diagnostics. In 1977 Hertz and Edler received the American equivalent of the Nobel Prize in medicine, the Lasker Prize. The use of ultrasound in medical diagnostics is increasing sharply in a number of different fields.
Harry Roberts is the co-inventor of julmust and founder of Roberts in Örebro, Sweden. After studying chemistry in Germany during the late 19th century he invented the soft drink together with his father Robert Roberts.
Johan Richter (1901–1997) invented during the 1930s the continuous bleaching process for paper. Then during the WW2 he took on the more challenging continuous cooking process for pulp. Virtually all paper in the world is today produced with processes developed by Richter. He holds more than 750 patents.
Nils Bohlin (1920–2002) was a Swedish inventor who invented the three-point safety belt while working at Volvo.
Arvid Gerhard Damm (died 1927) was a Swedish engineer and inventor. He designed a number of cipher machines, and was one of the early inventors of the wired rotor principle for machine encipherment. His company, AB Cryptograph, was a predecessor of Crypto AG.
René Malaise (1892–1978) was a Swedish entomologist, explorer and art collector who is mostly known for his invention of the Malaise trap and his systematic collection of thousands of insects.
Although not initially invented by a Swede the design of the zipper was improved upon and patented by two Swedish-Americans, Peter Aronsson and Gideon Sundbäck.
Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters in 1922, invented the absorption Refrigerator while they were still students at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden. It became a worldwide success and was commercialized by Electrolux.
Sven Wingquist (1876–1953) invented the self-aligning ball bearing in 1907. He founded a global company, SKF (AB Svenska Kullagerfabriken), still the world's leading producer of industrial bearings.
Arvid Palmgren (1890–1971) invented the spherical roller bearing in 1919 when working for SKF. This bearing could take considerably heavier loads than the self-aligning ball bearings, and was quickly adopted by heavy industries.
Tetra Pak (1951) is an invention for storing, packaging and distributing liquid foodstuffs, for example, milk and juice. Erik Wallenberg (1915–99) was the main inventor, while businessman Ruben Rausing (1895–1983) developed and produced it. (See box). Several new package types have been added. The most ubiquitous is the Tetra Brik (1969).
In the late 1950s, the first working Bottle Return Machine (or Reverse vending machine) was invented and manufactured by "Wicanders" from Sweden.
Håkan Lans (born 1947) is recognised as one of Sweden's most outstanding inventors. Among his inventions is the digitizer, the predecessor of the computer mouse. He is also credited with the further development of the satellite-guided Global Positioning System (GPS) into the Automatic Identification System (AIS). Lans's system has become world standard for shipping and civil aviation. He is also famous for a patent regarding computer graphics.
Magnus Kellström (1941–) is an engineer graduated from Chalmers University of Technology that invented the toroidal roller bearing (also known as SKF CARB bearing). The bearing was introduced in 1995, and forms together with a spherical roller bearing a "self-aligning system".
The energy saving light bulb was invented by a consortium at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm in 1973.
In the 1990s, an ABB team under Mats Leijon developed a new generator, the Power Former, producing high-tension current directly to the network without transformer links.
Arne Tiselius (1902–71) used electrophoresis in the 1940s to analyse various proteins. Tiselius's work has been followed by other similar methods. All are important for medical and biological research. Tiselius received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1948.
In 1958, Rune Elmqvist developed a small battery-powered pacemaker that can be inserted under the skin of a heart patient. It produces electrical impulses that help the heart muscle work normally. In the same year, Åke Senning at the Karolinska Hospital in Stockholm carried out the world's first pacemaker operation.
Peter Nordin (1965–2020) was a Swedish computer scientist who has contributed to artificial intelligence, automatically generated computer programming, machine learning, and evolutionary robotics.
In 1968, Lars Leksell (1907–86) invented the gamma knife for brain surgery. The 'knife' uses concentrated gamma radiation on the tumour or malformation. The method is bloodless and patients can often leave hospital on the day of the operation.
The transmission of high voltage direct current, HVDC, is a method developed at ASEA (now ABB) under Uno Lamm (1904–89). ABB remains one of the leading makers of HVDC technology, now also used for terrain cable.[1]
Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by Ivan Östholm and Sven Erik Sjöstrand of Astra.
In 1973, Bengt Ilon invented the Mecanum wheel, a wheel which is capable of moving in any direction.
In 1975, John Arne Ingemund Ekstrand invented the red dot sight.
In 1993, Dr. Vladimir Ronin invents the process to produce Energetically Modified Cement ("EMC Cement"), whilst at Luleå University of Technology.
== 21st century ==
Adam Dunkels was recognized by American MIT's Technology Review as one of the top 35 young inventors in the world, notably for Micro IP which allows tiny gadgets such as car keys and credit cards to communicate using Internet protocols.
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Swedish inventions and discoveries

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This is a list of Swiss inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Switzerland, and also people of predominantly Swiss heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname.
== A ==
Carl Roman Abt inventor of Abt rack system
Werner Arber, (nobel prize) discovered restriction endonucleases. Their work would lead to the development of recombinant DNA technology.
Aimé Argand, inventor of Argand lamp.
== B ==
Maximilian Bircher-Benner, invented modern muesli
Felix Bloch, (nobel prize) discovered Bloch equations
Johann Georg Bodmer
Daniel Bovet (nobel prize), discovered drugs that block the actions of specific neurotransmitters. He is best known for his discovery in 1937 of antihistamines, which block the neurotransmitter histamine and are used in allergy medication.
Jacques E. Brandenberger, inventor of cellophane
== D ==
Henry Dunant, (nobel prize), inventor of The Red Cross. He shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 with Frédéric Passy, famous French Peace activist.
Jacques Dubochet (chemistry nobel prize 2017), bio-physicist, received a nobel for his work on the development of cryogenic electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of bio-molecules in solution. In 2020, the developments in the field helped to support the fight against COVID-19 pandemic. This technology help to study the viral assembly and replication processes at a molecule scale. It enabled to quickly understand the spike protein structure of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
== E ==
Richard R. Ernst, contributions towards the development of Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
== F ==
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
Antoine Favre-Salomon
Edmond H. Fischer (nobel prize), describing how reversible phosphorylation works as a switch to activate proteins and regulate various cellular processes.
== G ==
Charles Édouard Guillaume, (nobel prize) discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys.
Gustav Guanella
== H ==
Walter Rudolf Hess (nobel prize), mapping the areas of the brain involved in the control of internal organs.
Wilhelm His, Sr., inventor of microtome
Albert Hofmann, inventor of LSD
== K ==
Paul Karrer, (nobel prize), research on vitamins.
Ursula Keller, developed the first method for generating ultra-fast light pulses known as semiconductor saturable-absorber mirrors (SESAMs)
Emil Theodor Kocher (nobel prize), worked in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid.
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a pioneer in near-death studies
== M ==
Georges de Mestral, inventor of Velcro
Friedrich Miescher, discovered Nucleic acid, DNA (1868)
K. Alex Müller
Paul Hermann Müller, discovery of insecticidal qualities and use of DDT in the control of vector diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.
== N ==
Jean-Daniel Nicoud, inventor of Smaky
== P ==
Paracelsus, discovered Laudanum
Jean Samuel Pauly, created the first fully self-contained cartridges
Roger Perrinjaquet, inventor of the electric immersion blender (Bamix)
Auguste Piccard, inventor of Bathyscaphe
Vladimir Prelog (nobel prize), research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reaction
== R ==
Tadeus Reichstein, discovered Reichstein process
Niklaus Riggenbach, inventor of the Riggenbach track system
Daisy Roulland-Dussoix, discovered restriction enzymes
== S ==
Martin Schadt, co-inventor of twisted nematic field effect (TN-effect)
René Sommer, co-inventor of computer mouse
== T ==
René Thury
== W ==
Alfred Werner (nobel prize), proposing the octahedral configuration of transition metal complexes. Werner developed the basis for modern coordination chemistry.
Niklaus Wirth, inventor of programming language Pascal.
Kurt Wüthrich (nobel prize), developing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) methods for studying biological macromolecules.
== Z ==
Rolf M. Zinkernagel (nobel prize), discovery of how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells.
== See also ==
List of Swiss inventions and discoveries
Swiss people
== References ==
== External links ==

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This is a list of people of Welsh origin who are recognised as innovators or inventors who have made notable contributions to technical or theoretical world advancements.
Edward George Bowen pioneer of radar. Worked at 'Woomera Rocket Testing Base' in Australia. Born in Gendros, Swansea.
David Brunt pioneer of modern meteorology. Head of Meteorological Office, secretary of Royal Society From Penfforddlas, Wales.
Martha Hughes Cannon pioneer in women and children's medicine. The State of Utah's Health Department is named in her honour. Born in Llandudno, Wales.
Archie Cochrane Founder of Cochrane Collaboration, Cochrane library, Cochrane reviews. UK Cochrane Centre in Oxford. Conducted much of his groundbreaking medical research in Wales.
Alan Cox is a programmer heavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel since 1991.
Sir Clifford Darby, geographer and leader in promoting the relationships between geography and other subjects. Knighted in 1988. Born in Neath, South Wales.
Donald Davies Proposed and developed packet switching, an important technology of the Internet. Born in Treorchy, Rhondda, Wales.
Walter Davies (inventor), along with his brother Thomas, invented the 'Stepney Spare Wheel' used on almost all early motor cars. Born in Llanelli, South Wales
John Dee Founder of the new school of English mathematical scientists in the 16th century. One of the greatest polymaths of all time. Born in Buallt, Radnor.
Bill Frost Welsh carpenter who patented the aeroplane in 1894 and took to the skies in a powered flying machine the following year, eight years before the Wright brothers attempt at Kitty Hawk. Born in Tenby.
William Robert Grove Invented the fuel cell. Born in Swansea, 1811.
John T. Houghton Distinguished meteorologist. Inspiration behind major international conferences on global warming (Rio, Kyoto, Buenos Aires). Born in Wales.
David E. Hughes First transmission of radio waves. Inventor of the microphone and printing telegraph system. A musician and philosopher. Born Corwen, Wales.
John Gwyn Jeffreys conchologist (someone who studies shells). He helped pioneer deep-sea dredging. He corresponded with Charles Darwin and was involved with a number of scientific associations. Born into a long-established Welsh family.
Ernest Jones Introduced psychoanalysis into Britain and North America. Born in Llwchwy, South Wales.
Samuel Milton Jones Inventor, writer and Mayor of Toledo, Ohio, USA. Born in Caernarfonshire.
Steve Jones Professor of genetics at the Galton Laboratory and University College, London. Born in Wales.
William Jones A noted mathematician, published author and early naval navigator. First to use 'Pi' (1706) as a mathematical symbol. Born in Llanfihangel Tre'r Beirdd.
Brian Josephson Nobel Prize–winning physicist; gave his name to the superconducting Josephson junction. Born Cardiff.
Bernard Knight Forensic pathologist, barrister and writer. Creator of the 'Crowner John' series, historic crime fiction. As a forensic pathologist, worked on the infamous Fred West case, recovering all twelve bodies. Born and spent most of his life in Cardiff.
Francis Lewis Signatory of the US 'Declaration of Independence' as one of the representatives from New York. Born in Llandaff.
Sir Thomas Lewis Born in Taffs Well, (26 December 1881 – 17 March 1945) was a British cardiologist (although he personally disliked the term, preferring cardiovascular disease specialist). He coined the term "clinical science".
Edward Lhuyd Fellow of Jesus College Oxford. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum and the foremost Celtic scholar of his time. Born Oswestry, 1660.
Ronald M Lockley Famous naturalist and author. Best known for his life on Skokholm Island off Pembrokeshire 1927-1940 and at Orielton in the 1950s to early 1960s. Born in Cardiff.
Terry Matthews 'Mitel' and 'Newbridge' Networks founder.
William Morgan Inventor of the vacuum tube, Coolidge tube, Britain's first actuary, founding father of modern actuarial science. The unknowing discoverer of x-rays, a hundred and ten years before Roentgen. Born in Bridgend, 1750, died 1833.
William Henry Preece was an electrical engineer who was a major figure in the development and introduction of wireless telegraphy and the telephone in Great Britain. Born Feb 15 1834 in Bryn Helen.
Richard Price Developer of the times tables for insurance scales. Born at Tynton Farm Llangeinor, South Wales
William Price re-introduced cremation to Britain. Born Llantrisant, South Wales
Pryce Pryce-Jones Gave mail-order (catalogue) shopping to the world. (circa 1859) Born/lived in Newtown, Montgomeryshire (Powys).
Robert Recorde Very influential physician and mathematician. Robert published some of the most important books of his era including the first English language book on algebra which incidentally is where the equals symbol is first seen in use. From Tenby, West Wales.
Isaac Roberts Pioneered deep space photography at the end of the 19th century. Born in Groes near Denbigh in 1829.
Richard Roberts (engineer) Textile machinery, railway locomotives and other industrial inventions. Born Llanymynech, 1789.
Bertrand Russell Philosopher, mathematician and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950. Russell is one of the most highly regarded academics of the 20th century. He popularized mathematics and proposed many ground breaking theories. Born in Trelleck, Monmouthshire, South Wales.
David Thomas in 1837 invented a hot blast furnace process to make iron using anthracite coal in Ystradfera (Swansea Valley). transforming the iron-making process there and later in 1839 after re-locating to Pennsylvania where he became the "father" of the American steel industry with his invention.
Sir Tudor Thomas Eye surgeon from Swansea. He pioneered ophthalmic corneaplasty in the 1930s. Born in Ystradgynlais 23 May 1893.
Philip Vaughan Ironmaster who, in Carmarthen in 1794, patented the first design for a ball bearing.
Alfred Russel Wallace Conferred with Darwin (and Darwin with him) regarding evolution of species and acknowledged as theory co-founder by Darwin in his 'On the Origin of Species'. Born Llanbadoc, near Usk, Monmouthshire.
Evan Williams Physicist, discoverer of the meson sub-atomic particles. Born Cwmsychpant, Llandysul, Wales.
Ernest Willows pioneering aviator. 'The Father of British Airships' Born in Cardiff, 1896.
Winston M Thomas Celtic Engineering Inc. Texas telecommunications. (Inventor) vehicle fuel locking device. Born Llanelli
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Davies, John; Jenkins, Nigel (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6.

