From c33647f172d76b342d27b6e0ea54cf58c61111b7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 01:11:44 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 2333 new, 2693 updated, 5148 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 59854848 -> 60325888 bytes .../wiki/1974_in_spaceflight-0.md | 29 ++ .../wiki/1975_in_spaceflight-0.md | 33 ++ .../wiki/Aitym_Formation-0.md | 28 ++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton-0.md | 33 ++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton-1.md | 41 +++ ...assification_of_non-silicate_minerals-0.md | 120 +++++++ ...assification_of_non-silicate_minerals-1.md | 149 +++++++++ ...assification_of_non-silicate_minerals-2.md | 170 ++++++++++ ...assification_of_non-silicate_minerals-3.md | 190 +++++++++++ .../Classification_of_silicate_minerals-0.md | 178 ++++++++++ .../Classification_of_silicate_minerals-1.md | 47 +++ .../Classification_of_silicate_minerals-2.md | 104 ++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon-0.md | 40 +++ .../wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-0.md 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coordination +Garnet group, X3Z2(TO4)3 (X = Ca, Fe, etc., Z = Al, Cr, etc., T = Si, As, V, etc.) +Pyralspite series +Pyrope Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, Almandine (Fe2+)3Al2(SiO4)3, Spessartine (Mn2+)3Al2(SiO4)3, Knorringite Mg3Cr2(SiO4)3, Majorite Mg3(Fe,Al,Si)2(SiO4)3, Calderite (Mn2+,Ca)3(Fe3+,Al)2(SiO4)3 +Ugrandite series +Andradite Ca3(Fe3+)2(SiO4)3, Grossular Ca3Al2(SiO4)3, Uvarovite Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3, Goldmanite Ca3(V,Al,Fe3+)2(SiO4)3, Yamatoite? (Mn2+,Ca)3(V3+,Al)2(SiO4)3 +Schorlomite – Kimzeyite series +Schorlomite Ca3(Ti,Fe3+,Al)2[(Si,Fe3+,Fe2+)O4]3, Kimzeyite Ca3(Zr,Ti)2(Si,Al,Fe3+)3O12, Morimotoite Ca3TiFe2+Si3O12 +Hydrogarnet +Hibschite Ca3Al2(SiO4)3−x(OH)4x (x=0.2 to 1.5), Katoite Ca3Al2(SiO4)3−x(OH)4x (x=1.5 to 3) +Tetragonal hydrogarnet +Henritermierite Ca3(Mn,Al)2(SiO4)2(OH)4, Holtstamite Ca3(Al,Mn3+)2(SiO4)2(OH)4 +Bredigite Ca7Mg(SiO4)4, Merwinite Ca3Mg(SiO4)2, Wadalite Ca6Al5Si2O16Cl3, Rondorfite Ca8Mg(SiO4)4Cl2 + +===== "Humite" supergroup ===== +Nesosilicate insular SiO4 groups and O, OH, F, and H2O with cations in [6] coordination only +Topaz group +Topaz Al2SiO4(F,OH)2, Krieselite (Al,Ga)2(Ge,C)O4(OH)2 +Humite, general formula An(SiO4)m(F,OH)2 +Chondrodite series +Alleghanyite (Mn2+)5(SiO4)2(OH,F)2, Chondrodite (Mg,Fe,Ti)5(SiO4)2(F,OH,O)2, Reinhardbraunsite Ca5(SiO4)2(OH,F)2, Ribbeite Mn5(SiO4)2(OH)2, Kumtyubeite Ca5(SiO4)2F2 +Humite series +Humite (Mg,Fe2+)7(SiO4)3(F,OH)2, Leucophoenicite (Mn,Ca,Mg,Zn)(SiO4)3(OH)2, Manganhumite (Mn,Mg)7(SiO4)3(OH)2, Chegemite Ca7(SiO4)3(OH)2 +Clinohumite series +Clinohumite (Mg,Fe2+)9(SiO4)4(F,OH)2, Jerrygibbsite (Mn,Zn)9(SiO4)4(OH)2, Sonolite Mn9(SiO4)4(F,OH)2, Hydroxylclinohumite Mg9(SiO4)4[(OH,F)2 +Norbergite Mg3(SiO4)(F,OH)2 +Chloritoid group +Chloritoid (Fe2+,Mg,Mn)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4, Magnesiochloritoid MgAl2SiO5(OH)2, Ottrelite (Mn,Fe2+,Mg)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4, Carboirite-VIII Fe2+(Al,Ge)2O[(Ge,Si)O4](OH)2 + +==== Subclass '9.B': sorosilicates ==== + +Epidote supergroup, {A2}{M3}(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH) +Epidote group +Clinozoisite Ca2Al3(SiO4)3(OH)=Ca2AlAl2(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH), Niigataite CaSrAl3(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Epidote Ca2Fe3+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Hancockite CaPb(Al2Fe3+)(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Mukhinite Ca2Al2V3+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Piemontite Ca2Mn3+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Piemontite-(Sr) CaSrMn3+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Tweddillite CaSrMn3+2Al(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH) +Allanite group +Allanite-(Ce) CaCeAl2Fe2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Allanite-(La) CaLaFe2+Al2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Allanite-(Y) CaYAl2Fe2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Dissakisite-(Ce) CaCeMgAl2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Dissakisite-(La) CaLaMgAl2(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Ferriallanite-(Ce) CaCe3+Fe2+Fe3+Al(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH), Manganiandrosite-(Ce) (Mn2+,Ca)(Ce,REE)AlMn3+Mn2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Manganiandrosite-(La) Mn2+La3+AlMn3+Mn2+(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), Vanadoandrosite-(Ce) Mn2+Ce3+V3+AlMn2+O(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH) +Dollaseite group +Dollaseite-(Ce) CaCeMg2Al(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH)F, Khristovite-(Ce) CaCe3+(MgAlMn2+)(Si2O7)(SiO4)F(OH), Mills et al. (2009) + +==== Subclass '9.C': cyclosilicates ==== + +Tourmaline group +Alkali-Deficient Tourmaline subgroup - Foitite subgroup +Foitite [ ][(Fe2+)2(Al,Fe3+)][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Magnesiofoitite [ ][Mg2(Al,Fe3+)][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Rossmanite [ ][LiAl2][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Oxy-Rossmanite [ ][LiAl2]Al6(OH)3O(BO3)3[Si6O18] +Calcic Tourmaline subgroup - Liddicoatite subgroup +Liddicoatite [Ca][Li2Al][Al6][(OH)3|F|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Uvite CaMg3(Al5Mg)(Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)4, Feruvite [Ca][(Fe2+,Mg)3][MgAl5][(OH)3|F|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Hydroxyuvite (IMA2000-030 was not approved, but suspended) CaMg3(Al5Mg)(Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)3(OH) +Ferric Tourmaline subgroup - Buergerite subgroup +Buergerite [Na][(Fe3+)3][Al6][O3|F|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Povondraite [Na][(Fe3+)3][(Fe3+)4Mg2][(OH)3|O|(BO3)3|Si6O18] +Lithian Tourmaline subgroup - Elbaite subgroup +Olenite NaAl9B3Si6O27O3OH, Oxy-Dravite Na(MgAl2)(MgAl5)Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)3O, Elbaite Na(Al1.5Li1.5)Al6(OH)3(OH)(BO3)3Si6O18 +Sodic Tourmaline subgroup - Schorl subgroup +Dravite [Na][Mg3][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Fluor-Dravite NaMg3Al6(OH)3F(BO3)3(Si6O18), Schorl [Na][(Fe2+)3][Al6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Schorl-(F) [Na][(Fe2+)3][Al6][(OH)3|F,OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Chromdravite [Na][Mg3][(Cr3+,Fe3+)6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18], Vanadiumdravite [Na][Mg3][(V3+)6][(OH)3|OH|(BO3)3|Si6O18] +Eudialyte group +Carbokentbrooksite (Na,[ ])12(Na,Ce)3Ca6Mn3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(OH)3(CO3)•H2O +Eudialyte Na4(Ca,Ce)2(Fe2+,Mn,Y)ZrSi8O22(OH,Cl)2 (?) +Feklichevite Na11Ca9(Fe3+,Fe2+)2Zr3Nb[Si25O73](OH,H2O,Cl,O)5 +Ferrokentbrooksite Na15Ca6(Fe,Mn)3Zr3NbSi25O73(O,OH,H2O)3(Cl,F,OH)2 +Georgbarsanovite Na12(Mn,Sr,REE)3Ca6(Fe2+)3Zr3NbSi25O76Cl2•H2O +Golyshevite (Na,Ca)10Ca9(Fe3+,Fe2+)2Zr3NbSi25O72(CO3)(OH)3•H2O +Ikranite (Na,H3O)15(Ca,Mn,REE)6(Fe3+)2Zr3([ ],Zr)([ ],Si)Si24O66(O,OH)6Cl•2-3H2O +Johnsenite-(Ce) Na12(Ce,REE,Sr)3Ca6Mn3Zr3W(Si25O73)(CO3)(OH,Cl)2 +Kentbrooksite (Na,REE)15(Ca,REE)6Mn2+Zr3NbSi25O74F2•2H2O +Khomyakovite Na12Sr3Ca6Fe3Zr3W(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(OH,Cl)2 +Manganokhomyakovite Na12Sr3Ca6Mn3Zr3W(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(OH,Cl)2 +Mogovidite Na9(Ca,Na)6Ca6Fe2Zr3[ ]Si25O72(CO3)(OH)4 +Oneillite Na15Ca3Mn3(Fe2+)3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(OH,Cl)2 +Raslakite Na15Ca3Fe3(Na,Zr)3Zr3(Si,Nb)(Si25O73)(OH,H2O)3(Cl,OH) +Rastsvetaevite Na27K8Ca12Fe3Zr6Si52O144(O,OH,H2O)6Cl2 +Taseqite Na12Sr3Ca6Fe3Zr3NbSi25O73(O,OH,H2O)3Cl2 +Zirsilite-(Ce) (Na,[ ])12(Ce, Na)3Ca6Mn3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(OH)3(CO3)•H2O +Alluaivite Na19(Ca,Mn2+)6(Ti,Nb)3(Si3O9)2(Si10O28)2Cl•2H2O +Andrianovite Na12(K,Sr,Ce)3Ca6Mn3Zr3Nb(Si25O73)(O,H2O,OH)5 +Aqualite (H3O)8(Na,K,Sr)5Ca6Zr3Si26O66(OH)9Cl +Dualite Na30(Ca,Na,Ce,Sr)12(Na,Mn,Fe,Ti)6Zr3Ti3MnSi51O144(OH,H2O,Cl)9 +Labyrinthite (Na,K,Sr)35Ca12Fe3Zr6TiSi51O144(O,OH,H2O)9Cl3, Mills et al. (2009) + +==== Subclass '9.D': inosilicates ==== + + +===== Single chain inosilicates ===== +Astrophyllite group +Astrophyllite K2Na(Fe2+,Mn)7Ti2Si8O26(OH)4 +Magnesioastrophyllite K2Na[Na(Fe2+,Fe3+,Mn)Mg2]Ti2Si8O26(OH)4F +Hydroastrophyllite (H3O,K)2Ca(Fe3+,Mn)5-6Ti2Si8O26(OH)4F +Niobophyllite K2Na(Fe2+,Mn)7(Nb,Ti)2Si8O26(OH)4(F,O) +Zircophyllite K2(Na,Ca)(Mn,Fe2+)7(Zr,Nb)2Si8O26(OH)4F +Kupletskite K2Na(Mn,Fe2+)7(Ti,Nb)2Si8O26(OH)4F +Kupletskite-(Cs) (Cs,K)2Na(Mn,Fe2+,Li)7(Ti,Nb)2Si8O26(OH)4F +Niobokupletskite K2Na(Mn,Zn,Fe)7(Nb,Zr,Ti)2Si8O26(OH)4(O,F), Mills et al. (2009) +Sapphirine supergroup +Sapphirine group +Khmaralite (Mg,Al,Fe)16(Al,Si,Be)12O40, Sapphirine (Mg,Al)8(Al,Si)6O20 +Aenigmatite group +Aenigmatite (Na,Ca)4(Fe2+,Ti,Mg)12Si12O40, Krinovite NaMg2CrSi3O10, Wilkinsonite Na2(Fe2+)4(Fe3+)2Si6O20 +Rhoenite group +Dorrite Ca2Mg2(Fe3+)4(Al,Fe3+)4Si2O20, Hogtuvaite (Ca,Na)2(Fe2+,Fe3+,Ti,Mg,Mn)6(Si,Be,Al)6O20, Makarochkinite Ca2(Fe2+)4Fe3+TiSi4BeAlO20, Rhonite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Ti)6(Si,Al)6O20, Serendibite Ca2(Mg,Al)6(Si,Al,B)6O20, Welshite Ca4Mg9Sb3O4[Si6Be3AlFe2O36] +Surinamite (Mg,Fe2+)3Al4BeSi3O16, Mills et al. (2009) + +====== Pyroxene supergroup ====== + +Orthopyroxene group +Donpeacorite (Mn2+,Mg)Mg[SiO3]2, Enstatite MgSiO3, Ferrosilite, FeSiO3 +Clinopyroxene group +Aegirine NaFe3+Si2O6, Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe2+,Al,Fe3+,Ti)[(Si,Al)2O6], Clinoenstatite MgSiO3, Clinoferrosilite Fe2+SiO3, Diopside CaMg[Si2O6], Esseneite CaFe3+[AlSiO6], Grossmanite CaTi3+AlSiO6, Hedenbergite CaFe2+[Si2O6], Jadeite Na(Al,Fe3+)[Si2O6], Jervisite (Na,Ca,Fe2+)(Sc,Mg,Fe2+)[Si2O6], Johannsenite CaMn2+[Si2O6], Kanoite Mn2+(Mg,Mn2+)[Si2O6], Kosmochlor NaCr[Si2O6], Kushiroite CaAl[Si2O6], Namansilite NaMn3+[Si2O6], Natalyite Na(V3+,Cr)[Si2O6], Petedunnite Ca(Zn,Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)[Si2O6], Pigeonite (Mg,Fe2+,Ca)(Mg,Fe2+)Si2O6, Spodumene LiAlSi2O6 + +===== Multiple chain inosilicates ===== +Note: the amphibole subcommittee (CNMNC/ IMA) published many reports (IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2003 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p.), renaming and redefining many minerals. Working draft: rruff.info, mindat.org and mineralienatlas.de are not up to date yet. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d2b48be48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Classification of silicate minerals" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +====== Amphibole supergroup ====== +w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: calcic subgroup +Cannilloite root name: fluoro-cannilloite CaCa2Mg4Al(Si5Al3)O22(OH)2 (1993-033, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from cannilloite) +Edenite root name: edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1839, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-edenite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), fluoro-edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(F,OH)2|AlSi7O22] (IMA 1994-059, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Hastingsite root name: hastingsite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1896, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-fluoro-hastingsite (Na,K)Ca2(Mg,Fe3+,Ti)5(Si,Al)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-magnesiohastingsite), magnesio-hastingsite Na[Ca2][Mg4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1928, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohastingsite), potassic-fluoro-hastingsite KCa2((Fe2+)2,Mg2,Fe3+)S5(Si6Al2)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-006, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassichastingsite), potassic-chloro-hastingsite KCa2(Mg4Al)(Si6Al2)O22Cl2 (IMA 2005-007, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from chloro-potassicpargasite, syn. dashkesanite), potassic-magnesio-hastingsite (K,Na)Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,Cl)2 (IMA 2004-027b, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-magnesiohastingsite) +Joesmithite PbCa2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)5Si6Be2O22(OH)2 (1968, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Magnesio-hornblende root name: ferro-hornblende [Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1930, IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p. Rn from ferro-hornblende, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrohornblende), magnesio-hornblende [Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1965, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohornblende) +Pargasite root name: chromio-pargasite (IMA 2011-023, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ehimeite), ferro-pargasite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1961, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferropargasite), fluoro-pargasite NaCa2(Mg3Fe2+Al)5(Si6Al2O22)F2 (IMA 2003-050, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoropargasite), pargasite [Na][Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1815, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), potassic-chloro-pargasite KCa2((Fe2+)3MgFe3+)(Si6Al2)S8O22Cl2 (IMA 2001-036, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from chloro-potassichastingsite), potassic-ferro-pargasite KCa2((Fe2+)4Al)Si6Al2O22(OH)2 (IMA 2007-053, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-ferropargasite), potassic-fluoro-pargasite (IMA 2009-091, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassic-pargasite), potassic-pargasite [K][Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (IMA 1994-046, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassicpargasite) +Sadanagaite root name: potassic-ferro-ferri-sadanagaite [K][Ca2][(Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2][(OH)2|Al3Si5O22] (IMA 1997-035, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-ferrisadanagaite), potassic-ferro-sadanagaite KCa2Fe2+3(Al,Fe3+)2(Si5Al3)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1980-027, 2004 Rd, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd Rn from sadanagaite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassicsadanagaite), potassic-sadanagaite (K,Na)Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Al,Ti)5[(Si,Al)8O22] (IMA 1982-102, 2004 Rd, IMA 2003 s.p. Rn from magnesio-sadanagaite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-magnesiosadanagaite), sadanagaite [Na][Ca2][Mg3Al2][(OH)2|Al3Si5O22] (1984, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd Rn from sadanagaite, IMA 2002-051, 2004 Rn from potassic-magnesiosadanagaite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiosadanagaite) +Tremolite-actinolite root name: actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)5(Si8O22)(OH)2 (1794, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-actinolite [Ca2][(Fe2+,Mg)5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), tremolite [Ca2][Mg5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1789, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Tschermakite root name: tschermakite [Ca2][Mg3Fe3+Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1945, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: lithium subgroup +Clino-holmquistite root name: clino-ferro-ferri-holmquistite ☐Li2((Fe3+)2(Fe2+)3)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 1997 s.p., 2001-066, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferri-clinoferroholmquistite) +Holmquistite root name: ferro-holmquistite ☐(Li2(Fe2+)3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2004-030, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), holmquistite ☐(Li2Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1913, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Pedrizite root name: ferri-pedrizite NaLi2((Fe3+)2Mg2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-032, IMA 2003 s.p. discredited, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd revalidated), ferro-ferri-pedrizite NaLi2((Fe3+)2(Fe2+)3)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2003 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from sodic-ferro-ferripedrizite), ferro-fluoro-pedrizite NaLi2(Fe2+)2Al2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2008-070, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-sodic-ferropedrizite), fluoro-pedrizite NaLi2(Mg2Al2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2004-002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-sodic-pedrizite) +w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: Mg-Fe-Mn subgroup +Anthophyllite root name: anthophyllite ☐Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 (1801, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-anthophyllite ☐(Fe2+)7Si8O22(OH)2 (1821, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), proto-anthophyllite (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-065, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), protoferro-anthophyllite (Fe2+,Mn2+)2(Fe2+,Mg)5(Si4O11)2(OH)2 (IMA 1986-006, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), protomangano-ferro-anthophyllite (Mn2+,Fe2+)2(Fe2+,Mg)5(Si4O11)2(OH)2 (IMA 1986-007, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Gedrite root name: ferro-gedrite ☐(Fe2+)5Al2Si6Al2O22(OH)2 (1939, IMA 1978 s.p. Rn, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrogedrite), gedrite ☐Mg5Al2Si6Al2O22(OH)2 (1836, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Minerals: cummingtonite ☐Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 (1824, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), grunerite ☐(Fe2+)7Si8O22(OH)2 (1853, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: sodic subgroup +Arfvedsonite root name: arfvedsonite NaNa2((Fe2+)4Fe3+)Si8O22(OH)2 (1823, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-arfvedsonite NaNa2(Mg4Fe2+)Si8O22(OH)2 (1957, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite NaNa2(Mg,Fe2+)4Fe3+[Si8O22](F,OH)2 (IMA 1998-056, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-magnesio-arfvedsonite), potassic-arfvedsonite KNa2(Fe2+)4Fe3+Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2003-043, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), potassic-magnesio-fluoro-arfvedsonite KNa2(Mg4Fe3+)Si8O22F2 (IMA 1985-023, 2006 Rn from potassium fluor-magnesio-arfvedsonite, 2010 Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassic-magnesio-arfvedsonite) +Eckermannite root name: eckermannite NaNa2(Mg4Al)Si8O22(OH)2 (1942, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), mangano-ferri-eckermannite NaNa2(Mn2+)4(Fe3+,Al)Si8O22(OH)2 (1968-028, IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from kôzulite) +Glaucophane root name: ferro-glaucophane ☐Na2((Fe2+)3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1957, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferroglaucophane), glaucophane ☐Na2(Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1963, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Leakeite root name: ferri-fluoro-leakeite NaNa2(Mg2Fe3+2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2009-085, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoroleakeite), ferri-leakeite Na(NaLi)(Mg2(Fe3+)2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-069, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferriwhittakerite), ferro-ferri-fluoro-leakeite NaNa2((Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 1993-026, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-ferroleakeite), fluoro-leakeite NaNa2(Mg2Al2Li)Si8O22F2 (IMA 2009-012, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-aluminoleakeite), potassic-ferri-leakeite KNa2Mg2(Fe3+)2LiSi8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2001-049, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassicleakeite), potassic-leakeite KNa2(Mg2Al2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (2002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), potassic-mangani-leakeite KNa2(Mg2Mn3+2Li)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 1992-032, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from kornite) +Nybøite root name: ferro-ferri-nybøite NaNa2(Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferric-ferronyboite), fluoro-nybøite NaNa2(Al2Mg3)(Si7Al)O22(F,OH)2 (IMA 2002-010, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoronybøite), nybøite NaNa2(Mg3Al2)Si7AlO22(OH)2 (1981, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Riebeckite root name: fluoro-riebeckite ☐Na2(Fe2+3Fe3+2)Si8O22F2 (1966, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-riebeckite ☐Na2[(Mg,Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2]Si8O22(OH)2 (1957, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), riebeckite ☐Na2((Fe2+)3(Fe3+)2)Si8O22(OH)2 (1888, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: sodic-calcic subgroup +Barroisite root name: barroisite [CaNa][Mg3AlFe3+][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1922, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Katophorite root name: ferri-fluoro-katophorite Na(NaCa)(Mg4Fe3+)(Si7Al)O22F2 (IMA 2012 s.p.), ferri-katophorite Na2Ca(Fe2+,Mg)4Fe3+(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrikatophorite), ferro-katophorite Na(NaCa)(Fe2+4Al)(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (1894, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn), katophorite Na(NaCa)(Mg4Al)(Si7Al)O22(OH)2 (1894, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Richterite root name: ferro-richterite Na[CaNa][(Fe2+)5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrorichterite), fluoro-richterite Na(CaNa)Mg5[Si8O22]F2 (IMA 1992-020, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluororichterite), potassic-fluoro-richterite K[CaNa][Mg5][(F,OH)2|Si8O22] (IMA 1986-046, IMA 2004 s.p. Rn from potassium-fluorrichterite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassicrichterite), richterite Na[CaNa][Mg5][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1865, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Taramite root name: ferro-taramite Na[CaNa][(Fe2+)3Al2][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (IMA 2006-023, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from aluminotaramite), fluoro-taramite Na2CaMg3Al2(Si6Al2)O22F2 (IMA 2006-025, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-alumino-magnesiotaramite), potassic-ferro-ferri-taramite K(CaNa)(Fe2+3Fe3+2)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 (IMA 1964-003, IMA 1978 s.p. Rn from mboziite, IMA 1997 s.p. Rn from ferri-taramite, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferritaramite, Erratum 2013 Rd Rn from ferro-ferri-taramite), potassic-ferro-taramite K(CaNa)(Fe2+3Al2)(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 (IMA 2007-015, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-aluminotaramite), taramite Na2CaMg3Al2(Si6Al2)O22(OH)2 (IMA 2006-024, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from alumino-magnesiotaramite) +Winchite root name: ferri-winchite (☐,Na)(Na,Ca)2(Mg,Fe2+)4Fe3+[Si8O22](OH)2 (IMA 2004-034, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferriwinchite), ferro-winchite [CaNa][(Fe2+)4(Al,Fe3+)][(OH)2|Si8O22] (IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrowinchite), winchite [CaNa][Mg4(Al,Fe3+)][(OH)2|Si8O22] (1906, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: Na-Mg-Fe-Mn subgroup +Ghoseite root name: ferri-ghoseite Na(NaMn2+)(Mg4Fe3+)Si8O22(OH)2 (IMA 2003-066, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from parvowinchite) +w(O)-dominant amphibole group +Kaersutite root name: ferri-kaersutite NaCa2(Mg3Fe3+Ti)(Si6Al2)O22O2 (IMA 2011-035, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrikaersutite), kaersutite NaCa2(Mg4Ti)(Si6Al2)O23(OH) (IMA 1997 s.p., IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) +Minerals: mangani-dellaventuraite NaNa2(Mg2,Mn3+,Li,Ti)Si8O22O2 (IMA 2003-061, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from dellaventuraite), mangano-mangani-ungarettiite NaNa2((Mn2+)2(Mn3+)3)Si8O22O2 (IMA 1994-004, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ungarettiite) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c61adafa8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +--- +title: "Classification of silicate minerals" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Subclass '9.E': phyllosilicates ==== + +Category:Clay minerals group +Category:Medicinal clay +Category:Mica group +Category:Serpentine group/ Kaolinite-Serpentine group +Category:Smectite group/ Montmorillonite group +Pyrophyllite-Talc group +Chlorite group: Clinochlore, Nimite, Pennantite, Baileychlore, Cookeite, Donbassite, Gonyerite, Odinite, Sudoite, Orthochamosite + +==== Subclass '9.F': tectosilicates ==== + + +===== Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O ===== +Category:Quartz varieties +Feldspar family +Feldspathoid family +Sodalite group +Helvine group +Category:Cancrinite group + +===== Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O ===== +Category:Zeolite group +Alflarsenite NaCa2Be3Si4O13(OH)•2H2O +Zeolites with T5O10 Units – fibrous zeolites +Natrolite subgroup +Gonnardite (Na,Ca)2(Si,Al)5O10·3H2O, Mesolite Na2Ca2Si9Al6O30·8H2O, Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O, Paranatrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·3H2O, Scolecite CaAl2Si3O10·3H2O +Tetranatrolite? Na2[Al2Si3O10]•2H2O, Thomsonite-Sr (Sr,Ca)2Na[Al5Si5O20]•7H2O, Thomsonite-Ca NaCa2Al5Si5O20•6H2O, Kalborsite K6Al4Si6BO20(OH)4Cl, Edingtonite BaAl2Si3O10•4H2O +Chains of single connected 4-membered rings +Ammonioleucite (NH4,K)AlSi2O6, Leucite KAlSi2O6, Analcime NaAlSi2O6•H2O, Hsianghualite Ca3Li2Be3(SiO4)3F2, Lithosite K6Al4Si8O25•H2O, Pollucite (Cs,Na)2Al2Si4O12•H2O, Wairakite CaAl2Si4O12•2H2O, Laumontite CaAl2Si4O12•4H2O, Yugawaralite CaAl2Si6O16•4H2O, Roggianite Ca2[Be(OH)2Al2Si4O13]•2.5H2O, Goosecreekite CaAl2Si6O16•5H2O, Montesommaite (K,Na)9Al9Si23O64•10H2O, Partheite Ca2Al4Si4O15(OH)2•4H2O +Chains of doubly connected 4-membered rings +Amicite K2Na2Al4Si4O16•5H2O, Garronite Na2Ca5Al12Si20O64•27H2O, Gobbinsite (Na2,Ca)2K2Al6Si10O32•12H2O, Gismondine Ca2Al4Si4O16•9H2O, Harmotome (Ba,Na,K)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Na (Na,K,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Ca (Ca,K,Na)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-K (K,Na,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Merlinoite (K,Ca,Na,Ba)7Si23Al9O64•23H2O, Mazzite-Mg K2CaMg2(Al,Si)36O72•28H2O, Mazzite-Na Na8Al8Si28O72•30H2O, Perlialite K8Tl4Al12Si24O72•20H2O, Boggsite NaCa2(Al5Si19O48)•17H2O, Paulingite-Ca (Ca,K,Na,Ba)5[Al10Si35O84]•34H2O, Paulingite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O, Paulingite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O +Chains of 6-membered rings – tabular zeolites +Gmelinite-Ca (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Gmelinite-K (K,Na,Ca)6(Al7Si17O48)•22H2O, Gmelinite-Na (Na2,Ca)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Chabazite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Ca (Ca0.5,Na,K)4[Al4Si8O24]•12H2O, Chabazite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Sr (Sr,Ca,K2,Na2)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Herschelite? (Na,Ca,K)AlSi2O6•3H2O, Willhendersonite KCaAl3Si3O12•5H2O, Levyne-Ca (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Levyne-Na (Na2,Ca,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Bellbergite (K,Ba,Sr)2Sr2Ca2(Ca,Na)4Al18Si18O72•30H2O, Erionite-Ca (Ca,K2,Na2)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Erionite-K (K2,Ca,Na2)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Erionite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Wenkite Ba4Ca6(Si,Al)20O39(OH)2(SO4)3•nH2O (?), Offretite (K2,Ca,Mg)2.5Al5Si13O36•15H2O, Faujasite-Ca (Ca,Na2,Mg)3.5[Al7Si17O48]•32H2O, Faujasite-Mg (Mg,Na2,Ca)3.5[Al7Si17O48]•32H2O, Faujasite-Na (Na2,Ca,Mg)3.5[Al7Si17O48]•32H2O, Maricopaite Pb7Ca2(Si,Al)48O100•32H2O, Mordenite (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si10O24•7H2O, Dachiardite-Ca (Ca,Na2,K2)5Al10Si38O96•25H2O, Dachiardite-Na (Na2,Ca,K2)4Al4Si20O48•13H2O, Epistilbite CaAl2Si6O16•5H2O, Ferrierite-K (K,Na)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36•9H2O, Ferrierite-Mg (Mg,Na,K)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36•9H2O, Ferrierite-Na (Na,K)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36•9H2O, Bikitaite Li2[Al2Si4O12]•2H2O +Chains of T10O20 tetrahedra +Clinoptilolite-Na (Na,K,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Clinoptilolite-K (Na,K,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Clinoptilolite-Ca (Ca,Na,K)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-Ba (Ba,Ca,K,Na,Sr)5Al9Si27O72•22H2O, Heulandite-Ca (Ca,Na)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-K (K,Na,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-Na (Na,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Heulandite-Sr (Sr,Na,Ca)(2-3)Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12H2O, Stilbite-Ca NaCa4[Al8Si28O72]•nH2O (⁠ + + + + + 28 + ≤ + n + ≤ + 32 + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle 28\leq n\leq 32} + +⁠), Stilbite-Na Na3Ca3[Al8Si28O72]•nH2O (⁠ + + + + + 28 + ≤ + n + ≤ + 32 + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle 28\leq n\leq 32} + +⁠), Barrerite (Na,K,Ca)2Al2Si7O18•6H2O, Stellerite CaAl2Si7O18•7H2O, Brewsterite-Ba (Ba,Sr)Al2Si6O16•5H2O, Brewsterite-Sr (Sr,Ba)Al4Si12O32•10H2O +Other rare zeolites +Terranovaite (Na,Ca)8(Si68Al12)O160•29H2O, Gottardiite Na3Mg3Ca5Al19Si117O272•93H2O, Lovdarite K2Na6Be4Si14O36•9H2O, Gaultite Na4Zn2Si7O18•5H2O, Chiavennite CaMnBe2Si5O13(OH)2•2H2O, Tschernichite (Ca,Na)(Si6Al2)O16•(4-8)H2O, Mutinaite Na3Ca4Si85Al11O192•60H2O, Tschortnerite Ca4(Ca,Sr,K,Ba)3Cu3(OH)8[Si12Al12O48]•xH2O, ⁠ + + + + + x + ≥ + 20 + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle x\geq 20} + +⁠, Thornasite Na12Th3[Si8O19]4•18H2O, Direnzoite NaK6MgCa2(Al13Si47O120)•36H2O +Unclassified zeolites +Cowlesite CaAl2Si3O10•(5-6)H2O, Mountainite (Ca,Na2,K2)2Si4O10•3H2O + +==== Subclass: Germanates ==== + + +== See also == + +Classification of non-silicate minerals – List of IMA recognized minerals and groupings +Crystal system – Classification of crystalline materials by their three-dimensional structural geometry +List of rock types + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03bd6bfd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Concepticon" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:23.469181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Concepticon is an open-source online lexical database of linguistic concept lists (word lists). It links concept labels (i.e., word list glosses) in concept lists (i.e., word lists) to concept sets (i.e., standardized word meanings). +It is part of the Cross-Linguistic Linked Data (CLLD) project, which is hosted by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Jena, Germany. Version 1.0 was released in 2016. + + +== Concept == +Concept lists in the Concepticon include: + +Swadesh list (100 items, 207 items, etc.) +Swadesh–Yakhontov list +Dolgopolsky list +Leipzig–Jakarta list +ASJP list + + +== See also == +Conceptualization (information science) +Ontology (information science) +Intercontinental Dictionary Series + + +== References == + +List, Johann Mattis & Rzymski, Christoph & Greenhill, Simon & Schweikhard, Nathanael & Pianykh, Kristina & Tjuka, Annika & Hundt, Carolin & Forkel, Robert (eds.) 2021. CLLD Concepticon 2.5.0 [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.4911605 + + +== External links == +Official website +Langavia Dictionary +Synonyms Dictionary +Concepticon on GitHub \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bbb96ab8f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Cyrillic alphabets" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the theologians Cyril and Methodius. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. The creator is Saint Clement of Ohrid from the Preslav literary school in the First Bulgarian Empire. +Some of these are illustrated below; for others, and for more detail, see the links. Sounds are transcribed in the IPA. While these languages largely have phonemic orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian ⟨г⟩ is pronounced /v/ in a number of words, an orthographic relic from when they were pronounced /ɡ/ (e.g. его yego 'him/his', is pronounced [jɪˈvo] rather than [jɪˈɡo]). +Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially й (y/j/i), but also г (gh/g/h) and ж (zh/j). +Unlike the Latin script, which is usually adapted to different languages by adding diacritical marks/supplementary glyphs (such as acutes and carons) to standard Roman letters, by assigning new phonetic values to existing letters (e.g. ⟨q⟩, whose original value in Latin was /kʷ/, represents /g/ in Azerbaijani, /t͡ɕʰ/ in Mandarin Chinese Pinyin, /q/ in a lot of other languages and /ǃ/ in some Bantu languages), or by the use of digraphs (such as ⟨sh⟩), the Cyrillic script is usually adapted by the creation of entirely new letter shapes. However, in some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as Chuvash, umlauts and breves also were used. +Bulgarian and Bosnian Sephardim without Hebrew typefaces occasionally printed Judeo-Spanish in Cyrillic. + +== Spread == +Non-Slavic alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for Caucasian languages. The first few of these alphabets were developed by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of Idel-Ural (Mari, Udmurt, Mordva, Chuvash, and Kerashen Tatars) in the 1870s. Later, such alphabets were created for some of the Siberian and Caucasus peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the 1930s, some of those languages were switched to the New Turkic Alphabet. All of the peoples of the former Soviet Union who had been using an Arabic or a different Asian script also adopted Cyrillic alphabets, and during the Great Purge in the late 1930s, all of the Latin alphabets of the peoples of the Soviet Union were switched to Cyrillic as well (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940, and were not affected by this change). The Abkhazian and Ossetian languages were switched to the Mkhedruli script, but after the death of Joseph Stalin, both also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the Gagauz language, which had used Greek script before. +In Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, the use of Cyrillic to write local languages has often been a politically controversial issue since the collapse of the Soviet Union, as it evokes the era of Soviet rule and Russification. Some of Russia's peoples such as the Tatars have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law. A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to either a Roman-based orthography or a return to a former script. +Cyrillic alphabets continue to be used in several Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Belarusian) and non-Slavic (Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Gagauz, Mongolian) languages. + +== Common letters == +The following table lists the Cyrillic letters which are used in the alphabets of most of the national languages which use a Cyrillic alphabet. Exceptions and additions for particular languages are noted below. + +== Slavic languages == +Cyrillic alphabets used by Slavic languages can be divided into two categories: + +West South Slavic languages, such as all varieties of Serbo-Croatian, often share the following letters, among others: Ј, Љ, Њ +East South Slavic languages and East Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Russian, often share the following letters, among others: Й, Щ, Ь (soft sign), Ю, Я + +=== South Slavic === + +==== Bulgarian ==== + +The Bulgarian alphabet shows the following features: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f429d61d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Cyrillic alphabets" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Bulgarian names for the consonants are [bɤ], [kɤ], [ɫɤ] (bǔ, kǔ, lǔ) etc. instead of [bɛ], [ka], [ɛl] (be, ka, el) etc. +Е represents /ɛ/ and is called "е" [ɛ]. Unlike in other Slavic languages, the sound [jɛ] does not exist in native words, being replaced with Е in most cases. +The sounds /dʒ/ (/d͡ʒ/) and /dz/ (/d͡z/) are represented by the digraphs дж and дз respectively, as in Belarusian and Ukrainian. +Short I (Й, й) represents /j/, as in Russian. +Щ represents /ʃt/ (/ʃ͡t/) and is called "щъ" [ʃtɤ] ([ʃ͡tɤ]). +Ъ represents the vowel /ɤ/, and is called "ер голям" (IPA: [ˈɛr ɡoˈʎam]) ('big er'). Despite the official name being "big er", the letter is only referred to as that in the context of the alphabet, and is usually called /ɤ/ in common speech. The vowel Ъ /ɤ/ is sometimes approximated to the /ə/ (schwa) sound found in many languages for easier comprehension of its Bulgarian pronunciation for foreigners, but it is actually a back vowel, not a central vowel. +Ь is used on rare occasions (only after a consonant [and] before the vowel "о"), such as in the words 'каньон' (canyon), 'шофьор' (driver/chauffeur), etc. It represents the sound [j], unless after Г, К and Л, in which case it palatalizes them to [ɟ], [c] and [ʎ]. It is called "ер малък" [ˈɛr ˈmalɐk] ('small er'). +Before 1945, the letter Ѣ (yat) was used. In eastern dialects, the letter would be pronounced as [ɛ] or [ja] depending on the context, while in western dialects, it would be pronounced almost exclusively as [ɛ]. This led to cases in which words such as млѣко (Modern Bulgarian: мляко) would be pronounced as "mlyako" in the east, but as "mleko" in the west. In 1945, the letter was abolished and replaced by Я or Е, depending on its use in the eastern dialects. The letter is also referred to as "е двойно" (double e). +Before 1945, the letter Ѫ (big yus) was used. In early Bulgarian, the letter represented the nasal vowel [ɔ̃]. By the late 18th century however, the sound had shifted to /ɤ/, the same sound as Ъ, and was mostly used in its etymological locations. There are no differences between the two, apart from the fact that Ѫ can be used at the end of words. In 1945, the letter was abolished along with Ѣ (yat) and was replaced by А or Ъ. It is sometimes referred to as "голяма носовка" (big nasal sign) and "ъ широко" (wide ъ). +For a brief period, the letter Ѭ (iotated big yus) was used, during the use of the Drinov Orthography, and represented the sound [jɐ] or /jɤ/ in words verb conjugations, for example in търпѭ (IPA: /tɐrˈpjɤ/). The letter Ѫ was also used for the same purpose alongside its normal usage. In 1899, both letters replaced in verb conjugations by Я and А in all cases as part of the new Ivanchov Orthography. +The Cyrillic alphabet was originally developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th – 10th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. +It has been used in Bulgaria (with modifications and exclusion of certain archaic letters via spelling reforms) continuously since then, superseding the previously used Glagolitic alphabet, which was also invented and used there before the Cyrillic script overtook its use as a written script for the Bulgarian language. The Cyrillic alphabet was used in the then much bigger territory of Bulgaria (including most of today's Serbia), North Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania, Northern Greece (Macedonia region), Romania and Moldova, officially from 893. It was also transferred from Bulgaria and adopted by the East Slavic languages in Kievan Rus' and evolved into the Russian alphabet and the alphabets of many other Slavic (and later non-Slavic) languages. Later, some Slavs modified it and added/excluded letters from it to better suit the needs of their own language varieties. + +==== Serbian ==== + +South Slavic Cyrillic alphabets (with the exception of Bulgarian) are generally derived from Serbian Cyrillic. It, and by extension its descendants, differs from the East Slavic ones in that the alphabet has generally been simplified: Letters such as Й, Я, Ю, and Щ representing /j/, /ja/, /ju/, and /ɕ(ː)/ in Russian, respectively, have been removed. Instead, these are represented by the letter ⟨Ј⟩ and digraphs ⟨ја⟩, ⟨ју⟩, and ⟨шч/шт⟩, respectively. Additionally, the letter Е, representing /je/ in Russian, is instead pronounced /e/ or /ɛ/, with /je/ being represented by ⟨је⟩. Alphabets based on the Serbian that add new letters often do so by adding an acute accent ⟨´⟩ over an existing letter. + +The Serbian alphabet shows the following features: + +E represents /ɛ/. +Between Д and E is the letter Dje (Ђ, ђ), representing /dʑ/, which looks like Tshe, except that the loop of the h curls farther and dips downwards. +Between И and К is the letter Je (Ј, ј), representing /j/, which looks like the Latin letter J. +Between Л and М is the letter Lje (Љ, љ), representing /ʎ/, which looks like a ligature of Л and the Soft Sign. +Between Н and О is the letter Nje (Њ, њ), representing /ɲ/, which looks like a ligature of Н and the Soft Sign. +Between Т and У is the letter Tshe (Ћ, ћ), representing /tɕ/ and looks like a lowercase Latin letter h with a bar. On the uppercase letter, the bar appears at the top; on the lowercase letter, the bar crosses the top at half of the vertical line. +Between Ч and Ш is the letter Dzhe (Џ, џ), representing /dʒ/, which looks like Tse but with the descender moved from the right side of the bottom bar to the middle of the bottom bar. +Ш is the last letter. +Certain letters are handwritten differently, as seen in the adjacent image. + +==== Montenegrin ==== + +The Montenegrin alphabet differs from Serbian in the following ways: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b46f62b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Cyrillic alphabets" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter З́, which represents /ʑ/ (voiced alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ź ź⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Zj zj⟩ or ⟨Žj žj⟩. +Between Es (С с) and Te (Т т) is the letter С́, which represents /ɕ/ (voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ś ś⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Sj sj⟩ or ⟨Šj šj⟩. +The letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), from Macedonian, is used in scientific literature when representing the /d͡z/ phoneme, although it is not officially part of the alphabet. A Latin equivalent was proposed that looks identical to Ze (З з). + +==== Macedonian ==== + +The Macedonian alphabet differs from Serbian in the following ways: + +Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), which looks like the Latin letter S and represents /d͡z/. +Dje (Ђ ђ) is replaced by Gje (Ѓ ѓ), which represents /ɟ/ (voiced palatal stop). In some dialects, it represents /d͡ʑ/ instead, like Dje. It is written ⟨Ǵ ǵ⟩ in the corresponding Macedonian Latin alphabet. +Tshe (Ћ ћ) is replaced by Kje (Ќ ќ), which represents /c/ (voiceless palatal stop). In some dialects, it represents /t͡ɕ/ instead, like Tshe. It is written ⟨Ḱ ḱ⟩ in the corresponding Macedonian Latin alphabet. +Lje (Љ љ) often represents the consonant cluster /lj/ instead of /ʎ/. +Certain letters are handwritten differently, as seen in the adjacent image. + +==== Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian ==== + +Ćiro Truhelka claimed Serbo-Croatian language briefly used the Cyrillic script in areas with large Croatian or Bosnian speaking populations. There is a controversy in naming. Bosniak scholars call it Bosnian Script. Serb scholars call it Serbian script, as part of variant of Serbian Cyrillic and deem the term "bosančica" Anti-Serb Austro-Hungarian propaganda. Croat scholars call it Croatian Cyrillic + +=== East Slavic === + +==== Russian ==== + +The Russian alphabet shows the following features: + +Yo (Ё ё) indicates /jo/. +As /f/ is not a native phoneme, the letter Ef (Ф ф) is generally restricted to loanwords/borrowed words. +Zhe (Ж ж) and Sha (Ш ш) indicate sounds that are retroflex. +Shcha (Щ щ) indicates /ɕ(ː)/. +The hard sign¹ (Ъ ъ), called “твёрдый знак” in Russian, indicates the lack of palatalization in a context where the consonant would usually be palatalized². +Yery (Ы ы) indicates [ɨ] (an allophone of /i/). +E (Э э) indicates /ɛ/. +Notes: + +In the pre-reform Russian orthography, in Old Russian and in Old Church Slavonic the letter is called yer. Historically, the "hard sign" takes the place of a now-absent vowel, which is still preserved as a distinct vowel in Bulgarian (which represents it with ъ) and Slovene (which is written in the Latin alphabet and writes it as e), but only in some places in the word. +When an iotated vowel (vowel whose sound begins with [j]) follows a consonant, the consonant is palatalized. The hard sign indicates that this does not happen, and the [j] sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The soft sign indicates that the consonant should be palatalized in addition to a [j] preceding the vowel. The soft sign also indicates that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatalized. Examples: та ([ta]); тя ([tʲa]); тья ([tʲja]); тъя ([tja]); т (/t/); ть ([tʲ]). +Before 1918, there were four extra letters in use: Іі (replaced by Ии), Ѳѳ (Фита "Fita", replaced by Фф), Ѣѣ (Ять "Yat", replaced by Ее), and Ѵѵ (ижица "Izhitsa", replaced by Ии); these were eliminated by reforms of Russian orthography. + +==== Belarusian ==== + +The Belarusian alphabet shows the following features: + +He or Ge (Г г) represents a voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ (rarely also a voiced velar plosive /ɡ/). +Yo (Ё ё) represents /jo/, just like in Russian. +I (І і), also known as the dotted I or decimal I, resembles the Latin letter I. Unlike most Cyrillic alphabets, "И" is not used. +Short I (Й й), however, uses the base И glyph. +Short U (Ў ў) is the letter У with a breve and represents /w/, or like the u part of the diphthong in loud. The use of the breve to indicate a semivowel is analogous to the Short I (Й). +A combination of Sh and Ch (ШЧ шч) is used where those familiar only with Russian and or Ukrainian would expect Shcha (Щ щ). +Yery (Ы ы) represents /ɨ/, similarly to in Russian. +E (Э э) represents /ɛ/, just like in Russian. +An apostrophe (’) is used to indicate the lack of palatalization of the preceding consonant. This orthographical symbol is used instead of the traditional Cyrillic letter Yer (Ъ), also known as the hard sign. +The letter combinations Dzh (Дж дж) and Dz (Дз дз) appear after D (Д д) in the Belarusian alphabet in some publications. These digraphs represent the affricates Дж /d͡ʒ/ and Дз /d͡z/ correspondingly. +Before 1933, the letter Ґ ґ (Ge) was used for /ɡ/, although its use was optional. + +==== Ukrainian ==== + +The Ukrainian alphabet shows the following features: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..14b0329ee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,144 @@ +--- +title: "Cyrillic alphabets" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ve (В в) represents /ʋ/ (which may be pronounced [w] in a word final position and before consonants). +He (Г г) represents a breathy-voiced glottal transition, (/ɦ/), similar to the respective sound in Belarusian. +Ge (Ґ ґ) appears after He, representing /ɡ/. It looks like He with an "upturn" pointing up from the right side of the top bar. This letter is generally restricted to loanwords/borrowed words. (This letter was removed in Soviet Ukraine in 1933–1990, so it may be missing from older Cyrillic fonts.) +E (Е е) represents /ɛ/. +Ye (Є є) appears after E and represents the sound /jɛ/. +I (И и) represents the sound /ɪ/, unlike in Russian. +Dotted I (І і) appears after И and represents the sound /i/, as in Belarusian. +Yi (Ї ї) appears after I and represents the sound /ji/. +Jot (Й й) represents /j/, as in Russian +Shcha (Щ, щ) represents the cluster /ʃt͡ʃ/. +An apostrophe (’) is used to mark the lack of palatalization of the preceding consonant before Ya (Я, я), Yu (Ю, ю), Ye (Є, є), Yi (Ї, ї), the same as how it is used in Belarusian. +Before 1990, Ь was positioned at the end of the alphabet rather than in its current position after Щ; the original order may still show up in historic documents. +As in Belarusian Cyrillic, the sounds /dʒ/, /dz/ are represented by digraphs Дж and Дз respectively. + +==== Carpathian Rusyn ==== + +The Carpathian Rusyn language is spoken by the Carpatho-Rusyns in Carpathian Ruthenia, Slovakia, and Poland. + +The Carpathian Rusyn alphabet differs from Ukrainian in that the letters Ё, Ы, and the hard sign (Ъ), from Russian, are also used, and the order is slightly different. + +=== West Slavic === + +==== Pannonian Rusyn ==== + +The Pannonian Rusyn language is spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns. + +This alphabet uses all the letters of the Ukrainian alphabet except Dotted I (І і). Note that Pannonian Rusyn is a West Slavic language despite its name. + +== Non-Slavic Indo-European languages == + +=== Romance languages === + +==== Romanian and Moldovan ==== +The Romanian language used the Cyrillic script up to the 19th century (see Romanian Cyrillic alphabet). +The Moldovan language (an alternative name of the Romanian language in Bessarabia, Moldavian ASSR, Moldavian SSR and Moldova) used varieties of the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet in 1812–1918, and the Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet (derived from the Russian alphabet and standardised in the Soviet Union) in 1924–1932 and 1938–1989. Nowadays, this alphabet is still official in the unrecognized republic of Transnistria (see Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet). + +==== Ladino ==== +Ladino uses the Cyrillic script in occasional Bulgarian Sephardic publications. + +=== Indo-Aryan === + +==== Romani ==== +Romani is written in Cyrillic in Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and the former USSR. + +=== Iranian === + +==== Kurdish ==== + +Kurds in the former Soviet Union use a Cyrillic alphabet: + +==== Ossetic ==== + +The Ossetic language has officially used the Cyrillic script since 1937. + +==== Tajik ==== + +The Tajik alphabet is written using a Cyrillic-based alphabet. + +==== Other ==== +Judeo-Tat +Yaghnobi +Yazghulami + +== Uralic languages == +Uralic languages using the Cyrillic script (currently or in the past) include: + +Finnic: Karelian until 1921 and 1937–1940 (Ludic, Olonets Karelian); Veps; Votic +Sami: Kildin Sami and Ter Sami in Russia (since the 1980s) +Komi (Zyrian (since the 17th century, modern alphabet since the 1930s); Permyak; Yodzyak) +Udmurt +Khanty +Mansi (writing has not received distribution since 1937) +Samoyedic: Enets; Yurats; Nenets since 1937 (Forest Nenets; Tundra Nenets); Nganasan; Kamassian; Koibal; Mator; Selkup (since the 1950s; not used recently) +Mari, since the 19th century (Hill; Meadow) +Mordvin, since the 18th century (Erzya; Moksha) +Other: Merya; Muromian; Meshcherian + +=== Karelian === + +The Karelian language was written in the Cyrillic script in various forms until 1940 when publication in Karelian ceased in favor of Finnish, except for Tver Karelian, written in a Latin alphabet. In 1989 publication began again in the other Karelian dialects and Latin alphabets were used, in some cases with the addition of Cyrillic letters such as ь. + +=== Kildin Sámi === + +Over the last century, the alphabet used to write Kildin Sámi has changed three times: from Cyrillic to Latin and back again to Cyrillic. Work on the latest version of the official orthography commenced in 1979. It was officially approved in 1982 and started to be widely used by 1987. + +=== Komi-Permyak === + +The Komi-Permyak Cyrillic alphabet: + +=== Mari alphabets === + +Meadow Mari Cyrillic alphabet: + +Hill Mari Cyrillic alphabet + +== Turkic languages == + +=== Azerbaijani === + +Latin Alphabet (as of 1992) +Aa, Bb, Cc, Çç, Dd, Ee, Əə, Ff, Gg, Ğğ, Hh, Xx, Iı, İi, Jj, Kk, Qq, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Üü, Vv, Yy, Zz + +=== Bashkir === +The Cyrillic script was used for the Bashkir language after the winter of 1938. + +=== Chuvash === +The Cyrillic alphabet is used for the Chuvash language since the late 19th century, with some changes in 1938. + +The Cyrillic letters Бб, Гг, Дд, Ёё, Жж, Зз, Оо, Фф, Цц, Щщ and Ъъ are not used in native Chuvash words, but only for Russian loans. + +=== Kazakh === + +Kazakh can be alternatively written in the Latin alphabet. Latin is expected to entirely replace Cyrillic by the 2030s, alongside the modified Arabic alphabet (in the People's Republic of China, Iran and Afghanistan). + +Ә ә = /æ/ +Ғ ғ = /ʁ/ (voiced uvular fricative) +Е е = /jɪ/ +И и = /ɪj/, /ɘj/ +Қ қ = /q/ (voiceless uvular plosive) +Ң ң = /ŋ/, /ɴ/ +О о = /o/, /ʷo/, /ʷʊ/ +Ө ө = /œ/, /ʷœ/, /ʷʏ/ +У у = /ʊw/, /ʉw/, /w/ +Ұ ұ = /ʊ/ +Ү ү = /ʉ/, /ʏ/ +Һ һ = /h/ +Щ щ = /ʃʃ/ +Ы ы = /ɯ/, /ә/ +І і = /ɪ/, /ɘ/ +The Cyrillic letters Вв, Ёё, Цц, Чч, Ъъ, Ьь and Ээ are not used in native Kazakh words, but only for Russian loans. + +=== Kyrgyz === + +Kyrgyz has also been written in Latin and in Arabic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b5110760 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,161 @@ +--- +title: "Cyrillic alphabets" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ң ң = /ŋ/ (velar nasal) +Ү ү = /y/ (close front rounded vowel) +Ө ө = /œ/ (open-mid front rounded vowel) +Bold letters are used only in loanwords. + +=== Tatar === + +Tatar has used Cyrillic since 1939, but the Russian Orthodox Tatar community has used Cyrillic since the 19th century. In 2000 a new Latin alphabet was adopted for Tatar, but it is used generally on the Internet. + +Ә ә = /æ/ +Ң ң = /ŋ/ +Ө ө = /œ/ +У у = /uw/, /yw/, /w/ +Ү ү = /y/ +Һ һ = /h/ +Җ җ = /ʑ/ +The Cyrillic letters Ёё, Цц, Щщ are not used in native Tatar words, but only for Russian loans. + +=== Turkmen === + +Turkmen, written 1940–1994 exclusively in Cyrillic, since 1994 officially in Roman, but in everyday communication Cyrillic is still used along with Roman script. + +=== Uzbek === + +From 1941 the Cyrillic script was used exclusively. In 1998 the government has adopted a Latin alphabet to replace it. The deadline for making this transition has however been repeatedly changed, and Cyrillic is still more common. It is not clear that the transition will be made at all. + +В в = /w/ +Ж ж = /dʒ/ +Ф ф = /ɸ/ +Х х = /χ/ +Ъ ъ = /ʔ/ +Ў ў = /ө/ +Қ қ = /q/ +Ғ ғ = /ʁ/ +Ҳ ҳ = /h/ +In addition to the letters from the Russian alphabet, А–Я, except for Щ and Ы, the Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet includes Ў, Қ, Ғ and Ҳ at the end. They are distinct letters in the Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet and are sorted after Я as shown above. + +=== Yakut === + +Several Cyrillic alphabets have been used to write Yakut, but the current alphabet was adopted in 1939. + +Letters in Bold are only used in Russian Loanwords. + +=== Other === +Altai +Crimean Tatar (1938–1991, now mostly replaced by Roman) +Gagauz (1957–1990s, exclusively in Cyrillic, since 1990s officially in Roman, but in reality in everyday communication Cyrillic is used along with Roman script) +Karachay-Balkar +Karakalpak (1940s–1990s) +Karaim (20th century) +Khakas +Kumyk +Nogai +Tuvan +Uyghur – Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet (Uyghur Siril Yëziqi). Used along with Uyghur Arabic alphabet (Uyghur Ereb Yëziqi), New Script (Uyghur Yëngi Yëziqi, Pinyin-based), and modern Uyghur Latin alphabet (Uyghur Latin Yëziqi). +Dolgan +Balkan Gagauz Turkish +Urum +Siberian Tatar +Siberian Turkic + +== Caucasian languages == + +=== Northwest Caucasian languages === +Living Northwest Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. + +==== Abaza ==== + +Abaza is a Caucasian language, spoken by Abazins in the Karachay-Cherkessia Republic, Russia. + +Digraphs in parentheses are dialectal, and are therefore absent from the literary language and the official alphabet. + +==== Abkhaz ==== + +Abkhaz is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia. + +For older conventions, see Abkhaz alphabet. + +==== Adyghe ==== + +Adyghe is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republic of Adygea, Russia. + +Letters in parentheses are only used in digraphs. + +==== Kabardian ==== + +Kabardian is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia. + +=== Northeast Caucasian languages === +Northeast Caucasian languages are generally written using Cyrillic alphabets. + +==== Avar ==== + +Avar is a Caucasian language, spoken in the Republic of Dagestan, of the Russian Federation, where it is co-official together with other Caucasian languages like Dargwa, Lak, Lezgian and Tabassaran. All these alphabets, and other ones (Abaza, Adyghe, Chechen, Ingush, Kabardian) have an extra sign: palochka (Ӏ), which gives voiceless occlusive consonants its particular ejective sound. + +В = /w/ +гъ = /ʁ/ +гь = /h/ +гӀ = /ʕ/ +къ = /qːʼ/ +кӀ = /kʼ/ +кь = /t͡ɬːʼ/ +кӀкӀ = /t͡ɬː/, is also written ЛӀ лӀ. +кк = /ɬ/, is also written Лъ лъ. +тӀ = /tʼ/ +х = /χ/ +хъ = /qː/ +хь = /x/ +хӀ = /ħ/ +цӀ = /t͡sʼ/ +чӀ = /t͡ʃʼ/ +Double consonants, called "fortis", are pronounced longer than single consonants (called "lenis"). + +==== Lezgian ==== + +Lezgian is spoken by the Lezgins, who live in southern Dagestan and northern Azerbaijan. Lezgian is a literary language and an official language of Dagestan. + +==== Other ==== +Chechen (since 1938, also with Roman 1991–2000, but switch back to Cyrillic alphabets since 2001.) +Dargwa +Lak +Tabassaran +Ingush +Archi + +== Mongolian == + +The Mongolic languages include Khalkha (in Mongolia; Cyrillic is official since 1941, in practice from 1946), Buryat (around Lake Baikal; Cyrillic is used since the 1930s) and Kalmyk (northwest of the Caspian Sea; Cyrillic is used in various forms since the 1920-30s). Khalkha Mongolian is also written with the Mongol vertical alphabet, which was the official script before 1941. Since the beginning of the 1990s Mongolia has been making attempts to extend the rather limited use of Mongol script and the most recent National Plan for Mongol Script aims to bring its use to the same level as Cyrillic by 2025 and maintain a dual-script system (digraphia). + +=== Overview === + +This table contains all the characters used. +Һһ is shown twice as it appears at two different locations in Buryat and Kalmyk + +=== Khalkha === + +В в = /w/ +Е е = /jɛ/, /jœ/ +Ё ё = /jo/ +Ж ж = /dʒ/ +З з = /dz/ +Ий ий = /iː/ +Й й = the second element of closing diphthongs (ай, ой, etc.) and long /iː/ (ий), it never indicates /j/ in native words +Н н = /n-/, /-ŋ/ +Ө ө = /œ/ +У у = /ʊ/ +Ү ү = /u/ +Ы ы = /iː/ (in suffixes after a hard consonant) +Ь ь = palatalization of the preceding consonant +Ю ю = /ju/, /jy/ +Long vowels are indicated with double letters. The Cyrillic letters Кк, Пп, Фф and Щщ are not used in native Mongolian words, but only for Russian or other loans (Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6658d68c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +--- +title: "Cyrillic alphabets" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Buryat === +The Buryat (буряад) Cyrillic script is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Пп, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words (Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words). + +Е е = /jɛ/, /jœ/ +Ё ё = /jo/ +Ж ж = /dʒ/ +Й й = the second element of closing diphthongs (ай, ой, etc.), it never indicates /j/ in native words +Н н = /n-/, /-ŋ/ +Өө өө = /œː/, ө does not occur in short form in literary Buryat based on the Khori dialect +У у = /ʊ/ +Ү ү = /u/ +Һ һ = /h/ +Ы ы = /ei/, /iː/ +Ю ю = /ju/ + +=== Kalmyk === +The Kalmyk (хальмг) Cyrillic script differs from Khalkha in some respects: there are additional letters (Әә, Җҗ, Ңң, Һһ), letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = /xaʎmaɡ/). Жж and Пп are used in loanwords only (Russian, Tibetan, etc.), but Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words. + +Ә ә = /æ/ +В в = /w/ +Һ һ = /ɣ/ +Е е = /ɛ/, /jɛ-/ +Җ җ = /dʒ/ +Ң ң = /ŋ/ +Ө ө = /ø/ +У у = /ʊ/ +Ү ү = /u/ + +== Sino-Tibetan == + +=== Dungan language === + +Since 1953. + +Letters in bold are used only in Russian loanwords. + +== Tungusic languages == +Even +Evenk (since 1937) +Nanai +Udege (Udihe) (since late 1980s) +Orok (since 2007) +Ulch (since late 1980s) + +== Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages == + +=== Chukchi language === + +Since 1936. + +=== Koryak language === + +Since 1936. + +=== Itelmen language === + +Since late 1980s. + +=== Alyutor language === + +== Eskaleut languages == + +=== Aleut language === + +=== Central Siberian Yupik language === + +==== Chaplino dialect ==== + +The letters Ӷ ӷ, Ӄ ӄ, Ӈ ӈ, Ӽ ӽ are sometimes replaced by Гʼ гʼ, Кʼ кʼ, Нʼ нʼ, Хʼ хʼ or Ґ ґ, Қ қ, Ң ң, Ҳ ҳ. + +=== Sirenik language === + +Letters in bold are used only in Russian loanwords. + +=== Other === +Naukan Yupik + +== Other languages == +Ainu (in Russia) +Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (Aisor) +Ket (since 1980s) +Nivkh +Tlingit (in Russian Alaska) +Yukaghirs (Tundra Yukaghir, Forest Yukaghir) + +== Constructed languages == + +=== International auxiliary languages === +Interslavic +Lingua Franca Nova + +=== Fictional languages === +Brutopian (Donald Duck stories) +Syldavian (The Adventures of Tintin) + +== Summary table == + +Cyrillic Letters: + +== See also == +List of Cyrillic letters +Cyrillic script +Cyrillic script in Unicode +Old Church Slavonic + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Ivan G. Iliev. Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet. Plovdiv. 2012. Short History of the Cyrillic Alphabet +Philipp Ammon: Tractatus slavonicus. in: Sjani (Thoughts) Georgian Scientific Journal of Literary Theory and Comparative Literature, N 17, 2016, pp. 248–56 +Appendix:Cyrillic script, Wiktionary + +== External links == + +Cyrillic Alphabets of Slavic Languages review of Cyrillic charsets in Slavic Languages. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..307233897 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Dolgopolsky list" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:31.565992+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Dolgopolsky list is a word list compiled by Aharon Dolgopolsky in 1964 based on a study of 140 languages from across Eurasia. It lists the 15 lexical items that he found have the most semantic stability, i.e. the 15 words least likely to be replaced. + + +== List == +The words, with the first being the most stable, are: + +I/me +two/pair +you (singular, informal) +who/what +tongue +name +eye +heart +tooth +no/not +nail (finger-nail) +louse/nit +tear/teardrop +water +dead +The first item in the list, I/me, has been replaced in none of the 140 languages during their recorded history; the fifteenth, dead, has been replaced in 25% of the languages. The twelfth item, louse/nit, is well kept in the North Caucasian languages, Dravidian and Turkic, but not in some other proto-languages. +The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 lexical items includes all but five of these words: two/pair, heart, nail (fingernail), tear, die/dead. + + +== See also == +Swadesh list +Comparative linguistics + + +== References == + +Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000). The dictionary of historical and comparative linguistics. p. 96. + + +== External links == +Concepticon \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..187b8ca31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Father (honorific)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:36.654088+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Father has been used as both title and honorific in various languages, synonyms and historical contexts. It may sometimes denote a title of authority or of honour. + + +== List of uses of "father" in various languages == + + +=== By culture and/or language === +Ab (Semitic) +Bwana ("our father"), from Swahili, meaning an important person or safari leader +Abu in Kunya (Arabic), used as epithet for "father of X" +Baba, mark of respect in: +Indian honorific Hindu and Sikh +Baba (honorific) in Persian language +In Malaysia as an honorific of respect to address Chinese people born in the British Straits Settlements +Batko, a Ukrainian honorific meaning "father" +List of people considered father or mother of a field +Founding father +Father of the Nation/Father of the Country +Pater Patriae +Fathers of Confederation +Founding fathers of the European Union +Founding Fathers of the United States +Pater familias (Latin), title for head of household in Ancient Rome + + +=== Personifications === +Father Time +Father Christmas +Ded Moroz ("Father Frost") + + +=== By religion === +God the Father + + +==== Buddhism ==== +Abbot (Buddhism) a title for a monk who holds the position of administrator of a Buddhist monastery or Buddhist temple + + +==== Christianity ==== +Patriarch (Greek, literally "father ruler") as a title for the primate of a Christian church +Pope +Church Fathers +Abbot, an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery +Father, as a honorific for a priest +Aboona ("our father") in Syriac language +Abuna ("our father") in Amharic and Tigrinya + + +== See also == +List of people considered father or mother of a field \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bf841941c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Felix Ucko" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:38.126821+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Felix Alfred Ucko (January 4, 1919 – October 27, 1996) was an American field hockey player. He competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics and the 1956 Summer Olympics. In the 1956 games, he played alongside his brother, Kurt Ucko. +Additionally, he was a psychiatrist. He was a member of the American Psychiatric Association, the American Association of Community Psychiatrists, and other professional organizations. + + +== Publications == + +Ucko, Felix A. (1948). Stand der Herzchirurgie in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (Hochschulschrift/Dissertation thesis). Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main. OCLC 720559781. ⁣DNB, Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek 481675914. Katalog der Bibliotheken der Goethe-Universität PPN 272224251. +Ucko, Felix A. (December 1955). "Shock therapy can be safe". Diseases of the Nervous System. 16 (12): 373–4. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13270682. Google Books V5sBh2-Zz50C. +Ucko, Felix (October 12, 1956). "Zur Witzelsucht in Deutsche Frauen". Arbeiten aus dem Staatinstitut für Experimentelle Therapie und dem Georg Spyer Hause zu Frankfurt. 14. Jena, Germany: 92. +Ucko, F.A. (August 1962). "Clinical experience with chlorprothixene, a new psychotherapeutic agent". Diseases of the Nervous System. 23: 453–5. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13923425. +Gehl, Raymond H.; Welkind, Allen; Ucko, Felix A. (January 1966). "Providing a therapeutic climate by pairing patients. A preliminary report". Mental Hygiene. 50 (1): 36–46. ISSN 0025-9683. PMID 5901679. Google Books X1A2AAAAIAAJ. HathiTrust uc1.b3597047. +Ucko, Felix A. (September 5–11, 1966). Depression and its treatment. Depressions and related states. Fourth World Congress of Psychiatry. International Congress Series No. 150. Vol. 3: Free Communications. Amsterdam, etc.: Excerpta Medica Foundation (published May 1968). pp. 1834–1836. OCLC 460848. Google Books eyK2AAAAIAAJ, 785rAAAAMAAJ. HathiTrust uc1.b4295741, mdp.39015001636680. +Ucko, Felix A. (August 1970) [corrected 2022-10-10]. "Psychotropics in anxiety and depression: Combination or single agent?". Diseases of the Nervous System. 31 (8): 539–541. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 4394308. EBSCOhost 1971-04460-001. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Felix Ucko at Olympedia \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d1958361 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,185 @@ +--- +title: "Gardiner's sign list" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:39.245476+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gardiner's sign list is a list of common Egyptian hieroglyphs compiled by Sir Alan Gardiner. It is considered a standard reference in the study of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. +Gardiner lists only the common forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but he includes extensive subcategories, and also both vertical and horizontal forms for many hieroglyphs. He includes size-variation forms to aid with the reading of hieroglyphs in running blocks of text. In contrast, for example, the Budge Reference has about 1,000 hieroglyphs listed in 50 pages, but with no size variations. +Gardiner does not cross-index signs; once a sign is put on one of his lists, other significant uses may be overlooked. One example of this is 𓅒 G16, nbtỉ, the ideogram for the Two Ladies, goddesses Wadjet as the cobra and Nekhbet as the white vulture. These are the protective and patron goddesses of the separate Egyptian kingdoms that joined into ancient Egypt, who were both then displayed on the uraeus of Wadjet when the unification occurred and afterward considered jointly to be the protectors of Egypt and the pharaohs. This ideogram is listed only in the bird list (G), and overlooked on the deity list (C) and the reptile list (I). +Other subcategories included by Gardiner are abbreviations and personalized forms, and also a complete subset, used on papyrus, specifically for the Book of the Dead. + + +== Categories == + + +=== A. Man and his occupations === + +56 signs in Gardiner (1957:242–247), with A59 "man threatening with stick" inserted after A25 "man striking with left hand hanging behind back", and two variants A14* "blood interpreted as ax" of A14 "man with blood streaming from his head"; and A17* "child sitting with arms hanging down" of A17 "child sitting with hand to mouth". + + +=== B. Woman and her occupations === + +7 signs in Gardiner (1957:448). + + +=== C. Anthropomorphic deities === + +11 signs in Gardiner (1957:448f.) with the addition of five 19th Dynasty signs, C12 Amun, C17 Mont, C18 Tjanen, C19 and C20 Ptah. + + +=== D. Parts of the human body === + +Expected quantity: 63 + + +=== E. Mammals === + +Expected quantity: 34 + + +=== F. Parts of mammals === + +Expected quantity: 52 + + +=== G. Birds === + +Expected quantity: 54 + + +=== H. Parts of birds === + +Expected quantity: 8 + + +=== I. Amphibious animals, reptiles, etc. === + +15 signs in Gardiner (1957:475f). + + +=== K. Fish and parts of fish === + +Expected quantity: 7 + + +=== L. Invertebrates and lesser animals === + +Expected quantity: 7 + + +=== M. Trees and plants === + +44 signs in Gardiner (1957:478–484). + + +=== N. Sky, earth, water === + +42 signs in Gardiner (1957:485–492). +N3 is an Old Kingdom variant of N2. +N11 "moon" has vertical (increscent and decrescent) variants, N12 is a 19th-Dynasty variant of N11. + + +=== O. Buildings, parts of buildings, etc. === + +51 signs (with variants, U+13250–1329A). + + +=== P. Ships and parts of ships === + +Expected quantity: 11 + + +=== Q. Domestics and funerary furniture === + +Expected quantity: 7 + + +=== R. Temple furniture and sacred emblems === + +Expected quantity: 25 + + +=== S. Crowns, dress, staves, etc. === + +Expected quantity: 45 + + +=== T. Warfare, hunting, and butchery === + +Expected quantity: 35 + + +=== U. Agriculture, crafts, and professions === + +41 signs. + + +=== V. Rope, fiber, baskets, bags, etc. === + +40 signs (38 in Gardiner 1957). +V39 is the Tyet or "Knot of Isis". +V40 is the numeral 10 in dates. + + +=== W. Vessels of stone and earthenware === + +25 signs. + + +=== X. Loaves and cakes === + +8 signs. + + +=== Y. Writings, games, music === + +8 signs. + + +=== Z. Strokes, signs derived from Hieratic, geometrical figures === + +11 signs. + + +=== Aa. Unclassified === + +31 signs in Gardiner (1957). + + +== Unicode == + +These hieroglyphs have unicode code points and so, given a suitable font, can be displayed or printed. The block starts at U+013000 for A001. + + +== See also == + +Egyptian hieroglyphs +List of Egyptian hieroglyphs +Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Budge, Sir E.A.Wallis, An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, in Two Volumes, Sir E.A.Wallis Budge, (Dover Publications, Inc. New York), c 1920, Dover Edition, c 1978. (Large categorized listings of Hieroglyphs, Vol 1, pp. xcvii–cxlvii (97–147) (25 categories, 1000+ hieroglyphs), 50 pgs.) +A.H. Gardiner, Catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, from matrices owned and controlled by Dr. Alan (1928). +A.H. Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1928)", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15 (1929), p. 95. +A.H. Gardiner, "Additions to the new hieroglyphic fount (1931)", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 17 (1931), pp. 245–247. +A.H. Gardiner, Supplement to the catalogue of the Egyptian hieroglyphic printing type, showing acquisitions to December 1953 (1953). +A.H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. 3rd Ed., pub. Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1957 (1st edition 1927), pp. 438–548 (pdf). +Wilkinson, Richard, Reading Egyptian Art, A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture, Richard H. Wilkinson, with 450 Illustrations, (Thames & Hudson Ltd, London), c 1992. + + +== Further reading == +Betrò, Maria Carmela (1996). Hieroglyphics: The Writings of Ancient Egypt (1st ed.). Abbeville Press Pub. pp. 251. ISBN 9780789202321.: A primer based on Gardiner's sign list, focussing on major signs in seven categories. + + +== External links == +Hieroglyphic fonts +Khemet.de on Gardiner Archived 2015-10-11 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms-0.md index 0cd1b392b..0ef2a8804 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:06:45.935926+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:22.021010+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c0928d34 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Grammatical mood" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for signaling modality. In other words, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying (for example, a statement of fact, of desire, of command, etc.). The term is also used more broadly to describe the syntactic expression of modality – that is, the use of verb phrases that do not involve inflection of the verb itself. +Mood is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although the same word patterns are used for expressing more than one of these meanings at the same time in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages. (See tense–aspect–mood for a discussion of this.) +Some examples of moods are indicative, interrogative, imperative, subjunctive, injunctive, optative, and irrealis/potential. These are all finite forms of the verb. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles, which are non-finite forms of the verb, are not considered to be examples of moods. +Some Uralic Samoyedic languages have more than ten moods; Nenets has as many as sixteen. The original Indo-European inventory of moods consisted of indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Not every Indo-European language has all of these moods, but the most conservative ones such as Avestan, Ancient Greek, and Vedic Sanskrit have them all. English has indicative, imperative, conditional, and subjunctive moods. +Not all the moods listed below are clearly conceptually distinct. Individual terminology varies from language to language, and the coverage of, for example, the "conditional" mood in one language may largely overlap with that of the "hypothetical" or "potential" mood in another. Even when two different moods exist in the same language, their respective usages may blur, or may be defined by syntactic rather than semantic criteria. For example, the subjunctive and optative moods in Ancient Greek alternate syntactically in many subordinate clauses, depending on the tense of the main verb. The usage of the indicative, subjunctive, and jussive moods in Classical Arabic is almost completely controlled by syntactic context. The only possible alternation in the same context is between indicative and jussive following the negative particle lā. +The word mood in a grammatical sense comes from the Latin modus, and has no connection with the other meaning of "mood", in the sense of "emotional state", which comes from a Germanic root. + +== Realis moods == + +Realis moods are a category of grammatical moods that indicate that something is actually the case. The most common realis mood is the indicative mood. Some languages have a distinct generic mood for expressing general truths. + +=== Indicative === +The indicative mood, or evidential mood, is used for factual statements and positive beliefs. It is the mood of reality. The indicative mood is the most commonly used mood and is found in all languages. Example: "Paul is eating an apple" or "John eats apples". + +== Irrealis moods == + +Irrealis moods or non-indicative moods are the set of grammatical moods that indicate that something is not actually the case or a certain situation or action is not known to have happened. They are any verb or sentence mood that is not a realis mood. They may be part of expressions of necessity, possibility, requirement, wish or desire, fear, or as part of counterfactual reasoning, etc. +Irrealis verb forms are used when speaking of an event which has not happened, is not likely to happen, or is otherwise far removed from the real course of events. For example, in the sentence "If you had done your homework, you wouldn't have failed the class", had done is an irrealis verb form. +Some languages have distinct irrealis grammatical verb forms. Many Indo-European languages preserve a subjunctive mood. Some also preserve an optative mood that describes events that are wished for or hoped for but not factual. +Common irrealis moods are the conditional, the subjunctive, the optative, the jussive, and the potential. For other examples, see the main article for each respective mood. + +=== Subjunctive === + +The subjunctive mood, sometimes called conjunctive mood, has several uses in dependent clauses. Examples include discussing imaginary or hypothetical events and situations, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests (the exact scope is language-specific). A subjunctive mood exists in English, though it is not an inflectional form of the verb but rather a clause type which uses the bare form of the verb also used in imperatives, infinitives, and other constructions. An example of the English subjunctive is "Jill suggested that Paul take his medicine", as opposed to the indicative sentence "Jill believes that Paul takes his medicine". +Other uses of the subjunctive in English are archaisms, as in "And if he be not able to bring a lamb, then he shall bring for his trespass..." (KJV, Leviticus 5:7). Statements such as "I will ensure that he leave immediately" often sound archaic or formal, and have been largely supplanted by constructions with the indicative, like "I will ensure that he leaves immediately". +Some Germanic languages distinguish between two types of subjunctive moods, for example, the Konjunktiv I and II in German. + +1 In modern usage, the imperfect indicative usually replaces the imperfect subjunctive in this type of sentence. +The subjunctive mood figures prominently in the grammar of the Romance languages, which require this mood for certain types of dependent clauses. This point commonly causes difficulty for English speakers learning these languages. +In certain other languages, the dubitative or the conditional moods may be employed instead of the subjunctive in referring to doubtful or unlikely events (see the main article). + +=== Conditional === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e72b2bb4b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Grammatical mood" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The conditional mood is used for speaking of an event whose realization is dependent upon another condition, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional sentences. In Modern English, this type of modality is expressed via a periphrastic construction, with the form would + infinitive, (for example, I would buy), and thus is a mood only in the broad sense and not in the more common narrow sense of the term "mood" requiring morphological changes in the verb. In other languages, verbs have a specific conditional inflection. In German, the conditional mood is identical to one of the two subjunctive moods (Konjunktiv II, see above). + +In the Romance languages, the conditional form is used primarily in the apodosis (main clause) of conditional sentences, and in a few set phrases where it expresses courtesy or doubt. The main verb in the protasis (dependent clause) is usually in the subjunctive or in the indicative mood. However, this is not a universal trait and among others in German (as above), Finnish, and Romanian (even though the last is a Romance language), the conditional mood is used in both the apodosis and the protasis. A further example is a sentence "I would buy a house if I earned a lot of money". + +Irish has conditional marking in both clauses: d'íosfadh 'would eat, would have eaten' and beadh 'would be, would have been', along with a specific irrealis conditional dá 'if', which contrasts with the realis conditional má 'if' (i.e. Ithfidh sé má bhíonn ocras air. 'He'll eat if he is hungry'). +In Finnish, both clauses likewise have the conditional marker -isi-: Ostaisin talon, jos ansaitsisin paljon rahaa. +In Polish (as well as in eastern and other western Slavic languages), the conditional marker -by also appears twice: Kupiłbym dom, gdybym zarabiał dużo pieniędzy. +In Hindi, the conditional markers -ता (tā), -ती (tī), -ते (te) and -तीं (tī̃) (agreeing in gender and number with the subject and the direct object) comes twice: मैं घर खरीदता अगर बहौत पैसे कमाता। (maiṁ ghar kharīdatā agar bahaut paisē kamātā). The conditional (or contrafactual) form in Hindi corresponds to perfect conditional of Romance and the Germanic languages. So, the sentence literally translate to "I would have bought a house if I earned a lot of money." +Due to English's status as a lingua franca, a common error among second-language speakers is to use "would" in both clauses. For example, *"I would buy if I would earn...". In Dutch, for instance, inserting zouden "would" in the if-clause is not considered grammatically incorrect: ik zou een huis hebben gekocht, als ik veel geld zou verdienen. + +=== Optative === + +The optative mood expresses hopes, wishes or commands and has other uses that may overlap with the subjunctive mood. Few languages have an optative as a distinct mood; some that do are Albanian, Ancient Greek, Hungarian, Kazakh, Japanese, Finnish, Nepali, and Sanskrit. + +=== Imperative === + +The imperative mood expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests. In many circumstances, using the imperative mood may sound blunt or even rude, so it is often used with care. Example: "Pat, do your homework now". An imperative is used for telling someone to do something without argument. Many languages, including English, use the bare verb stem to form the imperative (such as "go", "run", "do"). Other languages, such as Seri, Hindi, and Latin, however, use special imperative forms. + +In English, the second person is implied by the imperative except when first-person plural is specified, as in "Let's go" ("Let us go"). +In Romance languages, a first person plural exists in the imperative mood: Spanish: Vayamos a la playa; French: Allons à la plage (both meaning: Let's go to the beach). +In Hindi, imperatives can be put into the present and the future tense. Imperative forms of Hindi verb karnā (to do) are shown in the table belowː + +The prohibitive mood, the negative imperative, may be grammatically or morphologically different from the imperative mood in some languages. It indicates that the action of the verb is not permitted. For example, "Don't you go!" +In English, the imperative is sometimes used for forming a conditional sentence: for example, "go eastwards a mile, and you'll see it" means "if you go eastwards a mile, you will see it". + +=== Jussive === + +The jussive, similarly to the imperative, expresses orders, commands, exhortations, but particularly to a third person not present. An imperative, in contrast, generally applies to the listener. When a language is said to have a jussive, the jussive forms are different from the imperative ones, but may be the same as the forms called "subjunctive" in that language. Latin and Hindi are examples of where the jussive is simply about certain specific uses of the subjunctive. Arabic, however, is a language with distinct subjunctive, imperative, and jussive conjugations. + +=== Potential === +The potential mood is a mood of probability indicating that, in the opinion of the speaker, the action or occurrence is considered likely. It is used in Finnish, in Japanese, in Sanskrit (where the so-called optative mood can serve equally well as a potential mood), in Northern Wu, and in the Sami languages. (In Japanese, it is often called something like tentative, since potential is used for referring to a voice indicating capability to perform the action.) +In Finnish, it is mostly a literary device, as it has virtually disappeared from daily spoken language in most dialects. Its affix is -ne-, as in *men + ne + e → mennee "(he/she/it/they(sg)) will probably go". +In Hungarian, the potential is formed by the suffix -hat/-het and it can express both possibility and permission: adhat "may give, can give"; Mehetünk? "Can we go?" +In English, it is formed by means of the auxiliaries may, can, ought, and must: "She may go." + +=== Presumptive === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..411afc94b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Grammatical mood" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The presumptive mood is used to express presupposition or hypothesis, regardless of the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, and inevitability. It is used in Romanian, Hindi, Gujarati, and Punjabi. +In Romanian, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb vrea are used with the infinitive form of verbs. The present tense and the past tense infinitives are respectively used to form the present and the past tense of the presumptive mood. +In Hindi, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb honā (to be) are used with the perfective, habitual, and progressive aspectual participles to form the perfective presumptive, habitual presumptive, and the progressive presumptive moods. The same presumptive mood conjugations are used for present, future, and past tenses. + +Note: + +The translations are just the closest possible English approximations and not exact. +Only masculine conjugations are shown for Hindi. + +=== Hypothetical === +A few languages use a hypothetical mood, which is used in sentences such as "you could have cut yourself", representing something that might have happened but did not. + +=== Inferential === + +The inferential mood is used to report unwitnessed events without confirming them. Often, there is no doubt as to the veracity of the statement (for example, if it were on the news), but simply the fact that the speaker was not personally present at the event forces them to use this mood. +In the Balkan languages, the same forms used for the inferential mood also function as admiratives. When referring to Balkan languages, it is often called renarrative mood; when referring to Estonian, it is called oblique mood. +The inferential is usually impossible to be distinguishably translated into English. For instance, indicative Bulgarian той отиде (toy otide) and Turkish o gitti will be translated the same as inferential той отишъл (toy otishal) and o gitmiş — with the English indicative he went.[1] Using the first pair, however, implies very strongly that the speaker either witnessed the event or is very sure that it took place. The second pair implies either that the speaker did not in fact witness it take place, that it occurred in the remote past or that there is considerable doubt as to whether it actually happened. If it were necessary to make the distinction, then the English constructions "he must have gone" or "he is said to have gone" would partly translate the inferential. + +=== Interrogative === + +The interrogative (or interrogatory) mood is used for asking questions. Most languages do not have a special mood for asking questions, but exceptions include Welsh, Nenets, and Eskimo languages such as Greenlandic. + +=== Deontic mood vs. epistemic mood === +Linguists also differentiate moods into two parental irrealis categories: deontic mood and epistemic mood. Deontic mood describes whether one could or should be able to do something. An example of deontic mood is: She should/may start. On the other hand, epistemic mood describes the chance or possibility of something happening. This would then change our example to: She may have started. To further explain modality, linguists introduce weak mood. A weak deontic mood describes how a course of action is not recommended or is frowned upon. A weak epistemic mood includes the terms "perhaps" and "possibly". + +== Moods in Oceanic languages == + +=== Pingelapese === +Pingelapese is a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. e and ae are auxiliary verbs found in Pingelapese. Though seemingly interchangeable, e and ae are separate phonemes and have different uses. A Pingelapese speaker would choose to use e when they have a high degree of certainty in what they are saying and ae when they are less certain. This therefore illustrates that e and ae are mood indicators. They have no effect on the direct translation of a sentence, but they are used to alter the mood of the sentence spoken. The following example shows the difference between e and ae when applied in the same sentence. + +Ngaei rong pwa Soahn e laid. +‘I heard that John was fishing (I am certain about it).’ + Ngaei rong pwa Soahn ae laid. +‘I heard that John was fishing (but I am not certain about it).’ +The use of ae instead of e can also indicate an interrogative sentence. This is a form of non-declarative speech that demonstrates the speaker has no commitment to the statement they are saying. The following sentence is an example. + +Soahn ae laid? +‘Does John fish?’ + +=== Reo Rapa === +The language we know as Reo Rapa was created as a result of the introduction of Tahitian to the Rapa monolingual community. Old Rapa words are still used for the grammar and structure of the sentence or phrase, but most common content words were replaced with Tahitian. The Reo Rapa language uses Tense–Aspect–Mood (TAM) in their sentence structure such as the imperfective TAM marker /e/ and the imperative TAM marker /a/. +For example: + +=== Mortlockese === +Mortlockese is an Austronesian language made up of eleven dialects over the eleven atolls that make up the Mortlock Islands in Micronesia. Various TAM markers are used in the language. Mood markers include the past tense hortative (marking encouragement or to urge) aa, the hortative kɞ which denotes a polite tone, min or tin to stress the importance of something, and the word tɞ to denote warning or caution. Each of these markers is used in conjunction with the subject proclitics except for the aa marker. + +== See also == +Articles on specific grammatical moods +Grammatical conjugation +Grammatical modality +Polarity item +Nominal TAM + +== References == + +== External links == + +Mood in Biblical Greek +From SIL International: + +Deontic modality +Volitive modality: imprecative mood, optative mood +Directive modality: deliberative mood, imperative mood, immediate imperative mood, jussive mood, obligative mood, permissive mood, precative mood, prohibitive mood +Epistemic modality +judgment modality: assumptive mood, declarative mood, deductive mood, dubitative mood, hypothetical mood, interrogative mood, speculative mood +Irrealis modality: subjunctive mood \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b2964d0c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Greenberg's linguistic universals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:42.812249+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001) proposed a set of linguistic universals based primarily on a set of 30 languages. The following list is verbatim from the list printed in the appendix of Greenberg's Universals of Language and "Universals Restated", sorted by context. +The numbering is fixed to keep Greenberg's number associations as these are commonly referenced by number; e.g.: "Greenberg's linguistic universal number 12". + + +== Typology == + +"In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is almost always one in which the subject precedes the object." +"In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes." +"Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional." +"With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional." +"If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise follows the noun." +"All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative basic order." + + +== Syntax == + + +== Morphology == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles-0.md index 2b537feee..93a1bb1e1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:24.994590+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:47.439007+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c133ee71e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Janice C. Beatley" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:24.135015+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Janice Carson Beatley (March 18, 1919 – November 14, 1987) was an American botanist, known for her fieldwork on the forests of Ohio and the flora of the Nevada Atomic Test Site. Beatley was Professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati. She has three plant species named in her honour including Astragalus beatleyae. + + +== Early life and education == +Janice Carson Beatley was born in Columbus, Ohio to Earle Beatley and Alice Elizabeth (Carson) Beatley. In 1935, she graduated from North High School in Columbus, then went on to obtain three degrees from Ohio State University, a B.A. in zoology (1940), and a M.S. (1948) and a PhD (1953), both in botany with research in plant ecology. + + +== Career == +During her early career, Beatley conducted extensive studies of the forests of central and southern Ohio, including a survey of more than 1000 species of wintergreen herbaceous flora. This work, published as "The winter-green herbaceous flowering plants of Ohio" (1956), is believed to be the first comprehensive study of its kind in North America. Other extensive studies of Ohio vegetation followed, but in 1960, Beatley's focus shifted to the Atomic Test Site of south-central Nevada, where she would work for the next 13 years. Her studies there included identification and mapping of native and non-native plant species, as well as the effects of environmental factors, such as precipitation and radioactive dust, on the local flora. Later, she would return to Ohio, but continue her research in Nevada. Over the course of her career, Beatley undertook academic and research positions for several institutions, including: University of Tennessee, East Carolina College, North Carolina State University and New Mexico Highlands University. Over the course of her career, she collected over 10,000 herbarium specimens, which are deposited in herbarium collections across the US. + +From 1960 to 1973 she was a research ecologist at the University of California, Los Angeles and the Nevada Test Site at Mercury, Nevada. She moved on to become a professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati from 1973 to 1987. She was also a research associate at the Herbarium of the Ohio State University (1983-1987). +Her work at the Nevada test site began in 1962 when she created 68 study sites. The intention had been to study the effect of radiation on the plants, but this plan had to be changed when the United States abandoned atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons in 1963. The sites however became important because they recorded change. She published reports up to 1980 but much of her data was never published but it was all transferred to the USGS after she died. It was "an ideal place to conduct long-term ecosystem research". +Beatley was a member of many professional scientific bodies, as well as an active supporter of several environmental protection organizations. Three plant species are named for her: Astragalus beatleyae Barneby, Eriogonum beatleyae Reveal, and Phacelia beatleyae Reveal and Constance. Beatley died of pneumonia on November 14, 1987. In the years following, the Janice Carson Beatley Herbarium Fund was created in her honor at The Ohio State University. + + +== Publications == +A selection of the most widely held works by Beatley: + +Beatley also conducted research on the sunflowers of Tennessee and the buckeyes of Ohio, among others. + + +=== Standard author abbreviation === + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..418e552b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "List of AM cannabinoids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:22.307748+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Alexandros Makriyannis is a professor in the Department of Medicinal Chemistry at Northeastern University, where his research group has synthesized many new compounds with cannabinoid activity. Some of those are: + + +== See also == +List of CP cannabinoids +List of JWH cannabinoids +List of HU cannabinoids +List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..737169c20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of African-American inventors and scientists" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:41.417249+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African-Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine. + + +== History == +African-Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African-Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation. Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions. +Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from peanuts that were useful for the house and farm. He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP. +A later renowned scientist was Percy Lavon Julian, a research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine, and a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones, steroids, progesterone, and testosterone, from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work would lay the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills. +A contemporary example of a modern-day inventor is Lonnie George Johnson, an engineer. Johnson invented the Super Soaker water gun, which was the top-selling toy in the United States from 1991 to 1992. In 1980 Johnson formed his own law firm and licensed the Super Soaker water gun to Larami Corporation. Two years later, the Super Soaker generated over $200 million in retail sales and became the best selling toy in North America. Larami Corporation was eventually purchased by Hasbro, the second largest toy manufacturer in the world. Over the years, Super Soaker sales have totaled close to one billion dollars. Johnson reinvested a majority of his earnings from the Super Soaker into research and development for his energy technology companies – "It's who I am, it's what I do." As of 2019, Johnson holds over 120 patents, with more pending, and is the author of several publications on spacecraft power systems. + + +== List == +P + + +== See also == + + +== References == + +202 US3609467 US3547423 + + +== External links == +The Faces of Science: African Americans in the Sciences +The Black Inventor Online Museum +LittleAfrica.com website +Black Lives in Astronomy: Guide to Black Astronomers +Top List of Black Inventions That Changed The World \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d2505019a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ +--- +title: "List of Albanian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:42.572843+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Albanian inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises individuals from Albania, the Albanian diaspora, and those of Albanian heritage who have contributed to the invention, innovation, or discovery of objects, processes, or techniques, either wholly or in part while working locally or abroad. The list is arranged in alphabetical order by surname. + + +== A == +Grigor Andoni: Designed and developed Albania's first armored military vehicle, Shota MRAP. + + +== B == +Veso Bey: Invented the Gjirokastër alphabet. + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == +Carol Folt: Pioneering research on the effects of dietary mercury and arsenic on human and ecosystem health. Her pioneering scientific research profoundly influenced national and global policies, leading to important recommendations on consumption, particularly regarding human health and ecosystem well-being, shaped by dietary factors. + + +== G == +Karl Ritter von Ghega: Designed the Semmering railway, the first standard-gauge mountain railway in Europe, commonly known as the world's first true mountain railway. Ghega was awarded the title of (Ritter) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to the country and was appointed as the chief planner for the entire railway network of the Austrian Empire. +Savo Gjirja: Innovated methods for utilizing ethanol as an alternative engine fuel. +Rifat Gjota: Invented Gjota generators and electromotors enhancing energy efficiency and reducing usage of copper. In 1965, Gjota graduated from the Electrotechnical Faculty of the University of Skopje. He later completed his master's degree at the University of Zagreb's Faculty of Electrical Engineering and earned his doctorate from the University of Pristina's Faculty of Electrical Engineering. He became a professor at the University of Pristina. +Luigi Giura: Designed the Real Ferdinando Bridge, the first iron catenary suspension bridge in Italy, it was one of the earliest in continental Europe. + + +== H == +Theodhor Haxhifilipi: Invented the Todhri alphabet. +Pranvera Hyseni: Discovered a main belt asteroid, 2020 SS13 and 2000 EK140. Officially named by the International Astronomical Union 45687 Pranverahyseni to recognize her efforts in astronomy outreach. She also founded the Astronomy Outreach of Kosovo, advancing astronomical education. + + +== I == +Halil Ibrahimi: Discovered multiple caddisfly species through field collection. + + +== J == + + +== K == +Sabiha Kasimati: Major pioneering research on the Ichthyology of Albania. Sabiha Kasimati made very significant strides in the field of ichthyology through her research and her most notable work Fishes of Albania she cataloged and analyzed 257 fish species. Her contributions continue to serve as a vital reference for the study of the region's ichthyofauna and aquatic biodiversity. +Wilson Kokalari: Contributed to the Apollo 11 mission, and he played a major role in spacecraft design and testing. Wilson Kokalari was honored by having his name featured on a plaque carried to the Moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts, recognizing the contributions of all those involved in this historic achievement. +Grigor Konstantinidhi: Invented the Elbasan alphabet. + + +== L == + + +== M == +Laura Mersini-Houghton: Pioneered the multiverse hypothesis, proposing gravitational dynamics among universes. +Gjon Mili: Innovated stroboscopic and stop action photography as well as invented and developed tungsten filament lights for color photography. +Ferid Murad: Discovered the role of Nitric Oxide in relaxing blood vessels, a breakthrough that revolutionized treatments for heart disease, erectile dysfunction, and respiratory issues in premature infants. His discovery played an crucial role in the development and creation of Viagra. His discovery earned him a Nobel Prize in 1998 for Physiology or Medicine. +Mira Murati: Creator and CEO of Thinking Machines Lab and former Chief Technology Officer at OpenAI, she played an important role in developing the AI in ChatGPT, DALL-E, and Codex. + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == +Mentor Përmeti: Invented the Dajti wheat variety which improved agricultural productivity. +Afërdita Veveçka Priftaj: Discovered the mechanism governing gold atom clustering on crystal surfaces, crucial for advancements in catalysis and nanotechnology. + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == +Lulzim Shuka: Co-discovered Epimedium alpinum subsp. albanicum, a unique plant in Kosovo's Albanian Alps, alongside Kit Tan and Besnik Hallaçi. As well as Co-discovered Tulipa albanica, a distinct tulip species in Albania, alongside Besnik Hallaçi and L. Vata. + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == +Naum Veqilharxhi: Invented the Vithkuqi alphabet. + + +== W == + + +== X == +Omer Xhemali: Led a research team in developing an innovative heart-regenerating patch called the RCPatch (Reinforced Cardiac Patch). + + +== Y == +Klevis Ylli: Contributed to the invention and optimization of wearable biomechanical energy harvesters that convert human motion into electrical energy, advancing self-powered wearable technology. + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +List of Albanian inventions and discoveries + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_lunar_sample_displays-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_lunar_sample_displays-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21a7d4dc8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_lunar_sample_displays-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of Apollo lunar sample displays" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_lunar_sample_displays" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:50.949425+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of lunar sample displays from the Apollo program that were distributed through the United States and around the world. They include samples from the Apollo 11 and Apollo 17 missions conducted by NASA in 1969 and 1972. +The Apollo 11 mission to the surface of the Moon returned a few dozen pounds/kilos of lunar material (mainly rock and dust), and the US put about 0.05 grams in small display cases and gave one apiece to the 50 U.S. states, to the nations of the world, and to political entities like the U.S. territories under administration. This was done again with an Apollo 17 sample (Lunar basalt 70017). There are a few samples from Apollo 15 on display. + + +== United States == + + +== International == +The display cases included a lunar sample and small flag of the respective political entity that had been to the Moon and back. Approximately 135 displays were gifted to nations of the world at that time, so nations created since then are not included and some displays have been inherited from past nations + + +== Footnotes == + + +== See also == + +Apollo 11 goodwill messages (Messages by nations left on the Moon) +Stolen and missing Moon rocks + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Lunar Sample Display locations (in .pdf) +Collect Space - Moonrock list +Kentucky's Goodwill Moon rock display in the Kentucky Historical Society's objects catalog \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87078b664 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of Armenian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:43.942176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following list contains notable inventions and discoveries made by ethnic Armenians, including those not born or living in modern-day Armenia and those of partial Armenian ancestry. + + +== List == +Default sorted chronologically + + +== See also == +List of Armenians +List of Armenian scientists +List of Armenian Nobel laureates + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2de83c45b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "List of Austrian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:45.136440+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Austrian inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Austria, and also people of predominantly Austrian heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. + + +== B == + +Georg Joseph Beer, introducing a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife). +Günther Burstyn, co-inventor of the tank (independent from him William Tritton and Walter Gordon Wilson) + + +== C == +Carl Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. +Gerty Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. + + +== D == +Carl Djerassi, inventor of birth control pills +Christian Doppler, discoverer of the Doppler effect + + +== E == +Paul Eisler, inventor of the printed circuit board. + + +== F == + +Otto Frenzl: aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952. +Sigmund Freud: neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis +Karl von Frisch: (Nobel Prize), one of the founders of modern ethology, studies on waggle dance +Paul Fürst: inventor of the Mozartkugel + + +== G == +David Gestetner, inventor of the Gestetner stencil duplicator. +Adolph Giesl-Gieslingen, inventor of the Giesl ejector + + +== H == +Friedrich Hayek (Nobel Prize), pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations. + +Victor Francis Hess (Nobel Prize), discovered cosmic ray. +Ingeborg Hochmair, developed the first modern cochlear implant + + +== K == + +Eric Kandel (Nobel Prize), research on the physiological basis of memory storage in neurons. +Viktor Kaplan, inventor of the Kaplan turbine. +Wolfgang von Kempelen, inventor of The Turk, a chess-playing automaton and Wolfgang von Kempelen's Speaking Machine. +Walter Kohn (Nobel Prize) discovered Density functional theory +Karl Kordesch, jointly co-inventor of Alkaline battery (together with Canadian Lewis Urry). +Richard Kuhn (Nobel Prize), works on carotenoids and vitamins, co-discovered Soman + + +== L == +Hedy Lamarr, co-invented, with composer George Antheil, an early technique for spread spectrum communications and frequency hopping. + +Karl Landsteiner (Nobel Prize) discovered the main blood groups, co-discovered with Alexander S. Wiener, the Rhesus factor and co-discovered with Constantin Levaditi and Erwin Popper the polio virus. + +Konrad Lorenz (Nobel Prize) one of the founders of modern ethology + + +== M == +Ferdinand Mannlicher, along with Scottish Canadian James Paris Lee, Mannlicher was particularly noted for inventing the en-bloc clip charger-loading magazine system. +August Musger, inventor of slow motion. + + +== P == + +Wolfgang Pauli (Nobel Prize), discovered Pauli exclusion principle +Max Perutz (Nobel Prize), co-discovered with John Kendrew in studies the structures of hemoglobin and globular proteins. +Fritz Pregl (Nobel Prize), making important contributions to quantitative organic microanalysis, one of which was the improvement of the combustion train technique for elemental analysis. + + +== R == +Edmund Rumpler, inventor of Rumpler Tropfenwagen + + +== S == + +Franz Sacher, inventor of Sachertorte +Erwin Schrödinger, discovered Schrödinger equation +Eduard Suess: discoveries in geology, continent Gondwana and Tethys Ocean was named by Suess +Stephan von Breuning, discoverer of many varieties of beetles, particularly those in the Cerambycidae family + + +== T == +Gustav Tauschek, inventor of Drum memory + + +== V == +Max Valier, performed the first test drive of a rocket car with liquid propulsion, the Valier-Heylandt Rak 7. + + +== W == + +Julius Wagner-Jauregg (Nobel Prize), discovered treatment of mental disease by inducing a fever, an approach known as pyrotherapy. + + +== See also == +List of Austrian Americans + + +== Notes == +Austrians have a history of aircraft and math + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b820d631c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:46.262406+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas, and also a list of Bulgarian inventions and creations. The list comprises people from Bulgaria and also people of predominantly Bulgarian heritage. + + +== Art and architecture == +Early Renaissance of the Tărnovo Artistic School – the world famous frescos in the Boyana Church from 1239 AD have been described by Andre Grabar and many scholars, as Early Renaissance or precursors of Renaissance Art well before this period started in Italy. The murals are work of the unknown Boyana Master and his disciples who are believed to have been representatives of the Tarnovo Artistic School of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396 AD). The frescos have been compared to the work of Giotto who is generally considered the first in a line of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance. The Boyana Church has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. +Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School – characteristic for the Second Bulgarian Empire, influenced the architecture in many countries of Southeast Europe and parts of Central Europe. + + +== Medicine and pharmacology == +Stamen Grigorov – discovered Lactobacillus bulgaricus, patented bacteria used for the production of yogurt in 1905. The bacterium feeds on lactose to produce lactic acid, which is used to preserve milk. He also made a major contribution to the creation of an anti-tuberculosis vaccine. +Dimitar Paskov – created the medicine Nivalin, used for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease and various other memory impairments, in particular those of vascular origin. +Samuel Refetoff – discovered the Refetoff syndrome, resistance to thyrotropin (RTSH) and the inherited defect that affects the metabolism of thyroid hormones through mutations in SECISBP2 gene. +Ivan Mitev – discovered the sixth heart sound. + + +== Literature and education == + +The Early Cyrillic script created in the Pliska-Preslav Literary School in the 9th century. The Bulgarian scholars and writers, as St. Clement of Ohrid and St. Naum of Preslav, were among the most prominent and close disciples of Saints Cyril and Methodius and among the creators not only of the first Slavic alphabet – the Glagolitic (not officially used nowadays), but also of the new Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet, named after their teacher and mentor Saint Cyril. This alphabetic writing system is nowadays employed across Southeast and Eastern Europe, also in North and Central Asia. This is the major Bulgarian contribution to the European civilization produced during the Golden Age of Bulgaria during the First Bulgarian Empire, the period of the Bulgarian cultural prosperity during the reign of emperor Simeon I the Great (889–927). +The Tarnovo Literary School of the late 14th and 15th century was a major medieval Bulgarian cultural academy with important contribution to the Medieval Bulgarian literature established in the capital of Bulgaria Tarnovo. With the orthographic reform of Saint Evtimiy of Tarnovo and prominent representatives such as Gregory Tsamblak or Constantine of Kostenets. It was part of the Tarnovo School of Art which was characteristic for the culture of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The school influenced Russian, Serbian, Wallachian and Moldavian medieval culture. That is famous in Russia as the second South-Slavic influence. +Georgi Lozanov – the teaching method Suggestopedia, a portmanteau of "suggestions" and "pedagogy" used to learn foreign languages, was first developed in the 1970s and utilize positive suggestions in teaching language. In 1978, the psychiatrist Lozanov presented the method to a commission in Paris at UNESCO. +Elias Canetti – Nobel laureate in Literature 1981 "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power" + + +== Technology and aviation == + +The first technologically processed gold and oldest gold treasure and gold jewelry in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at Varna Necropolis. +The first Ferris wheels, the "Pleasure wheels" from Plovdiv, whose passengers rode in chairs suspended from large wooden rings turned by strong men, may have originated in 17th-century Bulgaria. +Simeon Petrov – Captain Simeon Petrov, Bulgarian Air Force, invented the world's first purpose-built air-to-surface bomb in 1912. The innovations included aerodynamically stabilized x-tail and an impact detonator. The majority of aircraft bombs to date follow Petrov's design. The Bulgarian Air Force deployed the original prototype, thus becoming the first military force in the world to conduct tactical airplane bombing in a full-scale war in 1912. +Assen Jordanoff (September 2, 1896 – October 19, 1967) was a Bulgarian inventor, engineer, and aviator. Jordanoff is considered to be the founder of aeronautical engineering in Bulgaria, as well as a contributor to the development of aviation in the United States. Inventor of: +the Airbag for aircraft pilots that is nowadays used in automobiles; +the Jordaphone – the predecessor of the modern Answering machine and Tape recorder; +the Frozen Gasoline System for airplanes; +the Reverse thrust device for jet engines. +John Vincent Atanasoff (October 4, 1903 – June 15, 1995) was a physicist and inventor of Bulgarian origin, best known for being credited with inventing the first electronic digital computer. +Peter Petroff (21 October 1919 – 27 February 2003) was a Bulgarian inventor, engineer, NASA scientist, and adventurer. He was involved in the NASA space program. Among his many accomplishments, Petroff assisted in development of one of the earliest computerized pollution monitoring system and telemetry devices for early weather and communications satellites. Petroff helped develop components of one of the world's first digital watches and an early wireless heart monitor, and many other important devices and methods. +Ivan (John) Notchev – Bulgarian aviation engineer and invertor of the jet engines of the Eagle lunar module. They provide the smooth landing of the module with the cosmonauts, and then their successful return and docking with the spacecraft waiting for them in orbit. +Angel Balevski (4 March 1910 – 15 September 1997) – famous Bulgarian inventor and engineer who developed, together with Ivan Dimov, a counter-pressure casting method which was a novelty in world foundry technology and was protected by over 100 patent documents in Bulgaria and abroad. +Roumen Antonov – invented a revolutionary continuously variable transmission, which was never produced. + + +== Science == + +Georgi Nadjakov – discovered the photoelectret state essential to modern photocopying. +Ivan Stranski – Prof. Stranski is considered the father of the kinetic theory of crystal growth research. The Stranski-Krastanov growth and the Kossel-Stranski model have been named after him. +Dimitar Ivanov Popov – Ivanov reaction is the chemical reaction of the dianions (endiolates) of aryl acetic acids (Ivanov reagents) with electrophiles, primarily carbonyl compounds or isocyanates.