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Certain words in the English language represent animal sounds: the noises and vocalizations of particular animals, especially noises used by animals for communication. The words can be used as verbs or interjections in addition to nouns, and many of them are also specifically onomatopoeic.
== List of animal sounds ==
== See also ==
Animal communication
Animal epithet
Animal language
Bioacoustics
Cat organ & piganino
Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias
Field recording
List of animal names
List of onomatopoeias
"Old MacDonald Had a Farm"
"The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)"
== References ==
== External links ==
List of animal sounds to download, listen and use for free.
Multilingual list of animal sounds Derek Abbott, University of Adelaide

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The following is an alphabetical list of works of art that are often called by a non-English name in an English context. (Of course, many such titles are simply the names of people: Don Quixote, Irma la Douce, Madame Bovary, Tosca, Pelléas et Mélisande. These have been omitted, as have examples where the English may easily be inferred: Symphonie fantastique, Les liaisons dangereuses.)

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A calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") translation. This list contains examples of calques in various languages.
== English ==
=== From Mandarin Chinese ===
Running dog calques Chinese: 走狗; pinyin: zǒu gǒu.
brainwashing calques Chinese: 洗腦; pinyin: xǐ nǎo – usage via U.S. military during Korean War.
lose face calques Chinese: 丟臉; pinyin: diū liǎn
Paper tiger calques Chinese: 紙老虎; pinyin: zhǐ lǎohǔ
Potsticker calques Chinese: 鍋貼; pinyin: guōtiē
Long time no see calques Chinese: 好久不見; pinyin: hǎojiǔ bùjiàn.
=== From French ===
By heart (or off by heart) probably calques Middle French par cœur
Free verse calques vers libre
Old Guard calques Vieille Garde (the most senior regiments of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon I)
Flea market calques marché aux puces
Marriage of convenience calques French mariage de convenance
New Wave (artistic period) calques Nouvelle Vague
rhinestone calques caillou du Rhin "Rhine pebble"
that goes without saying calques cela va sans dire
Forget-me-not calques Old French ne m'oubliez mye
crime of passion from crime passionnel
J. R. R. Tolkien used the name "Bag End" as a calque of "cul-de-sac", to poke fun at the British use of French terms.
=== From German or Dutch ===
Masterpiece: probably translation of Dutch meesterstuk or German Meisterstück: Dutch meester and German Meister, master + Dutch stuk and German Stück, piece of work. (The Dutch translation of masterpiece is meesterwerk, the German translation is Meisterwerk. A Meisterstück is the craftwork that serves as a sort of "thesis" for a master craftsman-to-be.)
==== From Dutch ====
Iceberg from the Dutch ijsberg
Superconductor calques Dutch supergeleider
Pineapple calques Dutch pijnappel, which calques French pomme de pin (both meaning 'pinecone')
freebooter calques Dutch vrijbuiter
==== From German ====
Antibody calques Antikörper
Assault rifle calques Sturmgewehr
Ball lightning calques Kugelblitz
Beer garden calques Biergarten
Concertmaster and concertmeister calque Konzertmeister
Earworm calques Ohrwurm
Flamethrower calques Flammenwerfer
Foreword perhaps calques Vorwort, which itself calques Latin præfatio (from præ- "before" plus fari "speak") "preface"
Heroic tenor calques Heldentenor
Intelligence quotient calques Intelligenzquotient
Loan translation calques Lehnübersetzung
Loanword calques Lehnwort
Nostalgia (formed from Greek νόστος "homecoming" plus ἄλγος "pain") calque Heimweh "home sore"
Overman and superman (i.e., self-transcending human) calque Übermensch
Power politics calques Machtpolitik
Rainforest calques Regenwald
Standpoint (point of view) calques Standpunkt
Superego (formed from Latin super- "over, above" plus ego "I") calques Überich "over-I"
Stormtroopers calques Sturmtruppen
Subliminal (formed from Latin sub-, "below", plus limen (gen. liminis, "threshold") calques unterschwellig, "beneath the threshold"
Thought experiment calques Gedankenexperiment
Watershed calques Wasserscheide
Worldview calques German Weltanschauung
=== From Hebrew ===
Scapegoat is a calque of עזאזל (Azazel) as ez ozel (literally, "the goat that departs", hence "[e]scape goat). This neologism is attributed to Tyndale's 1530 Bible translation.
Passover calques, somewhat phonologically, פֶּסַח Pesaḥ.
=== From Latin ===
Commonplace calques locus commūnis (referring to a generally applicable literary passage), which itself is a calque of Greek koinos topos
Devil's advocate calques advocātus diabolī, referring to an official appointed to present arguments against a proposed canonization or beatification in the Catholic Church
Wisdom tooth calques dēns sapientiae, which in turn calques Arabic aḍrāsu 'lḥikmi, which calques Greek σωΦρονιστῆρες, used by Hippocrates.
Milky Way calques via lactea
Rest in peace calques requiescat in pace
In a nutshell calques in nuce
=== From Spanish ===
Blue-blood calques sangre azul
Fifth column calques quinta columna
Killer whale from ballena asesina
Moment of truth calques el momento de la verdad, the final sword thrust in a bullfight.
=== From other languages ===
Deep state calques Turkish derin devlet
Gospel calques Greek εὐαγγέλιον (evangelion) 'good news'
Hotdish calques Scandinavian varmrett/varmrätt
ground nut calques Tamil நிலக்கடலை (nila kadalai)
The Littlejohn adaptor calques the Czech name of the inventor František Janeček
Many words and phrases calqued by Latin from Greek have been borrowed by English.
== Latin ==
=== From Greek ===
Latin calques many terms from Greek, many of which have been borrowed by English.
compassion calques συμπάθεια (sympathia) "sympathy" (Latin: "suffering with", Greek: "suffering together")
deus ex machina calques ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός (apo mechanēs theos) (Latin: "god out of the machine", Greek: "out of the machine, god")
insectus calques ἔντομον (entomon) ("insect", from words meaning "to cut into" in the respective languages)
locus communis calques κοινὸς τόπος, and was later calqued in English as commonplace
musculus "muscle" (= "common house mouse", literally "little mouse" from mus "mouse") calques μῦς (mys) "muscle" (= "mouse")
magnanimus calques μεγαλόψυχος (megalopsychos) ('great-souled')
quinta essentia calques πέμπτη οὐσία.
quod erat demonstrandum 'which was to be demonstrated' is a calque of ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι (hoper edei deixai) 'what needed to be [shown] has been shown'.
similaris 'similar' calques ὁμοιομερής.
Many grammatical terms: participium 'participle' from μετοχή, declinationem 'declension' from κλίσις, etc.
== Romance languages ==
Examples of Romance language expressions calqued from foreign languages include:
French lune de miel, Catalan lluna de mel, Spanish luna de miel, Portuguese lua-de-mel, Italian luna di miele and Romanian luna de miere calque English honeymoon
French gratte-ciel, Catalan gratacels, Spanish rascacielos, Portuguese arranha-céus, Romanian zgârie-nori and Italian grattacielo calque English skyscraper
French sabot de Denver calques English Denver boot
French jardin d'enfants, Spanish jardín de infancia and Portuguese Jardim de infância calque German Kindergarten (children's garden)
Spanish baloncesto and Italian pallacanestro calque English basketball
Spanish balonvolea and Italian pallavolo calque English volleyball
=== French ===

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French courriel (contraction of courrier électronique) calques English email (contraction of electronic mail)
French disque dur calques English hard disk
French carte mère calques English motherboard
French eau de vie calques Latin aqua vitae
French en ligne calques English online
French hors-ligne (literally: "out of line, off line") calques English offline
French haute résolution calques English high resolution
French haute tension calques English high voltage
French disque compact calques English compact disc
French haute fidélité calques English hi-fi (high fidelity)
French large bande calques English broadband
French modulation de fréquence calques English frequency modulation (FM)
French média de masse calques English mass media
French seconde main calques English second hand
French sortir du placard calques English to come out of the closet
French surhomme calques German Übermensch (Nietzsche's concept)
French souris calques English mouse (computer peripheral)
French OVNI (Objet Volant Non Identifié) calques English UFO (Unidentified Flying Object)
In some dialects of French, the English term "weekend" becomes la fin de semaine ("the end of week"), a calque, but in some it is left untranslated as le week-end, a loanword.
French cor anglais (literally English horn) is a near-calque of English French horn. In English cor anglais refers to a completely different musical instrument.
=== Spanish ===
Many calques found in Southwestern US Spanish come from English:
Spanish escuela alta calques English high school (secundaria or escuela secundaria in Standard Spanish)
Spanish grado (de escuela) calques English grade (in school) (nota in Standard Spanish)
Spanish manzana de Adán calques English Adam's apple (nuez de Adán, meaning "Adam's nut", in standard Spanish), which in turn is a calque of French pomme d'Adam
Also technological terms calqued from English are used throughout the Spanish-speaking world:
Spanish rascacielos calques English skyscraper
Spanish tarjeta de crédito calques English credit card
Spanish alta tecnología calques English high technology
Spanish disco compacto calques English compact disc
Spanish correo electrónico calques English electronic mail
Spanish alta resolución calques English high resolution
Spanish enlace calques English link (Internet)
Spanish ratón calques English mouse (computer)
Spanish nave espacial calques English spaceship
Spanish en un momento dado calques Dutch op een gegeven moment (At a certain moment)
Spanish Red Mundial calques English World Wide Web
Spanish videograbadora calques English VCR (contraction of videocassette recorder)
=== Italian ===
Italian aria condizionata calques English air conditioned
Italian fine settimana calques English week-end
Italian ferrovia (railway: lit. "iron road") calques French Chemin de fer or the German Eisenbahn
== Germanic languages ==
=== Afrikaans and Dutch ===
Afrikaans aartappel and Dutch aardappel calque French pomme de terre (English potato "earth apple")
Afrikaans besigheid calques English business
Afrikaans e-pos calques English e-mail
Afrikaans hardeskyf and Dutch harde schijf calque English hard disk
Afrikaans klankbaan calques English sound track
Afrikaans kleurskyfie calques English colour slide
Afrikaans sleutelbord calques English keyboard
Afrikaans tuisblad calques English homepage
Afrikaans wolkekrabber and Dutch wolkenkrabber calque German Wolkenkratzer (which itself calques English sky scraper).
Afrikaans melkskommel calques English milkshake
Afrikaans werkswinkel calques English workshop
Afrikaans geheuestokkie calques English memory stick
Afrikaans biertuin calques German Biergarten (probably via English beer garden)
=== German ===
Fußball calques English "football", referring specifically to association football
Teddybär calques English teddy bear
Wolkenkratzer calques English skyscraper
Entwickeln calques French "developer"
Flutlicht calques English floodlight
Datenverarbeitung calques English data processing
Großmutter and Großvater calques French grand-mère and grand-père (replacing original Ahn, Ähnin which now mean "forbear")
Rundreise calques French tournée
Fernsehen calques English television (from the Greek affix tele- "far" and Latin visio "sight")
Fernsprecher calques English telephone (more frequently called with the loanword Telefon)
Löwenzahn calques French dent-de-lion (dandelion, literally "lion's tooth")
Überleben calques Latin supervivo (survive, literally "overlive", which is a synonym of survive)
Treppenwitz calques French l'esprit de l'escalier (staircase wit)
herunterladen calques English download
Wochenende calques English week-end (which actually was first used as a foreign word, but now has been all but replaced by the calque)
=== Icelandic ===
Icelandic rafmagn, "electricity", is a half-calqued coinage that literally means "amber power".
raf translates the Greek root ἤλεκτρον (ḗlektron), which means "amber"
magn, "power", is descriptive of electricity's nature but not a direct calque from the source word "electricity"
Samviska (conscience).
One of the early suggestions for an Icelandic translation of helicopter was þyrilvængja, twirling wings, a calque of the Greek helico-pteron. This was later replaced with þyrla.
=== Dano-Norwegian ===
Note: From a technical standpoint, Danish and the bokmål standard of Norwegian are the same language, with minor spelling and pronunciation differences (equivalent to British and American English). For this reason, they will share a section.
Danish børnehave and Norwegian barnehage calque German Kindergarten: barne = børne = Kinder = children; hage = have = Garten = garden
hjemmeside calques English home page.
Danish hjerneflugt and Norwegian hjerneflukt (literally, brain flight) calque English brain drain.
Danish idiotsikker calques English "foolproof".
loppemarked calques French marché aux puces (flea market, itself a calque from the French).
mandag (Monday), from Old Norse mánadagr ("moon day") calques Latin dies lunæ.
Danish overhoved and Norwegian overhode (head of a family, chief) calques German Oberhaupt (ober "over", Haupt "head").
Danish samvittighed and Norwegian samvittighet (conscience) calques Latin (through Low German) conscientia (com "with", scire "to know").
From sam- (co-) and vittig (today meaning "funny" but which stems from Low German, where it meant "reasonable", related to "vite" (to know) and English "wit".)
Norwegian tenåring calques English teenager: femten = fifteen, åring = annual harvest
=== Swedish ===
skyskrapa calques English skyscraper.
stora smällen calques English the big bang
tonåring calques English teen-ager: femton = fifteen, åring = annual harvest
== Slavic languages ==
=== Serbian ===
Serbian 'misliti izvan kutije' calques English 'to think outside of the box':
Sr. 'misliti' = Eng. 'to think'
Sr. 'izvan' = Eng. 'outside'
Sr. 'kutija' = Eng. 'box'

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=== Macedonian ===
Macedonian ракопис (rakopis) calques Latin-derived 'manuscript' and 'handwriting':
Mac. root рака (raka) = Lat. manus = 'hand'
Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Lat. scribo = 'to write'
Macedonian правопис (pravopis) calques Greek-derived 'orthography':
Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct';
Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Gr. γράφειν (graphein) = 'to write'
Macedonian православие (pravoslavie) calques Greek-derived 'orthodoxy':
Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct';
Mac. root славие (slavie) = Gr. δοξα (doxa) = 'glorification'
In more recent times, the Macedonian language has calqued new words from other prestige languages including German, French and English.
Macedonian натчовек (natčovek) = calques German-derived 'overman' (Übermensch)
Mac. root над- (nad-) = Ger. über = 'over'
Mac. root човек (čovek, man) = Ger. mensch = 'people'
Macedonian облакодер (oblakoder) = calques English skyscraper:
Mac. root облак (oblak, cloud)
Mac. root дере (dere, to flay)
Macedonian клучен збор (klučen zbor) = calques English keyword:
Mac. root клуч (kluč, key)
Mac. root збор (zbor, word)
Some words were originally calqued into Russian and then absorbed into Macedonian, considering the close relatedness of the two languages. Therefore, many of these calques can also be considered Russianisms.
=== Russian ===
The poet Aleksandr Pushkin (1799–1837) was perhaps the most influential among the Russian literary figures who would transform the modern Russian language and vastly expand its ability to handle abstract and scientific concepts by importing the sophisticated vocabulary of Western intellectuals.
Although some Western vocabulary entered the language as loanwords – e.g., Italian salvietta, "napkin", was simply Russified in sound and spelling to салфетка (salfetka) – Pushkin and those he influenced most often preferred to render foreign borrowings into Russian by calquing. Compound words were broken down to their component roots, which were then translated piece-by-piece to their Slavic equivalents. But not all of the coinages caught on and became permanent additions to the lexicon; for example, любомудрие (ljubomudrie) was promoted by 19th-century Russian intellectuals as a calque of "philosophy", but the word eventually fell out of fashion, and modern Russian instead uses the loanword философия (filosofija).
Russian любомудрие (ljubomudrie) calqued Greek-derived 'philosophy':
Russ. root любить (ljubit' ) = Gr. φιλεῖν (filein) = 'to love';
Russ. root мудрость (mudrost' ) = Gr. σοφία (sofia) = 'wisdom'
Russian зависимость (zavisimost' ) calques Latin-derived 'dependence':
Russ. root за (za) = Lat. de = 'down from'
Russ. root висеть (viset' ) = Lat. pendere = 'to hang; to dangle'
Russian совпадение (sovpadenije) calques Latin-derived 'coincidence':
Russ. prefix со- (so) = Lat. co- = 'in; with; together'
Russ. prefix в- (v) = Lat. in- = 'in; into'
Russ. root падать (padat' ) = Lat. cidere = 'to fall'
Russian полуостров (poluostrov) calques Latin-derived 'peninsula':
Russ. root полу- (polu-) = Ger. halb = 'half; semi-'
Russ. root остров (ostrov) = Ger. Insel = 'island'
Russian детский сад (detskij sad) calques German Kindergarten (both literally suggesting 'children's garden')
== Greek ==
Διαδίκτυο from English Internet
Γύρος (gyros) from Turkish döner
Ποδόσφαιρο from English football, referring specifically to association football
Τηλεόραση from television
== Irish ==
uisce beatha, or whiskey, calques Latin aqua vitae
== Finnish ==
Since Finnish, a Uralic language, differs radically in pronunciation and orthography from Indo-European languages, most loans adopted in Finnish either are calques or soon become such as foreign words are translated into Finnish. Examples include:
from Greek: sarvikuono (rhinoceros, from Greek ρινόκερος "rinokeros"),
from Latin: viisaudenhammas (wisdom tooth, from Latin "dens sapientiae"),
from English: jalkapallo (English "football", specifically referring to association football),
from English: koripallo (English "basketball"),
from English: kovalevy (English "hard disk"),
from French: kirpputori (flea market, French "marché aux puces"),
from German: lastentarha (German "Kindergarten"),
from German: panssarivaunu (German "Panzerwagen"),
from Swedish: pesukarhu (raccoon, from Swedish "tvättbjörn" and ultimately German "Waschbär"),
from Swedish: moottoritie (highway, from Swedish "motorväg"),
from Chinese: aivopesu (brainwash, from Chinese "xi nao"),
from Spanish: siniverinen (blue-blooded, from Spanish "de sangre azul")
== Modern Hebrew ==
When Jews immigrate to Israel, they often Hebraize their surnames. One approach to doing so was by calque from the original (often German or Yiddish) surname. For instance, Imi Lichtenfield (itself a half-calque), founder of the martial art Krav Maga, became Imi Sde-Or. Both last names mean "light field". For more examples and other approaches, see the article on Hebraization of surnames.

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mesilat barzel (obsolete term for railway) from German Eisenbahn (iron track); "sach-rachok" (a proposed term for telephone that became famous for not catching on) from German "Fernsprecher" (itself a calque from Greek "telephone")
"zarkor" (searchlight) from German "Scheinwerfer" (light-thrower=>zorek-or, contracted to "zarkor")
iton (newspaper) from German Zeitung and Yiddish צײַטוּנג tsaytung (Zeit and Et both mean time or era, first syllable e become i with the -on suffix)
tappuach adamah (potato) from French pomme-de-terre
gan yeladim from German Kindergarten
kaduregel (כדורגל) (football, specifically association football/soccer) from English football; "kadursal" (basketball); "kaduryad" (handball);...
"kelev yam" (seal) from German "Seehund" ("sea dog")
"karnaf" (contraction of "keren af"/"nosehorn") from Greek rhinoceros, possibly via German Nashorn
names of many chemical elements are calqued from German and/or Greek: "meiman" (hydrogen) from Wasserstoff, "pachman" (carbon) from Kohlstoff, "chankan" (nitrogen) from Stickstoff, "chamtzan" (oxygen) from Sauerstoff, zarkhan (phosphorus) from Greek, and ashlagan (potassium) from English ("ashlag"=potash)
many computing terms are calqued from English: "luach em" (motherboard), "me'abed" (processor), "natav" (router), akhbar (mouse), cartis reshet (network card), sapak koach (power supply), mat'en (charger).
According to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the more contributing languages have a structurally identical expression, the more likely it is to be calqued into the target language. In Israeli (his term for "Modern Hebrew") one uses má nishmà, lit. "what's heard?", with the meaning of "what's up?". Zuckermann argues that this is a calque not only of the Yiddish expression ?וואָס הערט זיך (vos hert zikh?), but also of the parallel expressions in Polish, Russian and Romanian. Whereas most revivalists were native Yiddish-speakers, many first speakers of Modern Hebrew spoke Russian and Polish too. So a Polish speaker in the 1930s might have used má nishmà not (only) due to Yiddish vos hert zikh? but rather (also) due to Polish Co słychać? A Russian Jew might have used ma nishma due to Что слышно? (pronounced chto slyshno) and a Romanian Israeli would echo ce se aude. According to Zuckermann, such multi-sourced calquing is a manifestation of the Congruence principle.
== Malayalam ==
Modern Malayalam is replete with calques from English. The calques manifest themselves as idioms and expressions and many have gone on to become clichés. However standalone words are very few. The following is a list of commonly used calque phrases/expressions.All of these are exact translations of the corresponding English phrases.
Simha bhagam (സിംഹ ഭാഗം) lion's share
Varikalkidayil vaayikuka (വരികള്‍ക്കിടയില്‍ വായിക്കുക) reading between the lines
Chuvarazhuthu (ചുവരെഴുത്തു) the writing on the wall
Moola kallu (മൂലക്കല്ല്) cornerstone
Naazhikakallu (നാഴികക്കല്ല്) milestone
Ooshmala varavelppu (ഊഷ്മ്ല വരവേല്‍പ്പ്) warm welcome
Thanuppan prathikaranam (തണുപ്പന്‍ പ്രതികരണം) cold response
Sheetayuddham (ശീതയുദ്ധം) Cold War
Hridayabhedakam (ഹൃദയഭേദകം) heart-rending/breaking
Chekuttaanum kadalinumidayil(ചെകുത്താനും കടലിനുമിടയില്‍) between the devil and the sea
vazhivittu sahaayikkuka (വഴിവിട്ടു സഹായിക്കുക) go out of one's way
kuthira kachavadam (കുതിര കച്ചവടം) horse trading
mrigeeya bhooripaksham (മൃഗീയ ഭൂരിപക്ഷം) monstrous majority
kavya neethi (കാവ്യനീതി) poetic justice
ambara chumbikal(അംബരചുംബികൾ) buildings; literally sky-kissers
== Mandarin Chinese ==
huīyī zhǔjiào (灰衣主教) calques French éminence grise
lánqiú (籃球 / 篮球) calques English basketball
règǒu (熱狗 / 热狗) calques English hotdog
ruǎnjiàn (軟件 / 软件) calques English software
shǎndiànzhàn (閃電戰 / 闪电战) calques German Blitzkrieg
tiěmù (鐵幕 / 铁幕) calques English Iron Curtain
== References ==

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The following is a list of celebrity inventors and their patents. (For the purposes of this article, an inventor is a person who has been granted a patent.) After Google released a patent search online in December 2006, a website called Ironic Sans, made the public aware of a number of celebrity patents found through the new patent search engine.
Additional lists of inventors can be found at List of inventors. See also Category:Inventors.
== A ==
George Antheil, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor Hedy Lamarr, used a code (stored on punched paper tape) to synchronize random frequencies later known as frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their posthumous induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014.
== B ==
Marlon Brando, U.S. patent 6,812,392 — Drumhead tensioning device and method. An invention which makes it possible to tune a drum.
Gary Burghoff, U.S. patent 5,235,774 — Enhanced fish attractor device. A way of luring fish up closer, to attract them, so they are easier to fish.
== C ==
Harry Connick, Jr., U.S. patent 6,348,648 — System and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra. An electronic system, a device with a screen, used to show the sheet music for the musicians, for example in an orchestra, while they are playing, instead of the more commonly used paper. Connick uses this system when performing with his big band.
Jamie Lee Curtis, U.S. patent 4,753,647 — Infant garment. A disposable baby diaper with pockets containing one or more removable clean-up wipers.
== D ==
Walt Disney
U.S. patent 2,201,689 — Art of animation. A device/method that allows the animator to, for example, make a more realistic looking shadow for a moving character in an animation.
U.S. patent 2,942,516 — Panoramic motion picture presentation arrangement (co-invented with Ub Iwerks). A method of presenting a continuous motion picture on a circular screen, also known as Circle-Vision 360°.
== F ==
Charles Fleischer, U.S. patent 4,219,959 — Toy egg. A toy adapted for pulling, stretching, and bouncing which includes two intertwined helically cut shells.
== G ==
Uri Geller, U.S. patent 5,726,383 — Telephone radiation shield (co-inventor). A radiation shield for cellular phones.
Enver Gjokaj, U.S. patent 8,121,471 — Focusing system for motion picture camera.
== H ==
Harry Houdini, U.S. patent 1,370,316 — Diver's suit. A new type of diving suit that is easier to put on and take off, and is able to better handle water pressure.
Howard Hughes, — Steel bra.
Jamie Hyneman, U.S. patent 6,458,008 — Remote control device with gyroscopic stabilization and directional control.
== J ==
Michael Jackson, U.S. patent 5,255,452 — Method and means for creating anti-gravity illusion (co-inventor).
Penn Jillette, U.S. patent 5,920,923 — Hydro-therapeutic stimulator. A spa designed to stimulate a female user with water jets.
John Arthur ("Jack") Johnson, U.S. patent 1,413,121 — Wrench. An adjustable wrench designed to be taken apart for easy cleaning.
== K ==
Danny Kaye, U.S. patent D166807 — Blowout toy or the like (co-inventor)
== L ==
Hedy Lamarr, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor George Antheil, frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014.
Abraham Lincoln, U.S. patent 6,469 — [method for] Buoying vessels over shoals.
George Lucas
U.S. patent D264109 — Toy action figure (co-inventor, with Ralph McQuarrie, Joe Johnston). The ornamental design for a Boba Fett toy action figure.
U.S. patent D265108 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Phil Tippett). The ornamental design for a tauntaun toy figure.
U.S. patent D265109 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with Stuart Freeborn, McQuarrie). The ornamental design for a toy figure.
U.S. patent D265330 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Johnston). The ornamental design for a droid toy figure.
U.S. patent D265331 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie). The ornamental design for an IG-88 toy figure.
U.S. patent D265332 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Johnston). The ornamental design for a snowtrooper toy figure.
U.S. patent D265668 — Toy space vehicle (co-inventor, with Johnston). The ornamental design for a twin-pod cloud car toy.
U.S. patent D265754 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Johnston, Freeborn). The ornamental design for a Yoda toy figure.
U.S. patent D266685 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with Freeborn and McQuarrie). The ornamental design for a Greedo toy figure.
U.S. patent D266777 — Toy vehicle (co-inventor, with Johnston). The ornamental design for an AT-AT toy.
U.S. patent D267025 — Toy space vehicle (co-inventor, with McQuarrie and Johnston). The ornamental design for a snowspeeder toy.
== M ==
Zeppo Marx, U.S. patent 3,473,526 — Cardiac pulse rate monitor (co-inventor)
Steve McQueen, U.S. patent D219813 — Bucket seat shell
== N ==
Julie Newmar, U.S. patent 3,914,799 — Pantyhose with shaping band for cheeky derriere relief.
== P ==
Prince, U.S. patent D349127 — Portable electronic keyboard musical instrument. The ornamental design for a portable electronic keyboard musical instrument.
== S ==
Steven Spielberg, U.S. patent D401951 — Dolly track switch (co-inventor)
== T ==
Mark Twain
U.S. patent 121,992 — Improvement in adjustable and detachable straps for garments.
U.S. patent 140,245 — Improvement in scrap-books.
U.S. patent 324,535 — Game apparatus.
== V ==
Eddie Van Halen, U.S. patent 4,656,917 — Musical instrument support.
== W ==
Lawrence Welk, U.S. patent D170898 — Ash tray.
Paul Winchell
U.S. patent 3,042,086 — Device for filling blood containers.
U.S. patent 3,063,235 — Warning indicator for interrupted power supply for freezers.
U.S. patent 3,063,563 — Tandem sifter for flour and other products.
U.S. patent 3,071,113 — Retractable fountain pen.
U.S. patent 3,077,177 — Warning indicators for interrupted power supply of freezers.
U.S. patent 3,079,160 — Guideway selector for multi-track records.
U.S. patent 3,079,486 — Electrical heater for a container.
U.S. patent 3,097,366 — Artificial heart.
U.S. patent 3,110,424 — Pouring expediter for sugar, salt and the like.
U.S. patent 3,110,501 — Laminated disc pad phonograph records.
U.S. patent 3,120,192 — Hand pump for transferring liquids.
U.S. patent 3,128,477 — Non-bulging garter fastener.
U.S. patent 3,129,001 — Inverted novelty mask.
U.S. patent 3,133,140 — Lens cover.
U.S. patent 3,809,463 — Animation cells [sic] and technique.
U.S. patent D216371 — Jewelry pendant or similar article. A design combining the Star of David with the Christian cross.
== See also ==
Inventor (patent)
== References ==
== External links ==
Ironic Sans: Celebrity Patents
Google Patent Search

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This list contains all cities with one million or more inhabitants. Cities are defined in the political-geographic sense (city proper). The population figures given therefore refer to the city or municipality in the political-administrative sense. In some cases, the population figures refer to capital districts or Metropolises and, in the case of the People's Republic of China, to the urban population of the city in question. In many cases, the city boundaries do not correspond to the settlement structure and the boundaries of metropolitan regions and agglomerations often extend far beyond the administrative city boundaries. In some cases, metropolitan regions and political municipalities cannot be separated, as in the case of metropolitan municipalities or city regions, which exist in some countries. There is no globally standardized definition of what constitutes a city, and municipal divisions differ from country to country.
If only the administrative boundaries of a city were taken into account, Chongqing would be the largest city in the world, with 32 million inhabitants. However, the urban population is significantly smaller at just under 14 million (2020) and is spread across various urban settlements. The city's administrative area is almost as large as Austria and larger than the Czech Republic. It consists mainly of mountains, forest and agricultural areas with a rural settlement structure.
== List ==
The following table sorts cities according to the population within their administrative boundaries at the last available date. The population figures refer in the most cases to the respective municipality within its political boundaries, excluding politically independent suburbs. For Chinese cities, the urban population (urban settlement) of the respective city is given at prefecture, county or district level, which usually include large rural areas. Cities in bold are national capitals. Cities in italic are the largest city in their respective country.
== By country ==
This list is based on the data from the previous paragraph table. It excludes countries with only one city above one million inhabitants.
== Cities previously over 1 million people ==
The following table has cities that used to be over 1 million people in the past century, but have since declined under the 1 million mark.
== List (top 20 by administrative boundaries) ==
The following table lists city administrations by population, including full population inside administrative boundaries for Chinese cities.
== See also ==
List of largest cities
List of largest cities throughout history
List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants
List of cities in the Americas by population
== References ==

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This is a list of common contemporary false etymologies for English words.
== Profanity ==
Crap: The word "crap" did not originate as a back-formation of British plumber Thomas Crapper's surname, nor does his name originate from the word "crap", although the surname may have helped popularize the word. The surname "Crapper" is a variant of "Cropper", which originally referred to someone who harvested crops. The word "crap" ultimately comes from Medieval Latin crappa, meaning "chaff".
Fuck: The word "fuck" did not originate as an acronym for "For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge", either as a sign posted above adulterers in the stocks, or as a criminal charge against members of the British Armed Forces; nor did it originate during the 15th-century Battle of Agincourt as a corruption of "pluck yew" (an idiom falsely attributed to the English for drawing a longbow). The word also did not originate in Christianized Anglo-Saxon England as an acronym for "Fornication Under Consent of King"; Modern English was not spoken until the 16th century, and the words "fornication" and "consent" are derived from Anglo-Norman and hence did not exist in Old English. The earliest recorded use of "fuck" in English comes from c. 1475, in the poem Flen flyys, where it is spelled fuccant (conjugated as if a Latin verb meaning "they fuck"). The word is ultimately derived from the Proto-Germanic word fukkōną via either Old English or Norse, and has cognates in many other Germanic languages.
Shit: The word "shit" did not originate as an acronym for "Ship High in Transit", a label falsely said to have been used on shipments of manure to prevent them from becoming waterlogged and releasing explosive methane gas. The word comes from Old English scitte, and is of Proto-Germanic origin.
== Ethnic slurs ==
Cracker: In the United States, the use of "cracker" as a pejorative term for a white person does not come from the use of bullwhips by whites against slaves in the Atlantic slave trade. The term comes from an old sense of "boaster" or "braggart"; alternatively, it may come from "corn-cracker".
Gringo: The word "gringo" (a pejorative term for a white American) did not originate during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), the Venezuelan War of Independence (1811–1823), the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), or in the American Old West (c. 1865–1899) as a corruption of the lyrics "green grow" in either "Green Grow the Lilacs" or "Green Grow the Rushes, O" sung by American soldiers or cowboys; nor did it originate during any of these times as a corruption of "Green go home!", falsely said to have been shouted at green-clad American troops, or of "green coats" as a description of their uniforms. The word originally simply meant "foreigner" and is probably a corruption of Spanish griego, "Greek".
Redneck: A "sometimes disparaging" term for a "white member of the Southern rural laboring class." Several sources have reported an incorrect origin story for the term as used in this sense: that it was first used to describe striking miners who tied red bandanas around their necks during the Battle of Blair Mountain in 1921. However, The Oxford English Dictionary attests to uses in the relevant sense at least as early as 1830.
Spic: The word "spic" (a pejorative term for a Latino) did not originate as an abbreviation of "Hispanic"; nor as an acronym for "Spanish, Indian, and Colored" (in reference to minority races in the United States); nor as an acronym for "Spanish, Polish, Italian, and Chinese", falsely said to have been used by U.S. immigration officials in the 1940s, 1950s, or 1960s to categorize citizenship applications. The American Heritage Dictionary claims that the word is derived from "spiggoty", possibly from the Spanglish phrase "No speak the English".
Wog: The cacophemism "wog", for a foreigner or person of colour, is sometimes believed to be an acronym for "wily Oriental gentleman". It is more likely to be a shortening of "golliwog".
Wop: The word "wop" (a pejorative term for an Italian) is not an acronym for "without passport" or "working off passage". It is a corruption of dialectal Italian guappo, "thug".
== Acronyms ==
The use of acronyms to create new words was nearly non-existent in English until the middle of the 20th century. Nearly all older words were formed in other ways.

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[Military] Brat: Not an acronym for "British Regiment Attached Traveller". This is just a specific instance of the word brat, meaning child or offspring, first attested in 16th-century Scotland.
"Chav": see under "Other"
Coma: Some falsely believe that the word coma originates from "cessation of motor activity". Although this describes the condition of coma, this is not the true derivation. The word is actually derived from the Greek kōma, meaning deep sleep.
Fuck: see under "Profanity"
Golf: did not originate as an acronym of "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden". The word's true origin is unknown, but it existed in the Middle Scots period.
News: The word news has been claimed to be an acronym of the four cardinal directions (north, east, west, and south). However, old spellings of the word varied widely (e.g., newesse, newis, nevis, neus, newys, niewes, newis, nues, etc.). Additionally, an identical term exists in French, "les nouvelles", which translates as the plural of "the new". "News" also does not stand for "notable events, weather, and sports". The word "news" is simply a plural form of new, and is attested in this sense from the early 15th century.
Pom or pommy is an Australian English, New Zealand English, and South African English term for a person of British descent or origin. The exact origins of the term remain obscure (see here for further information). A legend persists that the term arises from the acronym P.O.M.E., for "prisoner of Mother England" (or P.O.H.M, "prisoners of His/Her Majesty"), although there is no evidence to support this assertion.
Posh was not an acronym for wealthy British passengers getting "port out, starboard home" cabins on ocean liners to India, in order to get ocean breeze. It probably derives from 19th-century slang for a dandy and was originally an underworld slang term for money.
Rap was not an acronym for "random acts of poetry" used as speech-lyrics in contemporary music. The word means "to utter forcefully" and appeared as early as 1541.
Shit: see under "Profanity"
Swag is not an acronym for "stuff we all get," "secretly we are gay," or anything else. It comes from early-19th-century slang for a thief's booty or loot.
Tip is not derived from the phrase "to insure promptness" (prompt service). The word originated in the 17th century and is of uncertain origin.
Wog and wop: see under "Ethnic slurs"
== Idioms ==
Brass monkey weather does not refer to cold temperatures causing cannon balls to fall off a brass rack; shot was not stored in that way. An 1857 version of the idiom is "It would freeze the tail off a brass monkey", and probably refers to a common type of tourist souvenir.
Rule of thumb is not derived from a medieval constraint on the thickness of an object with which one might beat one's wife. More likely it means that the thumb can be used to measure an approximate inch.
Whole nine yards: The actual origin of the phrase "the whole nine yards" is a mystery, and nearly all claimed explanations are easily proven false. Incorrect explanations include the length of machine gun belts, the capacity of concrete mixers (in cubic yards), various types of fabric, and many other explanations. All are probably false, since most rely on nine yards when evidence suggests that the phrase began as "the whole six yards". In addition, the phrase appeared in print as early as 1907, while many explanations require a much later date of origin.
== Other ==

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420 did not originate as the Los Angeles police or penal code for marijuana use. Police Code 420 is "juvenile disturbance", and Penal Code 420 defines the prevention, hindrance, or obstruction of legal "entry, settlement, or residence" on "any tract of public land" as a misdemeanor. Some LA police codes that do relate to illegal drugs include 10-50 ("under influence of drugs"), 966 ("drug deal"), 11300 ("narcotics"), and 23105 ("driver under narcotics"). The number's association with marijuana originated with a group of students who would meet on the campus of San Rafael High School at 4:20 pm to smoke. Adamant is often believed to have come from Latin adamare, meaning to love to excess. It is in fact derived from Greek ἀδάμας, meaning indomitable. There was a further confusion about whether the substance referred to is diamond or lodestone. Buck: The use of "buck" to mean "dollar" did not originate from a practice of referring to African slaves as "bucks" (male deer) when trading. "Buck" was originally short for "buckskin", as buckskins were used in trade. Butterfly: The word "butterfly" did not originate from "flutterby". It is, as it appears, a compound of "butter" and "fly", first formed in Old English: it comes from the Middle English word butterflye, which in turn comes from the Old English word butorflēoge. Chav: This pejorative UK term for a person of low social class or graces does not originate from "Chatham-" or "Cheltenham Average", nor is it an acronym for "Council Housed And Violent". It comes from a word meaning "boy" in the Romani language. Crowbar: A "crowbar" is not so named for its use by Black menial workers, but rather for its forked end, which resembles a crow's foot. Easter: The name of the holiday has no connection to the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar nor its likely analog Astarte. Its Old English name Eostre was derived from the same etymology as the direction "east," both based upon the dawn of the sun, and may or may not have shared a name with a pagan goddess. In the Latin language that dominated Western Christianity until the Reformation, along with the Romance languages that evolved from Latin, Easter is named "Pascha" or some derivative thereof, from the name of Passover. Emoji: These pictographic characters are often mistakenly believed to be a simplified form of the word emoticon, itself a portmanteau of "emotion icon". However, emoji is a Japanese term composed from "e" (image) and "moji" (character). Faggot: The origin of the slur usage of the word "faggot" (originally referring to a bundle of firewood) may be from the term for women used in a similar way to "baggage", i.e. something heavy to be dealt with. The usage may also have been influenced by the British term "fag", meaning a younger schoolboy who acts as an older schoolboy's servant. Female and male: the terms have different etymologies. Male originates from Old French masle, a shortened form of Latin masculus. Female originates from Medieval Latin femella, a diminutive of femina. The fluorescent lamp did not derive its name from the fictional Filipino inventor Agapito Flores. Handicap: The word "handicap" did not originate as a metathetic corruption of "cap in hand" in reference to disabled beggars. The word originally referred to the game hand-i'-cap, in which forfeits were placed in a cap to equalize the game. Helicopter is often erroneously thought to consist of heli- and -copter, while in fact it stems from the greek helix-, meaning spiral, and -pter, meaning wing. Hiccough, an alternate spelling still encountered for hiccup, originates in an assumption that the second syllable was originally cough. The word is in fact onomatopoeic in origin. History does not derive from "His story" (that is, a version of the past from which the acts of women and girls are systemically excluded) but from the Greek word ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry."
Innocent: often wrongly believed to have the original meaning of "not knowing", as if it came from Latin noscere (to know); in fact it comes from nocere (to harm), and the primary sense is "harmless". Isle and island: The word "isle" is not short for "island", nor is the word "island" an extension of "isle"; the words are unrelated. "Isle" comes ultimately from Latin īnsula, meaning "island"; "island" comes ultimately from Old English īegland, also meaning "island", or technically "island land" (cf. Icelandic ey "island"). The spelling island with an S, however, is indeed due to the influence of isle. Marmalade: there is an apocryphal story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache, and that the name is derived from her maids' whisper of "Marie est malade" (Mary is ill). In fact it is derived from Portuguese marmelada, meaning quince jam, and then expanded from quince jam to other fruit preserves. It is found in English-language sources written before Mary was even born. Nasty: The term nasty was not derived from the surname of Thomas Nast as a reference to his biting, vitriolic cartoons. The word may be related to the Dutch word nestig, or "dirty". It predates Nast by several centuries, appearing in the most famous sentence of Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan, that in the state of nature, the life of man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". That work was published in 1651, whereas Nast was born in 1840. Niggardly: The word "niggardly", meaning stingy or miserly, is not actually related to the racial slur "nigger", despite the similar sound. Like "niggle", it may derive from Old Norse nigla, meaning "to fuss about small matters"; alternatively, it may derive from another Germanic root meaning "exact" or "careful". Meanwhile, "nigger", like "Negro", traces back to Latin niger, meaning "black". Nonce (in computing): despite claims that the word is a portmanteau of "number used once" or similar, the term actually dates to Middle English and originates from rebracketing "then anes" ("the one [purpose]"). Picnic: The word "picnic" did not originate as an abbreviation of "pick a nigger", a phrase falsely claimed to have been used by white families at community lynchings in the 19th century. "Picnic" comes from 17th-century French piquenique, which is of uncertain origin. Pumpernickel is said to have been given the name by a French man (sometimes Napoleon) referring to his horse, Nicole—"Il étoit bon pour Nicole" ("It was good enough for Nicole"), or "C'est une pomme pour Nicole" ("It's an apple for Nicole") or "C'est du pain pour Nicole" ("It's bread for Nicole"). Some dictionaries claim a derivation from the German vernacular Pumpern (fart) and "Nick" (demon or devil), though others disagree. Sincere does not originate from Latin sine cera ("without wax"), but from sincerus ("true, genuine"), which combines roots meaning "single" and "grow". Snob does not originate from Latin sine nobilitate ("without nobility"). Till is not an abbreviation of "until", though the increasingly common spelling 'til is a result of this misconception. In fact, "till" is the older word; "until" is a compound of "till" and the Old Norse prefix "und-" ("up to", "as far as"), just as "unto" is a compound of that prefix and "to". Welsh rarebit has been claimed to be the original spelling of the savoury dish "Welsh rabbit".

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title: "List of common false etymologies of English words"
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Both forms now have currency, though the form with "rabbit" is in fact the original. Furthermore, the word "Welsh" in this context was used in a pejorative sense, meaning "foreign" or "substandard", and does not indicate that the dish originated in Wales. Wi-Fi is not short-form for 'Wireless Fidelity,' although it was likely co-opting the similar phrase of the time, Hi-Fi, referring to High Fidelity audio systems. Woman does not originate from "woven from man", nor from "womb". It came from the Old English wifmann ("woman human"), a compound of wif ("woman" – cf. "wife") + man ("human being"). Adult human males were called wer (as in weregeld and world, and also the first element in "werewolf", man-wolf). Mann, the word for "person", eventually came to be used for adult human males specifically. Both "wer" and "wyf" may be used to qualify "man", as in this Old English example:
God gesceop ða æt fruman twegen men, wer and wif (then at the beginning, God created two human beings, man and woman)
Yankee does not originate from the Cherokee word eankke meaning "coward". The word does not exist in the Cherokee language. It also does not come from a native tribe called the Yankoo meaning "invincible". No tribe has existed under that name. The word probably has Dutch origins.
== See also ==
List of common English usage misconceptions
List of common misconceptions
== References ==

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This is a list of all the consonants which have a dedicated letter in the International Phonetic Alphabet, plus some of the consonants which require diacritics, ordered by place and manner of articulation.
== Ordered by place of articulation ==
=== Labial consonants ===
(articulated by using the lips)
==== Bilabial consonants ====
bilabial clicks e.g. [kʘ]
bilabial nasal [m] (man)
bilabial ejective [pʼ]
voiced bilabial implosive [ɓ]
voiceless bilabial plosive [p] (spin)
voiced bilabial plosive [b] (bed)
voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ]
voiced bilabial affricate [bβ]
voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ]
voiced bilabial fricative [β]
bilabial approximant [β̞]
bilabial trill [ʙ]
bilabial percussive [ʬ]
==== Labiodental consonants ====
labiodental approximant [ʋ]
labiodental nasal [ɱ] (symphony)
voiced labiodental fricative [v] (van)
Voiced labiodental plosive [b̪]
Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v]
voiceless labiodental fricative [f] (fan)
voiceless rounded velarized labiodental fricative [ɧ]
Voiceless labiodental plosive [p̪]
Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f]
=== Bidental consonants ===
voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆]
=== Coronal consonants ===
(articulated by using the tip of the tongue)
==== Dental consonants ====
dental clicks e.g. [kǀ]
dental lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ̪]
dental ejective [t̪ʼ]
dental nasal [n̪]
voiced dental fricative [ð] (this)
voiced dental implosive [ɗ̪]
voiced dental plosive [d̪]
voiceless bidental fricative
voiceless dental fricative [θ] (thing)
voiceless dental plosive [t̪]
bidental percussive [ʭ]
==== Alveolar consonants ====
alveolar lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ]
alveolar approximant [ɹ] (red)
alveolar ejective [tʼ]
alveolar ejective fricative [sʼ]
alveolar flap [ɾ]
alveolar lateral approximant [l] (lead)
alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]
alveolar nasal [n] (none)
alveolar trill [r]
velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ]
voiced alveolar fricative [z] (zoo)
voiced alveolar implosive [ɗ]
voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ]
voiced alveolar plosive [d] (done)
voiced alveolar affricate [d͡z]
voiceless alveolar grooved fricative [s] (son)
voiceless alveolar retroflex fricative [s̠]
voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠]
voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ]
voiceless alveolar plosive [t] (ton)
voiceless alveolar affricate [t͡s]
voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [t͡ɬ]
ejective alveolar lateral affricate [t͡ɬʼ]
voiced alveolar lateral affricate [d͡ɮ]
==== Postalveolar consonants ====
(post)alveolar clicks e.g. [kǃ]
voiced palato-alveolar affricate [dʒ] (jug)
voiced palato-alveolar fricative [ʒ] (vision)
voiceless palato-alveolar affricate [tʃ] (chip)
voiceless palato-alveolar fricative [ʃ] (ship)
===== Palatalized postalveolar consonants =====
voiced palatalized postalveolar fricative [ʑ]
voiceless palatalized postalveolar fricative [ɕ]
voiced palatalized postalveolar affricate [d͡ʑ]
voiceless palatalized postalveolar affricate [t͡ɕ]
===== Retroflex consonants =====
retroflex clicks e.g. [k𝼊 ] (commonly written ⟨[k‼]⟩)
retroflex approximant [ɻ ]
retroflex flap [ɽ]
retroflex lateral flap [𝼈 ]
retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ ]
voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ]
retroflex nasal [ɳ ]
voiced retroflex fricative [ʐ ]
voiced retroflex plosive [ɖ ]
voiced retroflex affricate [d͜ʐ ]
voiceless retroflex fricative [ʂ]
voiceless retroflex plosive [ʈ]
voiceless retroflex affricate [t͜ʂ],
=== Dorsal consonants ===
(articulated with the middle of the tongue)
==== Palatal consonants ====
palatal clicks e.g. [kǂ]
palatal approximant [j] (yes)
palatal ejective [cʼ]
palatal lateral approximant [ʎ]
voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆]
palatal nasal [ɲ]
voiced palatal fricative [ʝ]
voiced palatal implosive [ʄ]
voiced palatal plosive [ɟ]
voiceless palatal fricative [ç] (human, but not hum)
voiceless palatal plosive [c]
voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c͡𝼆]
ejective palatal lateral affricate [c͡𝼆ʼ]
===== Labialized palatal consonants =====
labialized palatal approximant [ɥ] [jʷ]
==== Velar consonants ====
velar approximant [ɰ]
velar ejective [kʼ]
velar lateral approximant [ʟ]
voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄]
voiced velar fricative [ɣ]
voiced velar implosive [ɠ ]
voiced velar plosive [ɡ] (get)
voiceless velar fricative [x]
voiceless velar plosive [k] (kick, cat)
ejective velar lateral affricate [k͡𝼄ʼ]
===== Labialized velar consonants =====
voiced labialized velar approximant [w] (witch)
voiceless labialized velar approximant [ʍ] (which, in some dialects)
===== Labial–velar consonants =====
voiceless labial–velar plosive [kp]
voiced labial–velar plosive [ɡb]
labial-velar nasal [ŋm]
voiceless labial-velar implosive [ɠ̊͜ɓ̥]
voiced labial-velar implosive [ɠ͡ɓ]
==== Uvular consonants ====
uvular ejective [qʼ]
uvular nasal [ɴ]
uvular trill [ʀ]
voiced uvular fricative [ʁ]
voiced uvular implosive [ʛ]
voiced uvular plosive [ɢ]
voiceless uvular fricative [χ]
voiceless uvular plosive [q]
===== Labial–uvular consonants =====
voiceless labial–uvular plosive [qp]
=== Laryngeal consonants ===
(articulated with the throat)
==== Pharyngeal and epiglottal consonants ====
pharyngeal plosive [ʡ]
voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ]
voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ]
voiced pharyngeal trill [ʢ]
voiceless pharyngeal trill [ʜ]
===== Uvular-epiglottal consonants =====
voiceless uvular-epiglottal plosive [q͡ʡ]
==== Glottal consonants ====
voiceless glottal affricate [ʔh]
murmured glottal affricate [ʔɦ]
murmured glottal fricative or transition & approximant [ɦ]
voiceless glottal fricative or transition & approximant [h]
glottal plosive [ʔ]
creaky-voiced glottal approximant [˷]
== Ordered by manner of articulation ==
Pulmonic consonants
=== Nasal (stop) consonants ===
bilabial nasal [m]
voiceless bilabial nasal [m̥]
labiodental nasal [ɱ]
dental nasal [n̪]
alveolar nasal [n]
voiceless alveolar nasal [n̥]
retroflex nasal [ɳ ]
voiceless retroflex nasal [ɳ̊ ]
palatal nasal [ ɲ]
voiceless palatal nasal [ ɲ̥]
velar nasal [ŋ]
voiceless velar nasal [ŋ̊]
uvular nasal [ɴ]
=== Plosive (stop) consonants ===
voiceless bilabial plosive [p]
voiced bilabial plosive [b]
voiceless dental plosive [t̪]
voiced dental plosive [d̪]
voiceless alveolar plosive [t]
voiced alveolar plosive [d]
voiceless retroflex plosive [ʈ]
voiced retroflex plosive [ɖ]
voiceless palatal plosive [c]
voiced palatal plosive [ɟ]
voiceless velar plosive [k]
voiced velar plosive [ɡ]
voiceless uvular plosive [q]
voiced uvular plosive [ɢ]
epiglottal plosive [ʡ]
glottal plosive [ʔ]

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=== Fricative consonants ===
Sibilant fricatives
voiceless alveolar sibilant [s]
voiced alveolar sibilant [z]
voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant [ ʃ ]
voiced palato-alveolar sibilant [ʒ]
voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (palatalized postalveolar) [ɕ]
voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant [ʑ]
voiceless retroflex sibilant [ʂ]
voiced retroflex sibilant [ʐ ]
Central non-sibilant fricatives
voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ]
voiced bilabial fricative [β]
voiceless labiodental fricative [f]
voiced labiodental fricative [v]
voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆]
voiceless dental fricative [θ]
voiced dental fricative [ð]
voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠]
voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative [ɹ̝]
voiceless palatal fricative [ç]
voiced palatal fricative [ ʝ]
voiceless velar fricative [x]
voiced velar fricative [ɣ]
voiceless uvular fricative [χ]
voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ]
voiceless epiglottal fricative [ʜ]
voiceless palatal-velar fricative (not possible) [ɧ]
Lateral fricatives
voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ]
voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ]
voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ]
voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆])
voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄])
voiced velar lateral fricative [ʟ̝]
both fricatives and approximants
voiced uvular fricative [ʁ]
voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ]
voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ]
Pseudo-fricatives
voiceless glottal fricative [h]
voiced glottal fricative (murmured) [ɦ]
=== Affricate consonants ===
Sibilant affricates
voiceless postalveolar affricate [tʃ]
voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒ]
voiceless alveolar affricate [ts]
voiced alveolar affricate [dz]
voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate [ʨ]
voiced alveolo-palatal affricate [dʑ]
voiceless retroflex affricate [tʂ]
voiced retroflex affricate [dʐ]
Fricated alveolar clicks [kǃᶴ] (also voiced, nasalized, etc.)
Non-sibilant affricates
Voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ]
Voiceless bilabial-labiodental affricate [pf]
Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f]
Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v]
Voiceless dental affricate [t̪θ]
Voiced dental affricate [d̪ð]
Voiceless retroflex nonsibilant affricate [tɻ̝̊ ]
Voiced retroflex nonsibilant affricate [dɻ̝ ]
voiceless palatal affricate [cç]
voiced palatal affricate [ɟʝ]
Voiceless velar affricate [kx]
Voiced velar affricate [ɡɣ]
Voiceless uvular affricate [qχ]
Voiced uvular affricate [ɢʁ]
Voiceless epiglottal affricate [ʡʜ]
Lateral affricates
voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [tɬ]
voiced alveolar lateral affricate [dɮ]
Voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆]
Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate [tꞎ]
Voiceless velar lateral affricate [k𝼄]
Voiced velar lateral affricate [ɡʟ̝]
=== Approximant consonants ===
bilabial approximant [β̞]
labiodental approximant [ʋ]
dental approximant [ð̞]
alveolar approximant [ɹ]
alveolar lateral approximant [l ]
velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ]
retroflex approximant [ɻ ]
retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ]
palatal approximant [j]
palatal lateral approximant [ʎ]
nasal palatal approximant [ȷ̃]
labialized palatal approximant [ɥ] [jʷ]
velar approximant [ɰ]
velar lateral approximant [ʟ]
labialized velar approximant (voiced) [w]
voiceless labialized velar approximant [ʍ]
nasal labialized velar approximant [w̃]
uvular approximant [ʁ̞]
pharyngeal approximant [ʕ̞]
epiglottal approximant [ʢ̞]
voiced glottal approximant (murmured) [ɦ̞]
voiceless glottal approximant [h̞]
voiceless nasal glottal approximant [h̃]
=== Flap (tap) consonants ===
bilabial flap [ⱱ̟]
labiodental flap [ⱱ]
alveolar flap [ɾ]
alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]
retroflex flap [ɽ]
retroflex lateral flap [𝼈 ]
palatal lateral flap [ʎ̮]
uvular flap [ɢ̆]
velar lateral flap [ʟ̆]
epiglottal flap [ʡ̮]
=== Trill consonants ===
bilabial trill [ʙ]
alveolar trill [r]
alveolar fricative trill [r̝]
retroflex trill
uvular trill [ʀ]
epiglottal trill
=== Lateral consonants ===
Approximants
Alveolar lateral approximant [l]
Velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ]
Fricatives
Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ]
Voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ]
Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ]
Voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆]
Voiced velar lateral fricative [ʟ̝]
Voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄]
Affricates
Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [tɬ]
Voiced alveolar lateral affricate [dɮ]
Voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆]
Ejective palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆ʼ]
Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate [tꞎ ]
Ejective retroflex lateral affricate [tꞎʼ]
Voiced velar lateral affricate [ɡʟ̝]
Voiceless velar lateral affricate [k𝼄]
Ejective velar lateral affricate [k𝼄ʼ]
Flaps
Alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]
Retroflex lateral flap [𝼈 ]
Palatal lateral flap [ʎ̯]
Ejective
Alveolar lateral ejective fricative [ɬʼ]
Clicks
Dental lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ̪]
Alveolar lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ]
=== Ejective consonants ===
Plosives
bilabial ejective [pʼ]
dental ejective [t̪ʼ]
alveolar ejective [tʼ]
retroflex ejective [ʈʼ]
palatal ejective [cʼ]
velar ejective [kʼ]
uvular ejective [qʼ]
Affricates
alveolar ejective affricate [t͜sʼ]
palato-alveolar ejective affricate [t͜ʃʼ]
retroflex ejective affricate [t͜ʂʼ]
alveolo-palatal ejective affricate [t͜ɕʼ]
dental ejective affricate [t͜θʼ]
palatal lateral ejective affricate [c͜𝼆ʼ]
velar ejective affricate [k͜xʼ]
uvular ejective affricate [q͜χʼ]
alveolar lateral ejective affricate [t͜ɬʼ]
velar lateral ejective affricate [k͜𝼄ʼ]
Fricatives
bilabial ejective fricative [ɸʼ]
labiodental ejective fricative [fʼ]
dental ejective fricative [θʼ]
alveolar ejective fricative [sʼ]
palato-alveolar ejective fricative [ ʃʼ]
alveolo-palatal ejective fricative [ɕʼ]
retroflex ejective fricative [ʂʼ]
palatal ejective fricative [çʼ]
velar ejective fricative [xʼ]
uvular ejective fricative [χʼ]
alveolar lateral ejective fricative [ɬʼ]
=== Implosive consonants ===
voiced bilabial implosive [ɓ]
voiceless bilabial implosive [ƥ]
voiced dental implosive [ɗ̪ ]
voiced alveolar implosive [ɗ ]
voiceless alveolar implosive [ƭ]
voiced retroflex implosive [ᶑ ]
voiced palatal implosive [ ʄ ]
voiceless palatal implosive [ƈ ]
voiced velar implosive [ɠ ]
voiceless velar implosive [ƙ]
voiced uvular implosive [ʛ ]
voiceless uvular implosive [ʠ ]
=== Labialized consonants ===
Plosives
voiceless labialized velar plosive [kʷ]
voiced labialized velar plosive [ɡʷ]
Voiceless labialized labial-velar plosive [k͜pʷ]
voiceless labialized uvular plosive [qʷ]
voiced labialized uvular plosive [ɢʷ]
Fricatives
voiceless labialized velar fricative [xʷ] [ʍ]
voiced labialized velar fricative [ɣʷ]
voiceless labialized uvular fricative [χʷ]
voiced labialized uvular fricative [ʁʷ]
Approximants
labialized palatal approximant [ɥ] [jʷ]
(voiced) labialized velar approximant [w] [ɰʷ]
voiceless labialized velar approximant [ʍ] [w̥]
nasal labialized velar approximant [w̃]
=== Palatalized consonants ===
voiced palatalized postalveolar fricative [ʑ]
voiceless palatalized postalveolar fricative [ɕ]
voiced palatalized postalveolar affricate [d̠͜ʑ]
voiceless palatalized postalveolar affricate [t̠͜ɕ]
voiceless palatalized velar plosive [kʲ]
=== Pharyngealized consonants ===
voiceless pharyngealized alveolar sibilant [sˤ]
voiced pharyngealized alveolar sibilant [zˤ]
voiceless pharyngealized alveolar plosive [tˤ]
voiced pharyngealized alveolar plosive [dˤ]
voiceless pharyngealized dental fricative [θˤ]
voiced pharyngealized dental fricative [ðˤ]
voiceless pharyngealized alveolar lateral fricative [ɬˤ]
voiced pharyngealized alveolar lateral fricative [ɮˤ]
pharyngealized glottal stop [ʔˤ]
pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant [lˤ]
pharyngealized alveolar nasal [nˤ]
=== Velarized consonants ===
Voiceless velarized alveolar sibilant [sˠ]
Voiced velarized dental fricative [ðˠ]
Voiceless velarized alveolar plosive [tˠ]
Velarized alveolar flap [ɾˠ]
Voiceless velarized uvular plosive [qˠ]
Voiceless velarized uvular fricative [χˠ]
Voiced velarized uvular fricative [ʁˠ]
Voiceless velarized alveolar lateral fricative [ɬˠ]
Voiced velarized alveolar lateral fricative [ɮˠ]
Velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ] [lˠ]

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=== Glottalized consonants ===
==== Reinforced airstream ====
Voiceless labioglottal plosive[ʔᵖ]
Voiceless alveologlottal plosive[ʔᵗ]
Voiceless veloglottal plosive[ʔᵏ]
==== Blocked airstream ====
Voiced glottalized alveolar nasal [nˀ]
Voiced glottalized alveolar plosive [tˀ]
Voiced glottalized dental fricative [ðˀ]
==== Restricted airstream ====
Creaky-voiced bilabial nasal [m̰]
==== Whispery voice ====
Breathy-voiced bilabial nasal [mʱ]
Breathy-voiced bilabial plosive [bʱ]
Breathy-voiced alveolar plosive [dʱ]
Breathy-voiced velar plosive [gʱ]
=== Click consonants ===
The less common clicks, such as are found in Taa, are not included.
Simple clicks
bilabial clicks (= ⟨ɋ⟩)
either velar:
voiceless bilabial click [ᵏʘ]
voiced bilabial click [ᶢʘ]
bilabial nasal click [ᵑʘ]
or uvular:
[𐞥ʘ], [𐞒ʘ], [ᶰʘ]
dental clicks (= ⟨ʇ⟩)
either velar:
voiceless dental click [ᵏǀ]
voiced dental click [ᶢǀ]
dental nasal click [ᵑǀ]
or uvular:
[𐞥ǀ], [𐞒ǀ], [ᶰǀ]
(post)alveolar click (= ⟨ʗ⟩)
either velar:
voiceless alveolar click [ᵏǃ]
voiced alveolar click [ᶢǃ]
alveolar nasal click [ᵑǃ]
or uvular:
[𐞥ǃ], [𐞒ǃ], [ᶰǃ]
alveolar lateral clicks (= ⟨ʖ⟩)
either velar:
voiceless alveolar lateral click [ᵏǁ]
voiced alveolar lateral click [ᶢǁ]
alveolar lateral nasal click [ᵑǁ]
or uvular:
[𐞥ǁ], [𐞒ǁ], [ᶰǁ]
retroflex clicks (= ⟨ψ⟩)
either velar:
voiceless retroflex click [ᵏ𝼊 ]
voiced retroflex click [ᶢ𝼊 ]
retroflex nasal click [ᵑ𝼊 ]
or uvular:
[𐞥𝼊 ], [𐞒𝼊 ], [ᶰ𝼊 ]
palatal clicks (= ⟨ 𝼋 ⟩)
either velar:
voiceless palatal click [ᵏǂ]
voiced palatal click [ᶢǂ]
palatal nasal click [ᵑǂ]
or uvular:
[𐞥ǂ], [𐞒ǂ], [ᶰǂ]
Glottalized clicks
velar (uvular clicks not shown):
glottalized bilabial nasal click [ᵑ̊ʘˀ]
glottalized dental nasal click [ᵑ̊ǀˀ]
glottalized alveolar nasal click [ᵑ̊ǃˀ]
glottalized alveolar lateral nasal click [ᵑ̊ǁˀ]
glottalized retroflex nasal click [ᵑ̊𝼊ˀ]
glottalized palatal nasal click [ᵑ̊ǂˀ]
Pulmonic-contour clicks
voiceless bilabial linguo-pulmonic stop [ʘ͡q]
voiced bilabial linguo-pulmonic stop [ʘ͡ɢ]
voiceless dental linguo-pulmonic stop [ǀ͡q]
voiced dental linguo-pulmonic stop [ǀ͡ɢ]
voiceless alveolar linguo-pulmonic stop [ǃ͡q]
voiced alveolar linguo-pulmonic stop [ǃ͡ɢ]
voiceless alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic stop [ǁ͡q]
voiced alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic stop [ǁ͡ɢ]
voiceless retroflex linguo-pulmonic stop [𝼊͡q]
voiced retroflex linguo-pulmonic stop [𝼊͡ɢ]
voiceless palatal linguo-pulmonic stop [ǂ͡q]
voiced palatal linguo-pulmonic stop [ǂ͡ɢ]
voiceless bilabial linguo-pulmonic affricate [ʘ͡χ]
voiced bilabial linguo-pulmonic affricate [ʘ͡ʁ]
voiceless dental linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǀ͡χ]
voiced dental linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǀ͡ʁ]
voiceless alveolar linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǃ͡χ]
voiced alveolar linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǃ͡ʁ]
voiceless alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǁ͡χ]
voiced alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǁ͡ʁ]
voiceless retroflex linguo-pulmonic affricate [𝼊͡χ]
voiced retroflex linguo-pulmonic affricate [𝼊͡ʁ]
voiceless palatal linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǂ͡χ]
voiced palatal linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǂ͡ʁ]
Ejective-contour clicks
bilabial linguo-glottalic stop [ʘ͡qʼ]
dental linguo-glottalic stop [ǀ͡qʼ]
alveolar linguo-glottalic stop [ǃ͡qʼ]
alveolar lateral linguo-glottalic stop [ǁ͡qʼ]
retroflex linguo-glottalic stop [𝼊͡qʼ]
palatal linguo-glottalic stop [ǂ͡qʼ]
bilabial linguo-glottalic affricate [ʘ͡χʼ]
dental linguo-glottalic affricate [ǀ͡χʼ]
alveolar linguo-glottalic affricate [ǃ͡χʼ]
alveolar lateral linguo-glottalic affricate [ǁ͡χʼ]
retroflex linguo-glottalic affricate [𝼊͡χʼ]
palatal linguo-glottalic affricate [ǂ͡χʼ]
=== Percussive consonants ===
The bilabial and bidental percussives are not found in any language, but occur as phonetic detail or through speech defects. However, the sublaminal or sublingual percussive is found in Sandawe and in some dialects of Gan Chinese.
bilabial percussive [ʬ]
bidental percussive [ʭ]
Sublaminal lower-alveolar percussive [¡]
== See also ==
Consonant
Index of phonetics articles

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This is an alphabetical list of any individuals, legendary or real, who are purported by traditions to have invented alphabets or other writing systems, whether this is proven or not.
== A ==
Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa – German alchemist, created the Transitus Fluvii, Malachim, and Celestial Alphabets, c. 1525.
Guru Angad – Sikh Guru, ascribed invention of Gurmukhi script c. 1539 according to tradition.
Anigouran – Tuareg folk hero, ascribed invention of Tifinagh according to tradition
== B ==
Celadet Bedir Khan – Kurd linguist, developed Bedirxan alphabet in 1932.
Alexander Melville Bell – American teacher, invented Visible Speech in 1867
Anton Bezenšek – Slovenian linguist, developed Bezenšek Shorthand c. 1879
Charles K. Bliss – Australian engineer, invented Blissymbolics c. 1949.
Lako Bodra – Indian railway clerk and community leader. Invented the Warang Citi script in the mid-1900s.
Robert Boyd – American, invented Boyd's Syllabic Shorthand in 1903.
Louis Braille – French teacher, invented Braille writing around 1821.
Frédéric Bruly Bouabré – Ivorian artist, invented the Bété syllabary in the mid-1950s.
Momolu Duwalu Bukele – Liberian, invented Vai syllabary around 1833.
John Byrom – British poet, invented a system of shorthand c. 1715.
== C ==
Cadmus – legendary Phoenician prince, ascribed invention of Greek alphabet c. 1350 BC (?) according to tradition.
Cangjie – legendary Chinese scribe, also ascribed invention of Chinese characters c. 2650 BC (?) according to tradition.
Carmenta – legendary Roman prophetess and mother of Evander, ascribed adoption of Greek alphabet to Latin alphabet c. 1250 BC (?) according to tradition.
Chao Yuen Ren – Chinese-American linguist, led the development of Gwoyeu Romatzyh in 1925–6.
Saint Clement of Ohrid – Archbishop, ascribed invention of Cyrillic c. 900, according to tradition.
Saint Cyril – Byzantine monk, believed to have created Glagolitic alphabet c. 863.
== D ==
John Dee – English alchemist and mathematician, invented an Enochian alphabet (not to be confused with that of Pantheus) c. 1582.
Émile Duployé – French abbot, inventor of Duployan shorthand, 1868.
Reginald John Garfield Dutton – British, invented Dutton Speedwords shorthand in 1922.
== E ==
C.C. Elian (artist) – invented Elian script, c. 1980s, a transformation of the Latin alphabet into lines and dashes, allowing for multiple variations of the same word.
Enmerkar – legendary Sumerian king, ascribed invention of cuneiform c. 2300 BC (?) according to Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta epic.
Enos – Biblical patriarch, ascribed introduction of consonantal Ge'ez alphabet c. 3350 BC (?) according to tradition.
James Evans – Canadian missionary, invented a syllabary used for Ojibwe and Cree c. 1840, these days referred to as Cree syllabics.
== F ==
Scott Fahlman – American computer scientist, proposed the first smiley emoticon in 1982.
Assane Faye – Senegalese, invented the Garay alphabet for Wolof, 1961.
Fenius Farsa – legendary Scythian king, ascribed invention of Ogham writing c. 2000 BC (?) according to tradition.
Benjamin Franklin – American statesman, developed Benjamin Franklin's phonetic alphabet c. 1768.
Frumentius – Syrian saint who converted the African kingdom of Aksum to Christianity, traditionally credited with development of consonantal Ge'ez script into vocalic Ge'ez script in the mid 4th-century.
Fu Hsi – legendary Chinese king, ascribed invention of Chinese characters c. 2850 BC (?) according to tradition.
== G ==
Franz Xaver Gabelsberger – German secretary, invented Gabelsberger shorthand around 1817.
Mangei Gomango – Indian, invented Sorang Sompeng script in 1936.
John Robert Gregg – Irish author, invented Gregg Shorthand c. 1888.
Gregory of Durrës – Albanian monk, ascribed invention of the Elbasan script c. 1761
== H ==
Thomas Harriot – English mathematician, invented phonetic alphabet for transcribing Carolina Algonquian language in 1584.
Hemadpant – A scholar from ancient India and Prime Minister in Yadava Dynasty, according to one theory invented the Modi Script that was used to write Marathi Language till 19th century before Devanagari was officially adopted to write Marathi.
Hildegard of Bingen – German nun, invented Litterae ignotae c. 1150.
Honorius of Thebes – possibly mythical author, ascribed invention of Theban alphabet c. 1220 (?).
== K ==
Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare – Somali, invented Kaddare script c. 1953.
Kisimi Kamara – Sierra Leonean tailor, invented Mende syllabary, Ki-ka-ku, in 1921.
Solomana Kante – Guinean author, invented the N'Ko alphabet in 1949.
Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, Serbian linguist, developed Serbian Cyrillic alphabet c. 1818, adapting Cyrillic alphabet.
Osman Yusuf Kenadid – Somali, invented Osmanya script c. 1921.
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī – Persian mathematician, helped codify the Hindu–Arabic numeral system c. 825
Ong Kommandam – Laotian freedom fighter, developed the Khom script, first used 1926.
Kūkai – Japanese monk, ascribed invention of Kana syllabary c. 806, according to tradition.
Shigetaka Kurita – Japanese designer, created the NTT DoCoMo emoji set.
== L ==
Jean-Marie-Raphaël Le Jeune – Canadian, created Chinook writing, 1893, an adaptation and expansion of Duployan.
Francis Lodwick – Dutch linguist, invented Universal Alphabet in 1686.
Karl Richard Lepsius – German linguist, developed Standard Alphabet by Lepsius c. 1855.
Lontanna Igwe Onduze – Nigerian software designer and artist, created the Ndèbe script c. 2008.
== M ==
Mani – Ancient Iranian prophet, invented Manichaean alphabet
Aulay Macaulay – English tea-dealer, who invented Polygraphy, a system of shorthand in 1747.
John R. Malone – American, developed the UNIFON alphabet c. 1955.
Mesrop Mashtots – Armenian monk, created the Armenian alphabet in c. 405.
Olof Melin – Swedish colonel, invented Melin Shorthand c. 1880.
Mongkut – Thai king, invented the Ariyaka script c. 1840s
Thomas More – English author, invented Utopian alphabet in 1516.
Adrien-Gabriel Morice – French, developed Carrier syllabary c. 1885.
Samuel F. B. Morse – American inventor, invented Morse code c. 1835.
Pandit Raghunath Murmu – Indian, created Ol Chiki script in 1925.
== N ==
Ibrahim Njoya – King of Bamum (Cameroon), invented Bamum script c. 1910.
Nurhaci (king), or possibly his translators Erdeni and Gagai ? – Manchurians, created Manchu alphabet in 1599.

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== O ==
Odin/*Wōdanaz – the chief god in Scandinavian/Germanic paganism. Associated in the Hávamál with the origins of the Runic alphabet Futhark (Later Futhorc).
Ogma – legendary Irish deified chieftain, also ascribed invention of Ogham writing c. 1875 BC (?) according to tradition.
== P ==
Zaya Pandita – – Oirat lama, developed Todo script in 1648.
Paracelsus – Swiss alchemist, invented Alphabet of the Magi c. 1520.
Chögyal Phagpa – Tibetan monk, invented Phagspa script in 1269.
Pharnavaz I of Iberia – Iberian king, ascribed development of Georgian alphabet in 284 BC, according to tradition.
Francisco de Pina, and other Portuguese missionaries – created the Vietnamese alphabet c. 1620s.
Isaac Pitman – British teacher, invented Pitman shorthand in 1837.
Sam Pollard – British missionary, invented Pollard script in 1905.
Parley P. Pratt – American Mormon leader, developed Deseret alphabet with George D. Watt c. 1855.
George Psalmanazar – European impostor and scholar, invented a (fraudulent) Formosan alphabet in 1704.
== R ==
Ram Khamhaeng the Great – Thai king, ascribed invention of Thai alphabet in 1283, according to tradition.
Ronald Kingsley Read – British, invented the Shavian (early 1960s) and Quikscript (1966) writing systems.
Jeremiah Rich – English, invented a system of shorthand in 1654.
Ríg – (identified as Heimdall) gave the runes to his son, Jarl (Poetic Edda poem Rígsþula) Runic alphabet Futhark (Later Futhorc) c. 150 AD (?) per tradition.
Alexandre de Rhodes – Avignonese missionary, developed Vietnamese alphabet c. 1625, basing on works by Portuguese missionaries such as Francisco de Pina.
== S ==
Carl W. Salser – American teacher, developed Personal Shorthand with C. Theo Yerian. c. 1955.
Bakri Sapalo – Oromo poet, writer, and teacher from Ethiopia, invented an alphasyllabic script for the Oromo language c. 1956.
Johann Martin Schleyer – created three letters (ꞛ, ꞝ, and ꞟ) for his international auxiliary language Volapük at the end of the 19th century.
Sejong the Great – Korean king of Joseon, invented Hangul writing in c. 1443, promulgated in 1446.
Seol Chong – inventor of the Korean Idu script and Gugyeol script (c. 650 – c. 730), according to tradition.
Sequoyah, Cherokee silversmith, invented Cherokee syllabary c. 1819.
Seth, son of Adam, is mentioned in the Chronicle of Malalas as being the "first to invent Hebrew script and to write with it"
Sheikh Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur – Somali, invented Borama script c. 1933.
Srinivasa Chakravarthy – Indian researcher, led the creation of the Bharati script (2016)
Thomas Shelton – English translator, developed Short Writing, an early shorthand, in 1626.
Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche – Tibetan religious teacher of uncertain historicity, ascribed creation of the Dongba script by religious fables.
Shong Lue Yang – Hmong, created Pahawh Hmong alphabet in 1959
Kai Staats – American filmmaker, created iConji in 2010.
Stephen of Perm – Russian missionary, invented the Old Permic alphabet in 1372.
Valerie Sutton – American choreographer, developed MovementWriting for transcribing dance in 1972 and SignWriting for transcribing sign languages in 1974.
== T ==
Tata-tonga was a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan from the Naimans and involved in bringing and adapting the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau in the form of the Mongolian script (Mongol bichig or hudum bichig). After his capture, he was invited to teach the Old Uyghur alphabet to members of the court, including the Khan's sons.
Taautus, legendary inventor of the Phoenician alphabet
Samuel Taylor – British, invented Universal Stenography system of shorthand in 1792.
Tenevil – Chukchi reindeer herder, developed a writing system for Chukchi language c. 1931.
Charles Allen Thomas – invented Thomas Natural Shorthand in 1935.
Thonmi Sambhota – legendary Tibetan scribe, ascribed invention of Tibetan script c. 650, according to tradition.
Thoth – mythical Egyptian deity, ascribed invention of Egyptian hieroglyphics c. 3000 BC (?) according to tradition.
John William Tims – Missionary, developed Blackfoot syllabary c. 1890.
Marcus Tullius Tiro – Roman secretary, ascribed invention of Tironian notes shorthand c. 63 BC, according to tradition.
J. R. R. Tolkien – British author, invented the Tengwar, Cirth and Sarati c. 1930
Johannes Trithemius – German cryptographer, invented an "Angelic" (magical) alphabet in 1499.
== U ==
Ulfilas, Goth missionary, believed to have invented Gothic alphabet c. 350 AD, according to tradition.
Uyaquk – Yupik (Alaska Native) missionary, invented Yugtun script c. 1900.
== V ==
Naum Veqilharxhi – Albanian, invented the Vithkuqi alphabet in 1845.
== W ==
Wanyan Xiyin – Manchurian scribe, invented Jurchen script in 1120.
William Bell Wait – American teacher, invented New York Point system in 1868.
Diedrich Westermann – German missionary, developed Africa Alphabet in 1928.
George D. Watt – American Mormon leader, developed Deseret alphabet with Parley P. Pratt c. 1855.
W. John (or John W.) Weilgart – Austrian-born American psychoanalyst and philosopher; creator of the philosophical language aUI and its writing system.
John Wilkins – English academic. Invented the so-called 'real character' as a writing system for a proposed Philosophical language in 1668.
== Y ==
Yeli Renrong – Tangut scholar, invented Tangut script in 1036.
Yelü Diela – Manchurian scribe, ascribed creation of Khitan small script c. 925.
== Z ==
Zhang Binglin – Chinese linguist, invented shorthand that was developed into Zhuyin in 1913.
Zhou Youguang – Chinese linguist, invented Pinyin romanisation, 1958
Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar – Mongolian monk, created Soyombo script in 1686 and Zanabazar square script.
== See also ==
List of constructed scripts
List of writing systems
List of language creators
== References ==

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Australia
Australian National University [1]
La Trobe University [2]
Macquarie University [3]
Monash University [4]
University of Adelaide [5]
University of Melbourne [6]
University of Newcastle [7]
University of New England [8]
University of New South Wales [9]
University of Queensland [10]
University of Sydney [11]
University of Western Australia [12]
University of Western Sydney [13]
Bangladesh
University of Dhaka [14]
Brazil
Universidade de São Paulo [15]
Canada
Brock University [16]
Carleton University, Ottawa [17] (BA MA) [18] (MA)
Concordia University [19]
McGill University, Montréal [20] (BA MA PhD)
McMaster University [21]
Memorial University of Newfoundland [22]
Simon Fraser University [23]
Trinity Western University [24]
Université de Montréal [25] (BA MA PhD)
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi [26] (BA MA)
Université du Québec à Montréal (BA MA PhD) [27]
Université Laval [28] (BA MA PhD)
University of Alberta [29]
University of British Columbia [30]
University of Calgary [31]
University of Manitoba [32] (BA MA PhD)
University of Ottawa, Ottawa [33] (BA MA PhD)
University of Saskatchewan [34]
University of Toronto, Toronto [35] (BA MA PhD)
University of Victoria [36]
York University, Toronto [37] (BA MA PhD)
Croatia
University of Zadar [38]
University of Zagreb [39]
Czech Republic
Charles University in Prague [40]
Denmark
Aarhus University [41]
University of Copenhagen [42]
Estonia
Tallinn University [43]
University of Tartu [44]
Finland
University of Jyväskylä [45]
Germany
Bielefeld University [46]
University of Cologne [47]
University of Leipzig [48]
Saarland University [49]
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg [50]
University of Potsdam [51]
University of Tübingen [52]
Hong Kong
The University of Hong Kong [53]
The Chinese University of Hong Kong [54]
City University of Hong Kong [55]
India
English and Foreign Languages University [56]
University of Hyderabad
Jawaharlal Nehru University
Delhi University
Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute
Iran
University of Tehran [57]
Allameh Tabatabaee University[58]
Bu-Ali Sina University[59]
Isfahan University[60]
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad[61]
Tarbiat Modares University[62]
Shiraz University[63]
Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies[64](MA PhD)
University of Birjand[65]
Netherlands
Leiden University [66]
Radboud University Nijmegen [67]
New Zealand
University of Canterbury [68]
Portugal
New University of Lisbon [69]
Russia
Moscow State University [70]
Saint Petersburg State University [71]
Serbia
University of Belgrade [72]
Singapore
Nanyang Technological University [73]
Slovenia
University of Ljubljana [74] (BA MA PhD)
Sweden
Stockholm University [75]
University of Gothenburg [76]
Uppsala University [77]
Switzerland
University of Berne [78]
University of Zurich [79]
Thailand
Chulalongkorn University [80] (MA PhD)
King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University (MA)
Mahidol University (MA PhD)
Naresuan University [81] (MA PhD)
Payap University [82] (MA)
Srinakharinwirot University [83] (MA)
Thammasat University [84] (BA MA PhD)
Turkey
Boğaziçi University [85]
Hacettepe University [86]
Ankara University [87]
United Kingdom
Bangor University [88]
University of Cambridge [89]
University of Edinburgh [90]
University of Essex [91]
Lancaster University [92]
University of Oxford [93]
Queen Mary, University of London [94]
SOAS, University of London [95]
University of York [96]
University College London [97]
York St John University [98]
United States
Boston University [99]
Brigham Young University [100]
Brandeis University [101]
Brown University [102]
Bucknell University [103]
California State University, Long Beach [104]
California State University, Northridge [105]
Carleton College [106]
Columbia University [107]
Cornell University [108] (BA MA PhD)
Dartmouth College [109]
Duke University [110]
Gallaudet University
George Mason University [111]
Georgetown University [112]
George Washington University [113]
Georgia State University [114]
Harvard [115]
Iowa State University [116]
Indiana University [117]
Lawrence University [118]
M.I.T. [119]
Miami University [120]
Michigan State University [121]
New Mexico State University [122]
New York University [123]
Northeastern [124]
Northwestern University [125]
Ohio State University [126]
Pennsylvania State University [127]
Rice University [128]
Rutgers [129]
San Diego State University [130]
Southern Illinois University Carbondale [131]
Stanford [132]
Stony Brook University [133]
Swarthmore College [134]
Truman State University [135]
University at Buffalo [136]
University of Arizona [137]
University of California, Berkeley [138]
University of California, Davis [139]
University of California, Los Angeles [140]
University of California, Riverside [141]
University of California, Santa Barbara [142]
University of California, San Diego [143]
University of California, Santa Cruz [144]
University of Chicago [145]
University of Colorado at Boulder [146]
University of Delaware [147]
University of Florida [148]
University of Georgia [149]
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa [150]
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign [151]
University of Iowa [152]
University of Kansas [153]
University of Kentucky [154]
University of Maryland [155]
University of Massachusetts Amherst [156]
University of Massachusetts Boston [157]
University of Mississippi [158]
University of Michigan [159]
University of New Mexico [160]
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [161]
University of North Dakota [162]
University of Oregon [163]
University of Pennsylvania [164]
University of Pittsburgh [165]
University of Rochester [166]
University of South Carolina [167]
University of Southern California [168]
University of Tennessee [169]
University of Texas at Austin [170]
University of Utah [171]
University of Virginia [172]
University of Washington [173]
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee [174]
Wellesley College [175]
Western Washington University [176]
Yale [177]
== See also ==
Linguistics
List of schools of linguistics
== References ==

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