[1][2][3][4] +Dimitar Sasselov – in 2002 sighted the farthest planet from the Earth discovered until then – OGLE-TR-56b. +Boicho Kokinov – DUAL (cognitive architecture). + + +== See also == +List of Bulgarian inventions and creations + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1129ba2ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "List of Chesapeake Bay rivers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:14.318816+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of Chesapeake Bay rivers includes the main rivers draining into the Chesapeake Bay estuarine complex on the mid-Atlantic eastern coast of the United States, North America. The three largest rivers in order of both discharge and watershed area are the Susquehanna River, the Potomac River, and the James River. Other major rivers include the Rappahannock River, the Appomattox River (which flows into the lower James River), the York River (a combination of the Pamunkey and Mattaponi tributary rivers), the Patuxent River, and the Choptank River. + +The entire Chesapeake Bay watershed includes portions of six states (New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware) and the District of Columbia. The watershed of the entire Chesapeake Bay covers 165,760 km2 (approximately 64,000 mi2 or 41 million acres ). With an estuary water body area of only 11,600 km2 (4,479 mi2), the land-to-water ratio is about 14:1. Therefore, the rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay have a large influence on water quality in the estuary. The rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay act as sources of nutrients and sediments from land, which affect the health of the downstream estuary. The larger rivers cross the Atlantic seaboard fall line. Over time, many large cities emerged where these rivers cross the fall line as watermills allowed for the production of material goods. Colonial-era logging, farming, and later construction of mill dams have altered streams and trapped mud in much of the Chesapeake Bay watershed. + + +== Largest rivers == + +[*] James values are the sums of flows and watershed areas of the James and Appomattox rivers. +[**] York values are the sums of flows and watershed areas of the Mattaponi and Pamunkey tributary rivers. + + +== Other tributary rivers and tidal inlets == +In addition to the largest rivers listed above, the following rivers drain directly into the Chesapeake Bay: + + +=== Eastern shore tributary rivers === +Pocomoke River +Little Annemessex River +Big Annemessex River +Manokin River +Monie Creek +Wicomico River (Maryland eastern shore) +Nanticoke River +Transquaking River +Blackwater River (Maryland) +Honga River +Little Choptank River +Miles River +Front River +Wye River (Maryland) +Chester River +Sassafras River +Elk River (Maryland) +North East River +Principio Creek + + +=== Western shore tributary rivers === +Swan Creek +Romney Creek +Bush River (Maryland) +Gunpowder River +Middle River (Maryland) +Back River (Maryland) +Patapsco River +Magothy River +Whitehall Creek (Maryland) +Severn River (Maryland) +South River (Maryland) +West River (Maryland) +Rhode River +St. Marys River (Maryland) +Little Wicomico River +Great Wicomico River +Piankatank River +East River (Virginia) +North River (Mobjack Bay) +Ware River (Virginia) +Severn River (Virginia) +Poquoson River +Back River (Virginia) +Hampton River +Elizabeth River (Virginia) +Lynnhaven River + + +== See also == + +Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line +Atlantic seaboard watershed +Chesapeake Bay +Chesapeake Bay Program +Chesapeake Bay Foundation +Hydrology +List of rivers of the United States +List of rivers of Maryland +List of rivers of Virginia +Mid-Atlantic (United States) +Mississippi River System +Category:Tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f07aabd4b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "List of Cornish engineers and inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:48.759095+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of engineers and inventors from Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. + +John Arnold, watchmaker and pioneer of the marine chronometer +William Bickford, inventor of the safety fuse +Joseph Henry Collins, mining engineer, mineralogist and geologist +Sir John Coode, civil engineer +William Cookworthy, discoverer of china clay (kaolinite) in Cornwall +Sir Humphry Davy, scientist, inventor and President of the Royal Society +Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, inventor of limelight +Jonathan Hornblower, inventor of the compound engine and the steam valve +William Husband, civil and mechanical engineer +Thomas Brown Jordan, engineer +Michael Loam, inventor of the man engine +Sir Thomas Matthews, civil engineer and builder of lighthouses +William Murdoch, engineer, inventor and sometime Cornish resident +Andrew Pears, inventor of transparent soap +William Westcott Rundell, inventor and engineer from Falmouth +Adrian Stephens, inventor of the steam whistle +Richard Tangye, engineer +John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls +Joseph Thomas, architect and civil engineer +Joseph Treffry, engineer and industrialist +Henry Trengrouse, inventor of a rocket-powered maritime rescue system +Richard Trevithick, inventor, engineer and builder of the first steam locomotive +Robert Trewhella (1830-1909; it:Robert Trewhella), railway engineer and contractor +Andrew Vivian, Trevithick's cousin and collaborator, and captain of Dolcoath Mine +Arthur Woolf, inventor of the high pressure compound steam engine + + +== See also == + +List of Cornish scientists and inventors + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d23b8b313 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "List of Cornish scientists" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:50.006173+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of scientists from Cornwall, a county of England, in the United Kingdom. + + +== Biologists == +Henry Charlton Bastian, physiologist and neurologist +Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Nicholson Betts, Indian Army officer and ornithologist +George Carter Bignell, entomologist +William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan +William Clift, naturalist and Fellow of the Royal Society +Jonathan Couch, naturalist and physician +Richard Quiller Couch, naturalist +Frederick Hamilton Davey, botanist +Jean Golding, epidemiologist +Henry Brougham Guppy, naturalist and botanist +Charles Alexander Johns, botanist and clergyman +Oscar Kempthorne, statistician and geneticist +William Lobb, plant collector +John Keast Lord, veterinarian and naturalist +Richard Lower, blood transfusion pioneer +John Mayow, physiologist +William Noye of Paul, entomologist +Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe, entomologist +John Ralfs, botanist +Edward Hearle Rodd, ornithologist +John Coulson Tregarthen, naturalist +Ethelwynn Trewavas, ichthyologist +Sir Richard Vyvyan, Bart, MP for Cornwall and scientist +William Wagstaff, ornithologist and naturalist +Elizabeth Andrew Warren, botanist + + +== Earth scientists == +William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan +Edward Budge, geologist and clergyman +Elizabeth Carne, geologist and philanthropist +Joseph Carne, geologist, industrialist and Fellow of the Royal Society +Richard Edmonds, geologist and antiquary +Robert Were Fox, geologist +William Gregor, discoverer of titanium and clergyman +John Hawkins, geologist, traveller +Robert Hunt, mineralogist and writer +Matthew Paul Moyle, meteorologist and mining writer +Charles William Peach, naturalist and geologist +Benjamin Neeve Peach, geologist +William Pengelly, geologist and archaeologist +John Arthur Phillips, geologist, metallurgist, mining engineer + + +== Physical scientists == +John Couch Adams, co-discoverer of the planet Neptune +Herbert Stanley Allen, physicist +Edmund Davy, chemist +Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet, chemist and inventor +Edwin Dunkin, President of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Royal Institution of Cornwall +Antony Hewish, astronomer +Sir William Lower (1570 – 1615), astronomer and Member of Parliament +William Oliver, inventor of the Bath Oliver and a founder of the Royal Mineral Water Hospital at Bath +Roy Sambles, physicist + + +== Others == +Lancelot Stephen Bosanquet, mathematician +Davies Gilbert, applied mathematician and technocrat, President of the Royal Society +John Hellins, mathematician, curate of Constantine +Sheila Oates Williams (born 1939), Australian mathematician + + +== See also == + +List of Cornish engineers and inventors + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8974eed4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "List of Croatian inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:51.323213+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Croatian inventors. + + +== B == +Zlata Bartl +Josip Belušić +Ruđer Bošković + + +== D == +Ivan Đikić +Igor Dvornik + + +== F == +Vilim Srećko Feller + + +== G == +Marin Getaldić + + +== H == +Franjo Hanaman + + +== J == +Aleksandar Just + + +== K == +Franjo Kajfež +Marcel pl. Kiepach +Ivo Kolin +Benedikt Kotruljević +Ferdinand Kovačević + + +== L == +Antun Lučić +Ivan Lupis-Vukić + + +== M == +Ante Maglica +Peter Miscovich +Andrija Mohorovičić + + +== P == +Slavoljub Penkala +Herman Potočnik +Vladimir Prelog +Mario Puratić + + +== R == +Mate Rimac +Lavoslav Ružička + + +== S == +David Schwarz +Pavao Skalić +Marin Soljačić + + +== U == +Tomislav Uzelac + + +== V == +Faust Vrančić +Ivan Vučetić + + +== External links == +Hrvati koji su mijenjali svijet ima ih više nego slutite, Politika plus \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4073c467 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,135 @@ +--- +title: "List of English inventors and designers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:52.532703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of English inventors and designers. + + +== A == +Roma Agrawal, structural engineer who contributed to the design of The Shard building in London +Sir Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) invented the spinning frame (also known as the water frame) +Joseph Aspdin (1788–1855), Portland cement + + +== B == +Roger Bacon (1214–1292), magnifying glass +Edward Barber (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch +Julia Barfield (1952– ), architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England +Trevor Baylis (1937–2018), wind-up radio +Tim Berners-Lee (1955– ), World Wide Web + + +== C == +Margaret Calvert (1936– ), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom +Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823) invented the power loom +George Cayley (1773–1854), man-carrying glider, tension spoke wheels, hot air engine, continuous track "universal railway" vehicle propulsion system +Imran Chaudhri (1973– ) invented the user interface and interactions of the iPhone, also worked on the Mac, iPod, iPad, Apple TV and Apple Watch +John Clark (1785-1853) invented the first automated poetry generator, The Eureka, and patented a method to waterproof fabric for air beds and air cushions in 1813. +Terence Conran (1931–2020), Design Museum founder +Ilse Crawford (born 1962), interior and furniture designer +Samuel Crompton (1753–1827) invented the spinning mule + + +== D == +Rick Dickinson (c. 1957–2018), designer of early computers, the touch-sensitive keyboard, as well as the rubber keyboard of the ZX Spectrum +Sir James Dyson (b. 1947) invented the bagless vacuum cleaner + + +== F == +Michael Faraday (1791–1867), electric transformer +John Ambrose Fleming (1848–1945), vacuum diode +Tommy Flowers (1905–1998), Colossus computer, an early electronic computer +Samson Fox (1838–1903) invented the corrugated boiler flue +William Friese-Greene (1855–1921), cinematography + + +== G == +Kenneth Grange (1929– ), industrial design including the InterCity 125 + + +== H == +James Hargreaves (c. 1720–1778) invented the spinning jenny +Sir John Harington (d. 1612) invented the first modern flushing toilet +John Harrison (1693–1776), marine chronometer +Rowland Hill (1795–1879), postage stamp +Frank Hornby (1863–1936), Meccano + + +== I == +Jonathan Ive (1967– ), Chief Design Officer of Apple Inc. and designer of many of Apple's products, including the MacBook Pro, iMac, MacBook Air, Mac mini, iPod, iPod Touch, iPhone, iPad, iPad Mini, Apple Watch and iOS + + +== K == +Tom Karen (1926–2022), industrial designer who designed cars, bicycles, and radios in the 1970s +Jock Kinneir (1917–1994), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom + + +== M == +George William Manby (1765–1854), fire extinguisher +David Marks, architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England + + +== N == +Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729) invented the atmospheric engine +Isaac Newton (1642–1727), reflecting telescope + + +== O == +Jay Osgerby (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch + + +== P == +Alexander Parkes (1831–1890), celluloid +Stephen Perry, rubber band +George Pocock (1774–1843) invented the 'Charvolant' (a kite-drawn carriage) +Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), soda water + + +== R == +Andrew Ritchie (1947– ), Brompton bicycle + + +== S == +Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842), shrapnel shell ammunition +Jedediah Strutt (1726–1797) invented the Derby Rib machine + + +== T == +Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) invented the salt print and calotype photographic processes +J.J. Thomson (1856–1940), mass spectrometer +Jethro Tull (1674–1740), horse-drawn seed drill + + +== W == +Edward Craven Walker (1918-2000) invented the lava lamp +Barnes Wallis (1887–1979), bouncing bomb +Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) invented jasperware +Edward Weston (1850–1936), Weston cell +Frank Whittle (1907–1996), co-inventor of the jet engine +William Winlaw (d.1796), patented agricultural machinery +Arthur Wynne (1862–1945), inventor of crossword puzzle + + +== See also == +List of British innovations and discoveries +List of Cornish engineers and inventors +List of Cornish scientists +List of English inventions and discoveries +List of Welsh inventors + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Smiles, Samuel (2015). Men of Invention and Industry - English Inventors. Read Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1473371194. + + +== External links == +The Brits Who Designed the Modern World Artsnight - Series 4: 7, BBC Two \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..19d1e3389 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of English irregular verbs" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:32.921300+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of irregular verbs in the English language. + + +== Past tense irregular verbs == +For each verb listed, the citation form (the bare infinitive) is given first, with a link to the relevant Wiktionary entry. This is followed by the simple past tense (preterite), and then the past participle. If there are irregular present tense forms (see below), these are given in parentheses after the infinitive. (The present participle and gerund forms of verbs, ending in -ing, are always regular. In English, these are used as verbs, adjectives, and nouns.) In the case of modal verbs the present and preterite forms are listed, since these are the only forms that exist, with the present form identical for all persons. +The right-hand column notes whether the verb is weak or strong and whether it belongs to a subclass, and links to descriptions elsewhere. Information about the development of these verbs generally can be found at English irregular verbs; details of the etymology and usage of specific verbs can be found by consulting Wiktionary. +In some cases, there are two or more possibilities for a given form. In the table, the preferred or more common usage is generally listed first, though for some words the usage is nearly equal for the two choices. Sometimes the usage depends on the dialect. In many cases, such as spell (spelt vs. spelled), learn (learnt vs. learned), and spill (spilt vs. spilled), American English and Canadian English normally use the regular form, while British English, Australian English, New Zealand English and South African English tend to favour the irregular. In other cases, such as dive (dived vs. dove) and sneak (sneaked vs. snuck), the opposite is true. The irregular form tends to indicate duration, whereas the regular form often describes a short-term action (The fire burned for weeks. vs. He burnt his finger.), and in American English, the regular form is associated with the literal sense of a verb, while the irregular form with a figurative one. +The preterite and past participle forms of irregular verbs follow certain patterns. These include ending in -t (e.g. build, bend, send), stem changes (whether it is a vowel, such as in sit, win or hold, or a consonant, such as in teach and seek, that changes), or adding the [n] suffix to the past participle form (e.g. drive, show, rise). English irregular verbs are now a closed group, which means that newly formed verbs are always regular and do not adopt any of the irregular patterns. +This list contains only those verb forms which are listed in the major dictionaries as being standard usage in modern English. There are also many thousands of archaic, non-standard and dialect variants. Modern English still has remnants of formerly irregular verbs in other parts of speech. Most obviously, adjectives like misshapen, beholden, or forlorn fossilize what were originally the past participles of the verbs shape and behold, and Old English forleosan. However, forleosan has fallen out of use and shape is now regular, so these verbs are not listed, and behold, while still irregular, can no longer be listed this participle form. + + +== Present tense irregular verbs == + +Though the list of verbs irregular in the preterite or past participle is long, the list of irregular present tense verbs is very short. Excepting modal verbs like "shall", "will", and "can" that do not inflect at all in the present tense, there are only four of them, not counting compounds including them: + +be: I am, thou art, you are, he is, we are, they are. The contracted/reduced forms, used in unstressed positions and in particular as auxiliary verbs, are as follows: I’m, you’re, he’s, we’re, they’re. +do (and compounds such as undo and redo): I do, you do, he does, we do, they do, where "does" is pronounced (instead of ), in contrast to the used for the infinitive and the other present tense forms. The reduced forms of the verb do are pronounced /du/, /də/, /d/, or /dəz/, /dz/ for does and usually appear only in questions. The contracted forms of do are used only in the negative: I do not = I don't, you do not = you don't, he does not = he doesn't, we do not = we don't, they do not = they don't. +have: I have, you have, he has, we have, they have. If used as an auxiliary verb in the present perfect, past perfect or future perfect, its contracted forms can be used: I’ve, you’ve, he’s, we’ve, they’ve. +say (and compounds such as gainsay and naysay): I say, you say, he says, we say, they say, where "says" has the standard pronunciation (instead of ), in contrast to the used for the infinitive and other present tense forms. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Wiktionary's category of English irregular verbs +Complete List of 638 English Irregular Verbs with their forms in different tenses. +Mind Our English: Strong and weak by Ralph Berry. +English Irregular Verb List A comprehensive list of English irregular verbs, including their base form, past simple, past participle, 3rd person singular, and the present participle / gerund. +Database of all irregular verbs with complete conjugation and audio. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca43f1655 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of German inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Germany or German-speaking Europe, and also people of predominantly German heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. +For the list containing items and ideas invented and/or discovered by Germans, see list of German inventions and discoveries. + +== A == + +Ernst Abbe: Invented the first refractometer, and many other devices. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. +Franz Carl Achard: Developed a process to produce sugar from sugar beet. Built the first factory for the process in 1802. +Robert Adler: Invented a better television remote control. +Konrad Adenauer: Invented soya sausage (1916; "Kölner Wurst") and, together with Jean and Josef Oebel, [coarse] wholemeal bread (1917; Kölner Brot). +Georgius Agricola: Named "the father of mineralogy". +Wilhelm Albert: Invented the wire rope 1834. +Kurt Alder: Discovery of the Diels–Alder reaction, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950. +Richard Altmann: Discovery of the Mitochondrion +Alois Alzheimer: Psychiatrist who discovered Alzheimer's disease, a degeneration of the brain in old age. +Momme Andresen (1857-1951): industrial research chemist who made inventions relating to photography +Ottomar Anschütz: in 1883 he patented a camera with an internal roller blind shutter mechanism, just in front of the photographic plate. Thus the focal-plane shutter in modern recognizable form was born. +Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe: Invented the gyrocompass in 1907. +Manfred von Ardenne: Self-taught researcher, applied physicist, and inventor. 600 patents in fields including television and radio, electron microscopy, medical technology, nuclear technology, and plasma physics. +Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander: cataloged all stars brighter than approximately magnitude 9.5 and north of -2 degrees in the Bonner Durchmusterung, the first large-scale modern star catalog. +Leo Arons: Mercury-vapor lamp together with Peter Cooper Hewitt. +Leopold Auerbach: Discovery of Plexus myentericus Auerbachi, or Auerbach's plexus. +Max Abraham: Physicist. Worked as Max Planck's assistant for three years. Developed theories on electrons. + +== B == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8daa43f91 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Walter Baade: astronomer. With Fritz Zwicky, he identified supernovae as a new category of astronomical objects +Karl Ernst von Baer: discovered mammal ovum. +Ralph Baer: Inventor of the first home video game console. +Adolf von Baeyer: Chemist. Synthesized indigo, discovered the phthalein dyes, and investigated polyacetylenes, oxonium salts, nitroso compounds (1869) and uric acid derivatives (1860 and onwards) including the discovery of barbituric acid (1864). Nobel laureate 1905. +Otto Bayer: Chemist. Invented polyurethane. +Albert Ballin: Father of modern cruise ship travel +Heinrich Band: Developed a musical instrument and called it bandoneón in 1846. It is still used in most tango orchestras. +Heinrich Barkhausen: Discovered what is now called the Barkhausen effect, to describe the phenomenon, which is caused by rapid changes of size of magnetic domains in 1919, and Barkhausen stability criterion. +Oskar Barnack: The father of the first mass marketed 35mm camera and Leica. +Heinrich Anton de Bary: Father of Phytopathology, the science of plant diseases and modern Mycology. Coined the word symbiosis in 1879. +Karl Adolph von Basedow: Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease +Andreas Friedrich Bauer: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Friedrich Koenig +Wilhelm Bauer: Inventor and engineer, who built several hand-powered submarines. +Eugen Baumann: He was one of the first people to create polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and, together with Carl Schotten, he discovered the Schotten-Baumann reaction. +Hans Beck: Inventor of the toy Playmobil. +Georg Bednorz: Physicist, discovered high-temperature superconductivity in ceramics, shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics. +Martin Behaim: Inventor of the first globe of the world (Erdapfel) between 1491 and 1493. +Alexander Behm: Inventor of echo sounding. The patent was granted in 1913. +Emil Adolf von Behring: physiologist. Discovered the diphtheria antitoxin. It was the world's first cure for a disease (1891). He was awarded history's first Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine in 1901. +Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen: Navigator and explorer. Discovered the land mass of Antarctica on January 28, 1820. +Melitta Bentz: entrepreneur. She is an inventor of the coffee filter, 1908. +Bertha Benz: invented brake lining. +Karl Benz: industrialist. Father and inventor of the gasoline-powered automobile, 1885 (Benz Patent-Motorwagen), and pioneering founder of automobile manufacturing. +Albrecht Berblinger: engineer. Inventor of the spring prosthesis and hang-glider (1811). +Hans Berger: a German neurologist, best known as the inventor of electroencephalography (EEG) (the recording of "brain waves") in 1924, coining the name, and the discoverer of the alpha wave rhythm known as "Berger's wave" +Emil Berliner: He is best known for developing the microphone and disc recording gramophone. +Friedrich Bessel: astronomer; he is credited with being the first to use parallax in calculating the distance to a star. +Hans Bethe: Nuclear physicist and Nobel laureate in physics 1967. During World War II, he was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret Los Alamos laboratory which developed the first atomic bombs. +Albert Betz: physicist. Betz's law, 1913 +Heinz Billing: Computer scientist. He invented the magnetic drum memory and built prototype laser interferometric gravitational wave detector in Garching, Munich. +Gerd Binnig: Physicist. Design of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) with Heinrich Rohrer. Nobel laureate 1986. +Otto von Bismarck: Under his reign, the German Empire (1871–1918) became the first modern welfare state in the world, when he e.g. innovatively implemented the following: health insurance (1883), accident insurance (1884), pension insurance (1889). +Ludwig Blattner: developed the Blattnerphone, the first magnetic tape recorder (using steel tape) whilst working in Britain in the late 1920s. +Günter Blobel: biologist, discovered signal peptides. Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1999. +Walter Bock: chemist, Styrene-butadiene +Max Bockmühl: chemist, he developed Methadone together with German Gustav Ehrhart in 1937 in Germany, working for I.G. Farbenindustrie AG at the Farbwerke Hoechst +Johann Elert Bode: astronomer, Discovered the Titus-Bode Law +Ludwig Bölkow: Aeronautical pioneer. Was instrumental in the development of the Me 262, developed a new rotorhead concept for helicopters. +Max Born: Physicist and mathematician. Groundbreaking work in quantum mechanics. Nobel laureate 1954 with Walther Bothe. His Ph.D. student Delbrück, and six of his assistants (Fermi, Heisenberg, Goeppert-Mayer, Herzberg, Pauli, Wigner) went on to win Nobel Prizes. His Ph.D. student J. Robert Oppenheimer led the project to develop the atomic bomb. +Manfred Börner: Physicist. Developed the first working fiber-optical data transmission system in 1965. Received a patent for an "electro-optical transmission system utilizing lasers". +Carl Bosch: Chemist and Nobel laureate, discovered the processes of industrial high-pressure chemistry. +Robert Bosch: industrialist, engineer. He invented, engineered and launched various innovations for the motor vehicle. +Walther Bothe: Nuclear physicist, who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1954 with Max Born. +Johann Friedrich Böttger: alchemist. He was generally acknowledged as the inventor of European porcelain although more recent sources ascribe this to Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. Böttger is still credited with developing the manufacture of porcelain in Europe. +Theodor Boveri: biologist, described Centrosome. +Karlheinz Brandenburg: Inventor and audio engineer; father of audio compression format MPEG Audio Layer 3, more commonly known as MP3. +Karl Ferdinand Braun: Inventor of the CRT oscilloscope in 1897. Braun contributed significantly to the development of radio and television technology: he shared with Guglielmo Marconi the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics. +Wernher von Braun: The preeminent rocket engineer of the 20th century. Developed the V-2 rocket for Germany. Built Saturn V rocket in USA which put man on the moon. +Adolf Brix: developed the unit for specific gravity of liquids, degree Brix (°Bx). +Korbinian Brodmann: neurologist, Brodmann area in brain +Walter Bruch: PAL, colour encoding system for analogue television +Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn: Inventor of Taximeter +Ernst Büchner: Chemist and inventor of Büchner flask and Büchner funnel. +Robert Bunsen: Chemist who developed the Bunsen burner, and with Gustav Kirchhoff he invented the spectrometer (1859) and discovered caesium (1860) and rubidium (1861). +Wilhelm Busch: Caricaturist, painter and poet; father of comics. +Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann: musical instrument maker. Pioneer and promoter of the harmonica. +Adolf Busemann: aerospace engineer. Discovered the effect of swept wing for modern aircraft in 1935. +Adolf Butenandt: biochemist. Discovered primary female sex hormones. Shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Leopold Ruzicka in 1939. +Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes: Founder of synoptic meteorology. As an astronomer, he was noted for demonstrating that meteors occur in the upper atmosphere and thus not really a meteorological phenomenon. +Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer: German chemist, who, together with Paul Harteck, discovered the spin isomers of hydrogen, orthohydrogen and parahydrogen in 1929. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..13b435548 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == + +Georg Cantor: Mathematician, discoverer of the set theory (1870s), which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. +Ernst Boris Chain: biochemist, co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on penicillin (together with Fleming). +Carl von Clausewitz: The father of modern military theory. +Rudolf Clausius: Mathematician and physicist known for the Second law of thermodynamics. +Justus Claproth: Jurist and inventor of recyclable paper and deinking. +Nicolaus Copernicus: Astronomer, formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the centre. +Manfred Curry: German American yachtsman, developed the cam cleat used on sailboats to easily and quickly secure a rope, discoverer of the pseudoscientific phenomenon of "geomagnetic lines" called the Curry Grid. + +== D == + +Gottlieb Daimler: Invented the first high-speed internal combustion petrol engine and the first four-wheel automobile, also the first internal combustion motorcycle, the Reitwagen. +Adolf "Adi" Dassler: Sports shoes with and without spikes; founder of Adidas. +Rudolf Dassler: First sport shoes with screw-in shoe spikes, 1949; founder of Puma. +Hans Georg Dehmelt: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989. +Max Delbrück: German American biophysicist. He was awarded the Nobel prize for discovering that bacteria become resistant to viruses (phages) as a result of genetic mutations. +Johann Christoph Denner: Woodwind instrument maker, inventor of the clarinet. +Jürgen Dethloff: Inventor and engineer, co-inventor of the Smart card (together with Helmut Gröttrup). +Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach: Pioneer of skin transplantation and cosmetic surgery. +Ernst Dickmanns: Developer of the first driverless car. +Otto Diels: Diels–Alder reaction (together with Kurt Alder), a method for diene synthesis. The pair was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950 for their work. +Rudolf Diesel: Inventor of the diesel engine 1893. +Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, inventor of Döbereiner's lamp, 1823 +Gerhard Domagk: Discovery of what would become the first commercially available antibiotic. +Christian Doppler: Discovered the Doppler effect. +Walter Robert Dornberger: Co-inventor of the V-2 rocket. +Karl Drais: Inventor of the bicycle and typewriter (1821) among other things. +Peter Ferdinand Drucker: Invented the science of modern management. + +== E == + +Paul Ehrlich: Scientist in the fields of hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy, and Nobel laureate. Developed an effective treatment against syphilis. +Caroline Eichler: Inventor, first woman to receive a patent (for her leg prosthesis) +Albert Einstein: Father of Theoretical Physics, inventor and discoverer. +Ludwig Elsbett: Developed new concepts for Diesel engines which drastically enhanced efficiency. +Douglas Engelbart: German American inventor of the computer mouse. +Evaristo Conrado Engelberg: Inventor in 1885 of a machine used to remove the husks from rice and coffee, the Engelberg huller. +Friedrich Engels: He invented together with Karl Marx the economic and sociopolitical worldview Marxism. +Joseph "Jo" Benedict Engl: German physicist and inventor who pioneered cinematographic technology in the early 1920s. The "Tonfilmprojektor" of Tri-Ergon is to date part of the permanent exhibition at the German Museum in Munich as one of Germany's major technological accomplishments. + +Hugo Erdmann: Chemist who discovered, together with his doctoral advisor Jacob Volhard, the Volhard-Erdmann cyclization. In 1898 he was the first who coined the term noble gas (the original noun is Edelgas in German). +Hugo Erfurt: Ingrain wallpaper +Emil Erlenmeyer: German chemist known for contributing to the early development of the theory of structure, formulating the Erlenmeyer rule, and designing the Erlenmeyer flask or the conical flask, a type of chemical flask, which is named after him. +Gerhard Ertl: German physicist who laid the foundation of modern surface chemistry, which has helped explain how fuel cells produce energy without pollution, how catalytic converters clean up car exhausts and even why iron rusts, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said. Nobel laureate as of 2007. +Leonhard Euler: Swiss mathematician and physicist. One of the most influential mathematicians of the 18th century. + +== F == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5aebc4695 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit: Fahrenheit, temperature scale, Fahrenheit hydrometer +Gerd Faltings: Mathematician known for his work in arithmetic algebraic geometry, Fields Medal in 1986 for proving the Mordell conjecture. +Otto Feick: Wheel gymnastics in 1925. +Wilhelm Emil Fein: Invented the electrically driven hand drill in 1895. +Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick: Glass Contact lenses +Richard Fiedler: Invented the modern flamethrower in 1901. +Artur Fischer: Invented the (split) wallplug made of plastic in 1958. He invented flash light photography. Fischer held over 1100 patents and currently holds the records for most patents for any single human, even more than Thomas Alva Edison. Further inventions are (bone-)plugs for fixing bone fractures and one of Fischer's most recent inventions is a gadget that makes it possible to hold and cut the top off an egg of any size. +Hermann Emil Fischer: German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms. He is known for study of sugars & purines. +Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch: Invented a process in 1925 to turn coal into synthesis gas, and still further into liquid hydrocarbons. The process is a key component in modern gas to liquids processes. +Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig: He discovered the pinacol coupling reaction, mesitylene, diacetyl and biphenyl. +Irmgard Flügge-Lotz: She worked on what she called "discontinuous automatic control", which laid the foundation for automatic on-off aircraft control systems in jets. +Werner Forssmann: Performed the first human cardiac catheterisation. Shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine 1956 +Joachim Frank: co-invented cryo-electron microscopy. Shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2017 +Joseph von Fraunhofer: Discovery of the dark absorption lines known as Fraunhofer lines in the Sun's spectrum, which laid foundation for modern astronomy and astrophysics, and for making excellent optical glass and achromatic telescope lenses. +Gottlob Frege: He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy. Had influence on Carnap, Russell, and Wittgenstein +Otto Frenzl: Aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952. +Sigmund Freud: Neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. +Nikolaus Friedreich: Discovery of Friedreich-Auerbach disease (together with Leopold Auerbach) +Friedrich Fröbel: Pedagogue, who laid the foundation for modern education. He created the concept of the kindergarten. +Klaus Fuchs: Theoretical physicist involved with the Manhattan Project; at the same time Soviet spy. +Johann Carl Fuhlrott: Had the insight to recognize the Neanderthal bones for what they were: the remains of a previously unknown type of humans. He (together with Schaafhausen) is considered to be the father of paleoanthropology. + +== G == + +Johann Galle: astronomer, discovery of planet Neptune +Hermann Ganswindt: Inventor and spaceflight scientist, whose inventions (such as the dirigible, the helicopter, and the internal combustion engine) are thought to have been ahead of his time. +Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss: German mathematician and physical scientist who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, electrostatics, astronomy and optics. Sometimes referred to as "the Prince of Mathematicians". +Hans Geiger: Inventor of the Geiger–Müller counter in 1928. It detects the emission of nuclear radiation through the ionization produced in a low-pressure gas in a Geiger–Müller tube. Further improved by Walther Müller. +Heinrich Geißler: Inventor of the Geissler tube. +Reinhard Genzel: Astrophysicist, he and his group were the first to track the motions of stars at the centre of the Milky Way and show that they were orbiting a very massive object, probably a supermassive black hole. +Walter Gerlach: Physicist who co-discovered spin quantization in a magnetic field, the Stern–Gerlach effect. +Edmund Germer: Inventor of the neon lamp (Neonlampe). +Max Giese: Inventor of the first concrete pump in 1928. +Heinrich Göbel: Inventor of Hemmer for Sewing Machines, 1865, Vacuum Pump (Improvement of the Geissler-System of vacuum pumps, 1881 and Electric Incandescent Lamp (sockets to connect the filament of carbon and the conducting wires), 1882 +Kurt Gödel: Important discoveries in math and logic, such as the incompleteness theorems + +Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Physicist. Nobel laureate in Physics 1963 for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus together with J. Hans D. Jensen. The unit for the two-photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert-Mayer (GM) unit. +Konrad Grebe: Coal-machine (Kohlenhobel) +Heinrich Greinacher: German-Swiss physicist. He is regarded as an original experimenter and is the developer of the magnetron and the Greinacher multiplier; Cockcroft-Walton-Generator in 1914. +Brothers Grimm: Academic pioneers of philology, linguistics, and storytelling. Worked together on the most comprehensive dictionary of the German language Deutsches Wörterbuch. Jacob Grimm: Philologist and linguist. Described first what is now known as Grimm's law, the first scientific research into sound change in 1822. +Georg Friedrich Grotefend: Deciphering of cuneiform +Alexander Grothendieck: Mathematician and the central figure behind the creation of the modern theory of algebraic geometry; Fields Medalist (1966). +Helmut Gröttrup: smart card (together with Jürgen Dethloff) +Walter Gropius: Pioneer of modern architecture. Founder of the Bauhaus. First modern industrial building designed in 1910. +Peter Grünberg: Physicist. Discovered giant magnetoresistance with Albert Fert. The discovery is used in gigabyte hard disk drives for computers. Nobel laureate 2007. +Heinz Guderian: The father of modern mechanized warfare, inventor of the Blitzkrieg strategy. +Otto von Guericke: Groundbreaking research into air pressure. Invented the vacuum pump in 1650. +Beno Gutenberg: Together with American Charles Francis Richter he invented Richter magnitude scale. +Johannes Gutenberg: Inventor of the technology of printing with movable type in 1439. The first book so printed was the Gutenberg Bible. +Aristid von Grosse: He was able to isolate protactinium oxide and was later able to produce metallic protactinium by decomposition of protactinium iodide. +Johann Rudolf Glauber: German-Dutch alchemist who was one of the first chemical engineers. His discovery of sodium sulfate in 1625 led to the compound being named after him: "Glauber's salt". + +== H == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63a8564a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fritz Haber: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered synthetic ammonia and chemical warfare. +Theodor W. Hänsch: Physicist, developed laser-based precision spectroscopy further to determine optical frequency extremely accurately. Nobel laureate in 2005. +Otto Hahn: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. Considered to be "the father of nuclear chemistry" and the "founder of the atomic age". Discovered many isotopes, Protactinium and nuclear fission. +Samuel Hahnemann: Physician, best known for creating a system of alternative medicine called homeopathy. +Harald zur Hausen: Virologist, discovered the role of papilloma viruses in the development of cervical cancer. His research made the development of a vaccine against papilloma possible, which will drastically reduce cervical cancer in future. Nobel laureate as of 2008. +Werner Heisenberg: Theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to quantum mechanics. Discovered a particle's position and velocity cannot be known at the same time. Discovered atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons. +Wolfgang Helfrich: Co-inventor of Twisted nematic field effect. +Rudolf Hell: Inventor of an early printer and fax machine (Hellschreiber). +Richard Hellmann: Hellmann's (Blue Ribbon) Mayonnaise, 1905. + +Hermann von Helmholtz: Discovered the principle of conservation of energy. +Peter Henlein: Inventor of the portable watch. +Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel (William Herschel): Discovered the planet Uranus and infrared radiation among other things. +Heinrich Hertz: Physicist, Discoverer of electromagnetic/radio waves. +Otto Herzog: First use of the Carabiner in mountain climbing which substantially enhanced security for mountaineers. +Victor Francis Hess: Discovered Cosmic rays. Also won the Nobel Prize. +David Hilbert: Influential mathematician who discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas in math. +Albert Hofmann: German-Swiss; Discovered the chemical properties of chitin and lysergic acid diethylamide. +Wilhelm Hofmeister: Discovery of the Alternation of generations +Felix Hoffmann: Isolated acetylsalicylic acid, a painkiller marketed under the name Aspirin (Bayer), 1897. In some English speaking countries marketed under the name disprin. +Herman Hollerith: a German American statistician who developed a mechanical tabulator based on punched cards +Gottlob Honold: Inventor of the spark plug and the modern internal combustion engine, as well as headlights. +Horten brothers: Designed some of the most advanced aircraft of the 1930s and '40s, including the world's first jet-powered flying wing, the Horten Ho 229. +Christian Hülsmeyer: German inventor of the Telemobilskop, a radio-based detector of remote objects; a 1904 precursor of radar. +Alexander von Humboldt: Naturalist and explorer. His quantitative work on botanical geography was foundational to the field of biogeography. +Wilhelm von Humboldt: Originator of the linguistic relativity hypothesis. +Erich Huzenlaub: Huzenlaub Process for parboiling +Johannes Heidenhain: Invented the Metallur process. This lead-sulfide copying process made it possible for the first time to make exact copies of an original grating on a metal surface for industrial use. By 1943, Heidenhain was producing linear scales with accuracy of ± 15 μm and circular scale disks with accuracy of ± 3 angular seconds. +Karl Andreas Hofmann: German inorganic chemist who is best known for his discovery of a family of clathrates which consist of a 2-D metal cyanide sheet, with every second metal also bound axially to two other ligands. These materials have been named 'Hofmann clathrates' in his honour. + +== I == +Ernst Ising: physicist who developed Ising model. +Otmar Issing: Economist who invented the "pepet pillar" decision algorithm now used by the ECB. + +== J == +J. Hans D. Jensen: Nuclear physicist, proposed the nuclear shell model, shared 1963 Nobel Prize in Physics. +Hugo Junkers: Pioneer of all-metal aircraft construction with the Junkers J 1 (1915–16). + +== K == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f99a94ee7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer : Introduction of the transverse incision technique to minimize bleeding by modern Caesarean section +Donald J. Kessler: Astrophysicist, known for developing the Kessler syndrome. +Hermann Kemper: Invented the magnetic levitation train. Patent granted in 1934. +Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion. +Wolfgang Ketterle: German-American physicist who developed an "atom laser", amongst other breakthroughs. Nobel laureate 2001. +Erhard Kietz: Pioneer discoverer of video technology. +Gustav Kirchhoff: Discovery of the principles upon which spectroscopy is founded. He contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts (one in circuit theory, and one in spectroscopy) are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him; there is also a Kirchhoff's Law in thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen, who both invented the spectrometer in 1859. +Martin Heinrich Klaproth: Discovered the element Uranium. +Klaus von Klitzing: Physicist, known for discovery of the integer quantum Hall effect, 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. +Ludwig Knorr: Chemist, who together with Carl Paal, discovered the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and the Knorr quinoline synthesis and Knorr pyrrole synthesis. +Robert Koch: Physician, discoverer, inventor and Nobel Prize winner. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis (1877), the tuberculosis bacillus (1882), and Vibrio cholerae (1883), and for his development of Koch's postulates. +Friedrich Koenig: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Andreas Friedrich Bauer) +Alfred Körte and Gustav Körte: discovered Gordium, 1900 +Franz Kolb: Plasticine +Arthur Korn: Inventor involved in development of the fax machine, specifically the transmission of photographs or telephotography, known as the Bildtelegraph. +Albrecht Kossel: determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids +Max Kramer: Aircraft engineer. Developed the first operational guided bomb in 1942/43. This first smart bomb was radio controlled and joy-stick operated. +Hans Adolf Krebs: discovered two important chemical reactions in the body, namely the urea cycle and the citric acid cycle. +Wilhelm Krische: Galalith +Julius H. Kroehl: Inventor and engineer, who built the first functioning submarine in the world. +Herbert Kroemer: Physicist, shared the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics. +Werner Krüger: Developed the Krueger flap, a lift enhancement device in modern aircraft wings in 1943. +Alfred Krupp: Pioneer in metal casting and metal working process and procedures. +Adam Johann von Krusenstern: Navigator and explorer, led the first Russian expedition to circumnavigate the Earth. +Dietrich Küchemann: Aeronautical pioneer, developed wings for supersonic speed, such as delta wings as used in the Concorde. +Heinz Kunert: Defogger for automobiles. +Felix Klein: Invented the Erlangen Program, classifying geometries by their underlying symmetry groups, was a highly influential synthesis of much of the mathematics of the day. Also invented the Klein bottle, Beltrami-Klein model and wrote Klein's encyclopedia. + +== L == + +Albert Ladenburg: isolated hyoscine +Eugen Langen: Entrepreneur, engineer and inventor, involved in the development of the petrol engine and the Wuppertal monorail. +Paul Langerhans: Islets of Langerhans, Langerhans cells +Max von Laue: Discoveries regarding the diffraction of X-rays in crystals. +Ernst Lecher: He is remembered for developing an apparatus— "Lecher lines"—to measure the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic waves. +Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Philosopher known for discovering the mathematical field of calculus and coherently laying down its basic operations in 1684. The modern binary number system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire. +Emil Lerp: inventor of transportable gasoline chainsaw, 1927 +Georg Christoph Lichtenberg: German scientist credited with the development of the electrophorus. he is remembered for his posthumously published notebooks, which he himself called Sudelbücher, a description modeled on the English bookkeeping term "scrapbooks", and for his discovery of the strange tree-like electrical discharge patterns now called Lichtenberg figures. +Justus von Liebig: German chemist who made contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry. +Otto Lilienthal: Father of Aviation and first successful aviator. Main discovery was the properties and shape of the wing. +Carl von Linde: Engineer who, among other things, developed refrigeration and gas separation technologies. +Alexander Lippisch: Pioneer of aerodynamics, his most famous design is the Messerschmitt Me 163. +Ernst Litfaß: free-standing cylindrical advertising column. +Friedrich Loeffler: discovered the organism causing diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheriae) and the cause of foot-and-mouth disease (Aphthovirus). His description of the diphtheria bacillus, published in 1884. +Johann Benedict Listing: German mathematician who was a doctoral student under Carl Friedrich Gauss, he first introduced the term "topology", in a famous article published in 1847, although he had used the term in correspondence some years earlier. He (independently) discovered the properties of the half-twisted strip at the same time (1858) as August Ferdinand Möbius, and went further in exploring the properties of strips with higher-order twists (paradromic rings). He discovered topological invariants which came to be called Listing numbers. He also framed the Listing's law. +Hans Luedtke: German organist, musicologist and inventor who developed "Oskalyd" extended organs and keyboards with hexagonal keys arranged like honeycombs. + +== M == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7ab9a890f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Maria Goeppert Mayer was a German-born American theoretical physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. She was the second woman to win a Nobel Prize in physics, after Marie Curie +Georg Hans Madelung: Academic and aeronautical engineer; a participant in the development of the Junkers F.13. +Karl Marx: Political economist and philosopher, who defined the political/economical background of capitalism and discovered the mechanics of Marxism. +J. Heinrich Matthaei: Together with Marshall Nirenberg, they show that a sequence of nucleotide can encode particular amino acid, laying the foundations for deciphering the genetic code. +Wilhelm Maybach: Together with Gottlieb Daimler the first gasoline-powered motorcycle, power-engine boat and later, 1902, the Mercedes car model. +Ottomar von Mayenburg: Inventor of "Chlorodont", the first commercial brand of toothpaste. +Georg Meissner: Discovered Meissner's plexus. +Lise Meitner: Nuclear physicist, who, together with Otto Frisch, provided a theoretical account of nuclear fission. +Julius Lothar Meyer: With Mendeleev he developed the periodic classification of the elements in order of their atomic weight. +Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer: He discovered the Triassic predator Teratosaurus, the earliest bird Archaeopteryx lithographica (1861), the pterosaur Rhamphorhynchus, and the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus +Gregor Mendel: Discoveries in genetics. Mendel demonstrated that the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. First published in 1865. +Ottmar Mergenthaler: Inventor who has been called a second Gutenberg because of his invention of the Linotype machine. +Otto Metzger: Inventor of an impact-extrusion process for forming seamless zinc and brass cans. +Rudolf Mössbauer: physicist, discovered Mössbauer effect, shared Nobel Prize in Physics 1961. +Johannes Peter Müller: Discoveries in physiology. +August Ferdinand Möbius: German mathematician and theoretical astronomer. He is best known for his discovery of the Möbius strip, independently discovered by Johann Benedict Listing around the same time. The Möbius configuration, formed by two mutually inscribed tetrahedra, is also named after him. Möbius was the first to introduce homogeneous coordinates into projective geometry. Many mathematical concepts are named after him, including the Möbius plane, the Möbius transformations, important in projective geometry, and the Möbius transform of number theory. His interest in number theory led to the important Möbius function μ(n) and the Möbius inversion formula. In Euclidean geometry, he systematically developed the use of signed angles and line segments as a way of simplifying and unifying results. +Karl Mollweide: German mathematician and astronomer. In trigonometry, he discovered the formula known as Mollweide's formula. He invented a map projection called the Mollweide projection. +Walther Meissner: He established the world's third largest helium-liquifier, and discovered in 1933 the Meissner effect, damping of the magnetic field in superconductors. + +== N == + +Thomas Nast: The German American "Father of the American Cartoon". +Walther Nernst: Inventor of the Nernst lamp and Nobel laureate 1920 in Chemistry. +Karl Nessler: Inventor of the permanent wave. +Paul Gottlieb Nipkow: Technician and inventor, the "spiritual father" of the core element of first generation television technology. +Emmy Noether: Mathematician. Groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics (Noether's theorem). Considered by many as the most influential woman in the history of mathematics. + +== O == + +Hermann Oberth: Pioneer of rocket science and discoverer of the Oberth effect. +Georg Ohm: physicist and mathematician, discoverer of the Ohm's law and Ohm's acoustic law +August Oetker: Pharmacist. He was the first to sell baking powder in small packets to households instead of bakeries (as others before him) and thus made it the popular product we know today. +Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain: The modern jet engine in 1933, patented in 1936. Frank Whittle had developed a similar concept independently in 1928/1929. +Wilhelm Ostwald: German chemist who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities. Ostwald, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, and Svante Arrhenius are usually credited with being the modern founders of the field of physical chemistry. +Nicolaus August Otto: Inventor of the first internal-combustion engine to efficiently burn fuel directly in a piston chamber. + +== P == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96e74a4a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wolfgang Paul: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989. +Hans von Pechmann: Chemist, renowned for his discovery of diazomethane in 1894. Pechmann condensation and Pechmann pyrazole synthesis. +Rudolf Peierls: nuclear physicist. +Julius Richard Petri: Bacteriologist who is generally credited with inventing the Petri dish while working as assistant to Robert Koch. +Emil Pfeiffer: Discovery of Infectious mononucleosis +Fritz Pfleumer: Inventor of magnetic tape for recording sound. He built the world's first practical tape recorder, called Magnetophon K1. +Joseph Pilates: inventor of the physical fitness system named after him: Pilates +Max Planck: Physicist, Scientist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. +Robert Wichard Pohl: In 1938, together with Rudolf Hilsch, built first functioning solid-state amplifier using salt as the semiconductor. +Ludwig Prandtl: First to explain the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining in aircraft in 1904. He established and headed the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt in Göttingen, now Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization. During his tenure the first wind tunnel in Germany was built here, thereby establishing a specific design for wind tunnels (Göttingen type). +Johann Friedrich Pfaff: One of Germany's most eminent mathematicians during the 19th century. He studied mathematical series and integral calculus, and is noted for his work on partial differential equations of the first order (Pfaffian systems as they are now called) which became part of the theory of differential forms. +Julius Plücker: Framed the Plücker formula. He made fundamental contributions to the field of analytical geometry and was a pioneer in the investigations of cathode rays that led eventually to the discovery of the electron. He also vastly extended the study of Lamé curves. +Harald Popp: Inventor and audio engineer; father of audio compression format MPEG Audio Layer 3, more commonly known as MP3. + +== R == + +Adolf Rambold: Inventor of modern tea bag. +Johann Philipp Reis: Inventor of the first phone transmitter in 1861, he also invented the term Telephone. +Josef Rodenstock: Founder of Rodenstock, manufacturer of optical systems, ophthalmic lenses and spectacles frames. +Ralf Reski: Moss bioreactor (1998). +Paul Julius Freiherr von Reuter: Communications pioneer. +Fritz Reiche: Was a student of Max Planck and a colleague of Albert Einstein, who was active in, and made important contributions to the early development of quantum mechanics including co-authoring the Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule. +Hans Reichel: Musical instrument inventor. Inventor of the daxophone and various overtone guitars. +Bernhard Riemann: Mathematician, who made lasting contributions to analysis, number theory, and differential geometry. +Johann Wilhelm Ritter: Physicist and discoverer of Ultraviolet. +Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen: Physicist and discoverer of x-rays/Röntgen rays (8 November 1895), this earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. +Arthur Rudolph: Rocket engineer who, together with Wernher von Braun, played a key role in the development of the V-2 rocket. +Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff: German instrument maker who commercialized the induction coil (often referred to as the Ruhmkorff coil). +Ernst Ruska: Physicist, developed the first electron microscope in 1933. Nobel laureate 1986. +Karl Wilhelm Rosenmund: He discovered the Rosenmund reduction, which is the reduction of acyl chlorides to aldehydes over palladium-on-carbon catalyst. The Rosenmund-von Braun reaction, the conversion of an aryl bromide to an arylnitrile is also named after him. + +== S == + +Carl Wilhelm Scheele: Oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first), identification of molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen and chlorine +Arthur Scherbius: Developed the mechanical cipher machine Enigma. Patent granted in 1918. +Wilhelm Schickard: mechanical calculator in 1623. +Paul Schlack: Invented Nylon 6. +Friedrich Albert Moritz Schlick: Was a German philosopher, physicist and the founding father of logical positivism and the Vienna Circle. +Heinrich Schliemann: One of the fathers of modern archaeology, among other things he discovered Homeric Troy. +Hugo Schmeisser: Developed the first modern assault rifle StG 44 in 1942. +Bernhard Schmidt: Developed a photographic telescope with minimal optical errors: the Schmidt camera. +Paul Schmidt: Developed since 1928 his idea of a new drive, the "pulsating incineration", also used in the V-1 flying bomb (engine was called "Argus-Schmidtrohr"); pulsejet was a development by Schmidt. +Christian Friedrich Schönbein: Professor Schönbein is credited with four scientific advances: Ozone, Gun cotton, Collodion and Fuel cell +Johann Lukas Schönlein: Professor of medicine, he discovered among other things the parasitic cause of ringworm or favus (Achorion Schönleinii). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9b62fdd14 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "List of German inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Otto Schoetensack: Named the Homo heidelbergensis. +Otto Schott: Inventor of borosilicate glass. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. +Walter H. Schottky: Played a major early role in developing the theory of electron and ion emission phenomena, invented the screen-grid vacuum tube and the pentode. +Johannes Heinrich Schultz: developed the desensitization-relaxation technique called Autogenic training. +Marx Schwab: Silversmith, invented coining with the screw press around 1550. +Theodor Schwann: Discovery of properties of cells in animals. +Karl Schwarzschild: astronomer, Schwarzschild metric, Deriving the Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius +Alois Senefelder: He invented the printing technique of lithography in 1796. +Friedrich Sertürner: First to isolate morphine from the opium poppy in 1803/1804, discovering morphine. +Philipp Franz von Siebold: Physician and naturalist, detailed description and collection of the Japanese flora and fauna. Introduced Western medicine to Japan and opened a medical school. +Ernst Werner von Siemens: Dynamo, pointer telegraph that used a needle to point to the right letter, first electric elevator, trolleybus. +Max Skladanowsky: Bioscop, German inventor and early filmmaker. +Friedrich Soennecken: Invented Hole punch and ring binder. +Arnold Sommerfeld: Theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics. +Johannes Stark: Discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields" (the latter is known as the Stark effect). +Jack Steinberger: German-American-Swiss physicist, co-discovered the muon neutrino, shared 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics. +Georg Wilhelm Steller: Chief naturalist on Vitus Bering's expedition during which Alaska was discovered (1741) and pioneer of Alaskan Natural History. Steller's sea cow (now extinct) was named after him. +Otto Stern: Nobel laureate; contributed to the discovery of spin quantization in the Stern–Gerlach experiment with Walther Gerlach in 1922. +Heinrich Stölzel: Developed the valve for brass instruments which is used today in 1818. Friedrich Blühmel had made a similar development independently at the same time. +Horst Ludwig Störmer: German-American physicist. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1998 for the discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations. +Levi Strauss: The German American father of blue jeans. +Ernst Stromer: Discovery and Describing of Aegyptosaurus, Bahariasaurus, Carcharodontosaurus, and the largest known theropod, Spinosaurus aegyptiacus. Stromer also described the giant crocodilian Stomatosuchus. +Friedrich Wilhelm "Fritz" Strassmann: German chemist who, with Otto Hahn in early 1939, identified barium in the residue after bombarding uranium with neutrons, results which, when confirmed, demonstrated the previously unknown phenomenon of nuclear fission. +Hubertus Strughold: German-born physiologist and prominent medical researcher. For his role in pioneering the study of the physical and psychological effects of manned spaceflight he became known as "The Father of Space Medicine". +Thomas C. Südhof: biochemist, discovered how molecule signals instruct vesicles to release their cargo in cell. Shared the Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013. + +== T == +Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus: He is considered to have been the inventor of European porcelain. +Oscar Troplowitz: He invented adhesive tape, Leukoplast. + +== U == +Dietrich "Diedrich" Uhlhorn: Engineer, mechanic and inventor, who invented the first mechanical tachometer (1817), between 1817 and 1830 inventor of the Presse Monétaire (level coin press known as Uhlhorn Press) which bears his name. + +== V == + +Abraham Vater: Professor of anatomy; Ampulla of Vater. +Richard Vetter: Developed the most fuel efficient condensing boiler for heating systems in 1980. Used in many houses in Europe. +Rudolf Virchow: "Father of modern pathology"; numerous discoveries in the area of medicine. +Hans Vogt: Invented sound-on-film (idea 1905) together with Jo Engl and Joseph Massolle, first sound-on-film for the public on 17 September 1922 in Filmtheater Alhambra, Berlin, Germany. +Woldemar Voigt (often: Waldemar Voigt): Physicist, who taught at the Georg August University of Göttingen. He worked on crystal physics, thermodynamics and electro-optics. He discovered the Voigt effect in 1898. +Woldemar Voigt (engineer): Chief designer at Messerschmitt's Oberammergau offices and pioneer of the Me 163 and Me 264, project leader of the development of Me P. 1101, Me P. 1106, Me P. 1110, Me P. 1111, Me P. 1112 and Me P. 1116. +Jacob Volhard: Chemist who discovered, together with his student Hugo Erdmann, the Volhard–Erdmann cyclization. + +== W == + +Martin Waldseemüller: Cartographer, used the name "America" on his map Universalis Cosmographia in honour of the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci. The map was drawn at St-Die in 1507 and it was the first time "America" was used on a map. +Otto Wallach: Chemist who researched, amongst others, alicyclic compounds. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1910. +Hellmuth Walter: Engineer who pioneered research into rocket engines and gas turbines. +August von Wassermann: Developed a complement fixation test for the diagnosis of syphilis in 1906 +Felix Wankel: Inventor of the Rotary Motor. +Max Weber: Discovered the mass effects of capitalism and modernity. +Wilhelm Eduard Weber: Inventor of the first electromagnetic telegraph together with Carl Friedrich Gauss. +Alfred Wegener: He is most notable for proposing continental drift in 1912 +Wilhelm Weinberg: Hardy–Weinberg principle +Gustav Weißkopf: Aviation pioneer, designer and builder of early aircraft and engines, is reported to be the first flying a powered aircraft in 1901 +Rainer Weiss: born in Berlin, American physiscist who invented laser interferometric gravitational wave detectors. Shared the Nobel Prize for Physics 2017. +Johan Wilcke: Inventor of the electrophorus +Hugo Winckler: Discovery of Hattusa +Clemens Alexander Winkler: Chemist who discovered the element germanium in 1886. +August Wöhler: Investigated fatigue phenomena in the behavior of materials +Friedrich Wöhler: The first to synthesize urea. Wöhler is regarded as a pioneer in organic chemistry. +Heinrich Wöhlk: Contact lenses in PMMA +Theodor Wulf: Cosmic ray (together with Austrian Victor Hess) + +== Z == + +Hermann Zapf: Pioneer of computer typography and creator of many well-known typefaces. +Carl Zeiss: Pioneered glass casting and allied procedures and processes for high quality optics. +Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin (1838–1917): Inventor of the airship named after him. Start of the airship LZ1 in 1900. +Karl Zimmer: Discovered the effects of ionizing radiation on DNA in 1935. +Karl Ziegler:He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963, with Giulio Natta, for work on polymers. +Konrad Zuse: Inventor of the first functional program-controlled Turing-complete computer in 1941, and the first high-level programming language Plankalkül in 1942. + +== See also == +German inventions and discoveries +List of German Americans + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == +"Made in Germany" +German Inventions - Discoveries +German inventors—"Made in Germany" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Sections_and_Points-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Sections_and_Points-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a0918145f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Sections_and_Points-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Sections_and_Points" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:11.436803+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Since 1977, Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (abbreviated GSSPs) are internationally agreed upon reference points on stratigraphic sections of rock which define the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale. They are selected by the International Commission on Stratigraphy based on multiple factors, but their accessibility and the degree to which they are representative of the same boundary on sections worldwide are among the most important. +Since GSSPs require well-preserved sections of rock without interruptions in sedimentation, and since most are defined by different stages of animal life, defining them becomes progressively more difficult as one goes farther back in time. + + +== Organization of this list == +This list is divided first into the geologic eras of the Phanerozoic (the Cenozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Paleozoic) and then into the geologic periods of each era. Each period is marked below the era bar on top of its subdivided epochs and stages. Each stage is assigned an age in mya, an acronym for million years ago, which is the age at which it began. Most of these ages are derived from astronomical cycles in sediments, magnetic data, biostratigraphic data, and radiometric dating methods. The GSSP assigned to each stage is that stage's lower boundary and oldest point. +Ages are given in "million year ago" (mya). They are obtained with different radiometric dating methods depending on the type of rock and its age. Ages that have a tilde (~) prefix are approximate ages for GSSPs that have not been defined or not been accurately dated. +The Status column has a "golden spike" for every GSSP which has been formally agreed by the ICS. Those without have only candidate sections which have not yet been formally ratified. The clock stands for times that are currently defined only by an age. +The "Defining markers" column lists the evidence in the rock used to define the boundary. (Ideally, these are applicable in rock sections worldwide.) Most of the boundaries rely on the fossil record (biologic), paleomagnetic data (magnetic), and/or climate data determined by carbon and oxygen isotopes. + + +== List == + + +=== Cenozoic === + + +==== Quaternary ==== + + +==== Neogene ==== + + +==== Paleogene ==== + + +=== Mesozoic === + + +==== Cretaceous ==== + + +==== Jurassic ==== + + +==== Triassic ==== + + +=== Paleozoic === + + +==== Permian ==== + + +==== Carboniferous ==== + + +==== Devonian ==== + + +==== Silurian ==== + + +==== Ordovician ==== + + +==== Cambrian ==== + + +=== Precambrian === + + +==== Proterozoic ==== + + +==== Archean and Hadean ==== + + +== See also == +Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) +International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) +Geologic Time Scale +History of the Earth +Geological history of Earth + + +== References == + + +== External links == +International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a148c27e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ +--- +title: "List of Italian inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:55.010938+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Italian inventors: + + +== A == +Archimedes +Giovanni Battista Amici + + +== B == +Flavio Baracchini +Eugenio Barsanti +Robert Ludvigovich Bartini +Enrico Bernardi +Gianni Bettini +Alfonso Bialetti +Lucio Bini +Augusto Bissiri +Claudio Bordignon +Enea Bossi, Sr. +Giovanni Branca +Francesco Antonio Broccu +Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli +Tito Livio Burattini +Carlo Felice Buzio + + +== C == +Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti +Tullio Campagnolo +Secondo Campini +Mario Capecchi +Arturo Caprotti +Gerolamo Cardano +Antonio Benedetto Carpano +Giovanni Caselli +Ugo Cerletti +Leonardo Chiariglione +Alberto Ciaramella +Giuseppe Cipriani +Francesco Cirio +Bartolomeo Cristofori +Alessandro Cruto + + +== D == +Luigi Dadda +Salvino D'Armate +Corradino D'Ascanio +Leonardo da Vinci +Raimondo di Sangro +Giuseppe Donati + + +== F == +Francesco Faà di Bruno +Fabio Perini +Gabriele Falloppio +Federico Faggin +Enrico Fermi +Salvatore Ferragamo +Galileo Ferraris +Pietro Ferrero +Carlo Forlanini +Enrico Forlanini + + +== G == +Galileo Galilei +Luigi Galvani +Gasparo da Salò +Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri +Flavio Gioja +Giuseppe di Giugno +Guido of Arezzo + + +== J == +Candido Jacuzzi + + +== K == +Pedro Kanof + + +== L == +Ruggero Lenci +Leonardo da Vinci +Domingo Liotta +Cesare Lombroso +Vincenzo Lunardi +Giovanni Luppis + + +== M == +Amatino Manucci +Innocenzo Manzetti +Guglielmo Marconi +Felice Matteucci +Antonio Meucci +Guido Monaco +Maria Montessori +Angelo Moriondo + + +== N == +Giulio Natta + + +== P == +Antonio Pacinotti +Luigi Palmieri +Enzo Paoletti +Pier Giorgio Perotto +Ignazio Porro +Giambattista della Porta +Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli + + +== R == +Giuseppe Ravizza + + +== S == +Sanctorius +Raimondo di Sangro +Antonio Sant'Elia +Ascanio Sobrero +Nazareno Strampelli + + +== T == +Gasparo Tagliacozzi +Teseo Tesei + Luigi Torchi +Evangelista Torricelli +Pellegrino Turri +Juanelo Turriano + + +== V == +Alessandro Volta +Andrew Viterbi + + +== Z == +Ildebrando Zacchini +Giuseppe Zamboni +Girolamo Zenti \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..20fe28052 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:58.685506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The National Inventors Hall of Fame (NIHF) is an American not-for-profit organization, founded in 1973, which recognizes individual engineers and inventors who hold a U.S. patent of significant technology. +The inventor list constitutes historic persons from the past three centuries in addition to living inductees. Nominees must hold a U.S. patent of significant contribution to public welfare, and which advances science and the useful arts. John Fitch (anno 1743) was the earliest born inventor inducted into the NIHF. + + +== Inductees == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The official website of the National Inventors Hall of Fame \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45d0aee5a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of New Zealand inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:59.899853+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of New Zealand inventors and inventions. + +Godfrey Bowen – developer of an improved sheep-shearing technique +John Britten – designer of the Britten motorcycle +Thomas Brydone and William Soltau Davidson – refrigerated shipping pioneers +Morton Coutts – invented the continuous fermentation method of brewing +Bill Gallagher – developer of the electric fence and founder of Gallagher Group Limited +Ernest Godward – improved eggbeater +A. J. Hackett – popularised of commercial Bungy jumping +Bill Hamilton – developed the modern jetboat +Frederick Hanson – inventor of chipseal, known in New Zealand as tar seal +Peter Lynn – leading kitemaker, aeronautical theoretician and inventor of the tipping blade portable sawmill +Colin Murdoch – inventor of the disposable syringe and the tranquilliser gun +Richard Pearse – aviation pioneer +Bill Pickering – rocketry and space pioneer, former NASA Jet Propulsion Lab director +Alan Prichard – pioneer of aerial topdressing +Bill Robinson – inventor of the lead rubber bearing used for seismic base isolation in earthquake engineering + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c522f3f85 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of Penrose Medal winners" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:46.009817+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Penrose Medal was created in 1925 by R.A.F. Penrose, Jr., as the top prize awarded by the Geological Society of America. Originally created as the Geological Society of America Medal it was soon renamed the Penrose Medal by popular assent of the society's membership, and was first awarded in 1927. It is awarded only at the discretion of the GSA council, "in recognition of eminent research in pure geology, for outstanding original contributions or achievements that mark a major advance in the science of geology." + + +== Award winners == + +Source: GSA + + +== See also == +Category:Penrose Medal winners +List of geology awards +Prizes named after people + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..17aba8784 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "List of Polish inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Polish inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises people from Poland and of Polish origin, and also people of predominantly Polish heritage, in alphabetical order of surname. + +== A == +Bruno Abakanowicz: invented integrapf, a mechanical analog computing device for plotting the integral of a graphically defined function. +Osman Achmatowicz Jr.: specialist in the field of organic chemistry. Inventor of the Achmatowicz reaction. +Karol Adamiecki: management theorist. Together with Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Fayola the creator of organisation and management science. In 1925 Adamiecki founded the Polish Institute of Scientific Management. +Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz: pathologist. His research of the variable vascularity of the spinal cord was an important contribution to the development of modern clinical vascular surgery. He is known for Artery of Adamkiewicz and Adamkiewicz reaction. +Henryk Arctowski: scientist and explorer. Living in exile for a large part of his life, he was one of the first persons to reach Antarctica during winter and became an internationally renowned meteorologist. + +== B == +Joseph Babinski: neurologist, discoverer of the Babinski reflex. +Stefan Banach: considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians, creator of Banach space. He was one of the founders of modern functional analysis, and an original member of the Lwów School of Mathematics. His major work was the 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires (Theory of Linear Operations), the first monograph on the general theory of functional analysis. +Feliks Barański: pioneer and the specialist in the field of Differential equations. +Jan Józef Baranowski: took part in the Great Emigration. Invented Railway signal device, ticket machine and gas meter. +Mieczysław G. Bekker: co-authored the general idea and vitally contributed to the design and construction of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) used by NASA in missions Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 on the Moon. He was the author of several patented inventions in the area of off-the-road vehicles, including those for extraterrestrial use. +Benedict of Poland: Polish Franciscan friar, explorer, and interpreter, participant of the pioneering European trip to the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. +Edmund Biernacki: physician, the first one to note a relationship between the sedimentation rate of red blood cells in a human blood sample and the general condition of the organism. This method is now known as the Biernacki Reaction. +Michał Borysiekiewicz: invented the first "electronic eye" for blind people. +Michał Boym: 17th-century Jesuit missionary, scientist and explorer, who was the first in Europe to describe Korea as a peninsula, as until then it was believed to be an island, and the first in Europe to establish the factual location of a number of Chinese cities and the Great Wall of China. +Josef Božek: managed to put into operation one of the first steam engines in the Czech lands. +Stefan Bryła: designed and built the first welded road bridge in the world. +Janusz Brzozowski: computer scientist known for developing the Brzozowski derivative and Brzozowski's algorithm. +Tytus Liwiusz Burattini: inventor of the micrometer. + +== C == +Maria Skłodowska-Curie: conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences – physics and chemistry. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris. +Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik): mathematician, physician, translator, diplomat. Most commonly known as an astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe included in his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). +Napoleon Cybulski:, physiologist, discoverer of adrenaline, one of pioneers of endocrinology and electroencephalography. +Jan Czochralski: chemist, invented the Czochralski process, commonly used for growing crystals and in the production of semiconductor wafers. + +== D == +Marian Danysz: physicist, co-discovered the hypernucleus. +Kazimierz Dąbrowski: psychologist, psychiatrist, and physician, author of the theory of "positive disintegration". +Henryk Derczyński: a photographer, created an isohelia technology, a technique that sharpens contrasts and defines three-dimensional images. +Stefan Drzewiecki: engineer and inventor, built the first submarine in the world with electric battery-powered propulsion. +Jarosław Duda: computer scientist, a graduate of Jagiellonian University and inventor of Asymmetric numeral systems (ANS), a family of entropy encoding methods widely used in data compression. +Jan Dzierżon: apiarist who discovered the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in bees and designed the first successful movable-frame beehive (1838). + +== E == +Artur Ekert: physicist; one of the pioneers of quantum cryptography. + +== F == +Maksymilian Faktorowicz: founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company, popularized the term "make-up", had perfected the first cosmetic specifically created for motion picture use—a thinner greasepaint in cream form and largely developed the modern cosmetics industry in the United States. +Kazimierz Fajans: physical chemist, pioneer in the science of radioactivity and the discoverer of chemical element protactinium. +Edward Flatau: neurologist. +Julius Fromm: chemist, entrepreneur, one of the inventors of the rubber condom. +Casimir Funk:, biochemist, the first to formulate (1912) the concept and the term of vitamins originally calling them "vital amins"/"vit- amins" discovered first vitamins, i.e B1 + +== G == +Leo Gerstenzang: Polish-American inventor who in 1923 created the first contemporary cotton swab or Q-Tips. +Ludwik Gross: virologist. He discovered two different tumor viruses — murine leukemia virus and mouse polyomavirus — capable of causing cancers in laboratory mice. +Ryszard Gryglewski: physician and pharmacologist. He co-discovered prostacyclin (1976), which set off many further scientific discoveries. +Andrzej Grzegorczyk: mathematician and logician, who introduced the Grzegorczyk hierarchy, a hierarchy of functions used in computability theory. +Rudolf Gundlach: military engineer, inventor and tank designer, inventor of the Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV also known as the Gundlach Periscope. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b52874215 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "List of Polish inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == +Józef Hofmann: musician, invented Paper clips. +Johannes Hevelius: astronomer who gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers. + +== J == +Stefania Jabłońska: physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize. +Wojciech Jastrzębowski: scientist, naturalist and inventor, one of the fathers of ergonomics. +Walery Jaworski: one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland who made one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori and published those findings in 1899 in a book titled Podręcznik chorób żołądka (Handbook of Gastric Diseases). + +== K == +Jacek Karpiński: pioneer in computer engineering and computer science. He became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition. In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202. +Adam Adamandy Kochański: mathematician, physicist, clockmaker, who found an approximation of π today called the Kochański's Approximation. He also suggested replacing the clock's pendulum with a spring, constructed a clock with a magnetic pendulum, and was the author of the world's first systematic paper on the construction of clocks. +Jerzy Konorski: neurophysiologist, discoverer of secondary conditioned reflexes and operant conditioning. He also proposed the idea of gnostic neurons, a concept similar to the grandmother cell. He coined the term neural plasticity. +Hilary Koprowski: virologist and immunologist, who developed the world's first effective live polio vaccine. +Kazimierz Kordylewski: astronomer, discoverer of the Kordylewski clouds. +Józef Kosacki: invented the Polish mine detector, a first man-portable device used by the allied forces during the World War II. +Tadeusz Kościuszko: Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and American war hero and military leader, military engineer, colonel in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, creator of the West Point state-of-the-art Fortifications, prepared a national Kosciuszko Uprising in Poland against the Russian Empire and acted as the Supreme Commander. +Tadeusz Krwawicz: ophthalmologist who pioneered the use of cryosurgery in ophthalmology. +Stefan Kudelski: audio engineer known for creating the Nagra series of professional audio recorders later sold to British BBC, American stations NBC, ABC, CBS, but also plenty of radio stations including famous Radio Luxembourg. Kudelski received prestigious Oscar Awards in 1965, 1977, 1978, and 1990. He also won two Emmy Awards in 1984 and 1986. +Jerzy Kukuczka: alpinist, the second man in history to climb all fourteen Eight-thousanders including three as first ascents, established a new route on K2 in alpine style called the "Polish line". +Wojciech Kurtyka: mountaineer, alpinist, one of the alpine style climbing pioneers, after climbing through the "Shining Wall" on Gasherbrum IV the Climbing magazine declared beat the wall to get the greatest achievement of mountaineering in the twentieth century. +Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014): American chemist of Polish origin, inventor of Kevlar. + +== L, Ł == +Ignacy Łukasiewicz: invented kerosene lamp, designed and built both world's first oil refinery and oil well. Introduced the first modern street lamp in Europe. +Jan Łukasiewicz: invented RPN (Reverse Polish Notation) used in professional Calculators as well as by Computers in order to determine the order of mathematical operations without using parentheses. + +== M == +Ernest Malinowski: civil engineer best known for constructing the Ferrocarril Central Andino in the Peruvian Andes, the world's highest railway at the time. +Henryk Manguski: a telecommunications engineer who worked for Motorola in Chicago. He was the inventor of the first Walkie-Talkies and one of the authors of his company success in the fields of radio communication. +Benoit Mandelbrot: mathematician of Polish descent, known for developing a theory of "roughness and self-similarity" and significant contributions to fractal geometry and chaos theory; Mandelbrot set. +Krzysztof Matyjaszewski: chemist, who discovered atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). +Jan Mikulicz-Radecki: surgeon, inventor of new operating techniques and tools, one of the pioneers of antiseptics and aseptic techniques. He is also the inventor of surgical mask. +Ludwik Młokosiewicz: explorer, zoologist and botanist, who discovered 60 species of plants and animals in Georgia and the Caucasus. +Aleksander Możajski: Polish-Russian military officer, built world's first plane. + +== N == +Jan Nagórski: engineer and pioneer of aviation, the first person to fly an airplane in the Arctic and the first aviator to perform a loop with a flying boat. + +== O == +Karol Olszewski: chemist, the first (alongside Zygmunt Wróblewski) to liquefy oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a stable state (not, as had been the case up to then, in a dynamic state in the transitional form as vapour) (1833). +Stanisław Olszewski: engineer and inventor, co-creator of modern electric arc welding. + +== P == +Bohdan Paczyński: astronomer, credited with the development of a new method of detecting space objects and establishing their mass using the gravitational lenses effect. +Antoni Patek: pioneer in watchmaking and the creator of the Patek Philippe & Co. +Janusz Pawliszyn: chemist, inventor of solid-phase microextraction (SPME). +Jerzy Pniewski: physicist, co-discovered the hypernucleus. +Kazimierz Pułaski: Polish nobleman, soldier and military strategist, a general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, the creator and the head of the Pulaski Cavalry Legion and reformer of the American cavalry. He distinguished himself throughout the revolution, most notably when he saved the life of George Washington. One of only eight people in the history to be awarded honorary United States citizenship. +Kazimierz Prószyński: patented the first film camera, the Pleograph, before the Lumière brothers, and later went on to improve the cinema projector for the Gaumont company, as well as invent the widely used hand-held Aeroscope camera. +Antoni Przybylski: Polish-Australian astronomer best known for discovering Przybylski's Star. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..93d4d5c88 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "List of Polish inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== R == +Tadeusz Reichstein: Polish-Swiss chemist and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate (1950), who was awarded for his work on the isolation of cortisone. +Zbigniew Religa: a pioneer in human heart transplantation in Poland, he led the team that performed the first successful heart transplantation in the country, and in June 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses. +Marian Rejewski: mathematician and cryptologist who reconstructed the sight-unseen German military Enigma cipher machine. +Jerzy Rudlicki: aerospace engineer and pilot. He is best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail in 1930, which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. +Ludwik Rydygier: surgeon, who performed the first in Poland and second in the world successful surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, and the first peptic ulcer resection in the world. + +== S == +Andrew Schally: endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977) whose research contributed to the discovery that the hypothalamus controls hormone production and release by the pituitary gland, which controls the regulation of other hormones in the body. +Michael Sendivogius: pioneer of chemistry, who developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds, and discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance—later called oxygen. +Tadeusz Sendzimir: metallurgist, revolutionised galvanisation and rolling process. +Kazimierz Siemienowicz: military engineer, one of pioneers of rocketry, author of Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, a work that served as the principal artillery manual in Europe from the mid-16th to the mid-18th centuries, also containing the first printed design of a multistage rocket. +Maria Siemionow: transplant surgeon and scientist who led a team of eight surgeons through the world's first near-total face transplant. +Hugo Steinhaus: mathematician, specialist in the field of functional analysis. +Abraham Stern: inventor of the mechanical calculator, topography machine, agriculture machines. +Josephus Struthius: professor of medicine and personal doctor of Polish kings, who was among the first to provide a visual representation of the human pulse and used it for diagnostic purposes. +Paweł Edmund Strzelecki: explorer most commonly known for his early explorations of Australia, particularly the Snowy Mountains and Tasmania. Climbed and named the highest Australian peak – Mount Kosciuszko. +Jan Szczepanik: inventor, with several hundred patents and over 50 discoveries to his name; his inventions founded ground for radio and TV broadcasting. +Wacław Szybalski: medical researcher, geneticist and oncologist. He conducted research on drug resistance and molecular genetics and is known for the Szybalski's rule. + +== Ś == +Jędrzej Śniadecki: writer, physician, chemist, biologist and philosopher. He was the first person who linked rickets to lack of sunlight (1822). He also created modern Polish terminology in the field of chemistry. +Władysław Świątecki: physicist noted for pioneering research in nuclear physics including the nuclear shell model and for independently predicting the existence of the so-called island of stability. + +== T == +Władysław Tryliński: transportation engineer who invented trylinka, the hexagonal concrete block widely used in the construction of roads in Poland due to its low cost and durability, becoming a synonym for sidewalks made of them. +Jacek Trzmiel: was a Polish American businessman, best known for founding Commodore International. Tramiel later formed Atari Corporation after he purchased the remnants of the original Atari, Inc. from its parent company. +Abraham Icek Tuszyński: entrepreneur, founder of the most prestigious movie theater in the Netherlands – the Tuschinski Theater in Amsterdam. + +== U == +Stanisław Ulam was a mathematician of the Lwów School of Mathematics and a member of the Manhattan Project. He was assigned to Edward Teller's group, where he worked on Teller's "Super" bomb for Teller and Enrico Fermi. With the aid of a cadre of female "computers", including his wife Françoise Aron Ulam, he found that Teller's "Super" design was unworkable. In January 1951, Ulam and Teller came up with the Teller–Ulam design, which is the basis for all thermonuclear weapons. Ulam discovered the concept of the cellular automaton, invented the Monte Carlo method of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion. In pure and applied mathematics, he proved some theorems and proposed several conjectures. + +== W == +Warner Brothers (Bracia Wonsal): American-naturalized brothers of Polish-Jewish origin, created the Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc., one of the biggest and most successful media corporations in the world being one of the "Big Six" American film studios. +Rudolf Weigl: biologist, physician and inventor, known for creating the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus. +Krzysztof Wielicki: regarded as one of the greatest mountaineers in history. He performed the first winter ascents on Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, and Lhotse. +Anna Wierzbicka: linguist; known for her work in semantics, pragmatics and cross-cultural linguistics; she's credited with formulating the theory of natural semantic metalanguage and the concept of semantic primes. +Mieczysław Wolfke: the forerunner of holography and television. +Zygmunt Wróblewski: chemist: the first (alongside Karol Olszewski) to liquefy oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a stable state (not, as had been the case up to then, in a dynamic state in the transitional form as vapour) (1833). + +== Z == +Ludwik Zamenhof: creator of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language in the world. +Casimir Zeglen, inventor of one of the first bulletproof vests. +Witold Zglenicki: geologist and inventor. Pioneer of oil extraction from sea bottom. + +== See also == +List of Poles +List of Polish Nobel laureates +Timeline of Polish science and technology + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebd83516f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Taínos who inhabit the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops. +In 1581, Juan Ponce de León II, the grandson of the Conquistador Juan Ponce de León, studied an eclipse and its effects on the island and was able to establish the exact geographical coordinates of San Juan with his observations. +During the 19th century the economies of many countries in the world suffered from the spread of crop failures. Puerto Rico, whose economy depended heavily on its agriculture, felt the effects of some of the crop diseases. Scientists such as Agustín Stahl, Fermín Tangüis and Fernando López Tuero conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of agriculture, botany, ethnology and zoology. The findings of their investigations helped Puerto Rico's agricultural industry. +With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine. +There are many Puerto Rican scientists involved in the American space program at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). According to an article written by Margarita Santori Lopez for the official newspaper of the University of Puerto Rico's Mayagüez Campus, "Prensa RUM", as of 2003, of the 115 Hispanics working at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, 70 were Puerto Ricans or of Puerto Rican descent. According to a research conducted during the period of 1990 to 1998 by Puerto Rican scientists in science and technology, Puerto Rican scientific production was greater than in any other Caribbean country and the sixth largest in all of Latin America. +The following is a list of some of Puerto Rico's notable scientists and inventors with short profiles that include the scientific contributions, inventions and achievements in their respective fields. The list is not limited to people born in Puerto Rico, it also includes people who are of full or partial Puerto Rican ancestry, and many long-term residents and who have made Puerto Rico their home, and who are recognized for their life and/or work. + +== Aerospace == +Roberto Alemán is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. As Environmental Instruments Director, he directs everything that is related to the environmental instruments that the United States provides to the European Space Agency in order to operate the MetOp, a European satellite that provides environmental information to both Europe and the United States. +Adán Rodríguez-Arroyo is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. Rodríguez-Arroyo is the Communications System Lead Engineer for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Mission, to be launched in 2008. He was in charge of the design of the communications systems of the "Global Precipitation Measurement" satellite. +Anthony M. Busquets is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. He is involved in the development and application of multifunction control/display switch technology in 1983 and Development and application of a microprocessor-based I/O system for simulator use in 1984. He is the author and or co-author of over 13 conference papers and NASA formal publications in the areas of cockpit controls and displays, use of stereoscopy in flight displays and pictorial flight displays for situation awareness enhancement. +Juan R. Cruz is an aerospace engineer and Aero Space Technologist at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia who helped design and qualification of the supersonic parachute for the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) project. Cruz is a senior aerospace engineer in the Exploration Systems Engineering Branch at the NASA Langley Research Center. His responsibilities are focused on research and development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. He was a member of the highly successful Mars Exploration Rover (MER) project that placed two rovers on the surface of Mars in 2004. His contributions to the MER project were centered on the design and qualification of the supersonic parachute. Cruz is also a member of the Phoenix (Mars 2007), Mars Science Laboratory (Mars 2009), and Crew Exploration Vehicle EDL teams. He has undertaken research on advanced missions to Mars, including robotic airplanes, as well as having been a technical reviewer for the Genesis, Huygens, and Stardust missions. Prior to his involvement with exploration programs he conducted research on high-altitude unmanned aircraft. + +Orlando Figueroa is a mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and the former Director of Solar System Exploration Division and Mars Exploration at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Figueroa headed the cryogenic technology section, played a key role on the Cosmic Background Explorer mission, and managed a Space Shuttle Helium on Orbit Mission. He is the manager for the Small Explorers (SMEX) project, manager for the Explorers Program, and Director of Systems Technology and Advanced Concept Directorate. He is currently the Director, Applied Engineering & Technology at the NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center (as the "Director of Engineering" he manages the full scope of engineering activities at Goddard). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..53dbb3a00 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Olga D. González-Sanabria is a scientist and inventor. She is the highest ranking Hispanic at NASA Glenn Research Center, and a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame. As Director of the Engineering and Technical Services, she is responsible for planning and directing a full range of integrated services including engineering, fabrication, testing, facility management and aircraft services for the Glenn Research Center. She played an instrumental role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system. Among the technical reports that she has authored and or co-authored are:1. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells (1987)2. Component variations and their effects on bipolar nickel-hydrogen cell performance (1987)3. NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program – Issues and actions (1988)4. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells 2 (1988)5. Energy storage considerations for a robotic Mars surface sampler (1989) + +Amri Hernández-Pellerano is an electronics engineer and scientist who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. She designed the power systems electronics for the WMAP mission. WMAP is a NASA Explorer mission satellite that measures the temperature of the cosmic background radiation over the full sky with unprecedented accuracy. +Carlos Ortiz Longo (born August 18, 1962) is a Mechanical and Materials Science Engineer, Air Transport Pilot, and Flight Instructor. He is a retired NASA Johnson Space Center Engineer, and pilot. His expertise includes Thermal Analysis, Thermal Design, High Speed Atmospheric Thermal Protection Systems, Materials Engineering, Mechanical Behavior of High Temperature Structural Ceramics, Mechanical Testing of Materials, Structural Mechanics, Astronaut Crew Health Care Systems, Rocket Engine Testing, Project Management, and System Management. Ortiz Longo is currently an Airline Pilot for a major airline. Ortiz Longo reached finalist status in the Astronaut Selection program (top 4% of qualified applicants who are invited to the Johnson Space Center in Houston for final interviews), for Astronaut Candidate Class 16 in 1996. Ortiz Longo was awarded the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal. To be awarded the medal, a NASA employee must make substantial contributions characterized by a substantial and significant improvement in operations, efficiency, service, financial savings, science, or technology that directly contribute to the mission of NASA For civilians, the decoration is typically bestowed to mid-level and senior NASA administrators who have supervised at least four to five successful NASA missions. Astronauts may be awarded the decoration after two to three space flights. + +Mercedes Reaves is a research engineer and scientist. She is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. She must select and apply tools to analyze complex thin film structures characterized by wrinkling, geometric and material nonlinear behavior. She is also responsible for planning experimental studies to validate analytical techniques and study solar sails dynamics. +Miriam Rodon-Naveira is a scientist and the first Hispanic woman to hold the Deputy Directorship for the Environmental Sciences Division within the National Exposure Research Laboratory. She is responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining research and educational activities in support of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center mission. She holds a doctorate in Biology–Aquatic Microbial Ecology. + +Pedro Rodríguez is a scientist, inventor, mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and the Director of a test laboratory at NASA. He invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Rodriguez was the leader of the Solid Rocket Booster accident investigation team following the Space Shuttle Columbia accident in February 2003 and was also the project manager for the Space Launch Initiative program. Rodriguez is currently the Director of the test laboratory in the Engineering Directorate at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. He is responsible for the engineering services and facilities for environmental, structural, and propulsion testing of NASA programs assigned to the Marshall Space Flight Center. Among his duties are: research, development, qualification, and acceptance testing of critical space and flight hardware, as well as the testing of relevant development hardware. + +Felix Soto Toro is a scientist, astronaut applicant and an electrical designs engineer in NASA, who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS)(Electronic 3D measuring system). At the Kennedy Space Center, Soto reviews, designs, builds, tests and implements engineering designs used in the Space Shuttle and Payload Operations Development Laboratories. The main project he developed was the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS)(Electronic 3D measuring system), which consists of a simplified, robust, centrally operated and portable system that automatically measures the spherical coordinates offset between the trunnion and their supports during transfer operations. This system has the potential to become a NASA project with commercial applications. Soto earned his Doctorate of Philosophy degree in electrical engineering and has applied to become an astronaut candidate. + +== Agriculture == +In the 19th Century, Puerto Rico's economy depended on its agricultural industry. Among the products that Puerto Rico exported were tobacco, cotton, ginger, pineapples and citrus fruits. The two main agricultural products whose production dominated the island's economy were sugar and coffee. + +Coffee industry +In the 1860s, the Mariani family of Yauco created a machine out of a cotton gin that was used in the dehusking of coffee. This represented a significant improvement in Puerto Rico's coffee appearance and an opportunity to stand out in the international coffee market. +Cotton industry \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7fc55273d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fermín Tangüis (1851–1930) was a Puerto Rican businessman, agriculturist and scientist who in 1901 developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tanguis cotton in Peru when that nation's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known some places as "cotton wilt" and in others as "Fusarium wilt" (Fusarium vasinfectum) saving that nation's cotton industry. Tangüis began to study some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed that produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water. The cotton grown in Peru (Egyptian cotton) before the fungus plague grew only once a year; the Tangüis cotton grows six times a year. This type of fiber showed a better resistance and performance than other fibers. Tangüis cotton grows in Canete's valley (south of Lima) and in the Central Coast of Peru. The success of the Tangüis cotton, which is also known in Peru as "Oro Blanco" (White Gold), saved the cotton industry of that nation. + +Coconut industry +Ramón López Irizarry (1897–1982) was an educator and scientist who invented an easier way to extract the cream from the coconut pulp. He was a professor of agricultural sciences at the University of Puerto Rico in the late 1940s when the Government of Puerto Rico gave a grant to the University of Puerto Rico (Universidad de Puerto Rico) to help assist in the development of Puerto Rican industries. In 1949, Lopez-Irizarry, with the use of some of these funds, was able to work in his laboratory on an idea that he had. Lopez-Irizarry set out to find an easier way to extract the cream from the coconut pulp. The heart of the coconut has always been an important ingredient in many of the desserts in Puerto Rico. The main problem was extracting the coconut cream from the pulp, which was a difficult task. Lopez-Irizarry discovered an easier way by blending the cream from the hearts of the Caribbean coconuts with an exact proportion of natural cane sugar. He used his discovery in the development of "Coco Lopez", a coconut product that is used in many popular drinks. +Sugar industry +Fernando López Tuero was an agricultural scientist and agronomist who saved the sugar industry of Puerto Rico when he discovered the bug (believed at first to be a germ) that was destroying the island's sugar canes. In the latter part of the 19th Century, an epidemic was affecting the agricultural industry of Puerto Rico. Among the crops affected was the sugar cane, whose main product "sugar" was vital to Puerto Rico's economy. The Spanish colonial government, created an emergency commission composed of scientists, which included Agustín Stahl and Fernando López Tuero, to study the situation. Agustín Stahl concluded that the epidemic was caused by a "germ" in the terrain, however his findings were inconclusive. In 1894, Fernando López Tuero, who was the head agronomist of the Agronomical Station of Río Piedras, discovered that the cause of the epidemic was the white grub (Phyllophaga). Phyllophaga is a very large genus (more than 260 species) of New World scarab beetles in the subfamily Melolonthinae. These beetles are nocturnal, coming to lights in great numbers. The adults are chafers, feeding on foliage of trees and shrubs. They may cause significant damage when emerging in large numbers. The larvae (called white grubs) feed on the roots of grasses and other plants. + +== Archaeology == +Ricardo Alegría is a scholar, cultural anthropologist and archeologist known as the "Father of Modern Puerto Rican Archaeology". He is credited with being a pioneer in the anthropology of the Taino culture and the African heritage in Puerto Rico. His extensive studies have helped historians to understand how the Taínos lived and suffered, before and after the Spanish Conquistadores arrived in the island. Alegría estimated that about one third of all Puerto Ricans (2 million out of 6 million) have Taíno blood and therefore the Taínos were not completely extinct and some had to survive. Recently, the results of recent DNA studies have proved him right. + +== Astronomy == +Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who, in 1959, discovered a Galactic Cluster "Blanco 1", which was named after him. Blanco was the second Director of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, which has the largest 4-m telescope in the Southern Hemisphere, In 1995, the telescope was dedicated in his honor and is known as the Blanco 4m +Sixto González was the first Puerto Rican to be named Director of the Arecibo Observatory, the world's largest single dish radio telescope. In 2001, Gonzalez was named assistant director for space and atmospheric sciences at the telescopic facility. On September 29, 2003, Gonzalez became the first Puerto Rican to be named Director of the observatory. The appointment was made by Robert Brown, director of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (NAIC). Gonzalez was responsible for the overall management of the facility, including the executions of basic policy that maintains the observatory at the front of research in astronomy, planetary studies and atmospheric science. He stepped down as Director on September 15, 2006. + +== Astrophysics == +Neil deGrasse Tyson is an astrophysicist and television and radio host. deGrasse Tyson, whose mother is Puerto Rican, is the director of the Hayden Planetarium in New York City. deGrasse Tyson is the host of the PBS series "Cosmos: A Personal Voyage". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..600ffb5ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Enectalí Figueroa-Feliciano is a mechanical engineer, Astronaut applicant and an Associate Professor of Physics at Northwestern University and the author of various papers including "Position-sensitive low-temperature detectors". Figueroa's research interests revolve around the development of high-energy-resolution imaging spectrometers for space-borne applications in experimental astrophysics and cosmology. Figueroa pioneered the development of position-sensitive detectors that will provide an order of magnitude more pixels (and thus larger field of view) than traditional single-pixel X-ray microcalorimeters." He is an expert and researcher on dark matter. and a researcher with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a professor of physics Northwestern University. + +Adolfo Figueroa-Viñas is the first Puerto Rican astrophysicist at NASA working in solar plasma physics. As a senior research scientist, he is involved in many NASA missions, such as Wind, SOHO, Cluster and MMS projects, in which he is the author and co-author of numerous scientific papers in his field. Figueroa-Viñas has served as Guest Co-Investigator of the International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE-1) mission and the Voyagers program. He is currently a Co-Investigator in the WIND/SWE experiment of the International Solar Terrestrial Program (ISTP) and the Space Physics Theory Program grant entitled The Role of Turbulence in Heliospheric Plasmas. Viñas has participated in the organizing committee of "La Conferencia Espacial de las Américas" held in Costa Rica, Chile and Uruguay. He is the recipient of the NASA Special Service Award. + +== Biochemistry == + +Nitza Margarita Cintrón is a scientist who originated the Biochemistry Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. She is the Chief of Space Medicine and Health Care Systems Office at NASA's Johnson Space Center. In 1979, Cintron originated the Biochemistry Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. He served from 1979 to 1985 as the project scientist for the Space Lab 2 mission, which was launched in 1985 aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger. In 2004, she was named "Chief of NASA's (JSC) Space Medicine and Health Care Systems Office", the position that she currently holds. + +== Botany == + +Agustín Stahl (1842–1917) conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of botany, ethnology and zoology. Stahl wrote "Estudios sobre la flora de Puerto Rico" (A study of the Puerto Rican Flora), published in six fascicles from 1883 to 1888. Copies of his plant collection with approximately 1,330 plants can be found in various botanical gardens around the world. His collections were the basis for numerous studies by specialists, some of them resulting in new taxa to science. He has a genus, Stahlia, and five valid species, Argythamnia stahlii, Senna pendula var. stahlii , Eugenia stahlii, Lyonia stahlii, and Ternstroemia stahlii, named in his honor. The genus Stahlia is represented by a single species, S. monosperma (Tul.) Urb., known to occur only in Puerto Rico and the eastern Dominican Republic. Known in Puerto Rico as Cóbana Negra, this species is currently listed as threatened in the USFW Federal Register, April 5, 1990. + +== Chemistry education == +Ingrid Montes is a professor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras campus. She attained tenure in 1998. Her research focus is on chemical education and organometallic chemistry.Montes has been Director-at-large at the American Chemical Society (ACS) since 2013. Montes founded the "Festival de Química" (Chemistry Festival) in 2005. The "Festival de Quimica" is a community outreach program created to engage the general public through chemistry demonstrations and its relation to daily life. This program was then adopted by the ACS in 2010 and in 2016, the ACS festival training was launched around the world. + +== Climate change == + +Miguel Román, serves as Chief Climate Scientist and Technical Fellow at Leidos. A leading expert in the fields of satellite remote sensing, climate change, disaster risk reduction, and sustainability, Román has championed translational research and data-intensive approaches to assess and address climate-related risks. His work is internationally recognized for shedding light on the disproportionate hardships experienced by socially-vulnerable and underserved communities following major disasters. In 2022, Román was named the team leader of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) science team for NASA's Terra and Aqua missions. Román also serves as the land discipline leader for the Suomi-NPP and NOAA-20 Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) science team, a worldwide group of investigators and technical staff in charge of one of the largest and most comprehensive polar-orbiting satellite systems operated by NASA and NOAA to monitor our planet's vital signs. + +== Ecology == +Ariel Lugo is a scientist, ecologist and Director of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry within the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, based in Puerto Rico. He is a founding Member of the Society for Ecological Restoration and Member-at-Large of the Board of the Ecological Society of America. His current research is focused on assessments of the role of tropical forests in global processes and comparisons between tropical tree plantations and natural forests. He has over 300 publications in scientific journals and books and has served on federal interagency committees and frequently required to appear as an expert witness in federal court in cases considering environmental issues. He currently serves on the Editorial Boards of Conservation Ecology, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Forest Ecology and Management, Restoration Ecology, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, Acta Cientifica (Editor) and Journal of the Littoral. + +== Hydrometeorology == +Rafael L. Bras is an engineer and expert in hydrometeorology and global warming. As an engineering hydrologist, his major areas of interest include land-atmosphere interactions and geomorphology. He is considered one of the world's leading experts in global warming, and has also served as a professional consultant in multiple projects around the world. Bras has specialized in the interpretation of natural phenomena as random functions. He has been recognized for his use of modern probabilistic methods in the design of networks to monitor rainfall and river flow, and in rainfall and river discharge forecasting. Presently his interests span the areas of fluvial geomorphology and hydroclimatology. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a99677a89 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Marine biology == +Pablo Clemente-Colon is the first Puerto Rican to serve as Chief Scientist of the National Ice Center (NIC), headquartered in Alexandria Virginia, a position he has held since 2005. As such, he serves the three entities that operate the NIC, the United States Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard. +Carlos Del Castillo was the Program Scientist for the Ocean Biology and Biogeochemistry Program at NASA Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. Del Castillo is the recipient of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE) award, the highest honor bestowed by the United States government on scientists and engineers beginning their independent careers. He began working in the Mississippi River plume and in the application of remote sensors to study coastal environments. He co-edited with Richard Miller and Brent McKee, Remote Sensing of the Coastal Environment, a book that provides extensive insight on remote sensing of coastal waters from aircraft and space-based platforms +Antonio A. Mignucci-Giannoni is a biological oceanographer specializing in the biology, management and conservation of marine mammals. He is the founder of the international conservation organization Red Caribeña de Varamientos (Caribbean Stranding Network) dedicated to the care, treatment, and rehabilitation of injured or stranded marine mammals, sea turtle and sea birds. As a scientist, Mignucci is an expert in endangered tropical marine mammals and a specialist in the West Indian manatee. + +== Medicine == +José Ramón Alcalá (born 1940) is an anatomist who, in 1972, was appointed assistant professor in the Wayne School of Medicine. There he conducted research that would make him the foremost expert on cell makeup of the human eye lens. Alcalá developed laboratory methods to study the histology of ocular tissue, which ultimately helped to explain the development of cataracts, among other maladies of the eye +Gualberto Ruaño is a pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System (U.S. patent 5,427,911), used worldwide for the management of viral diseases. Ruaño is president and Founder of Genomas, a genetics-related company and now the bio-tech anchor of Hartford Hospital's Genetic Research Center; he also serves as Director of genetics research at the Center +Cardiology + +Antonio Fernós-Isern (1895–1974) was the first Puerto Rican cardiologist and its longest serving resident commissioner. From 1919 to 1921, he was the Under-Secretary of Health; from 1921 to 1923 the Director of Health in city; from 1923 to 1929 he was once again Under-Secretary of Health and from 1930 to 1933 the Secretary of Health of Puerto Rico. In 1933, Fernos-Isern resigned as health commissioner and went to New York, where he completed his residency in cardiology at Columbia University and thus became the "first" Puerto Rican cardiologist. He returned to Puerto Rico and became a professor at the "School of Tropical Medicine of Puerto Rico", where he had previously served as assistant and associate professor. + +Ramón M. Suárez Calderon (1895–1981) was a cardiologist and scientist whose investigations led him to identify the proper and effective treatment of a type of anemia known as Tropical Espru, the application of complex methods, such as electrocardiography and radioisotope, to be used in clinics and the identification and treatment of the disease that causes heart rheumatism. +Embryology +Endocrinology + +Pedro Beauchamp is the first Puerto Rican specialist certified by the American Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Board who in 1985 performed the first in vitro fertilization (IVF) technique in Puerto Rico. In 1982, Beauchamp was responsible and is credited with delivering the first triplets born by in-vitro fertilization in the United States and the first in-vitro baby born in Argentina. His work is known as GIFT (in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer) and TET (Tubal Embryo Transfer). Beauchamp returned to Puerto Rico in 1985 and established his practice in reproductive endocrinology and infertility in the city of Bayamón. In 1986, he delivered the first child born from the in-vitro fertilization procedure in all of Puerto Rico at the Regional Hospital of Bayamón. +Immunology + +Angel M. Marchand a Case Western-trained physician and one of the first Puerto Rican doctors board-certified in allergy and immunology, dedicated his life to researching tropical allergies and developing vaccines that would effectively prevent or minimize allergic reactions to substances prevalent in tropical environments in Puerto Rico, the Caribbean and other tropical areas of the world. +Nephrology + +Manuel Martínez Maldonado a nephrologist, is the executive vice president for research at the University of Louisville. Martínez-Maldonado has authored numerous scientific publications. His research interests are the regulation of blood pressure and the effect of high blood pressure on the kidneys. He also focuses on the renin angiotensin system, a hormone system that helps regulate long-term blood pressure and blood volume in the body and is controlled primarily by the kidneys. +Odontology + +Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas (1888–1932) was an odontologist (dentist), scientist and a Major in the U.S. Army who discovered the bacteria that causes dental caries. Rodríguez Vargas was assigned to the Army Dental Corps as an educator and investigator of the bacteriological aspects of dental diseases. His research led him to discover the bacteria that causes dental caries. According to his investigations, three types of the Lactobacillus species, during the process of fermentation, are the causes of cavities. In December 1922, he published an original and fundamental work on the specific bacteriology of dental caries. His findings were published in the December issue of the Military Dental Journal titled "The Specific Study of the Bacteriology of Dental Cavities". Rodríguez Vargas also developed the techniques and methods of analysis. On September 28, 1928, Rodriguez Vargas published in the "Journal of the American Medical Association" his findings in the effectiveness of Iodine and other chemical agents as disinfectants of the mucous membranes of the mouth. Since then, other scientists have used the findings of his investigations as the basis in the study of the bacteriology of dental caries. + +Oncology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..09c136088 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Isaac González Martínez (1871–1954) was one of the first urologist in Puerto Rico and pioneer in the fight against cancer in the island. González Martínez conducted many investigations and experiments in parasitology, bilharzia, leprosy and typhoid fever. González Martínez and Bailey K. Ashford formed the first commission in Puerto Rico to study the causes of anemia. In 1914, he was named director of the biological laboratory of the sanitation service of Puerto Rico. In 1935, González Martínez founded The Puerto Rican League against Cancer. He also promoted the construction of Puerto Rico's first hospital specializing in oncology. +Organ transplantation + +Iván González Cancel is a cardiovascular and thoracic surgeon who is credited with the realization of the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. He participated in his first heart transplant at the University of Pittsburgh. González Cancel returned to Puerto Rico in 1993 and was named Director of the Department of Surgery of the Cardiovascular Center of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (Centro Cardiovascular de Puerto Rico y el Caribe). González Cancel implemented a cardiovascular program in the institution and on June 27, 1999, with the help of Hector Banchs Pieretti performed the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. +Diego R. Solís is the founder and director of the "Centro de Cirugias de Higado y Pancreas" (Liver and Pancreas Surgery Center), performed the first simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplant in Puerto Rico. On March 9, 2007, Solís performed, in the "Hospital Auxilio Mutuo" (Mutual Aid Hospital), the first simultaneous pancreas and kidney transplant in Puerto Rico, a procedure that lasted eight hours. Solís, who is also the director of the pancreas transplant program of said institution, has made numerous scientific investigations in the field of hepatobiliar surgery with a special interest in the causes and treatment of advanced tumors of the liver. +Eduardo Santiago Delpín is a surgeon who wrote the first book in Spanish about organ transplants. Santiago Delpin is the founder of the Latin American Transplant Register, The Pan-American Society of Dialysis and Transplants, plus the Latin American and Caribbean Society of Transplants. He is a professor of surgery at the University of Puerto Rico and program director of transplantation of organs of the "Hospital Auxilio Mutuo" (Mutual Aid Hospital). His book, Organ transplantation, the first to be published in Spanish on the topic, won the Prize of Graphic Arts in Mexico and sold out in a year and a half. It covers the history of transplants in different countries, their conditions and their effects religious, ethical, psychological and cultural aspects in addition to considering immunological and clinical procedure. The book now is in its second edition. +Pediatrics + +Antonia Coello Novello is a pediatrician who served as the 14th Surgeon General of the United States from 1990 to 1993. In 1978, Novello joined and received a commission in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) rising all the way up to flag officer/medical director grade. Her first assignment being as a project officer at the National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism and Digestive Diseases of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). She held various positions at NIH, rising to the medical director/flag rank in the PHSCC and to the job of deputy director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) in 1986. She also served as Coordinator for AIDS Research for NICHD from September 1987. In this role, she developed a particular interest in pediatric AIDS. Novello made major contributions to the drafting and enactment of the Organ Transplantation Procurement Act of 1984 while assigned to the United States Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources, working with the staff of committee chairman Orrin Hatch. She was the first woman and the first Hispanic (Puerto Rican) to hold the position of Surgeon General. + +Milagros (Mili) J. Cordero is a licensed, registered occupational therapist with board certification in Pediatrics. She is the founder and President of ITT'S for Children, a professional group that assists and empowers parents to develop a better understanding of the strengths and needs of their children and to enhance their children's development to the full extent of their capability. Cordero is certified in the use of SAMONAS and Tomatis sound therapies. She is a member of the national DIR Institute faculty and serves as vice-chair to Georgia's State Interagency Coordinating Council for the Babies Can't Wait Program, the professional advisory council of the National Cornelia De Lange Association, and the board of the Frazer Center in Atlanta, Georgia. +Public health + +Helen Rodríguez-Trías was a pediatrician and activist. She was the first Latina president of The American Public Health Association, a founding member of the Women's Caucus of the American Public Health Association and the recipient of the Presidential Citizen's Medal. She testified before the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare for passage of federal sterilization guidelines. The guidelines, which she drafted, require a woman's written consent to sterilization, offered in a language they can understand, and set a waiting period between the consent and the sterilization procedure. She is credited with helping to expand the range of public health services for women and children in minority and low-income populations in the United States, Central and South America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. + +Teratology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..91c1a1072 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +José F. Cordero is a pediatrician, epidemiologist, teratologist and Dean of the Graduate School of Public Health at the University of Puerto Rico. Cordero was an Assistant Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service and the Founding Director of the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD) at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1994, Cordero was appointed deputy director of the National Immunization Program, where he made important and long-lasting contributions in many areas of one of the nation's most successful public health programs. In 2001, he was named the first director of the NCBDDD that was created by the Children's Health Act of 2000. In a few years, NCBDDD became a leading international institution devoted to research and prevention of birth defects and developmental disabilities and health promotion of people of ages living with disabilities. Cordero, whose work has been published in many national and international journals, has promoted the eradication of rubella (German measles), a major cause of birth defects that can be prevented through vaccination. He has also promoted research to determine the causes of birth defects and developmental disabilities, and has promoted efforts to prevent serious birth defects (such as use of folic acid to prevent spina bifida). He is a strong supporter of programs that promote wellness of persons with disabilities. In 2017, Cordero was awarded the Sedgwick Memorial Medal from the American Public Health Association. + +== Microbiology == + +Monserrate Román is a scientist in NASA who helped NASA build part of the International Space Station. She is the Chief Microbiologist for the Environmental Control and Life Support System project who determines how microbes will behave under different situations and in different locations, such as the nooks and crannies of the Space Station. Roman was a member of the team that built the International Space Station. The Station was designed with materials that are microbe-resistant. Temperature and humidity are controlled to discourage microbe growth. Roman must study an international, multicultural group of the microbes, since crewmembers, visitors, experiments and hardware hail from 15 Station partner countries and comes with his or her own unique set of microbes. + +== Mycology == +Carlos E. Chardón (1897–1965) a.k.a. the "Father of Mycology in Puerto Rico" Chardón is the first Puerto Rican mycologist. In 1922, he discovered the aphid "Aphis maidis", the vector of the mosaic of sugar cane. He was also the first Puerto Rican to hold the position of Chancellor of the University of Puerto Rico. Chardón was involved in the organization of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration (PRRA) and initiated a project known as the Plan Chardón, which involved a plan for the development of Agriculture Technicians. + +== Nanotechnology == + +Yajaira Sierra Sastre was chosen to take part in a new NASA project, called "HI-SEAS", an acronym for "Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation", that will help to determine why astronauts do not eat enough, having noted that they get bored with spaceship food and end up with problems like weight loss and lethargy that put their health at risk. She lived for four months (March 2013 – August 2013) isolated in a planetary module, which simulated what life will be like for astronauts at a future base on Mars at a base, in Hawaii. According to Sierra Sastre part of the food study will include an attempt to control the exposure to fresh air, evaluate how their senses of smell and taste change over time in isolation, and find out what role food plays in the crew's spirits and state of mind. Sierra Sastre is an aspiring astronaut. + +== Physics == +Mayda Velasco is a professor of physics at Northwestern University. Her research is centered in particle physics. She plays a leadership role in the CMS experiment at the CERN LHC. She is currently the director of the Colegio de Física Fundamental e Interdiciplinaria de las Américas (COFI) located in San Juan, Puerto Rico. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..670d4e713 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Psychology == +Carlos Albizu Miranda (1920–1984) was one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States and the first Hispanic educator to have a North American University renamed in his honor. Albizu Miranda, cousin of the Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos, was born in Ponce. In 1953, he earned his doctorate degree (PhD) in Clinical Psychology from Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, becoming one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States. He was concerned that the universities in Puerto Rico did not offer graduate programs in psychology and that the few students who pursued a career as psychologist had to study outside of Puerto Rico, where they were trained with models and techniques that were not always sensitive to the needs and sociocultural characteristics of Hispanic clients. In 1966, he established in San Juan, Puerto Rico, the first independent professional school of psychology in North America, initially known as the "Instituto Psicológico de Puerto Rico" (Puerto Rican Institute of Psychology), which is modeled after the institutes of psychology in Europe where the practice and internship are done at the same time. The American Psychological Foundation Awards for 1980 presented Albizu Miranda with the "Award for the Development of Psychology Education in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean". On January 1, 2000, the Board of Trustees of the Caribbean Center for Advanced Studies, which includes the Miami Institute of Psychology, renamed the two-campus institution "Carlos Albizu University". +Joseph O. Prewitt Díaz a humanitarian psychologist developed the psychosocial support program within the American Red Cross, used in Central and South America as well as the 2001 Gujarat earthquake and the South Asia tsunami response and reconstruction, considered the leader of the second generation of humanitarian psychology, who systematized the staff development process of psychosocial responders for Central and South America as well as South Asian countries. A native of Cayey, Puerto Rico he was the recipient of the 2008 APA International Humanitarian Award. as well as the Kellogg Foundation National Fellowship in 1983–1985, and the participated in the 1986 Woodrow Wilson Hispanic Leadership Fellows Program at Princeton University. + +== Physiology == +María Cordero Hardy, born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, is a physiologist. Physiology is the study of life, specifically, how cells, tissues, and organisms function. She is a scientist who did her research on vitamin E. Her work helped other scientists understand about how vitamin E works in the human body. She is now a professor at Louisiana State University and teaches students how to be medical technologists. A medical technologist is a person who studies your blood and other body fluids in the human body. + +== Rocket scientist == + +Lissette Martinez is an electrical engineer and rocket scientist. Martinez is the lead electrical engineer for the Space Experiment Module program at the Wallops Flight Facility, located in Virginia, which is part of NASA's Goddard Flight Facility. She is responsible for providing electrical engineering support to Code 870 Space Experiment Module (SEM) program. She also is responsible for the testing of ground and flight hardware. Martinez works with students around the world, helping them with science experiments that will actually ride along on Space Shuttle missions and blast into space. Martinez was a member of the team that launched a rocket from White Sands, New Mexico in 1999 to gather information on the Hale–Bopp Comet. She was featured in the November 2002 issue of Latina magazine. + +== Space exploration == + +Joseph M. Acaba is a teacher, hydrogeologist, and the first Puerto Rican NASA astronaut. In May 2004 he became the first person of Puerto Rican heritage to be named as a NASA astronaut candidate when he was selected as a member of NASA Astronaut Training Group 19. He completed his training on February 10, 2006, and is currently assigned to STS-119, which launched on March 15, 2009, to deliver the final set of solar arrays to the International Space Station. Acaba carried a Puerto Rican Flag aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery during his flight. + +== Space physics == +Ramón E. López is a space physicist and author, played an instrumental role in the implementation of a hands-on science program in elementary and middle grades Montgomery County Public Schools (MCPS) in Maryland. Lopez, who leads a research group that is working in both space physics and science education, is the co-author of a book on space weather entitled Storms from the Sun, which discusses the magnetic properties of the sun and solar wind and how these effect the magnetosphere of earth. Lopez is the 2002 recipient of the Nicholson Medal for Human Outreach, which recognizes the humanitarian aspect of physics and physicists. + +== Zoology == +Juan A. Rivero was a scientist and zoologist who discovered over a hundred animal species and founded the Dr. Juan A. Rivero Zoo at the University of Puerto Rico's Mayagüez Campus. Rivero served as an assistant plant physiologist, instructor, assistant professor and associate professor before becoming a full professor of biology at UPR-Mayagüez in 1958. After founding the institution's zoo in 1954, he served as its first director, as well as founder and director of the UPR's Institute of Marine Biology. From 1959 to 1960 he served as director of the biology department and from 1962 to 1966, as dean of arts and sciences, oversaw the work of over 200 faculty members and a two million-dollar annual budget. Between 1966 and 1968, he served as a research associate at Harvard University and visiting scientist at the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Investigation. Rivero discovered over a hundred animal species, particularly amphibians and reptiles, many of which were named in his honor, and has written over 200 papers and articles and numerous books. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ab349913 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Inventors == +Puerto Rican inventors earned an average of sixteen patents per year in the late 1970s, twenty patents per year in the 1980s, and twenty-seven patents per year in the 199s. The total number of patents issued by the U.S. Patent Office has seen similar increases. + +=== Aerospace === +Olga D. González-Sanabria contributed to the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system; Mercedes Reaves contributed to the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail; Pedro Rodriguez invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis; Felix Soto Toro developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system) and Juan R. Cruz contributed in the development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. + +=== Art === +Ileana Sánchez invented a book for the blind that brings together art and braille. Ms. Sanchez used a new technique called TechnoPrint and TechnoBraille. Rather than punch through heavy paper to create the raised dots of the Braille alphabet for the blind, these techniques apply an epoxy to the page to create not only raised dots, but raised images with texture. The epoxy melds with the page, becoming part of it, so that one cannot scrape it off with a fingernail. The images are raised so that a blind person can feel the artwork and in color, not just to attract the sighted family who will read the book with blind siblings or children, but also for the blind themselves. The book Art & the Alphabet, A Tactile Experience is co-written with Rebecca McGinnis of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Met has already incorporated the book into their Access program. + +=== Engineering === +William G. Pagán is an IBM-recognized Master Inventor, a member of the North Carolina State University Computer Science Alumni Hall of Fame, and award-winning Patent Attorney. He received a BS in Computer Science from Pace University, a Masters in Computer Science from North Carolina State University, and graduated Summa Cum Laude with his Juris Doctor from North Carolina Central University School of Law as their evening class valedictorian. As of January 1, 2019, he has been awarded over 85 U.S. patents, and is an inventor on over 130 U.S. patent applications. His patent portfolio generally covers a wide range of software methodologies for improving computer systems management, application usability, and data resiliency, among other things. He was born in New York City, New York, and worked at IBM's Research Triangle Park campus in North Carolina for nearly fifteen years. In 2010, he was declared Inventor of the Year of IBM's RTP site, beating out approximately 14,000 other IBM employees. In 2007 he was awarded a Luminary Award by HENAAC (now Great Minds in STEM) for excellence in engineering, and a Star Award by the DMTF for leadership in their industry standards working groups. In 2010, IBM recognized him with an Outstanding Technical Achievement Award for his work related to integrating the hardware-firmware-software stack of their line of Thurley-chipset servers. He is a life member of both the Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers and the North Carolina Society of Hispanic Professionals. +Asdrubal García Ortíz was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He received a BS degree in electrical engineering (magna cum laude) from the University of Puerto Rico – Mayagüez, and an MS degree in systems science and mathematics from the McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis. He began his engineering career as a technology engineer for McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co., and is now an engineering staff scientist for DRS – Support Systems Inc. He has been awarded 16 U.S. Patents, is the author of 36 technical publications, and editor of 2 special issues of the international journal Mathematical and Computer Modelling, both on intelligent transportation systems. Together with fellow inventors Sunggyu Lee and John R. Wootton, Garcia Ortiz was granted various patents. A sample of these patents includes: US Patent No 6,177,885, "System and method for detecting traffic anomalies", US Patent No 7,186,345, "Systems for water purification through supercritical oxidation", and US Patent No 7,688,605, "Systems and methods for reducing the magnitude of harmonics produced by a power inverter". His areas of specialty are systems engineering, control systems, embedded systems and electronics. He is a registered Professional Engineer, a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and a member of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE). + +Ricardo J. Rodriguez Moreno is a Raytheon and Great Minds in STEM recognized inventor, R6S Certified Expert, and Engineering Fellow. He received a BS and MS in Computer Engineering from University of Puerto Rico, and a Ph.D. with a Cybersecurity specialization from Nova Southeastern University College of Engineering and Computing. As of August 2016, he has been awarded 6 U.S. patents. He also holds a number of national and international patent pending inventions. He is also a frequent presenter and mentor to colleagues as well as college students, in particular in his alma mater "El Colegio" where he is cofounder and industry chair on the annual Engineering Community Summit (ECoS). He was born in San Juan Puerto Rico, raised in Carolina, and currently lives in Massachusetts, USA. Ricky Rodriguez joined Raytheon in 2001 after a short stint with Accenture. In 2010, Ricardo was awarded the Great Minds in STEM Information Technology Distinction Award for his contributions to the state of the art in Cybersecurity. Additional awards include Raytheon Authors and Inventors, Excellence in Technology, and two Science and Technology Achievement Recognition (STAR) awards, among others. + +=== Electronics === +Hydroelectric Wave-Energy Conversion System \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7751b8f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jorge Negrón Crespo of San Juan, Puerto Rico, has invented a hydroelectric wave-energy conversion system. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A method and system to capture kinetic energy of the sea waves and convert it to electrical power is presented. The hydrodynamic power of the waves is converted to mechanical power after impacting and moving a special panel. The mechanical power is converted into a controlled-cycle hydraulic power to activate a hydraulic motor, which in turn activates an electrical generator." +Semiconductors + +David O. Ramos of Isabela, and Martin Bresciani of Guaynabo, developed a semiconductor substrate that includes electronic circuitry and has a machined feature formed therein. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A semiconductor substrate is formed by a process which includes providing the semiconductor substrate having the electronic circuitry formed therein, and performing a machining process on the substrate to form the machined feature therein." + +=== Medical technology === + +Jorge N. Amely Vélez (born 1955) – a native of San German, is an inventor who holds various patents in the field of medical technology. In 1989, Amely Vélez earned his master's degree in electrical engineering from California State University at Northridge. Among Amely Vélez's inventions are two that involve the methods and apparatuses for timing events within an implantable medical device capable of performing many concurrent processes. He authored a method to help prevent defibrillator output stage short circuit failures in implantable devices. Amely Vélez invented methods for a microprocessor based implantable device to have a configurable memory to assist in software development and patching "Read Only Memory" (ROM) based systems. He coauthored inventions in the field of rechargeable lithium silver vanadium oxide batteries for implantable devices and holds a patent for intracardiac lead impedance measurements using a painless waveform. It is a leakage detection system that includes a switch. He also holds another patent for an implantable defibrillator with sensing and pacing auto-capture capabilities. Amely Vélez has other patents pending. He is the coauthor of a patent, which is pending, for radio frequency antennas in implantable devices. The other two patents that are pending cover work related to magnetic and electric noise shielding in medical devices. +José Leandro Montalvo Guenard (born 1885) – a native of Mayagüez. In 1939, Montalvo Guenard invented an instrument that allowed eye surgeons to securely hold and readily manipulate the eye lens in operations of cataracts. He was issued US Patent 2,224,575. + +=== Musical instruments === +The cuatro is the national instrument of Puerto Rico. It belongs to the lute family of string instruments. Very little is known about the exact origin of the Cuatro. + +William Richard Cumpiano is a works on the making of stringed musical instruments who also writes and teaches the art of luthiery. He has built numerous cuatros for musicians in the United States and also has crafted cuatro variants of his own design: he developed a "seis", or six-course (12-string) cuatro that can be tuned in the same string intervals as a guitar. He also developed the "thinline" cuatro with a body depth of only two inches instead of the traditional three. + +=== Plastics === +Three Puerto Rican inventors, Guanglou Cheng and Carlos A. Ramirez, both of Mayagüez and Maria Aponte of Añasco, Puerto Rico, developed biodegradable polymers. A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. Well-known examples of polymers include plastics, DNA and proteins. According to the abstract released by the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "Degradable polymides are prepared in high yield by polymerizing a monomer containing at least two anhydride groups, and a monomer containing at least two primary amine groups and at least one acidic group, in bulk or in a solvent. The polymides are very strong in terms of their mechanical properties, yet degradable under standard physiological conditions." The inventors were issued U.S. Patent No. 7,427,654. + +=== Public health === +Ceramic Water Filter + +Ronald "Ron" Rivera (1948–2008) invented an inexpensive ceramic water filter used to treat gray water in impoverished communities. He established community-based factories to produce the filters around the world. The filter has been cited by the United Nations' Appropriate Technology Handbook, and tens of thousands of filters have been distributed worldwide by organizations such as International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Doctors Without Borders, UNICEF, Plan International, Project Concern International, Oxfam and USAID. +Floating Strainer + +Angel Torres-Collazo of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, developed a big water floating strainer that is constructed with a rectangular frame. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A cylindrical drum is attached to each corner of the rectangular frame. Below the rectangular frame, a box-strainer is fixed. The distance between the box-strainer and the rectangular frame is adjustable so that the level at which water is drawn can be raised or lowered." + +=== Soft drinks === + +Ángel Rivero Méndez (1856–1930) was a soldier, writer, journalist and a businessman who is credited with inventing the "Kola Champagne" a soft drink. After Rivero retired from the military, he founded the "Fabrica Polo Norte" (North Pole Factory) a soft drink company. Rivero is credited with the invention and elaboration of the "Kola Champagne" soda. Kola Champagne became, and still is, a very popular drink in Puerto Rico. It is also elaborated and sold in other countries, such as the United States, Colombia, Jamaica and Mexico. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Ciencia Puerto Rico.: A website dedicated to the global Puerto Rican scientific community. Contains profiles of thousands of living Puerto Rican scientists. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4dad0b5d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "List of Romanian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:05.206884+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Romanian Inventions and Discoveries of Romanian people or inventors/discoverers of Romanian heritage in alphabetical order. + +== A == +Ion I. Agârbiceanu: designer of the first gas laser in Romania. +Andrei Alexandrescu: pioneering work on policy-based design implemented via template metaprogramming; co-inventor of D programming language. +Ana Aslan: inventor of Gerovital, an anti-aging product widely used by famous personalities, such as Charles de Gaulle, John F. Kennedy, Indira Gandhi, Charlie Chaplin and Salvador Dalí. +Gheorghe Atanasiu: inventor of infrared monochromator and creator of the method of optical determination of heat of dissociation. +Ion Atanasiu: known as the originator of cerimetry, an analytical method based on cerium (IV) as titration reagent. + +== B == + +Aurel Babeș: discovered the vaginal smear as screening test for cervical cancer. +Victor Babeș: he discovered a parasitic sporozoan of the ticks, named Babesia (of the genus Babesiidae), and which causes a rare and severe disease called babesiosis; he also discovered cellular inclusions in rabies-infected nerve cells. +Emanoil Bacaloglu: he is known for the "Bacaloglu pseudosphere". This is a surface of revolution for which the "Bacaloglu curvature" is constant. +Radu Bălescu: he worked on the statistical physics of charged particles (Bălescu-Lenard collision operator). +Alexandra Bellow: made substantial contributions to the fields of ergodic theory, probability and analysis. +George de Bothezat: inventor of the quadrotor helicopter (The Flying Octopus). He is considered one of the founders of aircraft flight dynamics. +Ștefan Burileanu: inventor of the Burileanu antiaircraft cannon. + +== C == + +Ion Cantacuzino: his discoveries were relevant in the treatment of cholera, epidemic typhus, tuberculosis, and scarlet fever. +Elie Carafoli: a pioneering contributor to the field of aerodynamics. +Alexandru Ciurcu: invented alongside Just Buisson the reaction engine. +Henri Coandă: aircraft designer, discovered the Coandă effect of fluidics. +George Constantinescu: founded the Theory of Sonics, based on which he developed a number of applications including a synchronization gear. He is also known as the inventor of a mechanical torque converter, he applied to an experimental automobile as automatic transmission. +Justin Capră: engineer and inventor; machines on which he worked included a jetpack, 72 fuel-efficient cars, 15 unconventional engines and seven aircraft, among others. + +== D == +Carol Davila: invented the Davila tincture used for the treatment of cholera, an opioid-based oral solution in use for symptomatic management of diarrhea. +Anastase Dragomir: he invented the parachuted cell, a dischargeable chair from an aircraft or other vehicle, designed for emergency escapes, an early version of the modern ejection seat. + +== E == +Lazăr Edeleanu: he was the first chemist to synthesize amphetamine. + +== F == +Alexandru Froda: discovered Froda's theorem. + +== G == +Mihai Gavrilă: theoretical quantum physicist, discoverer of atomic dichotomy in ultra-intense, high frequency laser fields. +Tudor Ganea: discovered the Eilenberg−Ganea conjecture. +Billy Gladstone: among his inventions is the "Ludwig Gladstone Cymbal”, a rare jazz instrument. +Rodrig Goliescu: he built the avioplan, the first fixed-wing aircraft with a tubular fuselage and the "Aviocoleopter", the first vertical take-off and landing aircraft. +Corneliu E. Giurgea: coined the term nootropics, after discovering Piracetam and describing it as such. + +== H == + +Spiru Haret: he made a fundamental contribution to the n-body problem in celestial mechanics by proving that using a third degree approximation for the disturbing forces implies instability of the major axes of the orbits, and by introducing the concept of secular perturbations in relation to this. +Horia Hulubei: he is the first physicist to obtain X-ray spectra in gases. He has important contributions in neutron physics and in the study of nuclear reactions. + +== I == +Theodor V. Ionescu: the inventor of a multiple-cavity magnetron in 1935, a hydrogen maser in 1947, 3D imaging for cinema/television in 1924 and hot deuterium plasma studies for controlled nuclear fusion in 1969, member of the Romanian Academy since 1955. + +== L == +Traian Lalescu: discovered the Lalescu sequence. +Constantin Levaditi: alongside Karl Landsteiner, he discovered in 1909 the presence of the polio virus in tissues other than nervous. + +== M == +Preda Mihăilescu: known for his proof of Catalan's conjecture. +Meinhard E. Mayer: an early contributor to the theory of vector-bosons (W and Z bosons) and electro-weak unification, which later became the Standard Model, and an early advocate of the use of fiber bundles in gauge theory. +Mina Minovici: famous for his extensive research regarding cadaverous alkaloids, putrefaction, simulated mind diseases, and criminal anthropology. +Grigore Moisil: discovered Łukasiewicz-Moisil algebras, and he was elected a Member of the Romanian Academy +Florentina I. Mosora: Romanian biophysicist who worked at first in the "Carol Davila" School of Medicine of the University of Bucharest, and subsequently in Belgium at the University of Liege; specialized in Nuclear Medicine, she applied nuclear medicine techniques and invented new methodology for the clinical investigation of type 2 diabetes. + +== N == + +Mihai Nadin: he founded the world's first program in Computational Design. +Costin D. Nenițescu: he found new methods for the synthesis of pirilium salts, of carbenes, tryptamine, serotonin, two new syntheses for the indole nucleus, and a new method of polymerisation of ethylene. + +== O == + +Hermann Oberth: along with the Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and the American Robert Goddard, one of the founding fathers of rocketry and astronautics. +Ștefan Odobleja: had supposedly established many of the major themes of cybernetics regarding cybernetics and systems thinking ten years before the work of Norbert Wiener was published in 1948. + +== P == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e502a57b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "List of Romanian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:05.206884+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +George Emil Palade: discoverer of the ribosomes. +Nicolae Paulescu: physiologist, research on endocrine pancreas secretion. +Gheorghe Paun: prominent for work on membrane computing and the P system. +Eugen Pavel: inventor of the Hyper CD-ROM, a 3D optical data storage medium with a claimed initial capacity of 10 TB and with a theoretical capacity of 1 PB on a single disc. +Aurel Perșu: built the first car to have wheels inside its aerodynamic line. +Ion N. Petrovici: he described the Alternating Asphygmo-Pyramidal Syndrome in occlusions of the carotid arteries. +Petrache Poenaru: invented the world's first fountain pen. +Ioan Pușcaș: professor proposed the use of carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitor acetazolamide to heal peptic ulcers. In 1972 patented the first 100% efficient drug against gastroduodenal ulcer Ulcosilvanil. +Dimitrie Pompeiu: His contributions were mainly in the field of mathematical analysis, complex functions theory, and rational mechanics. In an article published in 1929, he posed a challenging conjecture in integral geometry, now widely known as the Pompeiu problem. +Nicolae Popescu: known for his contributions to Algebra and the theory of abelian categories with applications to rings and modules. +Vasile M. Popov: He is well known for having developed a method to analyze stability of nonlinear dynamical systems, now known as Popov criterion. +Alexandru Proca: He formulated the first mesonic theory of nuclear forces, including the equations for the mesonic vector field that carry his name (Proca's equations), elected post-mortem as a Member of the Romanian Academy. +Ștefan Procopiu: He established the magnetic moment and determined the physical constant of magnetic moment, named magneton. The magneton is now known as the Bohr-Procopiu magneton. + +== R == + +Emil Racoviță: the founder of biospeleology. +Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen: introduced into economics, inter alia, the concept of entropy from thermodynamics. + +== S == + +Anghel Saligny: built the first silos in the world made of reinforced concrete. +Isaac Jacob Schoenberg: known for his discovery of splines. +Robert Steinberg: invented the Steinberg representation, the Steinberg group in algebraic K-theory, and the Steinberg groups in Lie theory that yield finite simple groups over finite fields. +Gabriel Sudan: known for the Sudan function, an important example in the theory of computation, similar to the Ackermann function. + +== T == +Ion Tănăsescu: he discovered the Lehmstedt-Tanasescu reaction, which was improved by Karl Lehmstedt. +Victor Toma: Romanian inventor of the first Romanian computer-CIFA-1, built with his team in 1955. +Nicolae Teclu: invented the Teclu burner. +Șerban Țițeica: founder of Romanian school of theoretical physics, with major contributions in thermodynamics, statistical physics, quantum mechanics and atomic physics. + +== V == + +Nicolae Vasilescu-Karpen: inventor of the Karpen Pile. +Aurel Vlaicu: built the first arrow-shaped airplane. +Valeria Văcărescu : mechanical engineer. +Gheorghe Vrânceanu: discovered the notion of non-holonomic spaces. +Traian Vuia: built the first fixed wing aircraft that could take off by its own power, in which he made a powered hop. + +== W == +William F. Friedman: a cryptographer that invented the Index of Coincidence method (it broke Japan's PURPLE cipher for US forces). + +== See also == +Science and technology in Romania + +== External links == +Inventatori români (in Romanian) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e08be6be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "List of Russian inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:06.604047+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of inventors from the Russian Federation, Soviet Union, Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and Grand Duchy of Moscow, including both ethnic Russians and people of other ethnicities. +This list also includes those who were born in Russia or its predecessor states but later emigrated, and those who were born elsewhere but immigrated to the country or worked there for a considerable time, (producing inventions on Russian soil). +For Russian inventions in chronological order, see the Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records. + + +== Alphabetical list == + + +=== A === + + +=== B === + + +=== C === + + +=== D === + + +=== E === + + +=== F === + + +=== G === + + +=== H === + + +=== I === + + +=== J === + + +=== K === + + +=== L === + + +=== M === + + +=== N === + + +=== O === + + +=== P === + + +=== R === + + +=== S === + + +=== T === + + +=== U === + + +=== V === + + +=== W === + + +=== Y === + + +=== Z === + + +== See also == +List of Russian scientists +Russian culture +Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..50be486f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,200 @@ +--- +title: "List of Serbian inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:07.830912+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a List of Serbian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas. The list comprises people from Serbia and ethnic Serb people. + + +== Science, Mathematics and Technology == +Voja Antonić: + +Galaksija home computer (1983). +Mihajlo Pupin: + +Loading coil +Mihajlo Pupin Institute: + +HRS-100 +CER Computers +ATLAS-TIM AT 32 +Nikola Tesla: + +Induction motor +Radio-controlled model +Wireless power transfer +Plasma globe +Capacitor discharge ignition +Magnifying transmitter +Teleforce +Telegeodynamics +Teleoperation +Tesla coil +Tesla turbine +Tesla's oscillator +Tesla valve +Wardenclyffe tower +World Wireless System +Violet ray +Vacuum variable capacitor +Pioneer in alternating current research +Slobodan Ćuk: + +Ćuk converter +Iván Gutman: + +Graph energy +Matching polynomial +Jovan Karamata: + +Karamata's inequality +Slowly varying function +Improved the Hardy–Littlewood tauberian theorem +Đuro Kurepa: + +Kurepa tree +Bogdan Maglich: + +Migma +Milutin Milanković: + +Milankovitch cycles +Revised Julian calendar (second most accurate calendar ever written) +Calculated temperatures of the upper layers of the earths atmosphere as well as temperature conditions of planets on the inner solar system as well as depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. +Tihomir Novakov: + +Father of black carbon +Aethalometer +Vlatko Vedral: + +Quantum discord +Vladimir Vukićević: + +webGL +APNG +Jovan Cvijić: + +Study of Karst +Father of karst geomorphology +Petar Gburčik: + +Author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction +Serbo-7 + +Apollo (spacecraft); A team of 7 Serb engineers and scientists (known as Serbo-7) largely contributed to the Apollo project. +Roger Joseph Boscovich + +Absence of atmosphere on the moon +Least absolute deviations +Valtazar Bogišić + +Pioneer in the sociology of law and sociological jurisprudence. +Ivan Đaja + +Pioneering work in hypothermia. +Mihajlo D. Mesarovic + +Pioneering work in the field of systems theory. +Dobrivoje Božić + +Inventor and constructor of the first railway air brake. +Lazar the Serb + +Invented and built the first known mechanical public clock in Russia in 1404. +Slobodan Đokić + +Co-creator of Azithromycin. +Pavle Savić: + +Research on interactions of neutrons in chemical physics of heavy elements. which turned out to be an important step in the discovery of nuclear fission. +Ognjeslav Kostović Stepanović + +Early plastics. + + +== Mechanics == +Miomir Vukobratović: + +Powered exoskeleton +Humanoid robot "The beginning of the development of humanoid robotics coincided with the beginning of the development of the world's first active exoskeletons at the Mihailo Pupin Institute in 1969, under the guidance of Prof. Vukobratović. Legged locomotion systems were developed first. Also, the first theory of these systems was developed in the same institute, in the frame of active exoskeletons. Hence, it can be said that active exoskeletons were the predecessors of the modern high-performance humanoid robots. The present-day active exoskeletons are developed as the systems for enhancing capabilities of the natural human skeletal system. The most successful version of an active exoskeleton for rehabilitation of paraplegics and similar disabled persons, pneumatically powered and electronically programmed was realized and tested at Belgrade Orthopedic Clinic in 1972." +Robot locomotion +Zero moment point "The zero moment point is a very important concept in the motion planning for biped robots. Since they have only two points of contact with the floor and they are supposed to walk, "run" or "jump" (in the motion context), their motion has to be planned concerning the dynamical stability of their whole body. This is not an easy task, especially because the upper body of the robot (torso) has larger mass and inertia than the legs which are supposed to support and move the robot. This can be compared to the problem of balancing an inverted pendulum." +Rajko Tomović: + +Prostethic five-fingered hand + + +== Medicine and Pharmacology == +Miodrag Radulovacki: + +Pioneering pharmacological studies for the treatment of sleep apnea. +Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic + +Pioneering research in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. + + +== Linguistics == +Vuk Karadžić: + +Serbian Cyrillic alphabet + + +== Culture, Arts & Architecture == +First Serbian uprising: + +Balkan brass +A distinctive style of music originating in the Balkan region as a fusion between military music and folk music. In recent years, it has become popular in a techno-synth fusion throughout Europe, and in pop music in the Anglo sphere and throughout the world. American bands such as Fifth Harmony and Gogol Bordello have brought the style to a new audience. +Ljubomir Micić: + +Zenitism +Đurađ Branković: + +Serbian epic poetry +Nemanjić dynasty: + +Raška architectural school +Serbo-Byzantine architecture +Lazar Hrebeljanović: + +Morava architectural school + +Miscellaneous: + +Serbo-Byzantine Revival architecture +Kolo, a dance + + +== Fashion == +Nikola Bizumić: + +Hair clipper +Buzz cut + "Manual hair clippers were invented by the Serbian inventor named Nikola Bizumić. Before the advent of the electrically powered Clippers, these clippers were widely used by barbers to chop hair close and fast. The clipper accumulates hair in locks to rapidly depilate your head. This type of haircut is normal in the military in addition to among boys in schools where strict grooming conventions will be in effect." + + +== Military == +Miodrag Tomić: + +Dogfight +Fighter aircraft +The first aerial dogfight occurred during the Battle of Cer (15–24 August 1914), when Serbian aviator Miodrag Tomić encountered an Austro-Hungarian plane while performing a reconnaissance mission over Austro-Hungarian positions. The Austro-Hungarian pilot initially waved, and Tomić reciprocated. The Austro-Hungarian pilot then fired at Tomić with his revolver. Tomić produced a pistol of his own and fired back. Tomić managed to escape, and within several weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian planes were fitted with machine-guns. + + +== See also == +List of Serbian inventions and discoveries + + +== References == + + +== Sources == + + +== External links == +"7 Serbian Inventors of the 21st Century". Serbia.com. +"Serbian Great Minds". Serbia.com. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ee89ccbb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "List of Spanish inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:09.131879+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of inventors and discoverers who are of Spanish origin or otherwise reside in continental Spain or one of the country's oversees territories. + +== A == +José de Acosta (1540–1600), one of the first naturalists and anthropologists of the Americas. +Andrés Alcázar (1490-1585), neurosurgeon and anatomist, designed new tools for surgical treatments. +José María Algué (1856–1930), meteorologist, inventor of the barocyclometer, the nephoscope, and the microseismograph. +José Antonio de Artigas Sanz (1887–1977), created luminescence with noble gases. +Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1553–1613), registered a design for a steam-powered water pump for use in mines. +José Luis Ayuso Fernández (1897-1992), inventor, engineer, mechanic, electrician and cinematographic projectionist. He was a pioneer in sound film industry, inventing one of the first systems to synchronize sound and video in films. + +== B == +Ignacio Barraquer (1884–1965), leading ophthalmologist, pioneer of cataract surgery. +José Ignacio Barraquer (1916–1998), leading ophthalmologist, father of modern refractive surgery, he invented the microkeratome and the cryolathe, developed the surgical procedures of keratomileusis and keratophakia. +Juan Pablo de Bonet (1573-1633), pioneer of education for the deaf, he published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ("Summary of the letters and the art of teaching speech to the mute") in 1620 in Madrid, the first modern treatise of sign language phonetics, setting out a method of oral education for deaf people and the first recognizable sign language alphabet. + +== C == + +Ángel Cabrera (1879–1960), naturalist, investigated the South-American fauna. +Nicolás Cabrera (1913–1989), physicist, did important work on the theories of crystal growth and the oxidisation of metals. +Celedonio Calatayud (1880-1931) pioneered the use of radiology and electrology in Europe for both diagnostics and therapeutical purposes, introducing radiotherapy in Spain in 1906. +Manuel Cardona Castro (1934-2014), physicist, researched superconductivity and the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with a semiconductor material. +Julio Cervera Baviera (1854-1927), engineer, pioneer in the development of radio, educator, explorer, and military man. He established the second and third regular radiotelegraph service in the history of the world in 1901 and 1902 by maintaining regular transmissions between Tarifa and Ceuta for three consecutive months, and between Javea and Ibiza. Some consider him the actual inventor of the radio. +Juan de la Cierva (1895–1936), aeronautical engineer, pioneer of rotary flight, inventor of the autogyro. +Juan de la Cierva y Hoces (1929-2020) Inventor of the optical stabilizer and a founder of the company Dynalens. +Juan Ignacio Cirac Sasturain (born 1965), one of the pioneers of the field of quantum computing and quantum information theory. +Josep Comas i Solà (1868–1937), astronomer, discovered the periodic comet 32P/Comas Solá and 11 asteroids, and in 1907 observed limb darkening of Saturn's moon Titan (the first evidence that the body had an atmosphere). +Avelino Corma Canós (born 1951), chemist, distinguished for his world-leading work on heterogeneous catalysis, developed catalysts that are being used commercially in several industrial processes. + +== D == +Francisco Díaz de Alcalá (1527-1590), urologist and doctor, wrote the first treatises on diseases of the bladder, kidneys, and urethra; he is generally regarded as the founder of modern urology. + +== E == +Fausto de Elhúyar (1755–1833), chemist, joint discoverer of tungsten with his brother Juan José de Elhúyar in 1783. + +== F == +Carlos Fernández Casado (1905–1988), civil engineer, designer and builder of bridges and viaducts. +Jaime Ferrán (1852–1929), doctor and researcher, creator of several vaccines against diseases including cholera and tuberculosis. + +== G == +Blasco de Garay, introduced the paddlewheel as a substitute for oars +Manuel García (1805-1906) singer, music educator, and vocal pedagogue, inventor of the first laryngoscope. +Antoni de Gimbernat, (1734–1816), surgeon and anatomist, described in detail the anatomy of the inguinal and femoral regions of the human body and laid the groundwork for modern techniques of inguinal hernia repair. The lacunar ligament is named after him. +Alejandro Goicoechea Omar (1895-1984), engineer, worked for and co-founded Talgo company, where he developed the Talgo trains famous design. +Fernando Gallego Herrera, (1901-1973), civil engineer and aviator, noted for improved bridge design, an improved method for undersea tunnel construction, plans for the use of compressed air for vertical take off of aircraft in the 1930s, and the modernization of the Panama Canal. + +== H == +Francisco Hernández (1514–1587), botanist, carried out important research about the Mexican flora. +Juan de Herrera (1530-1597), architect, mathematician and geometer, designed the construction plans of El Escorial and the Cathedral of Valladolid among others and created a compass to measure length and width and a machine to cut iron. +Bartolomé Hidalgo Agüero (1530-1597), doctor, developed, described and evaluated a revolutionary healing method for stab wounds +Juan Huarte de San Juan (1529–1588), physician and psychologist, his Examen de ingenios para las ciencias was the first attempt to show the connexion between psychology and physiology. +Hassan Raza, Computer Scientist. + +== H == +Carlos Jiménez Díaz (1898–1967), doctor and researcher, leading figure in pathology. + +== L == +Rodrigo López de Segura (1540-1580), humanist and chess player, wrote one of the first definitive books about modern chess in Europe: Libro de la invencion liberal y arte del juego del axedrez. +Emilio Herrera Linares (1879-1967), military engineer and physicist, designed a pressurized space suit for stratospheric flights (escafandra estratonáutica), precedent of the modern space suits. +José Luis López Gómez (1941-) is an engineer and inventor, with several patents relating to high speed trains. + +== M == +Gregorio Marañón (1887–1960), doctor and researcher, leading figure in endocrinology. +Narcís Monturiol (1818–1885), physicist and inventor, pioneer of underwater navigation and the first successful machine powered submarine. +José Celestino Bruno Mutis (1732–1808), botanist, doctor, philosopher and mathematician, carried out relevant research about the American flora, founded one of the first astronomic observatories in America (1762). +Aureliano Maestre de San Juan (1828-1890), scientist, histologist, physician and anatomist credited as being one of the first scientists to recognize the disorder known as Kallmann syndrome. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7484b316 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "List of Spanish inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:09.131879+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== O == +Severo Ochoa (1905–1993), doctor and biochemist, achieved the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), Nobel prize Laureate (1959). +Federico Olóriz Aguilera, (1855-1912), doctor, created the primary fingerprint classification system used in Portugal and Spain prior to the use of computer filing systems. +Mateu Orfila (1787–1853), doctor and chemist, father of modern toxicology, leading figure in forensic toxicology. +Joan Oró (1923–2004), biochemist, carried out important research about the origin of life, he worked with NASA on the Viking missions. + +== P == + +Julio Palacios Martínez (1891–1970), physicist and mathematician. +Isaac Peral (1851–1895), engineer and sailor, designer of the first fully operative military submarine, with electric propulsion making full propulsion feasible. +Juan Tomás Porcell (1528-1580), doctor and anatomist, carried decisive research on the Black Death and wrote influential treaties of epidemiology. + +== R == +Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), father of Neuroscience, Nobel prize Laureate (1906). +Julio Rey Pastor (1888–1962), mathematician, focusing on geometry. +Wifredo Ricart (1897–1974), engineer, designer and executive manager in the automotive industry. +Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), geologist and chemist, discovered vanadium (as vanadinite) in 1801. +Pío del Río Hortega (1882–1945), neuroscientist, discoverer of the microglia or Hortega cell. +Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente (1928–1980), naturalist, leading figure in ornithology, ethology, ecology and science divulgation. +Ángela Ruiz Robles (1895-1975) teacher, writer and inventor, inventor of a mechanical precursor to the electronic book. + +== S == + +Margarita Salas (1938-2019), biochemist and molecular geneticist, who discovered the order in which messenger RNA is read, as well S Φ29 phage DNA polymerase, of major use in DNA amplification. +Mónico Sánchez Moreno (1880-1961), electrical engineer, inventor and industrialist; early developer of high frequency electrical conduction equipment, mobile telephony, radiology, electrotherapy and inventor of the first portable X-ray machine in 1909. +Miguel Servet (1511–1553), known in English by his Latin name of Michael Servetus, scientist, surgeon and humanist; first European to describe pulmonary circulation. +Luis Simarro Lacabra (1851–1921), psychiatrist; developed a silver bromide modification of Camillo Golgi's silver chromate technique. + +== T == +Esteban Terradas i Illa (1883–1950), mathematician, physicist and engineer. +Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852–1936), engineer and computer scientist, pioneer of automated calculation machines, inventor of the automatic chess, pioneer of remote control, designer of the funicular over the Niagara Falls. +Eduardo Torroja (1899–1961), civil engineer, structural architect, world-famous specialist in concrete structures. +Juanelo Turriano (1500-1585) Italo-Spanish clockmaker, engineer and mathematician, he built the Artificio de Juanelo, an engine that, driven by the river itself, lifted water from the Tagus to a height of almost 100 meters. +Josep Trueta (1897–1977), doctor, his new method for treatment of open wounds and fractures helped save a great number of lives during World War II. + +== U == +Antonio de Ulloa (1716–1795), scientist, soldier and author; joint discoverer of element platinum with Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713–1773). + +== V == +Francisco Vallés (1524-1592), physician, regarded as the founder of modern anatomical pathology. +Arnold of Villanova (c. 1235–1311), alchemist and physician, he discovered that burning wood gives off a poisonous gas (later found to be carbon monoxide) and purified alcohol. + +== See also == +Science and technology in Spain + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1ae2e5749 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of Swedish inventors" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Swedish inventors are Swedish people who invented novel ideas, machines or tools. +In the 18th century, Sweden's Scientific Revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had emigrated from mainland Europe. In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. +Sweden had a total of 49,974 patents as of 2015 according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, and only ten other countries had more patents than Sweden. +The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors. + +== 17th century == +Christopher Polhem (1661–1751) was a Swedish scientist, inventor and industrialist. He made significant contributions to the economic and industrial development of Sweden, particularly mining. He reinvented the Cardan joint under the name of "Polhem knot" (Polhemknut) independently of Gerolamo Cardano, an Italian mathematician who invented the knot in 1545. His greatest achievement was an automated factory powered entirely by water; automation was very unusual at the time. +The Stockholms Banco became the first European bank to print banknotes (credit creation) from 1661 onwards, founded by Johan Palmstruch. It engaged in lending as well as commercial payments which set it aside from the earlier innovations of the Amsterdam-based Wisselbank. This made Sweden one of the innovators of 17th century finance along with the Dutch Empire and the British Empire (once the Bank of England had been founded some years later in 1694). + +== 18th century == +Anders Celsius (1701–44) was an astronomer and mathematician most famous for inventing the 100-point thermometer scale, widely used across the world. +Sven Åderman is a Swedish inventor who created a musket capable of firing more rapidly than conventional weaponry of the late 18th century. This new musket was first used in the wars of King Karl XII. For his efforts King Frederick I of Sweden bestowed upon him the estate of Halltorps in the year 1723. +Jonas Lidströmer (1755–1808), was a Swedish inventor and officer in the Royal Swedish navy. He is behind a large number of mechanical devices and innovations, such as steel grinderies, ship docks, compasses etc. +Johan Patrik Ljungström (1784–1859), jeweler, inventor in gas lighting, and underwater diving pioneer +Per Georg Scheutz (1785–1873) was a 19th-century Swedish lawyer, translator, and inventor, who is best known for his pioneering work in computer technology. The best known of his inventions is the Scheutzian calculation engine, invented in 1837 and finalized in 1843. +Gustaf Erik Pasch (1788–1862) invented the safety match. +Martin von Wahrendorff (1789–1861) was a Swedish diplomat and inventor. In 1837 Wahrendorff applied for patent on a new breech calculating, later known as the Wahrendorff breech. The first breech loaded Wahrendorff gun was manufactured at Åker in 1840. + +== 19th century == +From the 1870s, engineering companies were created at an unmatched rate and engineers became considered heroes of the age. Many of the companies founded by early pioneers are still internationally familiar. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1497d31b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "List of Swedish inventors" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jonas Offrell (1803–1863) was a Swedish priest who developed a revolver at the same time and independently of Samuel Colt. +Martin Wiberg (1826–1905) is known as a computer pioneer for his 1875 invention of a machine the size of a sewing machine that could print logarithmic tables. Apart from this invention, Wiberg invented numerous other devices and gadgets, among these a cream separator and a pulse jet engine. +Alfred Nobel (1833–1896) invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. +Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Swedish inventor and industrialist. In 1873 Palmcrantz patented the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun that later would be known as the Nordenfelt machine gun. +Willgodt Theophil Odhner (1845–1905) was a Swedish mechanic and inventor of the Odhner arithmometer, a mechanical calculator. +Lars Magnus Ericsson (1846–1926) started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. +Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is, along with Nikola Tesla, credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system. +Johan Petter Johansson (1853–1943) built and patented the adjustable spanner/wrench in 1892. +Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) was a Swedish engineer and inventor who made important contributions to the design of steam turbines and dairy machinery. The most famous invention was the milk-cream separator. In 1883 he and others founded AB Separator (later Alfa Laval). He obtained over one hundred patents in total. +Carl Rickard Nyberg (1858–1939), inventor of the blowtorch. After Primus started producing blowtorches he also decided to make paraffin oil/kerosene cookers. The first model, called Viktoria, wasn't very successful, but the later Svea did better. Nyberg also worked on many other inventions, for instance, steam engines, aeroplanes, boat propellers and other machines. He was most famous as an aviation pioneer and he became known as "Flyg-Nyberg". From 1897, onward, outside his home in Lidingö he built and tested his Flugan (The Fly). +Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist (1862–1931) was a Swedish inventor. He designed the first sootless kerosene stove, operated by compressed air. +Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937) founded AGA, and received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve. +Jonas Patrik Ljungström (1827–1898), cartographer, and geodesist +The latter's sons Fredrik Ljungström (1875–1964) and Birger Ljungström (1872–1948) accounted for hundreds of patents each. They first invented and designed the Svea bicycle with freewheel and a rear-wheel brake (1892), still the most common type in Sweden. Subsequent to contributing to milking machines, they invented high-pressure steam boilers and a new type of steam turbine, the Ljungström turbine (patented in 1894), turbine-powered Ljungström locomotives, the air preheater, as well as inventions for sailing boats, such as the Ljungström rig. +Sven Gustaf Wingqvist (1876–1953) was a Swedish engineer, inventor and industrialist, and one of the founders of Svenska Kullagerfabriken (S.K.F.), one of the world's leading ball- and roller bearing makers. Sven Wingqvist invented the multi-row self-aligning radial ball bearing in 1907. +Hans von Kantzow (1887–1979) is known to have invented the steel alloy Kanthal. In 1931 AB Kanthal was founded for the exploitation of the invention. +One of John Ericsson's (1803–89) most important inventions was ship propellers. Ericsson became widely famous when he built the USS Monitor, an armoured battleship that in 1862 triumphed over the Confederate States' Merrimack in an American Civil War sea battle. +Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971) invented the ultracentrifugation method for determination of molecular weights in 1924. +Anders Knutsson Ångström (1888–1981) was a Swedish physicist and meteorologist who was known primarily for his contributions to the field of atmospheric radiation. He is credited with the invention of the pyranometer, the first device to accurately measure direct and indirect solar radiation. +Boris Hagelin (1892–1983) was a Swedish businessman and inventor of encryption machines. +Carl Munters (1897–1989), Swedish inventor, best known for inventing the gas absorption refrigerator. After inventing the foam plastic he started his own company and developed, among other things, new insulation materials, air conditioners, and dehumidification devices. At his death, Munters had over a thousand patents. +Carl Edvard Johansson (1864-1943) invented gauge blocks in 1896 which are the main means of industrial length standardization. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4b8813e49 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "List of Swedish inventors" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== 20th century == +Laila Ohlgren (1937–2014), inventor of mobile phone call-button dialling based on phone storage of the number to be dialled +Arne Asplund (1903–1993) was inventor of the Defibrator pulping refiner and the defibrator-method (also called Asplund-method) for pulping wooden chips. +Oscar Kjellberg was a Swedish inventor and industrialist. Founder of ESAB, in 1904, and Kjellberg Finsterwalde, in 1922. He invented the coated electrode used in manual metal arc welding (Swedish Patent: 27152, 29 June 1907), by dipping a bare iron wire in a thick mixture of carbonates and silicates. His pioneering of covered electrode development paved the road during the next twenty years in the research of reliable flux coated electrodes. +Nils Alwall (1904–1986), a Swedish professor was a pioneer in hemodialysis and the inventor of one of the first practical dialysis machines. Alwall pioneered the technique of ultrafiltration and introduced the principle of hemofiltration. Alwall is referred to as the "father of extracorporeal blood treatment." +Austria's Carl Hellmuth Hertz (1915–80) began research on ultrasound in medical examinations in the early 1950, thereby becoming known throughout the world. A Swedish physician, Inge Edler (b. 1911-2001) told Hertz that he wanted to devise a non-invasive method for examining the heart. Echocardiography has revolutionized cardiovascular diagnostics. In 1977 Hertz and Edler received the American equivalent of the Nobel Prize in medicine, the Lasker Prize. The use of ultrasound in medical diagnostics is increasing sharply in a number of different fields. +Harry Roberts is the co-inventor of julmust and founder of Roberts in Örebro, Sweden. After studying chemistry in Germany during the late 19th century he invented the soft drink together with his father Robert Roberts. +Johan Richter (1901–1997) invented during the 1930s the continuous bleaching process for paper. Then during the WW2 he took on the more challenging continuous cooking process for pulp. Virtually all paper in the world is today produced with processes developed by Richter. He holds more than 750 patents. +Nils Bohlin (1920–2002) was a Swedish inventor who invented the three-point safety belt while working at Volvo. +Arvid Gerhard Damm (died 1927) was a Swedish engineer and inventor. He designed a number of cipher machines, and was one of the early inventors of the wired rotor principle for machine encipherment. His company, AB Cryptograph, was a predecessor of Crypto AG. +René Malaise (1892–1978) was a Swedish entomologist, explorer and art collector who is mostly known for his invention of the Malaise trap and his systematic collection of thousands of insects. +Although not initially invented by a Swede the design of the zipper was improved upon and patented by two Swedish-Americans, Peter Aronsson and Gideon Sundbäck. +Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters in 1922, invented the absorption Refrigerator while they were still students at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden. It became a worldwide success and was commercialized by Electrolux. +Sven Wingquist (1876–1953) invented the self-aligning ball bearing in 1907. He founded a global company, SKF (AB Svenska Kullagerfabriken), still the world's leading producer of industrial bearings. +Arvid Palmgren (1890–1971) invented the spherical roller bearing in 1919 when working for SKF. This bearing could take considerably heavier loads than the self-aligning ball bearings, and was quickly adopted by heavy industries. +Tetra Pak (1951) is an invention for storing, packaging and distributing liquid foodstuffs, for example, milk and juice. Erik Wallenberg (1915–99) was the main inventor, while businessman Ruben Rausing (1895–1983) developed and produced it. (See box). Several new package types have been added. The most ubiquitous is the Tetra Brik (1969). +In the late 1950s, the first working Bottle Return Machine (or Reverse vending machine) was invented and manufactured by "Wicanders" from Sweden. +Håkan Lans (born 1947) is recognised as one of Sweden's most outstanding inventors. Among his inventions is the digitizer, the predecessor of the computer mouse. He is also credited with the further development of the satellite-guided Global Positioning System (GPS) into the Automatic Identification System (AIS). Lans's system has become world standard for shipping and civil aviation. He is also famous for a patent regarding computer graphics. +Magnus Kellström (1941–) is an engineer graduated from Chalmers University of Technology that invented the toroidal roller bearing (also known as SKF CARB bearing). The bearing was introduced in 1995, and forms together with a spherical roller bearing a "self-aligning system". +The energy saving light bulb was invented by a consortium at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm in 1973. +In the 1990s, an ABB team under Mats Leijon developed a new generator, the Power Former, producing high-tension current directly to the network without transformer links. +Arne Tiselius (1902–71) used electrophoresis in the 1940s to analyse various proteins. Tiselius's work has been followed by other similar methods. All are important for medical and biological research. Tiselius received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1948. +In 1958, Rune Elmqvist developed a small battery-powered pacemaker that can be inserted under the skin of a heart patient. It produces electrical impulses that help the heart muscle work normally. In the same year, Åke Senning at the Karolinska Hospital in Stockholm carried out the world's first pacemaker operation. +Peter Nordin (1965–2020) was a Swedish computer scientist who has contributed to artificial intelligence, automatically generated computer programming, machine learning, and evolutionary robotics. +In 1968, Lars Leksell (1907–86) invented the gamma knife for brain surgery. The 'knife' uses concentrated gamma radiation on the tumour or malformation. The method is bloodless and patients can often leave hospital on the day of the operation. +The transmission of high voltage direct current, HVDC, is a method developed at ASEA (now ABB) under Uno Lamm (1904–89). ABB remains one of the leading makers of HVDC technology, now also used for terrain cable.[1] +Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by Ivan Östholm and Sven Erik Sjöstrand of Astra. +In 1973, Bengt Ilon invented the Mecanum wheel, a wheel which is capable of moving in any direction. +In 1975, John Arne Ingemund Ekstrand invented the red dot sight. +In 1993, Dr. Vladimir Ronin invents the process to produce Energetically Modified Cement ("EMC Cement"), whilst at Luleå University of Technology. + +== 21st century == +Adam Dunkels was recognized by American MIT's Technology Review as one of the top 35 young inventors in the world, notably for Micro IP which allows tiny gadgets such as car keys and credit cards to communicate using Internet protocols. + +== References == + +=== Bibliography === + +== External links == +Swedish inventions and discoveries \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ccd18e9c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ +--- +title: "List of Swiss inventors and discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:11.569735+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Swiss inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Switzerland, and also people of predominantly Swiss heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. + + +== A == +Carl Roman Abt inventor of Abt rack system +Werner Arber, (nobel prize) discovered restriction endonucleases. Their work would lead to the development of recombinant DNA technology. +Aimé Argand, inventor of Argand lamp. + + +== B == + +Maximilian Bircher-Benner, invented modern muesli +Felix Bloch, (nobel prize) discovered Bloch equations +Johann Georg Bodmer +Daniel Bovet (nobel prize), discovered drugs that block the actions of specific neurotransmitters. He is best known for his discovery in 1937 of antihistamines, which block the neurotransmitter histamine and are used in allergy medication. +Jacques E. Brandenberger, inventor of cellophane + + +== D == + +Henry Dunant, (nobel prize), inventor of The Red Cross. He shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 with Frédéric Passy, famous French Peace activist. +Jacques Dubochet (chemistry nobel prize 2017), bio-physicist, received a nobel for his work on the development of cryogenic electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of bio-molecules in solution. In 2020, the developments in the field helped to support the fight against COVID-19 pandemic. This technology help to study the viral assembly and replication processes at a molecule scale. It enabled to quickly understand the spike protein structure of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. + + +== E == +Richard R. Ernst, contributions towards the development of Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. + + +== F == +Nicolas Fatio de Duillier +Antoine Favre-Salomon +Edmond H. Fischer (nobel prize), describing how reversible phosphorylation works as a switch to activate proteins and regulate various cellular processes. + + +== G == +Charles Édouard Guillaume, (nobel prize) discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys. +Gustav Guanella + + +== H == + +Walter Rudolf Hess (nobel prize), mapping the areas of the brain involved in the control of internal organs. +Wilhelm His, Sr., inventor of microtome +Albert Hofmann, inventor of LSD + + +== K == +Paul Karrer, (nobel prize), research on vitamins. +Ursula Keller, developed the first method for generating ultra-fast light pulses known as semiconductor saturable-absorber mirrors (SESAMs) + +Emil Theodor Kocher (nobel prize), worked in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid. +Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a pioneer in near-death studies + + +== M == +Georges de Mestral, inventor of Velcro +Friedrich Miescher, discovered Nucleic acid, DNA (1868) +K. Alex Müller + +Paul Hermann Müller, discovery of insecticidal qualities and use of DDT in the control of vector diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. + + +== N == +Jean-Daniel Nicoud, inventor of Smaky + + +== P == + +Paracelsus, discovered Laudanum +Jean Samuel Pauly, created the first fully self-contained cartridges +Roger Perrinjaquet, inventor of the electric immersion blender (Bamix) +Auguste Piccard, inventor of Bathyscaphe +Vladimir Prelog (nobel prize), research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reaction + + +== R == +Tadeus Reichstein, discovered Reichstein process +Niklaus Riggenbach, inventor of the Riggenbach track system +Daisy Roulland-Dussoix, discovered restriction enzymes + + +== S == + +Martin Schadt, co-inventor of twisted nematic field effect (TN-effect) +René Sommer, co-inventor of computer mouse + + +== T == +René Thury + + +== W == + +Alfred Werner (nobel prize), proposing the octahedral configuration of transition metal complexes. Werner developed the basis for modern coordination chemistry. +Niklaus Wirth, inventor of programming language Pascal. + +Kurt Wüthrich (nobel prize), developing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) methods for studying biological macromolecules. + + +== Z == +Rolf M. Zinkernagel (nobel prize), discovery of how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells. + + +== See also == +List of Swiss inventions and discoveries +Swiss people + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3b99ccfc0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of Welsh inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:12.840017+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of people of Welsh origin who are recognised as innovators or inventors who have made notable contributions to technical or theoretical world advancements. + +Edward George Bowen pioneer of radar. Worked at 'Woomera Rocket Testing Base' in Australia. Born in Gendros, Swansea. +David Brunt pioneer of modern meteorology. Head of Meteorological Office, secretary of Royal Society From Penfforddlas, Wales. +Martha Hughes Cannon pioneer in women and children's medicine. The State of Utah's Health Department is named in her honour. Born in Llandudno, Wales. +Archie Cochrane Founder of Cochrane Collaboration, Cochrane library, Cochrane reviews. UK Cochrane Centre in Oxford. Conducted much of his groundbreaking medical research in Wales. +Alan Cox is a programmer heavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel since 1991. +Sir Clifford Darby, geographer and leader in promoting the relationships between geography and other subjects. Knighted in 1988. Born in Neath, South Wales. +Donald Davies Proposed and developed packet switching, an important technology of the Internet. Born in Treorchy, Rhondda, Wales. +Walter Davies (inventor), along with his brother Thomas, invented the 'Stepney Spare Wheel' used on almost all early motor cars. Born in Llanelli, South Wales +John Dee Founder of the new school of English mathematical scientists in the 16th century. One of the greatest polymaths of all time. Born in Buallt, Radnor. +Bill Frost Welsh carpenter who patented the aeroplane in 1894 and took to the skies in a powered flying machine the following year, eight years before the Wright brothers attempt at Kitty Hawk. Born in Tenby. +William Robert Grove Invented the fuel cell. Born in Swansea, 1811. +John T. Houghton Distinguished meteorologist. Inspiration behind major international conferences on global warming (Rio, Kyoto, Buenos Aires). Born in Wales. +David E. Hughes First transmission of radio waves. Inventor of the microphone and printing telegraph system. A musician and philosopher. Born Corwen, Wales. +John Gwyn Jeffreys conchologist (someone who studies shells). He helped pioneer deep-sea dredging. He corresponded with Charles Darwin and was involved with a number of scientific associations. Born into a long-established Welsh family. +Ernest Jones Introduced psychoanalysis into Britain and North America. Born in Llwchwy, South Wales. +Samuel Milton Jones Inventor, writer and Mayor of Toledo, Ohio, USA. Born in Caernarfonshire. +Steve Jones Professor of genetics at the Galton Laboratory and University College, London. Born in Wales. +William Jones A noted mathematician, published author and early naval navigator. First to use 'Pi' (1706) as a mathematical symbol. Born in Llanfihangel Tre'r Beirdd. +Brian Josephson Nobel Prize–winning physicist; gave his name to the superconducting Josephson junction. Born Cardiff. +Bernard Knight Forensic pathologist, barrister and writer. Creator of the 'Crowner John' series, historic crime fiction. As a forensic pathologist, worked on the infamous Fred West case, recovering all twelve bodies. Born and spent most of his life in Cardiff. +Francis Lewis Signatory of the US 'Declaration of Independence' as one of the representatives from New York. Born in Llandaff. +Sir Thomas Lewis Born in Taffs Well, (26 December 1881 – 17 March 1945) was a British cardiologist (although he personally disliked the term, preferring cardiovascular disease specialist). He coined the term "clinical science". +Edward Lhuyd Fellow of Jesus College Oxford. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum and the foremost Celtic scholar of his time. Born Oswestry, 1660. +Ronald M Lockley Famous naturalist and author. Best known for his life on Skokholm Island off Pembrokeshire 1927-1940 and at Orielton in the 1950s to early 1960s. Born in Cardiff. +Terry Matthews 'Mitel' and 'Newbridge' Networks founder. +William Morgan Inventor of the vacuum tube, Coolidge tube, Britain's first actuary, founding father of modern actuarial science. The unknowing discoverer of x-rays, a hundred and ten years before Roentgen. Born in Bridgend, 1750, died 1833. +William Henry Preece was an electrical engineer who was a major figure in the development and introduction of wireless telegraphy and the telephone in Great Britain. Born Feb 15 1834 in Bryn Helen. +Richard Price Developer of the times tables for insurance scales. Born at Tynton Farm Llangeinor, South Wales +William Price re-introduced cremation to Britain. Born Llantrisant, South Wales +Pryce Pryce-Jones Gave mail-order (catalogue) shopping to the world. (circa 1859) Born/lived in Newtown, Montgomeryshire (Powys). +Robert Recorde Very influential physician and mathematician. Robert published some of the most important books of his era including the first English language book on algebra which incidentally is where the equals symbol is first seen in use. From Tenby, West Wales. +Isaac Roberts Pioneered deep space photography at the end of the 19th century. Born in Groes near Denbigh in 1829. +Richard Roberts (engineer) Textile machinery, railway locomotives and other industrial inventions. Born Llanymynech, 1789. +Bertrand Russell Philosopher, mathematician and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950. Russell is one of the most highly regarded academics of the 20th century. He popularized mathematics and proposed many ground breaking theories. Born in Trelleck, Monmouthshire, South Wales. +David Thomas in 1837 invented a hot blast furnace process to make iron using anthracite coal in Ystradfera (Swansea Valley). transforming the iron-making process there and later in 1839 after re-locating to Pennsylvania where he became the "father" of the American steel industry with his invention. +Sir Tudor Thomas Eye surgeon from Swansea. He pioneered ophthalmic corneaplasty in the 1930s. Born in Ystradgynlais 23 May 1893. +Philip Vaughan Ironmaster who, in Carmarthen in 1794, patented the first design for a ball bearing. +Alfred Russel Wallace Conferred with Darwin (and Darwin with him) regarding evolution of species and acknowledged as theory co-founder by Darwin in his 'On the Origin of Species'. Born Llanbadoc, near Usk, Monmouthshire. +Evan Williams Physicist, discoverer of the meson sub-atomic particles. Born Cwmsychpant, Llandysul, Wales. +Ernest Willows pioneering aviator. 'The Father of British Airships' Born in Cardiff, 1896. +Winston M Thomas Celtic Engineering Inc. Texas telecommunications. (Inventor) vehicle fuel locking device. Born Llanelli + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Davies, John; Jenkins, Nigel (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3098f45c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of animal sounds" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:17.039193+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Certain words in the English language represent animal sounds: the noises and vocalizations of particular animals, especially noises used by animals for communication. The words can be used as verbs or interjections in addition to nouns, and many of them are also specifically onomatopoeic. + + +== List of animal sounds == + + +== See also == +Animal communication +Animal epithet +Animal language +Bioacoustics +Cat organ & piganino +Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias +Field recording +List of animal names +List of onomatopoeias +"Old MacDonald Had a Farm" +"The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)" + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +List of animal sounds to download, listen and use for free. +Multilingual list of animal sounds Derek Abbott, University of Adelaide \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8d2ad23e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "List of artworks known in English by a foreign title" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:18.403847+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is an alphabetical list of works of art that are often called by a non-English name in an English context. (Of course, many such titles are simply the names of people: Don Quixote, Irma la Douce, Madame Bovary, Tosca, Pelléas et Mélisande. These have been omitted, as have examples where the English may easily be inferred: Symphonie fantastique, Les liaisons dangereuses.) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..233a43634 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,123 @@ +--- +title: "List of calques" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") translation. This list contains examples of calques in various languages. + +== English == + +=== From Mandarin Chinese === +Running dog calques Chinese: 走狗; pinyin: zǒu gǒu. +brainwashing calques Chinese: 洗腦; pinyin: xǐ nǎo – usage via U.S. military during Korean War. +lose face calques Chinese: 丟臉; pinyin: diū liǎn +Paper tiger calques Chinese: 紙老虎; pinyin: zhǐ lǎohǔ +Potsticker calques Chinese: 鍋貼; pinyin: guōtiē +Long time no see calques Chinese: 好久不見; pinyin: hǎojiǔ bùjiàn. + +=== From French === +By heart (or off by heart) probably calques Middle French par cœur +Free verse calques vers libre +Old Guard calques Vieille Garde (the most senior regiments of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon I) +Flea market calques marché aux puces +Marriage of convenience calques French mariage de convenance +New Wave (artistic period) calques Nouvelle Vague +rhinestone calques caillou du Rhin "Rhine pebble" +that goes without saying calques cela va sans dire +Forget-me-not calques Old French ne m'oubliez mye +crime of passion from crime passionnel +J. R. R. Tolkien used the name "Bag End" as a calque of "cul-de-sac", to poke fun at the British use of French terms. + +=== From German or Dutch === +Masterpiece: probably translation of Dutch meesterstuk or German Meisterstück: Dutch meester and German Meister, master + Dutch stuk and German Stück, piece of work. (The Dutch translation of masterpiece is meesterwerk, the German translation is Meisterwerk. A Meisterstück is the craftwork that serves as a sort of "thesis" for a master craftsman-to-be.) + +==== From Dutch ==== +Iceberg from the Dutch ijsberg +Superconductor calques Dutch supergeleider +Pineapple calques Dutch pijnappel, which calques French pomme de pin (both meaning 'pinecone') +freebooter calques Dutch vrijbuiter + +==== From German ==== +Antibody calques Antikörper +Assault rifle calques Sturmgewehr +Ball lightning calques Kugelblitz +Beer garden calques Biergarten +Concertmaster and concertmeister calque Konzertmeister +Earworm calques Ohrwurm +Flamethrower calques Flammenwerfer +Foreword perhaps calques Vorwort, which itself calques Latin præfatio (from præ- "before" plus fari "speak") "preface" +Heroic tenor calques Heldentenor +Intelligence quotient calques Intelligenzquotient +Loan translation calques Lehnübersetzung +Loanword calques Lehnwort +Nostalgia (formed from Greek νόστος "homecoming" plus ἄλγος "pain") calque Heimweh "home sore" +Overman and superman (i.e., self-transcending human) calque Übermensch +Power politics calques Machtpolitik +Rainforest calques Regenwald +Standpoint (point of view) calques Standpunkt +Superego (formed from Latin super- "over, above" plus ego "I") calques Überich "over-I" +Stormtroopers calques Sturmtruppen +Subliminal (formed from Latin sub-, "below", plus limen (gen. liminis, "threshold") calques unterschwellig, "beneath the threshold" +Thought experiment calques Gedankenexperiment +Watershed calques Wasserscheide +Worldview calques German Weltanschauung + +=== From Hebrew === +Scapegoat is a calque of עזאזל (Azazel) as ez ozel (literally, "the goat that departs", hence "[e]scape goat). This neologism is attributed to Tyndale's 1530 Bible translation. +Passover calques, somewhat phonologically, פֶּסַח Pesaḥ. + +=== From Latin === +Commonplace calques locus commūnis (referring to a generally applicable literary passage), which itself is a calque of Greek koinos topos +Devil's advocate calques advocātus diabolī, referring to an official appointed to present arguments against a proposed canonization or beatification in the Catholic Church +Wisdom tooth calques dēns sapientiae, which in turn calques Arabic aḍrāsu 'lḥikmi, which calques Greek σωΦρονιστῆρες, used by Hippocrates. +Milky Way calques via lactea +Rest in peace calques requiescat in pace +In a nutshell calques in nuce + +=== From Spanish === +Blue-blood calques sangre azul +Fifth column calques quinta columna +Killer whale from ballena asesina +Moment of truth calques el momento de la verdad, the final sword thrust in a bullfight. + +=== From other languages === +Deep state calques Turkish derin devlet +Gospel calques Greek εὐαγγέλιον (evangelion) 'good news' +Hotdish calques Scandinavian varmrett/varmrätt +ground nut calques Tamil நிலக்கடலை (nila kadalai) +The Littlejohn adaptor calques the Czech name of the inventor František Janeček +Many words and phrases calqued by Latin from Greek have been borrowed by English. + +== Latin == + +=== From Greek === +Latin calques many terms from Greek, many of which have been borrowed by English. + +compassion calques συμπάθεια (sympathia) "sympathy" (Latin: "suffering with", Greek: "suffering together") +deus ex machina calques ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός (apo mechanēs theos) (Latin: "god out of the machine", Greek: "out of the machine, god") +insectus calques ἔντομον (entomon) ("insect", from words meaning "to cut into" in the respective languages) +locus communis calques κοινὸς τόπος, and was later calqued in English as commonplace +musculus "muscle" (= "common house mouse", literally "little mouse" from mus "mouse") calques μῦς (mys) "muscle" (= "mouse") +magnanimus calques μεγαλόψυχος (megalopsychos) ('great-souled') +quinta essentia calques πέμπτη οὐσία. +quod erat demonstrandum 'which was to be demonstrated' is a calque of ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι (hoper edei deixai) 'what needed to be [shown] has been shown'. +similaris 'similar' calques ὁμοιομερής. +Many grammatical terms: participium 'participle' from μετοχή, declinationem 'declension' from κλίσις, etc. + +== Romance languages == + +Examples of Romance language expressions calqued from foreign languages include: + +French lune de miel, Catalan lluna de mel, Spanish luna de miel, Portuguese lua-de-mel, Italian luna di miele and Romanian luna de miere calque English honeymoon +French gratte-ciel, Catalan gratacels, Spanish rascacielos, Portuguese arranha-céus, Romanian zgârie-nori and Italian grattacielo calque English skyscraper +French sabot de Denver calques English Denver boot +French jardin d'enfants, Spanish jardín de infancia and Portuguese Jardim de infância calque German Kindergarten (children's garden) +Spanish baloncesto and Italian pallacanestro calque English basketball +Spanish balonvolea and Italian pallavolo calque English volleyball + +=== French === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d0191a0ff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,132 @@ +--- +title: "List of calques" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +French courriel (contraction of courrier électronique) calques English email (contraction of electronic mail) +French disque dur calques English hard disk +French carte mère calques English motherboard +French eau de vie calques Latin aqua vitae +French en ligne calques English online +French hors-ligne (literally: "out of line, off line") calques English offline +French haute résolution calques English high resolution +French haute tension calques English high voltage +French disque compact calques English compact disc +French haute fidélité calques English hi-fi (high fidelity) +French large bande calques English broadband +French modulation de fréquence calques English frequency modulation (FM) +French média de masse calques English mass media +French seconde main calques English second hand +French sortir du placard calques English to come out of the closet +French surhomme calques German Übermensch (Nietzsche's concept) +French souris calques English mouse (computer peripheral) +French OVNI (Objet Volant Non Identifié) calques English UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) +In some dialects of French, the English term "weekend" becomes la fin de semaine ("the end of week"), a calque, but in some it is left untranslated as le week-end, a loanword. +French cor anglais (literally English horn) is a near-calque of English French horn. In English cor anglais refers to a completely different musical instrument. + +=== Spanish === + +Many calques found in Southwestern US Spanish come from English: + +Spanish escuela alta calques English high school (secundaria or escuela secundaria in Standard Spanish) +Spanish grado (de escuela) calques English grade (in school) (nota in Standard Spanish) +Spanish manzana de Adán calques English Adam's apple (nuez de Adán, meaning "Adam's nut", in standard Spanish), which in turn is a calque of French pomme d'Adam + +Also technological terms calqued from English are used throughout the Spanish-speaking world: + +Spanish rascacielos calques English skyscraper +Spanish tarjeta de crédito calques English credit card +Spanish alta tecnología calques English high technology +Spanish disco compacto calques English compact disc +Spanish correo electrónico calques English electronic mail +Spanish alta resolución calques English high resolution +Spanish enlace calques English link (Internet) +Spanish ratón calques English mouse (computer) +Spanish nave espacial calques English spaceship +Spanish en un momento dado calques Dutch op een gegeven moment (At a certain moment) +Spanish Red Mundial calques English World Wide Web +Spanish videograbadora calques English VCR (contraction of videocassette recorder) + +=== Italian === + +Italian aria condizionata calques English air conditioned +Italian fine settimana calques English week-end +Italian ferrovia (railway: lit. "iron road") calques French Chemin de fer or the German Eisenbahn + +== Germanic languages == + +=== Afrikaans and Dutch === + +Afrikaans aartappel and Dutch aardappel calque French pomme de terre (English potato "earth apple") +Afrikaans besigheid calques English business +Afrikaans e-pos calques English e-mail +Afrikaans hardeskyf and Dutch harde schijf calque English hard disk +Afrikaans klankbaan calques English sound track +Afrikaans kleurskyfie calques English colour slide +Afrikaans sleutelbord calques English keyboard +Afrikaans tuisblad calques English homepage +Afrikaans wolkekrabber and Dutch wolkenkrabber calque German Wolkenkratzer (which itself calques English sky scraper). +Afrikaans melkskommel calques English milkshake +Afrikaans werkswinkel calques English workshop +Afrikaans geheuestokkie calques English memory stick +Afrikaans biertuin calques German Biergarten (probably via English beer garden) + +=== German === + +Fußball calques English "football", referring specifically to association football +Teddybär calques English teddy bear +Wolkenkratzer calques English skyscraper +Entwickeln calques French "developer" +Flutlicht calques English floodlight +Datenverarbeitung calques English data processing +Großmutter and Großvater calques French grand-mère and grand-père (replacing original Ahn, Ähnin which now mean "forbear") +Rundreise calques French tournée +Fernsehen calques English television (from the Greek affix tele- "far" and Latin visio "sight") +Fernsprecher calques English telephone (more frequently called with the loanword Telefon) +Löwenzahn calques French dent-de-lion (dandelion, literally "lion's tooth") +Überleben calques Latin supervivo (survive, literally "overlive", which is a synonym of survive) +Treppenwitz calques French l'esprit de l'escalier (staircase wit) +herunterladen calques English download +Wochenende calques English week-end (which actually was first used as a foreign word, but now has been all but replaced by the calque) + +=== Icelandic === + +Icelandic rafmagn, "electricity", is a half-calqued coinage that literally means "amber power". +raf translates the Greek root ἤλεκτρον (ḗlektron), which means "amber" +magn, "power", is descriptive of electricity's nature but not a direct calque from the source word "electricity" +Samviska (conscience). +One of the early suggestions for an Icelandic translation of helicopter was þyrilvængja, twirling wings, a calque of the Greek helico-pteron. This was later replaced with þyrla. + +=== Dano-Norwegian === + +Note: From a technical standpoint, Danish and the bokmål standard of Norwegian are the same language, with minor spelling and pronunciation differences (equivalent to British and American English). For this reason, they will share a section. + +Danish børnehave and Norwegian barnehage calque German Kindergarten: barne = børne = Kinder = children; hage = have = Garten = garden +hjemmeside calques English home page. +Danish hjerneflugt and Norwegian hjerneflukt (literally, brain flight) calque English brain drain. +Danish idiotsikker calques English "foolproof". +loppemarked calques French marché aux puces (flea market, itself a calque from the French). +mandag (Monday), from Old Norse mánadagr ("moon day") calques Latin dies lunæ. +Danish overhoved and Norwegian overhode (head of a family, chief) calques German Oberhaupt (ober "over", Haupt "head"). +Danish samvittighed and Norwegian samvittighet (conscience) calques Latin (through Low German) conscientia (com "with", scire "to know"). +From sam- (co-) and vittig (today meaning "funny" but which stems from Low German, where it meant "reasonable", related to "vite" (to know) and English "wit".) +Norwegian tenåring calques English teenager: femten = fifteen, åring = annual harvest + +=== Swedish === + +skyskrapa calques English skyscraper. +stora smällen calques English the big bang +tonåring calques English teen-ager: femton = fifteen, åring = annual harvest + +== Slavic languages == + +=== Serbian === +Serbian 'misliti izvan kutije' calques English 'to think outside of the box': +Sr. 'misliti' = Eng. 'to think' +Sr. 'izvan' = Eng. 'outside' +Sr. 'kutija' = Eng. 'box' \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58692d4bc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "List of calques" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Macedonian === +Macedonian ракопис (rakopis) calques Latin-derived 'manuscript' and 'handwriting': +Mac. root рака (raka) = Lat. manus = 'hand' +Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Lat. scribo = 'to write' +Macedonian правопис (pravopis) calques Greek-derived 'orthography': +Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct'; +Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Gr. γράφειν (graphein) = 'to write' +Macedonian православие (pravoslavie) calques Greek-derived 'orthodoxy': +Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct'; +Mac. root славие (slavie) = Gr. δοξα (doxa) = 'glorification' +In more recent times, the Macedonian language has calqued new words from other prestige languages including German, French and English. + +Macedonian натчовек (natčovek) = calques German-derived 'overman' (Übermensch) +Mac. root над- (nad-) = Ger. über = 'over' +Mac. root човек (čovek, man) = Ger. mensch = 'people' +Macedonian облакодер (oblakoder) = calques English skyscraper: +Mac. root облак (oblak, cloud) +Mac. root дере (dere, to flay) +Macedonian клучен збор (klučen zbor) = calques English keyword: +Mac. root клуч (kluč, key) +Mac. root збор (zbor, word) +Some words were originally calqued into Russian and then absorbed into Macedonian, considering the close relatedness of the two languages. Therefore, many of these calques can also be considered Russianisms. + +=== Russian === +The poet Aleksandr Pushkin (1799–1837) was perhaps the most influential among the Russian literary figures who would transform the modern Russian language and vastly expand its ability to handle abstract and scientific concepts by importing the sophisticated vocabulary of Western intellectuals. +Although some Western vocabulary entered the language as loanwords – e.g., Italian salvietta, "napkin", was simply Russified in sound and spelling to салфетка (salfetka) – Pushkin and those he influenced most often preferred to render foreign borrowings into Russian by calquing. Compound words were broken down to their component roots, which were then translated piece-by-piece to their Slavic equivalents. But not all of the coinages caught on and became permanent additions to the lexicon; for example, любомудрие (ljubomudrie) was promoted by 19th-century Russian intellectuals as a calque of "philosophy", but the word eventually fell out of fashion, and modern Russian instead uses the loanword философия (filosofija). + +Russian любомудрие (ljubomudrie) calqued Greek-derived 'philosophy': +Russ. root любить (ljubit' ) = Gr. φιλεῖν (filein) = 'to love'; +Russ. root мудрость (mudrost' ) = Gr. σοφία (sofia) = 'wisdom' +Russian зависимость (zavisimost' ) calques Latin-derived 'dependence': +Russ. root за (za) = Lat. de = 'down from' +Russ. root висеть (viset' ) = Lat. pendere = 'to hang; to dangle' +Russian совпадение (sovpadenije) calques Latin-derived 'coincidence': +Russ. prefix со- (so) = Lat. co- = 'in; with; together' +Russ. prefix в- (v) = Lat. in- = 'in; into' +Russ. root падать (padat' ) = Lat. cidere = 'to fall' +Russian полуостров (poluostrov) calques Latin-derived 'peninsula': +Russ. root полу- (polu-) = Ger. halb = 'half; semi-' +Russ. root остров (ostrov) = Ger. Insel = 'island' +Russian детский сад (detskij sad) calques German Kindergarten (both literally suggesting 'children's garden') + +== Greek == + +Διαδίκτυο from English Internet +Γύρος (gyros) from Turkish döner +Ποδόσφαιρο from English football, referring specifically to association football +Τηλεόραση from television + +== Irish == + +uisce beatha, or whiskey, calques Latin aqua vitae + +== Finnish == + +Since Finnish, a Uralic language, differs radically in pronunciation and orthography from Indo-European languages, most loans adopted in Finnish either are calques or soon become such as foreign words are translated into Finnish. Examples include: + +from Greek: sarvikuono (rhinoceros, from Greek ρινόκερος "rinokeros"), +from Latin: viisaudenhammas (wisdom tooth, from Latin "dens sapientiae"), +from English: jalkapallo (English "football", specifically referring to association football), +from English: koripallo (English "basketball"), +from English: kovalevy (English "hard disk"), +from French: kirpputori (flea market, French "marché aux puces"), +from German: lastentarha (German "Kindergarten"), +from German: panssarivaunu (German "Panzerwagen"), +from Swedish: pesukarhu (raccoon, from Swedish "tvättbjörn" and ultimately German "Waschbär"), +from Swedish: moottoritie (highway, from Swedish "motorväg"), +from Chinese: aivopesu (brainwash, from Chinese "xi nao"), +from Spanish: siniverinen (blue-blooded, from Spanish "de sangre azul") + +== Modern Hebrew == + +When Jews immigrate to Israel, they often Hebraize their surnames. One approach to doing so was by calque from the original (often German or Yiddish) surname. For instance, Imi Lichtenfield (itself a half-calque), founder of the martial art Krav Maga, became Imi Sde-Or. Both last names mean "light field". For more examples and other approaches, see the article on Hebraization of surnames. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dc2283968 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "List of calques" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +mesilat barzel (obsolete term for railway) from German Eisenbahn (iron track); "sach-rachok" (a proposed term for telephone that became famous for not catching on) from German "Fernsprecher" (itself a calque from Greek "telephone") +"zarkor" (searchlight) from German "Scheinwerfer" (light-thrower=>zorek-or, contracted to "zarkor") +iton (newspaper) from German Zeitung and Yiddish צײַטוּנג tsaytung (Zeit and Et both mean time or era, first syllable e become i with the -on suffix) +tappuach adamah (potato) from French pomme-de-terre +gan yeladim from German Kindergarten +kaduregel (כדורגל) (football, specifically association football/soccer) from English football; "kadursal" (basketball); "kaduryad" (handball);... +"kelev yam" (seal) from German "Seehund" ("sea dog") +"karnaf" (contraction of "keren af"/"nosehorn") from Greek rhinoceros, possibly via German Nashorn +names of many chemical elements are calqued from German and/or Greek: "meiman" (hydrogen) from Wasserstoff, "pachman" (carbon) from Kohlstoff, "chankan" (nitrogen) from Stickstoff, "chamtzan" (oxygen) from Sauerstoff, zarkhan (phosphorus) from Greek, and ashlagan (potassium) from English ("ashlag"=potash) +many computing terms are calqued from English: "luach em" (motherboard), "me'abed" (processor), "natav" (router), akhbar (mouse), cartis reshet (network card), sapak koach (power supply), mat'en (charger). +According to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the more contributing languages have a structurally identical expression, the more likely it is to be calqued into the target language. In Israeli (his term for "Modern Hebrew") one uses má nishmà, lit. "what's heard?", with the meaning of "what's up?". Zuckermann argues that this is a calque not only of the Yiddish expression ?וואָס הערט זיך (vos hert zikh?), but also of the parallel expressions in Polish, Russian and Romanian. Whereas most revivalists were native Yiddish-speakers, many first speakers of Modern Hebrew spoke Russian and Polish too. So a Polish speaker in the 1930s might have used má nishmà not (only) due to Yiddish vos hert zikh? but rather (also) due to Polish Co słychać? A Russian Jew might have used ma nishma due to Что слышно? (pronounced chto slyshno) and a Romanian Israeli would echo ce se aude. According to Zuckermann, such multi-sourced calquing is a manifestation of the Congruence principle. + +== Malayalam == + +Modern Malayalam is replete with calques from English. The calques manifest themselves as idioms and expressions and many have gone on to become clichés. However standalone words are very few. The following is a list of commonly used calque phrases/expressions.All of these are exact translations of the corresponding English phrases. + +Simha bhagam (സിംഹ ഭാഗം) lion's share +Varikalkidayil vaayikuka (വരികള്‍ക്കിടയില്‍ വായിക്കുക) reading between the lines +Chuvarazhuthu (ചുവരെഴുത്തു) the writing on the wall +Moola kallu (മൂലക്കല്ല്) cornerstone +Naazhikakallu (നാഴികക്കല്ല്) milestone +Ooshmala varavelppu (ഊഷ്മ്ല വരവേല്‍പ്പ്) warm welcome +Thanuppan prathikaranam (തണുപ്പന്‍ പ്രതികരണം) cold response +Sheetayuddham (ശീതയുദ്ധം) Cold War +Hridayabhedakam (ഹൃദയഭേദകം) heart-rending/breaking +Chekuttaanum kadalinumidayil(ചെകുത്താനും കടലിനുമിടയില്‍) between the devil and the sea +vazhivittu sahaayikkuka (വഴിവിട്ടു സഹായിക്കുക) go out of one's way +kuthira kachavadam (കുതിര കച്ചവടം) horse trading +mrigeeya bhooripaksham (മൃഗീയ ഭൂരിപക്ഷം) monstrous majority +kavya neethi (കാവ്യനീതി) poetic justice +ambara chumbikal(അംബരചുംബികൾ) buildings; literally sky-kissers + +== Mandarin Chinese == +huīyī zhǔjiào (灰衣主教) calques French éminence grise +lánqiú (籃球 / 篮球) calques English basketball +règǒu (熱狗 / 热狗) calques English hotdog +ruǎnjiàn (軟件 / 软件) calques English software +shǎndiànzhàn (閃電戰 / 闪电战) calques German Blitzkrieg +tiěmù (鐵幕 / 铁幕) calques English Iron Curtain + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..505097dbf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,135 @@ +--- +title: "List of celebrity inventors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:47.528733+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of celebrity inventors and their patents. (For the purposes of this article, an inventor is a person who has been granted a patent.) After Google released a patent search online in December 2006, a website called Ironic Sans, made the public aware of a number of celebrity patents found through the new patent search engine. +Additional lists of inventors can be found at List of inventors. See also Category:Inventors. + + +== A == +George Antheil, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor Hedy Lamarr, used a code (stored on punched paper tape) to synchronize random frequencies later known as frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their posthumous induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. + + +== B == +Marlon Brando, U.S. patent 6,812,392 — Drumhead tensioning device and method. An invention which makes it possible to tune a drum. +Gary Burghoff, U.S. patent 5,235,774 — Enhanced fish attractor device. A way of luring fish up closer, to attract them, so they are easier to fish. + + +== C == +Harry Connick, Jr., U.S. patent 6,348,648 — System and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra. An electronic system, a device with a screen, used to show the sheet music for the musicians, for example in an orchestra, while they are playing, instead of the more commonly used paper. Connick uses this system when performing with his big band. +Jamie Lee Curtis, U.S. patent 4,753,647 — Infant garment. A disposable baby diaper with pockets containing one or more removable clean-up wipers. + + +== D == +Walt Disney +U.S. patent 2,201,689 — Art of animation. A device/method that allows the animator to, for example, make a more realistic looking shadow for a moving character in an animation. +U.S. patent 2,942,516 — Panoramic motion picture presentation arrangement (co-invented with Ub Iwerks). A method of presenting a continuous motion picture on a circular screen, also known as Circle-Vision 360°. + + +== F == +Charles Fleischer, U.S. patent 4,219,959 — Toy egg. A toy adapted for pulling, stretching, and bouncing which includes two intertwined helically cut shells. + + +== G == +Uri Geller, U.S. patent 5,726,383 — Telephone radiation shield (co-inventor). A radiation shield for cellular phones. +Enver Gjokaj, U.S. patent 8,121,471 — Focusing system for motion picture camera. + + +== H == +Harry Houdini, U.S. patent 1,370,316 — Diver's suit. A new type of diving suit that is easier to put on and take off, and is able to better handle water pressure. +Howard Hughes, — Steel bra. +Jamie Hyneman, U.S. patent 6,458,008 — Remote control device with gyroscopic stabilization and directional control. + + +== J == +Michael Jackson, U.S. patent 5,255,452 — Method and means for creating anti-gravity illusion (co-inventor). +Penn Jillette, U.S. patent 5,920,923 — Hydro-therapeutic stimulator. A spa designed to stimulate a female user with water jets. +John Arthur ("Jack") Johnson, U.S. patent 1,413,121 — Wrench. An adjustable wrench designed to be taken apart for easy cleaning. + + +== K == +Danny Kaye, U.S. patent D166807 — Blowout toy or the like (co-inventor) + + +== L == +Hedy Lamarr, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor George Antheil, frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. +Abraham Lincoln, U.S. patent 6,469 — [method for] Buoying vessels over shoals. +George Lucas +U.S. patent D264109 — Toy action figure (co-inventor, with Ralph McQuarrie, Joe Johnston). The ornamental design for a Boba Fett toy action figure. +U.S. patent D265108 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Phil Tippett). The ornamental design for a tauntaun toy figure. +U.S. patent D265109 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with Stuart Freeborn, McQuarrie). The ornamental design for a toy figure. +U.S. patent D265330 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Johnston). The ornamental design for a droid toy figure. +U.S. patent D265331 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie). The ornamental design for an IG-88 toy figure. +U.S. patent D265332 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Johnston). The ornamental design for a snowtrooper toy figure. +U.S. patent D265668 — Toy space vehicle (co-inventor, with Johnston). The ornamental design for a twin-pod cloud car toy. +U.S. patent D265754 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with McQuarrie, Johnston, Freeborn). The ornamental design for a Yoda toy figure. +U.S. patent D266685 — Toy figure (co-inventor, with Freeborn and McQuarrie). The ornamental design for a Greedo toy figure. +U.S. patent D266777 — Toy vehicle (co-inventor, with Johnston). The ornamental design for an AT-AT toy. +U.S. patent D267025 — Toy space vehicle (co-inventor, with McQuarrie and Johnston). The ornamental design for a snowspeeder toy. + + +== M == +Zeppo Marx, U.S. patent 3,473,526 — Cardiac pulse rate monitor (co-inventor) +Steve McQueen, U.S. patent D219813 — Bucket seat shell + + +== N == +Julie Newmar, U.S. patent 3,914,799 — Pantyhose with shaping band for cheeky derriere relief. + + +== P == +Prince, U.S. patent D349127 — Portable electronic keyboard musical instrument. The ornamental design for a portable electronic keyboard musical instrument. + + +== S == +Steven Spielberg, U.S. patent D401951 — Dolly track switch (co-inventor) + + +== T == +Mark Twain +U.S. patent 121,992 — Improvement in adjustable and detachable straps for garments. +U.S. patent 140,245 — Improvement in scrap-books. +U.S. patent 324,535 — Game apparatus. + + +== V == +Eddie Van Halen, U.S. patent 4,656,917 — Musical instrument support. + + +== W == +Lawrence Welk, U.S. patent D170898 — Ash tray. +Paul Winchell +U.S. patent 3,042,086 — Device for filling blood containers. +U.S. patent 3,063,235 — Warning indicator for interrupted power supply for freezers. +U.S. patent 3,063,563 — Tandem sifter for flour and other products. +U.S. patent 3,071,113 — Retractable fountain pen. +U.S. patent 3,077,177 — Warning indicators for interrupted power supply of freezers. +U.S. patent 3,079,160 — Guideway selector for multi-track records. +U.S. patent 3,079,486 — Electrical heater for a container. +U.S. patent 3,097,366 — Artificial heart. +U.S. patent 3,110,424 — Pouring expediter for sugar, salt and the like. +U.S. patent 3,110,501 — Laminated disc pad phonograph records. +U.S. patent 3,120,192 — Hand pump for transferring liquids. +U.S. patent 3,128,477 — Non-bulging garter fastener. +U.S. patent 3,129,001 — Inverted novelty mask. +U.S. patent 3,133,140 — Lens cover. +U.S. patent 3,809,463 — Animation cells [sic] and technique. +U.S. patent D216371 — Jewelry pendant or similar article. A design combining the Star of David with the Christian cross. + + +== See also == +Inventor (patent) + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Ironic Sans: Celebrity Patents +Google Patent Search \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_with_over_1_million_inhabitants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_with_over_1_million_inhabitants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ec4359fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_with_over_1_million_inhabitants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of cities with over 1 million inhabitants" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_with_over_1_million_inhabitants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:40.618119+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list contains all cities with one million or more inhabitants. Cities are defined in the political-geographic sense (city proper). The population figures given therefore refer to the city or municipality in the political-administrative sense. In some cases, the population figures refer to capital districts or Metropolises and, in the case of the People's Republic of China, to the urban population of the city in question. In many cases, the city boundaries do not correspond to the settlement structure and the boundaries of metropolitan regions and agglomerations often extend far beyond the administrative city boundaries. In some cases, metropolitan regions and political municipalities cannot be separated, as in the case of metropolitan municipalities or city regions, which exist in some countries. There is no globally standardized definition of what constitutes a city, and municipal divisions differ from country to country. +If only the administrative boundaries of a city were taken into account, Chongqing would be the largest city in the world, with 32 million inhabitants. However, the urban population is significantly smaller at just under 14 million (2020) and is spread across various urban settlements. The city's administrative area is almost as large as Austria and larger than the Czech Republic. It consists mainly of mountains, forest and agricultural areas with a rural settlement structure. + + +== List == +The following table sorts cities according to the population within their administrative boundaries at the last available date. The population figures refer in the most cases to the respective municipality within its political boundaries, excluding politically independent suburbs. For Chinese cities, the urban population (urban settlement) of the respective city is given at prefecture, county or district level, which usually include large rural areas. Cities in bold are national capitals. Cities in italic are the largest city in their respective country. + + +== By country == +This list is based on the data from the previous paragraph table. It excludes countries with only one city above one million inhabitants. + + +== Cities previously over 1 million people == +The following table has cities that used to be over 1 million people in the past century, but have since declined under the 1 million mark. + + +== List (top 20 by administrative boundaries) == +The following table lists city administrations by population, including full population inside administrative boundaries for Chinese cities. + + +== See also == +List of largest cities +List of largest cities throughout history +List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants +List of cities in the Americas by population + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..44fff7705 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "List of common false etymologies of English words" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of common contemporary false etymologies for English words. + +== Profanity == +Crap: The word "crap" did not originate as a back-formation of British plumber Thomas Crapper's surname, nor does his name originate from the word "crap", although the surname may have helped popularize the word. The surname "Crapper" is a variant of "Cropper", which originally referred to someone who harvested crops. The word "crap" ultimately comes from Medieval Latin crappa, meaning "chaff". +Fuck: The word "fuck" did not originate as an acronym for "For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge", either as a sign posted above adulterers in the stocks, or as a criminal charge against members of the British Armed Forces; nor did it originate during the 15th-century Battle of Agincourt as a corruption of "pluck yew" (an idiom falsely attributed to the English for drawing a longbow). The word also did not originate in Christianized Anglo-Saxon England as an acronym for "Fornication Under Consent of King"; Modern English was not spoken until the 16th century, and the words "fornication" and "consent" are derived from Anglo-Norman and hence did not exist in Old English. The earliest recorded use of "fuck" in English comes from c. 1475, in the poem Flen flyys, where it is spelled fuccant (conjugated as if a Latin verb meaning "they fuck"). The word is ultimately derived from the Proto-Germanic word fukkōną via either Old English or Norse, and has cognates in many other Germanic languages. +Shit: The word "shit" did not originate as an acronym for "Ship High in Transit", a label falsely said to have been used on shipments of manure to prevent them from becoming waterlogged and releasing explosive methane gas. The word comes from Old English scitte, and is of Proto-Germanic origin. + +== Ethnic slurs == +Cracker: In the United States, the use of "cracker" as a pejorative term for a white person does not come from the use of bullwhips by whites against slaves in the Atlantic slave trade. The term comes from an old sense of "boaster" or "braggart"; alternatively, it may come from "corn-cracker". +Gringo: The word "gringo" (a pejorative term for a white American) did not originate during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), the Venezuelan War of Independence (1811–1823), the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), or in the American Old West (c. 1865–1899) as a corruption of the lyrics "green grow" in either "Green Grow the Lilacs" or "Green Grow the Rushes, O" sung by American soldiers or cowboys; nor did it originate during any of these times as a corruption of "Green go home!", falsely said to have been shouted at green-clad American troops, or of "green coats" as a description of their uniforms. The word originally simply meant "foreigner" and is probably a corruption of Spanish griego, "Greek". +Redneck: A "sometimes disparaging" term for a "white member of the Southern rural laboring class." Several sources have reported an incorrect origin story for the term as used in this sense: that it was first used to describe striking miners who tied red bandanas around their necks during the Battle of Blair Mountain in 1921. However, The Oxford English Dictionary attests to uses in the relevant sense at least as early as 1830. +Spic: The word "spic" (a pejorative term for a Latino) did not originate as an abbreviation of "Hispanic"; nor as an acronym for "Spanish, Indian, and Colored" (in reference to minority races in the United States); nor as an acronym for "Spanish, Polish, Italian, and Chinese", falsely said to have been used by U.S. immigration officials in the 1940s, 1950s, or 1960s to categorize citizenship applications. The American Heritage Dictionary claims that the word is derived from "spiggoty", possibly from the Spanglish phrase "No speak the English". +Wog: The cacophemism "wog", for a foreigner or person of colour, is sometimes believed to be an acronym for "wily Oriental gentleman". It is more likely to be a shortening of "golliwog". +Wop: The word "wop" (a pejorative term for an Italian) is not an acronym for "without passport" or "working off passage". It is a corruption of dialectal Italian guappo, "thug". + +== Acronyms == +The use of acronyms to create new words was nearly non-existent in English until the middle of the 20th century. Nearly all older words were formed in other ways. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c80643a1c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of common false etymologies of English words" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +[Military] Brat: Not an acronym for "British Regiment Attached Traveller". This is just a specific instance of the word brat, meaning child or offspring, first attested in 16th-century Scotland. +"Chav": see under "Other" +Coma: Some falsely believe that the word coma originates from "cessation of motor activity". Although this describes the condition of coma, this is not the true derivation. The word is actually derived from the Greek kōma, meaning deep sleep. +Fuck: see under "Profanity" +Golf: did not originate as an acronym of "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden". The word's true origin is unknown, but it existed in the Middle Scots period. +News: The word news has been claimed to be an acronym of the four cardinal directions (north, east, west, and south). However, old spellings of the word varied widely (e.g., newesse, newis, nevis, neus, newys, niewes, newis, nues, etc.). Additionally, an identical term exists in French, "les nouvelles", which translates as the plural of "the new". "News" also does not stand for "notable events, weather, and sports". The word "news" is simply a plural form of new, and is attested in this sense from the early 15th century. +Pom or pommy is an Australian English, New Zealand English, and South African English term for a person of British descent or origin. The exact origins of the term remain obscure (see here for further information). A legend persists that the term arises from the acronym P.O.M.E., for "prisoner of Mother England" (or P.O.H.M, "prisoners of His/Her Majesty"), although there is no evidence to support this assertion. +Posh was not an acronym for wealthy British passengers getting "port out, starboard home" cabins on ocean liners to India, in order to get ocean breeze. It probably derives from 19th-century slang for a dandy and was originally an underworld slang term for money. +Rap was not an acronym for "random acts of poetry" used as speech-lyrics in contemporary music. The word means "to utter forcefully" and appeared as early as 1541. +Shit: see under "Profanity" +Swag is not an acronym for "stuff we all get," "secretly we are gay," or anything else. It comes from early-19th-century slang for a thief's booty or loot. +Tip is not derived from the phrase "to insure promptness" (prompt service). The word originated in the 17th century and is of uncertain origin. +Wog and wop: see under "Ethnic slurs" + +== Idioms == +Brass monkey weather does not refer to cold temperatures causing cannon balls to fall off a brass rack; shot was not stored in that way. An 1857 version of the idiom is "It would freeze the tail off a brass monkey", and probably refers to a common type of tourist souvenir. +Rule of thumb is not derived from a medieval constraint on the thickness of an object with which one might beat one's wife. More likely it means that the thumb can be used to measure an approximate inch. +Whole nine yards: The actual origin of the phrase "the whole nine yards" is a mystery, and nearly all claimed explanations are easily proven false. Incorrect explanations include the length of machine gun belts, the capacity of concrete mixers (in cubic yards), various types of fabric, and many other explanations. All are probably false, since most rely on nine yards when evidence suggests that the phrase began as "the whole six yards". In addition, the phrase appeared in print as early as 1907, while many explanations require a much later date of origin. + +== Other == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a56a6c203 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "List of common false etymologies of English words" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +420 did not originate as the Los Angeles police or penal code for marijuana use. Police Code 420 is "juvenile disturbance", and Penal Code 420 defines the prevention, hindrance, or obstruction of legal "entry, settlement, or residence" on "any tract of public land" as a misdemeanor. Some LA police codes that do relate to illegal drugs include 10-50 ("under influence of drugs"), 966 ("drug deal"), 11300 ("narcotics"), and 23105 ("driver under narcotics"). The number's association with marijuana originated with a group of students who would meet on the campus of San Rafael High School at 4:20 pm to smoke. Adamant is often believed to have come from Latin adamare, meaning to love to excess. It is in fact derived from Greek ἀδάμας, meaning indomitable. There was a further confusion about whether the substance referred to is diamond or lodestone. Buck: The use of "buck" to mean "dollar" did not originate from a practice of referring to African slaves as "bucks" (male deer) when trading. "Buck" was originally short for "buckskin", as buckskins were used in trade. Butterfly: The word "butterfly" did not originate from "flutterby". It is, as it appears, a compound of "butter" and "fly", first formed in Old English: it comes from the Middle English word butterflye, which in turn comes from the Old English word butorflēoge. Chav: This pejorative UK term for a person of low social class or graces does not originate from "Chatham-" or "Cheltenham Average", nor is it an acronym for "Council Housed And Violent". It comes from a word meaning "boy" in the Romani language. Crowbar: A "crowbar" is not so named for its use by Black menial workers, but rather for its forked end, which resembles a crow's foot. Easter: The name of the holiday has no connection to the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar nor its likely analog Astarte. Its Old English name Eostre was derived from the same etymology as the direction "east," both based upon the dawn of the sun, and may or may not have shared a name with a pagan goddess. In the Latin language that dominated Western Christianity until the Reformation, along with the Romance languages that evolved from Latin, Easter is named "Pascha" or some derivative thereof, from the name of Passover. Emoji: These pictographic characters are often mistakenly believed to be a simplified form of the word emoticon, itself a portmanteau of "emotion icon". However, emoji is a Japanese term composed from "e" (image) and "moji" (character). Faggot: The origin of the slur usage of the word "faggot" (originally referring to a bundle of firewood) may be from the term for women used in a similar way to "baggage", i.e. something heavy to be dealt with. The usage may also have been influenced by the British term "fag", meaning a younger schoolboy who acts as an older schoolboy's servant. Female and male: the terms have different etymologies. Male originates from Old French masle, a shortened form of Latin masculus. Female originates from Medieval Latin femella, a diminutive of femina. The fluorescent lamp did not derive its name from the fictional Filipino inventor Agapito Flores. Handicap: The word "handicap" did not originate as a metathetic corruption of "cap in hand" in reference to disabled beggars. The word originally referred to the game hand-i'-cap, in which forfeits were placed in a cap to equalize the game. Helicopter is often erroneously thought to consist of heli- and -copter, while in fact it stems from the greek helix-, meaning spiral, and -pter, meaning wing. Hiccough, an alternate spelling still encountered for hiccup, originates in an assumption that the second syllable was originally cough. The word is in fact onomatopoeic in origin. History does not derive from "His story" (that is, a version of the past from which the acts of women and girls are systemically excluded) but from the Greek word ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry." +Innocent: often wrongly believed to have the original meaning of "not knowing", as if it came from Latin noscere (to know); in fact it comes from nocere (to harm), and the primary sense is "harmless". Isle and island: The word "isle" is not short for "island", nor is the word "island" an extension of "isle"; the words are unrelated. "Isle" comes ultimately from Latin īnsula, meaning "island"; "island" comes ultimately from Old English īegland, also meaning "island", or technically "island land" (cf. Icelandic ey "island"). The spelling island with an S, however, is indeed due to the influence of isle. Marmalade: there is an apocryphal story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache, and that the name is derived from her maids' whisper of "Marie est malade" (Mary is ill). In fact it is derived from Portuguese marmelada, meaning quince jam, and then expanded from quince jam to other fruit preserves. It is found in English-language sources written before Mary was even born. Nasty: The term nasty was not derived from the surname of Thomas Nast as a reference to his biting, vitriolic cartoons. The word may be related to the Dutch word nestig, or "dirty". It predates Nast by several centuries, appearing in the most famous sentence of Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan, that in the state of nature, the life of man is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". That work was published in 1651, whereas Nast was born in 1840. Niggardly: The word "niggardly", meaning stingy or miserly, is not actually related to the racial slur "nigger", despite the similar sound. Like "niggle", it may derive from Old Norse nigla, meaning "to fuss about small matters"; alternatively, it may derive from another Germanic root meaning "exact" or "careful". Meanwhile, "nigger", like "Negro", traces back to Latin niger, meaning "black". Nonce (in computing): despite claims that the word is a portmanteau of "number used once" or similar, the term actually dates to Middle English and originates from rebracketing "then anes" ("the one [purpose]"). Picnic: The word "picnic" did not originate as an abbreviation of "pick a nigger", a phrase falsely claimed to have been used by white families at community lynchings in the 19th century. "Picnic" comes from 17th-century French piquenique, which is of uncertain origin. Pumpernickel is said to have been given the name by a French man (sometimes Napoleon) referring to his horse, Nicole—"Il étoit bon pour Nicole" ("It was good enough for Nicole"), or "C'est une pomme pour Nicole" ("It's an apple for Nicole") or "C'est du pain pour Nicole" ("It's bread for Nicole"). Some dictionaries claim a derivation from the German vernacular Pumpern (fart) and "Nick" (demon or devil), though others disagree. Sincere does not originate from Latin sine cera ("without wax"), but from sincerus ("true, genuine"), which combines roots meaning "single" and "grow". Snob does not originate from Latin sine nobilitate ("without nobility"). Till is not an abbreviation of "until", though the increasingly common spelling 'til is a result of this misconception. In fact, "till" is the older word; "until" is a compound of "till" and the Old Norse prefix "und-" ("up to", "as far as"), just as "unto" is a compound of that prefix and "to". Welsh rarebit has been claimed to be the original spelling of the savoury dish "Welsh rabbit". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2de7ac25b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "List of common false etymologies of English words" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Both forms now have currency, though the form with "rabbit" is in fact the original. Furthermore, the word "Welsh" in this context was used in a pejorative sense, meaning "foreign" or "substandard", and does not indicate that the dish originated in Wales. Wi-Fi is not short-form for 'Wireless Fidelity,' although it was likely co-opting the similar phrase of the time, Hi-Fi, referring to High Fidelity audio systems. Woman does not originate from "woven from man", nor from "womb". It came from the Old English wifmann ("woman human"), a compound of wif ("woman" – cf. "wife") + man ("human being"). Adult human males were called wer (as in weregeld and world, and also the first element in "werewolf", man-wolf). Mann, the word for "person", eventually came to be used for adult human males specifically. Both "wer" and "wyf" may be used to qualify "man", as in this Old English example: +God gesceop ða æt fruman twegen men, wer and wif (then at the beginning, God created two human beings, man and woman) +Yankee does not originate from the Cherokee word eankke meaning "coward". The word does not exist in the Cherokee language. It also does not come from a native tribe called the Yankoo meaning "invincible". No tribe has existed under that name. The word probably has Dutch origins. + +== See also == +List of common English usage misconceptions +List of common misconceptions + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3e5342ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,229 @@ +--- +title: "List of consonants" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of all the consonants which have a dedicated letter in the International Phonetic Alphabet, plus some of the consonants which require diacritics, ordered by place and manner of articulation. + +== Ordered by place of articulation == + +=== Labial consonants === +(articulated by using the lips) + +==== Bilabial consonants ==== +bilabial clicks e.g. [kʘ] +bilabial nasal [m] (man) +bilabial ejective [pʼ] +voiced bilabial implosive [ɓ] +voiceless bilabial plosive [p] (spin) +voiced bilabial plosive [b] (bed) +voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ] +voiced bilabial affricate [bβ] +voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] +voiced bilabial fricative [β] +bilabial approximant [β̞] +bilabial trill [ʙ] +bilabial percussive [ʬ] + +==== Labiodental consonants ==== +labiodental approximant [ʋ] +labiodental nasal [ɱ] (symphony) +voiced labiodental fricative [v] (van) +Voiced labiodental plosive [b̪] +Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v] +voiceless labiodental fricative [f] (fan) +voiceless rounded velarized labiodental fricative [ɧ] +Voiceless labiodental plosive [p̪] +Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f] + +=== Bidental consonants === +voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] + +=== Coronal consonants === +(articulated by using the tip of the tongue) + +==== Dental consonants ==== +dental clicks e.g. [kǀ] +dental lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ̪] +dental ejective [t̪ʼ] +dental nasal [n̪] +voiced dental fricative [ð] (this) +voiced dental implosive [ɗ̪] +voiced dental plosive [d̪] +voiceless bidental fricative +voiceless dental fricative [θ] (thing) +voiceless dental plosive [t̪] +bidental percussive [ʭ] + +==== Alveolar consonants ==== +alveolar lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ] +alveolar approximant [ɹ] (red) +alveolar ejective [tʼ] +alveolar ejective fricative [sʼ] +alveolar flap [ɾ] +alveolar lateral approximant [l] (lead) +alveolar lateral flap [ɺ] +alveolar nasal [n] (none) +alveolar trill [r] +velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ] +voiced alveolar fricative [z] (zoo) +voiced alveolar implosive [ɗ] +voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ] +voiced alveolar plosive [d] (done) +voiced alveolar affricate [d͡z] +voiceless alveolar grooved fricative [s] (son) +voiceless alveolar retroflex fricative [s̠] +voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] +voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] +voiceless alveolar plosive [t] (ton) +voiceless alveolar affricate [t͡s] +voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [t͡ɬ] +ejective alveolar lateral affricate [t͡ɬʼ] +voiced alveolar lateral affricate [d͡ɮ] + +==== Postalveolar consonants ==== +(post)alveolar clicks e.g. [kǃ] +voiced palato-alveolar affricate [dʒ] (jug) +voiced palato-alveolar fricative [ʒ] (vision) +voiceless palato-alveolar affricate [tʃ] (chip) +voiceless palato-alveolar fricative [ʃ] (ship) + +===== Palatalized postalveolar consonants ===== +voiced palatalized postalveolar fricative [ʑ] +voiceless palatalized postalveolar fricative [ɕ] +voiced palatalized postalveolar affricate [d͡ʑ] +voiceless palatalized postalveolar affricate [t͡ɕ] + +===== Retroflex consonants ===== +retroflex clicks e.g. [k𝼊 ] (commonly written ⟨[k‼]⟩) +retroflex approximant [ɻ ] +retroflex flap [ɽ] +retroflex lateral flap [𝼈 ] +retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ ] +voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ] +retroflex nasal [ɳ ] +voiced retroflex fricative [ʐ ] +voiced retroflex plosive [ɖ ] +voiced retroflex affricate [d͜ʐ ] +voiceless retroflex fricative [ʂ] +voiceless retroflex plosive [ʈ] +voiceless retroflex affricate [t͜ʂ], + +=== Dorsal consonants === +(articulated with the middle of the tongue) + +==== Palatal consonants ==== +palatal clicks e.g. [kǂ] +palatal approximant [j] (yes) +palatal ejective [cʼ] +palatal lateral approximant [ʎ] +voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆] +palatal nasal [ɲ] +voiced palatal fricative [ʝ] +voiced palatal implosive [ʄ] +voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] +voiceless palatal fricative [ç] (human, but not hum) +voiceless palatal plosive [c] +voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c͡𝼆] +ejective palatal lateral affricate [c͡𝼆ʼ] + +===== Labialized palatal consonants ===== +labialized palatal approximant [ɥ] [jʷ] + +==== Velar consonants ==== +velar approximant [ɰ] +velar ejective [kʼ] +velar lateral approximant [ʟ] +voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄] +voiced velar fricative [ɣ] +voiced velar implosive [ɠ ] +voiced velar plosive [ɡ] (get) +voiceless velar fricative [x] +voiceless velar plosive [k] (kick, cat) +ejective velar lateral affricate [k͡𝼄ʼ] + +===== Labialized velar consonants ===== +voiced labialized velar approximant [w] (witch) +voiceless labialized velar approximant [ʍ] (which, in some dialects) + +===== Labial–velar consonants ===== +voiceless labial–velar plosive [kp] +voiced labial–velar plosive [ɡb] +labial-velar nasal [ŋm] +voiceless labial-velar implosive [ɠ̊͜ɓ̥] +voiced labial-velar implosive [ɠ͡ɓ] + +==== Uvular consonants ==== +uvular ejective [qʼ] +uvular nasal [ɴ] +uvular trill [ʀ] +voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] +voiced uvular implosive [ʛ] +voiced uvular plosive [ɢ] +voiceless uvular fricative [χ] +voiceless uvular plosive [q] + +===== Labial–uvular consonants ===== +voiceless labial–uvular plosive [qp] + +=== Laryngeal consonants === +(articulated with the throat) + +==== Pharyngeal and epiglottal consonants ==== +pharyngeal plosive [ʡ] +voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ] +voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ] +voiced pharyngeal trill [ʢ] +voiceless pharyngeal trill [ʜ] + +===== Uvular-epiglottal consonants ===== +voiceless uvular-epiglottal plosive [q͡ʡ] + +==== Glottal consonants ==== +voiceless glottal affricate [ʔh] +murmured glottal affricate [ʔɦ] +murmured glottal fricative or transition & approximant [ɦ] +voiceless glottal fricative or transition & approximant [h] +glottal plosive [ʔ] +creaky-voiced glottal approximant [˷] + +== Ordered by manner of articulation == +Pulmonic consonants + +=== Nasal (stop) consonants === +bilabial nasal [m] +voiceless bilabial nasal [m̥] +labiodental nasal [ɱ] +dental nasal [n̪] +alveolar nasal [n] +voiceless alveolar nasal [n̥] +retroflex nasal [ɳ ] +voiceless retroflex nasal [ɳ̊ ] +palatal nasal [ ɲ] +voiceless palatal nasal [ ɲ̥] +velar nasal [ŋ] +voiceless velar nasal [ŋ̊] +uvular nasal [ɴ] + +=== Plosive (stop) consonants === +voiceless bilabial plosive [p] +voiced bilabial plosive [b] +voiceless dental plosive [t̪] +voiced dental plosive [d̪] +voiceless alveolar plosive [t] +voiced alveolar plosive [d] +voiceless retroflex plosive [ʈ] +voiced retroflex plosive [ɖ] +voiceless palatal plosive [c] +voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] +voiceless velar plosive [k] +voiced velar plosive [ɡ] +voiceless uvular plosive [q] +voiced uvular plosive [ɢ] +epiglottal plosive [ʡ] +glottal plosive [ʔ] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9cdd5009a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,260 @@ +--- +title: "List of consonants" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Fricative consonants === +Sibilant fricatives +voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] +voiced alveolar sibilant [z] +voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant [ ʃ ] +voiced palato-alveolar sibilant [ʒ] +voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (palatalized postalveolar) [ɕ] +voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant [ʑ] +voiceless retroflex sibilant [ʂ] +voiced retroflex sibilant [ʐ ] +Central non-sibilant fricatives +voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] +voiced bilabial fricative [β] +voiceless labiodental fricative [f] +voiced labiodental fricative [v] +voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] +voiceless dental fricative [θ] +voiced dental fricative [ð] +voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] +voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative [ɹ̝] +voiceless palatal fricative [ç] +voiced palatal fricative [ ʝ] +voiceless velar fricative [x] +voiced velar fricative [ɣ] +voiceless uvular fricative [χ] +voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ] +voiceless epiglottal fricative [ʜ] +voiceless palatal-velar fricative (not possible) [ɧ] +Lateral fricatives +voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] +voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ] +voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ] +voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆]) +voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄]) +voiced velar lateral fricative [ʟ̝] +both fricatives and approximants +voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] +voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ] +voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] +Pseudo-fricatives +voiceless glottal fricative [h] +voiced glottal fricative (murmured) [ɦ] + +=== Affricate consonants === +Sibilant affricates +voiceless postalveolar affricate [tʃ] +voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒ] +voiceless alveolar affricate [ts] +voiced alveolar affricate [dz] +voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate [ʨ] +voiced alveolo-palatal affricate [dʑ] +voiceless retroflex affricate [tʂ] +voiced retroflex affricate [dʐ] +Fricated alveolar clicks [kǃᶴ] (also voiced, nasalized, etc.) +Non-sibilant affricates +Voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ] +Voiceless bilabial-labiodental affricate [pf] +Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f] +Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v] +Voiceless dental affricate [t̪θ] +Voiced dental affricate [d̪ð] +Voiceless retroflex nonsibilant affricate [tɻ̝̊ ] +Voiced retroflex nonsibilant affricate [dɻ̝ ] +voiceless palatal affricate [cç] +voiced palatal affricate [ɟʝ] +Voiceless velar affricate [kx] +Voiced velar affricate [ɡɣ] +Voiceless uvular affricate [qχ] +Voiced uvular affricate [ɢʁ] +Voiceless epiglottal affricate [ʡʜ] +Lateral affricates +voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [tɬ] +voiced alveolar lateral affricate [dɮ] +Voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆] +Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate [tꞎ] +Voiceless velar lateral affricate [k𝼄] +Voiced velar lateral affricate [ɡʟ̝] + +=== Approximant consonants === +bilabial approximant [β̞] +labiodental approximant [ʋ] +dental approximant [ð̞] +alveolar approximant [ɹ] +alveolar lateral approximant [l ] +velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ] +retroflex approximant [ɻ ] +retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ] +palatal approximant [j] +palatal lateral approximant [ʎ] +nasal palatal approximant [ȷ̃] +labialized palatal approximant [ɥ] [jʷ] +velar approximant [ɰ] +velar lateral approximant [ʟ] +labialized velar approximant (voiced) [w] +voiceless labialized velar approximant [ʍ] +nasal labialized velar approximant [w̃] +uvular approximant [ʁ̞] +pharyngeal approximant [ʕ̞] +epiglottal approximant [ʢ̞] +voiced glottal approximant (murmured) [ɦ̞] +voiceless glottal approximant [h̞] +voiceless nasal glottal approximant [h̃] + +=== Flap (tap) consonants === +bilabial flap [ⱱ̟] +labiodental flap [ⱱ] +alveolar flap [ɾ] +alveolar lateral flap [ɺ] +retroflex flap [ɽ] +retroflex lateral flap [𝼈 ] +palatal lateral flap [ʎ̮] +uvular flap [ɢ̆] +velar lateral flap [ʟ̆] +epiglottal flap [ʡ̮] + +=== Trill consonants === +bilabial trill [ʙ] +alveolar trill [r] +alveolar fricative trill [r̝] +retroflex trill +uvular trill [ʀ] +epiglottal trill + +=== Lateral consonants === +Approximants +Alveolar lateral approximant [l] +Velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ] +Fricatives +Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] +Voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ] +Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ] +Voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆] +Voiced velar lateral fricative [ʟ̝] +Voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄] +Affricates +Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [tɬ] +Voiced alveolar lateral affricate [dɮ] +Voiceless palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆] +Ejective palatal lateral affricate [c𝼆ʼ] +Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate [tꞎ ] +Ejective retroflex lateral affricate [tꞎʼ] +Voiced velar lateral affricate [ɡʟ̝] +Voiceless velar lateral affricate [k𝼄] +Ejective velar lateral affricate [k𝼄ʼ] +Flaps +Alveolar lateral flap [ɺ] +Retroflex lateral flap [𝼈 ] +Palatal lateral flap [ʎ̯] +Ejective +Alveolar lateral ejective fricative [ɬʼ] +Clicks +Dental lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ̪] +Alveolar lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ] + +=== Ejective consonants === +Plosives +bilabial ejective [pʼ] +dental ejective [t̪ʼ] +alveolar ejective [tʼ] +retroflex ejective [ʈʼ] +palatal ejective [cʼ] +velar ejective [kʼ] +uvular ejective [qʼ] +Affricates +alveolar ejective affricate [t͜sʼ] +palato-alveolar ejective affricate [t͜ʃʼ] +retroflex ejective affricate [t͜ʂʼ] +alveolo-palatal ejective affricate [t͜ɕʼ] +dental ejective affricate [t͜θʼ] +palatal lateral ejective affricate [c͜𝼆ʼ] +velar ejective affricate [k͜xʼ] +uvular ejective affricate [q͜χʼ] +alveolar lateral ejective affricate [t͜ɬʼ] +velar lateral ejective affricate [k͜𝼄ʼ] +Fricatives +bilabial ejective fricative [ɸʼ] +labiodental ejective fricative [fʼ] +dental ejective fricative [θʼ] +alveolar ejective fricative [sʼ] +palato-alveolar ejective fricative [ ʃʼ] +alveolo-palatal ejective fricative [ɕʼ] +retroflex ejective fricative [ʂʼ] +palatal ejective fricative [çʼ] +velar ejective fricative [xʼ] +uvular ejective fricative [χʼ] +alveolar lateral ejective fricative [ɬʼ] + +=== Implosive consonants === +voiced bilabial implosive [ɓ] +voiceless bilabial implosive [ƥ] +voiced dental implosive [ɗ̪ ] +voiced alveolar implosive [ɗ ] +voiceless alveolar implosive [ƭ] +voiced retroflex implosive [ᶑ ] +voiced palatal implosive [ ʄ ] +voiceless palatal implosive [ƈ ] +voiced velar implosive [ɠ ] +voiceless velar implosive [ƙ] +voiced uvular implosive [ʛ ] +voiceless uvular implosive [ʠ ] + +=== Labialized consonants === +Plosives +voiceless labialized velar plosive [kʷ] +voiced labialized velar plosive [ɡʷ] +Voiceless labialized labial-velar plosive [k͜pʷ] +voiceless labialized uvular plosive [qʷ] +voiced labialized uvular plosive [ɢʷ] +Fricatives +voiceless labialized velar fricative [xʷ] [ʍ] +voiced labialized velar fricative [ɣʷ] +voiceless labialized uvular fricative [χʷ] +voiced labialized uvular fricative [ʁʷ] +Approximants +labialized palatal approximant [ɥ] [jʷ] +(voiced) labialized velar approximant [w] [ɰʷ] +voiceless labialized velar approximant [ʍ] [w̥] +nasal labialized velar approximant [w̃] + +=== Palatalized consonants === +voiced palatalized postalveolar fricative [ʑ] +voiceless palatalized postalveolar fricative [ɕ] +voiced palatalized postalveolar affricate [d̠͜ʑ] +voiceless palatalized postalveolar affricate [t̠͜ɕ] +voiceless palatalized velar plosive [kʲ] + +=== Pharyngealized consonants === +voiceless pharyngealized alveolar sibilant [sˤ] +voiced pharyngealized alveolar sibilant [zˤ] +voiceless pharyngealized alveolar plosive [tˤ] +voiced pharyngealized alveolar plosive [dˤ] +voiceless pharyngealized dental fricative [θˤ] +voiced pharyngealized dental fricative [ðˤ] +voiceless pharyngealized alveolar lateral fricative [ɬˤ] +voiced pharyngealized alveolar lateral fricative [ɮˤ] +pharyngealized glottal stop [ʔˤ] +pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant [lˤ] +pharyngealized alveolar nasal [nˤ] + +=== Velarized consonants === +Voiceless velarized alveolar sibilant [sˠ] +Voiced velarized dental fricative [ðˠ] +Voiceless velarized alveolar plosive [tˠ] +Velarized alveolar flap [ɾˠ] +Voiceless velarized uvular plosive [qˠ] +Voiceless velarized uvular fricative [χˠ] +Voiced velarized uvular fricative [ʁˠ] +Voiceless velarized alveolar lateral fricative [ɬˠ] +Voiced velarized alveolar lateral fricative [ɮˠ] +Velarized alveolar lateral approximant [ɫ] [lˠ] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a299132d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,134 @@ +--- +title: "List of consonants" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Glottalized consonants === + +==== Reinforced airstream ==== +Voiceless labioglottal plosive[ʔᵖ] +Voiceless alveologlottal plosive[ʔᵗ] +Voiceless veloglottal plosive[ʔᵏ] + +==== Blocked airstream ==== +Voiced glottalized alveolar nasal [nˀ] +Voiced glottalized alveolar plosive [tˀ] +Voiced glottalized dental fricative [ðˀ] + +==== Restricted airstream ==== +Creaky-voiced bilabial nasal [m̰] + +==== Whispery voice ==== +Breathy-voiced bilabial nasal [mʱ] +Breathy-voiced bilabial plosive [bʱ] +Breathy-voiced alveolar plosive [dʱ] +Breathy-voiced velar plosive [gʱ] + +=== Click consonants === +The less common clicks, such as are found in Taa, are not included. + +Simple clicks +bilabial clicks (= ⟨ɋ⟩) +either velar: +voiceless bilabial click [ᵏʘ] +voiced bilabial click [ᶢʘ] +bilabial nasal click [ᵑʘ] +or uvular: +[𐞥ʘ], [𐞒ʘ], [ᶰʘ] +dental clicks (= ⟨ʇ⟩) +either velar: +voiceless dental click [ᵏǀ] +voiced dental click [ᶢǀ] +dental nasal click [ᵑǀ] +or uvular: +[𐞥ǀ], [𐞒ǀ], [ᶰǀ] +(post)alveolar click (= ⟨ʗ⟩) +either velar: +voiceless alveolar click [ᵏǃ] +voiced alveolar click [ᶢǃ] +alveolar nasal click [ᵑǃ] +or uvular: +[𐞥ǃ], [𐞒ǃ], [ᶰǃ] +alveolar lateral clicks (= ⟨ʖ⟩) +either velar: +voiceless alveolar lateral click [ᵏǁ] +voiced alveolar lateral click [ᶢǁ] +alveolar lateral nasal click [ᵑǁ] +or uvular: +[𐞥ǁ], [𐞒ǁ], [ᶰǁ] +retroflex clicks (= ⟨ψ⟩) +either velar: +voiceless retroflex click [ᵏ𝼊 ] +voiced retroflex click [ᶢ𝼊 ] +retroflex nasal click [ᵑ𝼊 ] +or uvular: +[𐞥𝼊 ], [𐞒𝼊 ], [ᶰ𝼊 ] +palatal clicks (= ⟨ 𝼋 ⟩) +either velar: +voiceless palatal click [ᵏǂ] +voiced palatal click [ᶢǂ] +palatal nasal click [ᵑǂ] +or uvular: +[𐞥ǂ], [𐞒ǂ], [ᶰǂ] +Glottalized clicks +velar (uvular clicks not shown): +glottalized bilabial nasal click [ᵑ̊ʘˀ] +glottalized dental nasal click [ᵑ̊ǀˀ] +glottalized alveolar nasal click [ᵑ̊ǃˀ] +glottalized alveolar lateral nasal click [ᵑ̊ǁˀ] +glottalized retroflex nasal click [ᵑ̊𝼊ˀ] +glottalized palatal nasal click [ᵑ̊ǂˀ] +Pulmonic-contour clicks +voiceless bilabial linguo-pulmonic stop [ʘ͡q] +voiced bilabial linguo-pulmonic stop [ʘ͡ɢ] +voiceless dental linguo-pulmonic stop [ǀ͡q] +voiced dental linguo-pulmonic stop [ǀ͡ɢ] +voiceless alveolar linguo-pulmonic stop [ǃ͡q] +voiced alveolar linguo-pulmonic stop [ǃ͡ɢ] +voiceless alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic stop [ǁ͡q] +voiced alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic stop [ǁ͡ɢ] +voiceless retroflex linguo-pulmonic stop [𝼊͡q] +voiced retroflex linguo-pulmonic stop [𝼊͡ɢ] +voiceless palatal linguo-pulmonic stop [ǂ͡q] +voiced palatal linguo-pulmonic stop [ǂ͡ɢ] +voiceless bilabial linguo-pulmonic affricate [ʘ͡χ] +voiced bilabial linguo-pulmonic affricate [ʘ͡ʁ] +voiceless dental linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǀ͡χ] +voiced dental linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǀ͡ʁ] +voiceless alveolar linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǃ͡χ] +voiced alveolar linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǃ͡ʁ] +voiceless alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǁ͡χ] +voiced alveolar lateral linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǁ͡ʁ] +voiceless retroflex linguo-pulmonic affricate [𝼊͡χ] +voiced retroflex linguo-pulmonic affricate [𝼊͡ʁ] +voiceless palatal linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǂ͡χ] +voiced palatal linguo-pulmonic affricate [ǂ͡ʁ] +Ejective-contour clicks +bilabial linguo-glottalic stop [ʘ͡qʼ] +dental linguo-glottalic stop [ǀ͡qʼ] +alveolar linguo-glottalic stop [ǃ͡qʼ] +alveolar lateral linguo-glottalic stop [ǁ͡qʼ] +retroflex linguo-glottalic stop [𝼊͡qʼ] +palatal linguo-glottalic stop [ǂ͡qʼ] +bilabial linguo-glottalic affricate [ʘ͡χʼ] +dental linguo-glottalic affricate [ǀ͡χʼ] +alveolar linguo-glottalic affricate [ǃ͡χʼ] +alveolar lateral linguo-glottalic affricate [ǁ͡χʼ] +retroflex linguo-glottalic affricate [𝼊͡χʼ] +palatal linguo-glottalic affricate [ǂ͡χʼ] + +=== Percussive consonants === +The bilabial and bidental percussives are not found in any language, but occur as phonetic detail or through speech defects. However, the sublaminal or sublingual percussive is found in Sandawe and in some dialects of Gan Chinese. + +bilabial percussive [ʬ] +bidental percussive [ʭ] +Sublaminal lower-alveolar percussive [¡] + +== See also == +Consonant +Index of phonetics articles \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67a4fe9b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "List of creators of writing systems" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:14.001648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an alphabetical list of any individuals, legendary or real, who are purported by traditions to have invented alphabets or other writing systems, whether this is proven or not. + +== A == +Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa – German alchemist, created the Transitus Fluvii, Malachim, and Celestial Alphabets, c. 1525. +Guru Angad – Sikh Guru, ascribed invention of Gurmukhi script c. 1539 according to tradition. +Anigouran – Tuareg folk hero, ascribed invention of Tifinagh according to tradition + +== B == +Celadet Bedir Khan – Kurd linguist, developed Bedirxan alphabet in 1932. +Alexander Melville Bell – American teacher, invented Visible Speech in 1867 +Anton Bezenšek – Slovenian linguist, developed Bezenšek Shorthand c. 1879 +Charles K. Bliss – Australian engineer, invented Blissymbolics c. 1949. +Lako Bodra – Indian railway clerk and community leader. Invented the Warang Citi script in the mid-1900s. +Robert Boyd – American, invented Boyd's Syllabic Shorthand in 1903. +Louis Braille – French teacher, invented Braille writing around 1821. +Frédéric Bruly Bouabré – Ivorian artist, invented the Bété syllabary in the mid-1950s. +Momolu Duwalu Bukele – Liberian, invented Vai syllabary around 1833. +John Byrom – British poet, invented a system of shorthand c. 1715. + +== C == +Cadmus – legendary Phoenician prince, ascribed invention of Greek alphabet c. 1350 BC (?) according to tradition. +Cangjie – legendary Chinese scribe, also ascribed invention of Chinese characters c. 2650 BC (?) according to tradition. +Carmenta – legendary Roman prophetess and mother of Evander, ascribed adoption of Greek alphabet to Latin alphabet c. 1250 BC (?) according to tradition. +Chao Yuen Ren – Chinese-American linguist, led the development of Gwoyeu Romatzyh in 1925–6. +Saint Clement of Ohrid – Archbishop, ascribed invention of Cyrillic c. 900, according to tradition. +Saint Cyril – Byzantine monk, believed to have created Glagolitic alphabet c. 863. + +== D == +John Dee – English alchemist and mathematician, invented an Enochian alphabet (not to be confused with that of Pantheus) c. 1582. +Émile Duployé – French abbot, inventor of Duployan shorthand, 1868. +Reginald John Garfield Dutton – British, invented Dutton Speedwords shorthand in 1922. + +== E == +C.C. Elian (artist) – invented Elian script, c. 1980s, a transformation of the Latin alphabet into lines and dashes, allowing for multiple variations of the same word. +Enmerkar – legendary Sumerian king, ascribed invention of cuneiform c. 2300 BC (?) according to Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta epic. +Enos – Biblical patriarch, ascribed introduction of consonantal Ge'ez alphabet c. 3350 BC (?) according to tradition. +James Evans – Canadian missionary, invented a syllabary used for Ojibwe and Cree c. 1840, these days referred to as Cree syllabics. + +== F == +Scott Fahlman – American computer scientist, proposed the first smiley emoticon in 1982. +Assane Faye – Senegalese, invented the Garay alphabet for Wolof, 1961. +Fenius Farsa – legendary Scythian king, ascribed invention of Ogham writing c. 2000 BC (?) according to tradition. +Benjamin Franklin – American statesman, developed Benjamin Franklin's phonetic alphabet c. 1768. +Frumentius – Syrian saint who converted the African kingdom of Aksum to Christianity, traditionally credited with development of consonantal Ge'ez script into vocalic Ge'ez script in the mid 4th-century. +Fu Hsi – legendary Chinese king, ascribed invention of Chinese characters c. 2850 BC (?) according to tradition. + +== G == +Franz Xaver Gabelsberger – German secretary, invented Gabelsberger shorthand around 1817. +Mangei Gomango – Indian, invented Sorang Sompeng script in 1936. +John Robert Gregg – Irish author, invented Gregg Shorthand c. 1888. +Gregory of Durrës – Albanian monk, ascribed invention of the Elbasan script c. 1761 + +== H == +Thomas Harriot – English mathematician, invented phonetic alphabet for transcribing Carolina Algonquian language in 1584. +Hemadpant – A scholar from ancient India and Prime Minister in Yadava Dynasty, according to one theory invented the Modi Script that was used to write Marathi Language till 19th century before Devanagari was officially adopted to write Marathi. +Hildegard of Bingen – German nun, invented Litterae ignotae c. 1150. +Honorius of Thebes – possibly mythical author, ascribed invention of Theban alphabet c. 1220 (?). + +== K == +Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare – Somali, invented Kaddare script c. 1953. +Kisimi Kamara – Sierra Leonean tailor, invented Mende syllabary, Ki-ka-ku, in 1921. +Solomana Kante – Guinean author, invented the N'Ko alphabet in 1949. +Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, Serbian linguist, developed Serbian Cyrillic alphabet c. 1818, adapting Cyrillic alphabet. +Osman Yusuf Kenadid – Somali, invented Osmanya script c. 1921. +Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī – Persian mathematician, helped codify the Hindu–Arabic numeral system c. 825 +Ong Kommandam – Laotian freedom fighter, developed the Khom script, first used 1926. +Kūkai – Japanese monk, ascribed invention of Kana syllabary c. 806, according to tradition. +Shigetaka Kurita – Japanese designer, created the NTT DoCoMo emoji set. + +== L == +Jean-Marie-Raphaël Le Jeune – Canadian, created Chinook writing, 1893, an adaptation and expansion of Duployan. +Francis Lodwick – Dutch linguist, invented Universal Alphabet in 1686. +Karl Richard Lepsius – German linguist, developed Standard Alphabet by Lepsius c. 1855. +Lontanna Igwe Onduze – Nigerian software designer and artist, created the Ndèbe script c. 2008. + +== M == +Mani – Ancient Iranian prophet, invented Manichaean alphabet +Aulay Macaulay – English tea-dealer, who invented Polygraphy, a system of shorthand in 1747. +John R. Malone – American, developed the UNIFON alphabet c. 1955. +Mesrop Mashtots – Armenian monk, created the Armenian alphabet in c. 405. +Olof Melin – Swedish colonel, invented Melin Shorthand c. 1880. +Mongkut – Thai king, invented the Ariyaka script c. 1840s +Thomas More – English author, invented Utopian alphabet in 1516. +Adrien-Gabriel Morice – French, developed Carrier syllabary c. 1885. +Samuel F. B. Morse – American inventor, invented Morse code c. 1835. +Pandit Raghunath Murmu – Indian, created Ol Chiki script in 1925. + +== N == +Ibrahim Njoya – King of Bamum (Cameroon), invented Bamum script c. 1910. +Nurhaci (king), or possibly his translators Erdeni and Gagai ? – Manchurians, created Manchu alphabet in 1599. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6254014fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "List of creators of writing systems" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:14.001648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== O == +Odin/*Wōdanaz – the chief god in Scandinavian/Germanic paganism. Associated in the Hávamál with the origins of the Runic alphabet Futhark (Later Futhorc). +Ogma – legendary Irish deified chieftain, also ascribed invention of Ogham writing c. 1875 BC (?) according to tradition. + +== P == +Zaya Pandita – – Oirat lama, developed Todo script in 1648. +Paracelsus – Swiss alchemist, invented Alphabet of the Magi c. 1520. +Chögyal Phagpa – Tibetan monk, invented Phagspa script in 1269. +Pharnavaz I of Iberia – Iberian king, ascribed development of Georgian alphabet in 284 BC, according to tradition. +Francisco de Pina, and other Portuguese missionaries – created the Vietnamese alphabet c. 1620s. +Isaac Pitman – British teacher, invented Pitman shorthand in 1837. +Sam Pollard – British missionary, invented Pollard script in 1905. +Parley P. Pratt – American Mormon leader, developed Deseret alphabet with George D. Watt c. 1855. +George Psalmanazar – European impostor and scholar, invented a (fraudulent) Formosan alphabet in 1704. + +== R == +Ram Khamhaeng the Great – Thai king, ascribed invention of Thai alphabet in 1283, according to tradition. +Ronald Kingsley Read – British, invented the Shavian (early 1960s) and Quikscript (1966) writing systems. +Jeremiah Rich – English, invented a system of shorthand in 1654. +Ríg – (identified as Heimdall) gave the runes to his son, Jarl (Poetic Edda poem Rígsþula) Runic alphabet Futhark (Later Futhorc) c. 150 AD (?) per tradition. +Alexandre de Rhodes – Avignonese missionary, developed Vietnamese alphabet c. 1625, basing on works by Portuguese missionaries such as Francisco de Pina. + +== S == +Carl W. Salser – American teacher, developed Personal Shorthand with C. Theo Yerian. c. 1955. +Bakri Sapalo – Oromo poet, writer, and teacher from Ethiopia, invented an alphasyllabic script for the Oromo language c. 1956. +Johann Martin Schleyer – created three letters (ꞛ, ꞝ, and ꞟ) for his international auxiliary language Volapük at the end of the 19th century. +Sejong the Great – Korean king of Joseon, invented Hangul writing in c. 1443, promulgated in 1446. +Seol Chong – inventor of the Korean Idu script and Gugyeol script (c. 650 – c. 730), according to tradition. +Sequoyah, Cherokee silversmith, invented Cherokee syllabary c. 1819. +Seth, son of Adam, is mentioned in the Chronicle of Malalas as being the "first to invent Hebrew script and to write with it" +Sheikh Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur – Somali, invented Borama script c. 1933. +Srinivasa Chakravarthy – Indian researcher, led the creation of the Bharati script (2016) +Thomas Shelton – English translator, developed Short Writing, an early shorthand, in 1626. +Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche – Tibetan religious teacher of uncertain historicity, ascribed creation of the Dongba script by religious fables. +Shong Lue Yang – Hmong, created Pahawh Hmong alphabet in 1959 +Kai Staats – American filmmaker, created iConji in 2010. +Stephen of Perm – Russian missionary, invented the Old Permic alphabet in 1372. +Valerie Sutton – American choreographer, developed MovementWriting for transcribing dance in 1972 and SignWriting for transcribing sign languages in 1974. + +== T == +Tata-tonga was a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan from the Naimans and involved in bringing and adapting the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau in the form of the Mongolian script (Mongol bichig or hudum bichig). After his capture, he was invited to teach the Old Uyghur alphabet to members of the court, including the Khan's sons. +Taautus, legendary inventor of the Phoenician alphabet +Samuel Taylor – British, invented Universal Stenography system of shorthand in 1792. +Tenevil – Chukchi reindeer herder, developed a writing system for Chukchi language c. 1931. +Charles Allen Thomas – invented Thomas Natural Shorthand in 1935. +Thonmi Sambhota – legendary Tibetan scribe, ascribed invention of Tibetan script c. 650, according to tradition. +Thoth – mythical Egyptian deity, ascribed invention of Egyptian hieroglyphics c. 3000 BC (?) according to tradition. +John William Tims – Missionary, developed Blackfoot syllabary c. 1890. +Marcus Tullius Tiro – Roman secretary, ascribed invention of Tironian notes shorthand c. 63 BC, according to tradition. +J. R. R. Tolkien – British author, invented the Tengwar, Cirth and Sarati c. 1930 +Johannes Trithemius – German cryptographer, invented an "Angelic" (magical) alphabet in 1499. + +== U == +Ulfilas, Goth missionary, believed to have invented Gothic alphabet c. 350 AD, according to tradition. +Uyaquk – Yupik (Alaska Native) missionary, invented Yugtun script c. 1900. + +== V == +Naum Veqilharxhi – Albanian, invented the Vithkuqi alphabet in 1845. + +== W == +Wanyan Xiyin – Manchurian scribe, invented Jurchen script in 1120. +William Bell Wait – American teacher, invented New York Point system in 1868. +Diedrich Westermann – German missionary, developed Africa Alphabet in 1928. +George D. Watt – American Mormon leader, developed Deseret alphabet with Parley P. Pratt c. 1855. +W. John (or John W.) Weilgart – Austrian-born American psychoanalyst and philosopher; creator of the philosophical language aUI and its writing system. +John Wilkins – English academic. Invented the so-called 'real character' as a writing system for a proposed Philosophical language in 1668. + +== Y == +Yeli Renrong – Tangut scholar, invented Tangut script in 1036. +Yelü Diela – Manchurian scribe, ascribed creation of Khitan small script c. 925. + +== Z == +Zhang Binglin – Chinese linguist, invented shorthand that was developed into Zhuyin in 1913. +Zhou Youguang – Chinese linguist, invented Pinyin romanisation, 1958 +Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar – Mongolian monk, created Soyombo script in 1686 and Zanabazar square script. + +== See also == +List of constructed scripts +List of writing systems +List of language creators + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b3aaa073 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,228 @@ +--- +title: "List of departments of linguistics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:28.954162+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Australia +Australian National University [1] +La Trobe University [2] +Macquarie University [3] +Monash University [4] +University of Adelaide [5] +University of Melbourne [6] +University of Newcastle [7] +University of New England [8] +University of New South Wales [9] +University of Queensland [10] +University of Sydney [11] +University of Western Australia [12] +University of Western Sydney [13] + Bangladesh +University of Dhaka [14] + Brazil +Universidade de São Paulo [15] + Canada +Brock University [16] +Carleton University, Ottawa [17] (BA MA) [18] (MA) +Concordia University [19] +McGill University, Montréal [20] (BA MA PhD) +McMaster University [21] +Memorial University of Newfoundland [22] +Simon Fraser University [23] +Trinity Western University [24] +Université de Montréal [25] (BA MA PhD) +Université du Québec à Chicoutimi [26] (BA MA) +Université du Québec à Montréal (BA MA PhD) [27] +Université Laval [28] (BA MA PhD) +University of Alberta [29] +University of British Columbia [30] +University of Calgary [31] +University of Manitoba [32] (BA MA PhD) +University of Ottawa, Ottawa [33] (BA MA PhD) +University of Saskatchewan [34] +University of Toronto, Toronto [35] (BA MA PhD) +University of Victoria [36] +York University, Toronto [37] (BA MA PhD) + Croatia +University of Zadar [38] +University of Zagreb [39] + Czech Republic +Charles University in Prague [40] + Denmark +Aarhus University [41] +University of Copenhagen [42] + Estonia +Tallinn University [43] +University of Tartu [44] + Finland +University of Jyväskylä [45] + Germany +Bielefeld University [46] +University of Cologne [47] +University of Leipzig [48] +Saarland University [49] +University of Erlangen-Nuremberg [50] +University of Potsdam [51] +University of Tübingen [52] + Hong Kong +The University of Hong Kong [53] +The Chinese University of Hong Kong [54] +City University of Hong Kong [55] + India +English and Foreign Languages University [56] +University of Hyderabad +Jawaharlal Nehru University +Delhi University +Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute + Iran +University of Tehran [57] +Allameh Tabatabaee University[58] +Bu-Ali Sina University[59] +Isfahan University[60] +Ferdowsi University of Mashhad[61] +Tarbiat Modares University[62] +Shiraz University[63] +Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies[64](MA PhD) +University of Birjand[65] + Netherlands +Leiden University [66] +Radboud University Nijmegen [67] + New Zealand +University of Canterbury [68] + Portugal +New University of Lisbon [69] + Russia +Moscow State University [70] +Saint Petersburg State University [71] + Serbia +University of Belgrade [72] + Singapore +Nanyang Technological University [73] + Slovenia +University of Ljubljana [74] (BA MA PhD) + Sweden +Stockholm University [75] +University of Gothenburg [76] +Uppsala University [77] + Switzerland +University of Berne [78] +University of Zurich [79] + Thailand +Chulalongkorn University [80] (MA PhD) +King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi +Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University (MA) +Mahidol University (MA PhD) +Naresuan University [81] (MA PhD) +Payap University [82] (MA) +Srinakharinwirot University [83] (MA) +Thammasat University [84] (BA MA PhD) + Turkey +Boğaziçi University [85] +Hacettepe University [86] +Ankara University [87] + United Kingdom +Bangor University [88] +University of Cambridge [89] +University of Edinburgh [90] +University of Essex [91] +Lancaster University [92] +University of Oxford [93] +Queen Mary, University of London [94] +SOAS, University of London [95] +University of York [96] +University College London [97] +York St John University [98] + United States +Boston University [99] +Brigham Young University [100] +Brandeis University [101] +Brown University [102] +Bucknell University [103] +California State University, Long Beach [104] +California State University, Northridge [105] +Carleton College [106] +Columbia University [107] +Cornell University [108] (BA MA PhD) +Dartmouth College [109] +Duke University [110] +Gallaudet University +George Mason University [111] +Georgetown University [112] +George Washington University [113] +Georgia State University [114] +Harvard [115] +Iowa State University [116] +Indiana University [117] +Lawrence University [118] +M.I.T. [119] +Miami University [120] +Michigan State University [121] +New Mexico State University [122] +New York University [123] +Northeastern [124] +Northwestern University [125] +Ohio State University [126] +Pennsylvania State University [127] +Rice University [128] +Rutgers [129] +San Diego State University [130] +Southern Illinois University Carbondale [131] +Stanford [132] +Stony Brook University [133] +Swarthmore College [134] +Truman State University [135] +University at Buffalo [136] +University of Arizona [137] +University of California, Berkeley [138] +University of California, Davis [139] +University of California, Los Angeles [140] +University of California, Riverside [141] +University of California, Santa Barbara [142] +University of California, San Diego [143] +University of California, Santa Cruz [144] +University of Chicago [145] +University of Colorado at Boulder [146] +University of Delaware [147] +University of Florida [148] +University of Georgia [149] +University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa [150] +University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign [151] +University of Iowa [152] +University of Kansas [153] +University of Kentucky [154] +University of Maryland [155] +University of Massachusetts Amherst [156] +University of Massachusetts Boston [157] +University of Mississippi [158] +University of Michigan [159] +University of New Mexico [160] +University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [161] +University of North Dakota [162] +University of Oregon [163] +University of Pennsylvania [164] +University of Pittsburgh [165] +University of Rochester [166] +University of South Carolina [167] +University of Southern California [168] +University of Tennessee [169] +University of Texas at Austin [170] +University of Utah [171] +University of Virginia [172] +University of Washington [173] +University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee [174] +Wellesley College [175] +Western Washington University [176] +Yale [177] + + +== See also == +Linguistics +List of schools of linguistics + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..639761a1f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of deserts by area" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:56.047957+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article provides a list of deserts ranked by the total area that they cover on Earth. Only deserts greater than 50,000 km2 (19,300 sq mi) are included in this ranking. + + +== See also == +List of deserts (all deserts and pseudo-deserts by continent) +Desertification +Polar desert +United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification +Desert greening + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..069c64eaa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "List of dictionaries by number of words" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:30.285933+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of dictionaries considered authoritative or complete by approximate number of total words, or headwords, included number of words in a language. + + +== See also == +Comparison of English dictionaries + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..641dbc515 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "List of drainage basins by area" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:10.573496+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of drainage basins by area identifies basins (also known as "catchments" or, in North American usage, "watersheds"), sorted by area, which drain to oceans, mediterranean seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies. All basins larger than 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) are included as well as selected smaller basins. It includes drainage basins which do not flow to the ocean (endorheic basins). It includes oceanic sea drainage basins which have hydrologically coherent areas (oceanic seas are set by IHO convention). +The oceans drain approximately 83% of the land in the world. The other 17% – an area larger than the basin of the Arctic Ocean – drains to internal endorheic basins. There are also substantial areas of the world that do not "drain" in the commonly understood sense. In polar deserts, much of the snowfall sublimates directly into the air and does not melt into flowing water, while in tropical deserts precipitation may evaporate before joining any substantial water course. These areas can still be included in topographically defined basins if the hypothetical flow of water (or ice) over the surface of the ground (or ice sheet) is considered. For example, the Antarctic ice sheet can be divided into basins, and most of Libya is included in the Mediterranean Sea basin even though almost no water from the interior actually reaches the sea. + + +== Basins == + + +== See also == +List of rivers by discharge +List of rivers by dissolved load +List of rivers by length +Triple divide + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Watersheds of the World | World Resources Institute. wri.org. 7 January 2003. ISBN 9781569735480. Retrieved 15 June 2016. +Lake database \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..346e59623 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of earth and atmospheric sciences journals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:05.325969+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list presents notable scientific journals in earth and atmospheric sciences and its various subfields. + + +== Multi-disciplinary == + + +== Atmospheric science == + + +== Geochemistry == +Chemical Geology +Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta +Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research +Geostandards Newsletter +Organic Geochemistry +Quaternary Geochronology + + +== Geology == + + +=== Mineralogy and petrology === +American Mineralogist +Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology +European Journal of Mineralogy +Journal of Petrology +Mineralium Deposita +Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry + + +== Geophysics == + + +== Hydrology == +Journal of Hydrology +Water Research +Water Resources Research + + +== Oceanography == +Annual Review of Marine Science +Deep Sea Research +Journal of Geophysical Research: section C (Oceans) +Journal of Marine Research +Journal of Physical Oceanography +Ocean Science +Paleoceanography + + +== Unsorted == +Episodes +Journal of Glaciology +Australian Meteorological Magazine + + +== See also == +List of scientific journals + + +== External links == +List of geoscience journals and rankings at eigenfactor.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md index b5c2d0d51..25975c113 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:59:08.661866+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:25.402555+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..785c78f42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "List of family name affixes" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Family name affixes are a clue for surname etymology and can sometimes determine the ethnic origin of a person. This is a partial list of affixes. + +== Prefixes == + +=== Arabic === +Abu – (Arabic) "father of"; +Al – (Arabic) "Family of" or "House of" (in conjunction with name of ancestor) +Bet – (Arabic from "Beyt") "house of" +Bint – (Arabic) "daughter of"; Binti, Binte (Malaysian version) +El – (Arabic see Al) +Ibn – (Arabic) "son of" + +=== Armenian === +Ter – (Eastern Armenian) "son/daughter of a Priest" +Der – (Western Armenian) "son/daughter of a priest"; (German) "the" (masculine nominative), "of the" (feminine genitive) + +=== Berber === +Ayt/At/Ag/Id u- – (Berber) "of" +At/n Ath – (Berber) "(son[s]) of" +U - (Berber) "son of"/"descendent of" +Ult - (Berber) "daughter of" + +=== Dutch === +de – (Dutch) "the" + 's – (Dutch) "of the"; contraction of des, genitive case of the definite article de. Example: 's Gravesande. + 't – (Dutch) "the"; contraction of the neuter definite article het. +ter – (Dutch) "at the" +van – (Dutch) "of", "from" +van de, van den, van der, van 't – (Dutch) "of the", "from the" + +=== French === +"of", "of the", "from"; often a sign of nobility or old bourgeois family, but also just a geographical term of the name originated of a location : + +d' +de +de La +des +du + +=== German === +von – (German) "of", "from"; often a sign of nobility, but also just a geographical term if the name originated from a location. +zu - (German) "at"; a sign of nobility, sometimes in the combination von und zu, meaning the noble family still owns the place of naming + +=== Hebrew === +Bath, bat – (Hebrew) "daughter of" +Ben, bin, ibn – (Arabic and Hebrew) "son of" + +=== Irish === +Mac, Mc – (Irish) "son of". Both Mac and Mc are sometimes written Mac and Mc (with superscript ac or c). Mc is pronounced Mac in some names. +Ni, Nic – (Irish) "daughter of", from Irish "iníon" meaning "daughter" +O', Ó, Ua – (Irish) "son of", "grandson of", "descendant of" +Uí – genitive case of Ua (Irish) "daughter of", "granddaughter of", "(female) descendant of" + +=== Italian === +Del – (Italian, Spanish) "of the", preceding a masculine singular noun +Degli – (Italian) "of the", preceding a masculine plural noun starting with either sp, sc, ps, z, gn, or st. +Della – (Italian) "of the", preceding a feminine singular noun +Di – (Italian) "of" + +=== Romanian === +A – (Romanian) "son of" + +=== Welsh === +Ab – (Welsh, Cornish, Breton) "son of" +Ap – (Welsh) "son of" +Ferch, Verch – (Welsh) "daughter of" +Verch, Erch – (Welsh) "daughter of" + +=== Other === +Af – (Danish, Swedish), Av (Norwegian) "of" +Ālam/Olam – Persian — "world" +Bar – (Aramaic) "son of" +Chaudhary - (Punjabi) A title of honour from the Punjab used by several Punjabi tribes, often represented by the prefix "Ch". +Da – (Italian) "from", "of"; (Portuguese) "from the" (before a feminine singular noun) +Das – (Portuguese) "from the", "of the", preceding a feminine plural noun +De – (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Filipino) "of"; indicates region of origin, often a sign of nobility; in Spanish-speaking countries a married woman will sometimes append her name with "de XXXX" where "XXXX" is her husband's last name; (Dutch) "the" +Dele – Southern French, Filipino, and Occitan, equivalent of Du +Dos – (Portuguese) "from the, of the", preceding a masculine plural noun +Du – (French) "of the", preceding a masculine singular noun +E – (Portuguese) "and", between surnames (Maria Eduarda de Canto e Mello) +Fitz – (Irish, from Norman French) "son of", from Latin "filius" meaning "son" (mistakenly thought to mean illegitimate son, because of its use for certain illegitimate sons of English kings) +i – (Catalan) "and", always in lowercase, used to identify both surnames (e.g. Antoni Gaudí i Cornet) +ka – (Zulu) "(son/daughter) of", always in lower case and preceding the name of the father. +Kil, Gil, Mal, Mul – (English, Irish, Scottish) "son of", "servant of", "devotee of", originating from the Irish "Mac Giolla", typically followed by a Saint's name (e.g. Mac Giolla Bhríde). +La – (Italian, French, Spanish) "the", feminine singular +Le – (Northern French) "the", masculine singular +M'/Mac/Mc/Mck/Mhic/Mic – (Irish, Scottish, and Manx Gaelic) "son". Both Mac and Mc are sometimes written Mac and Mc (with superscript ac or c). In some names, Mc is pronounced Mac. +Mala – (Kurdish) "House of" +Na – ณ (Thai) "at" +Ngā – (Te Reo Māori) "the (plural)" +Nic, Ní – (Irish, Scottish) "daughter of", from Irish "iníon" meaning "daughter" +Nin – (Serbian) +O/Ó/Ua/Uí – (Irish, Scottish, and Manx Gaelic) "son of", "grandson of", "descendant of" +Öz – (Turkish) "pure" +Pour – (Persian) "son of" +Te – (Te Reo Māori) "the (singular)" +Tre – (Cornish) "settlement/ homestead farm of" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4503ce4fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +--- +title: "List of family name affixes" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Suffixes == +-a, -ya Kurdish means "of" (female) (by two surnames) +-à (Catalan) feminine -ana "of or from [a locality or place]" (Català -Catalan); and also the name of a job (Manyà -ironsmith), from Latin -ānus, -āna +-ac (Croatian, Serbian, Slovenian, Southern French) +-ach (Ukrainian, Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -ač/) +-acz (Polish) +-aei (Persian) (See -i) for words that end in the long vowel A +-aitis (Lithuanian) "son of" +-aitė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female +-aty Americanized form +-aj (Albanian) (pronounced AY; meaning “of the") It denotes the name of the family, which mostly comes from the male founder of the family, but also from a place, as in, Lash-aj (from the village Lashaj of Kastrat, MM, Shkodër). It is likely that its ancient form, still found in MM, was an [i] in front of the last name, as in ‘Déda i Lékajve’ (Déd of Lekës). For ease of use, the [i] in front of the last name, and the ending _ve, were dropped. If the last name ends in [a], then removing the [j] would give the name of the patriarch or the place, as in, Grudaj - j = Gruda (place in MM). Otherwise, removing the whole ending [aj] yields the name of founder or place of origin, as in Lekaj - aj = Lek(ë). Since the names are found most commonly in Malsi e Madhe (North) and Labëri (South), it is likely that this linguistic feature is very old. It must have been lost as a result of foreign influences brought into Albania by the invaders. -ak (Polish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Croatian, Slovenian, Slovak, Montenegrin, Sorbian) See -ák for its Slovak meaning. -ák (Czech, Slovak) In Slovak, -ák means "pertaining to" or merely creates a noun, and its two other versions are -iak and -ak. -al (Nepali) denotes for village of origin (for e.g.; Khanal, Dhakal, Dahal, Rijal, etc.) +-an (Ukrainian, Belarusian) (e.g. Ruban) +-an (Romanian) +-án (Spanish) +-and (French) +-ange (French) from Germanic -ing +-ani (Sindhi) "descended from" +-ano (Italian) feminine -ana "of or from [a locality]"; from Latin -ānus, -āna +-ant (English; Norman) +-ant (French; Old French) +-ant (Hindi; Sanskrit) +-anu (Romanian) +-appa (Kodava) patronymic, meaning "father" +-ár (Slovak) +-ář (Czech) +-arz (Polish) +-as (French) Duras, Porras, Dumas +-au (-aw) (Belarusian) / -aŭ (Belarusian Latin). -ava (Belarusian) feminine equivalent of -au +-au (German) in a toponymic surname, "of or from a lower place near water" +-auskas/-iauskas (Lithuanian) equivalent to Polish -owski, -ewski, Belarusian -ouski, -euski / Belarusian Latin -oŭski, -eŭski +-awan (Urdu) +-ba (Abkhazian) "male" +-chi, -çı, -çi, cı, -ci (Azeri, Persian, چی-, Turkish) attributed to a geographic location or performing a certain job +-chian (Persian, چیان-) attributed to or performing a certain job +-chek, -chik, -chyk, -chuk (Ukrainian, Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -ček, -čyk, -čuk/) diminutive +-czek, -czyk, -czuk, -czak (Polish) +-ček, -čík (Czech, Slovak, Slovenian) +-ćek, -cek (Croatian) +-ckas (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Polish and Belarusian -cki +-cki (Polish, Belarusian, Croatian, Serbian, Sorbian) variant of -ski +-cka (Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Sorbian) Feminine equivalent of -cki +-ckis (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Polish and Belarusian -cki +-cký (Czech, Slovak) +-cká (Czech, Slovak) Feminine equivalent of -cký +-čki (Serbian, Croatian, Bulgarian) +-cock, -cox (English) "little" +-dan, -den, -don, -dön (Kyrghyz) "from (whom)", when the ancestor 's name ends in a soft consonant also vowel (e.g. Asanbaydan, Marlenden, Ormondon, Bayköldön) +-datter (Danish, Norwegian) "daughter (of)" +-din (Swedish) +-dokht (Persian) "daughter (of)" +-dotter (Norwegian, Swedish) "daughter (of)" +-dóttir (Icelandic) "daughter (of)" (patronymic suffix (sometimes matronymic) (by law) of not a family name but part of the Icelandic last name where (usually) the father's name is always slightly modified and then dóttir added) +-dze (Georgian) "son of" +-dzki (Polish) variant of -ski, -cki +-é (Catalan) +-ê, -yê (Kurdish) means "of" (male) (by two surnames) +-eanu (Romanian) +-eau, -eault (French) diminutive suffix (Latin -ellu-) +-ec (Czech, Slovak, Croatian, Slovenian, Polish, Sorbian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), (French spelling for Breton -e.g.) +-avec (Belarusian) +-ech (French) +-ee (See -i) +-eff (Russian, Bulgarian) obsolete, copied from German transliteration of -ev +-eiro (Portuguese, Galician) +-eix (French), diminutive +-ek (Czech, Polish, Slovak, Slovenian, Croatian) diminutive +-ell (English spelling for French -el, diminutive) +-el (Northern French and Occitan, French -eau) +-ema (Suffix of Frisian origin, given by Napoleon Bonaparte who used suffixes like these to keep a record of people's origins within the Netherlands) +-ems (Dutch) +-ėnas (Lithuanian) "son of" +-enko (Ukrainian), -enka/-anka (Belarusian) "son of" +-chenko (Ukrainian), -chenka/-chanka (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -čenka, -čanka/) +-ens (Dutch) +-ent (French) +-enya (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -enia/) (e.g. Gerasimenya) +-er (Dutch, English, French, German, Turkish "male") +-ero (Spanish) +-ers (Dutch) +-es (Greek, Portuguese) "son of" in Portuguese +-ese (Italian) plural -esi "of or from [a locality]"; from Latin -ēnsis +-escu (Romanian) "son of" +-ești (Romanian) possessive plural, also used in place names +-et (French) (diminutive suffix Latin -ettu- or former -el) +-ets (Ukrainian, Belarusian) +-eu (-ew) (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -eŭ/) equivalent to Russian -ev +-ev (Russian (all Eastern Slavic languages), Bulgarian, Macedonian) possessive +-eva (Russian (all Eastern Slavic languages), Bulgarian, Macedonian) Feminine equivalent of -ev +-evski (Macedonian, Bulgarian) possessive +-evska (Macedonian, Bulgarian) Feminine equivalent of -evski +-ez (Spanish, North Picard) including Spanish-speaking countries "son of"; in Picard, old spelling for -et +-ëz (Albanian) for feminine; a word refer to something smaller, either literally or figuratively as in a form of endearment +-fia, -fi, -fy, -ffy (Hungarian) "descendant of" (literally "son of") +-fleth, -felth, -fleet (Northern German) current, body of water +-gaard, -gård (Danish, Norwegian, Swedish) farm +-gil, (Turkish, "family") (e.g. Korkmazgil) +-i (Hungarian) "of", "from" indicates region of origin, sign of nobility (e.g. "Szentiványi", "Rákóczi"). Like German Von. -i (Arabic, Persian, Hebrew) "descendant of", "attributed to" (e.g. "Baghdadi", "Abbasi") or, (Iranian) "from" (e.g. "Barzani" from Barzan, or Tabrizi from Tabriz.) +-ia (Abkhaz, Mingrelian) +-ian(ts), -yan(ts), -jian, -gian, -ents, -ants, -unts, -uni (Armenian, Persian) "son/daughter of" +-iak (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish) "descendant of". In Slovak, -iak is a version of -ák/-ak and means "pertaining to" or merely creates a noun. -ic(k) (French), misspelling for Breton -ig, diminutive +-ich (-ovich/-evich) (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -ič, –ovič, -evič/), -ych (-ovych/-evych) (Ukrainian) "son of" +-icz (-owicz/-ewicz) (Polish) "son of" +-ic (Polish, Slovak, Czech, Sorbian, Belarusian) "son of" +-owic/-ewic (Polish) +-ovic (Slovak, Czech [rarely]) +-ojc/-ejc, -ojic/-ejic (Sorbian) +-yc (Belarusian, Sorbian, Polish) +-ić (-ović/-ević) (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin) diminutive possessive, little son of +-begović (Bosniak) diminutive possessive of a beg, i.e. chieftain's or chief's little son +-ici (-ovici/-evici) Romanian of Slavic origin (Romanian adaptation of -ić or -ich/-ych) +-ič (-ovič) (Slovenian, Slovak, Czech [rarely]) diminutive, "son of" +-ičius (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Belarusian -ich (Belarusian Latin: -ič) and Polish -icz +-avičius/-evičius (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Belarusian -ovich/-evich (Belarusian Latin: -ovič/-evič) and Polish -owicz/-ewicz +-ičs (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Belarusian -ich (Belarusian Latin: -ič) and Polish -icz +-ovičs/-evičs (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Belarusian -ovich/-evich (Belarusian Latin: -ovič/-evič) and Polish -owicz/-ewicz +-ides, -idis, -idas (Greek), "son of" +-ier (French) +-ik (Belarusian, Polish, Croatian, Czech, Slovak, Slovenian) It merely creates a noun in Slovak where -ik is a version of -ík, can be endearment, diminutive, have other meanings. -ík (Slovak) It merely creates a noun and can also be endearment, diminutive, have other meanings; its other Slovak version is -ik. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..81f568079 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +--- +title: "List of family name affixes" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +-ik (Estonian) if it follows a tree name, has a meaning "grove" +-ikh, -ykh (Russian) +-in (Russian (all Eastern Slavic languages), Bulgarian) possessive +-ina (female equivalent of -in; especially rare for male names, but the suffix alone is an actual female name) +-yn (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian) possessive +-in (French) diminutive +-in (Dutch, German) suffix attached to old Germanic female surnames (e.g. female surname "Mayerin", the wife of "Mayer") +-ge (Sinhalese) "From the house of" +-ing, ink (Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, German) "descendant" +-ino (a common suffix for male Latino and Italian names) +-ipa (Abkhazian) "son of" +-ipha (Abkhazian) "girl of" +-is (Greek, /male/ Lithuanian) +-ienė (Lithuanian) female version +-ytė (Lithuanian) unmarried female version +-ishin, -yshyn (Ukrainian) possessive (e.g. Romanishin = son of wife of Roman) +-ishina, -yshyna (female equivalent of -ishin, -yshyn) +-iu (Romanian) +-ius (Lithuanian) "son of" +-iv (Ukrainian) possessive. -iz (Spanish) including Spanish-speaking countries "son of", very unfrequent compared to -ez (Muñiz < Muño) +-j (Adygean)"old" +-ja (Sindhi, Punjabi) "from, of", often denoting ancestral hometowns and villages. Mostly with the combinations -ija, -uja and -eja (eg. Makhija, Ahuja, Taneja) +-jerhin/-jerin (Kyrghyz) "place (of origin)" Usually, this form of the surname is assigned to kairylmans who do not have a surname. This form is added to the place of residence, origin. Those who do not know their origin can also be used. It is possible at will. (e.g. Pamirjerhin/Pamirjerin, Tongjerhin/Tongjerin). In The Kyrghyz latine alphabet will be -zerin +-ka (Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Slovak) diminutive +-kan, -ken (Turkish) (e.g. Vuruşkan) +-kar (Marathi) (e.g. Tendulkar)"originating from", +-ke (German) "small" +-ke (Italian, Russian) In surnames of Slavic origin. Like Ukrainian -ko +-kin, -kins, -ken (English) "little" +-kin (Dutch) "little" +-ko (Ukrainian, Polish, Slovak, Czech)diminutive +-ko (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Serbian)- diminutive, “child,” “descendant of.” It is used in affectionate forms of first names, and is also a common suffix in many surnames. -ko (Adygean) "son" ĸъо +-kus (Lithuanian) +-kvist, -qvist (Swedish) "twig" +-kyzy (Kazakh) "daughter of" +-kyzy (Kyrghyz) "daughter of" (but usually used for patronymic) +-la, -lä (Finnish) +-le, -lein (German) "small" +-li, -lı, -lu, -lü (Turkish, Azeri) "from" (e.g. İzmirli, Ankaralı, İstanbullu, Bakülü) +-li (Italian) +-lin (French, Irish, Swedish) in Germanic names "small" +-litz (German) +-loo, -lou (Persian) "from" (e.g. Ghassemlou, Aghdashloo) +-man(n) (Dutch, German, English) +-mand (Persian, مند-) owning or showing +-maz (Turkish) "does not" (e.g. "Yılmaz = Yields not", "Korkmaz = Fears not") +-men, -man (Turkish) flipping suffix (e.g. ak=white, akman=purely white), "person", "male person", have other meanings +-ment (French) from Germanic “man” +-mere (Old English) meaning “lake” +-mil (Galician) rothic dissimilation from Suevian anthropotoponymic origin (Ramil (surname) < Ramil (place) < [villa] Ramiri); non dissimilation would be -mir +-moar +-mohr (German) +-moor +-moore +-more +-mor +-nė, -te /female/ (Lithuanian) +-nen (Finnish) diminutive, "from" +-nik (Estonian) attributed to occupation (talu being "farm" – talunik being "farmer") +-nova, -novas (Italian, Galician, Catalan) "new" +-novo (Galician) "new" +-ný (Czech, Slovak) adjective +-ny (Polish) adjective +-nezhad, -nejad, -nejhad (Persian, نژاد) "descendant of" +-nyi (Hungarian) +-off (Russian, Bulgarian) obsolete, copied from French transliteration of -ov, based on Muscovite pronunciation +-oğlu (Azeri, Turkish) "son of" (e.g. Türkoğlu) +-ok (Belarusian, Ukrainian, Czech) +-ois, -oy, -ais, -ay (French) from Germanic -isk and Vulgar Latin -ese +-on (French), former subject case in masculine names +-onak (-onok) (Belarusian) +-onis (Lithuanian) "son of" +-os (Greek) like Latin -us (Gasconic, Spanish, Portuguese) from Latin -us +-opoulos, -opulos (Greek) +-osz, -oš (Polish, Czech, Slovak) +-ot (French) "little" +-ou(t) (French), various origins +-ou (Greek) "daughter of" +-ou (-ow) (Belarusian) / -oŭ (Belarusian Latin) equivalent to Russian -ov +-ova (Belarusian) feminine equivalent of -ou +-ouf (French), French spelling of Arabic names ending with -ūf +-ouf, Norman-French spelling of surnames of Anglo-Scandinavian origin or West Germanic origin ending with -ulf or -wulf +-oui (French), French spelling of Arabic names, English spelling -wi +-ous +-ov (all Eastern Slavic languages, Bulgarian, Macedonian) possessive +-ova (all Eastern Slavic languages, Bulgarian, Macedonian) feminine equivalent of -ov, -ou, -ow +-ová (Czech, Slovak) feminine derivative of a noun male surname +-ovo (Russian) (e.g. Durnovo) +-ovski (Macedonian, Bulgarian) possessive +-ovska (Macedonian, Bulgarian) Feminine equivalent of -ovski +-ow (Russian, though found in predominantly German names, it is pronounced like English "ow" not like the German "ov") +-pour, -poor (Persian) "son of" +-putra (Indonesian) "son" +-putri (Indonesian) "daughter" +-quin, (French) from Dutch -kin "little" +-rís (Galician) in seseo areas from Suevian anthropotoponymic origin (Reirís < Reirís (place) < [villa] Reirici; Sabarís; Romarís) +-riz (Galician) in non-seseo areas from Suevian anthropotoponymic origin (Reiriz (surname) < Reiriz (place) < [villa] Reirici) +-s (English, Dutch, Irish, Welsh) "(son/daughter) of". Sometimes less recognizable, like in "Hendrickx" (son/daughter of Hendrik) +-sen or -zen (Danish, Norwegian, Dutch or Low German) "son (of)" +-ssen (Dutch or Low German) "son (of)" +-ssens or -sens (Dutch) "grandson/granddaughter of". Literally "(son/daughter) of the son of" +-shvili (Georgian) "child" +-skas (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Polish and Belarusian -ski +-ski (Polish, Belarusian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Sorbian, Croatian. Also Russian but more often transliterated as -sky), "originating from", "estate of" +-ska (Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Sorbian, Croatian) Feminine equivalent of -ski +-skiy/-tskiy, -skyi/-tskyi (Ukrainian) +-ivskiy, -ivskyi (Ukrainian) +-skoy/-tskoy (Russian) (e.g. Shakhovskoy) +-sky/-tsky (Russian, Ukrainian) +-skaya/-tskaya (Russian) Feminine equivalent of -sky/-tsky +-ivsky (Ukrainian) +-ský (Czech, Slovak) "originating from", "lord of" +-ská (Czech, Slovak) Feminine equivalent of -ský +-skis (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Polish and Belarusian -ski +-sma (Frisian) "son of" +-son (Northern English, Swedish, German, Norwegian, Lowland Scottish, Icelandic) "son (of)" (sometimes less recognizable, e.g. "Dixon"; in Iceland not part of a family name but the patronymic (sometimes matronymic) last name (by law), where (usually) the fathers's name is always slightly modified and then son added) +-sson (Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Scottish) "son (of)" (in Iceland technically the first s is a separate "suffix" of the father's name according to Icelandic language rules, one of the most common modifications) +-(s)son (French), diminutive +-stad (Norwegian) "town" +-stein (German) "stone" +-strom, -strøm, -ström (Danish, Swedish) from 'current', probably an arbitrarily adopted ornamental name but possibly a topographic name for someone who lived by a river. -tæ (Ossetian) "belong to" +-tabar (Persian) "descendant of" +-tan, -ten, -ton, -tön (Kyrghyz) "from (whom)", when the ancestor 's name ends in a hard consonant (e.g. Syrghaktan, Barsbekten, Bolotton, Küchlüktön) +-teghin (Kyrghyz) "family tree, descent from the ancestor of the same name", is added at the end to the name of one ancestor. (e.g. Esenteghin, Alymbekteghin, Üsönaalyteghin) Marriage form for the surname -teghinghe — "Belonging to this family tree" (e.g. Esenteghinghe, Alymbekteghinghe, Üsönaalyteghinghe) +-tō, -dō (Japanese) "from Fujiwara clan" +-tzki, -tzky (Polish) – phonetic Germanized spelling of original Polish -cki +-uulu (Kyrghyz) - "son of" (but usually used for patronymic) +-uk (Ukrainian, Belarusian) diminutive +-ulea (Romanian) "son of" +-ulis (Lithuanian) +-uly (Kazakh form of -uulu) "son of" +-ūnas (Lithuanian) "son of" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..074c8a1a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "List of family name affixes" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +-vich (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -vič/, occasionally a respelling of original Serbian, Croatian -vić) "son of" +-vych (Ukrainian) +-wicz (Polish), -wic (Polish) +-vić (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin) +-vič (Slovenian, Slovak, Czech [rarely]), -vic (Slovak, Czech [rarely]) +-vici (Romanianized respellings) +-vics, -vits (Hungarianized respellings) +-vitz, -witz, -witch, -witsch (Germanized or Anglicized respellings) +-vičius (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Belarusian -vich (Belarusian Latin: -vič) and Polish -wicz +-vičiutė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female +-vičs (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Belarusian -vich (Belarusian Latin: -vič) and Polish –wicz +-vedi (Sanskrit, Hindi) "learned in _ Vedas" (e.g. Trivedi = "learned in 3 Vedas") +-wala, -wallah, wali, vala, vali (Hindustani, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi) denotes the occupation or place of origin (Occupation example: Batliwala – one who deals with bottles. Place example: Suratwala – one from Surat) +-wan (Indonesian) denotes a male name +-war (Marathi), often used to signify members of the Arya Vyshya community, residing in central and western India. +-wati (Indonesian) denotes a female name +-wi (Arabic) "from" +-y (Arabic/Persian) Means descendant of. +-y (See -i) +-yal +-ycz (Polish) +-yk (Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian) +-ynas (Lithuanian) "son of" +-ys (English) representing i. the archaic plural form, or ii. a diminutive form. Variant forms not limited to -yss, -is, -es. Pronunciation is as modern plural suffix -s; i.e. Sandys = sands; Foulis = fowls. +-ysz (Polish) +-za (Kurdish) "born of" +-zada (Dari (Eastern Persian) and Pashto) +-zadeh (Turkish, Azeri, Persian زاده) +-zai (Pashto) "son of", "descendant of" + +== See also == +Celtic onomastics +Language identification +Lists of most common surnames, for the various continents +Matriname +Nobiliary particle +Patronymic surname +Scandinavian family name etymology +Slavic name suffix +Tussenvoegsel (Dutch prefixes) + +== References == + +== External links == +Surname Prefixes +Surname Suffixes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fault_zones-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fault_zones-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54fab7ed5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fault_zones-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "List of fault zones" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fault_zones" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:58.457969+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list covers all faults and fault-systems that are either geologically important or connected to prominent seismic activity. It is not intended to list every notable fault, but only major fault zones. + + +== See also == +Lists of earthquakes +Tectonics + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_faults_in_Indonesia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_faults_in_Indonesia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23b834cd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_faults_in_Indonesia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "List of faults in Indonesia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_faults_in_Indonesia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:59.763364+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Indonesia is a country located close to tectonic plate boundaries which causes it to have many active faults and is prone to earthquakes, + + +== Sumatra == +Great Sumatran fault +Samalanga-Sipopok Fault +Mentawai Fault + + +== Java == +Citarik Fault +Cimandiri Fault +Baribis Fault +Cirata Fault +Cugenang Fault +Lembang Fault +Cileunyi-Tanjungsari Fault +Southern Garut Fault +Citanduy Fault +Kendeng Fault +Ajibarang Fault +Merapi-Merbabu Fault +Opak Fault +Pati Fault +Muria Fault +Rawapening Fault +Kaligarang Fault +Rembang-Madura-Kangean-Sakala Fault +Grindulu Fault + + +== Borneo == +Tarakan Fault +Meratus Fault +Adang-Partenoster Fault + + +== Sulawesi == +Palu-Koro Fault +Matano Fault +Lawanopo Fault +Gorontalo Fault +Kolaka Fault +Walanae Fault +Balantak Fault +Mamuju Thrust Fault +Saddang Fault + + +== Lesser Sunda Islands == +Flores back-arc thrust fault +Bondowatu Fault + + +== Maluku Islands == +Banda Detachment +Sorong Fault +Kawa Fault + + +== Papua == +Mamberamo Fault +Main Jayawijaya Thrust Fault +Lengguru Fault +Tarera-Aiduna Fault +Yapen Fault +Ransiki Fault + + +== Subduction Zone == +Sunda megathrust +North Sulawesi Trench +Philippine Trench +Timor Trough +Seram Trough +New Guinea Trench + + +== See also == +List of earthquakes in Indonesia +Geology of Indonesia +Indo-Australian plate +Eurasian plate +Pacific plate +Seismicity of the Sumatra coast + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_basalt_provinces-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_basalt_provinces-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bbf94dad6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_basalt_provinces-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of flood basalt provinces" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_basalt_provinces" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:01.047732+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Representative continental flood basalts (also known as traps) and oceanic plateaus, together forming a listing of large igneous provinces: + + +== See also == +List of Oceanic Landforms +World's largest eruptions + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms-0.md index bc43c846c..9ad407e8c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:06:20.217097+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:11.781005+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99639666a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "List of formal language and literal string topics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:37.827966+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of formal language and literal string topics, by Wikipedia page. + + +== Formal languages == +Abstract syntax tree +Backus-Naur form +Categorial grammar +Chomsky hierarchy +Concatenation +Context-free grammar +Context-sensitive grammar +Context-sensitive language +Decidable language +ECLR-attributed grammar +Finite language +Formal grammar +Formal language +Formal system +Generalized star height problem +Kleene algebra +Kleene star +L-attributed grammar +LR-attributed grammar +Myhill–Nerode theorem +Parsing expression grammar +Prefix grammar +Pumping lemma +Recursively enumerable language +Regular expression +Regular grammar +Regular language +S-attributed grammar +Star height +Star height problem +Syntactic monoid +Syntax (logic) +Tree-adjoining grammar + + +== Literal strings == +Anagram +Case sensitivity +Infinite monkey theorem +Lexical analysis +Lexeme +Lexicography +Lexicon +Lipogram +The Library of Babel +Palindrome +Pangram +Sequence alignment + + +== Classical cryptography == +Atbash cipher +Autokey cipher +Bazeries cylinder +Bible code +Bifid cipher +Caesar cipher +Cardan grille +Enigma machine +Frequency analysis +Index of coincidence +Playfair cipher +Polyalphabetic substitution +Polybius square +ROT13, ROT47 +Scytale +Steganography +Substitution cipher +Tabula recta +Transposition cipher +Vigenère cipher \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f2f7d94ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of fossil sites" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:02.485793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of fossil sites is a worldwide list of localities known well for the presence of fossils. Some entries in this list are notable for a single, unique find, while others are notable for the large number of fossils found there. Many of the entries in this list are considered Lagerstätten (sedimentary deposits that exhibits extraordinary fossils with exceptional preservation—sometimes including preserved soft tissues). Lagerstätten are indicated by a note () in the noteworthiness column. +Fossils may be found either associated with a geological formation or at a single geographic site. Geological formations consist of rock that was deposited during a specific period of time. They usually extend for large areas, and sometimes there are different important sites in which the same formation is exposed. Such sites may have separate entries if they are considered to be more notable than the formation as a whole. In contrast, extensive formations associated with large areas may be equivalently represented at many locations. Such formations may be listed either without a site, with a site or sites that represent the type locality, or with multiple sites of note. When a type locality is listed as the site for a formation with many good outcrops, the site is flagged with a note (). When a particular site of note is listed for an extensive fossil-bearing formation, but that site is somehow atypical, it is also flagged with a note (). +Many formations are for all practical purposes only studied at a single site, and may not even be named. For example, sites associated with hominin, particularly caves, are frequently not identified with a named geologic formation. Therefore, some sites are listed without an associated formation. + + +== List of sites == + + +== Notes == + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Rich, Thomas Hewett (1993). Wildlife of Gondwana. Reed. ISBN 978-0-7301-0315-8. +"Fossil sites". The Virtual Fossil Museum. 2001–2011. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d584d89cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:03.762389+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica. + +== List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units == + +== See also == + +Geology of Antarctica +List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Namibia +List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South Africa +List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the Falkland Islands + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a0800ff49 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:03.762389+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Further reading == +G. Arratia, R. Scasso, and W. Kiessling. 2004. Late Jurassic fishes from Longing Gap, Antarctic Peninsula. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 24(1):41-55 +A. C. Ashworth and G. Kuschel. 2003. Fossil weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) from latitude 85 ˚S Antarctica. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 191:191-202 +R. A. Askin. 1990. Cryptogam spores from the upper Campanian and Maastrichtian of Seymour Island, Antarctica. Micropaleontology (36)141-156 +R. A. Askin. 1989. Endemism and heterochrony in the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) to Paleocene palynofloras of Seymour Island, Antarctica: implications for origins, dispersal and palaeoclimates of southern floras. Geological Society of America Special Paper (147)107-119 +V. D. Barreda, S. Palamarczuk, and F. Medina. 1999. Palinología de la Formación Hidden Lake (Coniaciano-Santoniano), Isla James Ross, Antártida. Revista Española de Micropaleontología (31)53-72 +M. A. Bitner and J. A. Crame. 2002. Brachiopods from the Lower Miocene of King George Island, West Antarctica. Polish Polar Research 23(1):75-84 +J. Blaszyk. 1987. Ostracods from the Oligocene Polonez Cove Formation of King George Island, West Antarctica. Palaeontologia Polonica 49:63-81 +M. A. Bradshaw and L. McCartan. 1991. Palaeoecology and systematics of Early Devonian bivalves from the Horlick Formation, Ohio Range, Antarctica. Alcheringa 15(1):1-42 +P. J. Butterworth, J. A. Crame, P. J. Howlett and D. I. M. Macdonald. 1988. Lithostratigraphy of Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous strata of eastern Alexander Island, Antarctica. Cretaceous Research 9(3):249-264 +D. J. Cantrill and N. S. Nagalingum. 2005. Ferns from the Cretaceous of Alexander Island, Antarctica: Implications for Cretaceous phytogeography of the Southern Hemisphere. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology +F. M. Carpenter. 1969. Fossil insects from Antarctica. Psyche 76:418-425 +N. A. Clark, M. Williams, D. J. Hill, P. G. Quilty, J. L. Smellie, J. Zalasiewicz, M. J. Leng and M. A. Ellis. 2013. Fossil proxies of near-shore sea surface temperatures and seasonality from the late Neogene Antarctic shelf. Naturwissenschaften 100:699-722 +J. W. Collinson, D.C. Pennington, and N.R. Kemp. 1986. Stratigraphy and petrology of Permian and Triassic fluvial deposits in northern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Antarctic Research Series 46:211-242 +J. A. Crame. 1996. A new oxytomid bivalve from the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous of Antarctica. Palaeontology 39(3):615-628 +A. A. Cridland. 1963. A Glossopteris flora from the Ohio Range, Antarctica. American Journal of Botany 50:186-195 +F. Debrenne, A. Y. Rozanov, and G. F. Webers. 1984. Upper Cambrian archaeocyatha from Antarctica. Geological Magazine 121(4):291-299 +M. E. Dettmann and M. R. A. Thomson. 1987. Cretaceous palynomorphs from the James Ross Island area, Antarctica - A pilot Study. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin (77)13-59 +P. Doyle. 1987. The Cretaceous Dimitobelidae (Belemnitida) of the Antarctic Peninsula region. Palaeontology 30(1):147-177 +T. L. Dutra and D. J. Batten. 2000. Upper Cretaceous floras of King George Island, West Antarctica, and their palaeoenvironmental and phytogeographic implications. Cretaceous Research (21)181-209 +K. R. Evans. 1992. Marocella: Antarctic specimens of an enigmatic Cambrian animal. Journal of Paleontology 66(4):558-562 +R. E. Fordyce and P. G. Quilty. 1994. Pliocene whales and dolphins (Cetacea) from the Vestfold Hills, Antarctica. Records of the South Australian Museum 27(2):219 +A. Gazdzicki and H. Pugaczewska. 1984. Biota of the "Pecten Conglomerate" (Polenez Cove Formation, Pliocene) of King George Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). Studia Geologica Polonica 79:59-120 +J. P. O'Gorman. 2012. The oldest elasmosaurs (Sauropterygia, Plesiosauria) from Antarctica, Santa Marta Formation (upper Coniacian? Santonian-upper Campanian) and Snow Hill Island Formation (upper Campanian-lower Maastrichtian), James Ross Island. Polar Research 31(11090):1-10 +W. R. Hammer, J. W. Collinson, R. A. Askin and W. J. Hickerson. 2004. The first Upper Triassic vertebrate locality in Antarctica. Gondwana Research 7(1):199-204 +D. C. H. Hikuroa. 2009. Second Jurassic marine reptile from the Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Science 21(2):169-170 +J. R. Ineson, J. A. Crame, and M. R. A. Thomson. 1986. Lithostratigraphy of the Cretaceous strata of west James Ross Island, Antarctica. Cretaceous Research 7:141-159 +S. R. A. Kelly, P. A. Doubleday, C. H. C. Brunton, J. M. Dickins, G. D. Sevastopulo and P. D. Taylor. 2001. First Carboniferous and ?Permian marine macrofaunas from Antarctica and their tectonic implications. Journal of the Geological Society of London 158(2):219-232 +S. R. A. Kelly. 1995. New trigonoid bivalves from the early Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous of the Antarctic Peninsula region: systematics and austral paleobiogeography. Journal of Paleontology 69(1):66-84 +S. R. A. Kelly and A. C. M. Moncrieff. 1992. Marine molluscan constraints on the age of Cretaceous fossil forests of Alexander Island, Antarctica. Geological Magazine 129(6):771-778 +S. R. A. Kelly and P. Doyle. 1991. The bivalve Aulacomyella from the Early Tithonian (Late Jurassic) of Antarctica . Antarctic Science 3(1):97-107 +W. Kiessling. 1999. Late Jurassic radiolarians from the Antarctic Peninsula. Micropaleontology 45(S1):1-96 +W. Kiessling, R. Scasso, A. Zeiss, A. Riccardi, and F. Medina. 1999. Combined radiolarian-ammonite stratigraphy for the Late Jurassic of the Antarctic Peninsula: Implications for radiolarian stratigraphy. Geodiversitas 21(4):687-713 +S. D. Klavins, E. L. Taylor, M. Krings and T. N. Taylor. 2001. An unusual, structurally preserved ovule from the Permian of Antarctica. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 115:107-117 +S. McLoughlin, S. Lindstrom, and A.N. Drinnan. 1997. Gondwanan floristic and sedimentological trends during the Permian-Triassic transition: new evidence from the Amery Group, northern Prince Charles Mountains, East Antarctica. Antarctic Science 9(3):281-298 +F. A. Medina, L. Buatois, and A. Lopez Angriman. 1992. Estratigrafia del Grupo Gustav en la Isla James Ross, Antartida. Geologia de la Isla James Ross 167-192 +R. E. Molnar, A. L. Angriman, and Z. Gasparini. 1996. An Antarctic Cretaceous theropod. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 39(3):669-674 +D. Néraudeau, A. Crame, and M. Kooser. 2000. Upper Cretaceous echinoids from James Ross Basin, Antarctica. Géobios 33(4):455-466 +F. E. Novas, M. Fernández, Z. B. Gasparini, J. M. Lirio, H. J. Nuñez and P. Puerta. 2002. Lakumasaurus antarcticus, n. gen. et sp., a new mosasaur (Reptilia, Squamata) from the Upper Cretaceous of Antarctica. Ameghiniana 39(2):245-249 +R. A. Otero, S. Soto-Acuna, A. O. Vargas, D. Rubilar-Rogers, R. E. Yury-Yanez and C. S. Gutstein. 2013. Additions to the diversity of elasmosaurid plesiosaurs from the Upper Cretaceous of Antarctica. Gondwana Research +A. R. Palmer and C. G. Gatehouse. 1972. Early and Middle Cambrian Trilobites from Antarctica. Contributions to the geology of Antarctica +I. Poole, R. J. Hunt, and D. J. Cantrill. 2001. A fossil wood flora from King George Island: ecological implications for an Antarctic Eocene vegetation. Annals of Botany 88(1):33-54 +F. Quaglio, R. J. Whittle, A. Gazdzicki and M. G. Simoes. 2010. A new fossil Adamussium (Bivalvia: Pectinidae) from Antarctica. Polish polar research 31(4):291-302 +P. M. Rees and C. J. Cleal. 2004. Lower Jurassic floras from Hope Bay and Botany Bay, Antarctica. Special Papers in Palaeontology 72:5-90 +J. B. Riding and J. A. Crame. 2002. Aptian to Coniacian (Early–Late Cretaceous) palynostratigraphy of the Gustav Group, James Ross Basin, Antarctica. Cretaceous Research (23)739-760 +A. L. Rode, B.S. Lieberman, and A.J. Rowell. 2003. A new Early Cambrian bradoriid (Arthropoda) from East Antarctica. Journal of Paleontology 77(4):691-697 +M. R. Sandy. 1991. Cretaceous brachiopods from James Ross Island, Antarctic Peninsula, and their paleobiogeographic affinities. Journal of Paleontology 65(3):396-411 +A. B. Smith and T.H. Tranter. 1985. Protremaster, a new Lower Jurassic genus of asteroid from Antarctica. Geological Magazine 122(4):351-359 +B. Studencka. 1991. A new species of genus Panopea (Bivalvia) from King George Island, Antarctica. Polish polar research 12(3):363-368 +Tambussi, Claudia P.; Reguero, Marcelo A.; Marenssi, Sergio A.; Santillana, Sergio N. (2005). "Crossvallia unienwillia, a new Spheniscidae (Sphenisciformes, Aves) from the Late Paleocene of Antarctica". Geobios. 38 (5): 667–75. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..39991ec78 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:03.762389+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bibcode:2005Geobi..38..667T. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2004.02.003. P. Tasch. 1973. Jurassic beetle from southern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Journal of Paleontology 47:590-592 +P. Tasch and E. F. Riek. 1969. Permian Insect Wing from Antarctic Sentinel Mountains. Science 164(3887):1529-1530 +T. N. Taylor and E. L. Taylor. 1992. Permian plants from the Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica. Geological Society of America Memoir 170:285-294 +E. L. Taylor, T.N. Taylor, J.L. Isbell and R. Cuneo. 1989. Fossil floras of southern Victoria Land. 2. Kennar Valley. Antarctic Journal U.S. 24:26-28 +E. I. Vera. 2010. Estudios anatómicos en paleofloras del Aptiano de Antártida y Patagonia, y su comparación. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales 294 +R. Vodrazka and L. A. Crame. 2011. First fossil sponge from Antarctica and its paleobiogeographical significance. Journal of Paleontology 85(1):48-57 +G. F. Webers, J. Pojeta, and E.L. Yochelson. 1992. Cambrian Mollusca from the Minaret Formation, Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica. Geological Society of America Memoir 170:181-248 +G. F. Webers, B. Glenister, J. Pojeta, Jr. and G. Young. 1992. Devonian fossils from the Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica. Geological Society of America Memoir 170:269-278 +R. Wolfart. 1994. Middle Cambrian Faunas (Brachiopoda, Mollusca, Trilobita) from Exotic Limestone Blocks, Reilly Ridge, North Victoria Land, Antarctica; their Biostratigraphic and Paleogeographic Significance. Geologisches Jahrbuch B/84:1-161 +R. Wrona. 2003. Early Cambrian molluscs from glacial erratics of King George Island, West Antarctica. Polish Polar Research 24(3-4):181-216 +E. L. Yochelson and E. Stump. 1977. Discovery of Early Cambrian fossils at Taylor Nunatak, Antarctica. Journal of Paleontology 51(4):872-875 +F. E. Zeuner. 1959. Jurassic beetles from Grahamland, Antarctica. Palaeontology 1:407-409 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Central_America-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Central_America-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0270513ff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Central_America-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Central America" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Central_America" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:05.023801+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page lists the fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Central America. + + +== Belize == + + +== El Salvador == + + +== Guatemala == + + +== Honduras == + + +== Nicaragua == + + +== Costa Rica == + + +== Panama == + + +== See also == + +Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in North America +List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Mexico +List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Colombia +List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the Caribbean + + +== References == + + +=== Bibliography === +Honduras +Silva Romo, Gilberto (2008), Origen tectónico y evolución de la Cuenca Tehuitzingo-Tepexi, Estado de Puebla (PhD thesis) (PDF), UNAM, pp. 1–209, retrieved 2019-02-19 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fracture_zones-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fracture_zones-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d8c14f3f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fracture_zones-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,187 @@ +--- +title: "List of fracture zones" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fracture_zones" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:06.180362+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fracture zones are common features in the geology of oceanic basins. Globally most fault zones are located on divergent plate boundaries on oceanic crust. This means that they are located around mid-ocean ridges and trend perpendicular to them. The term fracture zone is used almost exclusively for features on oceanic crust; similar structures on continental crust are instead termed transform or strike slip faults. Some use the term "transform fault" to describe the seismically and tectonically active portion of a fracture zone after John Tuzo Wilson's concepts first developed with respect to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The term fracture zone has a distinct geological meaning, but it is also used more loosely in the naming of some oceanic features. Fracture zones are much longer than wide, but may have feature complexity within their width. Not all named fracture zones are active, indeed only the central portion of those still forming usually is, in an area of active transform faulting associated with a mid-ocean ridge. Classic fracture zones remain significant ocean floor features with usually different aged rocks on either side of the fracture zone due to past tectonic processes. Some fracture zones have been created by mid-ocean ridge segments that have been subducted and that part may no longer exist. + + +== Pacific Ocean == + +Most fracture zones in the Pacific Ocean originate from large mid-ocean ridges (also called "rises") such as the East Pacific Rise, Chile Rise and Juan de Fuca Ridge. The plates that host the fractures are Nazca, Pacific, Antarctic, Juan de Fuca and Cocos among others. Fracture zones being subducted under Southern and Central America are generally southwest–northeast oriented reflecting the relative motion of Cocos, Nazca and the Antarctic plates. + + +=== Chile Rise === +The fracture zones of the Chile Rise trend in a west to east fashion with the most southern ones taking a slightly more southwest to northeast orientation. This non-perpendicular relation to Chile's coast reflects the oblique subduction of Nazca plate under southern Chile. West of Chile rise the fracture zones are hosted in the Antarctic plate. Some fracture zones such as Chile and Valdivia make up large sections of the Nazca-Antarctic plate boundary. + + +=== East Pacific Rise === +The East Pacific Rise includes the Pacific–Antarctic Rise (Pacific plate and Antarctic plate boundary) in some usages and in others relates only to the boundaries between the Pacific plate and the Nazca plates which includes the Juan Fernández plate and Easter microplate. + + +==== Nazca plate boundary ==== + + +==== Pacific–Antarctic Rise ==== + + +=== Cocos–Nazca spreading center === +Panama fracture zone + + +=== Western Pacific === +Some of the fracture zones in the western Pacific Ocean are associated with the smaller plate boundaries of the active back-arc basin spreading center of the North Fiji Basin being the Hunter fracture zone and North Fiji fracture zone. The Parece Vela Rift (Parece Vela fracture zone province) is also associated with the back-arc basin of the Parece Vela Basin (West Mariana Basin) at the intersection of the Philippine Sea plate and Mariana plate. + + +==== South of the Equator ==== +Vening Meinesz fracture zone +Cook fracture zone +Hunter fracture zone +North Fiji fracture zone + + +==== North of the Equator ==== +Victoria fracture zone +Central fracture zone +Parece Vela Rift (Parece Vela fracture zone province) +Kokugan fracture zone +Owashi fracture zone +Ojirowashi fracture zone +Inuwashi fracture zone +Konotori fracture zone +Toki fracture zone +Tancho fracture zone +Raicho fracture zone +Ortelius fracture zone +Waghenaer fracture zone +Rat fracture zone + + +=== West of East Pacific Rise and Gulf of California Rift Zone === + +(some are inactive) + +Challenger fracture zone +Austral fracture zone +Marquesas fracture zone +Galapagos fracture zone +Clipperton fracture zone +Clarion fracture zone + + +=== Juan de Fuca and Gorda Ridges === +Surveyor, Molokai, Pioneer and Murray fracture zones shown in the list were created by ridge segments that no longer exist. + +Blanco fracture zone +Surveyor fracture zone +Mendocino fracture zone +Pioneer fracture zone +Murray fracture zone +Molokai fracture zone +Sovanco fracture zone + + +=== Northeast Pacific === +Sedna fracture zone +Sila fracture zone +Aja fracture zone +Cobb fracture zone + + +== Atlantic Ocean == + +In the Atlantic Ocean most fracture zones originate from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs from north to south, and are therefore west to east oriented in general. There are about 300 fracture zones, with an average north–south separation of 55 kilometres (34 mi): two for each degree of latitude. Physically it makes sense to group Atlantic fracture zones into three categories: + +Small offset: length of transform fault less than 30 kilometres (19 mi) +Medium offset: offset over 30 kilometers +Large offset: offset several hundreds of kilometers + + +=== Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Northern Hemisphere) === + + +=== Fracture zones involved in the early opening of the North Atlantic === + + +=== Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Southern Hemisphere) === + + +== Indian Ocean == +The Indian Ocean fracture zones are mainly related to the Southwest Indian Ridge and Southeast Indian Ridge mid-ocean ridges. + +Diamantina fracture zone (not a true fracture zone) + + +=== Southwest Indian Ridge === +Bouvet fracture zone +Moshesh fracture zone +Islas Orcadas fracture zone +Shaka fracture zone +Dutoit fracture zone +Prince Edward fracture zone +Discovery II fracture zone +Indomed fracture zone +Gallieni fracture zone +Atlantis II fracture zone +Novara fracture zone +Melville fracture zone + + +=== Carlsberg Ridge === +Owen fracture zone + + +=== Central Indian Ridge === +Bao Chuan fracture zone +Mabahiss fracture zone +Sealark fracture zone +Vityaz fracture zone +Vema fracture zone (not to be confused with fracture zone of same name in the Atlantic) +Argo fracture zone +Mary Celeste fracture zone +Rodrigues fracture zone +Mauritius Fault Zone +Egeria fracture zone +Flinders fracture zone + + +=== Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge === +Vishnu Fault Zone + + +=== Southeast Indian Ridge === +Ter Tholen fracture zone +Zeewolf fracture zone +Nieuw Amsterdam fracture zone +Vlamingh fracture zone +Geelvinck fracture zone +Zeehaen fracture zone +Heemskerck fracture zone +Saint Vincent fracture zone +Gambier fracture zone +Tasman fracture zone +Balleny fracture zone + + +== Southern Ocean == + +Endurance Fault Zone +Hjort fracture zone +Emerald fracture zone +Hero Fault Zone +Kosminskaya fracture zone +Quest Fault Zone +Shackleton fracture zone +Vinogradov fracture zone +Proto Antipodes fracture zone + + +== References == + +Sources +The Global Seafloor Fabric and Magnetic Lineation Data Base Project \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_geology_software-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_geology_software-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bcdf7cc96 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_geology_software-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of free geology software" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_geology_software" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:07.478300+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of free and open-source software for geological data handling and interpretation. The list is split into broad categories, depending on the intended use of the software and its scope of functionality. +Notice that 'free and open-source' requires that the source code is available and users are given a free software license. Simple being 'free of charge' is not sufficient—see gratis versus libre. + + +== Well logging & Borehole visualisation == + + +== Geosciences software platforms == + + +== Geostatistics == + + +== Forward modeling == + + +== Geomodeling == + + +== Visualization, interpretation & analysis packages == + + +== Geographic information systems (GIS) == +This important class of tools is already listed in the article List of GIS software. + + +== Not true free and open-source projects == +The following projects have unknown licensing, licenses or other conditions which place some restriction on use or redistribution, or which depend on non-open-source software like MATLAB or XVT (and therefore do not meet the Open Source Definition from the Open Source Initiative). + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..910716e34 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "List of geochronologic names" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:08.824577+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of official and unofficial names for time spans in the geologic timescale and units of chronostratigraphy. Since many of the smallest subdivisions of the geologic timescale were in the past defined on regional lithostratigraphic units, there are many alternative names that overlap. The body concerned with standardizing the names of geochronologic units is the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). In 2008 however, even though the Phanerozoic eon is almost completely divided into internationally recognizable units, local subdivisions are often still preferred over the international ones. + + +== List == + + +== See also == +Astronomical chronology +Age of the Earth +Age of the universe +Chronological dating, archaeological chronology +Absolute dating +Relative dating +Phase (archaeology) +Archaeological association +Geochronology +Chronostratigraphy +Future of the Earth +Geologic time scale +Geological history of Earth +Plate reconstruction +Plate tectonics +Thermochronology +Timeline of natural history +General +Consilience, evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions + + +== References == + + +== Literature == +Basset, M. G.; Cocks, L. R. M.; Holland, C. H.; Rickards, R. B.; and Warren, P. T.; 1975: The type Wenlock series, Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, 75(13), pp. 1–19. +Cocks, L. R. M.; Holland, C. H.; Rickards, R. B.; and Strachan, I.; 1971: A correlation of Silurian rocks in the British Isles, Journal of the Geological Society 127(2), pp. 103–136. +Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G.; and Smith, A. G.; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-78142-6. +Hoffmann, K.-H.; Condon, D. J.; Bowring, S. A.; and Crowley, J. L.; 2004: U-Pb zircon date from the Neoproterozoic Ghaub Formation, Namibia: Constraints on Marinoan glaciation, Geology 32(9), pp. 817–820. +Holland, C. H.; Lawson, J. D.; Walmsley, V. G.; and White D. E.; 1980: Ludlow stages, Lethaia 13, p. 268, ISSN 0024-1164. +Menning, M.; Alekseev, A. S.; Chuvashov, B. I.; Davydov, V. I.; Devuyst, F.-X.; Forke, H. C.; Grunt, T. A.; Hance, L.; Heckel, P. H.; Izokh, N. G.; Jin, Y.-G.; Jones, P. J.; Kotlyar, G. V.; Kozur, H. W.; Nemyrovska, T. I.; Schneider, J. W.; Wang, X.-D.; Weddige, K., Weyer, D.; and Work, D. M.; 2005: Global time scale and regional stratigraphic reference scales of Central and West Europe, East Europe, Tethys, South China, and North America as used in the Devonian–Carboniferous–Permian Correlation Chart 2003 (DCP 2003), Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240, pp. 318–372. +Rio, D.; Sprovieri, R.; Castradori, D.; and Di Stefano, E.; 1998: The Gelasian Stage (Upper Pliocene): a new unit of the global standard chronostratigraphic scale, Episodes 21(2), pp. 82–87. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists-0.md index d70884926..1c1cf5e05 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:05:38.866879+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:06.555921+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_spits-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_spits-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..834b3a694 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_spits-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ +--- +title: "List of geographical spits" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_spits" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:15.531227+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are many examples of spits around the world. Some of which include: + + +== By sea == + + +=== Azov Sea === + +Russia +Achuevsk Spit +Beglitsk Spit +Chushka Spit +Dolgaya Spit +Glafirovsk Spit +Kamyshevatsk Spit +Petrushino Spit +Sazalniksk Spit +Yasensk Spit +Yeysk Spit +Ukraine +Belosaraysk Spit +Berdyansk Spit +Fedotova Spit +Krivaya Spit +Obytichna Spit +Arabat Spit +Tuzla Spit + + +=== Baltic Sea === +Curonian Spit, Russia/Lithuania +Hel Spit, Poland +Priwall, Germany +Vistula Spit, Poland/Russia + + +=== Skagerrak === +Grenen, Denmark + + +== By country == + + +=== Australia === +Lefevre Peninsula, Adelaide, South Australia +Letitia Spit, Fingal Head, New South Wales +Sir Richard Peninsula, Goolwa, South Australia +Southport Spit, Gold Coast, Queensland +Tobias Spit, 1 km northeast of High Island, Frankland Islands, Queensland +Younghusband Peninsula, Coorong, South Australia + + +=== Brunei === +Seri Kenangan Beach, Pekan Tutong, Tutong +Pelumpong Spit, Serasa, Brunei-Muara +Serasa Beach, Serasa, Brunei-Muara + + +=== Canada === +Toronto Islands (former spit, now detached), Toronto, Ontario +Leslie Street Spit, man-made spit created as part of new harbour project +Long Point, Ontario +Point Pelee, Ontario on Lake Erie +Rondeau Provincial Park - a crescentric sand spit on Lake Erie +Blackie Spit (east section of the Crescent Beach), South Surrey, British Columbia [1] +Sidney Spit, Sidney Island, British Columbia +La Dune de Bouctouche, Bouctouche, New Brunswick[2] +Whiffen Spit, Sooke, British Columbia +West Pen Island, Nunavut + + +=== China === + + +==== Hong Kong ==== +Central ferry pier +Discovery bay +Pui O, Lantau +Stanley +Tsim Sha Tsui before infilling + + +=== Croatia === + +Zlatni Rat, on island Brač + + +=== Denmark === + +Grenen, the tip of the Jutland peninsula + + +=== Ireland === +Inch Strand, Dingle Peninsula, County Kerry. +Donabate Beach, Donabate, County Dublin. +Portrane Beach, Portrane, County Dublin. + + +=== Jamaica === +Palisadoes, Kingston, Jamaica + + +=== New Zealand === +Aramoana, Otago +Farewell Spit, South Island + + +=== Pakistan === +Sandspit, Karachi Pakistan + + +=== Russia === +Russkaya Koshka, Chukotka + + +=== Singapore === +Changi Beach +Tanjong Rhu + + +=== Spain === +Cádiz, Andalusia +La Manga, Mar Menor, Region of Murcia + + +=== Turkey === +Kum Adası, Çardak, Çanakkale +Kumada, Altınova, Balıkesir + + +=== United Kingdom === + + +==== Wales ==== +Conwy Morfa, Conwy +Fairbourne Spit, Fairbourne, Gwynedd + + +==== England ==== +Blakeney Point, Norfolk +Calshot Spit, Hampshire +Chesil Beach, Dorset +Dawlish Warren, Devon +Hengistbury Head, Dorset +Hurst Spit, Hampshire +Mudeford Spit, Dorset +Orford Ness, Suffolk +Spurn Head, Yorkshire +Westward Ho! Pebbleridge, Devon + + +=== United States === +Bodie Island and the Currituck Banks, on both sides of the border between Virginia and North Carolina, the northernmost of the Outer Banks +Clatsop Spit, Oregon +Deveaux Bank, South Carolina +Dungeness Spit, Sequim, Washington, the longest natural sand spit in the United States. +Ediz Hook, Port Angeles, Washington +Fenwick Island, on both sides of the border of Delaware and Maryland +Homer Spit, Homer, Alaska +Kotzebue, Alaska +Long Point, Provincetown, Massachusetts, at the tip of Cape Cod +Minnesota Point, Duluth, Minnesota Also referred to by locals as "Park Point", it's also said to be the world's largest freshwater natural spit. +Platinum, Alaska +Presque Isle, Erie, Pennsylvania +Provincetown Spit, Massachusetts +Sandy Hook, New Jersey +The Spit, Scituate, Massachusetts +Willoughby Spit, Norfolk, Virginia + + +=== Ukraine === + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_tors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_tors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6e6fc8ca1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_tors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,177 @@ +--- +title: "List of geographical tors" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_tors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:30.106281+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following list enumerate and expand on notable tors. + + +== Tors in Great Britain == + + +=== Dartmoor === + +Dartmoor represents one of the largest areas of exposed granite in the United Kingdom, covering an area of 368 square miles (950 km2). It is part of a chain of granite stretching through Cornwall, as far as the Isles of Scilly. +Some of the more durable granite survived to form the rocky crowns of Dartmoor tors. One of the best known is at Haytor (50.5802°N 3.7552°W / 50.5802; -3.7552) on the eastern part of the moor, whose granite is of unusually fine quality and was quarried from the hillside below the tor during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Its stone was used to construct the pillars outside the British Museum in London, and to build London Bridge. The last granite to be quarried there was used to build Exeter War Memorial in 1919. +Ten Tors is an annual weekend hike on Dartmoor. + + +=== Cornwall === +Alex Tor, Bodmin Moor +Hawk's Tor, Bodmin Moor. There are two on the moor: +One near Lewannick +One near Temple +Helman Tor, mid–Cornwall +Rough Tor, Bodmin Moor +Trewortha Tor, Bodmin Moor +Showery Tor, Bodmin Moor +Cheesewring, Bodmin Moor +Brown Willy, Bodmin Moor +Carneglos Tor, Bodmin Moor +Temple Tor, Bodmin Moor +Garrow Tor, Bodmin Moor +Kilmar Tor, Bodmin Moor +Butter's Tor, Bodmin Moor +Carn Brea, Redruth +Sharp Tor, Bodmin Moor +St Bellarmins Tor, Bodmin Moor +Codda Tor, Bodmin Moor +Maiden Tor, Bodmin Moor +Little Rough Tor, Bodmin Moor +Catshole Tor, Bodmin Moor +Butter's Tor, Bodmin Moor +Carbilly Tor, Bodmin Moor +Fox Tor, Bodmin Moor +Tolcarne Tor, Bodmin Moor +Greymare Rock, Bodmin Moor +Hill Tor, Bodmin Moor +Tregarrick Tor, Bodmin Moor +Bearah Tor, Bodmin Moor +Newel Tor, Bodmin Moor +Colvannick Tor, Bodmin Moor +Carburrow Tor, Bodmin Moor +Carkees Tor, Bodmin Moor +Carey Tor, Bodmin Moor +Trekennick Tor, Bodmin Moor +Lanlavery Rock, Bodmin Moor +Jubilee Rock, Bodmin Moor +Hills: + +Kit Hill, Callington +Hensbarrow Beacon, St Austell Downs +Buttern Hill, Bodmin Moor +Candra Hill, Bodmin Moor +Carn Brea, Penwith +Dinnever Hill, Bodmin Moor +Louden Hill, Bodmin Moor +Caradon Hill, Bodmin Moor +Watch Croft, Penwith +Hensbarrow Beacon, St Austell Downs +Carnmenellis, between Redruth, Helston and Penryn +Hobb's Hill, Bodmin Moor + + +=== Peak District === +There are many tors in this area, notably in the Dark Peak where the host rock is Millstone Grit: + +Back Tor, Derwent Edge (538m) +Carl Wark, Hathersage Moor +Chee Tor, Buxton +Dovestone Tor, Derwent Edge (505m) +Great Tor, Bamford + +Higger Tor (384m) and Over Owler Tor (375m) +Howshaw Tor overlooking Sheffield +Ladybower Tor, Upper Derwent Valley +Low Tor, Bradfield Moors +The Salt Cellar on Derwent Edge +Mam Tor, Edale +Owler Tor, Burbage, [53.3167,-1.6206] +Whinstone Lee Tor +White Tor, Derwent Moors (487m) + +In addition there are hills which incorporate 'tor' in their name but yet do not feature the geomorphological feature described in this article. Examples include Mam Tor and Shining Tor. + + +=== Pennines === +Almscliffe Crag west of Harrogate +Cow and Calf, Ilkley Moor in West Yorkshire. Made from Millstone Grit. +Haslingden Tor. (Musbury Hill) Helmshore Rossendale, Lancashire + + +=== Scotland === +There are numerous tors developed in the Cairngorm granite in the Scottish Highlands: + +The Barns of Bynack, tors on Bynack More +Ben Avon +Beinn a' Bhuird +Beinn Mheadhoin + + +=== Other areas === +Glastonbury Tor - an example of the use of the word in the sense of “hill” without any rock outcrops. +Stiperstones, Shropshire Hills +The Schil, Newton Tors in Northumberland +Tor Bay, one of the sandy beaches near Oxwich Bay on the Gower Peninsula in south Wales, is so-called because the beach is framed by a huge outcrop of Carboniferous Limestone. + + +== Tors in other regions == + + +=== Africa === + +Kit-Mikayi, Kenya +Castle koppies of Central Zimbabwe. + + +=== Germany === + +Externsteine in the Teutoburg Forest, North Rhine-Westphalia +Greifensteine in the Ore Mountains of Saxony +Großer Waldstein in the Fichtel Mountains of Bavaria +Heinrichshöhe and Hohneklippen in the Harz mountains of central Germany +Wolfenstein in Bavaria + + +=== India === +Tors are very commonly found in Deccan regions of Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. + + +=== Malaysia === +Mount Datuk, Negeri Sembilan + + +=== North America === + +Stone Mountain, Georgia, USA +Angel Rocks and Granite Tors, Chena River State Recreation Area, Alaska +Finger Mountain area, Dalton Highway, Alaska +Elephant Rocks, Missouri +Apache Leap Formation near Superior, Arizona +Texas Canyon, Arizona +Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma + Pilot Mountain, North Carolina +High Tor, Freeland Mountain (a part of Pocono Mountain), near Freeland, Pennsylvania +Vedauwoo, Wyoming + + +=== New Zealand === +Schist tors in Central Otago +Ignimbrite tors west of Rotorua + + +=== Spain === +Tors of the Central Pyrinees. +Castle koppies of Traba Massif, Galicia. + + +=== Ireland === +Three Rock Mountain, Dublin + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Charon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Charon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..74d146b84 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Charon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "List of geological features on Charon" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Charon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:52.301347+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The geological features of Charon, the largest moon of Pluto, are being mapped by scientists using data from the New Horizons spacecraft. The team has given provisional names to the most prominent. +As of April 2020, only some of the names have been officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union, which has agreed that names for features on Charon should come from the following: + +Destinations and milestones of fictional space and other exploration. +Fictional and mythological vessels of space and other exploration. +Fictional and mythological voyagers, travellers and explorers. +Authors and artists associated with space exploration, especially Pluto and the Kuiper Belt. +Some features discovered by the New Horizons mission have been given provisional names based on various science fiction and fantasy franchises, including Star Wars, Star Trek, Doctor Who, Alien, Firefly, and Macross. These names remain unofficial until accepted by the IAU. +On 11 April 2018, the IAU announced that several of the feature names had been officially recognized. As of December 2025, this list contains 55 geological features, 14 of which are official. + + +== Chasmata == +A chasma (plural chasmata) is a deep, elongated, steep-sided depression. Charonian chasmata are named after vessels in fiction. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Craters == + +Craters on Charon are named after characters associated with science fiction and fantasy. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Dorsa == +A dorsum (plural dorsa) is a ridge. Charon's only dorsum is named after an author. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Maculae == +A macula (plural maculae) is a dark spot. Charonian maculae are named after fictional destinations. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Montes == +A mons (plural montes) is a mountain. Montes on Charon are named after authors and artists. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Planitiae == +A planitia (plural planitiae) is a large plain. Charon's only planitia is named after a fictional destination. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Regiones == +A regio (plural regiones) is a region geographically distinct from its surroundings. Charon's only regio is named after a fictional destination. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Terrae == +A terra (plural terrae) is an extensive landmass or highland. Charon's only terra is named after a fictional destination. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Valles == +A vallis (plural valles) is valley. Charon's only vallis is named after a vessel in fiction. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== See also == +Geology of Charon +List of geological features on Pluto + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official list of Charon's features (IAU) +Map of Charon \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d8b38c61 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "List of geological features on Pluto" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:49.802424+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of named geological features on Pluto, identified by scientists working with data from the New Horizons spacecraft. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially approved the first 14 names on 8 August 2017 (announced 7 September 2017), with additional names following in each subsequent year, but many of the names listed on this page are still informal. The IAU has determined that names will be chosen from the following themes: + +Names for the underworld from the world's mythologies +Gods, goddesses, and dwarfs associated with the underworld +Heroes and other explorers of the underworld +Writers associated with Pluto and the Kuiper belt +Pioneering space missions and spacecraft +Scientists and engineers associated with Pluto and the Kuiper belt + + +== Cavi == +A cavus is a hollow or steep-sided depression. Plutonian cavi are named after underworlds from fiction and mythology. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Colles == +A collis is a low hill. Plutonian colles are named after spacecraft that operated in Earth orbit. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Craters == +Plutonian craters are named after scientists and other people associated with the study of Pluto. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Dorsa == +A dorsum is a ridge. Plutonian dorsa are named after underworlds in mythology. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Faculae == +A facula is a bright spot on the surface of a planet. Plutonian faculae are named after underworld creatures from mythology. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Fluctūs == +A fluctus is a terrain covered by outflow of liquid. Plutonian fluctūs are named after travellers to the underworld. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Fossae == +A fossa is a ditch-like feature. Plutonian fossae are named after figures associated with underworld myths. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Labyrinthi == +A labyrinthus is a complex of intersecting valleys or ridges. Plutonian labyrinthi are named after gods of the underworld. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Lacūs == +A lacus is a small plain, derived from the word lake. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Lineae == +A linea is an elongated marking. Plutonian lineae are named after space probes. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Maculae == +A macula is a dark spot. Plutonian maculae are named after underworld creatures from fiction and mythology. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Montes == +A mons is a mountain. Plutonian montes (mountain ranges) are named after explorers and adventurers. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Paludes == +A palus (literally swamp) is a small plain. Paludes on Pluto are named after historic explorers. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Plana == +A planum is a plateau or high plain. One was initially identified (Sputnik Planum), but it has since been reclassified as a planitia. + + +== Planitiae == +A planitia is a low plain, distinct from plana as they are located on lower terrain. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Regiones == +A regio is a region geographically distinct from its surroundings. Plutonian regiones are named after underworld spirits in fiction and mythology, or after scientists associated with the study of Pluto. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. Belton, Harrington, Safronov, and Sharaf regiones were all formerly maculae, informally named Cthulhu, Balrog, Krun, and Ala, respectively. + + +== Rupēs == +A rupes is an escarpment. Plutonian rupēs are named after explorers. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Terrae == +A terra is an extensive landmass. Plutonian terrae are named after space probes. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== Valles == +A vallis is a valley. Plutonian valles are named after historic explorers. The following is a list of names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. + + +== See also == +Geography of Pluto +Geology of Pluto +List of geological features on Charon + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official list of Pluto's features (IAU) +Beyer, Ross A.; Showalter, Mark (October 8, 2021). "Pluto and Charon Nomenclature" (PDF). +Map of Pluto \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27b47b5a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "List of geological phenomena" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:47.176867+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A geological phenomenon is a phenomenon which is explained by or sheds light on the science of geology. +Examples of geological phenomena are: + +Mineralogic phenomena +Lithologic phenomena +Rock types +Igneous rock +Igneous formation processes +Sedimentary rock +Sedimentary formation processes (sedimentation) +Quicksand +Metamorphic rock +Endogenic phenomena +Plate tectonics +Continental drift +Earthquake +Oceanic trench +Phenomena associated with igneous activity +Geysers and hot springs +Bradyseism +Volcanic eruption +Earth's magnetic field +Exogenic phenomena +Slope phenomena +Slump +Landslide +Weathering phenomena +Erosion +Glacial and peri-glacial phenomena +Glaciation +Moraines +Hanging valleys +Atmospheric phenomena +Impact phenomena +Impact crater +Coupled endogenic-exogenic phenomena +Orogeny +Drainage development +Stream capture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45c98ff99 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +title: "List of geologists" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A geologist is a contributor to the science of geology. Geologists are also known as earth scientists or geoscientists. +The following is a list of notable geologists. Many have received such awards as the Penrose Medal or the Wollaston Medal, or have been inducted into the National Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society. +Geoscience specialties represented include geochemistry, geophysics, structural geology, tectonics, geomorphology, glaciology, hydrology, hydrogeology, oceanography, mineralogy, petrology, crystallography, paleontology, paleobotany, paleoclimatology, palynology, petroleum geology, planetary geology, sedimentology, soil science, stratigraphy, and volcanology. In this list, the person listed is a geologist unless another specialty is noted. Only geologists with biographical articles in Wikipedia are listed here. + +== A == + +Vladimir Abazarov (1930–2003), Soviet geologist, discoverer of Samotlor oil field +Aziz Ab'Saber (1924–2012), Brazilian geomorphologist, member Brazilian Academy of Sciences +Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (1806–1886), German mineralogist +Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), Swiss-American geologist, work on ice ages, glaciers, Lake Agassiz +Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer) (1494–1555), German naturalist and 'Father of Mineralogy', author of De re metallica +Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605), Italian, Renaissance naturalist +Claude Allègre (1937–2025), French geochemist, member of the French Academy of Sciences +Fernando Flávio Marques de Almeida (1916–2013), Brazilian geologist, member Brazilian Academy of Sciences +Walter Alvarez (born 1940), American, co-author of the impact theory for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event +J. Willis Ambrose (1911–1974), first President of Geological Association of Canada +Ernest Masson Anderson (1877–1960), Scottish structural geologist, influential in theory of faulting +Roy Chapman Andrews (1884–1960), American explorer and naturalist; Mongolian dinosaurs +Mary Anning (1799–1847), English pioneer fossil collector +Adolphe d'Archiac (1802–1868), French paleontologist, member French Academy of Sciences +Giovanni Arduino (1714–1795), Italian, first classification of geological time +Richard Lee Armstrong (1937–1991), American/Canadian geochemist, won Logan Medal +Rosemary Askin (born 1949), first New Zealand woman to undertake her own research program in Antarctica in 1970. +Tanya Atwater (born 1942), California, American geophysicist, marine geologist, plate tectonics specialist + +== B == + +Ralph Bagnold (1896–1990), British, studied deserts and the physics of sand +Andrew Geddes Bain (1797–1864), South African, prepared first detailed geological map of South Africa +Bashiru Ademola Raji, Nigerian geologist and pedogenesist +Robert T. Bakker (born 1945), American dinosaur paleontologist; author, The Dinosaur Heresies +Octávio Barbosa (1907–1997), Brazilian field geologist and prospector; Gold Medal, Sociedade Brasileira de Geologia +Thomas Barger (1909–1986), American, pioneered oil exploration in Saudi Arabia, later CEO of Aramco +Anthony R. Barringer (1925–2009), Canadian/American geophysicist and inventor +Charles Barrois (1851–1939), French geologist and paleontologist +Florence Bascom (1862–1945), American, first woman geologist at the US Geological Survey +Éliane Basse (1899–1985), French geologist and research director at the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) +Abhijit Basu, Indian born American geologist +Robert Bell (1841–1917), considered Canada's greatest explorer-scientist +Walter A. Bell (1889–1969), Canadian paleobotanist and stratigrapher +Helen Belyea (1913–1986), Canadian geologist best known for her research of the Devonian System. +Reinout Willem van Bemmelen (1904–1983), Dutch, structural geology, economic geology and volcanology +Etheldred Benett (1776–1845), English, pioneer paleontologist +Pierre Berthier (1782–1861), French geologist, discovered the properties of bauxite +Luca Bindi (born 1971), Italian geologist, discovered the first natural quasicrystal icosahedrite +Eliot Blackwelder (1880–1969), American field geologist, president of the Geological Society of America +George Stanfield Blake (1876–1940), British geologist +William Blake (1774–1852), President of the Geological Society of London 1815–1816 +William Phipps Blake (1826–1910), American geologist +Selwyn G. Blaylock (1879–1945), Canadian chemist and mining executive with Cominco +Stewart Blusson (born 1939), Canadian, co-discoverer of Ekati Diamond Mine +Alexei Alexeivich Bogdanov (1907–1971), Soviet geologist +Bruce Bolt (1930–2005), American (born Australia), pioneer engineering seismologist in California +José Bonaparte (1928–2020), Argentinian paleontologist, discovered many South American dinosaurs +William Borlase (1696–1772), Cornish natural historian, studied the minerals of Cornwall +Norman L. Bowen (1887–1956), Canadian, pioneer experimental petrologist +Scipione Breislak (1748–1826), Italian mineralogist and geologist, pioneer of volcanic gas collection +J Harlen Bretz (1882–1981), American, discovered origin of channeled scablands +David Brewster (1781–1868), Scottish physicist, studied the optical properties of minerals. +Wallace S. Broecker (1931–2019), American paleoclimatologist and chemical oceanographer +Robert Broom (1866–1951), South African palaeontologist, discovered australopithecine hominid fossils +Barnum Brown (1873–1963), American, dinosaur hunter and self-taught paleontologist +Christian Leopold von Buch (1774–1853), German geologist and paleontologist +Mary Buckland (1797–1857), English, paleontologist, marine biologist and scientific illustrator +William Buckland (1784–1856), English, wrote the first full account of a fossil dinosaur +Judith Bunbury (born 1967), British, geoarchaeologist +B. Clark Burchfiel (1934-2024), MIT structural geologist, studied the Tibetan Plateau; member of National Academy of Sciences +Perry Byerly (1897–1978), American geophysicist and seismologist + +== C == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c2558a11f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +--- +title: "List of geologists" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Louis J. Cabri (born 1934), Canadian, geologist and mineralogist, Fellow, Royal Society of Canada +Stephen E. Calvert (born 1935), Canadian professor, geologist, oceanographer; awarded Logan Medal +Colin Campbell (1931–2022), British petroleum geologist and Peak Oil theorist +Neil Campbell (1914–1978), Canadian, Northwest Territories mineral exploration; Fellow, Royal Society of Canada +Samuel Warren Carey (1911–2002), Australian, continental drift proponent and later developed Expanding Earth hypothesis +María Casanova de Chaudet (1899–1947), Italian-born Argentine geologist, director of Argentina's first petrographic laboratory +Petr Černý (1934–2018), Czech/Canadian mineralogist, won Logan Medal; Fellow, Royal Society of Canada +Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois (1820–1886), French, geologist and mineralogist +George V. Chilingar (1929–2023), American, distinguished international petroleum geologist +Václav Cílek (born 1955), Czech geologist and science popularizer +John J. Clague (born 1946), Canadian, Quaternary and geological hazards expert +Thomas H. Clark (1893–1996), Canadian, co-author of The Geological Evolution of North America (1960) +William Branwhite Clarke (1798–1878), Australian (born England), discovered gold in New South Wales, 1841 +Peter Clift (born 1966), British marine geologist and monsoon researcher, best known for work in Asia +Hans Cloos (1885–1951), prominent German structural geologist +Lorence G. Collins, (born 1931), American, petrologist, discoveries on metasomatism +Simon Conway Morris (born 1951), palaeontologist and writer, best known for study of Burgess Shale fossils +William Conybeare (1787–1857), English, author of Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales (1822) +Isabel Clifton Cookson (1893–1973), Australian paleobotanist and palynologist, namesake of genus Cooksonia +Edward Drinker Cope (1840–1897), American, pioneer dinosaur paleontologist; Bone Wars competitor +Charles Cotton (1885–1970), New Zealand, geologist and geomorphologist +James Croll (1821–1890), Scottish scientist who developed the theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth's orbit +Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), French, proponent of catastrophism +Lindsay Collins (1944–2015), Australian marine geologist and sedimentologist + +== D == + +G. Brent Dalrymple (born 1937), United States, author The Age of the Earth (1991), winner National Science Medal, 2005 +James Dwight Dana (1813–1895), American, author of System of Mineralogy (1837) +Charles Darwin (1809–1882), British naturalist, author of On the Origin of Species, atoll formation +George Mercer Dawson (1849–1901), Canadian, pioneer Yukon geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society +John William Dawson (1820–1899), Canadian, pioneer Acadian geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society +Henry De la Beche (1796–1855), English, first director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain +Duncan R. Derry (1906–1987), Canadian economic geologist, awarded Logan Medal +Nicolas Desmarest (1725–1815), French, pioneer volcanologist +Thomas Dibblee (1911–2004), American, geological mapper and pioneer of San Andreas Fault movement study +William R. Dickinson (1930–2015), Arizona, American, plate tectonics, Colorado Plateau; Member of National Academy of Sciences +Robert S. Dietz (1914–1995), American, seafloor spreading pioneer, awarded Penrose Medal +Déodat de Dolomieu (1750–1801), French geologist +Ljudmila Dolar Mantuani (1906–1988), Slovenian petrologist, first female professor of petrography in Yugoslavia +Louis de Loczy (1897–1980), Hungarian-Brazilian geologist +Ignacy Domeyko (1802–1889), Slavic-Chilean geologist and mineralogist, namesake of the mineral domeykite +Robert John Wilson Douglas (1920–1979), Canadian petroleum geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada +Aleksis Dreimanis (1914–2011), Latvian-Canadian award-winning Quaternary geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada +Hugo Dummett (1940–2002), South African mineral-exploration geologist, co-discoverer of Ekati Diamond Mine +Alexander du Toit (1878–1948), South African geologist, established correlations between Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil and South Africa +Clarence Edward Dutton (1841–1912), American, author of Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon District + +== E == +Edith Ebers (1894–1974), German geologist, glaciologist +Heinz Ebert (1907–1983), German-Brazilian, geologist, petrologist; awarded gold medal, Sociedade Brasileira de Geologia +Fanny Carter Edson (1887–1952), American petroleum geologist +Niles Eldredge (born 1943), American, paleontologist; theory of punctuated equilibrium +Jean-Baptiste Élie de Beaumont (1798–1874), French, prepared first geological map of France +Kay-Chrisitan Emeis, German geologist and academic +W. G. Ernst (born 1931), American, Stanford petrologist and geochemist, member of National Academy of Sciences +Pentti Eskola (1883–1964), Finnish geologist and professor who created the concept of metamorphic facies +Robert Etheridge, Junior (1847–1920), Australian (born England) paleontologist, longtime curator of the Australian Museum +Raul-Yuri Ervier (1909–1991), Soviet geologist, an eminent organizer and head of wide-ranging geological explorations that discovered of the largest oil and gas fields in Western Siberia +Maurice Ewing (1906–1974), American, pioneering geophysicist and oceanographer + +== F == +Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741–1819), French, pioneer volcanologist +Mikhail A. Fedonkin (born 1946), Russian paleontologist, awarded Charles Doolittle Walcott Medal +Walter Frederick Ferrier (1865–1950), Canadian, mineral collector, namesake of the mineral Ferrierite +Judy Fierstein, American, volcanology and petrology researcher of the U.S. Geological Survey +Frederick C. Finkle (1865–1949), American consulting engineer and geologist; Chief Engineer on 18 major dam projects +Michael Fleischer (1908–1998), American chemist and mineralogist +Charles E. Fipke (born 1946), Canadian, co-discoverer of Ekati Diamond Mine +Richard Fortey (1946–2025), English, trilobite paleontologist, author, Fellow of the Royal Society +Yves O. Fortier (1914–2014), Canadian, High Arctic explorer, won Logan Medal +Gillian Foulger (born 1952), British, professor of geophysics at Durham University; awarded Price Medal +William Fyfe (1927–2013), Canadian geochemist, won Wollaston Medal + +== G == + +Patrick Ganly (1809–1899), Irish surveyor and geologist, described the use of cross-bedding in stratification +Robert Garrels (1916–1988), American geochemist, revolutionized aqueous geochemistry +Archibald Geikie (1835–1924), Scottish, geologist, President of the Royal Society +Mark S. Ghiorso (born 1954), American geochemist, thermodynamic modeling of magma +Grove Karl Gilbert (1843–1918), American, influential Western geologist, won Wollaston Medal +James E. Gill (1901–1980), Canadian, McGill University professor, explorer, Logan Medal winner +Victor Goldschmidt (1888–1947), Norwegian (born Switzerland), a founder of modern geochemistry +Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002), American paleontologist and writer +L. C. Graton (1880–1970), American, Harvard economic geologist, awarded Penrose Gold Medal +Alexander Henry Green (1832–1896), English, surveyed Derbyshire and Yorkshire, Fellow of the Royal Society +George Bellas Greenough (1778–1855), English, gentlemanly geologist, founding member and first President of the Geological Society +John Walter Gregory (1864–1932), English, geology of Australia and East Africa, glacial geology, President of the Geological Society of London (1928–1930) +Robbie Gries (born 1943), American, first female president (2001–02) of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) +Djalma Guimarães (1894–1973), Brazilian geochemist and mineralogist in Minas Gerais +Henry C. Gunning (1901–1991), Canadian (born Northern Ireland), British Columbia geologist, Logan Medal winner + +== H == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..059c99486 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "List of geologists" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Julius von Haast (1824–1887), New Zealand (born Germany), founded Canterbury Museum +Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet (1761–1832), Scottish geologist, president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh +James Hall (1811–1898), American geologist and paleontologist +William Hamilton (1731–1803), Scottish, volcanologist, Copley Medal +Alfred Harker (1859–1939), English, igneous petrologist and petrographer +W. Brian Harland (1917–2003), English, polar geologist +Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith (1923–2012), English and Canadian, polar geologist +Donald E. Hattin (1928–2016), American geologist and paleontologist +Thomas Hawkins (1810–1889), English fossil collector +James Edwin Hawley (1897–1965), Canadian, studied mineralogy of ore deposits +Erasmus Haworth (1855–1932), founder of the Kansas Geological Survey and the first state geologist of Kansas +Frank Hawthorne (born 1946), Canadian mineralogist and crystallographer +Richard L. Hay (1929–2006), American geologist +Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden (1829–1887), American, pioneer Western geologist +Robert Hazen (born 1948), American, mineralogist and astrobiologist +Hollis Dow Hedberg (1903–1988), American geologist +Bruce Heezen (1924–1977), American geologist who first mapped the Mid-Atlantic Ridge +Sue Hendrickson (born 1949), American paleontologist; discoverer of "Sue", the largest Tyrannosaurus rex ever found +Harry Hammond Hess (1906–1969), American geologist and oceanographer +Henry Hicks (1837–1899), FRS, President of the Geological Society +Pattillo Higgins (1863–1955), American, known as the "Prophet of Spindletop" +Wes Hildreth (born 1938), American, volcanologist and petrologist +Eugene W. Hilgard (1833–1916), American (born Germany), soil scientist +Dorothy Hill (1907-1997), Australian geologist +Robert T. Hill (1858–1941), American geologist, Cretaceous deposits of Central Texas +Claude Hillaire-Marcel (born 1944), Canadian (born France), Quaternary geologist +Ferdinand von Hochstetter (1829–1884), German-Austrian, produced first regional New Zealand geological maps and surveys. +Paul F. Hoffman (born 1941), American and Canadian, Snowball Earth theorist +Arthur Holmes (1890–1965), English, author of Principles of Physical Geology +Marjorie Hooker (1908–1976), American, acted as a mineral specialist for the United States Department of State from 1943 to 1947 +Jack Horner (born 1946), American dinosaur paleontologist +Kenneth J. Hsu (born 1929), American (born China), author of The Mediterranean was a Desert +M. King Hubbert (1903–1989), American, originator of "Peak Oil" theory +James Hutton (1726–1797), Scottish geologist, father of modern geology + +== I == +Edward A. Irving (1927–2014), Canadian, used paleomagnetism to support continental drift theory + +== J == + +Thomas Jaggar (1871–1953), American, volcanologist and founder of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory +James A. Jensen (1911–1998), American, distinguished dinosaur paleontologist and sculptor +Dougal Jerram (born 1969), British geologist/earth scientist, television and media presenter and author +David A. Johnston (1949–1980), American, volcanologist, killed in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens +Franc Joubin (1911–1997), Canadian (born United States), discovered Elliot Lake uranium district +John Wesley Judd (1840–1916), British geologist, professor at the Royal School of Mines, London +Wilhelmine Mimi Johnson (1890–1980), Norway's first female geologist + +== K == + +Michael John Keen (1935–1991), Atlantic Canada, marine geoscientist +Dennis V. Kent (born 1946), American geomagnetist +Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska (1925–2015), Polish paleontologist, led several paleontological expeditions to the Gobi desert +Clarence King (1842–1901), American, first director of the U.S. Geological Survey +James Kitching (1922–2003), South African, Karoo vertebrate palaeontologist +Sir Albert Ernest Kitson (1868–1937), Australian (born England), economic geologist, mineral exploration in Africa +Maria Klenova (1898–1976), Russian marine geologist and one of the founders of Russian marine science +Andrew H. Knoll (born 1951), American, Harvard geologist and paleontologist +Danie G. Krige (1919–2013), South African mining engineer, inventor of kriging +M. S. Krishnan (1898–1970), Indian geologist, author of Geology of India and Burma +Thomas Edvard Krogh (1936–2008), Canadian, geochronologist, revolutionized uranium-lead radiometric dating +William C. Krumbein (1902–1979), American, sedimentologist +Nikolai Kudryavtsev (1893–1971), Russian petroleum geologist + +== L == + +Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948), French geologist +Charles Lapworth (1842–1920), English geologist, defined the Ordovician Period +Andrew Lawson (1861–1952), American (born Scotland), named San Andreas Fault +Richard Leakey (1944–2022), Kenyan paleontologist +Joseph LeConte (1823–1901), United States, first professor of geology, University of California +Robert Legget (1904–1994), Canadian non-fiction writer, civil engineer, pedologist +Inge Lehmann (1888–1993), Danish seismologist, discovered Lehmann discontinuity. The asteroid 5632 Ingelehmann was named in her honour. +Luna Leopold (1915–2006), eminent American hydrologist +Xavier Le Pichon (1937–2025), French plate tectonics geophysicist +Zofia Licharewa (1883–1980), Polish geologist and museum founder +Waldemar Lindgren (1860–1939), distinguished Swedish-American economic geologist +Li Shizhen (1518–1593), Ming Dynasty Chinese mineralogist, author of the Ben Cao Gang Mu (Compendium of Materia Medica) +Martin Lister (c. 1638–1712), English, pioneer geologist +William Edmond Logan (1798–1875), Canadian, founded Geological Survey of Canada +Fred Longstaffe, Canadian, Provost of University of Western Ontario +Rosaly Lopes (born 1957), Brazilian, planetary geology and volcanology +Sir Charles Lyell (1797–1875), Scottish geologist, popularized principle of uniformitarianism + +== M == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b07e5ffa2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "List of geologists" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +William Maclure (1763–1840), published first geological map of United States (1809) +J. Ross Mackay (1915–2014), Canadian permafrost geologist +Robert Mallet (1810–1881), Irish, "father of seismology" +Vera Malycheff (1886–1964), Russian-born French geologist +Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007), American mineralogist +Othniel Charles Marsh (1831–1899), American, pioneer dinosaur paleontologist; Bone Wars competitor +Teresa Maryańska (1937–2019), Polish, paleontologist specializing in dinosaurs +Kirtley F. Mather (1888–1978), Harvard professor, Scopes Monkey Trial +William Williams Mather (1804–1859), professor, de facto state geologist of Ohio +Drummond Matthews (1931–1997), British marine geologist, geophysicist, plate tectonics pioneer +Sir Douglas Mawson (1882–1958), Australian Antarctic explorer +Sir Frederick McCoy (c. 1817–1899), British and Australian palaeontologist and museum director +Edith Merritt McKee (1918–2006), American geologist +Dan McKenzie (born 1942), British geophysicist, plate tectonics pioneer +Digby McLaren (1919–2004), Canadian paleontologist, Fellow of the Royal Society +Marcia McNutt (born 1952), American geophysicist and the 22nd president of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) of the United States, 15th director of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) (and first woman to hold the post) +Oscar Edward Meinzer (1876–1948), American hydrologist, "father of groundwater geology" +Luiz Alberto Dias Menezes (1950–2014), Brazilian geologist and mineralogist +Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914), Italian seismologist and volcanologist, developed the Mercalli intensity scale for measuring earthquakes +Hans Merensky (1871–1952), South African economic geologist, discovered major diamond, platinum, chrome and copper deposits, including the Merensky Reef +John C. Merriam (1869–1945), American, vertebrate paleontologist, studied fossils from La Brea Tar Pits +Waman Bapuji Metre (1906–1970), Indian, petroleum geologist +Ellen Louise Mertz (1896–1987), was one of Denmark's first female geologists and the country's first engineering geologist. +Gerard V. Middleton (1931–2021), Canadian, sedimentologist, awarded Logan Medal +Milutin Milanković (1879 - 1958), Serbian, geophysicist, climatologist +Hugh Miller (1802–1856), Scottish, geologist, palaeontologist, author, The Old Red Sandstone +John Milne (1850–1913), British seismologist and anthropologist, Order of the Rising Sun +Andrija Mohorovičić (1857–1936), Croatian meteorologist and seismologist, discovered Mohorovicic Discontinuity +Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839), German, devised Mohs' scale of mineral hardness +James Monger, Canadian Cordillera geologist, won Logan Medal +Eldridge Moores (1938–2018), American plate tectonics pioneer and petrologist who specialized in ophiolites +Marie Morisawa (1919–1994), American geomorphology pioneer. The Geological Society of America established the Marie Morisawa Award in her honor. +W. Jason Morgan (1935–2023), American plate tectonics pioneer, won National Medal of Science +Edelmira Inés Mórtola (1894–1973), Argentine geologist for whom the Mórtola Mineralogy Museum was named. +Eric W. Mountjoy (1931–2010), Canadian sedimentologist and petrologist, awarded Logan Medal +Roderick Murchison (1792–1871), Scottish, author of The Silurian System (1839) +Emiliano Mutti (born 1933), Italian petroleum geologist, won Twenhofel Medal + +== N == + +Anthony J. Naldrett (1933–2020), Canadian (born England) nickel ore geologist +E. R. Ward Neale (1923–2008), Atlantic Canada geologist +John Strong Newberry (1822–1892), American, pioneer Western geologist and explorer +Ernest (Ernie) H. Nickel (1925–2009), Canadian mineralogist +Stephen Robert Nockolds (1909–1990), FRS and Murchison Medallist, petrologist +Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1792–1866), Finnish and Russian, mineralogist + +== O == +Henry Fairfield Osborn (1857–1935), American geologist and paleontologist +Halszka Osmólska (1930–2008), Polish paleontologist specializing in dinosaurs +John Ostrom (1928–2005), American, dinosaur paleontologist, discovered warm-blooded Deinonychus +David Dale Owen (1807–1860), American, first state geologist of Indiana, Kentucky, and Arkansas + +== P == +Joseph Pardee (1871–1960), American, channeled scablands +Clair Cameron Patterson (1922–1995), American, geochemist, fought lead poisoning +R.A.F. Penrose, Jr. (1863–1931), American, mining geologist, Penrose Medal +Francis J. Pettijohn (1904–1999), American, sedimentologist +John Phillips (1800–1874), Yorkshire geologist +John Arthur Phillips (1822–1887), FRS, Cornish geologist, metallurgist and mining engineer +Vasiliy Podshibyakin (1928–1997), Soviet geologist, discoverer of Urengoy gas field +Vladimir Porfiriev (1899–1982), Russian petroleum geologist +Henry W. Posamentier (born 1948), American, petroleum geologist +John Wesley Powell (1834–1902), American, ex-soldier who mapped the Colorado River, second director of the USGS +Raymond A. Price (1933-2024), Canadian, structural and tectonic geologist +Raphael Pumpelly (1837–1923), American, geologist and explorer + +== Q == +Jin Qingmin (1939-1999), Chinese, discovered for the first time the “breccia field peridotite” in Bachu Wajir Tagar in the Tarim Basin + +== R == + +Bangalore Puttaiya Radhakrishna (1918–2012), a founder and officer of the Geological Society of India +John G. Ramsay (1931–2021), British structural geologist +Frederick Leslie Ransome (1868–1935), American (born England), USGS economic geologist, National Academy of Sciences +David M. Raup (1933–2015), American, paleontologist; author of Extinction: Bad Genes or Bad Luck? +Mary Louise Rhodes (1916–1987) American petroleum geologist; Permian Basin field research +Charles Richter (1900–1985), American seismologist, devised Richter magnitude scale for earthquakes +Ferdinand von Richthofen (1833–1905), German geologist and geographer +Ronald Ringsrud (born 1951), American gemologist specializing in emerald research +A.E. "Ted" Ringwood (1930–1993), Australian experimental geophysicist and geochemist, Wollaston Medal winner +Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), Spanish–Mexican mineralogist, discoverer of vanadium +Alfred Rittmann (1893–1980), Swiss volcanologist, three-time president of the IAVCEI, Gustav Steinmann medal winner +John Cole Roberts (1935–2016), Welsh geologist, fracture patterning +Ralph J. Roberts (1911–2007), American geologist, Nevada gold districts +Meyer Rubin (1924–2020), American geologist, known for radiocarbon dating work with the USGS +Stanley Keith Runcorn (1922–1995), British geophysicist and plate tectonics pioneer; Fellow of the Royal Society + +== S == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a8d36e772 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "List of geologists" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Donald F. Sangster, Canadian, lead-zinc economic geologist +Emilia Săulea (1904–1998), Romanian geologist and paleontologist +Celâl Şengör (born 1955), Turkish, member of The United States National Academy of Sciences and The Russian Academy of Sciences, Bigsby Medal, Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille and Arthur Holmes Medal winner +Harrison Schmitt (born 1935), American, Apollo 17 astronaut, walked on the Moon +Kevin M. Scott (born 1935), American, volcanology research in United States and China, Kirk Bryan Award +George Julius Poulett Scrope (1797–1876), English, volcanology, Wollaston Medal +Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873), English, proposed Devonian and Cambrian periods +Karl von Seebach (1839–1880), German volcanologist +Adolf Seilacher (1925-2014), German paleontologist, invented the concept and study of ichnofacies, coined the term "Lagerstätten", and championed the photoautotrophic view of the Ediacaran biota. Craaford Prize, Paleontological Society Award, Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille, and Lapworth Award winner, among others. +Seikei Sekiya (1855–1896), Japanese seismologist, created the model showing the motion of an earth-particle during an earthquake +Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006), British geologist and climatologist +Shen Kuo (1031–1095), Chinese scientist, magnetic compass pioneer, geomorphology theory +Richard H. Sibson (born 1945), New Zealand geologist, defined the relationship between seismogenic processes and fault zone rheology. +Eugene Merle Shoemaker (1928–1997), American, meteoriticist, co-discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy +Haraldur Sigurdsson, (born 1939), Icelandic, provided proof for a meteorite impact at the time of the extinction of the dinosaurs +Leon Silver (1925–2022), American, National Academy, NASA medal for contribution to Apollo program's lunar explorations +George Gaylord Simpson (1902–1984), American, paleontologist +Kamini Singha (born 1977), professor at the Colorado School of Mines +H. Catherine W. Skinner (1931-2025), mineralogist, specialist in medical geology, editor of Dana's New Mineralogy 8th edition. +William Smith (1769–1839), father of English Geology +Su Song (1020–1101), Chinese naturalist, author of treatise on metallurgy and mineralogy +Paul Spudis (1952–2018), American planetary geologist +Josiah Edward Spurr (1870–1950), American, geologist, author and Alaskan explorer +Laurence Dudley Stamp (1898–1966), British, petroleum geologist and geographer +Charles Steen (1919–2006), American, discovered uranium near Moab, Utah +Max Steineke (1898–1952), American, discovered Abqaiq oilfield with 12 billion barrels of recoverable oil in Saudi Arabia +Charles R. Stelck (1917–2016), Canadian, petroleum geologist, emeritus professor, Logan Medal winner +Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), Danish, pioneer in early-modern geology, especially in stratigraphy +Iain Stewart (born 1964), British, presenter of several television series on geology +Clifford H. Stockwell (1897–1987), Canadian structural geologist, Geological Survey of Canada, Logan Medal winner +David Strangway (1934–2016), Canadian, geophysicist and university administrator, Logan Medal award +K. Hugo Strunz (1910–2006), German mineralogist, co-creator of the Nickel–Strunz classification. +Eduard Suess (1831–1914), Austrian (born England), named Gondwanaland +Peter Szatmari, Hungarian-Brazilian geologist, Gold Medal award, Sociedade Brasileira de Geologia + +== T == +Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955), French paleontologist and philosopher, co-discovered Peking Man +Karl von Terzaghi (1883–1963), geologist and civil engineer, "father of soil mechanics" +Marie Tharp (1920–2006), co-discoverer of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge +Lonnie Thompson (born 1948), American, glaciologist and ice-core climatologist +Sigurdur Thorarinsson (1912–1983), Icelandic, pioneered the field of tephrochronology +Raymond Thorsteinsson (1921–2012), Canadian, Arctic geologist +Bahal Tambunan (born 1974), Indonesian geoscientist who studies geothermal energy +Phillip Tobias (1925–2012), South African palaeoanthropologist, homo habilis pioneer +Otto Martin Torell (1828–1900), chief of the Geological Survey of Sweden +Francis John Turner (1904–1985), New Zealand, igneous and metamorphic petrologist +Joseph Tyrrell (1858–1957), Canadian paleontologist, namesake of Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology + +== U == +Warren Upham (1850–1934), American, studied glacial Lake Agassiz +David Ure (1749–1798), Scottish, known as "the father of Scottish palaeontology" + +== V == +Charles-Louis-Joseph-Xavier de la Vallée-Poussin (1827–1903), Belgian geologist and mineralogist +Jan Veizer (born 1941), Canadian isotope geochemist +Felix Andries Vening Meinesz (1887–1966), Dutch geophysicist and gravimetric geodesist +Rogier Verbeek (1845–1926), Dutch geologist and nature scientist +Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945), pioneer Russian geochemist and biogeochemist +Fred Vine (1939–2024), British marine geologist, geophysicist, plate tectonics pioneer + +== W == + +Lawrence Wager (1904–1965), British geologist and explorer, discovered the Skaergaard intrusion +Charles Doolittle Walcott (1850–1927), American paleontologist, discovered Burgess Shale fossils +George P. L. Walker (1926–2005), British volcanologist +Roger G. Walker (born 1939), Canadian sedimentologist, emeritus professor +Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen (1809–1876), German, magnetic observations and study of Mount Etna +Janet Watson, (1923–1985), Precambrian specialist, first female president of the Geological Society of London +Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), German meteorologist, continental drift pioneer +Harold Wellman (1909–1999), New Zealand geologist of plate tectonics +Abraham Werner (c. 1749–1817), German, proponent of Neptunism +Israel Charles White (1848–1927), American, coal geology; Permian paleontology +Josiah Whitney (1819–1896), chief of the California Geological Survey; Mount Whitney +Harry B. Whittington (1916-2010), British palaeontologist, worked on Burgess Shale biota, professor at Cambridge +Harold Williams (1934–2010), Atlantic Canada geologist +Howel Williams (1898–1980), American (born England) volcanologist +John Williamson (1907–1958), discovered the Williamson diamond mine, Tanzania +J. Tuzo Wilson (1908–1993), Canadian geophysicist and plate tectonics geologist +Newton Horace Winchell (1839–1914), American, geology of Minnesota +Isaac J. Winograd, American geologist +Jay Backus Woodworth (1865–1925), American geologist and president of the Seismological Society of America +William Henry Wright (1876–1951), Canadian prospector and newspaper publisher, discovered Kirkland Lake gold district + +== Y == +Eiju Yatsu (1920–2016), Japanese, geomorphologist +Ivan Yefremov (1907–1972), Soviet paleontologist and originator of taphonomy +Sorojon Yusufova (1910–1966), Tajik geologist, first person to publish a textbook in the Tajik language + +== Z == +Peter Ziegler (1928–2013), Swiss petroleum geologist, researched on plate reconstructions and paleogeographies +Mary Lou Zoback (born 1952), American geophysicist who led the world stress map project of the International Lithosphere Program + +== See also == +List of geophysicists +List of mineralogists +List of paleontologists +List of Russian geologists + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-0.md index fa001f6ce..ea056c790 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:05:40.183177+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-1.md index 9542062f5..9190d8e3e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:05:40.183177+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-2.md index 152a674cc..513a6ff2e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:05:40.183177+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-3.md index 59eb797fb..0626a7ed5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:05:40.183177+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8406c8ef8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "List of grammatical cases" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:40.445790+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of grammatical cases as they are used by various inflectional languages that have declension. +This list will mark the case, when it is used, an example of it, and then finally what language(s) the case is used in. + + +== Location and movement == +Note: Most cases used for location and motion can be used for time as well. + + +=== Location === + + +=== Motion from === + + +=== Motion to === + + +=== Motion via === + + +=== Time === + + +=== Chart for review for the basic cases === + + +== Morphosyntactic alignment == +For meanings of the terms agent, patient, experiencer, and instrument, see thematic relation. + + +== Relation == + + +== Semantics == + + +== State == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_greenstone_belts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_greenstone_belts-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b61fd7e1e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_greenstone_belts-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ +--- +title: "List of greenstone belts" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_greenstone_belts" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:12.909282+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of greenstone belts + + +== Africa == + + +=== Burkina Faso === +Hounde greenstone belt +Boromo greenstone belt + + +=== Democratic Republic of the Congo === +Kilo-Moto + + +=== Angola === +Lufico - Cabinda +Cassinga + + +=== South Africa === +Barberton greenstone belt +Pietersberg greenstone belt + + +=== Tanzania === +Kilimafedha greenstone belt +Lake Victoria Greenstone Belt +Nzega Greenstone Belt + + +=== Zimbabwe === +Belingwe Greenstone Belt +Gweru-Shurugwi Greenstone Belt +Harare greenstone belt +Bindura-Shamva greenstone belt +Wedza Greenstone belt +Bulawayo-Bubi Greenstone belt +Makaha Greenstone Belt +Beatrice Greenstone Belt +Dindi Greenstone Belt +Mt Darwin Greenstone Belt + + +== Eurasia == + + +=== Russia === +Kostomuksha greenstone belt + + +=== Finland === +Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (Lapland) +Tipasjärvi-Kuhmo-Suomussalmi greenstone belt + + +=== Norway === +Mauken greenstone belt + + +== Oceania == +Harris greenstone belt (Australia) +Jack Hills greenstone belt (Australia) +Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt (Australia) +Saddleback greenstone belt (Australia) +Southern Cross greenstone belt (Australia) +Yandal greenstone belt (Australia) +Yalgoo-Singleton greenstone belt (Australia) + + +== North America == + + +=== Canada === +Abitibi greenstone belt (Quebec/Ontario) +Bird River greenstone belt (Manitoba) +Ecstall Greenstone Belt (British Columbia) +Ennadai greenstone belt (Saskatchewan) +Flin Flon greenstone belt (Manitoba/Saskatchewan) +Hope Bay greenstone belt (Nunavut) +Hunt River greenstone belt (Newfoundland and Labrador) +Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt (Quebec) +Red Lake greenstone belt (Ontario) +Rice Lake greenstone belt (Manitoba) +Swayze greenstone belt (Ontario) +Temagami Greenstone Belt (Ontario) +Yellowknife greenstone belt (Northwest Territories) + + +=== Greenland === +Isua greenstone belt (Southwestern Greenland) + + +=== United States === +Elmers Rock greenstone belt (Wyoming) +Rattlesnake Hills greenstone belt (Wyoming) +Seminoe Mountains greenstone belt (Wyoming) +South Pass greenstone belt (Wyoming) + + +== South America == + + +=== Brazil === +Santa Rita greenstone belt + + +=== Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil === +Northern Guiana Shield greenstone belt + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md index b33d5a859..4ae67d6de 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:23.807787+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md index f674a412a..6dee5dc43 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:23.807787+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md index eed870032..e77027cdd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:23.807787+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_regions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_regions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed0acedc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_regions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "List of industrial regions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_regions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:11.731827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An industrial region or industrial area is a geographical region with extremely dense industry. It is usually heavily urbanized. + + +== Brazil == +ABCD Region, sometimes called ABC (ABC paulista or Região do Grande ABC in Portuguese), is an industrial region made up of seven municipalities with the greater metropolitan area of São Paulo, Brazil. + + +== Bulgaria == +Industrial region Thracia is an industrial zone made up of several municipalities within the area of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. + + +== China == +Pearl River Delta + + +== Germany == +Ruhr + + +== Japan == +Keiyō Industrial Zone +Keihin Industrial Area +Chūkyō Industrial Area +Hanshin Industrial Region + + +== Kazakhstan == +Karagandy Region + + +== Korea == +Kaesŏng Industrial Region, North Korea +Southeastern Maritime Industrial Region, South Korea + + +== Poland == +Białystok Industrial Region +Bielsko Industrial Region +Bydgoszcz-Toruń Industrial Region +Carpathian Industrial Region +Central Industrial Region +Częstochowa Industrial Region +Gdańsk Industrial Region +Upper Silesian Industrial Region +Jaworzno-Chrzanów Industrial Region +Kalisz-Ostrów Industrial Region +Kraków Industrial Region +Legnica-Głogów Copper Area +Lublin Industrial Region +Łódź Industrial Region +Olsztyn Industrial Region +Opole Industrial Region +Piotrków-Bełchatów Industrial Region +Poznań Industrial Region +Rybnik Coal Area +Old-Polish Industrial Region +Sudeten Industrial Region +Szczecin Industrial Region +Tarnobrzeg Industrial Region +Tarnów-Rzeszów Industrial Region +Warsaw Industrial Region +Wrocław Industrial Region +Zielona Góra-Żary Industrial Region + + +== Russia == +Kuzbass + + +== Saudi Arabia == +Jubail Industrial City +Yanbu Industrial City + +Industrial Valley, at King Abdullah Economic City, is part of a fully integrated city on the Red Sea covering an area of 181 million square metres. KAEC's components are King Abdullah Port, Industrial Valley and Coastal Communities. + + +== Ukraine == +Donbas +Kryvbas + + +== United States == +Rust Belt + + +== See also == +Industrial park +Metropolitan area + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd15cf209 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 1/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a of people who are described as being inventors or are credited with an invention. + +== Alphabetical list == + +=== A === +Vitaly Abalakov (1906–1986), Russia – camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread), gearless ice climbing anchor +Ernst Karl Abbe (1840–1905), Germany – Condenser (microscope), apochromatic lens, refractometer +Hovannes Adamian (1879–1932), USSR/Russia/Armenia – tricolor principle of the color television +Samuel W. Alderson (1914–2005), U.S. – crash test dummy +Alexandre Alexeieff (1901–1982), Russia/France – Pinscreen animation (with his wife Claire Parker) +Rostislav Alexeyev (1916–1980), Russia/USSR – Ekranoplan +Randi Altschul (born 1960), U.S. – Disposable cellphone +Abram Alikhanov (1904–1970), Armenia/USSR – Soviet atomic bomb, nuclear reactor +Bruce Ames (1928–2024), U.S. – Ames test (Cell biology) +Giovanni Battista Amici (1786–1863), Italy – Dipleidoscope, Amici prism +Ruth Amos (born 1989), UK – StairSteady +Mary Anderson (1866–1953), U.S. – windshield wiper blade +Momofuku Ando (1910–2007), Japan – Instant noodles +Hal Anger (1920–2005), U.S. – Well counter (radioactivity measurements), gamma camera +Anders Knutsson Ångström (1888–1981), Sweden – Pyranometer +Ottomar Anschütz (1846–1907), Germany – single-curtain focal-plane shutter, electrotachyscope +Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe (1872–1931), Germany – Gyrocompass +Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), U.S. – Apgar score (for newborn babies) +Nicolas Appert (1749–1841), France – canning (food preservation) using glass bottles, see also Peter Durand +Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC), Greece – Archimedes' screw +Guido of Arezzo (c. 991–c. 1033), Italy – Guidonian notation, see musical notation and also staff (music) +Ami Argand (1750–1803), France – Argand lamp +William George Armstrong (1810–1900), UK – hydraulic accumulator +Neil Arnott (1788–1874), UK – waterbed +Emil Artin (1889–1962), Armenia/Austria/Germany – modern abstract algebra +Joseph Aspdin (1788–1855), UK – Portland cement +John Vincent Atanasoff (1903–1995), Bulgaria/U.S. – electronic digital computer +Marcel Audiffren, France – refrigeration, patent +Alexander Anim-Mensah, Ghanaian/American – Chemical engineer, inventor \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18b44a6f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 2/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== B === +Boris Babayan (born 1933), Armenia/USSR/Russia – Soviet computers, Superscalar processor +Charles Babbage (1791–1871), UK – Analytical engine (semi-automatic) +Tabitha Babbit (1779–1853), U.S. – Saw mill circular saw +Victor Babeș (1854–1926), Romania – Babesia, the founder of serum therapy +Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), Belgian–American – Velox photographic paper and Bakelite +Ralph H. Baer (1922–2014), German born American – video game console +Adolf von Baeyer (1835–1917), Germany – Fluorescein, synthetic Indigo dye, Phenolphthalein +John Logie Baird (1888–1946), Scotland – World's first working television, 26 January 1926 and electronic colour television +Abi Bakr of Isfahan (c. 1235), Persia/Iran – mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar +George Ballas (1925–2011), U.S. – String trimmer +Oscar H. Banker (1895–1979), Armenia/U.S. – automatic transmission for automobiles +Frederick Banting (1891–1941), Canada – technique to isolate Insulin +Vladimir Baranov-Rossine (1888–1944), Russia/France – Optophonic Piano +John Barber (1734–1801), UK – gas turbine +John Bardeen (1908–1991), U.S. – co-inventor of the transistor, with Brattain and Schockley +Vladimir Barmin (1909–1993), Russia – first rocket launch complex (spaceport) +Anthony R. Barringer (1925–2009), Canada/U.S. – INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system +Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995), Canada/U.S. – rodeo bucking chute (1916 and 1919), rodeo bronc saddle (1922), rodeo bareback rigging (1924), rodeo riding chaps (1926) +Nikolay Basov (1922–2001), Russia – co-inventor of laser and maser +Patricia Bath (1942–2019), U.S. – inventor of laser cataract surgery +Émile Baudot (1845–1903), France – Baudot code +Eugen Baumann (1846–1896), Germany – PVC +Trevor Baylis (1937–2018), UK – a wind-up radio +Maria Beasley (1847–1904), U.S. – barrel-hooping machine, improved life raft +Francis Beaufort (1774–1857), Ireland/UK – Beaufort scale, Beaufort cipher +Hans Beck (1929–2009), Germany – inventor of Playmobil toys +Arnold O. Beckman (1900–2004), U.S. – electric pH meter +Vladimir Bekhterev (1857–1927), Russia – Bekhterev's Mixture +Josip Belušić (1847–1905), Croatia – electric speedometer +Michael Bell (born 1938), together with Melanie Chartoff (born 1950), U.S. – a gray water recycling device for reuse of shower and sink water in the home +Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), UK, Canada, and U.S. – telephone +Nikolay Benardos (1842–1905), Russian Empire – arc welding (specifically carbon arc welding, the first arc welding method) +Ruth R. Benerito (1916–2013), U.S. – Permanent press (no-iron clothing) +Miriam Benjamin (1861–1947), Washington, D.C. – Gong and signal chair (adopted by House of Representatives and precursor to flight attendant signal system) +William R. Bennett Jr. (1930–2008), together with Ali Javan (1926–2016), U.S./Iran – Gas laser (Helium-Neon) +Melitta Bentz (1873–1950), Germany – paper Coffee filter +Karl Benz (1844–1929), Germany – the petrol-powered automobile +Hans Berger (1873–1941), Germany – first human EEG and its development +Friedrich Bergius (1884–1949), Germany – Bergius process (synthetic fuel from coal) +Emile Berliner (1851–1929), Germany and U.S. – the disc record gramophone +Tim Berners-Lee (born 1955), UK – with Robert Cailliau, the World Wide Web +Marcellin Berthelot (1827–1907), France – Berthelot's reagent (chemistry) +Heinrich Bertsch (1897–1981), Germany – first fully synthetic laundry detergent "Fewa" (chemistry) +Charles Best (1899–1978), Canada – Insulin (chemistry) +Max Bielschowsky (1869–1940), Germany – Bielschowsky stain (histology) +Alfred Binet (1857–1911), France – with his student Théodore Simon (1872–1961), first practical Intelligence test +Lucio Bini (1908–1964), together with Ugo Cerletti (1877–1963), Italy – Electroconvulsive therapy +Gerd Binnig (born 1947), with Christoph Gerber, Calvin Quate and Heinrich Rohrer, Germany/Switzerland/U.S. – Atomic force microscope and Scanning tunneling microscope +Clarence Birdseye (1886–1956), U.S. – Flash freezing +László Bíró (1899–1985), Hungary – Ballpoint pen +Thor Bjørklund (1889–1975), Norway – Cheese slicer +J. Stuart Blackton (1875–1941), U.S. – Stop-motion film +Otto Blathy (1860–1939), Hungary – co-inventor of the transformer, wattmeter, alternating current (AC) and turbogenerator +John Blenkinsop (1783–1831), UK – Blenkinsop rack railway system +Charles K. Bliss (1897–1985), Austro-Hungary/Australia – Blissymbols +Katharine Burr Blodgett (1898–1979), U.S. – nonreflective glass +Alan Blumlein (1903–1942), UK – stereo +David Boggs (1950–2022), U.S. – Ethernet +Nils Bohlin (1920–2002), Sweden – the three-point seat belt +Sarah Boone (1832–1908), U.S. – improved ironing board design +Charlie Booth (1903–2008), Australia – Starting blocks +Bob Born (1924–2023), U.S. – automated marshmallow confection production +Sam Born (1891–1959), Russia/U.S. – lollipop-making machine +Jagdish Chandra Bose (1858–1937), India – Crescograph +Matthew Piers Watt Boulton (1820–1894), UK – aileron +Seth Boyden (1788–1870), U.S. – nail-making machine +Herbert Boyer (born 1936), together with Paul Berg (1926–2023), and Stanley Norman Cohen (1935–), U.S. – created first Genetically modified organism +Willard Boyle (1924–2011) together with George E. Smith (1930–2025), U.S. – Charge-coupled device (CCD) +Hugh Bradner (1915–2008), U.S. – Wetsuit +Louis Braille (1809–1852), France – Braille writing system, Braille musical notation +Archie Brain (born 1942), UK – Laryngeal mask +Jacques E. Brandenberger (1872–1954), Switzerland – Cellophane +Édouard Branly (1844–1940), France – Coherer +Charles F. Brannock (1903–1992), U.S. – Brannock Device (shoe size) +Walter Houser Brattain (1902–1987), U.S. – co-inventor of the transistor +Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918), Germany – cathode-ray tube oscilloscope +Wernher von Braun (1912–1977), Germany/U.S. – V-2 rocket, Saturn V rocket +Stanislav Brebera (1925–2012), Czech Republic – Semtex explosive +David Brewster (1781–1868), UK – Kaleidoscope +Charles B. Brooks (1865–1908), U.S. – first self-propelled street sweeping truck +Rachel Fuller Brown (1898–1980), U.S. – Nystatin, the world's first antifungal antibiotic +William C. Brown (1916–1999), U.S. – crossed-field amplifier +Marie Van Brittan Brown (1922–1999), U.S. – home security system +Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn (1853–1927), Germany – Taximeter +Nikolay Brusentsov (1925–2014), USSR, Russia – ternary computer (Setun) +Dudley Allen Buck (1927–1959), U.S. – Cryotron, content-addressable memory +Edwin Beard Budding (1795–1846), UK – lawnmower +Gersh Budker (1918–1977), Russia – electron cooling, co-inventor of collider +Edward Bull (1759–1798), England – Bull engine (a modified steam engine) +Robert Bunsen (1811–1899), Germany – Bunsen burner +Henry Burden (1791–1871), Scotland and U.S. – Horseshoe machine, first usable iron railroad spike \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e44913f7e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 11/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== N === +Georgi Nadjakov (1896–1981), Bulgaria – wikt:photoelectret +Alexander Nadiradze (1914–1987), Georgia/Russia – first mobile ICBM (RT-21 Temp 2S), first reliable mobile ICBM (RT-2PM Topol) +Nagai Nagayoshi (1844–1929), Japan – Methamphetamine +James Naismith (1861–1939), Canadian born, U.S. – invented basketball and American football helmet +Yoshiro Nakamatsu (born 1928), Japan – "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter +Shuji Nakamura (born 1954), Japan – Blue laser +John Napier (1550–1617), Scotland – logarithms +Andrey Nartov (1683–1756), Russia – first lathe with a mechanic cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears, fast-fire battery on a rotating disc, screw mechanism for changing the artillery fire angle, gauge–boring lathe for cannon-making, early telescopic sight +James Nasmyth (1808–1890), Scotland – steam hammer +Giulio Natta (1903–1979), together with Karl Ziegler (1898–1973), Italy/Germany – Ziegler–Natta catalyst +William Neade (fl.1624–1637), England – weapon combining a longbow and a pike +Erwin Neher (born 1944), together with Bert Sakmann (1942–), Germany – Patch clamp technique +Ted Nelson (born 1937), U.S. – Hypertext, Hypermedia +Sergey Nepobedimiy (1921–2014), Russia – first supersonic anti-tank guided missile Sturm, other Soviet rocket weaponry +Karl Nessler (1872–1951), Germany/U.S. – Permanent wave machine, artificial eyebrows +Bernard de Neumann (1943–2018), UK – massively parallel self-configuring multi-processor +John von Neumann (1903–1957), Hungary – Von Neumann computer architecture, Stochastic computing, Merge sort algorithm +Isaac Newton (1642–1727), UK – reflecting telescope (which reduces chromatic aberration) and double-reflecting quadrant +Miguel Nicolelis (born 1961), Brazil – Brain-machine interfaces +Joseph Nicephore Niépce (1765–1833), France – photography +Nikolai Nikitin (1907–1973), Russia – prestressed concrete with wire ropes structure (Ostankino Tower), Nikitin-Travush 4000 project (precursor to X-Seed 4000) +Paul Gottlieb Nipkow (1860–1940), Germany – Nipkow disk +Jun-ichi Nishizawa (1926–2018), Japan – Optical communication system, SIT/SITh (Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor), Laser diode, PIN diode +Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), Sweden – dynamite +Ludvig Nobel (1831–1888), Sweden/Russia – first successful oil tanker +Emmy Noether (1882–1935), Germany, groundbreaking contributions to abstract algebra and theoretical physics; Noether's Theorem +Jean-Antoine Nollet (1700–1770), France – Electroscope +Wilhelm Normann (1870–1939), Germany – Hydrogenation of fats +Carl Richard Nyberg (1858–1939), Sweden – the blowtorch + +=== O === +Aaron D. O'Connell (born 1981), U.S. – first Quantum machine +Joseph John O'Connell (1861–1959), U.S. – number of inventions relating to telephony and electrical engineering +Theophil Wilgodt Odhner (1845–1903), Sweden/Russia – the Odhner Arithmometer, a mechanical calculator +Paul Offit (born 1951), U.S., along with Fred Clark and Stanley Plotkin, invented a pentavalent Rotavirus vaccine +Hans von Ohain (1911–1998), Germany – co-inventor of the jet engine +Jarkko Oikarinen (born 1967), Finland – Internet Relay Chat (IRC) +Katsuhiko Okamoto (?–), Japan – Okamoto Cubes = modifications of Rubik's Cube +Ransom Eli Olds (1864–1950), U.S. – Assembly line +Lucien Olivier (1838–1883), Belgium or France / Russia – Russian salad (Olivier salad) +Gerard K. O'Neill (1927–1992), U.S. – Storage ring (physics) +J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967), United States – Atomic bomb +Hugh Orr (1715–1798), U.S. – machine for cleaning flax seed +Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851), Denmark – electromagnetism, aluminium +Elisha Otis (1811–1861), U.S. – safety system for elevators +William Oughtred (1575–1660), UK – slide rule \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..37355e253 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 12/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== P === +Arogyaswami Paulraj (born 1944), India/U.S. – MIMO +Antonio Pacinotti (1841–1912), Italy – Pacinotti dynamo +Hilary Page (1904–1957), UK – Self-Locking Building Bricks, the predecessor of Lego +Larry Page (born 1973), U.S. – with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine +William Painter (1838–1906), UK/U.S. – Crown cork, Bottle opener +Salvatore Pais (born 1967), Romania/U.S. – electromagnetic field generator to deflect asteroids away from the Earth, an inertial mass reduction device, a room-temperature superconductor, a gravitational wave generator, and a compact fusion reactor +Alexey Pajitnov (born 1956), Russia/U.S. – Tetris +Julio Palmaz (born 1945), Argentina – balloon-expandable, stent +Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Sweden – multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun +Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), Canada – chiropractic +Luigi Palmieri (1807–1896), Italy – seismometer +Frank Pantridge (1916–2004), Ireland – Portable defibrillator +Georgios Papanikolaou (1883–1962), Greece / U.S. – Papanicolaou stain, Pap test = Pap smear +Alice H. Parker (1895–1920), U.S. – central heating using natural gas furnace +Philip M. Parker (born 1960), U.S. – computer automated book authoring +Thomas Parker (1843–1915), England – electric car +Alexander Parkes (1831–1890), UK – celluloid +Florence Parpart (c. 1856–?), U.S. – industrial sweeping machine, electrical refrigerator +Forrest Parry (1921–2005), U.S. – Magnetic stripe card +Charles Algernon Parsons (1854–1931), British – steam turbine +Spede Pasanen (1930–2001), Finland – ski jumping sling, boat ski +Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), France – Pascal's calculator +Gustaf Erik Pasch (1788–1862), Sweden – safety match +Dimitar Paskov (1914–1986), Bulgaria – Galantamine +C. Kumar N. Patel (born 1938), India/U.S. – Carbon dioxide laser +Les Paul (1915–2009), U.S. – multitrack recording +Andreas Pavel (born 1945), Brazil – audio devices +Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), Russia, – classical conditioning +Floyd Paxton (1918–1975), U.S. – Bread clip +John Pemberton (1831–1888), U.S. – Coca-Cola +Slavoljub Eduard Penkala (1871–1922), Croatia – mechanical pencil +Ralph Peo (1897–1966), U.S. – early Automobile air conditioning, shock absorbers +William Henry Perkin (1838–1907), UK – first synthetic organic chemical dye Mauveine +Henry Perky (1843–1906), U.S. – shredded wheat +Alfred Perot (1863–1925), together with Charles Fabry (1867–1945), France – Fabry–Pérot interferometer (physics) +Stephen Perry, UK (fl. 19th century) – rubber band +Aurel Persu (1890–1977), Romania – first aerodynamic car, aluminum body with wheels included under the body, 1922 +Vladimir Petlyakov (1891–1942), Russia – heavy bomber +Julius Richard Petri (1852–1921), Germany – Petri dish +Peter Petroff (1919–2004), Bulgaria – digital wrist watch, heart monitor, weather instruments +Fritz Pfleumer (1881–1945), Germany – magnetic tape +Auguste Piccard (1884–1962), Switzerland – Bathyscaphe +Gregory Goodwin Pincus (1903–1967), together with Min Chueh Chang (1908–1991), U.S./China – Combined oral contraceptive pill +Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov (1810–1881), Russia – early use of ether as anaesthetic, first anaesthesia in a field operation, various kinds of surgical operations +Fyodor Pirotsky (1845–1898), Russia – electric tram +Arthur Pitney (1871–1933), U.S. – postage meter +Hippolyte Pixii (1808–1835), France – Pixii dynamo +Joseph Plateau (1801–1883), Belgium – phenakistiscope (stroboscope) +Baltzar von Platen (1898–1984), Sweden – gas absorption refrigerator +James Leonard Plimpton (1828–1911), U.S. – roller skates +Ivan Plotnikov (1902–1995), Russia – kirza leather +Roy Plunkett (1910–1994), U.S. – Teflon +Petrache Poenaru (1799–1875), Romania – fountain pen +Christopher Polhem (1661–1751), Sweden – Padlock +Nikolai Polikarpov (1892–1944), Russia – Po-series aircraft, including Polikarpov Po-2 Kukuruznik (world's most produced biplane) +Eugene Polley (1915–2012), U.S. – wireless remote control (with Robert Adler) +Ivan Polzunov (1728–1766), Russia – first two-cylinder steam engine +Mikhail Pomortsev (1851–1916), Russia – nephoscope +Olivia Poole (1889–1975), U.S. – Jolly Jumper baby harness +Alexander Popov (1859–1906), Russia – radio pioneer, created a radio receiver that worked as a lightning detector +Nikolay Popov (1931–2008), Russia – first fully gas turbine main battle tank (T-80) +Josef Popper (1838–1921), Austria – discovered the transmission of power by electricity. +Aleksandr Porokhovschikov (1892–1941), Russia – Vezdekhod (the first prototype tank, or tankette, and the first caterpillar amphibious ATV) +Ignazio Porro (1801–1875), Italy – Porro prism, strip camera +Valdemar Poulsen (1869–1942), Denmark – magnetic wire recorder, arc converter +Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), UK – soda water +Robert Taylor Pritchett (1828–1907), UK – Pritchett bullet +Alexander Procofieff de Seversky (1894–1974), Russia/U.S. – first gyroscopically stabilized bombsight, ionocraft, also developed air-to-air refueling +Alexander Prokhorov (1916–2002), Russia – co-inventor of laser and maser +Petro Prokopovych (1775–1850), Russian Empire – early beehive frame, queen excluder and other beekeeping novelties +Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky (1863–1944), Russia/France – early colour photography method based on three colour channels, also colour film slides and colour motion pictures +Mark Publicover (born 1958), U.S. – first affordable trampoline safety net enclosure +George Pullman (1831–1897), U.S. – Pullman sleep wagon +Ivan Puluj (1845–1918), Russia/Ukraine – X-rays +Michael I. Pupin (1858–1935), Serbia – pupinization (loading coils), tunable oscillator +Tivadar Puskás (1844–1893), Hungary – telephone exchange + +=== Q === +Calvin Quate (1923–2019), with Gerd Binnig (born 1947), and with Christoph Gerber (1942–), U.S./Germany/Switzerland – Atomic force microscope +Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), France/Belgium – Body mass index (BMI) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6fdb4c1b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 13/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== R === +Jacob Rabinow (1910–1999), U.S. – Magnetic particle clutch, various Phonograph-related patents +John Goffe Rand (1801–1873), U.S. – Tube (container) +Robert Ransome (1753–1830), England – improvement to the plough +Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–965), Persia/Iran – distillation and extraction methods,hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide +Alec Reeves (1902–1971), UK – Pulse-code modulation +Karl von Reichenbach (1788–1869), Germany – paraffin, creosote oil, phenol +Tadeus Reichstein (1897–1996), Poland/Switzerland – Reichstein process (industrial vitamin C synthesis) +Ira Remsen (1846–1927), U.S. – saccharin +Ralf Reski (born 1958), Germany – Moss bioreactor 1998 +Josef Ressel (1793–1857), Czechoslovakia – ship propeller +William Reynolds (1758–1803), England – canal inclined plane +Ri Sung-gi (1905–1996), North Korea – Vinylon +Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985), U.S. – Richter magnitude scale +Adolph Rickenbacker (1886–1976), Switzerland – Electric guitar +Hyman George Rickover (1900–1986), U.S. – Nuclear submarine +Niklaus Riggenbach (1817–1899), Switzerland – Riggenbach rack railway system, Counter-pressure brake +Dennis Ritchie (1941–2011), U.S. – C (programming language) +Gilles de Roberval (1602–1675), France – Roberval balance +John Roebuck (1718–1794) UK – lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis +Francis Rogallo (1912–2009), U.S. – Rogallo wing +Heinrich Rohrer (1933–2013), together with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Switzerland/Germany – Scanning tunneling microscope +Peter I the Great (Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov), Tsar and Emperor of Russia (1672–1725), Russia – decimal currency, yacht club, sounding line with separating plummet (sounding weight probe) +Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923), Germany – the X-ray machine +Ida Rosenthal (1886–1973), Belarus/Russia/U.S. – Bra (Maidenform), the standard of cup sizes, nursing bra, full-figured bra, the first seamed uplift bra (all with her husband William) +Sidney Rosenthal (1907–1979), U.S. – Magic Marker +Eugene Roshal (born 1972), Russia – FAR file manager, RAR file format, WinRAR file archiver +Boris Rosing (1869–1933), Russia – CRT television (first television system using cathode-ray tube on the receiving side) +Guido van Rossum (born 1956), The Netherlands – Python (programming language) +Michael Rothman, U.S. – UEFI +Subrata Roy (scientist) (born 1962), India, U.S. – Wingless Electromagnetic Air Vehicle, Serpentine geometry plasma actuator, micro-scale actuators +Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (1754–1785), France – Rozière balloon +Ernő Rubik (born 1944), Hungary – Rubik's Cube, Rubik's Magic and Rubik's Clock +Kay LeRoy Ruggles (1932–2012), U.S. – inventor and designer known for UMBO shelving and furniture +Ernst Ruska (1906–1988), Germany – electron microscope +William Chester Ruth (1882–1971), U.S. – combination baler feeder, self-lifting farm elevator +François van Rysselberghe (1846–1893), Belgium – Universal meteorograph, Condenser telephone +Stockton Rush (1962–2023), U.S. – co-founder and chief executive officer of OceanGate \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c001e4ea0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 14/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== S === +Albert Bruce Sabin (1906–1993), U.S. – oral Polio vaccine +Alexander Sablukov (1783–1857), Russia – centrifugal fan +Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385–1468), Turkey – illustrated surgical atlas +Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989), Russia – invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomba and tokamak +Jonas Edward Salk (1914–1995), U.S. – injection Polio vaccine +Robert Salmon (1763–1821), England – agricultural implements +Franz San Galli (1824–1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) – radiator, central heating +Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), U.S. – Sanger sequencing (= DNA sequencing) +Yoshiyuki Sankai (born c. 1957), Japan – Robotic exoskeleton for motion support (medicine) +Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932), Brazil – non-rigid airship and airplane +Arthur William Savage (1857–1938) – radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle +Thomas Savery (1650–1715), UK – steam engine +Adolphe Sax (1814–1894), Belgium – saxophone +Vincent Joseph Schaefer (1906–1993), U.S. – Cloud seeding by dry ice +Bela Schick (1877–1967), Hungary – diphtheria test +Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), Germany – mechanical calculator +Hugo Schiff (1834–1915), Germany – Schiff test (histology) +Pavel Schilling (1786–1837), Estonia/Russia – first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse +Gilmore Schjeldahl (1912–2002), U.S. – Airsickness bag +Hubert Schlafly (1919–2011), U.S. – Teleprompter = Autocue +Wilhelm Schlenk (1879–1943), Germany – Schlenk flask (chemistry) +Bernhard Schmidt (1879–1935), Estonia/Germany – Schmidt camera +Friedrich Schmiedl (1902–1994), Austria – rocket mail +Otto Schmitt (1913–1998), U.S. – Schmitt trigger (electronics) +Christian Schnabel (1878–1936), German – simplistic food cutleries +Kees A. Schouhamer Immink (born 1946), Netherlands – Major contributor to development of compact disc +August Schrader (1807–1894), U.S. – Schrader valve for Pneumatic tire +David Schwarz (1852–1897), Croatia, – rigid airship, later called Zeppelin +Raymond Scott (1908–1994), U.S. – inventor and developer of electronic music technology +Girolamo Segato (1792–1836), Italy – artificial petrifaction of human cadavers +Marc Seguin (1786–1875), France – wire-cable suspension bridge +Hanaoka Seishū (1760–1835), Japan – General anaesthetic +Sejong the Great (1397–1450), South Korea (Joseon dynasty) – Hangul (Native alphabet of the Korean language) +Ted Selker (inv. 1987), U.S. – Pointing stick +Léon Serpollet (1858–1907), France – Flash boiler, Gardner-Serpollet steam car +Iwan Serrurier (1878–1953), Netherlands/U.S. – inventor of the Moviola for film editing +Mark Serrurier (1904–1988), U.S. – Serrurier truss for Optical telescopes +Gerhard Sessler (born 1931), Germany – foil electret microphone, silicon microphone +Guy Severin (1926–2008), Russia – extra-vehicular activity supporting system +Ed Seymour (inv. c. 1949), U.S. – Aerosol paint +Leonty Shamshurenkov (1687–1758), Russia – first self-propelling carriage (a precursor to both bicycle and automobile), projects of an original odometer and self-propelling sledge +Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), Syria – "jewel box" device which combined a compass with a universal sundial +Bi Sheng (Chinese: 畢昇) (c. 990–1051), China – clay movable type printing +Patsy O’Connell Sherman (1930–2008), U.S. – Scotchgard +Murasaki Shikibu (c. 973–1025), Japan – psychological novel +Pyotr Shilovsky (1871–1957), Russia/UK – gyrocar +Masatoshi Shima (born 1943), Japan – microprocessor +Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), Mughal India – early volley gun +Joseph Shivers (1920–2014), U.S. – Spandex +William Bradford Shockley (1910–1989), U.S. – co-inventor of transistor +Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842), UK – Shrapnel shell ammunition +Vladimir Shukhov (1853–1939), Russia – thermal cracking (Shukhov cracking process), thin-shell structure, tensile structure, hyperboloid structure, gridshell, oil pipeline, cylindric oil depot +Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor (born 1972), Malaysia – cell growth in outer space, crystallization of proteins and microbes in space +Augustus Siebe (1788–1872), Germany/UK – Inventor of the standard diving dress +Sir William Siemens (1823–1883), Germany – regenerative furnace +Werner von Siemens (1816–1892), Germany – electric elevator, Electromote (= first trolleybus), an early Dynamo +Igor Sikorsky (1889–1972), Russia/U.S. – first four-engine fixed-wing aircraft (Russky Vityaz), first airliner and purpose-designed bomber (Ilya Muromets), helicopter, Sikorsky-series helicopters +Bernard Silver (1924–1963), together with Norman Joseph Woodland (1921–2012), U.S. – Barcode +Kia Silverbrook (born 1958), Australia – Memjet printer, world's most prolific inventor +Luther Simjian (1905–1997), Armenia/U.S. – Automated teller machine (ATM) +Vladimir Simonov (1935–2020), Russia – APS Underwater Assault Rifle, SPP-1 underwater pistol +Charles Simonyi (born 1948), Hungary – Hungarian notation +Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037), Persia/Iran – steam distillation, essential oil, pharmacopoeia, clinical pharmacology, clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, quarantine, cancer surgery, cancer therapy, pharmacotherapy, phytotherapy, Hindiba, Taxus baccata L, calcium channel blocker +Clive Sinclair (1940–2021), U.K. – Sinclair C5, ZX Spectrum and A-bike +Isaac Singer (1811–1875), U.S. – sewing machine +B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), U.S. – Operant conditioning chamber +Hannah Slater (1774–1812), U.S. – cotton-sewing thread +Nikolay Slavyanov (1854–1897), Russia – shielded metal arc welding +Alexander Smakula (1900–1983), Ukraine/Russia/U.S. – anti-reflective coating +Michael Smith (1932–2000), U.S. – Site-directed mutagenesis (molecular biology) +Oliver Smithies (1925–2017), together with Sir Martin John Evans (born 1941), and Mario Ramberg Capecchi (born 1937), U.S. – Knockout mouse, Gene targeting +Yefim Smolin, Russia – table-glass (stakan granyonyi) +Friedrich Soennecken (1848–1919), Germany – Ring binder, Hole punch +Su Song (1020–1101), China – first chain drive +Marin Soljačić (born 1974), Croatia – Resonant inductive coupling +Edwin Southern (born 1938), U.S. – Southern blot (molecular biology) +Alfred P. Southwick (1826–1898), U.S. – Electric chair +Igor Spassky (1926–2024), Russia – Sea Launch platform +Clara E. Speight-Humberston (1862–1936), Canada – card game +Percy Spencer (1894–1970), U.S. – microwave oven +Elmer Ambrose Sperry (1860–1930), U.S. – gyroscope-guided automatic pilot +Lyman Spitzer (1914–1997), U.S. – Stellarator (physics) +Frank J. Sprague (1857–1934), father of electric traction, electric elevator improvements and electric multiple unit trains. +Richard Stallman (born 1953), U.S. – GNU operating system, GNU Emacs, GNU Compiler Collection +Ladislas Starevich (1882–1965), Russia/France – puppet animation, live-action/animated film +Gary Starkweather (1938–2019), U.S. – laser printer, color management +John Kemp Starley (1855–1901), U.K. – safety bicycle +Betsey Ann Stearns (1830–1914), U.S. – garment cutting diagram and system +Boris Stechkin (1891–1969), Russia – co-developer of Sikorsky Ilya Muromets and Tsar Tank, developer of Soviet heat and aircraft engines +George Stephenson (1781–1848), UK – steam railway +Simon Stevin (1548–1620), Netherlands – land yacht +Andreas Stihl (1896–1973), Switzerland/Germany – electric chain saw +Reverend Dr Robert Stirling (1790–1878), Scotland – Stirling engine +Aurel Stodola (1859–1942), Slovakia – gas turbines +Aleksandr Stoletov (1839–1896), Russia – first solar cell based on the outer photoelectric effect +Levi Strauss (1829–1902), U.S. – blue jeans +John Stringfellow (1799–1883), UK – aerial steam carriage +Bjarne Stroustrup (born 1950), Denmark – C++ (programming language) +Almon Strowger (1839–1902), U.S. – automatic telephone exchange +Emil Strub (1858–1909), Switzerland – Strub rack railway system +Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) (903–986), Persia/Iran – timekeeping astrolabe, navigational astrolabe, surveying astrolabe +René Núñez Suárez (born 1945/1946), El Salvador – "turbococina" (turbo-cooker) +Kyota Sugimoto (1882–1972), Japan – Japanese language typewriter +Mutsuo Sugiura (1918–1986), Japan – Esophagogastroduodenoscope +Pavel Sukhoi (1895–1975), Russia – Su-series fighter aircraft +Sushruta (600 BC), Vedic India – inventor of Plastic Surgery, Cataract Surgery, Rhinoplasty +Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971), Sweden – Analytical ultracentrifuge +Joseph Swan (1828–1914), UK – Incandescent light bulb +Robert Swanson (1905–1994), Canada – invented and developed the first multi-chime air horn for use with diesel locomotives +Andrei Sychra (c.1773/76–1850), Lithuania/Russia, Czech descent – Russian seven-string guitar +Walter Sylvester (1867–1944), UK – the "Sylvester", for safely removing pit props +Vladimir Syromyatnikov (1933–2006), Russia – Androgynous Peripheral Attach System and other spacecraft docking mechanisms +Simon Sze (1936–2023), Taiwan/U.S., together with Dawon Kahng (1931–1992), South Korea – Floating-gate MOSFET +Leó Szilárd (1898–1964), Hungary/U.S. – co-developed the atomic bomb, patented the nuclear reactor, catalyst of the Manhattan Project \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6d71da4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 15/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== T === +Gyula Takátsy (1914–1980), Hungary – first Microtiter plate +Esther Takeuchi (born 1953) – holds more than 150 US-patents, the largest number for any woman in the United States +Igor Tamm (1895–1971), Russia – co-developer of tokamak +Ching W. Tang (born 1947), Hong Kong/U.S., together with Steven Van Slyke, U.S. – OLED +Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi (c. 1187), Middle East – counterweight trebuchet, mangonel +Gustav Tauschek (1899–1945), Austria – Drum memory +Kenyon Taylor (1908–1986), U.S. – Flip-disc display +Bernard Tellegen (1900–1990), Netherlands – pentode +Edward Teller (1908–2003), Hungary – hydrogen bomb +Eli Terry (1772–1852) +Michel Ter-Pogossian (1925–1996), Armenia/U.S. – Positron emission tomography (PET) +Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), Serbia – induction motor, high-voltage / high-frequency power experiments, the transmission of electrical power +Avie Tevanian (born 1961), Armenia/U.S. – Mach kernel, NeXTSTEP, macOS +Léon Theremin (1896–1993), Russia – theremin, interlace, burglar alarm, terpsitone, Rhythmicon (first drum machine), The Thing (listening device) +Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar (1785–1870), France – Arithmometer +Valerie Thomas (born 1943), U.S. – illusion transmitter +Elihu Thomson (1853–1937), UK, U.S. – Prolific inventor, Arc lamp and many others +William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), UK – Kelvin absolute temperature scale +Eric Tigerstedt (1887–1925), Finland – Sound-on-film, triode vacuum tube +Kálmán Tihanyi (1897–1947), Hungary – co-inventor of cathode-ray tube and iconoscope, infrared video camera, plasma display +Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974), Russia – co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Keldysh, designer of further Sputniks +Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov (1875–1960), Russia – feathering spectrograph +Benjamin Chew Tilghman (1821–1897), U.S. – sandblasting +Fedor Tokarev (1871–1968), Russia – TT-33 semiautomatic handgun and SVT-40 self-loading rifle +Ray Tomlinson (1941–2016), U.S. – First inter-computer email +Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), Italy – barometer +Linus Torvalds (born 1969), Finland/U.S. – Linux kernel +Alfred Traeger (1895–1980), Australia – Pedal radio +Lloyd Trammell (born 1953), U.S. – inventor in the field of dimensional sound processing +Richard Trevithick (1771–1833), UK – high-pressure steam engine, first full-scale steam locomotive +Hans Tropsch (1889–1935), together with Franz Joseph Emil Fischer (1877–1947), Germany – Fischer–Tropsch process (refinery process) +Yuri Trutnev (1927–2021), Russia – co-developer of the Tsar Bomba +Roger Y. Tsien (1952–2016), together with Osamu Shimomura (1928–2018) and Martin Chalfie (born 1947), U.S. – Discovery and development of Green fluorescent protein +Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935), Russia – spaceflight, Tsiolkovsky rocket equation +Mikhail Tsvet (1872–1919), Russia – chromatography (specifically adsorption chromatography, the first chromatography method) +Alexei Tupolev (1925–2001), Russia – the Tupolev Tu-144 (first supersonic passenger jet) +Andrei Tupolev (1888–1972), Russia – turboprop powered long-range airliner (Tupolev Tu-114), turboprop strategic bomber (Tupolev Tu-95) +Alan Turing (1912–1954), UK – Turing machine +Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201–1274), Persia/Iran – observatory, Tusi-couple +Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1135–1213), Persia/Iran – linear astrolabe +Ralph Hart Tweddell (1843–1895), England – portable hydraulic riveter + +=== U === +Shintaro Uda (1869–1976), together with Hidetsugu Yagi (1886–1976), Japan – Yagi–Uda antenna– +Lewis Urry (1927–2004), Canada – long-lasting alkaline battery +Tomislav Uzelac, Croatia – first successful MP3 player, AMP + +=== V === +Ira Van Gieson (1866–1913), U.S. – Van Gieson's stain (histology) +Theophilus Van Kannel (1841–1919), U.S. – revolving door (1888) +Vladimir Veksler (1907–1966), Russia – synchrophasotron, co-inventor of synchrotron +John Venn (1834–1923), UK – Venn diagram (1881) +Claude Hamilton Verity (1880–1949), United Kingdom – Veritiphone, synchronisation of sound and film +Auguste Victor Louis Verneuil (1856–1913), France – Verneuil process (crystal growth) +Pierre Vernier (1580–1637), France – Vernier scale (1631) +Lucien Vidi (1805–1866), France – Barograph +Edgar Villchur (1917–2011), U.S. – Acoustic suspension (loudspeaker) +Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (1895–1973), Finland – AIV fodder +Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), Italy – battery, see also Voltaic pile +Bernard Vonnegut (1914–1997), together with Henry Chessin, and Richard E. Passarelli Jr., U.S. – Cloud seeding by silver iodide +Ivan Vučetić (1858–1925), Croatia – method of fingerprint classification + +=== W === +Ruth Graves Wakefield (1903–1977), U.S. – chocolate chip cookie +Paul Walden (1863–1957), Latvia/Russia/Germany – Walden inversion, Ethylammonium nitrate (the first room temperature ionic liquid) +Adam Walker (1730–1821), UK – eidouranion +Madam C.J. Walker (1867–1919), U.S. – beauty and hair products for African American women +Barnes Wallis (1887–1979), UK – bouncing bomb +Frederick Walton (c. 1834–1928), UK – Linoleum +Maurice Ward (1933–2011), UK – Starlite +David Warren (1925–2010), Australia – Flight data recorder (FDR) and Cockpit voice recorder (CDR) +Aldred Scott Warthin (1866–1931), together with Allen Chronister Starry (1890–1973), U.S. – Warthin–Starry stain (histology) +Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973), Scotland – microwave radar +James Watt (1736–1819), Scotland – improved Steam engine +Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805), UK – first (not permanent) photograph +Carl Auer von Welsbach (1858–1929), Austria – Gas mantle, ferrocerium +Jonas Wenström (1855–1893), Sweden – three-phase electrical power +George Westinghouse (1846–1914), U.S. – Air brake (rail) +Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875), UK – concertina, stereoscope, microphone, Playfair cipher, pseudoscope, dynamo +Richard T. Whitcomb (1921–2009), U.S. – Supercritical airfoil, Winglet +Cornelius Whitehouse (1796–1883), UK – method of manufacturing tubes cheaply and accurately +Eli Whitney (1765–1825), U.S. – cotton gin +Frank Whittle (1907–1996), UK – co-inventor of the jet engine +Otto Wichterle (1913–1989), Czechoslovakia – soft contact lens +Norman Wilkinson (1878–1971), UK – Dazzle camouflage +Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959), UK – Cloud chamber +Paul Winchell (1922–2005), U.S. – artificial heart +Sergei Winogradsky (1856–1953), Russia / USSR – Winogradsky column for culturing microorganisms +Niklaus Wirth (1934–2024), Switzerland – Pascal (programming language) +A. Baldwin Wood (1879–1956), U.S. – high volume pump +Norman Joseph Woodland (1921–2012), together with Bernard Silver (1924–1963), U.S. – Barcode +Granville Woods (1856–1910), U.S. – Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph +Steve Wozniak (born 1950), U.S. – Apple I & II computers, early Macintosh concepts, CL 9 CORE universal remote and other devices and applications. +James Homer Wright (1869–1928), U.S. – Wright's stain (histology) +Wright brothers, Orville (1871–1948) and Wilbur (1867–1912), U.S. – powered airplane +Wu Yulu, Chinese farmer and inventor of home-made robots +Adam Wybe (1584–1653), Dutch – inventor of the cable car on multiple supports +Arthur Wynne (1871–1945), UK – creator of crossword puzzle + +=== X === +Yi Xing (683–727), China – Astronomical clock \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d33b3869 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 16/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Y === +Pavel Yablochkov (1847–1894), Russia – Yablochkov candle (first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp) +Hidetsugu Yagi (1886–1976), together with Shintaro Uda (1896–1976), Japan – Yagi–Uda antenna +Alexander Yakovlev (1906–1989), Russia – Yak-series aircraft, including Yakovlev Yak-40 (the first regional jet) +Linus Yale Jr. (1821–1868), U.S. – cylinder lock +Linus Yale Sr. (1797–1858), U.S. – pin tumbler lock +Shunpei Yamazaki (born 1942), Japan – patents in computer science and solid-state physics, see List of prolific inventors +Gazi Yaşargil (1925–2025), Turkey – Microneurosurgery +Ryōichi Yazu (1878–1908), Japan – Yazu Arithmometer +Gunpei Yokoi (1941–1997), Japan – Game Boy +Arthur M. Young (1905–1995), U.S. – Bell Helicopter +Vladimir Yourkevich (1885–1964), Russia/France/U.S. – ship hull design +Tu Youyou (born 1930), China – Artemisinin +Sergei Yudin (1891–1954), Russia – cadaveric blood transfusion and other medical operations +Muhammad Yunus (born 1940), Bangladesh – microcredit, microfinance +Abraham Albert Yuzpe (born 1938), U.S. – Yuzpe regimen (= form of Emergency contraception) + +=== Z === +Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013), Islamic Spain – catgut surgical suture, various surgical instruments and dental devices +Frank Zamboni (1901–1988), U.S. – Ice resurfacer +Giuseppe Zamboni (1776–1846), Italy – Zamboni pile (early battery) +Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof (1859–1917), Russia/Poland – Esperanto +Walter Zapp (1905–2003), Latvia/Estonia/Germany – Minox (subminiature camera) +Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) (1028–1087), Islamic Spain – almanac, equatorium, universal astrolabe +Yevgeny Zavoisky (1907–1976), Russia – EPR spectroscopy, co-developer of NMR spectroscopy +Nikolay Zelinsky (1861–1953), Russia – first effective filtering coal gas mask in the world +Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838–1917), Germany – Zeppelin +Frits Zernike (1888–1966), The Netherlands – Phase contrast microscope +Tang Zhongming (1897–1980), China – internal combustion engine powered by charcoal +Jian Zhou (1957–1999), together with Ian Hector Frazer (born 1953), China/U.S. – HPV vaccine against cervical cancer +Nikolai Zhukovsky (1847–1921), Russia – early wind tunnel, co-developer of the Tsar Tank +Karl Ziegler (1898–1973), together with Giulio Natta (1903–1979), Germany/Italy – Ziegler–Natta catalyst +Franz Ziehl (1857–1926), together with Friedrich Neelsen (1854–1898), Germany – Ziehl–Neelsen stain (histology) +Konrad Zuse (1910–1995), Germany – invented the first programmable general-purpose computer (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4) +Vasily Zvyozdochkin (1876–1956), Russia – matryoshka doll (together with Sergey Malyutin) +Vladimir Zworykin (1889–1982), Russia/U.S. – Iconoscope, kinescope, electronic television + +== See also == +Creativity techniques +List of emerging technologies +List of prolific inventors +Ten Japanese Great Inventors +The heroic theory of invention and scientific development +Timeline of historic inventions +List of African-American inventors and scientists + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..530624b61 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 3/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== C === +Ve Elizabeth Cadie (1893–1956), U.S. – heat insulating handle for small home appliances +Herminie Cadolle (1845–1926), France – modern brassiere +Robert Cailliau (born 1947), Belgium – with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web +Edward A. Calahan (1838–1912), U.S. – Stock ticker tape +Nicholas Callan (1799–1864), Ireland – Induction coil +Spéranza Calo-Séailles (1885–1949), Greece – "Lap" decorative concrete +Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930), Scotland – Television +Tullio Campagnolo (1901–1983), Italy – Quick release skewer +Charles Cantor (born 1942), U.S. – Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (molecular biology) +Mario Ramberg Capecchi (born 1937), together with Sir Martin John Evans (born 1941), and Oliver Smithies (1925–2017), U.S. – Gene targeting +Roxey Ann Caplin (1793–1888), UK – Victorian-style corset +Arturo Caprotti (1881–1938), Italy – Caprotti valve gear +Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576), Italy – Cardan grille (cryptography) +Philip Cardew (1851–1910), UK – Hot-wire galvanometer +Chester Carlson (1906–1968), U.S. – Xerographic copier +Wallace Carothers (1896–1937), U.S. – Nylon and Neoprene (together with Arnold Collins) +Antonio Benedetto Carpano (1764–1815), Italy – Vermouth +Mary P. Carpenter (1840–1900), U.S. – mosquito nets, mosquito traps +Giovanni Caselli (1815–1891), Italy/France – Pantelegraph +George Cayley (1773–1857), UK – tension-spoke wheels +Anders Celsius (1701–1744), Sweden – Celsius temperature scale +Vint Cerf (born 1943), together with Bob Kahn (1938–), U.S. – Internet Protocol (IP) +Claude Shannon (1916–2016), founder of information theory and modern cryptography, invented Minivac 601, and co-invented the first wearable computer (with Edward O. Thorp) +Ugo Cerletti (1877–1963), together with Lucio Bini (1908–1964), Italy – Electroconvulsive therapy +Leona Chalmers (c. 1937), U.S. – modern menstrual cup +Charles Chamberland (1851–1908), France – Chamberland filter +Min Chueh Chang (1908–1991), together with Gregory Goodwin Pincus (1903–1967), U.S./China – Combined oral contraceptive pill +Thomas Chang (born 1933), Canada/China – Artificial cell +Chang Yŏngsil (c. 1390–after 1442), South Korea (Joseon dynasty) – Jagyeokru (Water clock) and Ch'ŭgugi (rain gauge) +Emmett Chapman (1936–2021), U.S. – Chapman Stick +Claude Chappe (1763–1805), France – Semaphore line +Melanie Chartoff (born 1950), together with Michael Bell (born 1938), U.S. – a gray water recycling device for reuse of shower and sink water in the home +David Chaum (born 1955), U.S. – Digital signatures, ecash +Vladimir Chelomey (1914–1984), USSR – First space station (Salyut) +Joyce Chen (1917–1994), China – stir fry pan +Pavel Cherenkov (1904–1990), USSR – Cherenkov detector +Evgeniy Chertovsky (1902–1961), Russia – pressure suit +Alicia Chong Rodriguez – American engineer and inventor +Chŏng Yagyong (1762–1836), South Korea (Joseon dynasty) – Geojunggi (crane) +Ward Christensen (1945–2024), U.S. – Bulletin board system +Ole Kirk Christiansen (1891–1958), Denmark – Creator of Lego +Samuel Hunter Christie (1784–1865), UK – Wheatstone bridge +Juan de la Cierva (1895–1936), Spain – the autogyro +Charles Clagget (1740–1795), UK – Improvements for musical instruments +Leland Clark (1918–2005), U.S. – Clark electrode (medicine) +Georges Claude (1870–1960), France – neon lamp +Adelaide Claxton (fl 1860s–1890s), UK – ear caps +Madame Clicquot Ponsardin (1777–1866), France – Champagne riddling +Henri Marie Coandă (1886–1972), Romania – Coandă effect +Josephine Cochrane (1839–1913), U.S. – dishwasher +Christopher Cockerell (1910–1999), UK – Hovercraft +Aeneas Coffey (1780–1852), Ireland – Coffey still +Sir Henry Cole (1808–1882), UK – Christmas card +Samuel Colt (1814–1862), U.S. – Revolver development +Sir William Congreve (1772–1828), UK – Congreve rocket +George Constantinescu (1881–1965), Romania – creator of the theory of sonics, a new branch of continuum mechanics +Albert Coons (1912–1978), U.S. – Immunofluorescence (microscopy) +Martin Cooper (born 1928), U.S. – Mobile phone +Harry Coover (1917–2011), U.S. – Super Glue +Lloyd Groff Copeman (1865–1956), U.S. – Electric stove +Cornelis Corneliszoon (1550–1607), The Netherlands – wind powered sawmill +Martha Coston (1826–1904), U.S. — inventor of signal flares used at sea +Alexander Coucoulas (born 1933), U.S. – Thermosonic bonding +Wallace H. Coulter (1913–1998), U.S. – Coulter principle +Jacques Cousteau (1910–1997), France – co-inventor of the aqualung and the Nikonos underwater camera +John "Jack" Higson Cover Jr. (1920–2009), U.S. – Taser +Minnie Crabb (1885–1974), Australia – Crabb-Hulme Braille Printing Press +Marian Croak (born 1955), U.S. – many patents related to voice over IP (VoIP) +William Crookes (1832–1919), UK – Crookes radiometer, Crookes tube +Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731), Italy – piano +Caresse Crosby (1891–1970), U.S. – Modern bra +S. Scott Crump (inv. c. 1989), U.S. – fused deposition modeling +Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot (1725–1804), France – first steam-powered road vehicle +William Cullen (1710–1790), UK – first artificial refrigerator +Rose Cumming (1887–1968), U.S. – metallic wallpaper +Emily Cummins (born 1987), UK – sustainable refrigerator, water carrier, toothpaste dispenser +Marie Curie (1867–1934), Poland – portable X-ray units ("Little Curies"), radium-emanation needles +Jamie Lee Curtis (born 1958), U.S. – diapers +Jan Czochralski (1885–1953), Poland / Germany – Czochralski process (crystal growth) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..903710f5a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 4/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== D === +Nils Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937), Sweden – AGA cooker, Dalén light, Agamassan, Sun valve for lighthouses and buoys +John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845), UK – Daniell cell +Corradino D'Ascanio (1891–1981), Italy – Vespa scooter +Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italy – helicopter, tanks, and parachutes for safety +Raymond Damadian (1936–2022), Armenia/U.S. – Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) +Robert Davidson (1804–1894), Scotland – electric locomotive +Jacob Davis (1868–1908), U.S. – Riveted jeans +Humphry Davy (1778–1829), UK – Davy miners lamp +Joseph Day (1855–1946), UK – the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine +Lee de Forest (1873–1961), U.S. – Phonofilm, triode +Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk (1927–2006), Russia – 3D holography +Robert H. Dennard (1932–2024), U.S. – Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) +Miksa Déri (1854–1938), Hungary – co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer +Robert DeStefano (born 1962), U.S. – exercise equipment +James Dewar (1842–1923), UK – Thermos flask +Aleksandr Dianin (1851–1918), Russia – Bisphenol A, Dianin's compound +William Kennedy Laurie Dickson (1860–1935), UK – motion picture camera +Philip Diehl (1847–1913), U.S. – Ceiling fan +Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913), Germany – Diesel engine +William H. Dobelle (1943–2004), U.S. – Dobelle Eye +Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1780–1849), Germany – Döbereiner's lamp (chemistry) +Toshitada Doi (born 1943), Japan, together with Joop Sinjou, Netherlands – Compact disc +Ray Dolby (1933–2013), U.S. – Dolby noise-reduction system +Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky (1862–1919), Poland/Russia – three-phase electric power +Marion O'Brien Donovan (1917–1998), U.S. – Waterproof diaper +Hub van Doorne (1900–1979), Netherlands – Variomatic continuously variable transmission +John Thompson Dorrance (1873–1930), U.S. – Condensed soup +Amanda Minnie Douglas (1831–1916) – writer and inventor (portable folding mosquito net frame) +Charles Dow (1851–1902), U.S. – Dow Jones Industrial Average +Mulalo Doyoyo (1970–2024), South Africa/U.S. – Cenocell – cementless concrete +Anastase Dragomir (1896–1966), Romania – Ejection seat +Karl Drais (1785–1851), Germany – dandy horse, Draisine +Richard Drew (1899–1980), U.S. – Masking tape +John Boyd Dunlop (1840–1921), UK – first practical pneumatic tyre +Cyril Duquet (1841–1922), Canada – Telephone handset +Alexey Dushkin (1904–1977), Russia – deep column station +James Dyson (born 1947), UK – Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, incorporating the principles of cyclonic separation. + +=== E === +George Eastman (1854–1932), U.S. – roll film +J. Presper Eckert (1919–1995), U.S. – ENIAC – the first general purpose programmable digital computer +Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931), U.S. – phonograph, commercially practical incandescent light bulb, etc. +Pehr Victor Edman (1916–1977), Sweden – Edman degradation for Protein sequencing +Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards (1925–2013), UK – In vitro fertilisation +Ellen Eglin (1849–c. 1890), U.S. – Clothes wringer +Brendan Eich (born 1961), U.S. – JavaScript (programming language) +Willem Einthoven (1860–1927), The Netherlands – the electrocardiogram +Benjamin Eisenstadt (1906–1996), U.S. – Sugar packet +Paul Eisler (1907–1992), Austria/U.S. – Printed circuit board (electronics) +Giorgi Eliava (1892–1937), together with Félix d'Herelle (1873–1949), France / Georgia – Phage therapy +Ivan Elmanov, Russia – first monorail (horse-drawn) +Rune Elmqvist (1906–1996), Sweden – implantable pacemaker +John Haven Emerson (1906–1997), U.S. – iron lung +Douglas Engelbart (1925–2013), U.S. – the computer mouse +Michael D. Ercolino (1906–1982), U.S. – TV antenna's +John Ericsson (1803–1889), Sweden – the two screw-propeller +Emil Erlenmeyer (1825–1909), Germany – Erlenmeyer flask +Sir Martin John Evans (born 1941), together with Mario Ramberg Capecchi (born 1937), and Oliver Smithies (1925–2017), U.S. – Knockout mouse, Gene targeting +Ole Evinrude (1877–1934), Norway – outboard motor \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c84a8ee5a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 5/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== F === +Charles Fabry (1867–1945), together with Alfred Perot (1863–1925), France – Fabry–Pérot interferometer (physics) +Samuel Face (1923–2001), U.S. – concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch +Federico Faggin (born 1941), Italy – microprocessor +Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), The Netherlands – Fahrenheit temperature scale, Mercury-in-glass thermometer +Michael Faraday (1791–1867), UK – electric transformer, electric motor +Johann Maria Farina (1685–1766), Germany – Eau de Cologne +Myra Juliet Farrell (1878–1957), Australia – stitchless button, Press stud +Philo Farnsworth (1906–1971), U.S. – electronic television +Marga Faulstich (1915–1998), Germany – optical glass, lightweight lens SF 64 +Muhammad al-Fazari (died 796/806), Persia – astrolabe +Benedetto Fedeli (1944–), Italy – Security and Armoured doors for domestic use +John Bennett Fenn (1917–2010), U.S. – Electrospray ionization +Henry John Horstman Fenton (1854–1929), UK – Fenton's reagent (chemistry) +James Fergason (1934–2008), U.S. – improved liquid-crystal display +Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), Italy – nuclear reactor +Humberto Fernández-Morán (1924–1999), Venezuela – Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome +Michele Ferrero (1925–2015), Italy – Kinder Surprise = Kinder Eggs, Nutella +Bran Ferren (born 1953), U.S. – Pinch-to-zoom (multi-touch), together with Daniel Hillis +Reginald Fessenden (1866–1932), Canada – two-way radio +Robert Feulgen (1884–1955), Germany – Feulgen stain (histology) +Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick (1829–1901), Germany – contact lens +Ethel Finck (1932–2003), U.S. – cardiac catheter +Abbas Ibn Firnas (810–887), Al-Andalus – fused quartz and silica glass, metronome +Artur Fischer (1919–2016) Germany – fasteners including fischertechnik. +Franz Joseph Emil Fischer (1877–1947), together with Hans Tropsch (1889–1935), Germany – Fischer assay (oil yield test) and Fischer–Tropsch process (refinery process) +Gerhard Fischer (1899–1988), Germany/U.S. – hand-held metal detector +Paul C. Fisher (1913–2006), U.S. – Space Pen +Edith M. Flanigen (born 1929), U.S. – zeolite Y, molecular sieve +Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), Scotland – Penicillin +John Ambrose Fleming (1848–1945), UK – Vacuum diode +Sandford Fleming (1827–1915), Canada – Universal Standard Time +Nicolas Florine (1891–1972), Georgia/Russia/Belgium – first tandem rotor helicopter to fly freely +Tommy Flowers (1905–1998), UK – Colossus an early electronic computer. +Irmgard Flügge-Lotz (1903–1974), U.S. – aircraft guidance systems +Thomas J. Fogarty (born 1934), U.S. – Embolectomy catheter (medicine) +Larry Fondren, U.S. – entrepreneur, inventor and credit markets expert +Eunice Newton Foote (1819–1888), U.S. – greenhouse effect, boot soles +Enrico Forlanini (1848–1930), Italy – Steam helicopter, hydrofoil, Forlanini airships +Eric Fossum (born 1957), U.S. – intra-pixel charge transfer in CMOS image sensors +Josephine G. Fountain (fl 1960), U.S. – direct suction tracheotomy tube +Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (1819–1868), France – Foucault pendulum, gyroscope, eddy current +Benoît Fourneyron (1802–1867), France – water turbine +John Fowler (1826–1864), UK – steam-driven ploughing engine +Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), U.S. – the pointed lightning rod conductor, bifocal glasses, the Franklin stove, the glass harmonica +Herman Frasch (1851–1914), Germany / U.S. – Frasch process (petrochemistry), Paraffin wax purification +Ian Hector Frazer (born 1953), together with Jian Zhou (1957–1999), U.S./China – HPV vaccine against cervical cancer +Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), U.S. – diabetes tests +Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827), France – Fresnel lens +Amelia Freund (1824–1887), Germany – cooking stove contained a "frizzler" which fried without hardening. +Ida Freund (1863–1914), UK – gas measuring tube, periodic table cupcakes +William Friese-Greene (1855–1921), UK – cinematography +Julius Fromm (1883–1945), Germany – first seamless Condom +Arthur Fry (born 1931), U.S. – Post-it note +Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983), U.S. – geodesic dome +C. W. Fuller (inv. 1953), U.S. – Gilhoolie +Robert Fulton (1765–1815), United States – first commercially successful steamboat, first practical submarine +Ivan Fyodorov (c. 1510–1583), Russia/Poland–Lithuania – invented multibarreled mortar, introduced printing in Russia +Svyatoslav Fyodorov (1927–2000), Russia – radial keratotomy +Vladimir Fyodorov (1874–1966), Russia – Fedorov Avtomat (first self-loading battle rifle, arguably the first assault rifle) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58589c1ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 6/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== G === +Dennis Gabor (1900–1979), Hungarian-British – holography +Boris Borisovich Galitzine (1862–1916), Russia – electromagnetic seismograph +Joseph G. Gall (1928–2024), U.S. – In situ hybridization (cell biology) +Alfred William Gallagher (1911–1990), New Zealand – Electric fence for farmers +Dmitri Garbuzov (1940–2006), Russia/U.S. – continuous-wave-operating diode lasers (together with Zhores Alferov), high-power diode lasers +Elmer R. Gates (1859–1923), U.S. – foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks")* +Richard J. Gatling (1818–1903), U.S. – wheat drill, first successful machine gun +Georgy Gause (1910–1986), Russia – gramicidin S, neomycin, lincomycin and other antibiotics +E. K. Gauzen, Russia – three bolt equipment (early diving costume) +Norman Gaylord (1923–2007), U.S. – rigid gas-permeable contact lens +Karl-Hermann Geib (1908–1949), Germany / USSR – Girdler sulfide process +King Camp Gillette (1855–1932), U.S. – Double-edge safety razor and blade +Hans Wilhelm Geiger (1882–1945), Germany – Geiger counter +Andrey Geim (born 1958), Russia/United Kingdom – graphene +Nestor Genko (1839–1904), Russia – Genko's Forest Belt (the first large-scale windbreak system) +Christoph Gerber (born 1942), with Calvin Quate (1923–2019), and with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Germany/U.S./Switzerland – Atomic force microscope +Friedrich Clemens Gerke (1801–1888), Germany – current international Morse code +David Gestetner (1854–1939), Austria-Hungary / UK – Gestetner copier +Alberto Gianni (1891–1930), Italy – Torretta butoscopica +John Heysham Gibbon (1903–1973), U.S. – Heart-lung machine +Gustav Giemsa (1867–1948), Germany – Giemsa stain (histology) +Adolph Giesl-Gieslingen (1903–1992), Austria – Giesl ejector +Henri Giffard (1825–1882), France – powered airship, injector +David J. Gingery (1932–2004), USA +Donald A. Glaser (1926–2013), U.S. – Bubble chamber +Joseph Glass (1791–1867), England – chimney-sweeping apparatus +Valentyn Glushko (1908–1989), USSR/Ukraine/Russia – hypergolic propellant, electric propulsion, Soviet rocket engines (including world's most powerful liquid-fuel rocket engine RD-170) +Heinrich Göbel (1818–1893), Germany – incandescent lamp +Leonid Gobyato (1875–1915), Russia – man-portable mortar +Robert Goddard (1882–1945), U.S. – liquid fuel rocket +Sam Golden (1915–1997), together with Leonard Bocour (1910–1993), U.S. – Acrylic paint +Peter Carl Goldmark (1906–1977), Hungary – vinyl record (LP), CBS color television +Camillo Golgi (1843–1926), Italy – Golgi's method (histology) +György Gömöri (1904–1957), Hungary / U.S. – Gömöri trichrome stain, Gömöri methenamine silver stain (histology) +Lewis Gompertz (c. 1783–1861), UK – expanding chuck, improved velocipede +Sarah E. Goode (1855–1905), US – cabinet bed. First African-American woman to receive a United States patent. +Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), U.S. – vulcanization of rubber +Praveen Kumar Gorakavi (born 1989), India – low-cost Braille Typewriter +Robert W. Gore (1937–2020), U.S. – Gore-Tex +Igor Gorynin (1926–2015), Russia – weldable titanium alloys, high strength aluminium alloys, radiation-hardened steels +James Gosling (born 1955), U.S. – Java (programming language) +Gordon Gould (1920–2005), U.S. – Laser, see also Theodore Maiman +Richard Hall Gower (1768–1833), UK – ship's hull and rigging +Boris Grabovsky (1901–1966), Russia – cathode commutator, an early electronic TV pickup tube +Bette Nesmith Graham (1924–1980), U.S. – Correction fluid, Liquid Paper +Iréne Grahn (1945–2013), Sweden – finger joint support for patients with rheumatoid arthritis +Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), Denmark / Germany – Gram staining (histology) +Zénobe Gramme (1826–1901), Belgium/France – Gramme dynamo +Temple Grandin (born 1947), squeeze machine and humane abattoirs +Michael Grätzel (born 1944), Germany/Switzerland – Dye-sensitized solar cell +James Henry Greathead (1844–1896), South Africa – tunnel boring machine, tunnelling shield technique +Chester Greenwood (1858–1937), U.S. – thermal earmuffs +Lori Greiner (born 1969), U.S. – Silver Safekeeper anti-tarnish lining (jewelry organizers) and multiple consumer products, 120 US and foreign patents +James Gregory (1638–1675), Scotland – Gregorian telescope +William Griggs (1832–1911), England – a process of photolithography +Helmut Gröttrup (1916–1981), Germany – smart card, systems for banknote processing +William Robert Grove (1811–1896), Wales – fuel cell +Gustav Guanella (1909–1982), Switzerland – DSSS, Guanella-Balun +Otto von Guericke (1602–1686), Germany – vacuum pump, manometer, dasymeter +Sarah Guppy (1770–1852), United Kingdom – bridge/railroad building, tea and coffee urn, barnacle prevention for boats, long lasting candlestick +Mikhail Gurevich (1893–1976), Russia – MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Artem Mikoyan) +Goldsworthy Gurney (1793–1875), England – Gurney Stove +Bartolomeu de Gusmão (1685–1724), Brazil – early air balloons +Johann Gutenberg (c. 1398–1468), Germany – movable type printing press +Samuel Guthrie (physician) (1782–1848), U.S. – discovered chloroform \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54d361cd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 7/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== H === +Fritz Haber (1868–1934), Germany – Haber process (ammonia synthesis) +John Hadley (1682–1744), UK – octant +Waldemar Haffkine (1860–1930), Russia/Switzerland – first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines +Gunther von Hagens (born 1945), Germany – whole body Plastination +Charles Hall (1863–1914), U.S. – aluminum production +Robert N. Hall (1919–2016), U.S. – Semiconductor laser +Samuel Hall (1782–1863), UK – condenser to enable recycling of water in a ship's steam engine +Tracy Hall (1919–2008), U.S. – synthetic diamond +Nicholas Halse (died 1636), England – malt kiln +Richard Hamming (1915–1998), U.S. – Hamming code +John Hays Hammond Jr. (1888–1965), U.S. – radio control +Ruth Handler (1916–2002), U.S. – Barbie doll +James Hargreaves (1720–1778), UK – spinning jenny +John Harington (1561–1612), UK – the flush toilet +William Snow Harris (1791–1867), UK – much improved naval Lightning rods +John Harrison (1693–1776), UK – marine chronometer +Ross Granville Harrison (1870–1959), U.S. – first successful animal Tissue culture, Cell culture +Kazuo Hashimoto (died 1995), Japan – Caller-ID, answering machine +Victor Hasselblad (1906–1978), Sweden – the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera +Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1039), Iraq – camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass +George H. Heilmeier (1936–2014), U.S. – liquid-crystal display (LCD) +Henry Heimlich (1920–2016), U.S. – Heimlich maneuver +Robert A. Heinlein (1907–1988), U.S. – waterbed +Jozef Karol Hell (1713–1789), Slovakia – the water pillar +Rudolf Hell (1901–2002), Germany – the Hellschreiber +Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894), Germany – Helmholtz pitch notation, Helmholtz resonator, ophthalmoscope +Zhang Heng (78–139), China – Seismometer, first hydraulic-powered armillary sphere +Beulah Louise Henry (1887–1973), U.S. – bobbin-free sewing machine, vacuum ice cream freezer +Charles H. Henry (1937–2016), U.S. – Quantum well laser +Joseph Henry (1797–1878), Scotland/U.S. – electromagnetic relay +Félix d'Herelle (1873–1949), together with Giorgi Eliava (1892–1937), France, Georgia – Phage therapy +Heron (c. 10–70), Roman Egypt – usually credited with invention of the aeolipile, although it may have been described a century earlier +John Herschel (1792–1871), UK – photographic fixer (hypo), actinometer +Harry Houdini (1874–1926) U.S. – flight time illusion +Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), Germany – radio telegraphy, electromagnetic radiation +Ephraim Hertzano (1912–1987), Roumania / Israel – Rummikub +Lasse Hessel (1940–2019), Denmark – female condom +George de Hevesy (1885–1966), Hungary – radioactive tracer +Ronald Price Hickman (1932–2011), U.S. – designed the original Lotus Elan, the Lotus Elan +2 and the Lotus Europa, as well as the Black & Decker Workmate +Rowland Hill (1795–1879), UK – postage stamp +Maurice Hilleman (1919–2005) – vaccines against childhood diseases +Tanaka Hisashige (1799–1881), Japan – Myriad year clock +Ted Hoff (born 1937), U.S. – microprocessor +Felix Hoffmann (Bayer) (1868–1949), Germany – aspirin +Albert Hofmann (1906–2008), Switzerland – LSD +Kotaro Honda (1870–1954), Japan – KS steel +Huang Hongjia (1924–2021), China – single-mode optical fiber +Herman Hollerith (1860–1929), U.S. – recording data on a machine-readable medium, tabulator, punched cards +Nick Holonyak (1928–2022), U.S. – LED (Light Emitting Diode) +Norman Holter (1914–1983), U.S. – Holter monitor +Robert Hooke (1635–1703), UK – balance wheel, iris diaphragm, acoustic telephone +Erna Schneider Hoover (born 1926), U.S. – computerized telephone switching system +Harold Hopkins (1918–1994), UK – zoom lens, rod lens endoscope +Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992), U.S. – compiler +Frank Hornby (1863–1936), UK – invented Meccano +Jimmy Hotz (1953–2023), U.S. – Hotz MIDI Translator, Atari Hotz Box +Royal Earl House (1814–1895), U.S. – first Printing telegraph +Coenraad Johannes van Houten (1801–1887), Netherlands – cocoa powder, cacao butter, chocolate milk +Elias Howe (1819–1867), U.S. – sewing machine +David Edward Hughes (1831–1900), UK – printing telegraph +Kate Duval Hughes (born 1837) – window sash security devices +Chuck Hull (born 1939), U.S. – 3D printer +Troy Hurtubise (1963–2018), Canada – Trojan Ballistics Suit of Armor, Ursus suit, Firepaste, Angel Light +Miller Reese Hutchison (1876–1944), U.S. – Klaxon, electric hearing aid +Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695), Netherlands – pendulum clock +John Wesley Hyatt (1837–1920), U.S. – celluloid manufacturing + +=== I === +Gavriil Ilizarov (1921–1992), Russia – Ilizarov apparatus, external fixation, distraction osteogenesis +Mamoru Imura (born 1948), Japan – RFIQin (automatic cooking device) +Daisuke Inoue (born 1940), Japan – Karaoke machine +János Irinyi (1817–1895), Hungary – noiseless match +Ub Iwerks (1901–1971), U. S. – multiplane camera for animation + +=== J === +Moritz von Jacobi (1801–1874), Germany/Russia – electrotyping, electric boat +Rudolf Jaenisch (born 1942), Germany/U.S. – first Genetically modified mouse +Alcinous Burton Jamison (1851–1938), American physician, inventor of medical devices +Karl Guthe Jansky (1905–1950), U.S. – radio telescope +Karl Jatho (1873–1933), Germany – aeroplane +Ali Javan (1926–2016), together with William R. Bennett Jr. (1930–2008), Iran/U.S. – Gas laser (Helium-Neon) +Al-Jazari (1136–1206), Iraq – elephant clock, humanoid robots +Ibn Al-Jazzar (Algizar) (895–979), Tunisia – sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction treatment drugs +Ányos Jedlik (1800–1898), Hungary – Jedlik dynamo +Alec John Jeffreys (born 1950), UK – DNA profiling (forensics) +Charles Francis Jenkins (1867–1934), U.S. – television and movie projector (Phantoscope) +Thomas L. Jennings (1791–1859), U.S. – novel method of dry cleaning +Steve Jobs (1955–2011), U.S. – Apple Macintosh computer, iPod, iPhone, iPad and other devices, software operating systems and applications. +Amos Edward Joel Jr. (1918–2008) U.S. – electrical engineer, known for several contributions and over seventy patents related to telecommunications switching systems +Carl Edvard Johansson (1864–1943), Sweden – Gauge blocks +Johan Petter Johansson (1853–1943), Sweden – Pipe wrench and adjustable spanner +Reynold B. Johnson (1906–1998), U.S. – Hard disk drive +Philipp von Jolly (1809–1884), Germany – Jolly balance +Scott A. Jones (born 1960), U.S. – created one of the most successful versions of voicemail as well as ChaCha Search, a human-assisted internet search engine +Tom Parry Jones (1935–2013), UK – first electronic Breathalyzer +Assen Jordanoff (1896–1967), Bulgaria – airbag +Anatol Josepho (1894–1980), patented the first coin-operated photo booth called the "Photomaton" in 1925 +Marjorie Joyner (1896–1994), U.S. – Permanent wave machine +Whitcomb Judson (1836–1909), U.S. – zipper +Percy Lavon Julian (1899–1975), U.S. – chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants +Ma Jun (fl. 220–265), China – south-pointing chariot (see differential gear), mechanical puppet theater, chain pumps, improved silk looms \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82fca0dfd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 8/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== K === +Mikhail Kalashnikov (1919–2013), Russia – AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles (the most produced ever) +Bob Kahn (born 1938), together with Vint Cerf (born 1943), U.S. – Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) +Dawon Kahng (1931–1992), South Korea, together with Simon Sze (1936–2023), Taiwan/U.S. – Floating-gate MOSFET +Dean Kamen (born 1951), U.S. – Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device +Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926), Netherlands – liquid helium +Nikolay Kamov (1902–1973), Russia – armored battle autogyro, Ka-series coaxial rotor helicopters +Pyotr Kapitsa (1894–1984), Russia – first ultrastrong magnetic field creating techniques, basic low-temperature physics inventions +Georgii Karpechenko (1899–1941), Russia – rabbage (the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding) +Mihran Kassabian (1870–1910), Armenia/U.S. – Medical use of X-Rays +Jamshīd al-Kāshī (c. 1380–1429), Persia/Iran – plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer +Andrew Kay (1919–2014), U.S. – Digital voltmeter +Adolphe Kégresse (1879–1943), France/Russia – Kégresse track (first half-track and first off-road vehicle with continuous track), dual-clutch transmission +Carl D. Keith (1920–2008), together with John J. Mooney (1930–2020), U.S. – three way catalytic converter +Mstislav Keldysh (1911–1978), Latvia/Russia – co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Tikhonravov +John Harvey Kellogg (1852–1943), cornflake breakfasts +John G. Kemeny (1926–1992), together with Thomas E. Kurtz (1928–2024), Hungary/U.S. – BASIC (programming language) +Alexander Kemurdzhian (1921–2003), Armenia/Russia/USSR – first space exploration rover (Lunokhod) +Mary Kenner (1912–2006), U.S. – sanitary belt +William Saville-Kent (1845–1908), UK/Australia – Pearl culture, see also Mikimoto Kōkichi +Kerim Kerimov (1917–2003), Azerbaijan and Russia – co-developer of human spaceflight, space dock, space station +Jacques de Kervor (1928–2010), France – industrial designer +Charles F. Kettering (1876–1958), U.S. – invented automobile self-starter ignition, Freon ethyl gasoline and more +Fazlur Khan (1929–1982), Bangladesh – structural systems for high-rise skyscrapers +Yulii Khariton (1904–1996), Russia – chief designer of the Soviet atomic bomb, co-developer of the Tsar Bomba +Anatoly Kharlampiyev (1906–1979), Russia – Sambo (martial art) +Al-Khazini (fl.1115–1130), Persia/Iran – hydrostatic balance +Konstantin Khrenov (1894–1984), Russia – underwater welding +Abu-Mahmud Khojandi (c. 940–1000), Persia/Iran – astronomical sextant +Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (Algoritmi) (c. 780–850), Persia/Iran – algebra, mural instrument, horary quadrant, Sine quadrant, shadow square +Johann Kiefuss – inventor in Nuremberg in 1517 +Marcel Kiepach (1894–1915), Croatia – dynamo, maritime compass that indicates north regardless of the presence of iron or magnetic forces +Mary Dixon Kies (1752–1837), U.S. – new technique of weaving straw with silk and thread to make hats +Erhard Kietz (1909–1982), Germany & U.S. – signal improvements for video transmissions +Jack Kilby (1923–2005), U.S. – patented the first integrated circuit +Al-Kindi (Alkindus) (801–873), Iraq/Yemen – unambiguously described the distillation of wine in the 9th century, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis +Petrus Jacobus Kipp (1808–1864), The Netherlands – Kipp's apparatus (chemistry) +Semyon Kirlian (1898–1978), Armenia/USSR – Kirlian photography +Steve Kirsch (born 1956), U.S. – Optical mouse +Fritz Klatte (1880–1934), Germany – vinyl chloride, forerunner to polyvinyl chloride +Yves Klein (1928–1962), France – International Klein Blue +Margaret E. Knight (1838–1914), U.S. – machine that completely constructs box-bottom brown paper bags +Tom Knight (?), U.S. – BioBricks (synthetic biology) +Ivan Knunyants (1906–1990), Armenia/Russia/USSR – Soviet chemical weapons, capron, Nylon 6, polyamide-6 +Robert Koch (1843–1910), Germany – method for culturing bacteria on solid media +Willem Johan Kolff (1911–2009), Netherlands – artificial kidney hemodialysis machine +Rudolf Kompfner (1909–1977), U.S. – Traveling-wave tube +Konstantin Konstantinov (1817/1819–1871), Russia – device for measuring flight speed of projectiles, ballistic rocket pendulum, launch pad, rocket-making machine +Sergei Korolev (1907–1966), USSR – first successful intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7 Semyorka), R-7 rocket family, Sputniks (including the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite), Vostok program (including the first human spaceflight) +Nikolai Korotkov (1874–1920), Russian Empire – auscultatory technique for blood pressure measurement +Semyon Korsakov (1787–1853), Russian Empire – punched card for information storage +Mikhail Koshkin (1898–1940), Russia – T-34 medium tank, the best and most produced tank of World War II +Ognjeslav Kostović (1851–1916), Serbia/Russia – arborite (high-strength plywood, an early plastic) +Gleb Kotelnikov (1872–1944), Russia – knapsack parachute, drogue parachute +William Justin Kroll (1889–1973), Luxemburg/U.S. – Kroll process +Alfred Krupa (1915–1989), Yugoslavia – the modern wheeled suitcase, a glass-bottom boat, the skis for use in walking on water, a folding canvas catamaran +Aleksey Krylov (1863–1945), Russia – gyroscopic damping of ships +Ivan Kulibin (1735–1818), Russia – egg-shaped clock, candle searchlight, elevator using screw mechanisms, a self-rolling carriage featuring a flywheel, brake, gear box, and bearing, an early optical telegraph +Shen Kuo (1031–1095), China – improved gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra, and sighting tube +Leonid Kupriyanovich (1929–1996), USSR/Russia – mobile phone +Igor Kurchatov (1903–1960), USSR/Russia – Soviet atomic bomb, first nuclear power plant, first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships +Thomas E. Kurtz (1928–2024), together with John G. Kemeny (1926–1992), U.S./Hungary – BASIC (programming language) +Raymond Kurzweil (born 1948), Optical character recognition; flatbed scanner +Ken Kutaragi (born 1950), Japan – PlayStation +Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014), U.S. – Kevlar +John Howard Kyan (1774–1850), Ireland – process of Kyanization used for wood preservation \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c097179e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 9/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== L === +Dmitry Lachinov (1842–1902), Russia – mercury pump, economizer for electricity consumption, electrical insulation tester, optical dynamometer, photometer, electrolyser +René Laennec (1781–1826), France – stethoscope +Georges Lakhovsky (1869–1942), Russia/U.S. – multiple wave oscillator +Simon S. Lam (born 1947) U.S. – Secure Sockets invented in 1991 for securing Internet applications (World Wide Web, email, etc.) +Hedy Lamarr (1914–2000), Austria and U.S. – Spread spectrum radio +Edwin H. Land (1909–1991), U.S. – Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera +Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906), U.S. – bolometer +Irving Langmuir (1851–1957), U.S. – gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding +Norm Larsen (1923–1970), U.S. – WD-40 +Lewis Latimer (1848–1928), U.S. – improved carbon-filament light bulb +Gustav de Laval (1845–1913), Sweden – invented the milk separator and the milking machine +Semyon Lavochkin (1900–1960), Russia – La-series aircraft, first operational surface-to-air missile S-25 Berkut +John Bennet Lawes (1814–1900), UK – superphosphate or chemical fertilizer +Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901–1958), U.S. – Cyclotron +Nikolai Lebedenko, Russia – Tsar Tank, largest armored vehicle in history +Sergei Lebedev (1874–1934), Russia – commercially viable synthetic rubber +William Lee (1563–1614), UK – Stocking frame knitting machine +Edward Leedskalnin (1887–1951), U.S. – construction techniques used to single-handedly lift massive coral blocks in the creation of his Coral Castle +Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), The Netherlands – development of the microscope +Jerome H. Lemelson (1923–1997), U.S. – inventions in the fields in which he patented make possible, wholly or in part, innovations like automated warehouses, industrial robots, cordless telephones, fax machines, videocassette recorders, camcorders, and the tape transport used in Sony's Walkman tape players. +Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822–1900), Belgium – internal combustion engine, motorboat +Giacomo da Lentini (13th century), Italy – Sonnet +R. G. LeTourneau (1888–1969), U.S. – electric wheel, motor scraper, mobile oil drilling platform, bulldozer, cable control unit for scrapers +Rasmus Lerdorf (born 1968), Greenland/Canada – PHP (programming language) +Willard Frank Libby (1908–1980), U.S. – radiocarbon dating +Justus von Liebig (1803–1873), Germany – nitrogen-based fertilizer +Edward Light (1747–1832), UK – harp lute +Hon Lik (born 1951), China – electronic cigarette +Otto Lilienthal (1848–1896), Germany – hang glider +Lin Yutang (1895–1976), China/U.S. – Chinese language typewriter +Charles Lindbergh (1902–1974), U.S. – organ perfusion pump +Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist (1862–1931), Sweden – Kerosene stove operated by compressed air +Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), Sweden – formal Binomial nomenclature for living organisms, Horologium Florae +Hans Lippershey (1570–1619), The Netherlands – associated with the appearance of the telescope +Jonas Ferdinand Gabriel Lippmann (1845–1921), France – Lippmann plate, Integral imaging, Lippmann electrometer +Lisitsyn brothers, Ivan Fyodorovich and Nazar Fyodorovich, Russia – samovar (the first documented makers) +William Howard Livens (1889–1964), UK – chemical warfare – Livens Projector +Eduard Locher (1840–1910), Switzerland – Locher rack railway system +Fredrik Ljungström (1875–1964) and Birger Ljungström (1872–1948), Sweden – Ljungström turbine, Ljungström air preheater, Ljungström method +Alexander Lodygin (1847–1923), Russia – electrical filament, incandescent light bulb with tungsten filament +Louis Lombard-Gérin (1848–1918), France – trolleybus +Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), Russia – night vision telescope, off-axis reflecting telescope, coaxial rotor, re-invented smalt +Yury Lomonosov (1876–1952), Russia/UK – first successful mainline diesel locomotive +Aleksandr Loran (1849 – after 1911), Russia – fire fighting foam, foam extinguisher +Oleg Losev (1903–1942), Russia – light-emitting diode (LED), crystadine +Antoine Louis (1723–1792), France – Guillotine +Archibald Low (1882–1956), UK – pioneer of radio guidance systems +Ed Lowe (1920–1995), U.S. – Cat litter +Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy (1909–2001), Russia – Buran (spacecraft), Spiral project +Ignacy Łukasiewicz (1822–1882), Poland/Armenia – Kerosene lamp, Oil refinery +Auguste and Louis Lumière (1862–1954 and 1864–1948), France – Cinématographe +Cai Lun, 蔡倫 (50–121), China – paper +Giovanni Luppis or Ivan Vukić (1813–1875), Austrian Empire (ethnical Croatian, from Rijeka) – self-propelled torpedo +Gustave Lyon (1857–1936), France – chromatic harp +Richard F. Lyon (born 1952), U.S. – Optical mouse +Arkhip Lyulka (1908–1984), Russia – first double jet turbofan engine, other Soviet aircraft engines \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a3af0de15 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors" +chunk: 10/16 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== M === +Charles Macintosh (1766–1843), Scotland – waterproof raincoat, life vest +Theodore Maiman (1927–2007), U.S. – Laser, see also Gordon Gould +Ahmed Majan (born 1963), UAE – instrumented racehorse saddle and others +Aleksandr Makarov (born 1966), Russia/Germany – Orbitrap mass spectrometer +Stepan Makarov (1849–1904), Russia – Icebreaker Yermak, first true icebreaker able to ride over and crush pack ice +Victor Makeev (1924–1985), Russia – first submarine-launched ballistic missile +Nestor Makhno (1888–1934), Ukraine/Russia – tachanka +Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov (1896–1964), Russia – Maksutov telescope +Annie Malone (1869–1957), U.S. – Cosmetics for African American women +Sergey Malyutin (1859–1937), Russia – designed the first matryoshka doll (together with Vasily Zvyozdochkin) +Boris Mamyrin (1919–2007), Russia – reflectron (ion mirror) +George William Manby (1765–1854), UK – Fire extinguisher +Harry Mendell, U.S. – invented the first digital sampling synthesizer +Joy Mangano (born 1956), U.S. – household appliances +Anna Mangin (1844–1931) – American inventor, educator, caterer and women's rights campaigner +Charles Mantoux (1877–1947), France – Mantoux test (tuberculosis) +Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), Italy – radio telegraphy +Gheorghe Marinescu (1863–1938), Romania – first science films in the world in the neurology clinic in Bucharest (1898–1901) +Sylvester Marsh (1803–1884), U.S. – Marsh rack railway system +Konosuke Matsushita (1894–1989), Japan – battery-powered Bicycle lighting +Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf (1526–1585), Syria/Egypt/Turkey – steam turbine, six-cylinder 'Monobloc' suction pump, framed sextant +Alex Mashinsky (born 1965), U.S. – VoIP +John Landis Mason (1826–1902), U.S. – Mason jars +Fujio Masuoka (born 1943), Japan – Flash memory +John W. Mauchly (1907–1980), U.S. – ENIAC – the first general purpose programmable digital computer +Henry Maudslay (1771–1831), UK – screw-cutting lathe, bench micrometer +Hiram Maxim (1840–1916), U.S. born, UK – first self-powered machine gun +James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) and Thomas Sutton, Scotland – color photography +Stanley Mazor (born 1941), U.S. – microprocessor +John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836), Scotland – improved "macadam" road surface +Elijah McCoy (1843–1929), Canada – Displacement lubricator +Nicholas McKay Sr. (1920–2014), U.S. – Lint roller +Frederick McKinley Jones (1893–1961), U.S. – 22 patents, the most prominent for an automatic refrigeration system for long-haul trucks +James McLurkin (born 1972), U.S. – Ant robotics (robotics) +Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845–1916), Russia – probiotics +Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès (1817–1880), France – margarine +Mordecai Meirowitz (born 1930), Roumania / Israel – Mastermind (board game) +Cyrus Melikian (1920–2008), Armenia/U.S. – Coffee vending machine +Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907), Russia – Periodic table, pycnometer, pyrocollodion +Richard B. Merrill (1949–2008), U.S. – Foveon X3 sensor +George de Mestral (1907–1990), Switzerland – Velcro +Robert Metcalfe (born 1946), U.S. – Ethernet +Antonio Meucci (1808–1889), Italy/U.S. – various early telephones, a hygrometer, a milk test +Édouard Michelin (1859–1940), France – pneumatic tire +Anthony Michell (1870–1959), Australia – tilting pad thrust bearing, crankless engine +Artem Mikoyan (1905–1970), Armenia/Russia/USSR – MiG-series fighter aircraft, including world's most produced jet aircraft MiG-15 and most produced supersonic aircraft MiG-21 (together with Mikhail Gurevich) +Alexander Mikulin (1895–1985), Russia – Mikulin AM-34 and other Soviet aircraft engines, co-developer of the Tsar Tank +Mikhail Mil (1909–1970), Russia – Mi-series helicopter aircraft, including Mil Mi-8 (the world's most-produced helicopter) and Mil Mi-12 (the world's largest helicopter) +Alexander Miles (1838–1918), U.S. – system for automatically opening and closing elevator doors +David L. Mills (1938–2024), U.S. – Fuzzball router, Network Time Protocol +Marvin Minsky (1927–2016), U.S. – Confocal microscopy +Tokushichi Mishima (1893–1975), Japan – MKM magnetic steel +Pavel Molchanov (1893–1941), Russia – Radiosonde +Jules Montenier (1895–1962), U.S. – Anti-perspirant deodorant +Montgolfier brothers (1740–1810) and (1745–1799), France – hot air balloon +John J. Montgomery (1858–1911), U.S. – heavier-than-air gliders +Narcis Monturiol i Estarriol (1819–1885), Spain – steam powered submarine +Robert Moog (1934–2005), U.S. – Moog synthesizer +John J. Mooney (1930–2020), together with Carl D. Keith (1920–2008), U.S. – three way catalytic converter +Roland Moreno (1945–2012), France – inventor of the smart card +Samuel Morey (1762–1843), U.S. – internal combustion engine +Garrett A. Morgan (1877–1963), U.S. – inventor of the smoke hood +Alexander Morozov (1904–1979), Russia – T-54/55 (the most produced tank in history), co-developer of T-34 +Walter Frederick Morrison (1920–2010), U.S. – Flying disc +William Morrison (dentist) (1860–1926), U.S. – Cotton candy machine +Samuel Morse (1791–1872), U.S. – early Morse code, see also Morse Code controversy +Sergei Ivanovich Mosin (1849–1902), Russia – Mosin–Nagant rifle +Motorins, Ivan Feodorovich (1660s–1735) and his son Mikhail Ivanovich (?–1750), Russia – Tsar Bell +Vera Mukhina (1889–1953), Russia – welded sculpture +Kary Mullis (1944–2019), U.S. – PCR +Fe del Mundo (1911–2011), Philippines – medical incubator made out of bamboo for use in rural communities without electrical power +Colin Murdoch (1929–2008), New Zealand – Tranquillizer gun, disposable hypodermic syringe +William Murdoch (1754–1839), Scotland – Gas lighting +Jozef Murgas (1864–1929), Slovakia – inventor of the wireless telegraph (forerunner of the radio) +Evgeny Murzin (1914–1970), Russia – ANS synthesizer +Banū Mūsā brothers, Muhammad (c. 800–873), Ahmad (803–873), Al-Hasan (810–873), Iraq – mechanical trick devices, hurricane lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamp, gas mask, clamshell grab, fail-safe system, mechanical musical instrument, automatic flute player +Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692–1761), Netherlands – Leyden jar, pyrometer +Walton Musser (1909–1998), U.S. – Harmonic drive gear +Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904), UK – motion picture +Ted Myerson (born 1975), U.S. – data cloud computing system patents \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f634c2f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors killed by their own invention" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of people whose deaths were in some manner caused by or directly related to a product, process, procedure, or other technological innovation that they invented or designed. + +== Ill-fated inventors == + +=== Automotive === +Sylvester H. Roper (1823–1896), inventor of the Roper steam velocipede, died of a heart attack or subsequent crash during a public speed trial in 1896. It is unknown whether the crash caused the heart attack, or the heart attack caused the crash. +William Nelson (c. 1879–1903), a General Electric employee, invented a new way to motorize bicycles. He then fell off his prototype bike during a test run. +Francis Edgar Stanley (1849–1918) was killed while driving a Stanley Steamer automobile. He drove his car into a woodpile while attempting to avoid farm wagons travelling side by side on the road. +Fred Duesenberg (1876–1932) was killed in a high-speed road accident in a Duesenberg automobile. +David Ogle (1921–1962) was killed in an auto accident when he lost control while driving the Ogle SX1000 he had designed. + +=== Aviation === + +Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari (died c. 1003–1010), a Kazakh Turkic scholar from Farab, attempted to fly using two wooden wings and a rope. He leapt from the roof of a mosque in Nishapur and fell to his death. +Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (1754–1785) was the first known fatality in an air crash when his Rozière balloon crashed on 15 June 1785 while he and Pierre Romain attempted to cross the English Channel. +Thomas Harris (d. 1824) invented the gas discharge valve, the first such device for emptying a lighter-than-air balloon of gas. He died when the cord attached to the gas discharge valve in his balloon tightened as it was deflated, releasing more gas than intended and crashing the balloon. +Robert Cocking (1776–1837) died when his homemade parachute failed. Cocking failed to include the weight of the parachute in his calculations. +Vincent de Groof (1830–1874) died after losing control of his ornithopter and crashing. +Otto Lilienthal (1848–1896) died from injuries sustained in a crash of his hang glider. +Percy Pilcher (1867–1899) died after crashing his glider, having been prevented from demonstrating his powered aircraft. +Franz Reichelt (1879–1912), a tailor, fell to his death from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower during the initial test of a coat parachute which he invented. Reichelt promised the authorities he would use a dummy, but instead he confidently strapped himself into the garment at the last moment and made his leap in front of a camera crew. +Aurel Vlaicu (1882–1913) died when his self-constructed airplane, A Vlaicu II, failed during an attempt to cross the Carpathian Mountains. +1930 victims of the crash of the British R101 airship included designers Vincent Crane Richmond and Michael Rope, along with Secretary of State for Air Lord Thomson who proposed the voyage, Air Vice Marshal Sir Sefton Brancker, responsible for its safety certification, and Director of Airship Development Reginald Colmore, who had managed its construction and overruled a safety inspection that recommended rebuilding. +Henry Smolinski (1933–1973) was killed during a test flight of the AVE Mizar, a flying car based on the Ford Pinto and the sole product of the company he founded. +Charles Ligeti (d. 1987) was killed in a crash in 1987 when testing modifications to his Ligeti Stratos aircraft of novel closed wing design. +Michael Dacre (1956–2009) died after a crash that occurred while testing his flying taxi device. +John Williams (d. 2024) was killed when his replica P-51 airplane, designed and built by his own company, crashed into a tree during a failed landing. + +=== Chemistry === +Marie Curie (1867–1934) was a Polish-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity and is credited for discovering radioactive polonium and radium, and the only person to win Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields. On 4 July 1934, she died at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie, from aplastic anaemia believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation, some of which was from the devices she created. + +=== Industrial === +Carlisle Spedding (1695–1755); mining engineer, inventor and colliery manager, who worked in mines owned by Sir James Lowther. Spedding, along with his elder brother James, introduced many improvements to the mining industry, especially relating to drainage and ventilation, which did much to improve safety for miners. In 1730, Spedding invented a mechanical device, consisting of a pair of geared wheels that forced a flint against a rotating steel disc, giving off a shower of sparks to provide some illumination. This, named the "Spedding Steel Mill", was allegedly safer than the use of a naked flame, and until the invention of the Davy and Stephenson safety lamps many decades later, was widely used in mines. Carlisle Spedding was killed in an underground gas explosion on 8 August 1755 in Whitehaven, Cumbria, said to have been caused by one of his steel mills. +William Bullock (1813–1867) invented the web rotary printing press. Several years after its invention, his foot was crushed during the installation of a new machine in Philadelphia. The crushed foot developed gangrene and Bullock died during the amputation. +Dr. Sabin Arnold von Sochocky (1883–1928) was an inventor of the luminescent paint (used for clocks in early 20th century) based on radioactive radium (previously discovered by Pierre and Marie Curie). He was a founder of the United States Radium Corporation where some of its workers died from radium poisoning. His invention reportedly took his life, as well: he eventually died of aplastic anemia. + +=== Maritime === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e02ccbe7a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors killed by their own invention" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Henry Winstanley (1644–1703) designed and built the world's first offshore lighthouse on the Eddystone Rocks in Devon, England between 1696 and 1698. Boasting of the safety of his invention, he expressed a desire to shelter inside it "during the greatest storm there ever was". During the Great Storm of 1703, the lighthouse was completely destroyed with Winstanley and five other men inside. No trace of them was found. +John Day (c. 1740–1774) was an English carpenter and wheelwright who died during a test of his experimental diving chamber. +Horace Lawson Hunley (1823–1863) was a Confederate American marine engineer who built the H. L. Hunley submarine and perished inside it as a member of the second crew to face drownings while testing the experimental vessel. After Hunley's death, the Confederates resurfaced the ship for another mission that proved fatal for its own crew: the successful sinking of the USS Housatonic during the American Civil War. The feat made the H. L. Hunley the first submarine to sink an enemy warship in wartime. +Karl Flach (1821–1866) was a German living in Valparaiso, Chile. He built the submarine Flach (brother of the Peruvian "Toro", sunk, refloated by the Chilean Navy and then disappeared, both events in the Saltpeter War) at the request of the Chilean government, in response to the bombing of Valparaíso. He died after the submarine failed to rise, along with his son and other sailors. +Julius H. Kroehl (1820–1867), a German-American inventor and former Union Navy contractor, is thought to have died of decompression sickness after experimental dives with the Sub Marine Explorer, which he co-designed and constructed with his business partner Ariel Patterson. +Cowper Phipps Coles (1819–1870) was a Royal Navy captain who drowned with approximately 480 others in the sinking of HMS Captain, a masted turret ship of his own design. +William Pitt (1841–1909) was a Canadian ferryman who designed the underwater cable ferry as means of improving the former ferry used to connect the Kingston Peninsula to the Kennebecasis Valley in New Brunswick. In 1909, Pitt died after sustaining injuries caused by falling into his ferry's machinery. +Thomas Andrews (1873–1912), the naval architect of the Titanic, designed his famous vessel while serving as the managing director and head of the drafting department of the shipbuilding company Harland and Wolff in Belfast, Ireland. He was aboard the Titanic during her maiden voyage and perished alongside approximately 1,500 others when the ship hit an iceberg and sank on 14 April 1912. Andrews' body was never recovered. +Stockton Rush (1962–2023) was a pilot, engineer, and businessman who oversaw the design and construction of the OceanGate submersible Titan, used to take tourists to view the wreck of the Titanic. On 18 June 2023, the craft imploded during a dive to the Titanic, killing Rush and four other passengers. Rush had spent years staunchly defending his unregulated design, claiming that "at some point, safety is just pure waste. I mean, if you just want to be safe, don't get out of bed, don't get in your car, don't do anything". + +=== Medical === +Alexander Bogdanov (1873–1928) was a Russian polymath, Bolshevik revolutionary and pioneer haemotologist who founded the first Institute of Blood Transfusion in 1926. He died from acute hemolytic transfusion reaction after carrying out an experimental mutual blood transfusion between himself and a 21-year-old student with an inactive case of tuberculosis. Bogdanov's hypotheses were that the younger man's blood would rejuvenate his own aging body, and that his own blood, which he believed was resistant to tuberculosis, would treat the student's disease. +Thomas Midgley Jr. (1889–1944) was an American engineer and chemist who contracted polio at age 51, leaving him severely disabled. He devised an elaborate system of ropes and pulleys to help others lift him from bed. He became entangled in the ropes and died of strangulation at the age of 55. However, he is better known for two of his other inventions: the tetraethyl lead (TEL) additive to gasoline, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). + +=== Physics === + +Georg Wilhelm Richmann (1711–1753) built an apparatus to study electricity from lightning. While "trying to quantify the response of an insulated rod to a nearby storm," it produced a ball of lightning that struck him in the forehead and killed him. +Clarence Madison Dally (1865–1904) was an employee of Thomas Edison tasked with developing a focused X-ray tube, the fluoroscope. It was derived from but had greater luminosity than Wilhelm Röntgen's 1895 design. As a result, Dally was exposed to significant doses of ionizing X-radiation and eventually contracted fatal mediastinal tumors. + +=== Publicity and entertainment === +Karel Soucek (1947–1985) was a Czech professional stuntman living in Canada who developed a shock-absorbent barrel. He died following a demonstration involving the barrel being dropped from the roof of the Houston Astrodome. He was fatally injured when his barrel hit the rim of the water tank meant to cushion his fall. + +=== Railway === + +Webster Wagner (1817–1882) died in a train accident, crushed between two of the railway sleeper cars he had invented. +Henri Thuile (died 1900), inventor of the large high-speed Thuile steam locomotive, died during a test run between Chartres and Orléans. Conflicting accounts indicate that he was either thrown from the derailing locomotive, hitting a telegraph pole, or that he simply leaned too much and was instantly killed by hitting his head against a piece of bridge scaffolding. +Valerian Abakovsky (1895–1921) constructed the Aerowagon, an experimental high-speed railcar fitted with an aircraft engine and propeller traction, intended to carry Soviet officials. On 24 July 1921, it derailed at high speed, killing seven of the 22 on board, including Abakovsky. + +=== Rocketry === +Max Valier (1895–1930) invented liquid-fuelled rocket engines as a member of the 1920s German rocket society Verein für Raumschiffahrt. On 17 May 1930, an alcohol-fuelled engine exploded on his test bench in Berlin, killing him instantly. +Mike Hughes (1956–2020) was killed when the parachute failed to deploy during a crash landing while piloting his homemade steam-powered rocket. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23d933ed1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of inventors killed by their own invention" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Popular legends and related stories == + +In Greek mythology, Daedalus built wings made of feathers and blankets to escape the labyrinth of Crete with his son Icarus, who died while ignoring his father's instructions not to "fly too close to the sun". +Perillos of Athens (c. 550 BCE), according to legend, was the first to be roasted in the brazen bull he made for Phalaris of Sicily for executing criminals. +Li Si (208 BCE), Prime Minister during the Qin dynasty, was executed by the Five Pains method which some sources claim he had devised. However, the history of the Five Pains is traced further back in time than Li Si. +Wan Hu, a possibly apocryphal 16th-century Chinese official, is said to have attempted to launch himself into outer space in a chair to which 47 rockets were attached. The rockets exploded, and it is said that neither he nor the chair were ever seen again. +João Torto, a most likely apocryphal 16th-century Portuguese man who jumped from the top of Viseu Cathedral wearing a biplane-like flying rig and an eagle-shaped helmet. +Orban, the designer and manufacturer of the Basilic, a gigantic cannon used to break down the walls of Constantinople in 1453, died when one of his cannons exploded in battle. +In The Adventures of Philip by William Makepeace Thackeray, the narrator, Pendennis, relates the popular misconception, "Was not the good Dr Guillotin executed by his own neat invention?" In fact, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin was neither the inventor of the guillotine nor executed by it. + +== See also == +Darwin Awards, tongue-in-cheek awards honoring persons who died as a result of their conspicuously stupid mistakes +List of entertainers who died during a performance +List of unusual deaths +Hoist with his own petard, a quote from Shakespeare's Hamlet, indicating an ironic reversal or an instance of poetic justice +Luis Jiménez, a sculptor who was killed when part of one of his sculptures fell on him + +== References == + +== Further reading == +E. Cobham Brewer (1898). "Inventors Punished by their own inventions". Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Bartleby. pp. 657–658. + +== External links == +John Redford's "Doomed Engineers" page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4be91f08 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of islands created since the 20th century" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:19.232252+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Below is a list of new islands created since the beginning of the 20th century by volcanism, erosion, glacial retreat, or other mechanisms, excluding artificial islands. One of the most famous new volcanic islands is the small island of Surtsey, located in the Atlantic Ocean south of Iceland. It first emerged from the ocean surface in 1963. Two years later, Surtsey was declared a nature reserve for the study of ecological succession; plants, insects, birds, seals, and other forms of life have since established themselves on the island. +Another noted new island is Anak Krakatau (lit. 'child of Krakatoa'), which formed in the flooded caldera of the Krakatoa volcano in Indonesia), which emerged only in 1930. Ample rainforests have grown there, although they are often destroyed by frequent eruptions. A population of many wild animals, including insects, birds, humanborne rats, and even monitor lizards, have also settled there. +Didicas Volcano off the northern coast of Luzon Island in the Philippines, was first created during a four-year eruption from 1856 to 1860 but eventually got washed away. In 1900, three tall rock masses were left by another eruption. During the 1952 eruption, the island finally became permanent which was further bolstered by subsequent eruptions in 1969 and 1978 into a 228 metres (748 ft)-high island. +Uunartoq Qeqertoq is an island off the east coast of Greenland that appeared to have split from the mainland because of glacial retreat between 2002 and 2005; however, it is believed to have been a true island, with or without glacial covering, for many thousands of years. +In February and March 2009, a vigorous eruption created a new island near Hunga Ha'apai in the Tongan Islands of the southwest Pacific. By the end of the activity, however, the new land mass was connected to Hunga Ha'apai. Similar activity occurred again in December 2014 and January 2015. The island has been re-separated after most of the mass of Hunga Ha'apai was destroyed during the massive 2022 eruption. +In December 2011, an island was formed in the Zubair Group as a result of volcanic activity but got eroded away in February 2015. Another island which surfaced formed in September 2013 which was named Jadid Island, whereas the one that formed in 2011 was named Sholan Island. +On September 24, 2013, a new island named Zalzala Koh emerged off the coast of Gwadar, as a result of a strong earthquake that hit south and southwest Pakistan measuring 7.8 on the Richter magnitude scale. +On November 21, 2013, an unnamed islet emerged off the coast of Nishinoshima, a small, uninhabited island in the Ogasawara chain, which is also known as the Bonin Islands. Less than four days after the new islet's emergence, it was about 200 metres (660 ft) in diameter. +In November 2023, a new island formed as a result of volcanic activity off the coast of Iwo Jima, reaching a diameter of 100 meters. + + +== List of recently created islands == +This is a list of new islands that formed during the 20th and the 21st centuries. Of those formed by submarine volcanoes, only Anak Krakatau and Surtsey are currently islands, and Surtsey is the only one that is expected to survive, Ilha Nova is now connected to Faial Island. Newly created landmass adjacent to Nishinoshima is now connected to Nishinoshima. + + +== See also == +Severnaya Zemlya, the last sizeable islands to be discovered + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ef997d0c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,220 @@ +--- +title: "List of karst areas" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:20.547507+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Karst topography is a geological formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite, but also in gypsum. It has also been documented for weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. This is an incomplete list of the major karst landscape areas of the world. + +== Africa == + +=== Madagascar === +Anjajavy Forest, western Madagascar +Ankarana Reserve, Madagascar +Madagascar dry deciduous forests, western Madagascar +Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar + +=== South Africa === +Oudtshoorn, Western Cape Province, KwaZulu Natal. +West Rand, Gauteng and North West Province, KwaZulu Natal. + +== Asia == + +=== China === +Area around Guilin and Yangshuo +Zhijin Cave, Guizhou (UNESCO World Heritage Site) +Jiuzhaigou Valley and Huanglong Scenic and Historic Interest Area, (UNESCO World Heritage Site) +Shaanxi tiankeng cluster, discovered in 2016, it is one of the largest in the world comprising forty-nine sinkholes and more than fifty funnels ranging from 50 to 100 metres in diameter. +South China Karst, World Heritage Site +Stone Forest +Xiaozhai Tiankeng, also known as the Heavenly Pit, is the world's largest sinkhole. +Zhangjiajie National Forest park, forming part of the Wulingyuan scenic area, World Heritage Site +Wulong Karst, Wulong County, Chongqing Municipality + +=== Georgia === +Arabika Massif (including Voronya Cave – the world's second deepest cave), Abkhazia, Georgia + +=== India === +Borra Cave or Bora Guhalu in Andhra Pradesh. +Patal Bhuvaneshwar in Uttarakhand. +Yana Caves - Karnataka (Uttar Kanada District) + +=== Indonesia === + +Ajamaru Plateau, West Papua, Indonesia +Gombong Selatan, Central Java, Indonesia +Gunung Sewu, Indonesia +Rammang-Rammang, in the Bantimurung - Bulusaraung National Park in (Maros Regency) Indonesia, known as The Spectacular Tower Karst Area +Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat, East Kalimantan +Sijunjung, West Sumatra, Indonesia +Menui Island, Southest Sulawesi, Indonesia + +=== Israel === +Avshalom Cave, also known as "Soreq Cave" or "Stalactites Cave", in the Judean hills +The Upper Galilee region + +=== Japan === +Akiyoshi Plateau, Japan +Hiraodai Plateau, Japan +Okinoerabujima Island and other islets of Ryukyu Islands, Japan +Shikoku Karst Prefectural Natural Park (Ehime), Shikoku, Japan + +=== Laos === +Khammouane, Laos +Vang Vieng, Laos + +=== Lebanon === + +Jeita Grotto, Lebanon +Parts of Mount Lebanon + +=== Malaysia === +Gunung Mulu National Park, Malaysia +Kilim Karst Geoforest Park, Langkawi, Malaysia +Kinta Valley, Perak, Malaysia +Perlis State Park, Perlis, Malaysia +Batu Caves, Selangor, Malaysia + +=== Myanmar === +Shan State, Kayin State, Kayah State + +=== Palestine === +West Bank, Palestine + +=== Philippines === +El Nido, Palawan, Philippines +Coron, Palawan, Philippines +Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines +Chocolate Hills, Bohol, Philippines +Osmeña Peak, Cebu, Philippines + +=== South Korea === +Gangwon-do (South Korea), South Korea +Northwestern North Chungcheong Province, South Korea + +=== Thailand === +Ao Phang Nga National Park, Thailand +Krabi region, Thailand +Phangnga Bay Area, southern Thailand +Doi Nang Non, northern Thailand +Cheow Lan Lake, southern Thailand + +=== Taiwan === +Kenting National Park, Taiwan + +=== Turkey === +Taşeli, Turkey + +=== Vietnam === + +Hạ Long Bay, Vietnam +Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Vietnam +Tam Cốc-Bích Động in Ninh Bình Province, Vietnam +Đồng Văn Karst, Global Geopark + +== Europe == + +=== Albania === +Biza area in central Eastern Albania +Mali me Gropa +Albanian Alps +Karaburun Peninsula, Albania + +=== Austria === +Eastern region of the Northern Limestone Alps in the provinces of Salzburg, Upper Austria, Styria, and Lower Austria, forming huge limestone plateaus such as the Steinernes Meer, Hagengebirge, Tennengebirge, Dachstein, Totes Gebirge, Hochschwab, Rax, and Schneeberg. +Area around Graz, Styria. + +=== Belgium === +Fondry des Chiens near Viroinval + +=== Bosnia and Herzegovina === + +Karst poljes (Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian: krška polja) + +Popovo polje in Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Livanjsko polje (405 km2 (156 sq mi)), near Livno in Završje (Tropolje) region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Nevesinjsko polje, near Nevesinje in Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Gatačko polje, near Gacko in Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Glamočko polje, near Glamoč in Završje (Tropolje) region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Duvanjsko polje, near Duvno in Završje (Tropolje) region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Mostarsko polje, near Mostar in Herzegovina region of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Kupreško polje, near Kupres in the border area of Završje (Tropolje) region and Bosnia (region) of Bosnia and Herzegovina +Vjetrenica (which means "wind cave" or "blowhole"), largest and most important cave +Neretva river +Trebisnjica river + +=== Bulgaria === +Central Rhodope karst (including Trigrad Gorge), Bulgaria +Devnya Valley, Varna Province, Bulgaria +Dragoman marsh, Bulgaria +Karlukovo Karst Geocomplex + +=== Croatia === +Regions of Dalmatia, Lika (Plitvice Lakes National Park), Gorski kotar, Istria, Kvarner and the islands in Croatia +See also: list of caves in Croatia + +=== Czech Republic === +Moravian Karst, Czech Republic +Bohemian Karst, Czech Republic + +=== Estonia === + +=== France === +Pyrenees +Massif de Larra-Belagua, near Pic d'Anie +Pierre-Saint-Martin +Arbailles +Massif Central +Causses (Causse du Larzac,...) +French Prealps +Sainte-Baume +Mont Sainte-Victoire +Alpilles +Luberon +Vaucluse Mountains +Dévoluy Mountains +Vercors Plateau +Chartreuse Mountains +Bauges +Jura +Bugey +Pays d'Ouche (Normandy) + +=== Germany === +Franconian Switzerland, Upper Franconia, Bavaria +Hönnetal at Balve +South Harz and Kyffhaeuser Gypsum Karst +Swabian Alb region in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg + +=== Hungary === +Region of the Mecsek Mountains +Bükk, a plateau in northeastern Hungary +Bakony Hills in Transdanubia +Buda Hills, thermal karst area +Aggtelek Karst and the largest cave in Hungary (Aggtelek National Park, UNESCO WHS) + +=== Ireland === +The Burren in County Clare +Ballydotia, near Moycullen, in County Galway +Dringeen Oughter, Lough Mask, in County Mayo +Tullyskeherny, near Manorhamilton, in County Leitrim + +=== Italy === +Gargano, in Apulia, northern +Murge, in Apulia and Basilicata, southern +Carso (Slovene: Kras)(German: Karst), a plateau in southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy +Piano Grande surrounding Castelluccio (Norcia), in the Monti Sibillini National Park +Montello, in Veneto, a plateau in conglomerate rock, venetian sub-alps hills + +=== Lithuania === +North Region, located mostly in Biržai district municipality and Pasvalys district municipality. + +=== Malta === +Wied iż-Żurrieq and Dingli, West + +=== Montenegro === +Dinaric Alps region (70% of the territory of Montenegro is Karst) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f6290705 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,231 @@ +--- +title: "List of karst areas" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:20.547507+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Poland === +Kraków-Częstochowa Upland (Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska) +Holy Cross Mountains (Góry Świętokrzyskie) with the Jaskinia Raj (Raj Cave) +Tatra Mountains including the Jaskinia Wielka Śnieżna (Great Snowy Cave) – the longest and the deepest cave in Poland +Králický Sněžník Mountains with the largest cave outside Tatra Mountains, Jaskinia Niedźwiedzia +Kaczawskie Mountains small region near the town Wojcieszów + +=== Portugal === + +Natural Park Serras d'Aire and Candeeiros + +=== Romania === +Apuseni Mountains, Romania +Bucegi Mountains, Romania + +=== Serbia === +Dinaric Alps region +merokarst of eastern Serbia + +=== Slovakia === +Slovak Paradise, Slovakia +Slovak Karst, Slovakia +Tatry, Slovakia +Nízke Tatry, Slovakia +Muránska planina, Slovakia + +=== Slovenia === + +Region of Inner Carniola, Goriška, Upper Carniola and Lower Carniola +Karst Plateau (Slovene: Kras)(German: Karst), a plateau in southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy, which gave the name to karst topography. + +=== Spain === + +Picos de Europa and Basque Mountains, northern Spain +Larra-Belagua, Navarre, northern Spain +Serra del Cadí mountain range, Spain +Garraf Massif Natural Park area, Spain +Ciudad Encantada in the province of Cuenca, Castilla-La Mancha, Spain +El Torcal de Antequera nature preserve, southern Spain +El Cerro del Hierro, in Sevilla, southern Spain + +=== Sweden === +Various places in the limestone and marl island of Gotland, most notably the Lummelunda cave system. Depending on definition the stacks of Gotland can be classified as karst. +The Abisko-Torneträsk area in northern Sweden contains several cave systems developed on carbonate strata of the Caledonide nappes. + +=== Switzerland === +7,900 square kilometres (3,100 sq mi), or 19% of the surface of Switzerland, is karst, within this area lies the majority of the 7,500 currently known Swiss caves, with an accumulated passage length of more than 1,200 kilometres (750 mi). + +=== Ukraine === +Podolia and Bukovina regions in the northeastern edge of the Carpathian Mountains which includes some of the largest gypsum caves in the world, including the Optymistychna Cave, which is over 200,000 meters in length, making it the longest cave in Eurasia, the third longest in the world, and the longest gypsum cave in the world. + +=== United Kingdom === + +==== England ==== +White Peak of the Peak District, around Matlock, Castleton (including Thor's Cave) +Mendip Hills including Cheddar Gorge +Yorkshire Dales including Gaping Gill and the Three Counties System. +Forest of Dean including the Clearwell Caves and Mines + +==== Northern Ireland ==== +Marlbank-Cuilcagh Mountain Region, in County Fermanagh + +==== Scotland ==== +Assynt +southeast Skye +near Kentallen + +==== Wales ==== +Southern and western regions of the Brecon Beacons National Park +South Pembrokeshire and Gower +Parts of Flintshire e.g. Esclusham Mountain +Great Orme and adjacent parts of North Wales coast + +== North America == + +=== Canada === +Marble Canyon, British Columbia +Monkman Provincial Park, British Columbia +Northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia +Niagara Escarpment, Ontario +The Napanee Limestone Plain, Ontario +Port au Port Peninsula, Newfoundland +Nahanni region in the Northwest Territories +Wood Buffalo National Park in Alberta and the Northwest Territories +Avon Peninsula, Nova Scotia +St-Jude, Quebec + +=== Mexico === +Cenotes of the Yucatán Peninsula +Sótanos of the Sierra Gorda, Querétaro +Cacahuamilpa grottos, Guerrero +Chiapas Plateau, Chiapas +Nahá–Metzabok +Sierra de Tamaulipas +Zacatón + +=== United States === +Alaska + +Kosciusko Island, southeastern Alaska +White Mountains, Interior Alaska +Arizona + +Texas Canyon, Cochise County +Florida + +Much of Florida's landscape is composed of “karst” landforms. Florida Karst Topography +Florida Karst Resources +Illinois + +Illinois Caverns State Natural Area and Illinois Sinkhole Plain in Monroe County +Indiana + +Mitchell Plain and uplands of southern Indiana + +Kentucky + +Bluegrass region of Kentucky +Mammoth Cave region +Michigan + +Presque Isle County near and around Rogers City +Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore near Munising, Michigan +Missouri, Arkansas + +Ozark Plateau of Missouri and Arkansas +Nevada + +Lehman Caves located within Great Basin National Park in eastern Nevada +New Mexico + +Carlsbad Caverns National Park +Oklahoma + +Arbuckle Mountains and Arbuckle Uplift +Kamas Ranch and Alabaster Cavern area +Oregon + +Deschutes River basin +South Dakota + +Black Hills (Wind Cave, Jewel Cave) +Tennessee + +Cumberland Plateau +Grassy Cove Karst Area +Texas + +Edwards Plateau, Texas and its northern extensions, including the Palo Pinto Mountains +Utah + +Ricks Spring in northeast Utah +Virginia + +Shenandoah Valley, Virginia +West Virginia + +Germany Valley Karst Area +Smoke Hole Canyon +Greenbrier River watershed +Swago Karst Area +Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois + +Driftless Area of western Wisconsin, southeast Minnesota, northeast Iowa and northwest Illinois +Niagara Escarpment of the Eastern Ridges and Lowlands region of eastern Wisconsin, especially around Green Bay on the Door Peninsula and Potawatomi Islands + +== Central America and Caribbean == + +=== Belize === +Eastern foothills of Maya Mountains including parts of the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize +Great Blue Hole near the center of Lighthouse Reef, Belize + +=== Cuba === +Mogotes in Viñales Valley + +=== Dominican Republic === +Los Haitises National Park + +=== Jamaica === +Cockpit Country region + +=== Puerto Rico === +Northern Karst of Puerto Rico +Southern Karst of Puerto Rico + +== South America == + +=== Brazil === +Lagoa Santa Karst, Minas Gerais, Brazil + +=== Chile === +Madre de Dios Island and Guarello Island (the world's southernmost limestone mine), Magallanes, Chile + +=== Venezuela === +The Sierra de San Luis in Falcón State, location of Haitón del Guarataro, the deepest limestone cave in Venezuela. + +== Oceania == + +=== Australia === +Cutta Cutta Caves Nature Park and Kintore Caves Conservation Reserve, Katherine, Northern Territory +Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park, near Margaret River, south west Western Australia +Northern Swan Coastal Plain, Perth, Western Australia +Naracoorte Caves National Park, South Australia +Jenolan Caves, New South Wales +Wombeyan Caves, New South Wales +Mole Creek Karst National Park, Tasmania +Nullarbor Plain, South Australia and Western Australia +Yarrangobilly Caves area, New South Wales + +=== New Zealand === +Takaka Hill, Tasman Region (South Island) +Mount Owen, Tasman Region (South Island) +Waitomo, southern Waikato Region (North Island) +Oparara Basin Arches, Buller District of the West Coast Region (South Island) +Paparoa National Park, West Coast Region (South Island) +Craigieburn area, Canterbury District (South Island) + +=== Papua New Guinea === +Nakanai Mountains, East New Britain + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..faa52406d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "List of landslides" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:23.570314+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of landslides is a list of notable landslides and mudflows divided into sections by date and type. This list may be incomplete as there is no central catalogue for landslides, although it does exist for some for individual countries or areas. Volumes of landslides are recorded in the scientific literature using cubic kilometres (km3) for the largest and millions of cubic metres (MCM) for most events. + + +== Prehistoric landslides == +Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s) + + +== Submarine landslides == +Note: MCM = million cubic metres; km3 = cubic kilometre(s) + + +== Pre-20th-century historic landslides == +Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres + + +== 20th-century landslides == + + +=== 1901–1950 === +Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres + + +=== 1951–1975 === +Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres + + +=== 1976–2000 === +Note: MCM = million cubic metres + + +== 21st-century landslides == + + +=== 2001–2010 === +Note: m3 = cubic metre(s); MCM = million cubic metres + + +=== 2011–2020 === +Note: MCM = million cubic metres + + +=== 2021–present === +Note: MCM = million cubic metres + + +== Ongoing landslides == +Note: MCM = million cubic metres + + +== See also == +List of avalanches by death toll + + +== References == + + +== External links == +United States Geological Survey site \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..19642949a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of language-related awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:19.637037+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of language-related awards is an index to articles on notable awards given for language-related work. + + +== List == + + +== See also == +Word of the year +Lists of awards +List of writing awards +List of literary awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b03e4cfe8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "List of language creators" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:57.451912+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A language creator, sometimes referred to as a conlanger (), is a person who invents constructed languages (or "conlangs"). + + +== Professional language creators == +Individuals who have been hired to create languages. + +Victoria Fromkin - Paku (a.k.a. Pakuni) +Paul Frommer - Na'vi, Barsoomian +Madhan Karky - Kiliki +Marc Okrand - Klingon, Vulcan, Atlantean +Matt Pearson - Thhtmaa +David J. Peterson - Dothraki, Valyrian, Kastithanu (Castithan), L'Irathi (Irathient), Indojisnen, Sondiv, Shiväisith, Lishepus, Trigedasleng, Noalath, Inha, Munja'kin +John H. G. Scott - Baldung (for Archive 81) +Britton Watkins - Yautja (for Predator: Badlands) +Wolf Wikeley - Tho Fan + + +== Published international auxiliary language creators == +Individuals who have created languages intended for international communication. + +George Boeree: Lingua Franca Nova +Léon Bollack: Bolak +Louis Couturat and Louis de Beaufront: Ido language +Alexander Gode: Interlingua +Lancelot Hogben: Interglossa +Otto Jespersen: Novial +Francis Lodwick: Common Writing +Jackson Moore: Moss +François Sudre: Solresol +Charles Kay Ogden: Basic English +Giuseppe Peano: Latino sine flexione +Waldemar Rosenberger: Idiom Neutral +Johann Martin Schleyer: Volapük +Kenneth Searight: Sona +Edgar de Wahl: Interlingue +John Wilkins: unnamed universal language +L. L. Zamenhof: Esperanto + + +== Published zonal auxiliary language creators == +Individuals who have created zonal auxiliary languages intended to facilitate communication speakers of a certain group of closely related languages. + +Jan van Steenbergen: Interslavic +Juraj Križanić +Ján Herkeľ: Universalis Lingua Slavica + + +== Published fictional language creators == +Language creators whose work has been published in books or other media that they created: + +Richard Adams: Lapine, in Watership Down +M.A.R. Barker: Tsolyáni for Tékumel +Hector Berlioz +Marion Zimmer Bradley +Anthony Burgess: Nadsat in A Clockwork Orange and a prehistoric language in Quest for Fire. +Samuel R. Delany +Suzette Doctolero: Enchanta from the Encantadia Saga. +Diane Duane +Suzette Haden Elgin: Láadan, in the Native Tongue series +Václav Havel +Frank Herbert +Hergé +Robert Jordan: The Old Tongue in The Wheel of Time +Ursula K. Le Guin +Barry B. Longyear +George Orwell: Newspeak, in Nineteen Eighty-Four +Christopher Paolini: The Ancient Language in the Inheritance Cycle (Eragon and its sequels) +Lynne Sharon Schwartz: in The Writing on the Wall +J. R. R. Tolkien: more than twenty languages including Quenya, Sindarin, Khuzdul; see Languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien +Karen Traviss: Mando'a in the Star Wars expanded universe +Christian Vander +Tad Williams: Higher Singing in Tailchaser's Song +Gene Wolfe: Ascian in The Book of the New Sun + + +== Published engineered language creators == + +Sonja Lang: Toki Pona, a minimalist language which has gained a large following and several publications over the years since its creation in 2001. +James Cooke Brown: Loglan + + +== See also == +Category:Constructed language creators ( 96 ) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..32d6b1bdb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "List of large volcanic eruptions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:02.296171+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a sortable list of large eruptions that occurred between 11.7 Ka and 450+ Ma. Uncertainties as to dates and tephra volumes are not restated, and references are not repeated. The inclusion criteria here only covers entries with a Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 5 or greater. The given values for events in the Miocene epoch sometimes lack references, and are given as VEI-equivalent, as an estimate of the erupted tephra volume. + + +== <11.7KA (Holocene) == + + +== 11.7 to 49KA == + + +== 50 to 99KA == + + +== 100 to 299KA == + + +== 300 to 999KA == + + +== 1 to 9.9MA == + + +== 10MA and older == + + +== Notes == + + +== See also == +Geologic time scale +Timeline of volcanism on Earth +List of large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province + + +== References == + + +=== Bibliography === +Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (PDF). Thin Solid Films. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-19. +Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16. +Supplementary Table II: "Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009)" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16. +"Large Holocene Eruptions". Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2010-04-17. + + +== Further reading == +Scott E. Bryan; Ingrid Ukstins Peate; David W. Peate; Stephen Self; Dougal A. Jerram; Michael R. Mawby; J.S. Marsh; Jodie A. Miller (2010). "The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth" (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 102 (3–4): 207–229. Bibcode:2010ESRv..102..207B. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001. +Volcano Global Risk Identification and Analysis Project Website "VOGRIPA". +Lee Siebert; Tom Simkin; Paul Kimberly (2011). Volcanoes of the World. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26877-7. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88510534d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "List of linguistic example sentences" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a partial list of linguistic example sentences illustrating various linguistic phenomena. + +== Ambiguity == +Different types of ambiguity which are possible in language. + +=== Lexical ambiguity === +Demonstrations of words which have multiple meanings dependent on context. + +Will, will Will will Will Will's will? – Will (a person), will (future tense auxiliary verb) Will (a second person) will (bequeath) [to] Will (a third person) Will's (the second person) will (a document)? (Someone asked Will 1 directly if Will 2 plans to bequeath his own will, the document, to Will 3.) +Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo. – Bison (the plural of "buffalos" or "buffalo" is also accepted) from Buffalo, New York, whom bison from Buffalo bully, bully bison from Buffalo. +Police police Police police police police Police police. – Police officers from Police, Poland, whom police officers from Police patrol, patrol police officers from Police. +Rose rose to put rose roes on her rows of roses. (Robert J. Baran) – Rose [a person] rose [stood] to put rose [pink-colored] roes [fish eggs as fertilizer] on her rows of roses [flower]. +James while John had had had had had had had had had had had a better effect on the teacher – With punctuation: "James, while John had had 'had', had had 'had had'. 'Had had' had had a better effect on the teacher", or "James, while John had had 'had had', had had 'had'. 'Had had' had had a better effect on the teacher" +That that is is that that is not is not is that it it is. – Grammatically corrected as: "That that is, is. That that is not, is not. Is that it? It is". +Can can can can can can can can can can. – "Examples of the can-can dance that other examples of the same dance are able to outshine, or figuratively to put into the trashcan, are themselves able to outshine examples of the same dance". It could alternatively be interpreted as a question, "Is it possible for examples of the dance that have been outshone to outshine others?" or several other ways. +Martin Gardner offered the example: "Wouldn't the sentence 'I want to put a hyphen between the words Fish and And and And and Chips in my Fish-And-Chips sign' have been clearer if quotation marks had been placed before Fish, and between Fish and and, and and and And, and And and and, and and and And, and And and and, and and and Chips, as well as after Chips?" +The bears bear hard hard yarn yarns. (Lemony Snicket) – The bears endure tiring and unpleasant long stories about hard yarn. +Fish fish fish fish fish. – With nesting clarified: Fish fish (fish that fish fish). Alternatively: Fish (that fish fish) fish fish. +Foot heads arms body – Foot [name] heads [leads] arms [weapons] body [group of people]. + +=== Syntactic ambiguity === + +Demonstrations of ambiguity between alternative syntactic structures underlying a sentence. + +I made her duck. +One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I don't know. +Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana. +Eats shoots and leaves +The Gostak distims the doshes + +=== Syntactic ambiguity, incrementality, and local coherence === + +Demonstrations of how incremental and (at least partially) local syntactic parsing leads to infelicitous constructions and interpretations. + +Reduced relative clauses +The horse raced past the barn fell. +The coach smiled at the player tossed the frisbee (by the opposing team). +While the man was hunting the deer ran through the forest. + +=== Scope ambiguity and anaphora resolution === +Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it. + +=== Embedding === + +The rat the cat the dog bit chased escaped. +The editor authors the newspaper hired liked laughed. +The man who the boy who the students recognized pointed out is a friend of mine. + +=== Punctuation === +Punctuation can be used to introduce ambiguity or misunderstandings where none needed to exist. One well known example, for comedic effect, is from A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare (ignoring the punctuation provides the alternate reading). + +Enter QUINCE for the Prologue +Prologue +If we offend, it is with our good will. +That you should think, we come not to offend, +But with good will. To show our simple skill, +That is the true beginning of our end. +Consider then we come but in despite. +We do not come as minding to content you, +Our true intent is. All for your delight +We are not here. That you should here repent you, +The actors are at hand and by their show +You shall know all that you are like to know. +—ACT V, Scene i + +== Word order == + +=== Ending sentence with preposition === +Some prescriptive grammar prohibits "preposition stranding": ending sentences with prepositions. + +==== Avoidance ==== +This is the sort of English up with which I will not put. (Attributed by Gowers to Winston Churchill. There is no convincing evidence that Churchill said this, and good reason to believe that he did not.) The sentence "does not demonstrate the absurdity of using [prepositional phrase] fronting instead of stranding; it merely illustrates the ungrammaticality resulting from fronting something that is not a constituent". + +==== Compound use ==== +"A father of a little boy goes upstairs after supper to read to his son, but he brings the wrong book. The boy says, 'What did you bring that book that I don't want to be read to out of up for?'" + +== Neurolinguistics == +Sentences with unexpected endings. + +She spread the bread with socks. +Comparative illusion: + +More people have been to Russia than I have. + +== Combinatorial complexity == +Demonstrations of sentences which are unlikely to have ever been said, although the combinatorial complexity of the linguistic system makes them possible. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c2baafbbd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "List of linguistic example sentences" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (Noam Chomsky): example that is grammatically correct but based on semantic combinations that are contradictory and therefore would not normally occur. +Hold the news reader's nose squarely, waiter, or friendly milk will countermand my trousers. + +== Semantics and context == +Demonstrations of sentences where the semantic interpretation is bound to context or knowledge of the world. + +The large ball crashed right through the table because it was made of Styrofoam: ambiguous use of a pronoun: The word "it" refers to the table being made of Styrofoam; but "it" would immediately refer to the large ball if we replaced "Styrofoam" with "steel" without any other change in its syntactic parse. +The bee landed on the flower because it had nectar: The pronoun "it" refers to the "flower" but changes to the "bee" if we replace "had" with "wanted". +We bought the boys apples because they were so hungry: "they" refers to the boys, but if "hungry" is replaced with "cheap", with no grammatical change, it refers to the apples. +St Paul’s Cathedral is amusing, awful, and artificial: The adjectives are contronyms and their main, contemporary meanings conflict with minority meanings of "amazing, awe-inspiring, and artistic." + +=== Relevance conditionals === +Conditionals where the prejacent ("if" clause) is not strictly required for the consequent to be true. + +There are biscuits on the table if you want some (biscuit conditional). +If I may be honest, you're not looking good. + +== Non-English examples == + +=== Ojibwe === +Gdaa-naanaanaa, Aanaa, naa? meaning "We should fetch Ana, shouldn't we?". + +=== Latin === +John, Archbishop of Esztergom (Kingdom of Hungary) was pressed to make a statement on the assassination of Gertrude of Merania, and on the first hand the assassination would have been beneficial for the Church but on the other hand taking part in an assassination might have caused him to lose his position and possibly life; so he wrote in 1213: "Reginam occidere nolite timere bonum est si omnes consentiunt ego non contradico". The sentence can be read as "Reginam occidere nolite, timere bonum est, si omnes consentiunt, ego non. Contradico." ("don't kill the Queen, it is good to be afraid, even if all agree I do not. I object."), or the opposite meaning "Reginam occidere nolite timere, bonum est; si omnes consentiunt ego non contradico." ("Do not be afraid to kill the Queen, it is good, if all agree then I do not object."). It has been quoted by Boncompagno da Signa is his work Rhetorica novissima in 1235 and from there it has been part of the rhetorical education. +King Edward II of England was killed, reportedly after Adam of Orleton, one of his gaolers, received a message, probably from Mortimer, reading "Edwardum occidere nolite timere bonum est". This can be read either as "Edwardum occidere nolite; timere bonum est" ("Do not kill Edward; it is good to be afraid [to do so]") or as "Edwardum occidere nolite timere; bonum est" ("Do not be afraid to kill Edward; [to do so] is good"). This ambiguous sentence has been much discussed by various writers, including John Harington. +Ibis redibis nunquam per bella peribis. + +=== Mandarin Chinese === +Various sentences using the syllables mā, má, mǎ, mà, and ma are often used to illustrate the importance of tones to foreign learners. One example: Chinese: 妈妈骑马马慢妈妈骂马; pinyin: māma qí mǎ, mǎ màn, māma mà mǎ; lit. 'Mother is riding a horse, the horse is slow, mother scolds the horse'. +Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den: poem of 92 characters, all with the sound shi (in four different tones) when read in Modern Standard Mandarin + +=== Japanese === +Although at first glance the single character sentence 子子子子子子子子子子子子 does not seem to make sense, when this sentence is read using the right readings of the kanji 子 (in the example it only borrows the pronunciation but not the meaning of the logograms, like man'yōgana), it means "the young of cat, kitten, and the young of lion, cub". This would be "猫之子、子猫、獅子之子、子獅子" if it were to be written semantically, with the genitive construction being inferred in the original. It is told in the work Ujishūi Monogatari that the Japanese poet Ono no Takamura used this reading to escape death. +The phrase 裏庭には2羽庭には2羽鶏がいる means "In the backyard and in the yard, there are 2 chickens", but is pronounced うらにわにはにわにわにはにわにわとりがいる, or Uraniwa ni wa niwa niwa ni wa niwa niwatori ga iru. According to , this sentence can have up to 800 explanations. + +=== Czech === +Jedli na hoře bez holí, meaning either "they ate on a mountain without sticks" or "they ate while top naked, with a stick" or "they ate at the top, without any sticks"; depending on the phrasing or a correct placement or punctuation, at least 7 meanings can be obtained. By replacing "na hoře" by "nahoře", one obtains 5 more meanings. If separating words using spaces is also permitted, the total number of known possible meanings rises to 58. + +=== Korean === +In Gyeongsang dialect, the repetition of the syllable 가 ("ga") with the right intonation can form meaningful phrases. For example: +"가가 가가?" which means "Are they the one we talked about?" +"가가 가가가" which means "Since they took it away" +"가가 가가가?" which means "Are they the one with the surname Ga?" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b4042da0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of linguistic example sentences" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== German === +A famous example of lexical ambiguity is the following sentence: "Wenn hinter Fliegen Fliegen fliegen, fliegen Fliegen Fliegen hinterher.", meaning "When flies fly behind flies, then flies fly in pursuit of flies." It takes advantage of some German nouns and corresponding verbs being homonymous. While not noticeable in spoken language, in written language the difference shows: "Fliegen" ("flies"), being a noun, is written with a capital "F", whereas "fliegen" ("to fly"), being a verb, is not. The comma can be left out without changing the meaning. There are several variations of this sentence pattern, although they do not work as smoothly as the original. Dutch language shares this same example, with the noticeable difference of not capitalising the initials of nouns, making it "Als achter vliegen vliegen vliegen, vliegen vliegen vliegen achterna." + +=== Dutch === +Kees Torn expanded on the example given in the German section ("Als achter vliegen vliegen vliegen, vliegen vliegen vliegen achterna."), from which he created: "Als, in de plaats waar van de makkelijk te zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven, Zeven, zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven, zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven." which uses the fact that "zeven" has multiple roles: it is a number (seven), a verb (to sieve), a plural noun (sieves) and the name of a German town (Zeven). As such the translation is: "If, in the town where the easy to sieve sieves seven sieves sieve seven sieves, Zeven, seven sieves sieve seven sieves, seven sieves sieve seven sieves". + +=== Persian === +A famous example of lexical ambiguity in Persian is the following sentence: +بخشش لازم نیست اعدامش کنید +It can be read either as: + +بخشش! لازم نیست اعدامش کنید +which means "Forgiveness! No need to execute them" +Or as: + +بخشش لازم نیست! اعدامش کنید +which means "Forgiveness not needed! Execute them" + +=== Russian === +The same phrase as in Persian: "Казнить нельзя помиловать" can be interpreted as "Казнить нельзя, помиловать" or as "Казнить, нельзя помиловать", which means respectively "Executing is impossible/disallowed, [you should] pardon" and "Execute her/him, pardon is impossible/disallowed". +Косил косой-косой косой косой Косой с косой косой косой косой косой косой — "Very very drunk cockeyed hare named Kosoy with askew braid mowed with bent scythe on bevel foreland". + +=== Polish === +Wydrze wydrzę wydrze wydrze wydrze wydrzę which means "The young otter of the otter will steal the young otter from otter" +Dział dział dział which means "The artillery department was knitting" +Palmy palmy Palmy which means "Let's burn the palm trees in Palma" + +=== Scots === +Fit fit fits fit fit? which means "What shoe fits which foot?". Used as a humorous way of demonstrating the unique phonology of the Doric dialect of Scots, where what would be a /ʍ/ sound in other dialects, represented by wh, is instead expressed as /f/. + +=== Finnish === +The phrase kuusi palaa is frequently used as an example of homonymy in Finnish. It has up to nine meanings, since each word can be individually interpreted in three ways: kuusi can be "six", "spruce" or "your moon", while palaa can be "returns", "burns" or "pieces". + +=== Indonesian === +The sentence kuku-kuku kakiku kok kek kaku, kakak-kakakku? means "why do my toenails look a bit rigid, my sisters/brothers?". Note that kek in Indonesian is an informal form of seperti means "look like" or "kind of". +The sentence pukul pemukul pemukul yang memukul pemukul secara pukul-pukulan dan pukul pemukul dengan pemukul pukul dua agar pemukul terpukul karena dipukul dengan pemukul means "hit the hammer beater that hit the hammer 'riotly' and hit the beater with [a] hammer at 2 o'clock so the beater feels depressed because he was beaten by hammer". + +== See also == +Garden-path sentence, sentences that illustrate that humans process language one word at a time +Gradient well-formedness +Grammaticality +Longest words +One-syllable article, Chinese phonological ambiguity +Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den – Chinese one-syllable poem +Paraprosdokian, a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence or phrase is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe the first part + +== References == + +== External links == +"The Trouble with NLP". Speculative Grammarian. Cartoon Theories of Linguistics. 153 (4). 2008. ISSN 1938-0720. OCLC 227210202. Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Demonstrations of why these and similar examples are hard for computers to deal with when attempting natural language processing. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8d61abc5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,242 @@ +--- +title: "List of linguistics conferences" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:24.779701+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of recurring linguistics conferences. Included are also a list of organisations that hold recurring meetings under the same name. + + +== By geographical location == + + +=== International === +Association for Laboratory Phonology (LabPhon) +Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics (FASL) +International Conference on Sociolinguistics +International Congress of Linguists (ICL) +International Society for the Linguistics of English (ISLE) +Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS) + + +=== North America === +American Dialect Society (ADS) +Canadian Linguistic Association (CLA) +Chicago Linguistic Society (CLS) +Linguistic Society of America (LSA) +North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL) +West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL) +Western Conference on Linguistics +Workshop on Structure and Constituency in Languages of the Americas (WSCLA) + + +=== South America === +Associação Brasileira de Linguística (ABRALIN) + + +=== Europe === +Conference on Mediterranean and European Linguistic Anthropology (COMELA) +Days of Swiss Linguistics (DSL) +Generative Linguistics in the Old World (GLOW) +International Conference on Sociolinguistics ("ICS") +4th International ESP Conference, Nis, Serbia +Linguistic Intersections of Language and Gender Conference, (LILG) +Moscow Student Conference on Linguistics (MSCL) +Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguistica Europaea (SLE) + + +=== Asia === +Conference on Asian Linguistic Anthropology (CALA) +GLOW in Asia + + +=== Africa === +West African Linguistic Society (WALS) +African Assembly on Linguistic Anthropology (AFALA) + + +=== Australia === + + +== By subfield == + + +=== Phonetics === +Acoustical Society of America (ASA) +Association for Laboratory Phonology (LabPhon) +New Sounds +INTERSPEECH +International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS) + + +=== Phonology === +Annual Meeting on Phonology (AMP) +Association for Laboratory Phonology (LabPhon) +Manchester Phonology Meeting (MFM) + + +=== Morphology === +American International Morphology Meeting (AIMM) + + +=== Syntax === +Dependency Linguistics (Depling) + + +=== Semantics === +Sinn und Bedeutung +Semantics and Linguistic Theory (SALT) + + +=== Core theory (all of the above) === +North East Linguistics Society (NELS) +Generative Linguistics in the Old World (GLOW) +West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL) +Canadian Linguistic Association (CLA) +Chicago Linguistic Society (CLS) +Moscow Student Conference on Linguistics (MSCL) +Western Conference on Linguistics + + +=== Psycholinguistics === + + +=== Cognitive linguistics === + + +=== Documentary linguistics === + + +=== Sociolinguistics and variation === +International Gender and Language Association (IGALA) +International Conference on Sociolinguistics (ICS) +New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAV) + + +=== Second Language Acquisition === +European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing +Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition (GALA) +Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA) +Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition - North America (GALANA) +Boston University Conference on Language Development (BUCLD) +European Second Language Association (EuroSLA) +Annual Conference of the Japan Second Language Association (J-SLA) +Congress of the International Association for the Study of Child Language (IASCL) +Symposium on Second Language Writing +4th International ESP Conference, Nis, Serbia + + +=== Language Testing === +Language Testing Research Colloquium (LTRC) + + +=== Computational linguistics === +Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) +International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC) +International Conference on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics (CICLing) + + +=== Pragmatics === +International Pragmatic Conference (IPC) +International Conference of the American Pragmatics Association (AMPRA) + + +=== Onomastics === +Congress of the International Council of Onomastic Sciences +Mainzer Namentagung +American Name Society Annual Conference + + +=== Miscellaneous === + + +== By language family == + + +=== Indo-European === + + +==== Germanic ==== +Germanic Linguistics Annual Conference (GLAC) + + +==== Romance ==== +Hispanic Linguistic Symposium (HLS) +Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages (LSRL) + + +==== Slavic ==== +Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics (FASL) + + +==== Indo-Iranian ==== + + +=== Uralic/Finno-Ugric === +International Finno-Ugric Students’ Conference (IFUSCO) +International Congress for Finno-Ugric Studies (CIFU) + + +=== Languages of Asia === +Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS) + + +==== Sino-Tibetan ==== +International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (ICSTLL) +Himalayan Languages Symposium (HLS) +International Symposium on Chinese Languages and Linguistics (IsCLL) +North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL) +North East Indian Linguistics Society (NEILS) + + +==== Austronesian ==== +International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics (ICAL) +Austronesian Formal Linguistics Association (AFLA) +International Symposium on Malay/Indonesian Linguistics (ISMIL) +International Symposium on the Languages of Java (ISLOJ) +Conference on Oceanic Linguistics (COOL) + + +==== Austroasiatic ==== +International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics (ICAAL) + + +==== Papuan ==== +Workshop on the Languages of Papua (WLP) + + +==== Altaic ==== +Workshop on Altaic Formal Linguistics (WAFL) + + +==== Dravidian ==== + + +=== Languages of Africa === +World Congress of African Linguistics (WOCAL) + + +==== Afro-Asiatic ==== +North Atlantic Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics (NACAL) + + +=== Languages of the Americas === +Workshop on Structure and Constituency in Languages of the Americas (WSCLA) +Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas (SSILA) + + +=== Caribbean languages, including creoles === +Society for Caribbean Languages (SCL) 1 + + +=== Auxiliary languages === + + +=== Areal/non-genetic === + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth-0.md index b51cfe40b..636921f66 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:04.569474+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:39.595293+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md index ebee18053..26c42750f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:38.603457+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:27.603210+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d1cabdb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +--- +title: "List of mineral symbols" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:29.367861+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mineral symbols (text abbreviations) are used to abbreviate mineral groups, subgroups, and species, just as lettered symbols are used for the chemical elements. +The first set of commonly used mineral symbols was published in 1983 and covered the common rock-forming minerals using 192 two- or three-lettered symbols. These types of symbols are referred to as Kretz symbols. More extensive lists were subsequently made available in the form of publications or posted on journal webpages. +A comprehensive list of more than 5,700 IMA-CNMNC approved symbols (referred to as IMA symbols) compiled by L.N. Warr was published in volume 85 (issue 3) of the Mineralogical Magazine (2021). These symbols are listed alphabetically in the tables below. The approved listings are compatible with the system used to symbolize the elements, 30 of which occur as minerals. +Mineral symbols are most commonly represented by three-lettered text symbols, although one-, two- and four-lettered symbols also exist. Four methods of nomenclature are used: + +The initial letters of a name, for example: cyanotrichite: Cya and mitscherlichite: Mits. +A combination considered characteristic of the mineral name, for example: ewingite: Ewg and neighborite: Nbo. +A selection of letters expressing components of the name, for example: adranosite = Arn and hellandite: Hld. +Lettered abbreviations when prefixes are present, for example: chlorocalcite = Ccal and nickelzippeite: Nizip. +New minerals approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA-CNMNC) are allocated unique symbols consistent with the main listing. New symbols are announced in the newsletters of the IMA-CNMNC. An updated "mineral symbol picker" list is also available for checking on the availability of symbols prior to submission for approval. + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +== Z == + + +== Additional symbols == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab5339458 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,249 @@ +--- +title: "List of mineralogists" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:30.651601+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of notable mineralogists and other people who made notable contributions to mineralogy. Included are winners of major mineralogy awards such as the Dana Medal and the Roebling Medal. Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. + +== A == +Joan Abella (born 1968) +Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (1806–1886) +Johan Afzelius (1753–1837) +Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) +Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) – author of De re metallica +Arthur Aikin (1773–1854) +Thomas Allan (1777–1833) +François Alluaud (1778–1866) +Gregori Aminoff (1883–1947) +Charles Anderson (1876–1944) +José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva (1763–1838) +Matthias Joseph Anker (1771–1843) + +== B == + +William Babington (1756–1833) +Giuseppe Gabriel Balsamo-Crivelli (1800–1874) +Andrew Ketcham Barnett (1852–1914) +Hilary Bauerman (1835–1909) +Lewis Caleb Beck (1798–1853) +Friedrich Johann Karl Becke (1855–1931) +Nikolay Belov (1891–1982) +Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) – Related forms of calcite to cleavage +Martine Bertereau (1600–1642) +Émile Bertrand (1844–1909) +Marcel Alexandre Bertrand (1847–1907) +Friedrich Martin Berwerth (1850–1918) +Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) +François Sulpice Beudant (1787–1850) +Johannes Martin Bijvoet (1892–1980) +Luca Bindi (born 1971) +Maynard Bixby (1853–1935) +Harald Bjørlykke (1901–1968) +William Phipps Blake (1826–1910) +Johann Reinhard Blum (1802–1883) +Hendrik Enno Boeke (1881–1918) +Anselmus de Boodt (1550–1632) +Ignaz von Born (1742–1791) +Jacques Louis, Comte de Bournon (1751–1825) +Norman L. Bowen (1887–1956) – known for Bowen's reaction series +Stanley Bowie (1917–2008) +William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971) – known for Bragg's law of diffraction and Atomic Structures of Minerals +Georg Brandt (1694–1768) +Auguste Bravais (1811–1863) +August Breithaupt (1791–1873) +Vesselina Breskovska (1928–1997) +Aristides Brezina (1848–1909) +A. J. M. Brochant de Villiers (1772–1840) +Waldemar Christofer Brøgger (1851–1940) +Alexandre Brongniart (1770–1847) +Henry James Brooke (1771–1857) +Archibald Bruce (1777–1818) +Franz Ernst Brückmann (1697–1753) +Morten Thrane Brünnich (1737–1827) +George Jarvis Brush (1831–1912) +Arthur Francis Buddington (1890–1980) +Martin Julian Buerger (1903–1986) +Richard Büttner (1858–1927) + +== C == +Louis J. Cabri (born 1934) +Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869) +Joseph Campbell (1856–1933) +Franz Ludwig von Cancrin (1738–1812) +Ian S. E. Carmichael (1930–2011) +George Washington Carpenter (1802–1860) +Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois (1820–1886) +Maurice Chaper (1834–1896) +Edward Daniel Clarke (1769–1822) +John George Children (1777–1852) +Charles L. Christ (1916–1980) +Hartvig Caspar Christie (1826–1873) +Jean de Chastelet (1578–1645) +Parker Cleaveland (1780–1858) +Enrico Clerici (1862–1938) +Emil Cohen (1842–1905) +Joseph Henry Collins (1841–1916) +Arthur Connell (1794–1863) +Douglas Saxon "Doug" Coombs (1924–2016) +Pierre Louis Antoine Cordier (1777–1861) +Hubert Curien (1924–2005) + +== D == + +Antonio D'Achiardi (1839–1902) +Tellef Dahll (1825–1893) +Alexis Damour (1808–1902) +Edward Salisbury Dana (1849–1935) +James Dwight Dana (1813–1895) +James Freeman Dana (1793–1827) +Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton (1716–1800) +William Alexander Deer (1910–2009) +Jean-Claude Delamétherie (1743–1817) +Achille Ernest Oscar Joseph Delesse (1817–1881) +Alfred Des Cloizeaux (1817–1897) +Ignacy Domeyko (1802–1889) +Armand Petit-Dufrénoy (1792–1857) + +== E == +Harry von Eckermann (1886–1969) +Thomas Egleston (1832–1897) +Wilhelm Eitel (1891–1979) +Wolf von Engelhardt (1910–2008) +Otto Erdmannsdörffer (1876–1955) +Gundolf Ernst (1930–2002) +W. Gary Ernst (born 1931) +Berend George Escher (1885–1967) +Jens Esmark (1763–1839) +Morten Thrane Esmark (1801–1882) +Hans P. Eugster (1925–1987) +Rodney C. Ewing (born 1946) + +== F == + +Evgraf Fedorov (1853–1919) +Walter Frederick Ferrier (1865–1950) +Aleksandr Evgen’evich Fersman (1883–1945) +João da Silva Feijó (1760–1824) +Leopold Heinrich Fischer (1817–1886) +John Flett (1869–1947) +Walter Flight (1841–1885) +Gustaf Flink (1848–1931) +David Forbes (1828–1876) +Johan Georg Forchhammer (1794–1865) +Adolarius Jacob Forster (1739–1806) +Westgarth Forster (1772–1835) +William F. Foshag (1894–1956) +Clement le Neve Foster (1841–1904) +Samuel Fowler (1779–1844) +Robert Were Fox the Younger (1789–1877) +Friedrich August Frenzel (1842–1902) +Charles Friedel (1832–1899) +Georges Friedel (1865–1933) +Günther Friedrich (1929–2014) +Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs (1774–1856) +William Fyfe (1927–2013) + +== G == + +Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) +Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–1818) – developed blowpipe technique for identifying minerals +Robert Garrels (1916–1988) +Kurt von Gehlen (1927–1995) +Johann Carl Gehler (1732–1796) +Eugen Geinitz (1854–1925) +Hanns Bruno Geinitz (1814–1900) +Frederick Augustus Genth (1820–1893) +Ernst Friedrich Germar (1786–1853) +George Gibbs (1777–1834) +Heinrich Girard (1814–1878) +Ernst Friedrich Glocker (1793–1858) +Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) +Georg August Goldfuss (1782–1848) +Victor Mordechai Goldschmidt (1853–1933) – crystal chemistry and geochemistry +Edward Goldsmith (mineralogist) (late 19th century) +Julian Royce Goldsmith (1918–1999) +Claude-Henri Gorceix (1842–1919) +Wilhelm Joseph Grailich (1829–1859) +William Gregor (1761–1817) +James Gregory (1832–1899) +Ralph Early Grim (1902–1989) +Paul Heinrich Ritter von Groth (1843–1927) – established relations between crystal form and structure +Jean-Étienne Guettard (1715–1786) + +== H == + +Paula Hahn-Weinheimer (1917–2002) +Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger (1795–1871) +Axel Hamberg (1863–1933) +Peggy-Kay Hamilton (1922–1959) +Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782–1859) +Paul Hautefeuille (1836–1902) +René Just Haüy (1743–1822) – discovered the law of rational indices +Frank C. Hawthorne (born 1946) +Robert Hazen (born 1948) +Matthew Forster Heddle (1828–1897) +Johann F. C. Hessel (1796–1872) +John Henry Heuland (1778–1856) +Carl Hintze (1851–1916) +Thorstein Hiortdahl (1839–1925) +Marjorie Hooker (1908–1976) +Warren D. Huff +Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) +Arthur Hutchinson (1866–1937) + +== J == +Robert Jameson (1774–1854) +M. Qasim Jan (born 1944) +William W. Jefferis (1820–1906) + +== K == + +Alexander Petrovich Karpinsky (1846–1936) +Dietrich Ludwig Gustav Karsten (1768–1810) +Karl Johann Bernhard Karsten (1782–1853) +Friedrich Katzer (1861–1925) +Gustav Adolph Kenngott (1818–1897) +Friedrich Klockmann (1858–1937) +Adolf Knop (1828–1893) +Adolph Knopf (1882–1966) +Wolfgang Franz von Kobell (1803–1882) +Rudolf Koechlin (1862–1939) +Nikolay Koksharov (1818–1893) +Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777–1858) +Ivan Kostov Nikolov (1913–2004) +Karl von Kraatz-Koschlau (1867–1900) +Adam August Krantz (1808–1872) +Edward Henry Kraus (1875–1973) +József Sándor Krenner (1839–1920) +Leonid Kulik (1883–1942) +George Frederick Kunz (1856–1932) +Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (1860–1941) +Johann Gottlob von Kurr (1798–1870) + +== L == +Antoine Lacroix (1863–1948) +Arnold von Lasaulx (1839–1886) +André Laugier (1770–1832) +Gillet de Laumont (1747–1834) +Fritz Laves (1906–1978) +Johann Gottlieb Lehmann (1719–1767) +Oskar Lenz (1848–1925) +Gustav von Leonhard (1816–1878) +Karl Cäsar von Leonhard (1779–1862) +William Garrow Lettsom (1805–1887) +Armand Lévy (1795–1841) +William Lewis (1847–1926) +Li Shizhen (1518–1593) +Henry Carvill Lewis (1853–1888) +Theodor Liebisch (1852–1922) +Gottlob Linck (1858–1947) +Carl von Linné (1707–1778) +Henri Longchambon (1896–1969) +Karl August Lossen (1841–1893) + +== M == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f9659e4d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,208 @@ +--- +title: "List of mineralogists" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:30.651601+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Felix Karl Ludwig Machatschki (1895–1970) +George Mackenzie (1780–1848) +Ernest-François Mallard (1833–1894) +Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007) +Ho-Kwang Mao (born 1941) +Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009) +Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) +Charles-Victor Mauguin (1878–1958) +John Mawe (1764–1829) +Sarah Mawe (1767–1846) +Marshall McDonald (1835–1895) +Helen Megaw (1907–2002) – first woman to receive the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America +Giuseppe Giovanni Antonio Meneghini (1811–1889) +Luiz Alberto Dias Menezes (1950–2014) +Ludwig Meyn (1820–1878) +Auguste Michel-Lévy (1844–1911) +Henry Alexander Miers (1858–1942) +William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880) +Stanley Robert Mitchell (1881–1963) +Eilhard Mitscherlich (1794–1863) +Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839) +Jean-André Mongez (1750–1788) +Otto Mügge (1858–1932) + +== N == + +Alexandra Navrotsky (born 1943) +Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895) +Ernest Henry Nickel (1925–2009) +James Nicol (1810–1879) +Paul Niggli (1888–1953) +William Niven (1850–1937) +Johann Jakob Nöggerath (1788–1877) +Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901) +Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1792–1866) +George Lorenzo Noyes (1863–1945) + +== O == +Konrad Oebbeke (1853–1932) + +== P == +Adolf Pabst (1899–1990) +Charles Palache (1869–1954) +Pierre Bernard Palassou (1745–1830) +Eugène Louis Melchior Patrin (1742–1815) +Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994) +Lev Perovski (1792–1856) +Carlo Perrier (1886–1948) +Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy (1792–1857) +William Phillips (1775–1829) +William Pinch (1940–2017) +Félix Pisani (1831–1920) +Pliny (23–79) +Erika Pohl-Ströher (1919–2016) +Petru Poni (1841–1925) +Alexander Postels (1801–1871) +Charles T. Prewitt (1933–2022) +George Thurland Prior (1862–1936) + +== R == + +Paul Ramdohr (1890–1985) +Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg (1813–1899) +Philip Rashleigh (1729–1811) +Gerhard vom Rath (1830–1888) +Karl Georg von Raumer (1783–1865) +Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein (1740–1825/1826) +Adolf Remelé (1839–1915) +Alphonse Francois Renard (1842–1903) +Anders Jahan Retzius (1742–1821) +Franz Ambrosius Reuss (1761–1830) +Friedrich Rinne (1863–1933) +Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle (1736–1790) +Alexander Rose (1781–1860) +Gustav Rose (1798–1873) +Harry Rosenbusch (1836–1914) +Karl Rössler (1788–1863) +George R. Rossman (born 1944) +Justus Ludwig Adolf Roth (1818–1892) +François Michel de Rozière (1775–1842) +Frank Rutley (1842–1904) + +== S == + +Alexander Sadebeck (1843–1879) +Naima Sahlbom (1871–1957) +Waldemar Theodore Schaller (1882–1967) +Adolf Schenck (1857–1936) +Ernst Erhard Schmid (1815–1885) +Hans Schneiderhöhn (1887–1962) +Frank Charles Schrader (1860–1944) +Albrecht Schrauf (1837–1897) +Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers (1775–1852) +Alexander von Schrenk (1816–1876) +Werner Schreyer (1930–2006) +John Scouler (1804–1871) +Arthur Edmund Seaman (1858–1937) +Friedrich Seifert (born 1941) +Quintino Sella (1827–1884) +Henri Hureau de Sénarmont (1808–1862) +Arthur Moritz Schoenflies (1853–1928) +Werner Schreyer (1930–2006) +Anton Schrötter von Kristelli (1802–1875) +Carl Schulz (1851–1944) +Vasily Severgin (1765–1826) +Sjur Aasmundsen Sexe (1808–1888) +Vladimir Shcherbina (1907–1978) +Shen Kuo (1031–1095) +Li Shizhen (1518–1593) +Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864) +Vittorio Simonelli (1860–1929) +Edward Sydney Simpson (1875–1939) +John Sinkankas (1915–2002) +Hjalmar Sjögren (1856–1922) +Herbert Smith (1872–1953) +James Smithson (c. 1765 – 1829) +Vladimir Stepanovich Sobolev (1908–1982) +Su Song (1020–1101) +James Sowerby (1757–1822) +James De Carle Sowerby (1787–1871) +Leonard James Spencer (1870–1959) +Harold Robert Steacy (1923–2012) +Alfred Wilhelm Stelzner (1840–1895) +Nicolas Steno (1638–1686) +Clifford H. Stockwell (1897–1987) +Karl Hugo Strunz (1910–2006) +Lars Fredrik Svanberg (1805–1878) +George Shirley Switzer (1915–2008) + +== T == +James Tennant (1808–1881) +James B. Thompson Jr. (1921–2011) +Thomas Thomson (1773–1852) +Cecil Edgar Tilley (1894–1973) +Haldor Topsøe (1842–1935) +Franz Toula (1845–1920) +Hermann Traube (1860–1913) +Gerard Troost (1776–1850) +Gustav Tschermak (1836–1927) +Michael Tuomey (1805–1857) +Francis John Turner (1904–1985) + +== U == +Johann Christoph Ullmann (1771–1821) + +== V == +Charles-Louis-Joseph-Xavier de la Vallée-Poussin (1827–1903) +William Sansom Vaux (1811–1882) +August Ferdinand von Veltheim (1741–1801) +Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) +Johann Karl Wilhelm Voigt (1752–1821) +Otto Volger (1822–1897) + +== W == + +Friedrich Walchner (1799–1865) +John Walker (1730–1803) +Johan Gottschalk Wallerius (1709–1785) +Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen (1809–1876) +Bertram Eugene Warren (1902–1991) +Alice Mary Dowse Weeks (1909–1988) +Ernst Weinschenk (1865–1921) +Christian Ernst Weiss (1833–1890) +Christian Samuel Weiss (1780–1856) +Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750–1817) +Frank T. M. White (1909–1971) +Carl Ernst Arthur Wichmann (1851–1927) +William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828) +Bernard John Wood (born 19??) +Peter Woulfe (1727–1803) +Frederick Eugene Wright (1877–1953) +Franz Xavier Freiherr von Wulfen (1728–1805) +Ernst Anton Wülfing (1860–1930) +Peter John Wyllie (born 1930) + +== Y == +Hatten Schuyler Yoder, Jr. (1921–2003) +Philip James Yorke (1799–1874) + +== Z == +Ferruccio Zambonini (1880–1932) +Josef Zemann (1923–2022) +E-An Zen (1928–2014) +Gustav Anton Zeuner (1828–1907) +Franz Xaver Zippe (1791–1863) +Ferdinand Zirkel (1838–1912) +Sigmund Zois (1747–1819) + +== See also == +Dana Medal +List of geologists +List of geophysicists +List of minerals named after people +Roebling Medal + +== References == + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d0296d5fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,285 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:37.075024+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of minerals which have Wikipedia articles. +Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety. +Mineral variety names are listed after the valid minerals for each letter. +For a more complete listing of all mineral names, see List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association. + + +== A == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Adamantine spar (variety of corundum) +Agate (variety of chalcedony and quartz) +Alabaster (variety of gypsum) +Alexandrite (variety of chrysoberyl) +Allingite (synonym of amber) +Alum +Amazonite (variety of microcline) +Amethyst (purple variety of quartz) +Ametrine (variety of quartz) +Ammolite (organic; also a gemstone) +Amosite (asbestiform grunerite) +Antozonite (variety of fluorite) +Anyolite (metamorphic rock - zoisite, ruby, and hornblende) +Aquamarine (light blue variety of beryl) +Argentite (high temperature form of acanthite) +Asbestos (fibrous serpentine- or amphibole minerals) +Auerlite (variety of thorite) +Avalite (chromian variety of illite) +Aventurine (variety of quartz) + + +== B == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Barbertonite (polytype of stichtite) +Bauxite (aluminium ore) +Beckerite (natural resin) +Bentonite (mixture of montmorillonite and other clays) +Bixbite (red gem variety of beryl) +Bowenite (variety of antigorite) +Brammallite (variety of illite) +Brokenhillite (not approved by IMA) +Buergerite (renamed to fluor-buergerite) +Bursaite (not approved by IMA) +Bytownite (variety of anorthite) + + +== C == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Campylite (variety of mimetite) +Carbonado (variety of diamond) +Carnelian (variety of quartz) +Cementite (synthetic cohenite) +Ceylonite (variety of spinel) +Chalcedony (cryptocrystalline variety of quartz and moganite) +Chiastolite (variety of andalusite) +Chlorastrolite (variety of pumpellyite-(Mg)) +Chrysoprase (green nickel bearing chalcedony) +Chrysotile (group name - asbestiform serpentine) +Citrine (yellow variety of quartz) +Cleveite (variety of uraninite) +Clinochrysotile (polytype of chrysotile) +Coltan (short for minerals of the columbite group) +Cotterite (variety of quartz) +Crocidolite (asbestiform riebeckite) +Cymophane (variety of chrysoberyl) + + +== D == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Delessite (magnesian chamosite) +Diallage (a junction between augite and diopside) + + +== E == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Elsmoreite (pure hydrokenoelsmoreite) +Emerald (green gem variety of beryl) + + +== F == + + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Fassaite (variety of augite) +Ferrocolumbite (synonym of columbite-(Fe)) +Ferrotantalite (synonym of tantalite-(Fe)) +Fluorspar (synonym of fluorite) +Francolite (variety of fluorapatite) + + +== G == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Garnierite (a nickel ore) +Goshenite (colorless variety of beryl) + + +== H == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Hatchettite (a paraffin wax) +Heliodor (greenish-yellow variety of beryl) +Heliotrope (variety of chalcedony) +Hessonite (variety of grossular) +Hiddenite (variety of spodumene) +Hyalite (variety of opal) +Hyalophane (synonym of jaloallofane) +Hypersthene (synonym of enstatite or ferrosilite, or mid-way member of the enstatite–ferrosilite series) (not approved by IMA) + + +== I == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Idocrase (synonym of vesuvianite) +Iolite (a gem-quality variety of cordierite) + + +== J == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Jade (tough, green mineral either jadeite or nephrite amphibole) +Jasper (variety of quartz) +Jeffersonite (variety of augite) + + +== K == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Keilhauite (variety of titanite) +Kerolite (variety of talc) +Krantzite (natural resin) +Kunzite (variety of spodumene) + + +== L == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Lapis lazuli is a metamorphic rock, used as a semi-precious stone +Larimar (blue variety of pectolite) +Lodestone (a synonym of magnetite) +Lublinite (variety of calcite) + + +== M == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Magnesia +Magnesiocummingtonite (magnesium-rich variety of cummingtonite) +Malacolite (synonym of diopside) +Manganocolumbite (synonym of columbite-(Mn)) +Manganotantalite (synonym of tantalite-(Mn)) +Mariposite (variety of phengite/muscovite) +Meerschaum (variety of sepiolite) +Melanite (variety of andradite) +Menilite (variety of opal) +Milky quartz (a cloudy white quartz) +Morganite (a pink beryl) + + +== N == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Nephrite (variety of tremolite/actinolite) +Niobite (synonym of columbite) +Niobite-tantalite (synonym of columbite-tantalite) + + +== O == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Oligoclase (a mixture of albite and anorthite) +Onyx (a monochromatic banded variety of chalcedony) +Opal (a mineraloid. Colored variety used as a gemstone) +Opalite +Orthochrysotile (a polytype of chrysotile) + + +== P == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Parachrysotile (a polytype of chrysotile) +Pelagosite (variety of aragonite) +Pericline (variety of albite) +Peridot (gem-quality olivine) +Perlite (volcanic glass) +Phengite (variety of muscovite) +Pimelite +Pitchblende (a massive impure form of uraninite) +Plessite (mixture of kamacite and taenite) +Potassium alum or potash alum (as a mineral, is called alum-(K)) + + +== Q == + + +== R == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Rashleighite (variety of turquoise) +Rhodolite (variety of pyrope) +Rock crystal (quartz) +Rose quartz (pink variety of quartz) +Ruby (red gem corundum) + + +== S == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Sapphire (gem corundum of any color except red, especially blue varieties) +Sard (a variety of chalcedony/quartz) +Satinspar (a variety of gypsum) +Selenite (a variety of gypsum) +Simetite (a variety of amber) +Smoky quartz (a brown or black variety of quartz) +Soda niter (synonym of nitratine) +Spectrolite (a variety of labradorite) +Spessartite (synonym of spessartine) +Sphene (synonym of titanite) +Stantienite (a variety of amber) +Sunstone (a variety of either oligoclase or orthoclase) + + +== T == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Tanzanite (variety of zoisite) +Thulite (variety of zoisite) +Thuringite (variety of chamosite) +Tsavorite (gem variety of grossularite garnet) +Tiger's eye (chatoyant variety of quartz) + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Yttrocerite (variety of fluorite) +Yttrocolumbite (variety of columbite) + + +== Z == + +Varieties that are not valid species: +Zajacite-(Ce) (name changed to gagarinite-(Ce)) +Zhonghuacerite-(Ce) (considered to be kukharenkoite-(Ce) or huanghoite-(Ce)) +Zinalsite (synonym of fraipontite) + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Mineralatlas.eu - The mineralogical and geological database +Mindat.org – The Mineral Database +Gemdat.org – The Gemstone Database +Gemsociety.org - Gemstone Toxicity Table \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_by_optical_properties-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_by_optical_properties-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fa9eec36a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_by_optical_properties-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals by optical properties" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_by_optical_properties" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:34.547407+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== See also == +List of minerals + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a0aca637a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals named after people" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of minerals named after people. The chemical composition of the mineral follows the name. + +== A == +Abelsonite: C31H32N4Ni – American physicist Philip Hauge Abelson (1913–2004) +Abswurmbachite: Cu2+Mn3+6O8SiO4 – German mineralogist Irmgard Abs-Wurmbach (1938–2020) +Adamite: Zn2AsO4OH – French mineralogist Gilbert Joseph Adam (1795–1881) +Agrellite: NaCa2Si4O10F – English optical mineralogist Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) +Agricolaite: K4(UO2)(CO3)3 – German scholar Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) +Aheylite: Fe2+Al6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O – American geologist Allen V. Heyl (1918–2008) +Albrechtschraufite: Ca4Mg(UO2)2(CO3)6F2·17H2O – Albrecht Schrauf (1837–1897), professor of mineralogy, University of Vienna +Alexandrite: Variety of chrysoberyl (BeAl2O4): – Russian monarch, Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881) +Alforsite: Ba5Cl(PO4)3 – American geologist John T. Alfors (1930–2005) +Allabogdanite: (Fe,Ni)2P – Alla Bogdanova (1947–2004), Geological Institute, Kola Science Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences +Allanite series: sorosilicate – Scottish mineralogist, Thomas Allan (1777–1833) +Alloriite: Na5K1.5(Al6Si6O24)(SO4)(OH)0.5·H2O – Italian mineralogist Roberto Allori (born 1933) +Almeidaite: crichtonite group (metal titanates); Brazilian geologist Fernando Flávio Marques de Almeida (1916–2013) +Anandite: (Ba,K)(Fe2+,Mg)3(Si,Al,Fe)4O10(S,OH)2 – Ceylonese metaphysician, historian and philosopher Ananda Coomaraswamy (1877–1947), first director of the Mineral Survey of Ceylon +Andersonite: Na2Ca(UO2)(CO3)3·6H2O – Charles Alfred Anderson (1902–1990), United States Geological Survey +Andradite: Ca3Fe2Si3O12 – Brazilian statesman, naturalist, professor and poet José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva (1763–1838) +Andychristyite: PbCuTeO5(H2O) – Welsh-Australian mineralogist Andrew G. Christy (1963–) +Ankerite: CaFe2+(CO3)2 – Austrian mineralogist Matthias Joseph Anker (1771–1843) +Anthonyite: Cu(OH)2·3H2O – John Williams Anthony (1920–1992), professor of mineralogy, University of Arizona +Argandite: Mn7(VO4)2(OH)8 – Swiss geologist Émile Argand (1879–1940) +Artinite: Mg2(CO3)(OH)2·3H2O – Italian mineralogist, Ettore Artini (1866–1928) +Arfvedsonite: Na3(Fe,Mg)4FeSi8O22(OH)2 – Swedish chemist Johan August Arfwedson (1792–1841) +Armalcolite: (Mg,Fe2+)Ti2O5 – American astronauts ARM Neil Armstrong, AL Buzz Aldrin and COL Michael Collins +Armbrusterite: K5Na3Mn3+Mn2+14[Si9O22]4(OH)10·4H2O – Swiss crystallographer Thomas Armbruster (born 1950), University of Bern +Armstrongite: CaZr[Si6O15]·3H2O – American astronaut Neil Armstrong (1930–2012) +Arthurite: CuFe23+[(OH,O)|(AsO4,PO4,SO4)]2·4H2O – British mineralogists Arthur Edward Ian Montagu Russell and Arthur W. G. Kingsbury +Atencioite: Ca2Fe2+3Mg2Be4(PO4)6(OH)4·6H2O – Daniel Atencio, professor of mineralogy, Geoscience Institute, University of São Paulo +Avicennite: Tl2O3 – Persian scholar and physician Avicenna (980–1037) + +== B == +Backite (IMA2013-113) +Bandylite (6.AC.35) +Baumhauerite: Pb3As4S9 – German mineralogist Heinrich Adolph Baumhauer (1848–1926) +Bazzite: Be3(Sc,Fe)2Si6O18 – Italian engineer Alessandro E. Bazzi +Benstonite: Ba6Ca6Mg(CO3)13 – Orlando J. Benston (1901–1966), an ore-dressing metallurgist with the University of Illinois +Bentorite: Ca6(Cr,Al)2(SO4)3(OH)12·26H2 – Israeli geologist Yaakov Ben-Tor (1910–2002) +Berthierite: FeSb2S4 – French geologist and mining engineer Pierre Berthier (1782–1861) +Bertrandite: Be4Si2O7(OH)2 – French mineralogist Emile Bertrand (1844–1909) +Berzelianite: Cu2Se – Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848) +Berzeliite: NaCa2Mg2(AsO4)3 and manganberzeliite – Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) +Bettertonite: [Al6(AsO4)3(OH)9(H2O)5]・11H2O – John Betterton (b. 1959, London), museum geologist and mineralogist at Haslemere Educational Museum in Surrey, England +Beudantite: PbFe3+3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6 – François Sulpice Beudant (1787–1850) French mineralogist, University of Paris, Paris +Bezsmertnovite: Au4Cu(Te,Pb) – Russian mineralogists Vladimir (1912–2002) and Marianna Bezsmertnaya (1915–1991). +Bideauxite (3.DB.25) +Bilibinskite: Au2Cu2PbTe2+ – Soviet geologist Yuri A. Bilibin (1901–1952) +Biringuccite: Na2B5O8(OH) · 2 H2O – Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480–1538/9), Italian alchemist, metallurgist +Bixbite: Be3(AlMn)2Si6O18 – American mineralogist Maynard Bixby; deprecated to red beryl to avoid confusion with bixbyite +Bixbyite: (Fe,Mn)2O3 – American mineralogist Maynard Bixby +Blödite: Na2Mg(SO4)2 · 4 H2O – German chemist Carl August Blöde (1773–1820) +Blossite: αCu2V2O7 – mineralogist Donald F. Bloss, Virginia Polytechnic Institute +Bobdownsite (discredited) +Bobfergusonite: Na2Mn2+5Fe3+Al(PO4)6 – Robert Bury Ferguson, University of Manitoba +Boehmite: γ-AlO(OH) – Bohemian-German chemist Johann Böhm (1895–1952) +Bornite: Cu5FeS4 – Austrian mineralogist Ignaz von Born (1742–1791) +Bonazziite: As4S4 – Paola Bonazzi, Italian professor of mineralogy and crystallography at the University of Florence (1960–2024) +Bournonite: PbCuSbS3 – French crystallographer and mineralogist Jacques Louis de Bournon (1751–1825) +Braggite: PtS – the first mineral characterized by X-ray analysis. William Henry Bragg (1862–1942) and his son, William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971) +Brandtite: Ca2Mn2+(AsO4)2 · 2 H2O – Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) +And parabrandtite +Breithauptite: NiSb – Saxon mineralogist Johann Friedrich August Breithaupt (1791–1873) +Brewsterite series (9.GE.20) +Briartite: Cu2(Zn,Fe)GeS4 – Belgian geologist Gaston Briart +Brookite: TiO2 – English mineralogist Henry James Brooke (1771–1857) +Brownleeite MnSi – American astrobiologist Donald E. Brownlee (1943–), professor of astronomy at University of Washington at Seattle, leading head of the Stardust mission +Brucite: Mg(OH)2 – American mineralogist Archibald Bruce (1777–1818) +Buddingtonite: NH4AlSi3O8 – American Petrologist Arthur Francis Buddington (1890–1980) +Burnsite: KCdCu2+7(SeO3)2O2Cl9 – Peter Carman Burns (born 1966), University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana Thompson ISI top ten most highly cited geoscientists (1996–2007) +Burtite: CaSn(OH)6 – American mining geologist Donald McLain Burt (born 1943) +Buseckite: (Fe,Zn,Mn)S – American geologist Peter R. Buseck, Arizona State University \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e4f085da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals named after people" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +Cabriite: Pd2SnCu – Canadian mineralogist Louis J. Cabri (born 1934) +Cámaraite: sorosilicate – Fernando Cámara (born 1967), mineralogist of Melilla, Spain +Cancrinite: Na6Ca2[(CO3)2 – Georg von Cancrin (1774–1845) +Canfieldite: Ag8SnS6 – American mining engineer Frederick Alexander Canfield (1849–1926) +Cannonite: Bi2(OH)2SO4 – American mineralogist and electron microprobe analyst Benjamin Bartlett (Bart) Cannon +Carlfriesite: CaTe4+2Te6+O8 – American researcher at the Institute of Geology of the National university of Mexico Carl Fries, Jr (1910–1965). +Carlhintzeite: Ca2AlF7 · H2O – German mineralogist Carl Hintze (1851–1916), University of Breslau +Carlosruizite: K6(Na,K)4Na6Mg10(SeO4)12(IO3)12 · 12 H2O – Chilean geologist Carlos Ruiz Fuller (1916–1997), founder of the Chilean Geological Survey +Carnallite: KMgCl3 · 6 H2O – Prussian mining engineer, Rudolf von Carnall (1804–1874) +Carnotite: K2(UO2)2(VO4)2 – French mining engineer and chemist Marie Adolphe Carnot (1839–1920) +Cassidyite: Ca2Ni0.75Mg0.25(PO4)2 · 2 H2O – American geologist William A. Cassidy +Castaingite (discredited 1967: a mixture of cuprian molybdenite and gerhardtite) +Caswellsilverite: NaCrS2 – American geologist, entrepreneur, and oilman Caswell Silver (1916–1988) +Cattiite: Mg3(PO4)2 · 22H2O – Michele Catti (b. 1945), Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy +Celsian: BaAl2Si2O8 – Swedish astronomer and naturalist Anders Celsius (1701–1744) +And paracelsian +Cernyite: Cu2CdSnS4 – Canadian mineralogist Petr Cerny +Cesbronite: Cu6(TeO3)2(OH)6 · 2 H2O – French mineralogist Fabian Cesbron (1938–) +Chrisstanleyite: Ag2Pd3Se4 – British mineralogist Christopher John Stanley +Clarkeite: Na[(UO2)O(OH)](H2O)0–1 – American mineral chemist and former chief chemist of the United States Geological Survey Frank Wigglesworth Clarke (1847–1931) +Cleveite (uraninite var.): UO2 · UO3 · PO · ThO2 – Swedish chemist Per Teodor Cleve (1840–1905) +Clintonite: Ca(Mg,Al)3(Al3Si)O10(OH)2 – American statesman De Witt Clinton (1769–1828) +Coesite (form of SiO2): – American chemist Loring Coes, Jr. (1915–1978) +Coffinite: U(SiO4)1−x(OH)4x – American geologist Reuben Clare Coffin +Cohenite: (Fe,Ni,Co)3C – German mineralogist and petrographer Emil Cohen (1842–1905) +Colemanite: Ca2B6O11 · 5 H2O – mine owner William T. Coleman (1824–1893) +Collinsite: Ca2Mg(PO4)2 · 2 H2O – William Henry Collins (1878–1937), director of the Geological Survey of Canada +Columbite: Fe2+Nb2O6 – Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus (c. 1451–1506) +And manganocolumbite, ferrocolumbite, and Yttrocolumbite +Cooperite: (Pt,Pd,Ni)S – South African metallurgist Richard A. Cooper (1890–1972) +Cordierite: (Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18 to (Fe,Mg)2Al4Si5O18 – French geologist Louis Cordier (1777–1861) +Covellite: CuS – Italian mineralogist Niccolo Covelli (1790–1829) +Criddleite (2.LA.25) +Cronstedtite: (Fe2+,Fe3+)3(Si,Fe3+)2O5(OH)4 – Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1722–1765) +Crookesite: Cu7(Tl,Ag)Se4 – English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes (1832–1919) +Cuprosklodowskite: Cu(UO2)2(HSiO4)2·6(H2O) – Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist Marie Curie (1867–1934) + +== D == +Daliranite: PbHgAs2S6 – Farahnaz Daliran, University of Karlsruhe, Germany +Dalyite: K2ZrSi6O15 – Reginald Aldworth Daly (1871–1957), Harvard University +Danalite: Be3Fe2+4(SiO4)3S – American geologist, mineralogist and zoologist James Dwight Dana (1813–1895) +Danielsite: (Cu,Ag)14HgS8 – Geologist John L. Daniels (1931–), active in the geological survey of western Australia +Davinciite: Na12K3Ca6Fe2+3Zr3 – Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519 ) +Davyne (9.FB.05) +Dawsonite: NaAlCO3(OH)2 – Canadian geologist Sir John William Dawson (1820–1899) +Deanesmithite: Hg+2Hg2+3Cr6+O5S2 – Deane K. Smith (1930–2001), professor of geosciences, Penn State University +Deerite: Fe2+6Fe3+3(Si6O17)O3(OH)5 – William Alexander Deer (1910–2009), mineralogist-petrologist, Cambridge University, Cambridge +Delafossite: CuFeO2 – French mineralogist Gabriel Delafosse (1796–1878) +Dellaite: Ca6(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH)2 – geochemist, Della M. Roy (1926–2021) +Delrioite: SrCaV5+2O6(OH)2 · 3 H2O – Spanish–Mexican scientist and naturalist Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849) +And calciodelrioite +Demesmaekerite: Pb2Cu5(UO2)2(SeO3)6(OH)6·2H2O – Belgian geologist Gaston Demesmaeker (1911–1997) +Descloizite: PbZnVO4(OH) – Alfred Lewis Oliver Legrand Des Cloizeaux (1817–1897), professor of mineralogy, University of Paris, Paris +And arsendescloizite +Dessauite-(Y) (Sr,Pb)(Y,U)(Ti,Fe3+)20O38 – Italian mineralogist Gabor Dessau (1907–1983) +Devilline: CaCu4(SO4)2(OH)6·3H2O – French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville (1818–1881) +Dickite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4 – Scottish metallurgical chemist Allan Brugh Dick (1833–1926) +Djerfisherite: K6CuFe24S26Cl or K6Na(Fe,Cu)24S26Cl – American mineralogist Daniel Jerome Fisher (1896–1988), professor at the University of Chicago +Dollaseite-(Ce): CaCeMg2AlSi3O11F(OH) – American geologist Wayne A. Dollase (born 1938), geology professor at UCLA +Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2 – French naturalist and geologist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801) +Domeykite: Cu3As – Polish geologist, mineralogist and educator Ignacy Domeyko (1802–1889) +Donnayite: NaCaSr3Y(CO3)6 · 3 H2O – Canadian professors J. D. H. Donnay and G. Donnay +Dumortierite: Al6.5–7BO3(SiO4)3(O,OH)3 – French paleontologist Eugene Dumortier (1803–1873) +Davemaoite: Cubic CaSiO3– Mineral physicist Ho-kwang Mao + +== E == +Erikapohlite (IMA2010-090) – German collector of minerals Erika Pohl-Ströher (1919–2016) +Ernienickelite: NiMn3O7·3H2O – Canadian-Australian mineralogist Ernest (Ernie) H. Nickel (1925–2009) +Ernstburkeite: Mg(CH3SO3)2·12H2O – mineralogist Ernst A. J. Burke, former Head of the CNMNC (IMA) +Eskolaite: Cr2O3 – Finnish geologist Pentti Eelis Eskola (1883–1964) +Esperite: PbCa3Zn4(SiO4)4 – American petrologist Esper S. Larsen Jr. (1879–1961), Harvard University (Originally called calcium larsenite) +Evansite: Al3(PO4)(OH)6·6H2O – British nickel refiner, weapons manufacturer and geologist Brooke Evans (1797–1862) + +== F == +Farringtonite: Mg3(PO4)2 – American geologist Oliver C. Farrington (1864–1933) +Ferberite: FeWO4 – German amateur mineralogist Moritz Rudolph Ferber (1805–1875) +Ferrierite: (Na,K)2Mg(Si,Al)18O36(OH) · 9 H2O – Canadian geologist and mining engineer Walter Frederick Ferrier (1865–1950) +Ferri-obertiite: amphiboles – Italian mineralogist Roberta Oberti (born 1951) +And ferro-ferri-obertiite +Fergusonite: (Ce,La,Nd)NbO4 – British politician and mineral collector Robert Ferguson of Raith (1767–1840) +Ferraioloite (IMA2015-066) +Fleischerite: Pb3Ge(SO4)2(OH)6 · 3 H2O – American mineralogist and geochemist Michael Fleischer (1908–1998) +Fingerite: Cu11(VO4)6O2 – American mineralogist and crystallographer Larry W. Finger (born 1940) +Foordite: Sn2+Nb2O6 – American mineralogist Eugene Edward Foord (1946–1998) +Forsterite: Mg2SiO4 – German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster (1729–1798) +Franckeite: Pb5Sn3Sb2S14 – mining engineers Carl Francke and Ernest Francke +Frankhawthorneite: Cu2Te6+O4(OH)2 – Frank C. Hawthorne (born 1946), University of Manitoba, Winnipeg Thompson ISI top ten most highly cited geoscientists (1996–2007) +Freieslebenite: AgPbSbS3 – Mining Commissioner of Saxony Johann Karl Freiesleben (1774–1846) +Friedrichite: Cu5Pb5Bi7S18 – Austrian geologist Othmar Michael Friedrich (1902–1991) +Fuchsite (variety of muscovite): K(Al,Cr)3Si3O10(OH)2 – German mineralogist and chemist Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs (1774–1856) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6e529571d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals named after people" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +Gadolinite: (Ce,La,Nd,Y)2FeBe2Si2O10 – Finnish mineralogist and chemist Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) +Gagarinite series: Na(REExCa(1-x))(REEyCa(1-y))F6 – Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968) +Gahnite: ZnAl2O4 – Swedish chemist Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–1818) +Gatehouseite: Mn2+5(PO4)2(OH)4 – crystal chemist Bryan M. K. C. Gatehouse (born 1932), Monash University, Melbourne +Gaylussite: Na2Ca(CO3)2·5H2O – French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) +Geikielite: MgTiO3 – Scottish geologist Archibald Geikie (1835–1924) +Genkinite: (Pt,Pd)4Sb3 – Soviet mineralogist A. D. Genkin +Georgerobinsonite: Pb4(CrO4)2(OH)2FCl – George Willard Robinson +Gerhardtite: Cu2(NO3)(OH)3 – Alsatian chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt +Gibbsite: Al(OH)3 – American mineralogist George Gibbs (1777–1834) +Uintaite (syn. gilsonite, asphalt) – American Samuel H. Gilson +Ferri-ghoseite: ☐[Mn2+Na][Mg4Fe3+]Si8O22(OH)2 – Subrata Ghose (born 1932), emeritus professor at the University of Washington, Seattle +Goethite: FeOOH – German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) +Julgoldite: sorosilicate – American mineralogist and geochemist Julian Royce Goldsmith (1918–1999) +Gormanite: Fe2+3Al4(PO4)4(OH)6·2H2O – mineralogist Donald Herbert Gorman, University of Toronto +Grandidierite: (Mg,Fe2+)Al3(BO3)(SiO4)O2 – French explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912). +Gregoryite: (Na2,K2,Ca)CO3 – British geologist and author John Walter Gregory (1864–1932) +Greigite: Fe2+Fe3+2S4 – mineralogist and physical chemist Joseph W. Greig (1895–1977) +Grossite: CaAl4O7 – Israeli mineralogist and geologist Shulamit Gross (1923–2012) +Grothite (titanite var., 9.AG.15) +Grunerite: Fe7Si8O22(OH)2 – Swiss-French chemist Emmanuel-Louis Gruner (1809–1883) +Guettardite: Pb(Sb,As)2S4 – French naturalist Jean-Étienne Guettard (1715–1786) +Guilleminite: Ba(UO2)3(SeO3)2(OH)4·3H2O – French chemist and mineralogist Jean Claude Guillemin (1923–1994) +Gunterite: Na4(H2O)16(H2V10O28) · 6 H2O – American mineralogist Mickey Gunter (born 1953) +Gunningite: (Zn,Mn2+)SO4·H2O – Canadian geologist and academic Henry C. Gunning (1901–1991) + +== H == +Haggertyite: Ba(Fe2+6Ti5Mg)O19 – American geophysicist Stephen E. Haggerty (born 1938) +Haidingerite: Ca(AsO3OH) · H2O – Austrian mineralogist Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger (1795–1871) +Halloysite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4 – Belgian geologist Omalius d'Halloy +Hambergite: Be2BO3OH – Swedish mineralogist Axel Hamberg (1863–1933) +Hanksite: Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl – Henry Garber Hanks (1826–1907), first state mineralogist of California +Hapkeite: Fe2Si – American planetary scientist Bruce Hapke +Hausmannite: Mn2+Mn3+2O4 – Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782–1859), professor of mineralogy, University of Göttingen, Göttingen +Hawleyite: CdS – Canadian mineralogist James Edwin Hawley (1897–1965) +Hazenite: KNaMg2(PO4)2 · 14 H2O – Robert M. Hazen of the Carnegie Institute +Håleniusite-(La): (La,Ce)OF – Ulf Hålenius, director of the mineralogy department at the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, Sweden +Hauyne: Na3Ca(Si3Al3)O12(SO4) – French mineralogist René Just Haüy (1743–1822) +Heinrichite: Ba(UO2)2(AsO4)2 · 10–12 H2O – mineralogist Eberhardt William Heinrich (1918–1991) +Hendricksite: KZn3(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 – American agriculturist Sterling B. Hendricks (1902–1981) +Herbertsmithite: ZnCu3(OH)6Cl2 – British mineralogist Herbert Smith (1872–1953) +Hessite: Ag2Te – Swiss-born Russian chemist Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850) +Heyite (identical with calderonite, 8.BG.05) +Heulandite series: (Ca,Na)2–3Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36 · 12 H2O – English mineral collector Henry Heuland (1778–1856) +Hiddenite (green variety of spodumene): – American geologist William Earl Hidden (1853–1918) +Högbomite (renamed to magnesiohögbomite-2N2S): (Al,Mg,Fe,Ti)22(O,OH)32 – Swedish geologist Arvid Högbom (1857–1940) +And ferrohögbomite-2N2S, magnesiohögbomite series and zincohögbomite series +Holmquistite: (Li2)(Mg3Al2)(Si8O22)(OH)2 – Swedish petrologist Per Johan Holmquist (1866–1946) +Holtite: (Ta0.6◻0.4)Al6BSi3O18(O,OH)2.25 – Harold Holt (1908–1967), prime minister of Australia +Hopeite: Zn3(PO4)2·4H2O – Scottish chemist Thomas Charles Hope (1766–1844) +Howieite: inosilicate with 4-periodic single chain – Robert Andrew Howie (1923–2012), British petrologist and mineralogist of King's College, London University, London +Howlite: Ca2B5SiO9(OH)5 – Canadian chemist, mineralogist Henry How (1828–1879) +Hübnerite: MnWO4 – German mineralogist Adolf Huebner +Hurlbutite (8.AA.15) +Hutchinsonite: (Tl,Pb)2As5S9 – Cambridge mineralogist Arthur Hutchinson (1866–1937) +Huttonite: ThSiO4 – New Zealand-American mineralogist Colin Osborne Hutton (1910–1971) +Hyršlite: Pb8As10Sb6S32 – Czech mineralogist and gemmologist Jaroslav Hyršl (born 1962) + +== J == +Jarosewichite: Mn2+3Mn3+(AsO4)(OH)6 – American chemist Eugene Jarosewich +Jeanbandyite (4.FC.15) +Jimthompsonite: (Mg,Fe)5Si6O16(OH)2 – American mineralogist James Burleigh Thompson, Jr. +Johnbaumite: (Ca)5(AsO4)3(OH) – American geologist and mineralogist John L. Baum +Junitoite: CaZn2Si2O7·H2O – Jun Ito (1926–1978), mineralogist and crystallographer, University of Chicago + +== K == +Karenwebberite: Na(Fe2+,Mn2+)PO4 – American geologist Karen L. Webber +Kassite: CaTi2O4(OH)2 – Russian geologist Nikolai Grigorievich Kassin (1885–1949) +Kampfite: Ba12(Si11Al5)O31(CO3)8Cl5 – Anthony Robert Kampf (born 1948) +Keilite: (Fe,Mg)S – American mineralogist Klaus Keil (1934–2022) +Khinite: PbCu3TeO6(OH)2 – Burmese-American mineralogist Ba-Saw Khin (1931–) +Khomyakovite: Na12Ca6Sr3Fe3WZr3(Si25O73)(O,OH,H2O)3(Cl,OH)2 – Russian mineralogist Alexander Khomyakov (1933–2012) +Kieserite: MgSO4 · H2O – Dietrich Georg von Kieser (1779–1862), former president, Jena Academy +And cobaltkieserite +Kleberite: FeTi6O13 · 4 H2O – German professor Will Kleber (1906–1970) +Kobellite: Pb22Cu4(Bi,Sb)30S69 – German mineralogist Wolfgang Franz von Kobell (1803–1882) +Kochsandorite: CaAl2(CO3)2(OH)4H2O – Hungarian mineralogist Sándor Koch (1896–1983) +Kogarkoite: Na3(SO4)F – Russian scientist Lia Nikolaevna Kogarko +Kolbeckite: ScPO4 · 2 H2O – German mineralogist Friedrich L. W. Kolbeck +Kosnarite: KZr2(PO4)3 – after Richard Andrew "Rich" Kosnar (1946–2007), American mineral collector +Kostovite: AuCuTe4 – Bulgarian mineralogist Ivan Kostov (1913–2004) +Krennerite: AuTe2 varying to (Au0.8,Ag0.2)Te2 – Hungarian mineralogist Joseph Krenner (1839–1920) +Krotite: CaAl2O4 – Russian-American cosmochemist Alexander N. Krot +Kruťaite: CuSe2 Czech mineralogist Tomas Krut'a (1906–1998) +Kukharenkoite-(Ce): Ba3CeF(CO3)3 – Russian mineralogist Alexander A. Kukharenko (1914–1993) +Kurnakovite: MgB3O3(OH)5 · 5 H2O – Russian mineralogist and chemist Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (1860–1941) +Kunzite (variety of spodumene): – American mineralogist George Frederick Kunz (1856–1932) + +== L == +Lacroixite: NaAl(PO4)F – French mineralogist Antoine François Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948) +Langite: Cu4(SO4)(OH)6·2H2O – Austrian chemist Viktor von Lang (1838–1921) +Laueite (8.DC.30) +Lavinskyite: K(Li,Cu,Mg,Na)2Cu6(Si4O11)2(OH)4 – photographer of minerals Robert Lavinsky (Commons:Robert Lavinsky) +Lavoisierite: Mn2+8[Al10(Mn3+Mg)][Si11P]O44(OH)12 – French chemist Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (1743–1794) +Leakeite root name, sodium amphibole subgroup – British geologist Bernard E. Leake (born 1932), University of Glasgow +Minerals: ferri-fluoro-leakeite, ferri-leakeite, fluoro-leakeite, potassic-ferri-leakeite, potassic-leakeite, potassic-mangani-leakeite +Legrandite: Zn2(AsO4)(OH)·(H2O) – Belgian mining engineer Louis C.A. Legrand (1861–1920) +Lemanskiite: NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl·5H2O – Chester S. Lemanski, Jr. (b. 1947), American mineral collector +Liebauite: Ca3Cu5Si9O26 – German Friedrich Liebau (1926–2011), professor of mineralogy, University of Kiel +Linnaeite: Co+2Co+32S4 – Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) +Lipscombite: (Fe2+,Mn2+)(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH) – American chemist William Lipscomb (1919–2011) +And zinclipscombite +Livingstonite: HgSb4S8 – Scottish explorer in Africa David Livingstone (1813–1873) +Lonsdaleite: C – British crystallographer Kathleen Lonsdale (1903–1971) +Lorandite: TlAsS2 – Hungarian physicist Loránd Eötvös (1848–1919) +Lotharmeyerite: CaZn2(AsO4)2·2H2O – German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895) +And cobaltlotharmeyerite, ferrilotharmeyerite, manganlotharmeyerite, nickellotharmeyerite +Lucabindiite: (K,NH4)As4O6(Cl,Br) – Luca Bindi, professor of mineralogy and former head of the Division of Mineralogy of the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence (b. 1971) +Lukechangite-(Ce): Na3Ce2(CO3)4F – American mineralogist Luke L. Y. Chang (1934–2009) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87d0e3b40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals named after people" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +Macdonaldite: BaCa4Si16O36(OH)2 · 10 H2O – American volcanologist, Gordon Andrew Macdonald (1911–1978, redirect) +Malhmoodite: FeZr(PO4)2 · 4H2O – Bertha K. Malhmood, for many years Administrative Assistant of the Branch of Analytical Laboratories, U.S. Geological Survey +Mandarinoite: Fe2(SeO3)3 · 4H2O – American-Canadian mineralogist Joseph (Joe) A. Mandarino (1929–2007) +And telluromandarinoite +Maricite: NaFePO4 – Croatian mineralogist Luka Marić (1899–1979), University of Zagreb +Marthozite: Cu(UO2)3(SeO3)3(OH)2·7H2O – Belgian mineralogist Aimé Marthoz (1894–1962) +Machatschkiite (8.CJ.35) +Mascagnite: (NH4)2SO4 – Italian anatomist Paolo Mascagni (1752–1815) +Mathesiusite: K5(UO2)4(SO4)4(VO5) · 4(H2O) – German minister Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) +Mawbyite: Pb(Fe3+,Zn)2(AsO4)2(OH)2 – Australian metallurgist and mining executive Sir Maurice Alan Edgar Mawby (1904–1977) +Mckelveyite-(Y): Ba3NaCa0.75U0.25Y(CO3)6 · 3 H2O – American geologist Vincent E. McKelvey (1916–1985) +Meyerhofferite: CaB3O3(OH)5 · H2O – German chemist, Wilhelm Meyerhoffer (1864–1906) +Meyrowitzite: Ca(UO2)(CO3)2 · 5H2O – after Robert Meyrowitz (1916–2013), an American analytical chemist +Mendeleevite-(Ce): Cs6(Ce22Ca6)(Si70O175)(OH,F)14(H2O)21 – Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) +Menzerite-(Y) (IMA2009-050) +Millerite: NiS – British mineralogist William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880) +Millosevichite: Al2(SO4)3 – Italian mineralogist Federico Millosevich (1875–1942) +Moëloite (2.HC.25) +Mohsite (crichtonite var., 4.CC.40) +Moissanite: SiC (naturally occurring) – discoverer Henri Moissan (1852–1907) +Monticellite: Ca(Mg,Fe)SiO4 – Italian mineralogist Teodoro Monticelli (1759–1845) +Morganite (variety of Beryl): – American financier J. P. Morgan (1837–1913) +Mozartite: CaMn3+SiO4(OH) – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) +Murdochite: PbCu6O8−x(Cl,Br)2x – American mineralogist Joseph Murdoch (1890–1973) + +== N == +Nataliakulikite: Ca4Ti2(Fe3+,Fe2+)(Si,Fe3+,Al)O11 – Russian mineralogist Natalia Artyemovna Kulik (born 1933) +Nasonite: Pb6Ca4(Si2O7)3Cl2 – American mining engineer and author Frank Lewis Nason (1856–1928) +Niedermayrite: Cu4Cd(SO4)2(OH)6·4H2O – Austrian geologist Gerhard Niedermayr (1941–) +Nikischerite: Fe2+6Al3(OH)18[Na(H2O)6][SO4]2·6H2O – American mineralogist Anthony J. Nikischer (born 1949) +Niningerite: MgS – American meteoriticist Harvey Harlow Nininger (1887–1986) +Norrishite: KLiMn3+2(Si4O10)O2 – Australian geologist Keith Norrish (1924–2017), pioneer of wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis + +== O == +Obertiite amphibole root name (9.DE.25) +Okenite: CaSi2O5·2H2O – German naturalist Lorenz Oken (1779–1851) + +== P == +Pääkkönenite: Sb2AsS2 – Finnish geologist Viekko Pääkkönen (1907–1980) +Pabstite: BaSnSi3O9 – Adolf Pabst (1899–1990), professor of mineralogy, University of California, Berkeley +Partheite: Ca2Al4Si4O15(OH)2·4H2O – Swiss crystallographer Erwin Parthé (1928–2006) +Paulingite series, zeolites – Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994), professor of chemistry, California Institute of Technology +Paulingite-Ca and paulingite-K +Paulscherrerite: UO2(OH)2 – Swiss physicist Paul Scherrer (1890–1969) +Pearceite: Cu(Ag,Cu)6Ag9As2S11 – Cornish-American chemist and metallurgist Richard Pearce (1837–1927) +Penikisite: BaMg2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3 – Canadian explorer Gunar Penikis (1936–1979) +Perhamite: Ca3Al7(SiO4)3(PO4)4(OH)3·16.5(H2O) – American geologist and pegmatite miner Frank C. Perham (born 1934) +Perite: PbBiO2Cl – Swedish geologist Per Adolf Geijer (1886–1976) +Perovskite: CaTiO3 – Russian mineralogist L. A. Perovski (1792–1856) +Perroudite (2.FC.20c) +Petzite (1845): Ag3AuTe2 – chemist W. Petz +Pezzottaite: Cs(Be2Li)Al2Si6O18 – Italian geologist and mineralogist Federico Pezzotta +Phillipsite: (Ca,Na2,K2)3Al6Si10O32·12H2O – English mineralogist and geologist William Phillips (1775–1828) +Prehnite: Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 – Dutch governor Colonel Hendrik Von Prehn +Priscillagrewite-(Y): (Ca2Y)Zr2Al3O12 – American geologist Priscilla Croswell Perkins Grew (1940 – ) +Proustite: Ag3AsS3 – French chemist Joseph Louis Proust (1754–1826) +Putnisite: SrCa4Cr83+(CO3)8(SO4)(OH)16·25H2O – mineralogists Andrew and Christine Putnis + +== R == +Ramanite homologous series (6.EA.10) +Rambergite: MnS – mineralogist Hans Ramberg (1917–1998) +Rammelsbergite: NiAs2 – Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg (1813–1899) +Ramdohrite (2.JB.40a) +Raspite: PbWO4 – prospector Charles Rasp (1846–1907) +Raygrantite: Pb10Zn(SO4)6(SiO4)2(OH)2 – Raymond W. Grant, professor of geology at Mesa Community College, Mesa, Arizona. +Reidite: ZrSiO4 – Alan F. Reid (1931–2013), New Zealand chemist +Renierite: (Cu,Zn)11(Ge,As)2Fe4S16 – Armand Renier (1876–1951), director of the Belgian Geological Survey +Riebeckite: Na2(Fe,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2 – German explorer Emil Riebeck (1853–1885) +Rittmannite: jahnsite-whiteite group – Swiss volcanologist Alfred Rittmann (1893–1980) +Roeblingite (9.CB.05) +Roselite: Ca2(Co2+, Mg)[AsO4]2·H2O – German mineralogist Gustav Rose (1798–1873) +Rosenbuschite (9.BE.22) +Rossmanite: (LiAl2)Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)4 – Caltech mineralogist George R. Rossman +Rruffite (8.CG.10) +Russellite: (BiO2)WO4 – British mineralogist Arthur Russell +Rustumite: Ca10(Si2O7)2(SiO4)(OH)2Cl2 – American material scientist, Rustum Roy (1924–2010) + +== S == +Saleeite: Mg(UO2)2(PO4)2·10H2O – Belgian mineralogist Achille Salée (1883–1932) +Samarskite: Y0.2REE0.3Fe3+0.3U0.2Nb0.8Ta0.2O4 – Russian official Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets (1803–1870) +Sanbornite: BaSi2O5 – American mineralogist Frank B. Sanborn (1862–1936) +Satterlyite: (Fe++,Mg)2(PO4)(OH) – Canadian geologist Jack Satterly (born 1906) +Scheelite: CaWO4 – German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786) +Shcherbinaite: V2O5 – Soviet geologist Vladimir Shcherbina (1907–1978) +Scheuchzerite (9.DM.35) +Schoenfliesite (4.FC.10) +Schoepite: (UO2)8O(OH)12·12H2O – Alfred Schoep (1881–1966), professor of mineralogy at the University of Ghent +Schreibersite: (Fe,Ni)3P – Austrian naturalist Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers (1775–1852) +Schreyerite: V2Ti3O9 – German mineralogist Werner Schreyer (1930–2006) +Schröckingerite: NaCa3(UO2) – Julius Freiherr Schröckinger von Neudenberg (1814–1882) +Scottyite: BaCu2Si2O7 – Michael Scott (born 1945), first CEO of Apple and significant sponsor of the Rruff project +Seamanite: Mn3[B(OH)4](PO4)(OH)2 – Arthur Edmund Seaman (1858–1937) +Segnitite: PbFe3H(AsO4)2(OH)6 – after Australian mineralogist, gemologist and petrologist Edgar Ralph Segnit (1923–1999) +Sekaninaite: (Fe+2,Mg)2Al4Si5O18 – Czech mineralogist Josef Sekanina (born 1901) +Sellaite: MgF2 – Italian politician and mineralogist Quintino Sella (1827–1884) +Senarmontite: Sb2O3 – French mineralogist and physician Henri Hureau de Sénarmont (1808–1862) +Sengierite: Cu2(OH)2[UO2|VO4]2·6H2O – Belgian UMHK director Edgar Sengier (1879–1963) +Serpierite: Ca(Cu,Zn)4(SO4)2(OH)6·3H2O – Giovanni Battista Serpieri (1832–1897) +Shulamitite: Ca3TiFe3+AlO8 – Israeli mineralogist and geologist Shulamit Gross (1923–2012) +Sillimanite: Al2SiO5 – American chemist Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864) +Simpsonite: Al4(Ta,Nb)3O13(OH) – Australian mineralogist Edward Sydney Simpson (1875–1939) +Sklodowskite: Mg(UO2)2(HSiO4)2·5H2O – Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist Marie Curie (1867–1934) +Smithite: AgAsS2 – British mineralogist Herbert Smith (1872–1953) +Smithsonite: ZnCO3 – British chemist and mineralogist, James Smithson (1754–1829) +Sorbyite (2.LB.30) +Sperrylite: PtAs2 – American chemist Francis Louis Sperry +Steacyite: K0.3(Ca,Na)2ThSi8O20 – Canadian mineralogist Harold Robert Steacy (born 1923) +Stenonite: Sr2Al(CO3)F5 – Danish physician Nicolaus Steno (Niels Steensen) (1638–1686) +Stephanite: Ag5SbS4 – Archduke Stephan of Austria (1817–1867) +Stichtite: Mg6Cr2CO3(OH)16·4H2O – American born Australian mine manager Robert Carl Sticht (1857–1922) +Stilleite: ZnSe – German geologist Hans Stille (1876–1966) +Stolzite: PbWO4 – French obstetrician Joseph Alexi Stolz (1803–1896) +Strashimirite: Cu8(AsO4)4(OH)4·5H2O – Bulgarian petrographer and mineralogist Strashimir Dimitrov (1892–1960) +Stromeyerite: AgCuS – German chemist Friedrich Stromeyer (1776–1835) +Strunzite: Mn2+Fe3+2(PO4)2(OH)2·6H2O – German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz (1910–2006) +And ferristrunzite, ferrostrunzite +Stumpflite: Pt(Sb,Bi) – Austrian professor of mineralogy Eugen Friedrich Stumpfl (1931–2004) +Sugilite: KNa2(Fe,Mn,Al)2Li3Si12O30 – Japanese petrologist Ken-ichi Sugi (1901–1948) +Svanbergite: SrAl3(PO4)(SO4)(OH)6 – Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Svanberg (1805–1878) +Swedenborgite: NaBe4Sb5+O7 – Swedish scientist and theologian Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) +Sweetite: Zn(OH)2 – Curator of mineral department of the British Museum, Jessie Sweet (1901–1979) +Sylvite: KCl – Dutch chemist Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b66a31e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals named after people" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== T == +Tarbuttite: Zn2(PO4)(OH) Percy Coventry Tarbutt (died 1943), a Director of the Broken Hill Exploration Company +Teallite: PbSnS2 – British geologist Jethro Justinian Harris Teall (1849–1924) +Tennantite: Cu12As4S13 – English chemist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) +Tenorite: CuO – Italian botanist Michele Tenore (1780–1861) +Theophrastite: Ni(OH)2 – Greek philosopher and writer Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) +Thomasclarkite: Na0.8Ce0.2Y0.5REE0.7(HCO3)(OH)3·4H2O – Canadian geologist Thomas Clark (1893–1996) +Thortveitite: (Sc,Y)2Si2O7 – Norwegian engineer Olaus Thortveit +Tiemannite: HgSe – Johann Carl Wilhelm Tiemann (1848–1899) +Torbernite: CuAl(UO2)2(PO4)2·8-12H2O – Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) +Trevorite: NiFe2O4 – Major Tudor Gruffydd Trevor, mining inspector for the Pretoria District, Transvaal, South Africa +Tschernichite: CaAl2Si6O16·8H2O – Rudy W. Tschernich (born 1945), expert on zeolites +Tschermakite: Ca2(Mg3AlFe3+)Si6Al2O22(OH)2 – Austrian mineralogist Gustav Tschermak von Seysenegg (1836–1927) + +== U == +Ulexite: NaCaB5O9·8H2O – German chemist Georg Ludwig Ulex (1811–1883) +Ullmannite: NiSbS – German chemist and mineralogist Johann Christoph Ullmann (1771–1821, redirect) +Uytenbogaardtite: Ag3AuS2 – Dutch mineralogist Willem Uytenbogaardt (1918–2012) +Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 – Russian Count Sergei Semenovitch Uvarov (1765–1855) + +== V == +Vaesite: NiS2 – Belgian mineralogist Johannes F. Vaes (1902–1978) +Valentinite: Sb2O3 – German alchemist Basilius Valentinus (might be Johann Thölde? 1565–1614) +Vanthoffite: Na6Mg(SO4)4 – Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff (1852–1911), professor of chemistry +Vaterite: CaCO3 – German mineralogist Heinrich Vater (1859–1930) +Vernadite (4.FE.40) +Veszelyite: (Cu,Zn)2Zn(PO4)(OH)3·2H2O – Ágost Veszely (1821–1879), Hungarian mining engineer +Vincentite: (Pd,Pt)3(As,Sb,Te) – Ewart Albert "David" Vincent (1919–2012), mineralogist at Durham College and Oxford University (UK) and chair of Geology at Manchester University (UK) +Vivianite: Fe3(PO4)2·8H2O and metavivianite – English mineralogist John Henry Vivian (1785–1855) + +== W == +Wardite: NaAl3(PO4)2(OH)4·2H2O – American naturalist Henry Augustus Ward (1834–1906) +Warikahnite: Zn3(AsO4)2·2H2O – German mineral collector Walter Richard Kahn (born 1911) +Weeksite: K2(UO2)2Si6O15·4H2O – USGS mineralogist Alice Mary Dowse Weeks (1909–1988) +Weloganite: Na2(Sr,Ca)3Zr(CO3)6·3H2O – Canadian geologist William Edmond Logan (1798–1875) +Wendwilsonite: Ca2Mg(AsO4)2·2H2O – Wendell E. Wilson (born 1946), Mineralogical Record editor and publisher +Wernerite (intermediate member of the marialite-meionite series) – German geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749–1817) +Whewellite: CaC2O4·H2O – English mineralogist William Whewell (1794–1866) +Whiteite series: XM(1)M(2)Al2(PO4)4(OH)2·8H2O – John Sampson White, Jr. (born 1933), Mineralogical Record editor and publisher +Whitlockite: Ca3(PO4)2 – American mineralogist Herbert Percy Whitlock (1868–1948) +Willemite: Zn2SiO4 – William I of the Netherlands (1772–1843) +Witherite: BaCO3 – English physician and naturalist William Withering (1741–1799) +Wollastonite: CaSiO3 – English chemist and mineralogist William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828) +Woodhouseite: CaAl3(SO4)(PO4)(OH)6 – American mineralogist Charles Douglas Woodhouse (1888–1975) +Wolfeite: Fe2+2(PO4)(OH) – American mineralogist Caleb Wroe Wolfe (1908–1980) +Also wroewolfeite: Cu4(SO4)(OH)6 · 2H2O +Wulfenite: PbMoO4 – Austrian mineralogist Franz Xaver von Wulfen (1728–1805) +Wulffite: K3NaCu4O2(SO4)4 – Russian crystallographer George (Yuri Viktorovich) Wulff (Russian: Георгий (Юрий) Викторович Вульф; 1863–1925) +Wyartite: CaU5+(UO2)2(CO3)O4(OH)·7H2O – Jean Wyart (1902–1992), mineralogist at the Sorbonne + +== Y == +Yangite: PbMnSi3O8·H2O – Hexiong Yang, Mineralogy researcher at the Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona +Yegorovite: Na4[Si4O8(OH)4]·7H2O – Yurii Kavdievich Yegorov-Tismenko (1938–2007), crystallographer at Moscow State University. + +== Z == +Zaccagnaite: Zn4Al2CO3(OH)12·3H2O – Italian geologist and mineral collector Domenico Zaccagna (1851–1940) +Zaherite: Al12(OH)26(SO4)5·20H2O – Bangladeshi geologist M. A. Zaher (c. 1932–2017) +Zajacite-(Ce): Na(REExCa1−x)(REEyCa1−y)F6 – Explorer Ihor Stephan Zajac (born 1935) +Zakharovite: Na4Mn5Si10O20(OH)6·6H2O – Russian Director of the Moscow Institute of Geological Exploration Evgeii Evgen'evich Zakharov (1902–1980) +Zanazziite: Ca2(MgFe)(MgFeMnAl)4Be(OH)4(PO4)6·6H2O – Italian Professor Pier Francesco Zanazzi (born 30 April 1939) +Zaratite: Ni3CO3(OH)4·4(H2O) – Spanish diplomat and dramatist Antonio Gil y Zárate (1793–1861) +Zavaritskite: (BiO)F – Soviet geologist and petrographer Alexander Nikolaevich Zavaritsky (1884–1952) +Zektzerite: LiNa(Zr,Ti,Hf)Si6O15 – American mathematician and mineral collector Jack Zektzer (born 1936) +Zeunerite: Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2·(10–16)H2O – German physicist, engineer and epistemologist Gustav Anton Zeuner (1828–1907) +Also metazeunerite: Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2 · 8H2O +Zhanghengite: CuZn – ancient Chinese astronomer Zhang Heng (78–139) +Zhemchuzhnikovite: NaMgAl(C2O4)3·8H2O – Russian clay mineralogist Yury Zhemchuzhnikov (1885–1957) +Ziesite: βCu2V2O7 – mineralogist Emanuel George Zies +Zigrasite: MgZr(PO4)2(H2O)4 – American mineral collector James Zigras (born 1981) +Zinkenite: Pb9Sb22S42 – German mineralogist and mining geologist, Johann Karl Ludwig Zinken (1790–1862) +Zippeite: (UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10·4H2O – Austrian mineralogist Franz Xaver Maximilian Zippe +Zirkelite: (Ca,Th,Ce)Zr(Ti,Nb)2O7 – German petrographer Ferdinand Zirkel (1838–1912) +Zoisite: Ca2(Al.OH)Al2(SiO4)3 – Carniolan scientist Sigmund Zois (1747–1819) +Zussmanite: K(Fe2+,Mg,Mn)13[AlSi17O42](OH)14 – British geologist Jack Zussman (born 1924) +Zykaite: Fe3+4(AsO4)3(SO4)(OH)·15H2O – Czech geochemist Vacklav Zyka + +== See also == +Mineralogy +Mineraloid +List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association +List of minerals +Eponym +Lists of etymologies +List of eponyms + +== Notes == + +== References == +mindat.org The Mineral Database +Webmineral.com +Minerals Named After People and Places +American Mineralogist- New Mineral Names 1979 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a19e9aed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mineralogy is an active science in which minerals are discovered or recognised on a regular basis. Use of old mineral names is also discontinued, for example when a name is no longer considered valid. Therefore, a list of recognised mineral species is never complete. +Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety. +The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) is the international scientific group that recognises new minerals and new mineral names. However, minerals discovered before 1959 did not go through the official naming procedure. Some minerals published previously have been either confirmed or discredited since that date. This list contains a mixture of mineral names that have been approved since 1959 and those mineral names believed to still refer to valid mineral species (these are called "grandfathered" species). Presently, each year about 90–110 new mineral species (the sum of all mutations c. 120 per year) are officially approved by the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International Mineralogical Association. +As of May 2025, the IMA - CNMNC List of Minerals lists 6,145 valid minerals, including 1,153 pre-IMA minerals (grandfathered), and 97 questionable minerals. Also as of November 2024, the Mineralogical Society of America's Handbook of Mineralogy lists 5,663 species, and the IMA Database of Mineral Properties/RRUFF Project lists 6,006 valid species (IMA/CNMNC) of a total of 6,237 minerals. The IMA/RRUFF database includes 1,164 pre-IMA minerals. +Due to the length of this list, it is divided into alphabetical groups. The minerals are sorted by name. + +Abbreviations: +"*" – discredited (IMA/CNMNC status). +"s.p." – special procedure. +Q or "?" – questionable/doubtful (IMA/CNMNC, mindat.org or mineralienatlas.de status). +N – published without approval of the IMA/CNMNC, or just not an IMA approved mineral but with some acceptance in the scientific community nowadays. The 'IMA database of mineral properties' (rruff.info/ima) has 173 species with 'not an IMA approved mineral' tag, some are an intermediate member of a solid solution series, others are "recently" discredited minerals. +I – intermediate member of a solid-solution series. +H – hypothetical mineral (synthetic, anthropogenic, etc.) +ch – incomplete description, hypothetical solid solution end member. Published without approval and formally discredited or not approved, yet. +Mainly: pyrochlore, tourmaline and amphibole supergroups, arrojadite, and yftisite-(Y). IMA/CNMNC revisions generate hypothetical solid solution endmembers. +group – a name used to designate a group of species, sometimes only a mineral group name. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1283c7f74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Working practices == +The name of a new mineral is kept confidential by the IMA until it is approved or until its full description is published, its authors' option (approved decision: 'IMA2009-D'). The IMA uses a code for its own procedures for the supposed new mineral (and so it is a synonym). Ferri-ottoliniite's proposal was assigned code 'IMA2001-067', it was redefined and approved as 'IMA2001-067a' in 2003, for instance (the ottoliniite root name is discredited since 2012). +Current IMA regulations do not allow substances of anthropogenic origin (burning coal mine dumps, coal mine fires, slag, etc.) to be validated as a mineral species. Since 1998, the majority of polymorphs (especially polytypes and polytypoids) are not regarded as separate mineral species anymore. +IMA/CNMNC identifiers are usually written without space, as years don't get meaningful hits on Google search. +"The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana" (8 ed.) was the reference of CNMNC/CNMMN's (IMA) initial work. At the Kobe 2006 general meeting, the IMA council endorsed the creation of an Internet site on minerals ('rruff.info/ima'). So a Master List was needed and the older minerals were reviewed in a document of 130 pages. The final GQN List was published (grandfathered, questionable and published without approval) after a final review of Burke E A J and Nickel E H (approved decision: 'IMA2006-C'). Not only the well established minerals before 1959 was grandfathered (G), but the minerals that could not be discredited as well. The merging of the 'ARD List' (approved, revalidated and discredited) with the 'GQN List' resulted in the first 'IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names'. The 2007 draft of the 'IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names' was a courtesy of the Materials Data, Inc. (MDI), its 2009 review had important modifications. The RRUFF database was built with the help of the MDI's 2007 draft, the IMA Master List is an update of the MDI's 2009 review. Some grandfathered minerals had their status changed to approved afterwards, based on IMA approved reports. The list of approved minerals was revised with 'The New IMA List of Minerals (September 2012)'. +The IMA was founded in a meeting in Madrid (1958). The CNMMN (now CNMNC) was one of the original eight commissions, it was founded in 1959. Not all grandfathered mineral were first described prior to 1959. Hatrurite, a phase in cement clinker (alite, C3S), was first described in 1977, for instance. +Some mineral names were revised; this changed their first letters. Sodium-pharmacosiderite is now natropharmacosiderite, natroapophyllite is now fluorapophyllite-(Na), for instance. But 2010, hydroxylapatite, fluorapatite, fluorellestadite and chlorapatite had their old names reinstated. +Progress in earth sciences, geology, mineralogy can be slow: +Some IMA/CNMNC (1959–2000) approved minerals had their complete description published only 2012: 'IMA1998-018' (fluornatromicrolite, published 2011), 'IMA1987-046a' (ferrolaueite, published 2012), 'IMA1978-064' (approval probably based on fake data), 'IMA1977-006' (whelanite, published 2012) and 'IMA1968-003' (discredited, 'IMA2008-B'). 'IMA1995-025' was listed as well, a mistake (natroglaucocerinite, published 1995). +The paper of Armbruster et al. (2006) misunderstood the naming rules and renamed a well established mineral name (hancockite). Hatert et al. (2013) modified the naming rules. and proposal IMA2015 s.p. was accepted, reverting the renaming. +Sample: bergenite was discredited as a barium bearing mineral variety of phosphuranylite (IMA1962 s.p., special procedure). So phosphuranylite was already a valid mineral, and it is listed in the Michael Fleischer's mineral list (1966). Both are listed as grandfathered minerals as they are not listed in the 'ARD List' (approved, revalidated and discredited minerals; 2004). +The review and approval of new mineral is straight forward most of the time, but there are exceptions. Proposal IMA2009-096 was not accepted, proposal IMA2009-096a was approved as fontarnauite (6.DA.60) in 2014. Proposal IMA1995-020 was not accepted, proposal IMA1995-020c was approved as jarandolite (6.CB.25). +Some valid names get discredited (in the broader sense). +Tohdite (hydrous alumina) was conditionally approved as 'IMA2004-051'. But the re-examination of the holotype material of akdalaite ((Al2O3)5·H2O, 'IMA1969-002') from the Fersman Mineralogical Museum in Moscow showed that both minerals were identical (space group was corrected). +Tellurocanfieldite was conditionally approved as 'IMA2012-013'. Its approval was withdrawn as further studies showed it to be a Te-rich variety of canfieldite (Y: 1894, 2.BA.70). +Some old minerals were known before their 20th century names were first published. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..291853809 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Miscellany == +Current regulations do not allow a new mineral name to honour a person a second time. But there are exceptions: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848) (berzelianite, berzeliite and berzeline (now haüyne)); Pierre Berthier (1782–1861) (berthierine and berthierite); Andor von Semsey (1833–1923) (andorite IV, andorite VI and semseyite); Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009) (brianite and stenhuggarite); Caleb Wroe Wolfe (1908–1980) (wolfeite and wroewolfeite) and Leo Neal Yedlin (1908–1977) (yedlinite and nealite). The regulation does not affect mineral series and other variations (prefix iso, hexa, ortho, tetra, clino, meta, para, pseudo etc.). For instance: Karl Hugo Strunz (1910–2006) (strunzite group); George P. Merrill (1854–1929) (merrillite series, whitlockite group); Edward S. Grew (Ph.D. 1971) (edgrewite series, humite group). +Standard temperature and pressure (STP). +Silicate perovskites, argentite and β-quartz are not valid minerals, as they do not occur on Earth's surface (STP). The type material of bridgmanite is from a meteorite. Some minerals are unstable on Earth's surface (metastability): diamonds, cohenite and haxonite, for instance. Acanthite var. argentite (a pseudomorph after argentite) and β-quartz pseudomorphs are sometimes sold. +Ramdohr (1936) discovered that the type material of schapbachite (Ag0.4Pb0.2Bi0.4S) was a mixture of galena (PbS) and matildite (AgBiS2). It was discredited (1982) as it was found unstable at 'standard temperature and pressure' (STP). It was revalidated (2004) as Pb-bearing schabachite is stable at STP. The type locality is not Schapbach now, but Silberbrünnle mine, Gengenbach; both Black Forest localities. +Epsilon iron, hexagonal close-packed (HCP) phase of iron is stable only at extremely high pressure. It can be found as a mineral (chemical formula: (Fe,Os,Ru,Ir)). +It is not only schapbachite that had a longer controversy. Other minerals have a complicated history, as well. +Imogolite, 9.ED.20, was first published 1962. Its formal discreditation by the IMA was published 1967, as its description was incomplete. The IMA referred it to the AIPEA (Association Internationale Pour l'Étude des Argiles) for advice and it was approved by the AIPEA (Nomenclature Committee) at its Tokyo meeting (1970). Fleischer (1983) described it as a variety of allophane and it was finally redefined and approved by the IMA/CNMNC 1986. +Amorphous allophane, nanotube-like imogolite (Al2SiO3(OH)4), halloysite-10Å (Al2Si2O5(OH)4·2H2O), halloysite-7Å (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and gibbsite (Al(OH)3) are thought to be products of tuff weathering. +Betalommosovite was described by Gerasimovskiy and Kazakova (1962) and discredited by the IMA-CNMMN (IMA1967 s.p.). It was published without approval and listed as discredited on the 'IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names' (2009). Later, betalomonosovite was revalidated (IMA2014-J). +Jichengite as xinghuaite (IMA1984-047) was rejected by the IMA-CNMMN. Jichengite (IMA1994-039) was rejected by the IMA-CNMMN, as well. Unfortunately, it was published without approval in 2011. +UM1991-//-COF:BaCaCe (IMA1989-012), a calcium analogue of cordylite-(Ce) from Bayan Obo mine, had the approval procedure suspended by Joseph A. Mandarino, because of the cerium dominant cordylite (IMA2000-C). +Other curiosities: +Niggliite (former 1.AG.60, year: 1938), sorosite (former 1.AC.15, IMA1994-047), yuanjiangite (former 1.AC.15, IMA1993-028) are not classified as tin alloys (PGE-metal alloys and indium-tin family) in Fleischer's Glossary. But, they are stannide minerals (nickeline mineral group), sulfide mineral class there. +Tiragalloite (9.BJ.25, IMA1969-061, Mn2+4(HAsSi3O13)), is an arsenosilicate and grenmarite (9.BE.25, IMA2003-024, (Na,Ca)4(Mn,Na)(Zr,Mn)2(Zr,Ti)(Si2O7)2(O,F)4) is a zirconium silicate (analogous to the more common aluminosilicates, borosilicates and titanium silicates). +Mostly anthropogenic minerals: abhurite (3.DA.30), lausenite (7.CB.70), guildite (7.DC.30), hoelite (10.CA.15), calclacite (10.AA.25). +Studtite (4.GA.15, year: 1947) is the first peroxide mineral, the facies radioactivity generate peroxide. +Ianthinite (4.GA.10, year: 1926), U(IV) is one of the constituents of the mineral), it gets a layer of schoepite/ metaschoepite in the presence of oxygen. +Polyoxometalates: +Menezesite (4.FN.05, IMA2005-023) and aspedamite (IMA2011-056), are the only natural heteropolyniobates known. +Ophirite (IMA2013-017) is a mineral with a heteropolytungstate tri-lacunary keggin anion. +Melcherite (IMA2015-018) and peterandresenite (IMA2012-084) have a lindqvist anion. +Inosilicate, biopyriboles: +Jimthompsonite (IMA1977-011) is a triple chain inosilicate. +Chesterite (IMA1977-010) is a connected double chain inosilicate. +Inosilicate, double dreier chains: +Xonotlite (Y: 1866) is an inosilicate with double dreier chains. +Chivruaiite (IMA2004-052) is an inosilicate double dreier chains of (SiO4) tetrahedra. +Zorite (IMA1972-011) is an inosilicate double dreier chains of (SiO4) tetrahedra. +Haineaultite (IMA1997-015) is an inosilicate double dreier chains of (SiO4) tetrahedra. +Other inosilicates: +Veblenite (IMA2010-050) has a veblenite ribbon (Si8O22). +Yangite (IMA2012-052) is an inosilicate with two-connected double chain. +Yegorovite (IMA2008-033) is an inosilicate with single zig-zag chains of Si tetrahedra. +Icosahedrite (IMA2010-042), the only natural quasicrystal known. +Comancheite (IMA2013-B/ IMA1980-077, former 3.DD.65) is a mercury nitride mineral now. +α-Sulfur (old); chemical formula unit with 1 atom; unit cell with 128 formula units (Z). +Whitecapsite (IMA2012-030), chemical formula: H16Fe2+5Fe3+14Sb3+6(AsO4)18O16·120H2O; unit cell with 1 formula unit (Z). +Megacyclite (9.CP.10, IMA1991-015); chemical formula unit with 111 atoms; unit cell with 4 formula units (Z). +Labyrinthite (9.CO.10, IMA2002-065); chemical formula unit with 278.5 atoms; unit cell with 3 formula units (Z). +Ashcroftine-(Y) (9.DN.15, year: 1933); chemical formula unit with 180 atoms; unit cell with 4 formula units (Z). + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d54a6ca73 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Attention with the amphiboles: some mineral names have been redefined (IMA2012 s.p. was the last revision), some even more than once; i.e. their chemical formula range changed. For example, aluminotaramite ('IMA2006-023', 9.DE.20) is a synonym of ferro-taramite, sodic-ferri-ferropedrizite (IMA2003 s.p., 9.DE.25) was renamed to ferro-ferri-pedrizite, ehimeite is a synonym of chromio-pargasite ('IMA2011-023', 9.DE.15), kôzulite is a synonym of mangano-arfvedsonite ('IMA1968-028', 9.DE.25) and kornite is a synonym of potassic-mangani-leakeite ('IMA1992-032', 9.DE.25). +Some IMA-CNMNC approved minerals have a questionable status on mineralienatlas.de, but their unit cell parameters are given on mindat.org (or vice versa). Their status here doesn't change, it remains 'approved mineral'. +The mineral systematic given on Nickel-Strunz (9 and 10 ed) is not controversial. Dmisteinbergite (feldspar, 9.EG.15), uranyl sorovanadates (4.HD. ids) and silica family (4.DA. ids) are some exceptions, for instance. +Great care must be taken with definitions and their redefinitions. There is a difference between rocks, natural minerals and chemical compounds. Some examples: rocksalt (a redirect), halite and sodium chloride; kaolin earth (a redirect) and kaolinite; apatite, strict sense (chlorapatite, fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite), apatite group and apatite supergroup; kaolinite-serpentine group (alias serpentine), serpentine subgroup, serpentinization and serpentinite; olivine structural group (after rruff.nfo/ima); olivine group and olivine (a fosterite var.); spessartine (a garnet) and spessartite (a lamprophyre); iron (element), telluric iron (alias native iron) and meteoric iron; phyllosilicate minerals (alias sheet silicates) and clays; pyrochlore (invalid mineral name since 2010), pyrochlore group and pyrochlore supergroup; antimony and stibnite (alias antimonite); etc. +The data of a mineral on the databases is similar but not equal. For instance: +Opal is a valid IMA/CNMNC name but it is a mineraloid (a mixture of cristobalite and/or tridymite and amorphous silica), it has a page on Mindat.org and Webmineral.com but not on the Handbook of Mineralogy. +Ice, mercury (low melting point); allophane, delvauxite, hisingerite (amorphous/ poorly crystalline); actinolite, augite, omphacite, sanidine (intermediate member of a solid solution series) are IMA/CNMNC valid names too. The reasons can be inherited pre-IMA status, practical reasons or entrenchment in the literature, including medical and legal usage. +OligoclaseI is an albite variety on Mindat.org and it has pages on the Handbook of Minerals and Webmineral.com, see 'List of minerals (synonyms)' (plagioclase/albite-anorthite series). It is not the only intermediate member of a solid solution series with a page on the Handbook of Mineralogy (mineral varieties). +The Handbook of Mineralogy has pages on clinochrysotile, orthochrysotile and parachrysotile, but not on chrysotile; but they are polytypes of chrysotile, see 'List of minerals (synonyms)'. +Mindat.org uses to give the chemical formula of some minerals as a range (between parentheses, if tin dominant then herzenbergite: (Sn,Pb)SnS2; otherwise teallite: (Pb,Sn)SnS2), on the other side the IMA Database of Mineral Properties/ Rruff Project uses to give the ideal chemical formula of the solid solution end member (herzenbergite: SnS). +The given chemical names are a compromise for information purposes, being based on the Nickel-Strunz code too. Most of the time the chemical formula on rruff.info was used, sometimes the simpler one on mindat.org. To illustrate it: bartonite, K3Fe10S14 (mindat.org), K6Fe20S26S (rruff.info); bayleyite, Mg2(UO2)(CO3)3·18H2O (mindat.org), Mg2(UO2)(CO3)3(H2O)12·6H2O (rruff.info) and bredigite, Ca7Mg(SiO4)4 (mindat.org), CaCa13Mg2(SiO4)8 (rruff.info). +Caution with the chemical formula units of silicates and their "formula masses". Some molecules have a repeating unit, these might be chains, networks, polymers, and so the true molecule might be a multiple of the smallest repeating unit (the unit cell of a crystal is formed by repeating 'Z' times the chemical formula). Examples: wadsleyite (Mg2SiO4) a sorosilicate and high pressure polymorph of forsterite and ringwoodite; leucophanite (NaCaBeSi2O6F), but it has Nickel-Strunz identifier 9.DH.05 (inosilicates with 4-periodic single chains, Si4O12); clinoenstatite (MgSiO3), but it has Nickel-Strunz identifier 9.DA.10 (inosilicates with 2-periodic single chains, Si2O6); scolecite (CaAl2Si3O10·3H2O), but it has Nickel-Strunz identifier 9.GA.05 (zeolites with T5O10 units – the fibrous zeolites); mogánite (SiO2), but it has Nickel-Strunz identifier 4.DA.20 (oxides with small cations: silica family). +The existence in nature of some questionable/ doubtful minerals is very unlikely at all or at the type locality. For example, chloromagnesiteQ (Y: 1872, MgCl2) 3.AB.20 and zinkositeQ (Y: 1852, ZnSO4) 7.AB.10. +Some names are not names of minerals anymore, but names of a group of minerals: +Micas, biotite group. +The IMA/CNMMN, Subcommittee on Nomenclature of the Micas (1998, 1999) has recommended that the name biotite be used for a series including phlogopite, siderophyllite, annite and eastonite. +Zeolites: chabazite group,; dachiardite group,; heulandite group. +Pyrochlore supergroup: +The pyrochlore supergroup was revised in 2010. The update of the databases isn't complete, yet. +Groups: pyrochlore,; roméite,; betafite,; microlite,; elsmoreite. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb63967df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Nomenclature dictionary == +Special minerals (relaxed sense) +Native elements (class 1): carbides, silicides, nitrides, phosphides, elements, alloys, amalgams +Special minerals (strict sense): tellurium(VI) oxysalts ([Te6+Ox], trioxotellurate(IV) tetraoxotellurate(VI) [Te4+O3][Te6+O4]) +"Ore" minerals (sulfides and oxides) +Sulfide class (class 2): sulfides [S], selenides [Se], tellurides [Te], arsenides [As], antimonides [Sb], bismuthides [Bi], sulfantimonides [SbxSy], sulfarsenides [AsxSy], sulfbismuthides [BixSy], sulfastannides [SnxSy], plumboarsenide [As,Pb], plumbobismuthide [Bi,Pb] +Oxide class (class 4): sulfites(IV) [SO3]2−, selenites(IV) [SeO3]2−, iodates [IO3], trioxotellurate(IV) [Te4+O3]2−, dihydroxotellurate(IV) [Te4+O(OH)2], pentaoxoditellurate(IV) [(Te4+)2O5]2−, vanadyl anion [V4+O2]2- +Evaporite and similar minerals +Halide class (class 3): fluoride [F], chloride [Cl], bromide [Br], iodide [I], tetrafluoroborates [BF4], hexafluorosilicates [SiF6], hexachlorothallate(III) [Tl3+Cl6] +Carbonate and nitrate class (class 5): carbonates [CO3], bicarbonate [HCO3] +Nitrates (subclass 5.N): nitrates [NO3] +Borate class (class 6): metaborates [B2O4], trioxoborate [BO3], tetrahydroborate [B(OH)4] +Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, monomeric minerals +Sulfate class (class 7), monomeric minerals: sulfates [SO4]2−, tungstates [WO4]2−, niobates [NbO4]2−, molybdates [MoO4]2−, chromates [CrO4]2−, tetraoxotantalate [TaO4], thiosulphates [SO3S]2− +Phosphate class (class 8), monomeric minerals: phosphates(V) [PO4]3−, arsenates(V) [AsO4]3−, vanadates(V) [VO4]3−, hydroxophosphates(V) [PO3OH]2−, dihydroxophosphates(V) [PO2(OH)2], hydroxoarsenates(V) [AsO3OH]2−, dihydroxoarsenates(V) [AsO2(OH)2] +Nesosilicates (subclass 9.A), monomeric minerals: tetraoxosilicate [SiO4], hydrotrioxosilicate [SiO3OH] +Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, di- and chain silicates +Sorosilicates (subclass 9.B): heptaoxodisilicate [Si2O7], hydrohexaoxodisilicate [Si2O6OH], tetraoxosilicate heptaoxodisilicate [SiO4][Si2O7], decaoxotrisilicate [Si3O10], undecaoxotetrasilicate [Si4O11] +Inosilicates (subclass 9.D): +Single-chain inosilicates: pyroxenes +Double-chain inosilicates: amphiboles +Other inosilicates: +Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, framework silicates +Cyclosilicates (subclass 9.C): +Phyllosilicates (subclass 9.E): +Tridimensional silicate frameworks: tectosilicates (subclass 9.F) +Silica family (class 4, family DA): dioxosilicate [SiO2] +Tectosilicates, zeolites (subclass 9.G): +Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, other cases +Dimeric and polymeric minerals, phosphate and sulfate class: polyphosphates, polyoxometalates, hexaniobates [Nb6O19], pyrophosphates [P2O7], pyroarsenates [As2O7], decavanadates [V10O28] +Other cases (relaxed sense) +Organic minerals, salts of organic acids (class 10, division A): oxalates, citrates, acetates, formiate +Cations: divalent [dimercury] [Hg2]2+, uranyl [U6+O2]2+, ammonium [NH4]+, tetramethylammonium [N(CH3)4]+ +Other building blocks: stannide alloys [Sn], aluminide alloys [Al], aluminosilicates, borosilicates, aluminoborosilicates, paddlewheel cluster [e.g.: uranyl-tricarbonate cluster (UO2)(CO3)3] + +== Gallery == + +== See also == + +Classification of minerals - Non silicates +Classification of minerals - Silicates +Geology +List of critical mineral raw materials +List of minerals +List of minerals (synonyms) +List of rock types +Mineralogy +Mineraloid +Rock + +== Further reading == +Clark, A. (1993). Hey's Mineral Index (3 ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. p. 852. +Gaines, R.V.; Skinner, H.C.; Foord, E.E.; Mason, B.; Rosenzweig, A. (1997). Dana's New Mineralogy: The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury (8 ed.). New York: Wiley & Sons. p. 1819. ISBN 978-0-471-19310-4. +de Fourestier, Jeffrey (1999). Glossary of Mineral Synonyms. Canadian Mineralogist Special Publication 2 (2 ed.). Ottawa: Mineralogical Association of Canada. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-921294-44-3. +Strunz, Hugo; Nickel, Ernest H. (2001). Strunz Mineralogical Tables (9 ed.). Stuttgart: Schweizerbart. p. 869. ISBN 978-3-510-65188-7. +Ferraiolo, J.A. (2003). A Systematic Classification of Minerals. Bowie, US-MD. p. 441.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) +Back, Malcolm E. (2014). Fleischer's Glossary of Mineral Species (11 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 434. +Deer, William A.; Howie, Robert A.; Zussman, Jack (2013). An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals (3 ed.). London: Mineralogical Society. p. 498. ISBN 978-0-903056-27-4. Note: known as DHZ. + +== Notes == + +=== References === + +== External links == +Mindat.org, the mineral database +Webmineral.com +Mineralatlas.eu \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0457bfa3a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "List of ocean circulation models" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:15.653274+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of ocean circulation models, as used in physical oceanography. Ocean circulation models can also be used to study chemical oceanography, biological oceanography, geological oceanography, and climate science. + + +== Integrated ocean modeling systems == +Integrated ocean modeling systems use multiple coupled models. This coupling allows researchers to understand processes that happen among multiple systems that are usually modeled independently, such as the ocean, atmosphere, waves, and sediments. Integrated ocean modeling systems is helpful for specific regions: for example, the ESPreSSO model is used to study the Mid-Atlantic Bight region. Integrated ocean modeling systems often use data from buoys and weather stations for atmospheric forcing and boundary conditions. Two examples of integrated ocean modeling systems are: + +COAWST: Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Wave Sediment Transport Modeling System (uses ROMS as its ocean circulation component). +ESPreSSO: Experimental System for Predicting Shelf and Slope Optics (uses ROMS as its ocean circulation component). + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..19a400075 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "List of oil fields" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:40.944254+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of oil fields includes some major oil fields of the past and present. + +The list is incomplete; there are more than 25,000 oil and gas fields of all sizes in the world. However, 94% of known oil is concentrated in fewer than 1,500 giant and major fields. Most of the world's largest oilfields are located in the Middle East, but there are also super giant (5 billion bbls) oilfields in Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Kazakhstan, and Russia. +A field containing 500 million barrels or more ultimately recoverable reserves is a giant field, while a super giant contains 5 billion barrels or more recoverable reserves. +Amounts listed below, in billions of barrels, are the estimated ultimate recoverable petroleum resources (proved reserves plus cumulative production also abbreviated as URR), given historical production and current extraction technology. Oil shale reserves (perhaps 3 trillion barrels (4.8×1011 m3)) and coal reserves, both of which can be converted to liquid petroleum, are not included in this chart. Other non-conventional liquid fuel sources are similarly excluded from this list. +Scientific assessments indicate the existence of substantial undiscovered, technically recoverable oil and natural gas resources in Arctic and other regions, but commercial exploration has either failed or not commenced due to unavailability of permits and approvals, restrictive policies, environmental risks and logistical challenges. The list excludes fields where commercial development has been unsuccessful and fields with no current plan for development and extraction. +Current production is for 2025, except when the year is specifically provided along with the production figure. + + +== Oil fields greater than 1 billion barrels (160 million cubic metres) URR == + + +== See also == + +Athabasca Oil Sands +Brent oilfield — decommissioned oil field in the North Sea +Giant oil and gas fields +List of coalfields +List of natural gas fields +List of oil and gas fields of the North Sea +OAPEC +Oil megaprojects +Oil shale reserves +OPEC +Petrol +Petroleum Reservoir + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42586da7f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "List of ophiolites" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:42.156877+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ophiolites are sequences of mafic to ultramafic rock generally believed to represent ancient oceanic lithosphere. They are distributed all across the world being all of them located at present or past orogenic belts, sites of mountain building processes. +Ophiolites are common in orogenic belts of Mesozoic age, like those formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. Ophiolites in Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains are rare. + + +== Mediterranean and Peri-Arabic == +Morais ophiolite complex, Portugal +Internal Ligurian Ophiolites in Northern Apennines, Italy +Troodos Ophiolite in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus +Kizildag ophiolite, southern Turkey +Mirdita Ophiolite, middle Jurassic ophiolite in northern Albania between the Apulian and Pelagonian subcontinents in the Balkan Peninsula +Cap Corse ophiolite, Corsica, France +Vourinos and Pindos Ophiolites in Northern Greece and their northern extensions (numerous ophiolite bodies) in Albania, Serbia and Bosnia +Ronda peridotite, Southern Spain +Lherz Massif, France +Beni Bousera ophiolite, Morocco +Golyamo Kamenyane Complex, Bulgaria +Semail Ophiolite in Oman and the United Arab Emirates +Makran Ophiolite, Makran, Iran and Pakistan +Zagros ophiolite, Zagros Mountains, Iran +Iraq Zagros ophiolites, Zagros Mountains, Iraq, includes; Cretaceous ophiolites (Mawat, Penjwen, Pushtashan, Hassanbig and Bulfat) and Eocene ophiolites (Rayat and Qalander). + + +== Tibetan == +Dongbo ophiolite +Loubusa ophiolite +Purang ophiolite + + +== Circumpacific == + + +=== Asia-Pacific === +Zambales Ophiolite in western Luzon, Philippines +Angat Ophiolite in eastern Luzon, Philippines +Rapu-rapu Ophiolite Complex in eastern Philippines +Southeast Bohol Ophiolite Complex in Bohol, Philippines +Macquarie Island, Tasmania, Australia +Palawan Ophiolite, western Philippines +Papuan ophiolite in Papua New Guinea +Yakuno, Horokanai, and Poroshiri, three full ophiolite sequences in Japan +Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, South Island, New Zealand +Naga-Manipur Ophiolite Complex, India + + +=== North American Cordillera === +Coast Range Ophiolite, in the California Coast Ranges from Santa Barbara through San Francisco Counties, California. +Kings River ophiolite, southwest Sierra Nevada foothills, California +Point Sal ophiolite, Point Sal, Santa Barbara County, Southern California. +California ophiolite, Smartville Block of the Sierra Nevada, and the Klamath Mountains, northern California +Josephine Ophiolite in Southern Oregon +Canyon Mountain and Sparta Complexes ophiolite, Northeastern Oregon +Payson Ophiolite, Payson, Arizona. +Metchosin Igneous Complex ophiolite, southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada +Ingalls Terrane ophiolite, Cascade Mountains, Washington +Fidalgo Complex ophiolite, Skagit County, Washington. + + +=== Mexico and the Caribbean === +Olivos ophiolite, Chihuahua, Mexico +Vizcaino ophiolite, Baja California Sur, Mexico +Cuban ophiolititic belt +Puerto Rican ophiolite + + +=== Andes === +La Tetilla Ophiolite Complex, near Popayán, Colombian Cordillera Occidental (Andes) +Famatinian Ophiolites, near Famatina in the Argentine Andes. +Tapo ophiolite, Peru +Taitao ophiolite +Rocas Verdes ophiolites, Patagonian Andes, Chile +Tortuga ophiolite complex +Sarmiento ophiolite complex + + +== Brazil == +Quatipuru ophiolite, Brazil +Cerro Mantiqueiras Ophiolite, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil + + +== Eastern North America == +Betts Cove, St. Anthony, Little Port, Advocate, Gander River, Pipestone Pond, Great Bend and Annieopsquotch ophiolites in Newfoundland +Bay of Islands Ophiolite in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland, named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 because of its superbly exposed complete ophiolite stratigraphic sequence +Thetford Mines ophiolite Complex (Thetford Mines, Cantons de l'Est, Québec, Canada) +Asbestos ophiolite (Asbestos, Cantons de l'Est, Québec, Canada) +Mont Orford ophiolite (Magog, Cantons de l'Est, Québec, Canada) +Mont Albert ophiolite (Gaspésie, Québec, Canada) +Maryland ophiolite in the central Appalachian orogen, Baltimore, Maryland. + + +== Northern Europe == +Ballantrae Complex, Girvan-Ballantrae area, SW Ayrshire, Scotland +Jormua Ophiolite, Finland +Karmøy ophiolite, Scandinavian Mountains, Norway +Leka Ophiolite, Scandinavian Mountains, Norway +Løkken Ophiolite, Scandinavian Mountains, Norway +Nuttio Ophiolite, Finland +Solund-Stavfjord Ophiolite, Scandinavian Mountains, Norway +Lizard complex in Cornwall, United Kingdom +Outokumpu Ophiolite, Finland +Shetland Ophiolite, Unst and Fetlar, Shetland, Scotland + + +== References == + +5 - Forearc extension and sea-floor spreading in the Thetford Mines Ophiolite complex (link : https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=fr&user=sWm-LdoAAAAJ&cstart=20&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=sWm-LdoAAAAJ:B2rIPIGFPLEC) +6 - Structural evolution of the Thetford Mines Ophiolite Complex, Canada: implications for the southern Québec ophiolitic belt (link : +https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=fr&user=sWm-LdoAAAAJ&cstart=20&sortby=pubdate&citation_for_view=sWm-LdoAAAAJ:u0Mu_IsstPMC) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..93bea95b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "List of orogenies" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:43.448659+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of known orogenies organised by continent, starting with the oldest in each. The headings are present-day continents, which may differ from the geography contemporary to the orogenies. Some orogenies encompass more than one continent and may have different names in each, and some very large orogenies include sub-orogenies. As with other geological phenomena, orogenies are often subject to revised interpretations of their age, type and associated paleogeography. +In some (especially older) literature, the term orogeny refers to a long episode of basin formation and deposition of sediments over hundreds of millions of years, ending with deformation (sometimes including metamorphism) of these deposits. However, some workers use the term only for the final mountain-building deformation event over tens of millions of years or shorter. + +== African orogenies == +Pan-African orogeny – Series of major mountain-forming events in the Neoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic Era (550 Ma) +Damara orogeny – Mountain-building event at the intersection of the Congo and Kalahari cratons +Kibaran orogeny – Mountain building event in what is now Africa +Eburnean orogeny – Mountain building event in what is now West Africa +East African Orogeny – Main stage in the Neoproterozoic assembly of East and West Gondwana +Mauritanide Orogeny – Ancient orogen parallel to the west coast of Africa from Morocco to Guinea-Bissau +Mozambique Orogeny – Band in the Earth's crust from East Antarctica to the Arabian-Nubian Shield +Zambezian Orogeny – Area of mountain building now in southern Zambia and northern Zimbabwe + +== Antarctic orogenies == +Orogenies affecting Antarctica include: + +Napier orogeny – Mountain range in East Antarctica – (4000±200 Ma) +Rayner orogeny – (c. 3500 Ma) +Humboldt orogeny – Geologic formation in Antarctica, (c. 3000 Ma) +Insel orogeny – (2650±150 Ma) +Early Ruker orogeny – (2000–1700 Ma) +Late Ruker orogeny, also known as the Nimrod orogeny – (1000±150 Ma) +Beardmore orogeny – (633–620 Ma) +Ross orogeny – Paleozoic mountain building event in Antarctica – (c. 550 – c. 480 Ma) +Borchgrevink orogeny +Peninsula orogeny + +== Asian orogenies == + +Aravalli-Delhi Orogen – Precambrian +Altaid Orogeny – Paleozoic Era +Uralian orogeny – Geological events that formed the Ural Mountains during the Permian Period +Cimmerian and Cathaysian orogenies +Active through Triassic and Jurassic Periods along south and southeast Asia. +Dabie-Sulu orogeny – Mesozoic Era +Persia–Tibet–Burma orogeny – Cenozoic Era; caused by the continuing collision of the Arabian and Indian Plates with the Eurasian Plate, encompassing: +Himalayan orogeny – Forming the Himalaya Mountains + +== European orogenies == +Saamian orogeny – Formation of an extensive area of tonalitic-trondhjemitic crust in Fennoscandia, (3.1–2.9 Ga) +Lopian orogeny – Archean orogeny – Formation of two different types of terrain compatible with plate tectonic concepts. One is a belt of high-grade gneisses formed in a regime of strong mobility, while the other is a region of granitoid intrusions and greenstone belts surrounded by the remnants of a Saamian substratum, (2.9–2.6 Ga) +Svecofennian orogeny, also known as Svecokarelian orogeny – Geological processes in Sweden, Finland, and Russia, (2.0–1.75 Ga) +Gothian orogeny – Orogeny in western Fennoscandia – Formation of tonalitic-granodioritic plutonic rocks and calc-alkaline volcanites (like the previous Svecofennian orogeny), (1.75–1.5 Ga) +Sveconorwegian orogeny – Orogenic belt in southwestern Sweden and southern Norway – Essentially reworking of previously formed crust, (1.25 Ga – 900 Ma) +Timanide orogeny – Orogen that formed during the NeoproterozoicPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Affecting the northern Baltic Shield during the Neoproterozoic Era, (620–550 Ma) +Cadomian orogeny – Tectonic event(s) in the late NeoproterozoicPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – On the north coast of Armorica in the Ediacaran/Cambrian, (660–540 Ma) +Caledonian orogeny – Mountain building event caused by the collision of Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia – Deformation of the western Scandinavian Peninsula, Britain and Ireland, in the Ordovician Grampian phase and the Silurian Scandian phase +Variscan orogeny, also known as Hercynian orogeny – Collision of tectonic plates resulting in the creation of mountains – Deformation in western Iberia, southwest Ireland, southwest England, central and western France, southern Germany and Czech Republic, during the Devonian and Carboniferous Periods +Uralian orogeny – Geological events that formed the Ural Mountains, during the Permian Period. +Alpine orogeny – Formation of the Alpine mountain ranges of Europe, the Middle East and northwest Africa, encompassing: +The Formation of the Alps, during the Eocene through Miocene Periods +Carpathian orogeny – Building the Carpathian Mountains of eastern Europe, during the Jurassic-Cretaceous to Miocene Period +Hellenic orogeny – Collective Noun – In Greece and the Aegean area, during Eocene through Miocene Periods +Mediterranean Ridge – Seabed ridge south of Greece + +== North American orogenies == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3298f0e67 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "List of orogenies" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:43.448659+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Algoman orogeny, also known as Kenoran orogeny – Late Archaean episode of mountain building in what is now North America – Superior province, South Dakota to Lake Huron, late Archean Eon (2700–2500 Ma) +Wopmay orogeny – Mountain-building event in northern Canada – Along western edge of Canadian Shield, (2100–1900 Ma) +Trans-Hudson orogeny, also known as Hudsonian orogeny – Mountain-building event in North America – Extends from Hudson Bay west into Saskatchewan then south through the western Dakotas and Nebraska. Result of the collision of the Superior craton with the Hearne craton and the Wyoming craton, during the Proterozoic Eon (2000–1800 Ma) +Nagssugtoqidian orogeny – Late Paleoproterozoic mountain-building event in Greenland – (1910–1770 Ma) +Ketilidian orogeny – Collision at the southern margin of the North Atlantic Craton, late Paleoproterozoic Era (1850–1720 Ma) +Penokean orogeny – Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, and southern Ontario, (1850–1840 Ma) +Great Falls orogeny, also known as the Big Sky orogeny – Proterozoic collision between the Hearne craton and the Wyoming craton in southwest Montana, (1770 Ma) +Ivanpah orogeny – Mountain building event in the Proterozoic – Mojave Desert region, southwestern U.S. +Yavapai orogeny – Mountain building event 1.7 billion years ago in the southwestern United States, (1710–1700 Ma) +Mazatzal orogeny – Mountain-building event in North America – Mid to southwestern U.S., (1675–1650 Ma) +Picuris orogeny – Mountain-building event in what is now the Southwestern US – Mid to southwestern U.S., (1430–1300 Ma) +Grenville orogeny – Mesoproterozoic mountain-building event – Worldwide, during the late Proterozoic Eon (1300–1000 Ma). Associated with the assembly of the supercontinent Rodinia. Formed folded mountains in eastern North America from Newfoundland to North Carolina, (1100–1000 Ma) +Caledonian orogeny – Mountain building event caused by the collision of Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia, including: +East Greenland Orogen – From Cryogenian to Devonian Periods +Taconic phase – Mountain-building period that affected most of New England – In the northeastern U.S. and Canada, during the Ordovician Period +Acadian phase – North American orogeny – In the eastern U.S., during the Silurian and Devonian Periods +Appalachian orogeny – Mountain-forming event that formed the Appalachian and Allegheny Mountains – Usually seen as the same as the Variscan orogeny in Europe +Appalachian Mountains are a well-studied orogenic belt resulting from a late Paleozoic collision between North America and Africa. +Taconic orogeny – Mountain-building period that affected most of New England +Acadian orogeny – North American orogeny +Alleghanian orogeny – Mountain-forming event that formed the Appalachian and Allegheny Mountains +Ouachita orogeny – Mountain-building event that resulted in the Ouachita Mountains Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma is an orogenic belt that dates from the late Paleozoic Era and is most likely a continuation of the Appalachian orogeny west across the Mississippi embayment – Reelfoot Rift zone. +Antler orogeny – Tectonic event from the Late Devonian into the Mississippian and early Pennsylvanian – Ancestral Sierra Nevada, western U.S., from late Devonian Period to early Mississippian age +Innuitian orogeny, also known as Ellesmerian orogeny – Major tectonic episode in the Canadian Arctic and Northernmost Greenland – Innuitian Mountains, Canadian Arctic, extending from Ellesmere Island to Melville Island, Mississippian age (345 Ma) +Sonoma orogeny – Rocky Mountains, western North America, (270–240 Ma) +Nevadan orogeny – Mountain building event in North America – Developed along western North America, during the Jurassic Period +Sevier orogeny – Mountain-building episode in North America – Rocky Mountains, western North America, (140–50 Ma) +Laramide orogeny – Period of mountain building in North America – Rocky Mountains, western North America, (70-40 Ma) +Pasadena orogeny – Transverse Ranges, western North America, Pleistocene Period to present day + +== Oceania orogenies == + +=== Australian orogenies === +Sleaford orogeny – Gawler craton, South Australia, (2440–2420 Ma) +Glenburgh orogeny – Glenburgh Terrane, Western Australia, (c. 2005–1920 Ma) +Barramundi orogeny – MacArthur Basin, northern Australia, (c. 1890–1850 Ma) +Kimban orogeny – Gawler craton, South Australia, (c. 1845–1700 Ma) +Cornian orogeny – Gawler craton, South Australia +Miltalie orogeny – Gawler craton, South Australia +Yapungku orogeny – North Yilgarn craton margin, Western Australia, (c. 1765 Ma) +Albany-Fraser orogeny – Mountain-forming period in Australia – Western Australia, (c. 1710–1020 Ma) +Mangaroon orogeny – Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia, (c. 1680–1620 Ma) +Isan orogeny – Mount Isa Block, Queensland, (c. 1600 Ma) +Kararan orogeny – Event in South Australia – Gawler craton, South Australia, (1570–1555 Ma) +Olarian orogeny – Olary Block, South Australia +Capricorn orogeny – Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia +Musgrave orogeny – Musgrave Block, Central Australia, (c. 1080 Ma) +Edmundian orogeny – Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia, (c. 920–850 Ma) +Petermann Orogeny – Neoproterozoic mountain building event – Central Australia, late Neoproterozoic Era to Cambrian Period (c. 630–520 Ma) +Delamerian Orogeny – Major geological province in AustraliaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – South Australia and Victoria, Ordovician Period, (c. 514–510 Ma) +Lachlan Orogeny – Geological feature in Australia – Victoria and New South Wales, (c. 540 and 440 Ma) +Thomson Orogeny – Mountain building process in GondwanaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Northern continuation of the Lachlan Orogeny +Alice Springs Orogeny – Australian mountain building event – Central Australia, early Carboniferous Period, (450–300 Ma) +Kanimblan Orogeny – Ancient Australian mountain-building event – Victoria and New South Wales, Carboniferous Period (c. 318 Ma) +Hunter-Bowen orogeny, also known as New England Orogeny – Queensland and New South Wales, Permian Period to Triassic Period (c. 260–225 Ma) +Sprigg Orogeny – continuing uplift of the Flinders and Mt Lofty Ranges in South Australia (Miocene – present) + +=== New Zealand orogenies === +Tuhua Orogeny – Mountain-building process in New ZealandPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets, (370–330 Ma) +Rangitata Orogeny, (142–99 Ma) +Kaikoura Orogeny – Seismic formation eventPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets, (24 Ma – present) + +== South American orogenies == +Transamazonian orogeny – Paleoproterozoic +Guriense orogeny +Sunsás orogeny – Ancient orogeny +Cariri Velhos orogeny – Belt of rocks in BrazilPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Brasiliano-Pan African orogeny – Brasilia Belt +Pampean orogeny – Paraguai Belt +Chonide orogeny – Mountain building event in the Triassic +Terra Australis Orogeny – Geological feature +Pampean orogeny +Famatinian orogeny – Paleozoic geological event in South America +San Rafael orogeny +Gondwanide orogeny – Permian mountain forming tectonic event – Sierra de la Ventana +Toco orogeny, Chilean Coast Range, (300–330 Ma) +Andean orogeny – Ongoing mountain-forming process in South America, Andes Mountains, (200 Ma – present) + +== Table == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7f32d9fda --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,179 @@ +--- +title: "List of paleontologists" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:44.782013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of notable paleontologists who have made significant contributions to the field of paleontology. Only paleontologists with biographical articles in Wikipedia are listed here. + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == +Nizar Ibrahim (Germany / Morocco, 1982- ) +Thomas Image (England, 1772-1856) +Wataru Ishijima (Japan, 1906-1980) +Arturo Issel (Italy, 1842-1922) + + +== J == +David Jablonski (United States, 1953- ) +Auguste Jaccard (Switzerland, 1833-1895) +Louis L. Jacobs (United States, 1948- ) +Sohan Lal Jain (India) +Helen F. James (United States, 1956- ) +Werner Janensch (Germany, 1878-1969) +Philippe Janvier (France) +Erik Jarvik (Sweden, 1829-1901) +Dick Jefferies (England) +Farish Jenkins (United States, 1940-2012) +James A. Jensen (United States, 1918-1998) +Kirk Johnson (United States, 1960- ) +Frederik Johnstrup (Denmark, 1818-1894) +Theobald Jones (Ireland, 1790-1868) +Thomas Rupert Jones (England, 1819-1911) + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == +Darren Naish (England, 1975- ) +Alfred Gabriel Nathorst (Sweden, 1850-1921) +Theodor Anton Neagu (Romania, 1932-2017) +Sterling Nesbitt (United States, 1982- ) +Edwin Tulley Newton (England, 1840-1930) +Elizabeth Nicholls (Canada, 1946-2004) +Henry Alleyne Nicholson (Scotland, 1844-1899) +Adolf Carl Noé (Austria / United States, 1873-1939) +Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás (Hungary, 1877-1933) +Alexander von Nordmann (Finland, 1803-1866) +Mark Norell (United States, 1957- ) +David B. Norman (England) +Fernando Novas (Argentina) +Nestor Ivanovich Novozhilov (Russia) + + +== O == +Vladimir Obruchev (Russia, 1863-1956) +Klaus Oeggl (Austria, 1955- ) +Chonosuke Okamura (Japan) +Thomas Oldham (Ireland / England, 1816-1878) +Walter Oliver (Australia / New Zealand, 1883-1957) +Paul E. Olsen (United States, 1953- ) +Stanley John Olsen (United States, 1919-2003) +Everett C. Olson (United States, 1910-1993) +Armin Öpik (Estonia / Australia, 1898-1983) +Alcide d'Orbigny (France, 1802-1857) +Yuri Alexandrovich Orlov (Russia, 1893-1966) +Tor Ørvig (Sweden, 1916-1994) +Henry Fairfield Osborn (United States, 1857-1935) +Halszka Osmólska (Poland, 1930-2008) +John Ostrom (United States, 1928-2005) +Richard Owen (England, 1804-1892) +Katsura Ōyama (Japan, 1917-1995) +Ozawa Yoshiaki (Japan, 1989-1929) + + +== P == + + +== Q == +Qiaomei Fu (People's Republic of China, born 1982) +Heinrich Quiring (Germany, 1883-1964) + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == +Viktor Uhlig (Austria, 1857-1911) +Edward Oscar Ulrich (United States, 1857-1944) +Franz Unger (Austria, 1800-1870) + + +== V == +Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (Belgium, 1809-1894) +Gerard Frederick van Tets (England / Canada / Australia, 1929-1995) +Blaire Van Valkenburgh (United States) +Trevor Valle (United States, 1975- ) +Geerat J. Vermeij (Netherlands / United States, 1946- ) +Édouard de Verneuil (France, 1805-1873) +Patricia Vickers-Rich (United States / Australia, 1944- ) +Emily H. Vokes (United States, 1930- ) +Alexander von Volborth (Russia, 1800-1876) +Giovanni Serafino Volta (Italy, 1764-1842) +Nadejda Voronets, (Russian, 1881–1979) +Elisabeth Vrba (United States, 1942- ) +Vishnu-Mittre (India, 1924-1991) + + +== W == + + +== X == +Xu Xing (China) + + +== Y == +Hisakatsu Yabe (Japan, 1878-1969) +Yang Zhongjian (China, 1897-1979) +Lorenzo Gordin Yates (United States, 1837-1909) +Ivan Yefremov (Russia, 1908-1972) +Xiaobo Yu (China) + + +== Z == +Mikhail Zalessky (Russia, 1877-1946) +Lindsay Zanno (United States) +Otto Zdansky (Austria, 1894-1988) +Charles René Zeiller (France, 1847-1915) +Zhao Xijin (China) +Vladimir Zherikhin (Russia) +Zhou Ming-Zhen (China, 1918-1996) +Zhou Zhonghe (China, 1965- ) +Jiri Zidek (Czech Republic / United States) +Eduard Meine van Zinderen-Bakker (Netherlands / South Africa, 1907-2002) +Gustav Adolf Zwanziger (Austria, 1837-1893) + + +== See also == +List of geologists \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca94ea25b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +--- +title: "List of place names of Dutch origin" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:28.869771+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +To be included in this list, the place must have an article on Wikipedia or must have inline references showing the name is or was indeed Dutch. + +== Populated places == + +=== Countries === +New Holland, AUS +New Holland, BRA +Mauritius +New Zealand +Oranje-Vrijstaat +Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek +Zoutpansbergsche Republiek +Republiek Zwellendam +Republic of Lydenburg +Republic of Utrecht +Republiek Graaff-Reinet +Kaap de Goede Hoop + +=== Provinces and regions === +Arnhem Land, AUS +Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve, Eastern Cape, ZA +Bergen County, New Jersey, USA +Nassau County, New York, USA +Mount Wilhelmina, former name of Puncak Trikora, Indonesia +New Netherland, USA +Nuytsland, Western Australia, AUS +Oranje-Vrijstaat Province, ZA +Overberg (Over 't Berg), Western Cape, ZA +Schuyler County, New York, USA +Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, USA +Tasman Peninsula, AUS +Tasman Region, NZ +Transvaal Province, ZA + +=== Islands === +Amsterdam Island, Spitsbergen +Amsterdam Island, Southern Indian Ocean +Bear Island, Norway +Bedloe's Island, now Liberty Island, New York-NJ, USA +Block Island, Rhode Island, USA +Coney Island, New York, USA +Crocodile Islands, Northern Territory, AUS +Dirk Hartog Island, Western Australia, AUS +Delft, Sri Lanka +Dwars-in-den-weg Island, now Sangiang Island, Banten, ID +Easter Island, CHL +Fishers Island, New York, USA +Gorée, SEN +Groote Eyland, Northern Territory, AUS +Hermite Islands, CHL +Hoorn Islands, Wallis and Futuna +Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia, AUS +Jan Mayen, Norway +Jost Van Dyke, BVI +Kherkof Island, now Kelor Island, Thousand Islands district, Jakarta, ID +Kuiper Island, now Kahyangan Island, Thousand Islands district, Jakarta, ID +Lang Island, Sunda Strait, ID +Long Island, New York, USA +Manhattan, New York, USA +Maria Island, Tasmania, AUS +Maatsuyker Islands, Tasmania, AUS +New Holland Island, Saint Petersburg, RUS +Ny-Friesland, Spitsbergen +Noten Eylant, New York, USA +Onrust Island, Thousand Islands district, Jakarta, ID +Purmerend Island, now Bidadari Island, Thousand Islands district, Jakarta, ID +Rhode Island, Rhode Island, USA +Rikers Island, New York, USA +Robbeneiland, Western Cape, ZA +Roosevelt Island, New York, USA +Rottnest Island, Western Australia, AUS +Schouten Island, Tasmania, AUS +Schouten Islands, now Biak Islands, Indonesia +Sebald Islands +Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway +St Francis Island, South Australia, AUS +St Peter Island, South Australia, AUS +Staten Island, New York, USA +Stateneiland, Argentina +Tasmania, AUS +Three Kings Islands, NZ +Van Diemen's Land, AUS +Vanderlin Island, Northern Territory, AUS +Verlaten Island, Sunda Strait, ID +Wakenaam Island, Essequibo River, Guyana +Wessel Islands, Northern Territory, AUS + +== Castles, forts & trade posts == +Fort Amsterdam, Ambon, ID +Fort Belgica, Banda Neira, ID +Fort Beversreede, Pennsylvania, USA +Fort Casimir, Delaware, USA +Fort Daspoortrand, Pretoria, ZA +Fort Duurstede, Saparua, ID +Fort Nassau, New York, USA +Fort Nassau, New Jersey, USA +Fort Hoop, Connecticut, USA +Fort Klapperkop, Pretoria, ZA +Fort Orange, New York, USA +Fort Oranje (Ternate), Ternate, ID +Fort Prins Frederik, Jakarta, ID (demolished, now Istiqlal Mosque Complex) +Fort Rotterdam, Makassar, ID +Fort Schanskop, Pretoria, ZA +Fort Van den Bosch, Ngawi, ID +Fort Van den Capellen, Batu sangkar, ID +Fort Vastenburg, Surakarta, ID +Fort Vredeburg, Yogyakarta, ID +Fort Wilhelmus, New Jersey, USA +Fort Wonderboompoort, Pretoria, ZA +Fort Zeelandia, SUR +Kasteel de Goede Hoop, Western Cape, ZA +Kievits Hoek, Connecticut, USA +Peterhof Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russia +Smeerenburg, Svalbard + +== Cities, towns and neighborhoods == + +=== Cities === +Amsterdam, Missouri, USA +Amsterdam, New York, USA +Batavia, now Jakarta, ID +Batavia, New York, USA +Batavia, Illinois, USA +Batavia, Iowa, USA +Blauvelt, New York, USA +Bloemfontein, ZA +Bluefields, NIC +Breda, Iowa, USA +Brielle, New Jersey, USA +Buitenzorg, now Bogor, ID +Dutch Harbor, AK, USA +Fort de Kock, now Bukittinggi, ID +Groningen, Minnesota, USA +Groningen, SUR +Grootfontein, Namibia +Harlingen, Texas, USA +Hoboken, New Jersey, USA +Holland, Michigan, USA +Hollandia, now Jayapura, ID +Johannesburg, ZA +Kaapstad, ZA +Lelydorp, SUR +Nassau, BHS +Nederland, Colorado, USA +Nederland, Texas, USA +New Amsterdam, Guyana +New Amsterdam, New York, USA +Oranjestad, Aruba +Oosthaven, now Bandar Lampung, ID +Pietermaritzburg, ZA +Point-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe +Pretoria, ZA +Rensselaer, New York, USA +Rotterdam, New York, USA +Schenectady, New York, USA +Wiltwyck, New York, USA +Van Buren, Arkansas, USA +Vancouver, Canada +Willemstad, Curaçao +Williamsburg, Virginia, USA + Windhoek, Namibia +Yonkers, New York, USA +Zeeland, Michigan, USA +Zeeland, North Dakota, USA \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4eab9ea8c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,235 @@ +--- +title: "List of place names of Dutch origin" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:28.869771+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Towns === +Alkmaar, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Alkmaar, Suriname +Amersfoort, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Amsterdam, California, USA +Amsterdam, New York, USA +Amsterdam, Jefferson County, Ohio, USA +Amsterdam, Licking County, Ohio, USA +Amsterdam, Pennsylvania, USA +Amsterdam, Texas, USA +Amsterdam, Virginia, USA +Amsterdam, Montana, USA +Amsterdam, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Amsterdam, Saskatchewan, Canada +Ansnorveldt, Ontario, Canada +Antwerp Township, Michigan, USA +Baardscheerders Bosch, Western Cape, South Africa +Barentsburg, Svalbard, Norway +Batavia Township, Michigan, USA +Batavia, New York, USA +Batavia, Ohio, USA +Batavia, Wisconsin, USA +Beterverwagting, Guyana +Beukendaal, New York, USA +Bloubergstrand, Western Cape, South Africa +Bluefields, Jamaica +The Bottom, Saba +Bredasdorp, Western Cape, South Africa +Calitzdorp, Western Cape, South Africa +Claverack, New York, USA +Coeymans, New York, USA +De Doorns, Western Cape, South Africa +De Hollandsche Molen, Western Cape, South Africa +Delft, Minnesota, USA +De Rust, Western Cape, South Africa +Town of DeRuyter, New York, USA +Village of DeRuyter, New York, USA +Deventer, Missouri, USA +De Vlugt, Western Cape, South Africa +Domburg, Suriname +Dordrecht, Eastern Cape, South Africa +Drakenstein, Western Cape, South Africa +Edam, Saskatchewan, Canada +Ermelo, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Esau and Jacob, Guyana +Flushing, Cornwall, UK +Franschhoek, Western Cape, South Africa +Genadendal, Western Cape, South Africa +Goedverwacht, Western Cape, South Africa +Gouda, Western Cape, South Africa +Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape, South Africa +Greenbush (North and East), New York, USA +Groningen, Suriname +Groote Laagte, Botswana +Guilderland, New York, USA +Haarlem, Western Cape, South Africa +Hague, North Dakota, USA +Hague, New York, USA +Hague, Saskatchewan, Canada +Harlem, Ohio, USA +Hartenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa +Haverstraw, New York, USA +Hempstead, New York, USA +Hermanus, Western Cape, South Africa +Heroldt, Western Cape, South Africa +Holambra, Brazil +Holland, Manitoba, Canada +Holland Township, Michigan, USA +Holland Charter Township, Michigan, USA +Holland, New York, USA +Holland, Arkansas, USA +Holland, Ohio, USA +Holland, Wisconsin, USA +Holland Landing, Ontario, CAN +Kaapsche Hoop, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Town of Kinderhook, New York, USA +Village of Kinderhook, New York, USA +Kleinkrantz, Western Cape, South Africa +Klerksdorp, North West, South Africa +Leyden, Massachusetts, USA +Leyden, New York, USA +Leyden, Wisconsin, USA +Lichtenburg, North West, South Africa +Lincklaen, New York, USA +Lydenburg, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Meten-Meer-Zorg, Guyana +Middelburg, Eastern Cape, South Africa +Middelburg, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Middleburgh, New York, USA +Morgenzon, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Muizenberg, Western Cape, South Africa +Nassau, New York, USA +Nederland, Colorado, USA +New Almelo, Kansas, USA +Nieuw Amsterdam, Suriname +Nieuw Rotterdam, Suriname +Nooitgedacht, Transvaal, South Africa +Noordhoek, Western Cape, South Africa +Oostburg, Wisconsin, USA +Oranjestad, Aruba +Oranjestad, Sint Eustatius +Oudtshoorn, Western Cape, South Africa +Overisel Township, Michigan, USA +Paarl, Western Cape, South Africa +Pella, Iowa, USA +Petergof, Saint Petersburg, Russia +Philipsburg, Sint Maarten +Plattekill, New York, USA +Pniel, Western Cape, South Africa +Poestenkill, New York, USA +Potchefstroom, North West, South Africa +Putzonderwater, Northern Cape, South Africa +Riebeek East, Eastern Cape, South Africa +Riebeek-Kasteel, Western Cape, South Africa +Riebeek West, Western Cape, South Africa +Riviersonderend, Western Cape, South Africa +Rheenendal, Western Cape, South Africa +Rodebay, Western Greenland +Rosendale, New York, USA +Rotterdam, New York, USA +Saugerties, New York, USA +Simonstad, Western Cape, South Africa +South Holland, Illinois, USA +Stabroek, Guyana +Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa + Struizendam, Botswana +Stuyvesant, New York, USA +Swellendam, Western Cape, South Africa +Uitvlugt, Guyana +Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa +Vaalhoek, Botswana +Valatie, New York, USA +Vereeniging, Gauteng, South Africa +Venlo, North Dakota, USA +Vis Hoek, Western Cape, South Africa +Volksrust, Mpumulanga, South Africa +Vreed en Hoop, Guyana +Vredenburg, Western Cape, South Africa +Vredendal, Western Cape, South Africa +Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa +Wakkerstroom, Mpumalanga, South Africa +Wageningen, Suriname +Watervliet, New York, USA +Weenen, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa +Wel te Vreeden, Guyana +Weldaad, Guyana +Wilhelmina, Missouri, USA +Wolvengat, Western Cape, South Africa +Wynantskill, New York, USA +Yzerfontein, Western Cape, South Africa +Zastron, Free State, South Africa +Zeeburg, Guyana +Zeehan, Tasmania, Australia +Zeeland Charter Township, Michigan, USA +Zeelandia, Guyana +Zeerust, North West, South Africa +Zuurbraak, Western Cape, South Africa +Zwaanendael, Delaware, USA +Zwartruggens, North West, South Africa +Zwolle, Louisiana, USA + +=== Neighbourhoods === +Bedford–Stuyvesant, NYC, New York, USA +Bergen, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA +Bergvliet, Cape Town, Western Cape, ZA +Beverwyck, Albany, New York, USA +Bloemendhal, Colombo, Sri Lanka +Boerum Hill, NYC, New York, USA +Bowery, NYC, New York, USA +Broadway, NYC, New York, USA +Brielle, Wall, New Jersey, USA +The Bronx, NYC, New York, USA +Brooklyn, NYC, New York, USA +Bushwick, NYC, New York, USA +Cobble Hill, NYC, New York, USA +Constable Hook, Bayonne, New Jersey USA +Constantia, Western Cape, South Africa +De Waterkant, Western Cape, ZA +De Zoete Inval, Paarl, Western Cape, ZA +Dunderhook Paramus, New Jersey, USA +Delft, Western province, ZA +Dutch Kills, NYC, New York, USA +Dutch Quarter, Colchester, Essex, England +Dutch Quarter, Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany +Dyker Heights, NYC, New York, USA +Flushing, NYC, New York, USA +Gerritsen Beach, NYC, New York, USA +Gowanus, NYC, New York, USA +Gravesend, NYC, New York, USA +Greenwich Village, NYC, New York, USA +Harlem, NYC, New York, USA +Hultsdorf, Colombo, Sri Lanka +Kips Bay, NYC, New York, USA +Kommetjie, Western Cape, ZA +Land-en-Zeezicht, Western Cape, South Africa +Maspeth, Queens, NYC, New York, USA +Mauritsstad, Recife, Brazil +Meester Cornelis, now Jatinegara district, Jakarta, ID +Muitzes Kill, Schodack, New York, USA +New Dorp, NYC, New York, USA +New Utrecht, NYC, New York, USA +Oranjezicht, Western Cape, ZA +Paulus Hook, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA +Prospect Lefferts Gardens, NYC, New York, USA +Rondebosch, Western Cape, ZA +Rotterdam, Schenectady, New York, USA +Rozendal, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, ZA +Ruyterwacht, Western Cape, ZA +Spuyten Duyvil, NYC, New York, USA +Stabroek, Georgetown, Guyana +Stuyvesant Heights, NYC, New York, USA +Tamboerskloof, Western Cape, ZA +Todt Hill, NYC, New York, USA +Twee Rivieren, George, Western Cape, ZA +Van Cortlandt Village, NYC, New York, USA +Van Nest, NYC, New York, USA +Vredehoek, Cape Town, Western Cape, ZA +Wall Street, NYC, New York, USA +Weltevredenpark, Gauteng, ZA +Weltevreden, now Gambir district, Jakarta, Indonesia +Wierdapark, Gauteng, South Africa +Wynberg, Western Cape, ZA +Zonnebloem, Western Cape, ZA + +== Other == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7f7a82ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,124 @@ +--- +title: "List of place names of Dutch origin" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:28.869771+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Bays === +Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, USA +Valsbaai, Western Cape, ZA +Gansbaai, Western Cape, ZA +Storm Bay, Tasmania, AUS +Tafelbaai, Western Cape, ZA +Tasman Bay, New Zealand +Vansittart Bay, Western Australia, AUS +Wijnkoopsbaai, now Palabuhanratu bay, West Java, ID +Wilhelmina Bay, Antarctica + +=== Beaches === +Wingaersheek Beach + +=== Capes === +Cape of Good Hope, Western Cape, ZA +Cape Henlopen, Delaware, USA +Cape Horn, CHL +Cape Keerweer, Queensland, AUS +Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, AUS +Cape Maria van Diemen, NZ +Cape May, New Jersey, USA +Cape Patience, Sakhalin, RUS +Sandy Hook, New Jersey, USA +Sint Nicolaaspunt, now Tanjung Pujut, West Java, ID +Verlegenhuken, Spitsbergen + +=== Gulfs === +Frederick Henry Bay, Tasmania, AUS +Geelvink Channel, Western Australia, AUS +Gulf of Carpentaria, AUS +Gulf of Patience, RUS +Liefdefjorden, Spitsbergen +Storm Bay, Tasmania, AUS +Van Diemen Gulf, AUS +Wijdefjorden, Spitsbergen + +=== Lakes === +Beira Lake, Sri Lanka (see Sri Lankan place name etymology#Dutch) +Harlem Meer, New York, USA + +=== Mountains === +Bakhuis Mountains, Suriname +Carstensz Pyramid, Papua, Indonesia +Carstensz Glacier, Puncak Jaya, Papua, Indonesia +Drakensberg, South Africa +Eilerts de Haan Mountains, Suriname +Groenland Mountains, Western Cape, South Africa +Grootvadersbosch, South Africa +Hottentots-Holland Mountain Range, Western Cape, South Africa +Helderberg, South Africa +Juliana Peak, now Puncak Mandala, Papua, Indonesia +Julianatop, Suriname +Kogelberg, South Africa +Langeberg, South Africa +Langkloof Mountains, South Africa +Lely Mountains, Suriname +Matroosberg, South Africa +Mount Wilhelmina, now Puncak Trikora, Papua, Indonesia +Riviersonderend Mountains, South Africa +Simonsberg, South Africa +Table Mountain (Tafelberg), South Africa +Tygerberg, South Africa +Van Asch Van Wijck Mountains, Suriname +Wilhelmina Mountains, Suriname + +=== Rivers === +Amstel River, ZA +Berg River, ZA +Big Timber Creek, New Jersey, USA +Breede River, ZA +Coen River, Queensland, AUS +Hell Gate, New York, USA +Holland River, Ontario, CAN +Orange River, ZA +South River, New York, USA +Lorentz River, Papua, Indonesia +Liesbeek River, ZA +Poesten Kill, New York, USA +Sonderend River, ZA +Staaten River, AUS +Swan River, Western Australia, AUS +Schuylkill River, Pennsylvania, USA +Staaten River, Queensland, AUS +Tasman River, New Zealand +Vaal River, ZA +Wynants Kill, New York, USA + +=== Seas === +Barents Sea, Arctic +North Sea, Western Europe +Tasman Sea, AUS +Wadden Sea, Western Europe + +=== Straits === +Arthur Kill, New York, USA +East River, New York, USA +Hinlopen Strait, Spitsbergen +Le Maire Strait, Argentina +Kattegat, Denmark +Kill Van Kull, New York, USA +Vries Strait, Kuril Islands, Russia/Japan + +== Note == +Country codes used for this article +US state codes used for this article + +== See also == +List of place names of Dutch origin in Australia +List of place names of Dutch origin in the United States +Toponymy of New Netherland +Early modern Netherlandish cartography + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level-0.md index cc348e304..120651aec 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:06:17.833260+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:57.235609+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a76209343 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,214 @@ +--- +title: "List of places with columnar jointed volcanics" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:53.572393+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Columnar jointing of volcanic rocks exists in many places on Earth. Perhaps the most famous basalt lava flow in the world is the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, in which the vertical joints form polygonal columns and give the impression of having been artificially constructed. + +== Notable columnar jointed volcanics == + +=== Africa === +Bugarama in Rusizi, Rwanda Columnar jointing in Rusizi district, Nzahaha Sector. This may have formed from contractional cooling of basaltic lavas. +Foreke Quarry, Foreke Dachang, Cameroon +Ikom Columnar Basalt in Cross River State, Nigeria +Numan, Nigeria +"Organ Pipes" near Twyfelfontein, Namibia +Rochester Falls, Mauritius +Seliana, Tunisia +Isle de la Madeleine, Dakar, Senegal +Lalibela, Ethiopia + +=== Asia === + +==== Armenia ==== +Garni Gorge, Armenia +Near Saint Sarkis Cathedral, Yerevan, Armenia + +==== China (mainland) ==== +Heiyuhe Columnar Joints (黑鱼河柱状节理) [Xianrenqiao (仙人桥)], Longchuan River (龙川江) & Black Fish River, Tengchong + +==== Hong Kong ==== +Basalt Island area, Hong Kong; including High Island Reservoir area, Hong Kong; although the High Island Reservoir is not basalt but rhyolitic tuff, rich in potash feldspar and quartz phenocrysts. + +==== India ==== + +In India, columnars are found in several places across the volcanic traps such as 6.5 crore or 65 million years ago (Mya) old deccan traps in South India and 14.5 crore or 145 mya old Rajmahal Traps in Eastern India. + +Karnataka +St. Mary's Island columnars near Malpe in Udupi district of Karnataka state. +Madhya Pradesh +Kavadia Pahad columnars: Forest area near Bagli & Pipari village of Dewas District in Madhya Pradesh. The rock formation is at Kavadia Pahad which is a series of seven mountain ranges. +Linga columnars: 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) south of Chhindwara city. +Narsinghpur columnar joints in Deccan Basalts near Narsinghpur. +Maharashtra +Bandivade columnars: found at Bandivade village bear Panhala in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. +Gilbert Hill columnars in Andheri suburb of Mumbai in Maharashtra +Manmad columnars +Muktagiri columnars jointing in basalt lava flows of Muktagiri section in Amravati district +Telangana +Adilabad district columnars. +Borilalguda columnars: Found on a small hillock inside the reserve forest of Borilalguda village in Kerameri tehsil of Komaram Bheem Asifabad district. +Medak district columnars +Nizamabad district columnars +Rangareddy district columnars + +==== Indonesia ==== + +Gunung Padang in West Java is also a manmade archaeological site. +Gunung Kelud in West Java has basalt columns visible south of the crater lake (Wanajay peak). + +==== Iran ==== +Maku, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran +Mount Damavand, Iran +Sarbisheh, Iran + +==== Israel ==== +Meshushim River (Hexagons River), Hexagons pool, Golan Heights, + +==== Japan ==== +Natsudomari Peninsula, Hiranai, Aomori +Kawazu 7 waterfalls area, Izu Peninsula, Shizuoka +Tōjinbō, Mikuni, Fukui +Genbudō, Toyooka, Hyōgo +Takachiho-kyo gorge, Takachiho, Miyazaki +Keya no Oto, Itoshima, Fukuoka +Tatami-ishi, Kumejima, Okinawa + +==== Malaysia ==== + +In Teck Guan Cocoa Village and in Giram River, Kampung Balung Cocos Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia. + +==== Mongolia ==== +Kharandaa Khad in Taishir district, on Zavkhan River + +==== Philippines ==== +Dunsulan Falls in Mount Samat, Pilar, Bataan +Bulingan Falls in Lamitan, Basilan + +==== Russia ==== +Chukchi Peninsula in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug +Cape Stolbchatiy, Kuril Islands, Russia + +==== South Korea ==== +Jusangjeolli, Seogwipo, Jeju Island, South Korea + +==== Taiwan ==== +Tongpan Basalt (桶盤玄武岩石柱), Tongpan Island and Hujing Island (Table island, 虎井嶼), Penghu Islands +The Whale Cave, on the seashore, in Penghu County + +==== Thailand ==== +Mon Hin Kong (Thai: ม่อนหินกอง), in a mountainous area of the Phi Pan Nam Range near Na Phun, Wang Chin District, Phrae Province, Thailand + +==== Turkey ==== + +Basalt Rocks Natural Monument, Boyabat, Sinop Province, Turkey + +==== Vietnam ==== + +Da Dia Cliff (13.354154°N 109.293812°E / 13.354154; 109.293812) — The Cliff of Stone Plates (Vietnamese: Gành Đá Đĩa), An Ninh Đông Village, Tuy An District, Phú Yên Province, Vietnam +Yen Islet (13.225638°N 109.308770°E / 13.225638; 109.308770) (Vietnamese: Hòn Yến)- An Hòa Village, Tuy An District, Phú Yên Province +Vuc Hom Fall (13.196571°N 109.150737°E / 13.196571; 109.150737) (Vietnamese: Thác Vực Hồm) - An Lĩnh Village, Tuy An District, Phú Yên Province +Vuc Song Fall (13.185074°N 109.149796°E / 13.185074; 109.149796) (Vietnamese: Thác Vực Song) - An Lĩnh Village, Tuy An District, Phú Yên Province +Battle Fall (14.334100°N 108.680464°E / 14.334100; 108.680464) (Vietnamese: Thác Dơi) - Vĩnh Sơn Village, Vĩnh Thạnh District, Bình Định Province +Takon Citadel (14.305230°N 108.703357°E / 14.305230; 108.703357) (Vietnamese: Thành đá Tà Kơn) - K8 (old name: Kon Blò), Vĩnh Sơn Village, Vĩnh Thạnh District, Bình Định Province + +=== Europe === + +==== Croatia ==== +Rupnica, Papuk Nature Park UNESCO Global Geopark, Croatia + +==== Czech Republic ==== +Panská skála, Kamenický Šenov, Czech Republic +Zlatý vrch, Česká Kamenice, Czech Republic + +==== Faroe Islands ==== +Froðba, Hov +Hvalba and Trongisvágur, Suðuroy + +==== France ==== +Thueyts, Jaujac and Fabras, Ardèche +Saint-Flour, Cantal +Chilhac +Saint-Arcons +Prades +Saint-Clément +Moulin-Béraud +La Tour-d'Auvergne +Bort-les-Orgues +Scandola Nature Reserve, Corsica + +==== Georgia ==== +Sioni, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Georgia + +==== Germany ==== +Linz am Rhein, Mendig, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate +Hoher Hagen (Dransfeld), Lower Saxony +Rhön, North Bavaria +Stolpen, Saxony +Hainewalde, Saxony, Phonolite columns +Scharfenstein, Hesse +Weiselberg, Saarland + +==== Great Britain ==== +The islands of Canna, Eigg, and Muck, Scotland +Cullernose Point, near Craster, Northumberland, England +The northern part of the Isle of Skye, Scotland +The Isle of Mull and the nearby beach of Morvern, Scotland +Samson's ribs, Scotland +Fingal's Cave and Staffa, Scotland +Pen Anglas, Pembrokeshire, Wales +Ulva, Scotland +Cave Dale, Castleton, Peak District +Dunbar Harbour + +==== Greece ==== +Milos, Greece + +==== Hungary ==== +Badacsony +Bér +Szanda +Szilváskő +Hegyestű +Szent-György-hegy +Gulács +Haláp +Hajagos +Uzsa + +==== Iceland ==== +Aldeyjarfoss, Þingeyjarsveit +Borgarvirki +Dverghamrar, Kirkjubæjarklaustur +Gerðuberg +Hellnahraun near Arnarstapi, Snæfellsbær +Hljóðaklettar, Jökulsárgljúfur +Kirkjugólf, Kirkjubæjarklaustur +Kálfshamarsvík, Austur-Húnavatnssýsla +Litlanesfoss, Fljótsdalshreppur +Reynisdrangar and Reynisfjara, Vík í Mýrdal +Stuðlagil, East of Iceland +Svartifoss, Skaftafell + +==== Northern Ireland ==== +Giant's Causeway, Northern Ireland + +==== Italy ==== +Alcantara River Gorges, Sicily +Capu Nieddu, Cuglieri, Sardinia +Cuccureddu de Zeppara, Guspini, Sardinia +Is Aruttas Santas, Villaurbana, Sardinia +Cyclopean Isles, Sicily +Motta Sant'Anastasia neck, Sicily +The thrown stones, Lazio + +==== Portugal ==== +Rocha dos Bordões cliffs, Flores, Azores +Pico de Ana Ferreira, Porto Santo +Penedo do Lexim, Mafra +Ponta da Ajuda, Fenais da Ajuda, São Miguel island Ilha de São Miguel, Azores \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..726a85b64 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ +--- +title: "List of places with columnar jointed volcanics" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:53.572393+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Romania ==== +Coloanele de bazalt de la Racoș, Romania +Thunderstruck Rocks (Detunatele), Romania + +==== Slovakia ==== +Šomoška rock waterfall + +==== Spain ==== +Punta Baja, Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, Andalusia +Castellfollit de la Roca, Girona +Fruiz, Biscay +Pitón volcánico de Cancarix, Albacete +Los Órganos, La Gomera, Canary Islands + +==== Sweden ==== +Central Skåne Volcanic Province, Sweden + +==== Ukraine ==== +Bazaltove, Ukraine + +=== North and Central America === + +==== Canada ==== +North Mountain, Nova Scotia +Grand Manan Island (western shorelines), New Brunswick +Brandywine Falls Provincial Park, British Columbia +Cardiff Mountain, Chilcotin Plateau, British Columbia +Keremeos Columns, Keremeos, British Columbia +Aberdeen Columns, Lavington, British Columbia +Wells Gray Provincial Park, British Columbia (Moul Falls, Dragon's Tongue, Helmcken Falls) +Mount Edziza volcanic complex, British Columbia +Level Mountain, British Columbia +Teapot Mountain, Prince George, British Columbia +Kelowna, British Columbia (Mount Boucherie, Spion Kopje) +Devils Woodpile, British Columbia (Cathedral Provincial Park) +Tow Hill, British Columbia +Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec +Simpson Island, Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area, Rossport, Ontario +Miles Canyon, Whitehorse, Yukon + +==== Costa Rica ==== +Bajo Rodriguez, San Lorenzo de San Ramon + +==== El Salvador ==== +Cascada Los Tercios, Suchitoto +Concepción waterfall, Aculco + +==== Greenland ==== +Qeqertarsuaq, Disko Island + +==== Guadeloupe ==== +Pain de sucre (sugar loaf) Îles des Saintes, Guadeloupe + +==== Guatemala ==== +Chicovix, Quetzaltenango Department + +==== Mexico ==== +Basaltic Prisms of Santa María Regla in Huasca de Ocampo, Hidalgo +Salto de San Anton in Cuernavaca, Morelos +Flor De La Vida Retreat in Mascota, Jalisco + +==== Panama ==== +Los Ladrillos, Boquete + +==== United States ==== +Akun Island, Alaska 54.1374618°N 165.6120578°W / 54.1374618; -165.6120578 +Block Mountain, Montana (along the lower Big Hole River) +Boiling Pots, Hilo, Hawaii (exposed by the Wailuku River) +Cascade Range, Oregon, in Eugene and southeast of Molalla +Columbia Plateau, Washington +Columns of the Giants, Stanislaus National Forest, California +Compton Peak in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia +Devils Postpile National Monument, California +Devils Tower National Monument, Wyoming +Drumheller Channels National Natural Landmark, Washington +Elk River Falls, Idaho +Hughes Mountain, Missouri +Hyalite Falls, Gallatin Mountain Range, Montana +Whiterock Canyon, New Mexico, various cliffs and mesas from Otowi to Cochiti. +Latourell Falls, Oregon +Mount Tom, Massachusetts +Machado Postpile, Amador County, California +Palisades Sill, New Jersey and New York, along the Hudson River +Paul Bunyan's Woodpile, Juab County, Utah +Pinnacle Peak, King County, Washington +Sheepeater Cliff & multiple other areas in Yellowstone National Park +Hemlock Falls, First Watchung Mountain, South Mountain Reservation, South Orange, New Jersey +South Puyallup River Campsite, Mount Rainier National Park, Washington +Spokane, Washington (W Airport Dr. onramp) +Stanford Rock, Lake Tahoe, California +Sweetwater Canyon, Madison County, Montana +Toketee Falls, Oregon +Turtleback Mountain, Moultonborough, New Hampshire +Whatcom County, Washington + +=== Oceania === + +==== Australia ==== +Bombo Latite, Bombo, New South Wales +Narooma Basalt, Narooma, New South Wales +Fingal Head, New South Wales +Battery Rock Rest Area, Located on the Golden Highway, 15 kilometres southeast of Merriwa and 19 kilometres northwest of Sandy Hollow on the western side of the highway. NSW +Sawn Rocks, Mount Kaputar National Park, New South Wales +Glass House Mountains, Queensland +Burleigh Head National Park, Queensland +Mount Scoria Conservation Park, Thangool, Queensland +Ben Lomond National Park, Tasmania +Cape Raoul, Tasmania +Ruined Castle, Falls Creek, Victoria +Organ Pipes National Park, Victoria +Barfold Gorge, Campaspe River, Victoria +Black Point, D'Entrecasteaux National Park, Western Australia +Wyalup-Rocky Point, Bunbury, Western Australia + +==== Federated States of Micronesia ==== +Pwisehn Malek, Pohnpei, Caroline Islands + +==== New Zealand ==== +Blackhead, Dunedin 45°55′55″S 170°25′55″E +Bridal Veil Falls, Raglan 37°54′30″S 174°53′45″E +Ohira Bay, Chatham Islands 43°48′20″S 176°38′55″W +The Organ Pipes, Mount Cargill, Dunedin 45°48′30″S 170°34′00″E +Paratahi Island, Auckland 36°59′41″S 174°28′13″E +Second Beach, Dunedin 45°55′00″S 170°29′05″E +Mount Somers / Te Kiekie, Canterbury 43°36′30″S 171°22′30″E + +=== South America === +Ancud Volcanic Complex, Chile +Mocho Volcano, Chile +Pino Hachado Caldera, Neuquén Province, Argentina +Pedras do Cambira, Apucarana, Brazil + +== Beyond Earth == + +Several exposures of columnar jointing have been discovered on the planet Mars by the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera, which is carried by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Notable among them are formations in the Marte Vallis. + +== Uses == + +A likely Hindu-origin ancient site at Gunung Padang in West Java, Indonesia was built by horizontally laying basalt columns to form terraces on the slope of a hill and creating open-roofed chambers by erecting vertical columns. A now-ruined thirteenth-century religious complex called Nan Madol was built using columnar basalt quarried from various locations on the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia. + +Hexagonal basalt was used to build retaining walls by early settlers in some places around Dunedin in New Zealand. + +== Gallery == + +== See also == +Ringing rocks + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f733ac85 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:39.146057+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_10,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_10,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a28f7f674 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_10,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_10,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:48.362946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba1b59d8f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:57.559598+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..373bfa251 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:58.902103+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_30,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_30,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fcbbf7c4f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_30,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_30,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:49.581442+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..801e30116 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:50.979411+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_200,000_to_500,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_200,000_to_500,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54455b3f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_200,000_to_500,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_200,000_to_500,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:00.195437+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_250_to_1,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_250_to_1,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f7160cf95 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_250_to_1,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 250 to 1,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_250_to_1,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:01.464523+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_3,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_3,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb77c9fc1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_3,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_3,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:40.633613+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_30,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_30,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96628a6c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_30,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_30,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:52.210913+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d9f912956 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:43.314762+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_7,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_7,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1263ce843 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_7,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_7,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:41.888691+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_100,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_100,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c8355fd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_100,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_100,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:54.919479+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10f485d7b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:56.219207+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_500,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_500,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..16bac6571 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_500,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_500,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:02.785625+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50_to_250_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50_to_250_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75ad2552f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50_to_250_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50 to 250 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50_to_250_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:53.538738+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_7,000_to_10,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_7,000_to_10,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d425c7ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_7,000_to_10,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_7,000_to_10,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:07:47.145830+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b86203f18 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 1,000,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_1,000,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:04.123583+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== References == + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..374639228 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 200,000 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_200,000_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:05.412776+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_under_50_square_kilometers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_under_50_square_kilometers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e6f8d543e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_under_50_square_kilometers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area under 50 square kilometers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_under_50_square_kilometers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:06.631450+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== See also == +Other divisions + +0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers +1,000,000+ square kilometers +Smaller divisions + +200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers +500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +250 to 1,000 square kilometers • 50 to 250 square kilometers • Under 50 square kilometers +Other + +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of largest empires +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions + + +== References == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md index 8e71e1101..01b335a56 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:56.828750+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:02.576128+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4dc88289 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "List of pseudoscientific water fuel inventions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:16.865558+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article attempts to list pseudoscientific inventions wherein common water is used to either augment or generate a fuel to power an engine, boiler or other source of power. This is not to be confused with legitimate inventions (such as hydroelectricity) in which the kinetic energy of flowing water is used for power. + + +== Electrolysis == +The electrolysis of water splits water into hydrogen and oxygen, producing a usable fuel, which, when burned, turns back into water. However, the energy required for electrolysis is greater than the energy released by burning this fuel, so this is not a viable way to manufacture energy. Nonetheless, several people have claimed to create devices that do exactly this. + +Stanley Meyer, who claimed to run a car on water in 1984. +Charles Frazer, an inventor from Ohio who, in 1918 patented a hydrogen booster which claimed to use electrolysis to increase vehicle power and fuel efficiency while greatly reducing exhaust emissions. +Daniel Dingel, a Filipino engineer who was involved in water fuel research since 1968. A video interview showed Dingel's Toyota Corolla with an on-board hydrogen water fuel generator. In 2008 he was given a 20-year sentence for fraud. + + +== Submerged gasification == +Ruggero Maria Santilli's "Magnegas" recyclers, which use an underwater carbon arc to gasify bio-contaminated liquid into a clean-burning gas. + + +== Transformative claims == +Water is claimed to be transformed into a fuel itself, by the addition of some ingredient. This may be either a highly concentrated addition, or a catalyst (i.e. not consumed in use). + +Hongcheng Magic Liquid +Gasoline pill + + +== See also == +Free energy suppression conspiracy theory +Hydrogen fuel enhancement +Perpetual motion +Water-fuelled car +Water injection (engines) + + +== References == + + +=== Further reading === +Dunning, Brian (February 12, 2008). "Skeptoid #87: Water: Alternative Fuel of the Future? Cranks love to make the claim on YouTube, but you cannot run your car on water". Skeptoid. Retrieved May 29, 2022. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_systems_with_analytical_solutions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_systems_with_analytical_solutions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8b3c00f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_systems_with_analytical_solutions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,286 @@ +--- +title: "List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_systems_with_analytical_solutions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:27.984435+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Much insight in quantum mechanics can be gained from understanding the closed-form solutions to the time-dependent non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. It takes the form + + + + + + + + H + ^ + + + + ψ + + + ( + + + r + + , + t + + ) + + + = + + [ + + − + + + + ℏ + + 2 + + + + 2 + m + + + + + ∇ + + 2 + + + + + V + + + ( + + r + + ) + + + + ] + + ψ + + + ( + + + r + + , + t + + ) + + + = + i + ℏ + + + + ∂ + ψ + + + ( + + + r + + , + t + + ) + + + + + ∂ + t + + + + , + + + {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} ,t\right)}=\left[-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V{\left(\mathbf {r} \right)}\right]\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} ,t\right)}=i\hbar {\frac {\partial \psi {\left(\mathbf {r} ,t\right)}}{\partial t}},} + + +where + + + + ψ + + + {\displaystyle \psi } + + is the wave function of the system, + + + + + + + H + ^ + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}} + + is the Hamiltonian operator, and + + + + t + + + {\displaystyle t} + + is time. Stationary states of this equation are found by solving the time-independent Schrödinger equation, + + + + + + [ + + − + + + + ℏ + + 2 + + + + 2 + m + + + + + ∇ + + 2 + + + + + V + + + ( + + r + + ) + + + + ] + + ψ + + + ( + + r + + ) + + + = + E + ψ + + + ( + + r + + ) + + + , + + + {\displaystyle \left[-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V{\left(\mathbf {r} \right)}\right]\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} \right)}=E\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} \right)},} + + +which is an eigenvalue equation. Very often, only numerical solutions to the Schrödinger equation can be found for a given physical system and its associated potential energy. However, there exists a subset of physical systems for which the form of the eigenfunctions and their associated energies, or eigenvalues, can be found. These quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions are listed below. + + +== Solvable systems == +The two-state quantum system (the simplest possible quantum system) +The free particle +The one-dimensional potentials +The particle in a ring or ring wave guide +The delta potential +The single delta potential +The double-well delta potential +The steps potentials +The particle in a box / infinite potential well +The finite potential well +The step potential +The rectangular potential barrier +The triangular potential +The quadratic potentials +The quantum harmonic oscillator +The quantum harmonic oscillator with an applied uniform field +The Inverse square root potential +The periodic potential +The particle in a lattice +The particle in a lattice of finite length +The Pöschl–Teller potential +The quantum pendulum +The three-dimensional potentials +The rotating system +The linear rigid rotor +The symmetric top +The particle in a spherically symmetric potential +The hydrogen atom or hydrogen-like atom e.g. positronium +The hydrogen atom in a spherical cavity with Dirichlet boundary conditions +The Mie potential +The Hooke's atom +The Morse potential +The Spherium atom +Zero range interaction in a harmonic trap +Multistate Landau–Zener models +The Luttinger liquid (the only exact quantum mechanical solution to a model including interparticle interactions) + + +== Solutions == + + +== See also == +List of quantum-mechanical potentials – a list of physically relevant potentials without regard to analytic solubility +List of integrable models +WKB approximation +Quasi-exactly-solvable problems + + +== References == + + +== Reading materials == +Mattis, Daniel C. (1993). The Many-Body Problem: An Encyclopedia of Exactly Solved Models in One Dimension. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-0975-9. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7c1a93934 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,188 @@ +--- +title: "List of rock textures" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:51.171294+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page is intended to be a list of rock textural and morphological terms. + + +== A == +Adcumulate +Agglomeritic +Adamantine a type of lustre +Amygdaloidal +Anhedral +Antitaxial veins +Aphanitic +Aplitic; aplite +Augen textured gneiss +Axiolitic texture + + +== B == +Botryoidal +Brecciated +Bedding fissile; bedding fissility +Boudinage; boudins + + +== C == +Cataclastic +Chilled margin +Clastic; see also breccia +Cleaved +Crenulated +Cross-bedding +Cross-stratification; also trough-cross stratification. +Cumulate; see also layered intrusion + + +== D == +Decussate +Devitirification; devitrified +Dendritic texture; dendrites +Diatextite; see also schlieren and migmatite + + +== E == +Embayed minerals; see igneous texture +Equigranular +Euhedral +Eutaxitic +Epiclastic + + +== F == +Fiamme +Foliation +Fissile; see also Bedding fissility. +Fossiliferous + + +== G == +Glomeroporphyritic +Gneissose; gneissic +Granoblastic +Granophyric +Granulitic +Graphic + + +== H == +Holocrystalline +Hyaline texture +Hyalopilitic + + +== I == +Imbricate +Intergrowth texture + + +== J == +Jointed + + +== K == +Kelyphitic + + +== L == +Lepidoblastic +Leucocratic +Lineation, lineated +L-tectonite + + +== M == +Melanocratic +Mesocratic +Mesocumulate +Mylonitic + + +== N == +Nematoblastic + + +== O == +Ocelli +Oolitic; see also limestone +Ophitic texture +Orbicular texture +Orthocumulate + + +== P == +Panidiomorphic +Pegmatitic +Peloidal +Perthitic +Phaneritic +Phyllitic +Pisolitic +Poikilitic +Poikiloblastic +Porphyroclastic +Porphyroblastic +Porphyritic texture; see also porphyry +Ptygmatic (folding); see migmatite + + +== Q == +Quench textures; see obsidian, tachylyte or aphanitic + + +== R == +Rapakivi texture + + +== S == +Sandy +Schistose; schistosity +Seriate texture +Shear; sheared; shear fabric +Slaty; slaty cleavage +Specular +Spherulite +Spinifex texture; see also komatiite +S-tectonite +Stratabound +Stratum +Stromatolitic +Stylolitic +Subhedral +Symplectite + + +== T == +Tuffaceous +Trachytic texture + + +== U == + + +== V == +Vesicular texture +Variolitic +Vitreous +Vuggy + + +== W - Z == + + +== See also == + +Crystallography +Fracture (geology) +Fracture (mineralogy) +List of minerals +List of rock types +Rock microstructure \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e2ed53e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "List of rock types" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of rock types recognized by geologists. There is no agreed number of specific types of rock. Any unique combination of chemical composition, mineralogy, grain size, texture, or other distinguishing characteristics can describe a rock type. Additionally, different classification systems exist for each major type of rock. There are three major types of rock: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. + +== Igneous rocks == + +Adakite – Volcanic rock type +Agpaitic rock – Peralkaline igneous rock +Andesite – Type of volcanic rock +Alkali feldspar granite – Type of igneous rock rich in alkali feldspar +Ankaramite – Type of volcanic rock - Igneous rock belonging to basalt family +Anorthosite – Mafic intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of plagioclase +Aplite – Fine-grained intrusive igneous rock type similar to granite +Basalt – Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock +ʻAʻā – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruptionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Basaltic lava with a crumpled appearance +Pāhoehoe – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruptionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Basaltic lava with a flowing, often ropy appearance +Basaltic andesite – Volcanic rock that is intermediate in composition between basalt and andesite +Basaltic trachyandesite – Naming system for volcanic rocksPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Mugearite – Volcanic rock type +Shoshonite – Potassium-rich variety of basaltic trachyandesite +Basanite – Type of volcanic rock +Blairmorite – Rare porphyritic volcanic rock +Boninite – Ultramafic extrusive rock high in both magnesium and silica +Carbonatite – Igneous rock with more than 50% carbonate minerals +Charnockite – Type of granite containing orthopyroxene +Enderbite – Igneous rock of the charnockite series +Dacite – Volcanic rock intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite +Diabase, also known as dolerite – Type of igneous rock +Diorite – Igneous rock type +Napoleonite, also known as corsite – Variety of diorite with orbicular structure +Dunite – Ultramafic and ultrabasic rock from Earth's mantle which is made of the mineral olivine +Essexite – Igneous rock type +Foidolite – Igneous rock rich in feldspathoid minerals +Gabbro – Coarse-grained mafic intrusive rock +Granite – Type of igneous rock +Granodiorite – Type of coarse grained intrusive igneous rock +Granophyre – Type of subvolcanic rock +Harzburgite – Ultramafic mantle rock +Hornblendite – Plutonic rock consisting mainly of the amphibole hornblende +Hyaloclastite – Volcanic rock consisting of glass fragments +Icelandite – Igneous rock type +Ignimbrite – Type of volcanic rock +Ijolite – Igneous rock consisting essentially of nepheline and augite +Kimberlite – Igneous rock which sometimes contains diamonds +Komatiite – Magnesium-rich igneous rock +Lamproite – Mantle rock expulsed to the surface in volcanic pipes +Lamprophyre – Type of ultrapotassic igneous rock – An ultramafic, ultrapotassic intrusive rock dominated by mafic phenocrysts in a feldspar groundmass +Latite – Type of volcanic rock – A silica-undersaturated form of andesite +Leucitite +Lherzolite – Type of igneous rock – An ultramafic rock, essentially a peridotite +Monzodiorite An intrusive igneous rock intermediate in composition between diorite and monzonite +Monzogabbro – Type of intrusive igneous rock +Monzogranite – Biotite granite rocks that are considered to be the final fractionation product of magma – A silica-undersaturated granite with <5% normative quartz +Monzonite – Igneous intrusive rock with low quartz and equal plagioclase and alkali feldspar – a plutonic rock with <5% normative quartz +Nepheline-bearing diorite – Form of intrusive igneous rock +Nepheline syenite – Holocrystalline plutonic rock – A silica-undersaturated plutonic rock of nepheline and alkali feldspar +Nephelinite – Igneous rock made up almost entirely of nepheline and clinopyroxene – A silica-undersaturated plutonic rock with >90% nepheline +Norite – Mafic intrusive igneous rock – A hypersthene-bearing gabbro +Obsidian – Naturally occurring volcanic glass +Pegmatite – Igneous rock with very large interlocked crystals +Peridotite – Coarse-grained ultramafic igneous rock type +Phonolite – Uncommon extrusive rock – A silica-undersaturated volcanic rock; essentially similar to nepheline syenite +Phonotephrite – A volcanic rock with a composition between phonolite and tephrite +Picrite – Variety of high-magnesium basalt that is very rich in the mineral olivinePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – An olivine-bearing basalt +Porphyry – Textural form of igneous rock with large grained crystals in a fine matrix +Pumice – Volcanic rock +Pyroxenite – Igneous rock - a coarse grained plutonic rock composed of >90% pyroxene +Quartz diorite – Igneous, plutonic rock – A diorite with >5% modal quartz +Quartz monzonite – Type of igneous rock – An intermediate plutonic rock, essentially a monzonite with 5–10% modal quartz +Quartzolite – Extremely rare igneous rock made mostly of quartz – An intrusive rock composed mostly of quartz +Rhyodacite – Volcanic rock rich in silica and low in alkali metal oxides – A felsic volcanic rock which is intermediate between a rhyolite and a dacite +Rhyolite – Igneous, volcanic rock, of felsic (silica-rich) composition +Comendite – Hard, peralkaline igneous rock, a type of light blue grey rhyolite +Pantellerite – Peralkaline rhyolite type of volcanic rock +Scoria – Dark vesicular volcanic rock +Shonkinite – Intrusive igneous rock – a plutonic rock +Sovite – Igneous rock – A coarse-grained carbonatite rock +Syenite – Intrusive igneous rock – A plutonic rock dominated by orthoclase feldspar; a type of granitoid +Syenogranite – Intrusive igneous rock of the granite family +Tachylyte – Form of basaltic volcanic glassPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Essentially a basaltic glass +Tephriphonolite – Type of igneous rock – A volcanic rock with a composition between phonotephrite and phonolite +Tephrite – Igneous, volcanic rock – A silica-undersaturated volcanic rock +Tonalite – Igneous rock – A plagioclase-dominant granitoid +Trachyandesite – Extrusive igneous rock – An alkaline intermediate volcanic rock +Benmoreite – Volcanic rock type - sodic trachyandesite +Trachybasalt – Volcanic rock – A volcanic rock with a composition between basalt and trachyte +Hawaiite – Volcanic rock – a sodic type of trachybasalt, typically formed by ocean island (hot spot) volcanism +Trachyte – Extrusive igneous rock – A silica-undersaturated volcanic rock; essentially a feldspathoid-bearing rhyolite +Troctolite – Igneous rock – A plutonic ultramafic rock containing olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase +Trondhjemite – Light-colored intrusive igneous rock – A form of tonalite where plagioclase-group feldspar is oligoclase +Tuff – Rock consolidated from volcanic ash +Vitrophyre – Glassy volcanic rock - Glassy igneous rock with phenocrysts +Websterite – Ultramafic and ultrabasic rock – A type of pyroxenite, composed of clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene +Wehrlite – Ultramafic rock - An ultramafic plutonic or cumulate rock, a type of peridotite, composed of olivine and clinopyroxene \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cfd29bb9c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "List of rock types" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Sedimentary rocks == + +Argillite – Sedimentary rock, mostly of indurated clay particles +Arkose – Type of sandstone containing at least 25% feldspar +Banded iron formation – Layered iron-rich sedimentary rock +Breccia – Rock composed of angular fragments +Calcarenite – Type of limestone that is composed predominantly of sand-size grains +Chalk – Soft carbonate rock +Chert – Hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of cryptocrystalline silica +Claystone – Clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay-sized particles +Coal – Combustible sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon +Conglomerate – Sedimentary rock composed of smaller rock fragments +Coquina – Sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells +Diamictite – Type of sedimentary rock +Diatomite – Soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled +Dolomite (rock), also known as Dolostone – Sedimentary carbonate rock containing a high percentage of the mineral dolomite +Evaporite – Water-soluble mineral deposit formed by evaporation from an aqueous solution +Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz +Geyserite – Form of opaline silica often found around hot springs and geysers +Greywacke – Sandstone with angular grains in a clay-fine matrix +Gritstone – Hard, coarse-grained, siliceous sandstone +Ironstone – Sedimentary rock that contains a substantial proportion of iron ore +Itacolumite – Porous sandstone known for flexibility +Jaspillite – Banded mixture of hematite and quartz +Laterite – Product of rock weathering in wet tropical climates rich in iron and aluminium +Lignite – Soft, brown, combustible, sedimentary rock +Limestone – Type of sedimentary rock +Marl – Lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt +Mudstone – Fine grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds +Oil shale – Organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen +Oolite – Sedimentary rock formed from ooids +Phosphorite – Sedimentary rock containing large amounts of phosphate minerals – A non-detrital sedimentary rock that contains high amounts of phosphate minerals +Sandstone – Type of sedimentary rock +Shale – Fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock +Siltstone – Sedimentary rock which has a grain size in the silt range +Sylvinite – Sedimentary rock made of a mechanical mixture of sylvite and halite +Tillite – Till which has been indurated or lithified by burial +Travertine – Form of limestone deposited by mineral springs +Tufa – Porous variety of limestone rock +Turbidite – Geologic deposit of a turbidity current +Wackestone – Mud-supported carbonate rock that contains greater than 10% grains + +== Metamorphic rocks == + +Anthracite – Hard, compact variety of coal +Amphibolite – Metamorphic rock type +Blueschist – Type of metavolcanic rock +Cataclasite – Rock found at geological faults – A rock formed by faulting +Eclogite – Metamorphic rock formed under high pressure +Gneiss – Common high-grade metamorphic rock +Granulite – Class of high-grade medium to coarse grained metamorphic rocks +Greenschist – Metamorphic rock – A mafic metamorphic rock dominated by green amphiboles +Hornfels – Group of metamorphic rocks +Calcflinta – Calc-silicate hornfels +Jadeitite – Metamorphic rock found in blueschist-grade metamorphic terranes +Litchfieldite – Igneous rock – Nepheline syenite gneiss +Marble – Type of metamorphic rock – a metamorphosed limestone +Migmatite – Mixture of metamorphic rock and igneous rock +Mylonite – Metamorphic rock – A metamorphic rock formed by shearing +Metaconglomerate - A type of metamorphic rock formed through the recrystallization of conglomerates +Metapelite – Metamorphic rockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – A metamorphic rock with a protolith of clay-rich (siltstone) sedimentary rock +Metapsammite – A metamorphic rock with a protolith of quartz-rich (sandstone) sedimentary rock +Phyllite – Type of foliated metamorphic rock – A low grade metamorphic rock composed mostly of micaceous minerals +Pseudotachylite – Glassy or very fine-grained type of rockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – A glass formed by melting within a fault via friction +Quartzite – Hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock – A metamorphosed sandstone typically composed of >95% quartz +Schist – Easily split medium-grained metamorphic rock +Semipelite – Metamorphic rockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – that falls between pelitic (clay-rich) and psammitic (sand-rich) compositions +Serpentinite – Rock formed by transformation of olivine +Skarn – Hard, coarse-grained, hydrothermally altered metamorphic rocks +Slate – Metamorphic rock - A low grade metamorphic rock formed from shale or silt +Suevite – Rock consisting partly of melted material formed during an impact event – A rock formed by partial melting during a meteorite impact +Talc carbonate – A metamorphosed ultramafic rock with talc as an essential constituent; similar to a serpentinite +Soapstone – Talc-bearing metamorphic rock – Essentially a talc schist +Tectonite – Rock type – A rock whose fabric reflects the history of its deformation +Whiteschist – Type of metamorphic rock – A high pressure metamorphic rock containing talc and kyanite + +== Specific varieties == +The following are terms for rocks that are not petrographically or genetically distinct but are defined according to various other criteria; most are specific classes of other rocks, or altered versions of existing rocks. Some archaic and vernacular terms for rocks are also included. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6142caa62 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "List of rock types" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Adamellite – Type of igneous rockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – A variety of quartz monzonite +Appinite – Type of igneous rock – A group of varieties of lamprophyre, mostly rich in hornblende +Aphanite – Igneous rock composed of very small crystals invisible to the naked eye +Borolanite – Variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland – A variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland +Blue Granite – Variety of monzonite, an igneous rock +Epidosite – Hydrothermally altered epidote- and quartz-bearing rock +Felsite – Very fine-grained volcanic rock that sometimes contains larger crystals +Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz +Ganister – Hard, fine-grained quartzose sandstone, or orthoquartzite +Gossan – Intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock +Hyaloclastite – Volcanic rock consisting of glass fragments +Ijolite – Igneous rock consisting essentially of nepheline and augite +Jadeitite – Metamorphic rock found in blueschist-grade metamorphic terranes +Jasperoid – Type of rock – A hematite-silica metasomatite analogous to a skarn +Kenyte – Type of igneous rock - A variety of phonolite, first found on Mount Kenya +Lapis lazuli – Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color - A rock composed of lazurite and other minerals +Larvikite – Variety of monzonite, an igneous rock +Listwanite – Metamorphic rock +Litchfieldite – Igneous rock – A metamorphosed nepheline syenite occurrence near Litchfield, Maine +Llanite – Type of rock – A hypabyssal rhyolite with microcline and blue quartz phenocrysts from the Llano Uplift in Texas +Luxullianite – Rare type of granite +Mangerite – Plutonic intrusive igneous rock, that is essentially a hypersthene-bearing monzonite +Minette – A variety of lamprophyre +Novaculite – Type of rock – A type of chert found in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas +Pietersite – Variety of chalcedony +Pyrolite – Model composition of the Earth's mantle – A chemical analogue considered to theoretically represent the Earth's upper mantle +Rapakivi granite – Type of igneous rock +Rhomb porphyry – Textural form of igneous rock with large grained crystals in a fine matrixPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – A type of latite with euhedral rhombic phenocrysts of feldspar +Rodingite – A mafic rock metasomatized by serpentinization fluids +Shonkinite – Intrusive igneous rock – melitilic and kalsititic rocks +Taconite – Variety of iron-bearing sedimentary rock +Tachylite – Form of basaltic volcanic glass +Teschenite – Type of igneous rock – A silica undersaturated, analcime bearing gabbro +Theralite – Igneous rock – A nepheline gabbro +Unakite – Multicoloured metamorphic rock – An altered granite +Variolite – Igneous rocks which contain varioles +Vogesite – Type of ultrapotassic igneous rock – A variety of lamprophyre +Wad (mineral) – Porous secondary manganese oxyhydroxide – A rock rich in manganese oxide or manganese hydroxide + +== See also == + +List of minerals +List of rocks on Mars +Rock cycle – Transitional concept of geologic time +List of rock formations: for a list of unusual or culturally significant rock outcrops +Leaverite – Rock in the field that looks interesting but is actually not + +== References == + +== External links == +British Geological Survey rock classification scheme +Igneous rock classification Archived 2005-08-29 at the Wayback Machine +Rock Types Article by Encyclopædia Britannica +Classification of common rocks and soils +Metamorphic Rock Classification +Volcanic rocks +Earth Science Education Unit virtual rock kit \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f068dd026 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,309 @@ +--- +title: "List of sandstones" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:53.515145+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of types of sandstone that have been or are used economically as natural stone for building and other commercial or artistic purposes. + + +== Trans-regional == +(across state borders) + +Cornbrash Sandstone: North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony +Elbe Sandstone: Germany (Saxony) and the Czech Republic +Red Main Sandstone: Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria +Wealden Sandstone: Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia + + +== Australia == + +Hawkesbury Sandstone: Sydney Basin, Gosford +Helidon Sandstone: Helidon and Murphys Creek + + +== Belgium == +Balegem Sandstone: Balegem in Oosterzele +Ledian Sandstone: Lede +Gobertange Sandstone: Gobertange in Jodoigne + + +== Canada == +Nepean Sandstone: Ottawa, Ontario +Paskapoo Sandstone: Calgary, Alberta + + +== Czech Republic == +Božanov Sandstone: near Božanov +Niedergrund Sandstone: near Dolní Žleb +Libná Sandstone: near Libná +Zdoňov Sandstone: near Zdoňov +Mšené Sandstone; near Mšené-lázně +Podhorní Sandstone: near Podhorní Újezd +Těšínský Sandstone: near Řeka + + +== Denmark == +Nexø Sandstone (also Neksø Sandstone): near Nexø on Bornholm + + +== Estonia == +Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda, Põlva County + + +== France == +Avessac: near Redon +Belleau: near Château-Thierry +Bigarré des Vosges: in the Vosges +Blavozy: near Puy-en-Velay +Champenay: near Saint-Dié +Erquy: near Saint-Brieuc +Fontainebleau: near Fontainebleau +Frain: in the Vosges +La Rhune: near Bayonne +Moliere: near Rodez +Najac: near Villefranche-de-Rouergue +Omonville: near Omonville-la-Rogue +Rothbach: in the Vosges + + +== Germany == + + +=== Bavaria === + +Abtswind Sandstone: on the Friedrichsberg near Abtswind +Burgpreppach Sandstone: Burgpreppach +Gnodstadt Sandstone: Gnodstadt near Ochsenfurt +Ihrlerstein Green Sandstone: Ihrlerstein near Kelheim +Sand Sandstone: Sand am Main +Trebgast Sandstone: Trebgast +Worzeldorf Sandstone: Worzeldorf near Nuremberg + + +=== Baden-Württemberg === +Dettenhausen Sandstone: was formerly quarried in the Schönbuch +Donzdorf Sandstone: near Donzdorf +Freudenstädt Sandstone: near Freudenstadt +Heilbronn Sandstone: near Heilbronn +Lossburg Sandstone: Lossburg +Maulbronn Sandstone: near Maulbronn +Nöttingen Sandstone: near Nöttingen +Neckar Valley Sandstone: Mosbach near Heidelberg +Pfrondorf Sandstone: Pfrondorf +Pliezhausen Sandstone: near Pliezhausen +Weil Sandstone: Weiler near Sinsheim + + +=== Hessen === +Cornberg Sandstone: near Cornberg +Friedewald Sandstone: near Friedewald +Odenwald Sandstone: near Beerfelden + + +=== Lower Saxony === +Bentheim and Gildehaus Sandstone: Bad Bentheim +Deister Sandstone: Völksen +Hils Sandstone: Lutter am Barenberge +Nesselberg Sandstone: Altenhagen I +Obernkirchen Sandstone: Obernkirchen +Osterwald Sandstone: Osterwald +Piesberg Sandstone: Osnabrück +Süntel Sandstone: Pötzen +Velpk Sandstone: Velpke +Weser Sandstone: Bad Karlshafen and Arholzen + + +=== North Rhine –Westphalia === + +Anröchte Stone: Anröchte +Baumberge Sandstone: Baumberge +Ibbenbüren Sandstone: Ibbenbüren +Liedberg Sandstone: Liedberg +Osning Sandstone: Teutoburg Forest +Porta Sandstone: Porta Westfalica +Planicosta Sandstone: Lemgo +Rüthen Sandstone: Rüthen in the Sauerland +Ruhr Sandstone: Ruhrtal from Fröndenberg to Mülheim +Teutoburg Forest Sandstone: Teutoburg Forest +Werl Green Sandstone: Werl + + +=== Rheinland-Pfalz === +Kordel Sandstone Kordel +Leistadt Sandstone: Leistadt +Neustadt-Haardt Sandstone: Neustadt an der Weinstraße +Schweinstal Sandstone: Schopp +Udelfangen Sandstone: Udelfangen +Flonheim Sandstone: Flonheim +Obersulzbach Sandstone: Obersulzbach + + +=== Saarland === +Britten Sandstone: near Britten + + +=== Saxony === + +Elbe sandstones: + +Cotta Sandstone: Cotta near Pirna +Grillenburg Sandstone: Grillenburg in the Tharandt Forest +Niederschöna Sandstone: Niederschöna near Freiberg by the Tharandt Forest +Posta Sandstone: Lohmen near Pirna +Reinhardtsdorf Sandstone: Reinhardtsdorf-Schöna near Pirna +Wehlen Sandstone: Stadt Wehlen near Pirna + + +=== Saxony-Anhalt === +Nebra Sandstone: Nebra +Siebigerode Sandstone: Siebigerode +Ummendorf Sandstone: Ummendorf + + +=== Thuringia === +Fambach Sandstone: near Schmalkalden +Nebra Sandstone: Nebra +Seeberg Sandstone: Seeberg near Gotha +Tambach Sandstone: near Tambach-Dietharz +Themar Sandstone: Themar + + +== Hungary == +Hárshegy Sandstone Formation: near Budapest + + +== India == +Yellow Sandstone: Jaisalmer, Rajasthan +Chunar stone: near Chunar +Pink Sandstone: from Rajasathan +Jodhpur Sandstone +Kandla Grey Sandstone: Bijoliya, Rajasthan. + + +== Israel/Palestine == +Kurkar + + +== Italy == +Pietra di Gorgoglione: near Matera +Pietra Dorata: near Manciano +Santafiora: Grosseto + + +== Lesotho == +White City Sandstone, near Maseru + + +== Pakistan == +Khewra Sandstone: from Khewra Salt Mine, Punjab +Yellow Sandstone: near Jhimpir, Karachi, Sindh +Mango Sandstone: from Balochistan +Teak Wood Sandstone: near Karachi, Sindh +Buff/Grey Sandstone +Sunset Sung Sandstone +Imperial Red Sandstone + + +== Poland == +Silesian Sandstone, in Lower Silesia + + +== Spain == +Ronda Sandstone: Ronda, Málaga +Villamayor Sandstone: Villamayor, Salamanca + + +== Sweden == +Burgsvik sandstone +Gotland sandstone + + +== Switzerland == +Bäch Sandstone: by the Lake Zürich +Bern Sandstone: quarry sites near Bern in Ostermundigen, Krauchthal and by the Gurten +Bollingen Sandstone (also Buchberg Sandstone, Uznaberg Sandstone, Bollinger-Lehholz Sandstone and Güntliweid Sandstone): Rapperswil-Jona by the Upper Lake Zürich +Grès à cailloux roulés: near Avenches +Grès de Attalens: near Vevey +Grès de Bulle: near Echarlens +Grès de Corbières: near Echarlens +Grès de Vaulruz: near Vaulruz +Rorschach Sandstone: Rorschach +St. Margreth Sandstone: St. Margrethen +Teufen Sandstone: near Teufen + + +== South Africa == + +Ermelo Sandstone, Mpumalanga province, near der Farm de Roodepoort +Matatiele Sandstone, KwaZulu-Natal province, near Matatiele +Naboomspruit (also Golden Dawn or Golden Stone) Limpopo province, around Warmbaths +Nieuwoudtville Sandstone, Northern Cape province, near Nieuwoudtville +Oudtshoorn Sandstone, Western Cape province, near Oudtshoorn +Sandalwood (also Picturestone), Northern Cape province, near Vioolsdrif +Steenpan (also Flatpan or Klippan), Free State province, near Wolvehoek +Table Mountain Sandstone Western Cape province, various quarry sites +numerous types, some without trade names, from the Karoo Supergroup in many quarries near Graaff-Reinet, Cradock, Queenstown, Aliwal North, Burgersdorp and Sterkstroom + + +== United Kingdom == +Old Red Sandstone +New Red Sandstone + + +=== England === +Bargate stone: from Surrey +Horsham Stone: from Sussex + +Millstone Grit: from Northern England +Yorkstone: from Yorkshire + + +=== Scotland === +Locharbriggs Sandstone +Craigleith Sandstone + + +=== Wales === +Pennant stone: from South Wales and Bristol area + + +== United States == + +Aquia Creek Sandstone: in Virginia +Bayfield group: in northern Wisconsin +Coconino Sandstone: in the Colorado Plateau +Crab Orchard Sandstone: Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee +Cutler Formation: in the Colorado Plateau +Dakota Sandstone: in the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains +Entrada Sandstone: in the Colorado Plateau +Freda sandstone: in northern Michigan +Guyandotte sandstone: in West Virginia +Jacobsville sandstone: in northern Michigan +Jordan Formation in the upper Midwest +Medina sandstone extensive quarries in Western New York +Monument Valley: Utah-Arizona state line +Navajo Sandstone: in the Colorado Plateau +Ohio Sandstone: +Berea Grit in Northeast Ohio, originally used for grindstones, later used to build the Federal Reserve Bank of New York +Ohio bluestone, also found in Northeast Ohio in certain streambeds and used as dimension stone +Pennsylvania Bluestone in northeast Pennsylvania and adjoining parts of New Jersey and New York +Stockton Sandstone: in western New Jersey along the Delaware River +Potsdam Sandstone: in upstate New York +Tapeats Sandstone: in Arizona (famously found in the Grand Canyon) +Wingate Sandstone: in the Colorado Plateau +Aqua Creek Sandstone: used to build the Whitehouse + + +== See also == + +List of decorative stones +List of types of limestone +List of types of marble + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..69d5d01fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,189 @@ +--- +title: "List of sea stacks" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:54.768776+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following list enumerates and expands on notable sea stacks, including former sea stacks that no longer exist. + + +== Antarctica == +Denais Stack, King George Island +Cutler Stack, Livingston Island +Neptune's Bellow, Deception Island +The Monolith, Buckle Island +Shag Rocks (South Georgia) +Black Rock, South Georgia + + +== Asia == +Po Pin Chau, High Island, Hong Kong +Tri Brata, Kamchatka, Russia +Ko Tapu, Phang Nga Bay, Thailand +Bako National Park, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia +Lot's Wife or Sofugan, Japan (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) +Pigeon's Rock, Raouché Lebanon + + +== Australia == +Ball's Pyramid, Lord Howe Island Group (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) +Nobby Islet, Kangaroo Island, South Australia +The Twelve Apostles on the Great Ocean Road, Victoria +The Nobbies on Phillip Island, Victoria +The Totem Pole in Tasmania +London Bridge (Victoria) +Gibson Steps +Loch Ard Gorge +The Grotto, Victoria + + +== Europe == +(coastal countries only) + + +=== Croatia === +Cape Kamenjak + + +=== Faroe Islands === +Drangarnir +Risin og Kellingin +Stakkurin + + +=== France === +Les Aiguilles de Port-Coton, Belle-Île +L'Aiguille, Étretat, Seine-Maritime +Les Jumeaux, Hendaye + + +=== Germany === +Lange Anna on Heligoland + + +=== Greece === +Megalos Kalogeros +Mikros Kalogeros + + +=== Iceland === +Hvítserkur, Vatnsnes +Reynisdrangar, Vík í Mýrdal + + +=== Ireland === +Cnoc na Mara, Donegal +Branaunmore, County Clare +Dún Briste, Ballycastle, County Mayo +An Searrach, Kinard, Dingle, County Kerry + + +=== Isle of Man === +Sugarloaf Rock, Isle of Man + + +=== Italy === +Faraglioni, Capri +Baia dei Mergoli, Mattinata, southern Italy +Torre Sant'Andrea, southern Italy +Acitrezza, Sicily +Faraglioni, Scopello, Trapani, Sicily +Isola del Giglio, Tuscany +Nebida and Masua, Iglesias, south-western Sardinia +Scoglio dell'Ulivo, Palmi +Gargano Promontory, Zagare Bay, Apulia + + +=== Portugal === +Praia da Dona Ana and Ponta da Piedade, Lagos +Praia da Marinha, Lagoa, Algarve + + +=== Russia === +Sail Rock, Krasnodar Krai + + +=== Spain === +El Dedo de Dios, Canary Islands + + +=== United Kingdom === + +Mellor (2020) lists 70 stacks in England, 10 in Wales and 275 in Scotland of which c. 110 are located around the coasts of Shetland. + + +==== England ==== +Bedruthan Steps, Cornwall +The Needles, Isle of Wight +Old Harry Rocks, Dorset +The Pinnacle, Dorset +Little Pinnacle, Dorset + + +==== Wales ==== +South Stack, Anglesey + + +==== Scotland ==== + +Am Buachaille, Sutherland +Duncansby Stacks, Caithness +Dunnicaer, Aberdeenshire (stack with remains of Pictish hill fort) +Old Man of Hoy, Orkney +Old Man of Stoer, Sutherland +Rockall, North Atlantic (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) +Stac an Armin and Stac Lee, St Kilda +Stac Dhomnuill Chaim, Lewis +Yesnaby Castle, Orkney + + +== North America == + + +=== Canada === +The Big Flowerpot, Flowerpot Island, Lake Huron +Three Sisters, Eatonville, Nova Scotia +Percé Rock, Percé, Quebec +Hopewell Rocks, Hopewell Cape, New Brunswick +Pokeshaw Rock, Pokeshaw, New Brunswick +Siwash Rock, Vancouver, British Columbia + + +=== Caribbean === +● Redonda +● Diamond Rock + + +=== Mexico === +Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur +Rocas Alijos + + +=== United States === +Goat Rock, California +Turnip Rock, Michigan +Haystack Rock, Cannon Beach, Oregon +Haystack Rock (Chief Kiwanda Rock), Pacific City, Oregon + + +== Oceania == + + +=== Easter Island === +Motu Kau Kau, Easter Island + + +== See also == +List of rock formations + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Boersema, Jan J. (2015) [original Dutch version 2011]. The Survival of Easter Island. Translated by Webb, Diane. Cambridge University Press. +Mellor, Chris (Jan 2020). "An illustrated guide to sea stack climbing in the UK & Ireland" (PDF). needlesports. Retrieved 23 Jan 2021. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebeb789ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,141 @@ +--- +title: "List of shields and cratons" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:56.794263+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A craton is an ancient part of the Earth's continental crust which has been more or less stable since Precambrian times. Cratons whose ancient rocks are widely exposed at the surface, often with relatively subdued relief, are known as shields. If the ancient rocks are largely overlain by a cover of younger rocks then the 'hidden' craton may be referred to as a platform. + + +== List of shields == +Western Ethiopian Shield +Amazonian Shield of central South America +Guiana Shield +Guaporé or Central Brazilian Shield +The Angaran Shield of West Siberia +Arabian-Nubian Shield +(Western) Australian Shield +Baltic Shield of Fennoscandia +Canadian Shield a.k.a. Laurentian Shield +The China-Korean Shield containing the North China Craton +The East Antarctic Shield containing the East Antarctic Craton +Indian Shield +Man Shield + + +== List of named cratons == + +Listed by modern continent and Gondwana, include: + + +=== West Gondwana === + + +==== South America ==== +Amazonian Craton +Guiana Shield +Amazonian Shield +São Francisco Craton (Congo Craton) +Rio Apa Craton +Río de la Plata Craton +Arequipa–Antofalla Craton +São Luís cratonic fragment +Luís Alves cratonic fragment + + +==== Africa ==== +West African Craton +East Saharan Meta-craton +Congo Craton, central southern Africa +Bangweulu Block, Zambia +Tanzanian Craton +Kalahari Craton +Kaapvaal craton, South Africa (3.6–2.5 Ga) +Zimbabwe Craton (3.5 Ga) +Sebakwe Craton + + +=== Antarctic-East African Orogen === +Arabian Plate +Part of the Arabian–Nubian Shield +Western Ethiopian Shield +Eastern Ethiopian Shield (part of the Somali Plate) +Part of Madagascar + + +=== East Gondwana === + + +==== Indian Subcontinent ==== +Indian Craton +Aravalli Craton, India +Bundelkand Craton, India +Dharwar Craton, India (3.4–2.6 Ga) +Singhbhum Craton, India +Bastar Craton, India + + +==== Antarctica ==== +East Antarctic Craton + + +==== Australia ==== +Altjawarra Craton +Central Craton +Curnamona Craton, South Australia +Gawler craton, central South Australia +Pilbara Craton, Western Australia +Yilgarn craton, Western Australia (4.4 Ga) + + +=== North America === + +Canadian Shield (or Laurentian Shield) +Churchill Craton +Hearne Craton +Nain Craton (part of North Atlantic Craton) +North American Craton (Laurentia) +Rae Craton +Sask Craton +Sclavia Craton +Slave Craton, Northwest Territories, Canada (4.03–3.5 Ga) +Superior Craton, Canada and northern United States (3.7–2.7 Ga) +Wyoming Craton + + +=== Eurasia === + + +==== Eastern Eurasia ==== +East China Craton +North China Craton (sometimes called Sino-Korean Craton), (2.5 Ga) +South China Craton (also known as Yangtze Craton) +Siberian Craton, sometimes called Angara Craton. +Aldan Shield +Anabar Shield +Tarim Craton, China + + +==== Northern and Eastern Europe ==== +East European Craton, the core of Baltica +Volgo-Uralian Craton, Russia (3.0–2.7 Ga) +Baltic Shield, part of the East European Craton; Fennoscandian Shield, the exposed Northwestern part of the Baltic Shield in Norway, Sweden and Finland (3.1 Ga) +Karelian Craton, part of the Fennoscandian Shield in Southeast Finland and Karelia Russia, (3.4 Ga) +Kola Craton, part of the Fennoscandian Shield, Kola Peninsula, Northwest Russia +Belomorian Craton, part of the Fennoscandian Shield, between the Karelian and Kola cratons +Sarmatian Craton (3.7–2.8 Ga) +Ukrainian Shield +Midlands Microcraton of England and Wales +North Atlantic Craton + + +== See also == +List of paleocontinents + + +== References == +Dov Avigad and Zohar Gvirtzman (2009). "Late Neoproterozoic rise and fall of the northern Arabian–Nubian shield: The role of lithospheric mantle delamination and subsequent thermal subsidence" (PDF). Tectonophysics. 477 (3–4): 217–228. Bibcode:2009Tectp.477..217A. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.04.018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-09. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f42d6a6f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "List of sinkholes" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:58.025837+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of sinkholes, blue holes, dolines, crown holes, cenotes, and pit caves. A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. Some are caused by karst processes—for example, the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion processes. Sinkholes can vary in size from 1 to 600 m (3 to 2,000 ft) both in diameter and depth, and vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-edged chasms. Sinkholes may form gradually or suddenly, and are found worldwide. + +== Australia == +Ewens Ponds – series of three water-filled limestone sinkholes on Eight Mile Creek 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of Mount Gambier and 8.4 km (5+1⁄4 mi) east of Port MacDonnell, South Australia. +Fossil Cave – The cave is a karst sinkhole and is largely filled with water. +Kilsby sinkhole – in Mount Gambier, Southern Australia. +Koonalda Cave – a cave located in the Nullarbor Plain in South Australia. +Little Blue Lake – water-filled doline located near Mount Schank in South Australia. +Numby Numby – a sinkhole located 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi) west-northwest of Borroloola in the Northern Territory. +Piccaninnie Ponds Conservation Park + +== Brazil == +Buraco das Araras – one of the largest quartzitic caves located in Goiás. Considered one of the largest sinkholes (dolinas) in the world +Gruta do Centenário – a cave located in Mariana, Minas Gerais, the largest and deepest quartzite cave in the world, and second in the country in terms of unevenness + +== Canada == +2012 Ottawa sinkhole – Regional Road 174 at the Jeanne D'Arc interchange on September 4, 2012. +2014 Ottawa sinkhole – at the LRT tunnelling site at Waller Street, just south of Laurier Avenue on February 21, 2014. +2016 Ottawa sinkhole – Rideau Street was closed to all traffic from June 8 to July 2, 2016 after it collapsed above excavations being made for the Rideau station of the Confederation Line. + +== China == +Dragon Hole – the second deepest underwater sinkhole (blue hole), located in the Drummond Island reef of the Paracel Islands (also known as the Xisha Islands) in the South China Sea. +Xiaozhai Tiankeng – one of the deepest sinkholes in the world (over 650 meters), located in Fengjie County of Chongqing Municipality. +2016 Ruijin sinkhole – four cars fell into a sinkhole in Ruijin. + +== Croatia == +Blue Lake – a karst lake located near Imotski +Red Lake – a sinkhole containing a karst lake near Imotski + +== Czech Republic == +Hranice Abyss – the deepest abyss in the Czech Republic, located near Hranice +Macocha Gorge – a sinkhole in the Moravian Karst cave system +Punkva Caves – a cave system north of Brno, near Blansko + +== France == +Padirac Cave - very deep pit cave in Massif Central, with subterranean river + +== Germany == +Bullenkuhle – marshy lake in the extreme north of Gifhorn district in Lower Saxony which has been formed into a sinkhole +Danube Sinkhole – incipient underground stream capture in the Upper Danube Nature Park + +== Greece == +Dersios sinkhole – a sinkhole in Arcadia +Voulismeno aloni – Crete + +== Guatemala == + +2007 Guatemala City sinkhole – a 100 m (330 ft) deep sinkhole which formed in 2007 due to sewage pipe ruptures. +2010 Guatemala City sinkhole – a disaster in which an area approximately 20 m (65 ft) across and 90 m (300 ft) deep collapsed, swallowing a three-story factory. + +== Italy == +Gurio Lamanna – a flat, wide and shallow karst doline shaped like a coat of arms and very close to Pulicchio di Gravina and Tre Paduli. +Lago di Doberdò – a sinkhole in the Province of Gorizia, Friuli-Venezia Giulia +Pozzo del Merro – a flooded sinkhole in the countryside northeast of Rome +Pulo di Altamura – a karst doline near Altamura containing some caves, where Saint William of Montevergine (1085-1142) reportedly lived as a hermit. +Pulo di Molfetta +Pulicchio di Gravina – an egg-shaped forested karst doline located in Gravina in Puglia and very close to Gurio Lamanna and Tre Paduli. +2016 Florence sinkhole – a sinkhole, thought to have been caused by a bursting of a water pipe, opened up a 200 m (660 ft) hole on the Arno River bank. + +== Malaysia == +2024 Kuala Lumpur sinkhole, which swallowed a person who has not yet been found + +== Mexico == +Cave of Swallows – an open air pit cave in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí +Dzibilchaltun – a Maya archaeological site in Yucatán State, approximately 16 kilometers (10 miles) north of Mérida +Ik Kil – a cenote outside Pisté in the Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán +Sacred Cenote – a cenote at the pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site of Chichen Itza in the northern Yucatán Peninsula +Sima de las Cotorras – a giant circular sinkhole in the karst plateau of Chiapas +Sistema Dos Ojos – a flooded cave system located north of Tulum, on the Caribbean coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, in Quintana Roo +Sistema Sac Actun – an underwater cave system situated along the Caribbean coast of the Yucatán Peninsula with passages to the north and west of Tulum, Quintana Roo +Zacatón – a thermal water filled sinkhole belonging to the Zacatón system – a group of unusual karst features located in Aldama Municipality, Tamaulipas near the Sierra de Tamaulipas +Taam Ja' Blue Hole - the deepest known blue hole + +== Namibia == +Lake Guinas – a sinkhole lake, created by a collapsing karst cave, located 38 km (23+1⁄2 mi) west of Tsumeb +Otjikoto Lake – a sinkhole lake that was created by a collapsing karst cave + +== South Africa == +Blyvooruitzicht sinkholes +Boesmansgat – believed to be the sixth-deepest submerged freshwater cave (or sinkhole) in the world + +== Turkey == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d33e76801 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "List of sinkholes" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:58.025837+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Akhayat sinkhole – sinkhole in Mersin Province +Cennet and Cehennem – two large sinkholes in the Taurus Mountains, in Mersin Province +Egma Sinkhole – sinkhole and the deepest cave in Turkey +Kanlıdivane – ancient city situated around a big sinkhole in Mersin Province +Kızören Sinkhole – sinkhole in Konya Province + +== United States == +2014 National Corvette Museum sinkhole – a sinkhole at 350 Corvette Drive, Bowling Green, Kentucky +Amberjack Hole – a blue hole located 48 km (30 mi) off the coast of Sarasota, Florida. +Bayou Corne sinkhole – created from a collapsed underground salt dome cavern operated by Texas Brine Company and owned by Occidental Petroleum, discovered on August 3, 2012, and 350 nearby residents were advised to evacuate +Bering Sinkhole – natural limestone sinkhole in Texas used for prehistoric burials +Big Basin Prairie Preserve – St. Jacob's Well, Kansas, a water-filled sinkhole which lies in the Little Basin, and the Big Basin, a 1.5-kilometre-wide (1 mi) crater-like depression +Blue Hole (Castalia) – a fresh water pond located in Castalia, Erie County, Ohio +Blue Hole (New Mexico) – circular, bell-shaped pool east of Santa Rosa, New Mexico +Bottomless Lakes State Park – Lazy Lagoon Lake, New Mexico, made up of three separate sinkholes +Cedar Sink – a vertical-walled large depression in Kentucky. +Daisetta, Texas – sits on a salt dome, in 1969, 1981, and again in 2008, sinkholes formed in the area +Deep Lake (Florida) – a natural sinkhole in Big Cypress National Preserve in Florida +Deep Run Ponds Natural Area Preserve – contains one of the largest remaining systems of the Shenandoah Valley sinkhole ponds in Virginia +Devil's Den Cave – a karst window over an underground river near Williston, Florida +Devil's Kitchen Sinkhole - located in Coconino National Forest, Arizona +Devil's Millhopper Geological State Park – located in Gainesville, Florida +Devil's Sinkhole State Natural Area – a natural bat habitat near Rocksprings in Edwards County, Texas +Grassy Cove – an enclosed valley in Cumberland County, Tennessee notable for its karst formations +Green Banana Hole – a blue hole located 80 km (50 mi) off the coast of Sarasota, Florida. +Kingsley Lake – a lake is thought to have formed as a sinkhole about 10 km (6 mi) east of Starke, Florida +Lake Eola Park – Lake Eola is a sinkhole located in downtown Orlando, Florida +Lake Peigneur – was originally a shallow freshwater body in Louisiana, until a man-made disaster on November 20, 1980 changed its structure, affecting the surrounding land and making it a brackish water lake +Little Salt Spring – a feature of the karst topography of Florida +Makauwahi Cave – the largest limestone cave found in Kauai, Hawaii +Marvel Cave – a National Natural Landmark west of Branson, Missouri, on top of Roark Mountain in Stone County +Montezuma Well – a natural limestone sinkhole near Rimrock, Arizona +Mount Joy Pond Natural Area Preserve – a large sinkhole pond located in Augusta County, Virginia +NR-1 Sinkhole – an underwater sinkhole first located by the NR-1 submarine; located southwest of Key West, Florida +Peter Sinks – a natural sinkhole in northern Utah, one of the coldest places in the contiguous United States +Pipe Creek Sinkhole – near Swayzee in Grant County, Indiana, important paleontological site +The Inkpot – 27 meter sinkhole located at the Salt Creek Wilderness Area north of Roswell, New Mexico +Trout Pond – a sinkhole that filled with water near Wardensville in Hardy County, West Virginia + +== Venezuela == +Sima Humboldt +Sima Martel +Haitón del Guarataro + +== Other locations == + +Biržai Regional Park – a park in northern Lithuania established in 1992 to preserve a distinctive karst landscape +Blue Hole (Red Sea) – a submarine sinkhole around 94 m (308 feet) deep in east Sinai, a few kilometres north of Dahab, Egypt on the coast of the Red Sea. +Dead Sea sinkholes +Dean's Blue Hole – the world's second deepest known salt water blue hole with an entrance below the sea level; in the Bahamas +Devil's Hole, Bermuda – a large water-filled sinkhole, close to the southeastern corner of Harrington Sound +Great Blue Hole – a giant submarine sinkhole off the coast of Belize +Harwoods Hole – cave system located in the northwest of the South Island of New Zealand, New Zealand's deepest vertical shaft +Hutchinson's Hole – a large sinkhole in Saint Ann Parish in northern Jamaica, used by a serial killer to dispose of bodies +Playa de Gulpiyuri – a flooded sinkhole with an inland beach located near Llanes, Spain +2018 Surabaya City sinkhole – a 30 m (98 ft) wide and 15 m (49 ft) deep sinkhole opened up on Gubeng Road in Surabaya, Indonesia during construction work on December 18, 2018. +2022 Tierra Amarilla sinkhole – a 25 m (80 ft) wide and more than 200 m (700 ft) deep sinkhole appeared in the commune of Tierra Amarilla, Atacama Region of Chile close to the Alcaparrosa copper mine on August 1, 2022. The sinkhole continued to grow and stretched 50 m (200 ft) in diameter on August 8. + +== Notes == + +== See also == +Karst +List of deepest caves + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md index 175d03006..609bd384e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:00:26.110615+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:36.862843+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99e538c35 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "List of tectonic plates" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth's surface. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around 100 km (62 mi) thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with mafic basaltic rocks dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower-density felsic granitic rocks. + +== Current plates == +Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on Earth's surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates). + +=== Major plates === + +These plates comprise the bulk of the continents and the Pacific Ocean. For purposes of this list, a major plate is any plate with an area greater than 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi). + +African plate – Tectonic plate underlying Africa – 61,300,000 km2 (23,700,000 sq mi) +Antarctic plate – Major tectonic plate containing Antarctica and the surrounding ocean floor – 60,900,000 km2 (23,500,000 sq mi) +Eurasian plate – Tectonic plate which includes most of Eurasia – 67,800,000 km2 (26,200,000 sq mi) +Indo-Australian plate – Major tectonic plate formed by the fusion of the Indian and Australian plates (sometimes considered to be two separate tectonic plates) – 58,900,000 km2 (22,700,000 sq mi) +Australian plate – Major tectonic plate – 47,000,000 km2 (18,000,000 sq mi) +North American plate – Large tectonic plate including most of North America, Greenland and part of Siberia – 75,900,000 km2 (29,300,000 sq mi) +Pacific plate – Oceanic tectonic plate under the Pacific Ocean – 103,300,000 km2 (39,900,000 sq mi) +South American plate – Major tectonic plate – 43,600,000 km2 (16,800,000 sq mi) + +=== Minor plates === +These smaller plates are often not shown on major plate maps, as the majority of them do not comprise significant land area. For purposes of this list, a minor plate is any plate with an area less than 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi) but greater than 1 million km2 (0.39 million sq mi). + +Amur plate – Minor tectonic plate in eastern Asia +Arabian plate – Minor tectonic plate – 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) +Burma plate – Minor tectonic plate in Southeast Asia – 1,100,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi) +Caribbean plate – Tectonic plate in Central America and the Caribbean – 3,300,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi) +Caroline plate – Minor oceanic tectonic plate north of New Guinea – 1,700,000 km2 (660,000 sq mi) +Cocos plate – Tectonic plate beneath the Pacific Ocean – 2,900,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi) +Indian plate – Minor plate that separated from Gondwana – 11,900,000 km2 (4,600,000 sq mi) +Nazca plate – Oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin – 15,600,000 km2 (6,000,000 sq mi) +New Hebrides plate – Minor Pacific Ocean tectonic plate – 1,100,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi) +Okhotsk microplate – Minor tectonic plate in AsiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Philippine Sea plate – Oceanic tectonic plate to the east of the Philippines – 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) +Scotia plate – Minor oceanic tectonic plate between the Antarctic and South American plates – 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi) +Somali plate – Minor tectonic plate including the east coast of Africa and the adjoining seabed – 16,700,000 km2 (6,400,000 sq mi) +Sunda plate – Tectonic plate including Southeast Asia +Yangtze plate – Tectonic plate carrying the bulk of southern China + +=== Microplates === +These plates are often grouped with an adjacent principal plate on a tectonic plate world map. For purposes of this list, a microplate is any plate with an area less than 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 mi2). Some models identify more minor plates within current orogens (events that lead to a large structural deformation of Earth's lithosphere) like the Apulian, Explorer, Gorda, and Philippine Mobile Belt plates. The latest studies have shown that microplates are the basic elements of which the crust is composed and that the larger plates are composed of amalgamations of these, and a subdivision of ca. 1200 smaller plates has come forward. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..989235084 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "List of tectonic plates" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +African plate +Lwandle plate – Mainly oceanic tectonic microplate off the southeast coast of Africa +Rovuma plate – Tectonic microplate in Africa +Victoria microplate – Tectonic plate in East Africa +Danakil microplate - a microplate at the Afar triple junction +Antarctic plate +East Antarctic plate +Shetland plate – Tectonic microplate off the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula +West Antarctic plate +Australian plate +Capricorn plate – Proposed minor tectonic plate under the Indian Ocean +Futuna plate – Very small tectonic plate near the south Pacific island of Futuna +Kermadec plate – Tectonic plate in the south Pacific Ocean +Macquarie plate +Maoke plate – Small tectonic plate in western New Guinea +Niuafo'ou plate – Small tectonic plate west of Tonga +Tonga plate – Small tectonic plate in the southwest Pacific Ocean +Woodlark plate – Small tectonic plate located to the east of the island of New Guinea +Caribbean plate +Gonâve microplate – Part of the boundary between the North American plate and the Caribbean plate +Hispaniola microplate +North Hispaniola microplate +Panama plate – Small tectonic plate in Central America +Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands microplate – Part of the boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean PlatePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +South Jamaica microplate +Cocos plate +Rivera plate – Small tectonic plate off the west coast of Mexico +Eurasian plate +Adriatic plate, also known as the Apulian plate – Small tectonic plate in the Mediterranean +Aegean Sea plate, also known as Hellenic plate – Small tectonic plate in the eastern Mediterranean Sea +Anatolian plate – Continental tectonic plate comprising most of the Anatolian Peninsula (Asia Minor) +Azores microplate – Oceanic plateau in the North Atlantic Ocean +Banda Sea plate – Minor tectonic plate underlying the Banda Sea in southeast Asia +Hreppar microplate – Small tectonic plate in south Iceland, between the Eurasian plate and the North American plate +Iberian plate – Small tectonic plate now part of the Eurasian plate +Iranian plate – Geological feature in AsiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Molucca Sea plate – Small fully subducted tectonic plate near Indonesia +Halmahera plate – Small tectonic plate in the Molucca Sea +Sangihe plate – Microplate within eastern Indonesia +Okinawa plate – Minor tectonic plate from the northern end of Taiwan to the southern tip of Kyūshū +Pelso plate – Small tectonic unit in the Pannonian Basin in Europe +Timor plate – Microplate in Southeast Asia carrying the island of Timor and surrounding islands +Tisza plate – Tectonic microplate, in present-day Europe +Nazca plate +Coiba plate – Tectonic plate off the coast south of Panama and northwestern Colombia +Malpelo plate – Small tectonic plate off the coasts of Ecuador and Colombia +North American plate +Greenland plate – Supposed tectonic microplate containing the Greenland craton +Queen Elizabeth Islands Subplate – Small tectonic plate containing the Queen Elizabeth Islands of Northern Canada +Pacific plate +Balmoral Reef plate – Small tectonic plate in the south Pacific north of Fiji +Bird's Head plate – Small tectonic plate in New Guinea +Conway Reef plate – Small tectonic plate in the south Pacific west of Fiji +Easter microplate – Very small tectonic plate to the west of Easter Island +Galápagos microplate – Very small tectonic plate at the Galápagos triple junction +Juan de Fuca plate – Small tectonic plate in the eastern North Pacific – 250,000 km2 +Explorer plate – Northeast Pacific tectonic plate +Gorda plate – One of the northern remnants of the Farallon plate +Juan Fernández plate – Very small tectonic plate in the southern Pacific Ocean +Manus plate – Tiny tectonic plate northeast of New Guinea +North Bismarck plate – Small tectonic plate in the Bismarck Sea north of New Guinea +North Galápagos microplate – Very small tectonic plate at the Galápagos triple junctionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Solomon Sea plate – Minor tectonic plate near the Solomon Islands archipelago in the Pacific Ocean +South Bismarck plate – Small tectonic plate in the southern Bismarck Sea +Trobriand plate – Small tectonic plate located to the east of the island of New Guinea +Philippine Sea plate +Mariana plate – Small tectonic plate west of the Mariana Trench +Philippine Mobile Belt, also known as Philippine microplate – Tectonic boundary +Scotia plate +South Sandwich plate – Small tectonic plate south of the South American plate +Somali plate +Madagascar plate – Tectonic plate formerly part of the supercontinent Gondwana +South American plate +Altiplano plate +Falklands microplate +North Andes plate – Small tectonic plate in the northern Andes (mainly in Colombia, minor parts in Ecuador and Venezuela) + +== Ancient tectonic plates == +In the history of Earth, many tectonic plates have come into existence and have over the intervening years either accreted onto other plates to form larger plates, rifted into smaller plates, or have been crushed by or subducted under other plates. +The following is a list of ancient cratons, microplates, plates, and terranes which no longer exist as separate plates. Cratons are the oldest and most stable parts of the continental lithosphere, and shields are exposed parts of them. Terranes are fragments of crustal material formed on one tectonic plate and accreted to crust lying on another plate, which may or may not have originated as independent microplates: a terrane may not contain the full thickness of the lithosphere. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dfb0434c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "List of tectonic plates" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== African plate === +Atlantica – Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago +Bangweulu Block – Part of the Congo craton of central Africa (Zambia) +Congo Craton – Precambrian craton that with four others makes up the modern continent of Africa (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Sudan, and Zambia) +Kaapvaal Craton – Archaean craton, possibly part of the Vaalbara supercontinent (South Africa) +Kalahari Craton – African geological area (South Africa) +Saharan Metacraton – Large area of continental crust in the north-central part of Africa (Algeria) +Sebakwe proto-Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithospherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (Zimbabwe) +Tanzania Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere in central Tanzania (Tanzania) +West African Craton – One of the five Precambrian cratons that make up the African Plate (Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo) +Zaire Craton (Congo) +Zimbabwe Craton – Area in Southern Africa of ancient continental crust (Zimbabwe) + +=== Antarctic plate === +Bellingshausen plate – Ancient tectonic plate that fused onto the Antarctic plate +Charcot plate – Fragment of the Phoenix tectonic plate fused to the Antarctic Peninsula +East Antarctic Shield, also known as East Antarctic Craton – Cratonic rock body which makes up most of the continent Antarctica +Phoenix plate – Tectonic plate that existed during the early Paleozoic through late Cenozoic time + +=== Eurasian plate === +Armorica – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana (France, Germany, Spain and Portugal) +Avalonia – Microcontinent in the Paleozoic era (Canada, Ireland, Great Britain, and United States) +Baltic plate – Ancient tectonic plate from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous Period +Belomorian Craton +Central Iberian plate +Cimmerian plate – Ancient string of microcontinents that rifted from Gondwana (Anatolia, Iran, Afghanistan, Tibet, Indochina and Malaya) +East China Craton +East European Craton – Geology of Europe +Baltic Shield, also known as Fennoscandian Shield – Ancient segment of Earth's crust +Junggar plate – Geographical subregion in Northwest China and Eastern Kazakhstan +Hunic plate +Karelian Craton – Region comprising the Scandinavian Peninsula, Finland, Karelia, and the Kola Peninsula +Kazakhstania – Geological region in Central Asia and the Junngar Basin in China +Kola Craton – Geographical peninsula in EuropePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Lhasa terrane – Fragment of crustal material that forms present-day southern Tibet +Massif Central – Highland region in southern France +Moldanubian plate – Tectonic zone in Europe +Moravo Silesian plate +Midlands Microcraton – Block of late Neoproterozoic crust which underlies the Midlands region of England +North Atlantic Craton – Archaean craton exposed in Greenland, Labrador, and northwestern Scotland +North China Craton – Continental crustal block in China, Inner Mongolia, the Yellow Sea, and North Korea +Ossa-Morena plate +Piemont-Liguria plate – Former piece of oceanic crust that is seen as part of the Tethys Ocean +Proto-Alps terrane +Rhenohercynian plate – Fold belt of west and central Europe, formed during the Hercynian orogeny +Sarmatian Craton – Part of the East European Craton +Saxothuringian plate – European tectonic zone +Siberian Craton – Ancient craton forming the Central Siberian Plateau +South Portuguese plate +Tarim craton +Teplá-Barrandian terrane +Ukrainian Shield – The southwest shield of the East European craton +Valais plate – Subducted ocean basin. Remnants found in the Alps in the North Penninic nappes. +Volgo-Uralian craton +Yakutai craton +Yangtze Craton – Precambrian continental block located in ChinaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets + +=== Indo-Australian plate === + +Altjawarra Craton (Australia) +Aravalli Craton (India) +Bastar Craton (India) +Bhandara Craton (India) +Bundelkhand Craton (India) +Dharwar Craton – Part of the Indian Shield in south India +Central Craton (Australia) +Curnamona Craton (Australia) +Gawler Craton – Province of the larger West Australian Shield in central South Australia +Indian Craton +Narooma terrane – Geological structural region on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia +Pilbara Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere located in Pilbara, Western Australia +Singhbhum Craton (India) +Yilgarn Craton – Large craton in Western Australia +Australian Shield, also known as Western Australian Shield – Large part of the continent of Australia +Zealandia – Mostly submerged continental crust area in Oceania. See Moa plate and Lord Howe Rise + +=== North American plate === + +Avalonia – Microcontinent in the Paleozoic era (Canada, Ireland, Great Britain, and United States) +Carolina plate – Exotic terrane from central Georgia to central Virginia in the United States +Churchill Craton – Geologic region in Canada (Canada) +Farallon plate – Ancient oceanic plate that has mostly subducted under the North American plate (split into the Cocos, Explorer, Juan de Fuca, Gorda plates, Nazca plate, and Rivera plates) +Florida plate (United States) +Hearne Craton – Craton in northern Canada (Canada) +Laurentian Craton, also known as North American Craton – Craton forming the geological core of North America (Canada and United States) +Insular plate – Ancient oceanic plate +Intermontane plate – Ancient oceanic tectonic platePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Izanagi plate – Ancient tectonic plate +Mexican plate +Nain Province – Part of the North Atlantic Craton in Labrador, Canada (Canada) +Newfoundland plate +North Atlantic Craton – Archaean craton exposed in Greenland, Labrador, and northwestern Scotland +Nova Scotia plate +Rae Craton – Archean craton in northern Canada north of the Superior Craton (Canada) +Sask Craton (Canada) +Sclavia Craton – Late Archean supercraton (Canada) +Slave Craton – Area of ancient rocks in northwest Canada (Canada) +Superior Craton – Large crustal block in North America (Canada) +Wyoming Craton – Craton in the west-central United States and western Canada (United States) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..340a50419 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "List of tectonic plates" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== South American plate === +Amazonian Craton – Geologic province in South America (Brazil) +Guiana Shield – Precambrian geological formation in northeast South America (Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela) +Río de la Plata Craton – Medium-sized continental block in Uruguay, eastern Argentina and southern Brazil (Argentina and Uruguay) +São Francisco Craton – Ancient craton in eastern South America (Brazil) +Arequipa–Antofalla Craton – South American geology (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru) + +== See also == + +Asthenosphere – Highly viscous, ductile, and mechanically weak region of Earth's mantle +Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention +Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere +Platform – Continental area covered by relatively flat or gently tilted, mainly sedimentary strata +Shield – Large stable area of exposed Precambrian crystalline rock +Earth's crust – Earth's outer shell of rock +Continental crust – Layer of rock that forms the continents and continental shelves +Oceanic crust – Uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate +Earth's mantle – Layer of silicate rock +Lower mantle – Region from 660 to 2900 km below Earth's surfacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Upper mantle – Very thick layer of rock inside EarthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems +Sial – Rocks rich in aluminium silicate minerals +Sima – Rocks rich in magnesium silicate minerals +Hydrosphere – Liquid water on a planet +Lithosphere – Outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite +Ocean – Body of salt water covering most of Earth +Plate tectonics – Movement of Earth's lithosphere +List of tectonic plate interactions – Types of plate boundaries +Supercontinent – Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton +Terrane – Fragment of crust formed on one tectonic plate and accreted to another + +== Notes and references == + +=== Notes === + +=== References === + +=== Bibliography === +North Andes plate +Restrepo, Jorge Julián; Ordóñez Carmona, Oswaldo; Martens, Uwe; Correa, Ana María (2009). "Terrenos, complejos y provincias en la Cordillera Central de Colombia (Terrains, complexes and provinces in the central cordillera of Colombia)". Ingeniería Investigación y Desarrollo. 9: 49–56. Retrieved 2019-10-31. +Fuck, Reinhardt A.; Brito Neves, Benjamim Bley; Schobbenhaus, Carlos (2008). "Rodinia descendants in South America". Precambrian Research. 160: 108–126. Retrieved 2019-10-29. +Cordani, U.G.; Cardona, A.; Jiménez, D.M.; Dunyl, L.; Nutman, A.P. (2003). Geochronology of Proterozoic basement from the Colombian Andes: Tectonic history of remnants from a fragmented Grenville Belt. 10o Congreso Geológico Chileno. pp. 1–10. +Restrepo, Jorge Julian; Toussaint, Jean F. (1988). "Terranes and continental accretion in the Colombian Andes". Episodes. 11: 189–193. Retrieved 2019-10-31. + +== External links == +Bird, Peter (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries also available as a large (13 Mb) PDF file \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_administered_by_the_United_Nations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_administered_by_the_United_Nations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03fdb3042 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_administered_by_the_United_Nations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "List of territories administered by the United Nations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_administered_by_the_United_Nations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:16.915890+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of territories which are directly administered, or once were, by the United Nations (UN). These are not to be confused with UN trust territories, which were run by a single country under a UN mandate. + + +== List == + + +=== Current === + + +=== Authorised by a United Nations mandate === + + +=== Former === + + +=== Proposed === +Corpus separatum (Jerusalem) – 1947 UN internationalization proposal + + +== See also == +United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon +Extraterritoriality +Extraterritorial jurisdiction +Extraterritorial operation +Allied administration of Libya +Free City of Danzig +Free Territory of Trieste +International city +International waters +International zone +Klaipėda Region (Memel Territory) +League of Nations mandate +Outer Space Treaty +Territory of the Saar Basin +United Nations list of non-self-governing territories +United Nations Transition Assistance Group +United Nations trust territories \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tickles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tickles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b88c4c016 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tickles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of tickles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tickles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:19.298156+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Tickle is used in the name of several geographical features in Canada; in Newfoundland English it means a short narrow strait: + +Baccalieu Tickle, navigation channel just off the coast of Baccalieu Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Baker's Tickle, Canadian fishing settlement in the Burgeo, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Black Tickle, settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador on the Island of Ponds, Canada +Boatswain Tickle within Little Bay Islands, town in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Chimney Tickle, settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Greenspond Tickle, on the northeast coast of the Island of Newfoundland, Canada, called Bonavista North +Gull Tickle, channel located in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Indian Tickle, located north of Comfort Bight +Moore's Island Tickle, south of Moore's Harbor in the Okak Islands, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Thimble Tickle, former name of Glovers Harbour, settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Tickle Bay, natural bay off the island of Newfoundland in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada +Tickle Channel, narrow channel in the south part of Hanusse Bay, separating Hansen Island from the east extremity of Adelaide Island, Canada +Tickle Cock Bridge, pedestrian underpass in Castleford, England, under a railway line originally built by the York and North Midland Railway +Tickle Cove, settlement located north west of Catalina, Canada +Tickle Harbor or Subdivision 1A, Newfoundland and Labrador, unorganized subdivision on the Avalon Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada + + +== See also == +Tickles, Newfoundland and Labrador, small settlement +Leading Tickles, town in Newfoundland and Labrador +Tickle (disambiguation) +Tickle (surname) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_time_zones_by_country-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_time_zones_by_country-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..004db727e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_time_zones_by_country-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "List of time zones by country" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_time_zones_by_country" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:20.591096+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list representing time zones by country. Countries are ranked by total number of time zones on their territory. Time zones of a country include that of dependent territories (except Antarctica). France, including its overseas territories, has the most time zones with 12 (13 including its claim in Antarctica). Many countries have daylight saving time, one added hour during the local summer, but this list does not include that information. The UTC offset in the list below is not valid in practice during daylight saving time. + + +== See also == +Lists of time zones +List of UTC time offsets +Time zone abolition + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f28b636a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:31.477776+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. + + +== By country name == +A-B • C-D-E-F • G-H-I-J-K • L-M-N-O • P-Q-R-S • T-U-V-W-Y-Z + + +== See also == +List of largest cities +List of cities with over one million inhabitants + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumps-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumps-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..809730d0b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumps-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "List of tumps" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumps" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:41.845651+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Tump means a hillock, mound, barrow or tumulus. The Welsh words twmp and Twmpath may be related. Although some may appear similar to glacial drumlins, for the most part they are man-made, e.g. remains from mineral extraction, burial mounds (tumuli and especially bowl barrows) or motte-and-bailey castle mounds. The following geographical features in the UK are referred to using the word: + +Almondsbury Tump: a slight prominence near the top of the scarp, in open space near the Swan, Almondsbury, South Gloucestershire +Barry's Hill Tump: a barrow in the civil parish of Leafield, Oxfordshire +Battle Tump: a castle motte, Scheduled Ancient Monument, Lower Common, Gilwern, Monmouthshire +Bettws Newydd tump: an early Norman motte-and-bailey tump in Monmouthshire +Bledisloe Tump: a castle in Awre, Gloucestershire +Brinklow Castle known locally as 'the Tump': a medieval castle in the village of Brinklow, Warwickshire +Caple Tump: an earthwork reputed to be the remains of a castle motte in King's Caple, Herefordshire +Castle Tump: an early 11th-century motte-and-bailey castle in Trecastle, Powys +Castle Tump, Caerwent: site of a Roman villa in Monmouthshire +Castle Tump, Dymock: a castle in Dymock, Gloucestershire +Castle Tump Motte (see Glasbury Castle), Glasbury, Powys +Castle Tump, Tenbury Wells: believed to be the remains of an early Norman motte-and-bailey castle near Burford, Shropshire and Tenbury Wells, Worcestershire +Cole's Tump, an area of pillow mounds on the west side of Orcop Hill, Herefordshire, that overlooks the village of the same name +Congrove Field and The Tumps: north of Bath (Bath and North East Somerset), possibly the site of mining activities in the past +Crugyn Tump: castle mound/motte, Beguildy, Powys +East Tump and West Tump: small (ca. 50m and 100m long respectively) tidal islands off the respective coasts of the Island of Grassholm +Edmunds Tump: a hill near Grosmont in north-eastern Monmouthshire +Hetty Pegler's Tump: a Neolithic burial mound near the village of Uley, Gloucestershire +Knucklas Castle Mound: site of a castle near the battlefield of the Battle of Beguildy, Powys +Llanthomas Castle Mound comprises the remains of a motte and ditch, near the village of Llanigon and the town of Hay-on-Wye +Leigh Castle Tump: earthwork and buried remains of a medieval motte-and-bailey castle at Castle Green near Leigh, Worcestershire +Loxidge Tump cairn: round cairn on the Offa's Dyke Path, Hatterrall Ridge, with Llanthony to one side and Llanveynoe the other; there are several other cairns nearby in general vicinity of Llanvihangel Crucorney +Keynsham Humpy Tumps: site of open patches of grassland and bare rock, interspersed with blocks of scrub, alongside the Bristol to Bath railway line +Maes Tump: an Iron Age hillfort in Somerset +Monkey Tump: 12th-century motte castle in Tonteg, Rhondda Cynon Taf +Nan Tow's Tump: a round barrow by the A46 near Oldbury-on-the-Hill, Gloucestershire +Newcourt Tump: earthwork remains of a small motte-and-bailey castle 1 milenorth of Bacton, Herefordshire +Newton Tump: remains of a motte-and-bailey castle 3 miles southeast of Clifford, Herefordshire +Robin Hood's Tump (see under 'Buildings and structures'): prehistoric burial ground near Alpraham, Cheshire +St Weonards Tump: immediately south of St Weonards churchyard, Herefordshire +Slwch Tump: an Iron Age hill fort close to Brecon, Powys +Stow Green Tump, also known as Castle Tump: remains of a castle near the village of St Briavels, Gloucestershire +Swanborough Tump: a hillock in the parish of Manningford Abbots, Wiltshire, identified as the moot-place mentioned in the will of King Alfred +Table Hill tump: in the Malvern Hills between North Hill and Sugarloaf Hill (Herefordshire–Worcestershire border) +Tappa's Tump or "Tæppa's mound": burial mound near Taplow, Buckinghamshire +"The Tump": ancient burial mound near Whittington, Worcestershire +Tump Farm, Wilcrick: a farm near Wilcrick Hill, which was a hillfort in former Monmouthshire +Tump Terret: mound marking the site of a small motte-and-bailey castle in Trellech, Monmouthshire +Twmpath Castle, a motte-and-bailey castle in Rhiwbina, Cardiff +Turkey Tump: on the ridge immediately north-west of Llanwarne, Herefordshire (SO504288) +Wednesbury Tump (see 'Post-Medieval times'): Wednesbury, West Midlands +Whittington Tump: central Worcestershire, a prehistoric religious site and location of a medieval castle +Windmill Tump: a Neolithic burial site west of the village of Rodmarton, Gloucestershire +Wormelow Tump: village in Herefordshire, location of the burial mound of King Arthur's son Amr +See also + +Burrow Mump: a mound at Burrowbridge in Somerset. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_amber-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_amber-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6da6869bf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_amber-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of types of amber" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_amber" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:49.703180+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of types of amber. + + +== True ambers == +Baltic amber - the most common amber variety, found along the shores of a large part of the Baltic Sea, Eocene age amber. +Bitterfeld amber, amber from Bitterfeld, Germany, equivalent in age to Baltic amber and has historically been suggested to be synonymous with it +Burmese amber - also known as burmite, is a Cretaceous (Cenomanian) age amber about 99 million years old found mainly in the Hukawng Valley, Kachin State, Myanmar (Burma). The most common amber containing insect inclusions of the Cenomanian, mined in a very large amount since late 2010s and became one of the most available types of amber. +Canadian amber - also known as chemawinite or cedarit, found near Cedar Lake (Manitoba), Cretaceous (Campanian) age amber. +Charentese amber - opaque amber found in the Aquitaine Basin, France. Cretaceous (Cenomanian) age. +Cambay amber - amber from Gujarat, India, unlike most ambers readily dissolves in solvents, Eocene age. +Dominican amber - nearly always transparent, and having a higher number of fossil inclusions than Baltic amber, Miocene age amber. +Blue amber - a rare color variation, most commonly is found in the Dominican Republic. +Ethiopian amber - formerly considered Cretaceous, currently considered Miocene age. +Fushun amber - amber found near Fushun, China, Eocene age. +Kuji amber - amber from Kuji, Iwate Prefecture, Japan, considered to be Cretaceous (Santonian) in age. +Jordanian amber - found in Jordan, considered to be Albian in age. +Lebanese amber - found in Lebanon, Levant and Jordan, considered to be the oldest amber with significant numbers of inclusions, Early Cretaceous (Barremian). +Mexican amber - found mainly in Chiapas in Mexico, roughly contemporary with Miocene era Dominican amber, and produced by the extinct Hymenaea mexicana tree, a relative of the Hymenaea protera tree responsible for producing Dominican Amber. +New Jersey amber - Found on the Atlantic coastal plain of North America, dated to the Cretaceous, Turonian. +Oise amber - found near Oise in France, Eocene +Rovno amber - found in the Rivne region of Ukraine, of similar age to Baltic amber (Eocene), and sharing some species. +Sakhalin amber - amber from Sakhalin, Russia, Eocene in age. +Spanish amber- amber from Northern and Eastern Spain, Cretaceous (Albian) in age. +Sri Lankan amber - found in sea coast in a very small quantity also called Indian amber or Indian sea amber. +Sumatran amber - found in Jambi, Indonesia this amber is a young amber, typically falling in the 20-30 million year age range. It does not often have clear inclusions, and very few insects are found as compared to other ambers. +Taymyr amber (also spelled Taimyr) - found in Taymyr Peninsula (northern Russia), Cretaceous (Cenomanian and Santonian) aged amber. +Tasmanian amber - rare regional mineraloid, a brownish-reddish fossilized organic resin from the island of Tasmania. + + +== See also == +Black amber - aka Oltu stone, actually a type of jet (lignite) found in eastern Turkey. +Copal - resinous substance in an intermediate stage of polymerization and hardening between "gummier" resins and amber. +Kauri gum +List of minerals + + +== Literature == +Biodiversity of Fossils in Amber from the Major World Deposits / Ed. D. Penney. Siri Scientific Press, 2010. 304 pp \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9b0f8dd31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,190 @@ +--- +title: "List of types of limestone" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:24.935628+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article lists types of limestone arranged according to generic type and location. + + +== Generic limestone categories == + +This section is a list of generic types of limestone. + +Bituminous limestone +Carboniferous Limestone – Limestone deposited during the Dinantian Epoch of the Carboniferous Period +Coquina – Sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells +Coral rag – Limestone composed of ancient coral reef material +Chalk – Soft carbonate rock +Fossiliferous limestone – Limestone containing fossils +Lithographic limestone – Type of limestone with hard fine grain +Marble – Metamorphic limestone +Oolite – Sedimentary rock formed from ooids +Rag-stone – Work done with stones that are quarried in thin pieces +Shelly limestone – Limestone containing many fossils +Travertine – Form of limestone deposited by mineral springs +Tufa – Porous variety of limestone rock + +The following sections include both formal stratigraphic unit names and less formal designations, although are these are not differentiated. + + +== Africa == + + +=== Egypt === + +Tura limestone, used for the Great Pyramid casing stones +Mokattam limestone; Great Pyramid core stones and head of the Great Sphinx are of the "Member III" stratum +Galala marble (a type of limestone, not a true marble) + + +== Asia == + + +=== India === +Kota stone – Type of limestone from Rajasthan, India +Nimbahera stone + + +=== Israel (West Bank) === +Meleke – Type of Limestone +Jerusalem stone – Type of pale building stone + + +== Europe == + + +=== Austria === +Wetterstein limestone – Regional geologic formation in the Northern Limestone Alps and Western CarpathiansPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets + + +=== Belgium === +Belgian marble, (not a "true marble"; Devonian limestone) +Noir Belge +Rouge Belge + + +=== Croatia === +Istrian stone – Type of limestone + + +=== France === +Caen Stone – Limestone quarried near Caen, France +Lutetian limestone – Type of limestone from Paris, or "Paris stone" (city buildings are widely faced with it) +Saint-Maximin, or Oise, limestone (variety of Lutetian) +Pierre de Jaumont +Tuffeau stone – Limestone from the Loire Valley, France, in the Loire Valley + + +=== Germany === +Solnhofen limestone – Geological formation preserving rare fossils in Germany +Wetterstein limestone – Regional geologic formation in the Northern Limestone Alps and Western CarpathiansPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets + + +=== Gibraltar === +Gibraltar Limestone – Geologic formation in Gibraltar + + +=== Ireland === +Kilkenny marble – Carboniferous limestone found in County Kilkenny, IrelandPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets, not a "true marble"; fossiliferous Carboniferous limestone. + + +=== Italy === +Red Verona marble – Variety of limestone from Italy, not a "true marble"; fossiliferous limestone + + +=== United Kingdom === +England: + +Ashford Black Marble – Very fine-grained sedimentary rock (not a "true marble"; Carboniferous limestone) +Bath stone – Oolitic limestone from Somerset used as a building material +Beer Stone – Man-made caves in Devon, EnglandPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Clipsham stone – Village in Rutland, EnglandPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets, the famous London Stone is made of this. +Collyweston stone slate – Traditional limestone roofing material of central England (not a "true slate"; thin-bedded limestone) +Cotham Marble – Limestone variety from Great Britain (not a "true marble"; stromatolitic limestone) +Cotswold stone – oolitic limestone used for building and roofing in the Cotswolds +Dent Marble (not a "true marble"; Crinoidal limestone) +Frosterley Marble – northern England (not a "true marble") +Hamstone – Building stone from Somerset +Headington stone – Limestone from Oxford, UK +Hopton Wood stone – Type of limestone +Kentish ragstone, also known as Kentish rag – Hard grey limestone in Kent, England +Ketton stone +Pembroke Limestone Group +Portland stone – Limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset, England +Portland Admiralty Roach – Rock type +Bowers Basebed +Portland Bowers Roach +Portland Grove Whitbed +Portland Jordans Roach – Stone variety from the Isle of Portland +Purbeck stone – Limestone from Dorset +Purbeck Marble – Fossiliferous limestone found in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset, England (not a "true marble"; fossiliferous limestone) +Sussex Marble (not a "true marble"; fossiliferous freshwater limestone) +Scotland: + +Charlestown limestone – Limestone quarrying in Charlestown, Fife, Scotland +Wales: + +Cymerig Limestone – Geologic formation in Wales + + +== North America == + + +=== United States === +Anamosa Limestone – Dolomitic limestone from Stone City, Iowa, USA +Bear Gulch Limestone – Paleontological site in Montana, USA +Columbus Limestone – Geologic formation in the United States and Canada +Cottonwood Limestone – Historic stone resource in the Midwestern United States +Greenbrier Limestone – Lithostratigraphic unitPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Harrodsburg Limestone – Geologic formation in Indiana, United States +Heceta Limestone – Geologic Formation in Alaska +Hokie stone – Grey dolomite-limestone rock found near Blacksburg, Virginia +Indiana Limestone – Limestone quarried in Indiana, United StatesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (Bedford limestone) +Jeffersonville Limestone – Bedrock unit in Indiana and Kentucky, United States +Kaibab Limestone – Geologic formation in the southwestern United States +Kasota limestone – Type of rock in southern Minnesota +Keyser Limestone – Limestone bedrock unit in the Eastern United StatesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Keystone +Madison Limestone – Geologic formation in the western United StatesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Michigan limestone +Onondaga Limestone – Hard limestones rock formation in North America +St. Genevieve marble – Marble found in Missouri (not a "true marble"; oolitic limestone) +St. Louis Limestone – Mississippian period geologic formation in the Midwest United States +Tennessee marble – Type of crystalline limestone (not a "true marble"; crystalline limestone) +Tonoloway Limestone – Geologic formation in the United StatesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets + + +=== Canada === +Eramosa marble – Stratigraphic unit of the Lockport FormationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (not a "true marble"; bituminous dolomite) +Ostracod Beds – Stratigraphic Group in Western CanadaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (also known as the "Ostracod Limestone") +Tyndall stone – Trademark of limestone from Canada + + +== Oceania == + + +=== Australia === +Tamala Limestone – Limestone deposits in Western Australia + + +=== New Zealand === +Oamaru stone – Limestone quarried at New Zealand — Hard, compact bryozoan limestone. Granular and creamy white, it usually contains traces of alumina, iron oxide, and silica. + + +== See also == + +List of decorative stones +List of sandstones +List of types of marble + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Pivko, D. (2003) Natural stones in Earth’s history. Acta Geologica Universitatis Comenianae. vol. 58, pp. 73–86. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c02e893b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,229 @@ +--- +title: "List of types of marble" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:26.239823+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Here is a list of various types of marble according to location. +(NB: Marble-like stone which is not true marble according to geologists is included and indicated by italics with geologic classification given as a footnote. + + +== Africa == + + +=== Algeria === +Greco Scritto + + +=== Egypt === +Galala Marble +Sinai Pearl Marble +Milly Grey Marble +Sunny Marble +Alabaster Marble +Shanghi Marble +Eleuigion Marble +Lepuretya Marble + + +=== Ethiopia === +Daleti marble, Western Welega: white, white with grey veins and other colours +Enda Tikurir marble, Western Tigray +Newi marble, Central Tigray +Akmara marble, Central Tigray +Dichinamo marble, Western Tigray + + +=== Tunisia === +Giallo antico, also known as Numidian marble (marmor numidicum in Latin), was a yellow marble quarried in Roman times from the area of Chemtou, ancient Simmithu + + +== Asia == + + +=== China === +Hàn Bái Yǜ Marble (Chinese: 汉白玉) A type of white marble used in China for building and sculpting. + + +=== India === +Indian Onyx Marble +Jaisalmer Yellow Marble +Jhiri Marble (white) +Katni Marble +Makrana Marble +Morwad White Marble +Udaipur Green Marble + + +== Europe == + + +=== Belgium === +Griotte +Rouge de Rance +Noir Belge +Noir de Golzinne + + +=== Czech Republic === + +Český Šternberk marble (šternberský mramor) from Český Šternberk, Benešov District: white +Pernštejn marble (pernštejnský mramor) from Nedvědice, Brno-Country District: white +Nehodiv marble (nehodivský mramor) from Nehodiv, Klatovy District: grey +Lipová marble (lipovský mramor) from Horní Lipová, Jeseník District: dark and light-coloured +Sněžník marble (sněžníkovský mramor) from Horní Morava, Ústí nad Orlicí District: light-coloured +Supíkovice marble (supíkovický mramor) from Supíkovice, Jeseník District: grey-white +Marble mis-nomers: + +Cetechovice marble (cetechovický mramor) from Cetechovice, Kroměříž District: coloured +Karlík marble (karlický mramor), from Barrandien, Karlík, Prague-West District: black with gold-yellow-colour veins +Podol marble (Podolský mramor), from Vápenný Podol, Chrudim District: white, grey-white, rosy +Křtiny marble (křtinský mramor) from Křtiny, Blansko District: grey, rosy, reddish +Slivenec marble (slivenecký mramor), from Barrandien, Slivenec and Radotín (Cikánka, Horní Kopanina, Na Špičce, Hvížďalka quarries), Prague: reddish, rose, brown, grey, spotted with veins + + +=== France === +Griotte + + +=== Germany === +Auerbach marble +Crottendorf marble +Saalburg violet +Wunsiedel Marble + + +=== Greece === + +Cipollino or Karystian marble, or Styron Evia Green, near Styra on the island Euboea (silicate marble) +Hymettus marble +Parian marble +Pentelic marble +Skyros breccia +Thassos marble +Portosanta marble + + +=== Ireland === +Connemara marble, a serpentine marble +Kilkenny marble + + +=== Italy === + +Arabescato marble +Calacatta marble +Carrara marble +Candoglia marble +Lasa marble +Red Verona marble +Rosso di Levanto marble +Siena marble + + +=== North Macedonia === +Sivec (Bianco Sivec) + + +=== Norway === + +Fauske marble + + +=== Poland === +Marianna marble or Krzyżnik, marble from the Śnieżnik Mountains near Stronie Śląskie + + +=== Portugal === +Rosa aurora marble + + +=== Romania === +Bucova marble +Rușchița marble + + +=== Russia === +Ruskeala + + +=== Spain === +Crema Marfil +Macael marble +Negro Marquina +Veteado Rio +Emperador +Negro Fantasia +Saltador + + +=== Sweden === +Swedish green marble +Ekeberg marble + + +=== Turkey === +Prokonnesos marble +Pavonazzo marble +Greco scritto + + +=== United Kingdom === +Ashford Black Marble +Cotham Marble +Dent Marble +Frosterley Marble +Purbeck Marble +Sussex Marble +Iona marble + + +== North America == + + +=== United States === +Cockeysville marble +Creole marble +Etowah marble +Murphy marble +Potomac marble +St. Genevieve marble +Sylacauga marble +Tennessee marble +Tuckahoe marble +Vermont marble +Yule marble + + +== Oceania == + + +=== New Zealand === +Takaka marble + + +== South America == + + +=== Chile === +Atacama Black Marble + + +== See also == + +List of types of limestone +List of sandstones + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Marble at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6eda4d714 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,177 @@ +--- +title: "List of warehouse districts" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:43.134840+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of notable warehouse districts. +A warehouse district or warehouse row is an area found in many urban settings known for being the current or former location of numerous warehouses. Logistically, warehouses are often located in industrial parks, with access to bulk transportation outlets such as highways, railroads, and airports. The areas where warehouses are typically built are often designated as special zones for urban planning purposes, and "can have their own substantial infrastructures, comprising roads, utilities, and energy systems". In many instances, where changing social and economic conditions have made it unfeasible to maintain an existing warehouse district, cities or communities will invest in converting the district to other purposes for which this infrastructure can still be used, such as an art district. Such a converted area may continue to be known as a warehouse district. +Notable areas known as warehouse districts include: + + +== Canada == +Distillery District is located in Toronto, Ontario and is the largest collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America. +Warehouse District, Edmonton + + +== Germany == +Speicherstadt in Hamburg, Germany + + +== Poland == +Karolin in Warsaw, Poland +Służewiec in Warsaw, Poland +Służewiec Przemysłowy +Wyczółki in Warsaw, Poland + + +== United Kingdom == +Harringay Warehouse District + + +== United States (by state then city) == + + +=== Arizona === +Tucson Warehouse Historic District, Tucson, listed on the NRHP in Pima County + + +=== Arkansas === +Hot Springs Railroad Warehouse Historic District, Hot Springs, listed on the NRHP in Garland County + + +=== California === +Warehouse Row Fresno, listed on the NRHP in Fresno County +Warehouse District, Los Angeles +Oakland Waterfront Warehouse District, Oakland, listed on the NRHP in Alameda County + + +=== Georgia === +Athens Warehouse Historic District, Athens, listed on the NRHP in Clarke County +East Vine Street Warehouse and Depot District, Statesboro, listed on the NRHP in Bulloch County + + +=== Idaho === +Pocatello Warehouse Historic District, Pocatello, listed on the NRHP in Bannock County +Twin Falls Warehouse Historic District, Twin Falls, listed on the NRHP in Twin Falls County + + +=== Illinois === +Fulton River District, Chicago +Warehouse Historic District, Peoria, listed on the NRHP in Peoria County, Illinois + + +=== Iowa === +Crescent Warehouse Historic District, Davenport, listed on the NRHP in Scott County + + +=== Kansas === +Wichita Historic Warehouse and Jobbers District, Wichita, listed on the NRHP in Sedgwick County + + +=== Kentucky === +Warehouse District, Danville, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Boyle County +Hopkinsville Warehouse Historic District, Hopkinsville, listed on the NRHP in Christian County + + +=== Louisiana === +New Orleans Central Business District, New Orleans + + +=== Michigan === +River Place, Detroit, listed on the NRHP in Wayne County + + +=== Minnesota === +Minneapolis Warehouse Historic District, Minneapolis, Minnesota, listed on the NRHP in Hennepin County +North Loop, Minneapolis, which includes the Minneapolis Warehouse Historic District + + +=== Missouri === +Warehouse Row Historic District, Cape Girardeau, listed on the NRHP in Cape Girardeau County +Walnut Street Warehouse and Commercial Historic District, Kansas City, listed on the NRHP in Jackson County +Cupples Warehouse District, St. Louis, listed on the NRHP in St. Louis, Missouri +Washington Avenue Loft District, St. Louis +Springfield Warehouse and Industrial Historic District, Springfield, listed on the NRHP in Greene County + + +=== New Jersey === +Powerhouse Arts District, Jersey City + + +=== New York === +Meatpacking District, New York +Larkin District, Buffalo + + +=== North Carolina === +Greenville Tobacco Warehouse Historic District, Greenville, listed on the NRHP in Pitt County +Wilson Central Business-Tobacco Warehouse Historic District, Wilson, listed on the NRHP in Wilson County +Warehouse District, Raleigh + + +=== Ohio === +Cincinnati East Manufacturing and Warehouse District, Cincinnati, listed on the NRHP +Cleveland Warehouse District, Cleveland, listed on the NRHP in Cleveland, Ohio +Huron-Superior Streets Warehouse-Produce Historic District, Toledo, listed on the NRHP in Lucas County + + +=== Pennsylvania === +Strip District, Pittsburgh + + +=== South Carolina === +Waccamaw River Warehouse Historic District, Conway, listed on the NRHP in Horry County + + +=== South Dakota === +Old Courthouse and Warehouse Historic District, Sioux Falls, listed on the NRHP in Minnehaha County + + +=== Tennessee === +Market Street Warehouse Historic District, Chattanooga, listed on the NRHP in Hamilton County +Johnson City Warehouse and Commerce Historic District, Johnson City, listed on the NRHP in Washington County +Jackson Avenue Warehouse District, Knoxville, listed on the NRHP in Knox County +Southern Terminal and Warehouse Historic District, Knoxville, listed on the NRHP in Knox County +South Bluffs Warehouse Historic District, Memphis, listed on the NRHP in Shelby County + + +=== Texas === +EaDo, Houston +Warehouse District, Austin +West End Historic District, Dallas, Texas, Dallas + + +=== Utah === +Warehouse District, Salt Lake City, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Salt Lake County + + +=== Virginia === +Danville Tobacco Warehouse and Residential District, Danville, listed on the NRHP in Danville +Roanoke Warehouse Historic District, Roanoke, listed on the NRHP in Roanoke + + +=== Washington === +Desmet Avenue Warehouse Historic District, Spokane, listed on the NRHP in Spokane County +Union Depot-Warehouse Historic District, Tacoma, listed on the NRHP in Pierce County + + +=== West Virginia === +Morgantown Wharf and Warehouse Historic District, Morgantown, listed on the NRHP in Monongalia County +Wheeling Warehouse Historic District, Wheeling, listed on the NRHP in Ohio County + + +=== Wisconsin === +Historic Third Ward, Milwaukee, Milwaukee + + +== References == + + +== See also == +Arts district +Loft apartment \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21a4ef624 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of water games" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:13.036654+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Water games are games played in a body of water, such as a swimming pool, pond, lake, or river. + +Chicken fight +Two person teams: one team member sitting on the shoulders of his or her teammate or riding piggy-back. The object of the game is to knock-down or separate an opposing team through a team effort. +Gator +One person is chosen to be the first Gator, and treads water on one side of the playing area. The remaining players stand on the pool deck on the side opposite the Gator. These players are prohibited to enter the water until the Gator says the word "gator". Once the word has been said, the players are free to enter the water whenever they wish. Once they enter the water, they must swim to the other side. If the Gator touches (more commonly "tags") any part of the player's body before he touches the other side, he is caught. After all players have crossed to the other side safely or have been caught by the Gator, the round is over. The free players get out of the water and the Gator and whomever he caught swim to the opposite side of the playing area. +Marco Polo +One player is chosen as "It". This player closes their eyes so they can't see and tries to tag the other players. The player who is "It" shouts out "Marco" and the other players must respond by shouting "Polo", which "It" uses to try to acoustically locate them. If a player is tagged then that player becomes "It". If "It" suspects that a player has left the pool, they can shout "Fish out of water!" and the player who is out of the pool becomes the new "It". +Sharks and minnows +One person selected as the shark and the rest as the minnows. The shark starts in the water on one side of the pool and typically shouts: "Who wants to get eaten by a shark?", at which point the minnows may begin to dive in to swim to the opposing wall. If the shark manages to grab a minnow up to the surface, the minnow becomes a shark in the next round. After all the minnows have either reached the wall or been brought up to the surface, the shark(s) swim to the middle and the cycle starts again. +ColorsOne person is "it" and that individual stands outside of the pool at the edge with their back to the other players who are in the pool below them. The "it" person begins to call colors, and if a player's color is called, they must silently start swimming towards the other end of the pool and try to touch the wall without being tagged. If the "it" player hears them swimming, jump into the pool and try to tag the players before they get to the other wall. + + +== Cannonball Contest == +Participants take turns jumping into deep water to make the biggest splashes possible. The winner is the person who generates the largest splash, as determined by the consensus of the group or a judge. Before the contest begins, come to a majority agreement on the judging criteria for splashes. A “winning” splash can be determined by the height, width, or overall impact and the ripple effect of the jump. Participants can also decide to expand the cannonball categories each round, judging for best performance, smallest splash, or most unique. + + +== The Dunking Game == +There are two players in the dunking game: the dunker and the dunkee. The dunker thinks of a category that doesn't have an endless amount of options, like a color, state, or vegetable. The dunker communicates what the category is and chooses a secret example that the dunkee will try to ascertain. In the pool, the dunker holds the dunkee in their arms like a baby while the dunkee guesses what the answer might be. If their guess is incorrect, their head gets dunked underwater by the dunker. When the dunkee finally guesses the dunker's answer, they win and become the next dunker. +A dunk tank is a specialized set up for dunking. One player's objective is to throw a ball and hit a target. Doing so activates a mechanism to dunk the other player, making them fall into a pool. The other player's objective is to distract the first player from reaching their goal within a specified number of attempts, normally by throwing insults. The game is normally played in fairs where the player hitting the target wins a prize. + + +== See also == +British bulldog (game) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_watershed_topics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_watershed_topics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80bcc56fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_watershed_topics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "List of watershed topics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_watershed_topics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:44.445452+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list embraces topographical watersheds and drainage basins and other topics focused on them. + + +== Terms – different uses == +The source of a river or stream is the furthest place from its estuary or confluence with another river, and is alternatively known as a "watershed" and/or "headwaters" in some countries. +The confluence is the meeting of two rivers or streams, and may sometimes be known as "headwaters". +A drainage basin is an area of land where all surface water converges to a single point at a lower elevation. In North America, "watershed" is used for this sense, while elsewhere terms like "catchment" or "drainage area" are used. +A drainage divide is the line that separates neighboring drainage basins. In English-speaking countries outside of North America, this is normally known as a "watershed". + + +== Drainage divides == +Drainage divides category +The European Watershed, the line dividing the drainage basins of the major rivers of Europe +The Drainage divides, the lines dividing drainage basins in North America (i.e.: Great Basin Divide and Great Basin hydrologic region) + + +== Watersheds and drainage basins == +Basins category +Drainage basins category +List of drainage basins by area: A worldwide list of watersheds +Drainage basins of the Atlantic Ocean category +Drainage basins of the Arctic Ocean category + + +=== Watersheds - basins by country === +Watersheds of Canada category +Watersheds of the United States category +Drainage systems of Australia category + + +==== Examples ==== +Lake Erie Watershed (Pennsylvania) +Guadalupe Watershed +Hudson River Watershed +Humber Watershed +Turtle Creek Watershed + + +== Watershed and drainage basin organisations and institutions == + + +=== Management organisations === +Watershed management, the management of drainage basins +Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act, a United States law controlling drainage and water storage +Watershed district (Minnesota), one of a number of government entities in the US state of Minnesota which monitor and regulate the use of water in drainage basins +Watershed district (Russia), one of twenty groups of water bodies listed in the Water Code of the Russian Federation + + +==== Examples ==== +Council for Watershed Health +Great Swamp Watershed Association +Minnehaha Creek Watershed District +Santa Fe Watershed Association +Walla Walla Basin Watershed Council +Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council + + +=== Study institutions === +University of South Carolina Upstate: Center for Watershed Ecology + + +== Other uses == + +Watershed College, Zimbabwe +Watershed Media Centre, Bristol, England +Stony Brook Millstone Watershed Arboretum +"River of Words"; watersheds as subject poetry competition \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4477591f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "List of words derived from toponyms" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of English language words derived from toponyms, followed by the place name it derives from. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f1064f2dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "List of words derived from toponyms" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== General == +agate — after Achates, ancient Greek name for the river Dirillo on the Italian island of Sicily +Alberta clipper — a weather phenomenon named after the Canadian province of Alberta, where it originates +Angora goat, Angora rabbit, Angora wool (obtained from the previous two), Angora cat — named after Angora, variant or former name of Ankara, their place of origin +Antimacassar — after Makassar, Indonesia, which was the source of hair oil +Armageddon — after "mount of Megiddo", where the battle was to be fought according to myth +badminton — after Badminton in Gloucestershire, England +balkanization — after the Balkans, region in southeastern Europe similarly divided into small nations in the twentieth century +bangalored — after Bangalore, India; used often in the US when jobs are lost because of outsourcing; first time use by the magazine The Economist; usage: "He is sulking today because he got bangalored." +Bedford cord, a heavy fabric with a ribbed weave similar to corduroy; named after either Bedford, England or possibly New Bedford, Massachusetts[1] +Bedlam — meaning pandemonium, after popular name/pronunciation of St Mary of Bethlehem, London's first psychiatric hospital [2][3] +Bedlington Terrier, a breed of dog, after Bedlington, UK +bezant — former gold coin, and current heraldic charge, after Byzantium (now Istanbul), where the coins were made +bikini — two-piece bathing suit for women, after Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, where atomic bombs were tested in 1946; supposedly analogous to the "explosive" effect on the male libido [4][5] +the Blarney and Blarney Stone — Blarney Castle +Boeotian, an ancient Greek term for a fool, after the Boeotian people +bohemian — term referring to artists, writers, and other people who wished to live an unconventional, vagabond, or "gypsy" lifestyle; from Bohemia, where "gypsies" were erroneously thought to originate;[6][7] see also gypsy, below +La Brabançonne, national anthem of Belgium — Brabant, province of Belgium +Bronx cheer — a noise made by the mouth to signify derision; after The Bronx, a borough of New York City[8] +brummagem — goods of shoddy quality; from a local pronunciation of Birmingham, city in the United Kingdom[9] +bungalow — a low building or house, from a Gujarati word meaning "Bengalese", used elliptically to mean a house built in the style of Bengal[10] +Byzantine, used to describe any work, law, or organization that is excessively complex or difficult to understand, named after Byzantine Empire +calico — a type of cloth named after Calicut, where Europeans first obtained it;[11] Calico cat and calico horse derive from the appearance of their mottled coat suggesting calico cloth +canary — a small yellow bird, originating on and named after the Canary Islands, specifically the largest island, Gran Canaria, called in Latin Insula Canaria, "island of dogs", after the wild native dogs found there [12] +Capri pants — mid-calf pants named for the Italian isle of Capri, where they rose to popularity in the late 1950s and early '60s.[13] +Caucasian — name for the "white race", coined by anthropologist Johann Blumenbach after Caucasus Mountains, their supposed ancestral homeland [14] +chautauqua — a form of local fair, after Chautauqua, New York, where the first one was held [15] +Chicago Typewriter, a nickname for the Thompson submachine gun +chihuahua — small dog from Chihuahua, state of Mexico +china — originally chinaware, as in "wares from China"[16] +Chinese wall, artificial organizational barrier, derived from Great Wall of China +coach — a type of carriage, ultimately from Hungarian kocsi (szekér) or "carriage of Kocs", where this vehicle was first made [17] +Coldstream Guards — regiment founded at Coldstream in Scotland +cologne — a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany. Corinthian order — one of the three orders of classical architecture, after Corinth in Greece +Coventry (in the construction "Send to Coventry"): shunned by friends and family, after the treatment of Royalist prisoners during the English Civil War +Dalmatian dog - a breed of dog, from Dalmatia +Damask — material, from Damascus +denim — a coarse cotton fabric, from French serge de Nîmes, or "serge of Nîmes", where the cloth originated [18] +derby — a stakes race limited to three-year-old steeds, named after Derby in England by way of its 12th Earl; also refers to a style of shoe and hat. dollar — a unit of currency, originally from the German taler, an abbreviation of Joachimstaler ("gulden of Joachimstal"), a coin minted (1519) from silver mined near Joachimsthal, Bohemia[19] +donnybrook — colloquial term for a brawl or fracas, derived from Donnybrook Fair, an annual horse fair in the Dublin suburb notorious for fighting and drunkenness [20] +doolally or dolally — an adjective meaning "mad" or "eccentric" (e.g. "to go dolally"), ultimately named after Deolali, a hill station near Nashik in colonial India, referring to the apparent madness of men waiting to return to Britain after their tour of duty [21] +duffel or duffle — heavy woollen cloth, hence duffel coat and duffel bag; after Duffel, a town in Belgium where it was first made [22] +Dunkirk spirit, after the evacuation of Dunkirk in World War II +Estrela Mountain Dog — Estrela Mountains, where this dog breed is originally from +Fez, (also called tarboosh), a hat — Fez, a city in Morocco +Finlandization, the influence a large country can have on a smaller one, after Finland +gauze, a thin translucent open-weave fabric⏤after the city of Gaza, which is where it is thought to have originated. gamboge, a yellow artist's pigment — Cambodge, French name for Cambodia +geyser, a hot water spring — Geysir in Iceland +Glasgow kiss, a slang term meaning headbutt — Glasgow, Scotland +Greek, not understandable ("all Greek to me") — Greek language of Greece +Guinea, former British gold coin, and guineafowl — Guinea region of West Africa +Gypsies, nomadic peoples in Europe and United States — Egypt +Habanera — a musical style named after Havana, Cuba +Hackney carriage, name for the London taxicab, probably from Hackney in London, England +Havana, cigar — from capital of Cuba +Hempenstall, a surname, after the town of Heptonstall (England) +Honiton, a form of lace, after the town in Devon (England) where it is produced +Holland, cotton or linen fabric — Holland +iliad — a long narrative poem, or a series of woes, trials, etc.; both derive from the Homeric epic Iliad, literally meaning "of Ilium" (or Troy)[23] +Indian, the aboriginal peoples of the New World, after India +Indigo, colour, after India +Ionic order — one of the three orders of classical architecture, after Ionia in present-day Turkey +japanning, application of lacquer, after Japan +Jeans, denim trousers; Genoa +Jersey cattle (also tomato, milk, cream, jumper) — Jersey, one of the Channel Islands +Kimblewick bit, used on horses for riding — Kimble Wick, hamlet in Buckinghamshire (England) +Labyrinth, maze, after a legendary structure on Crete +Laconic, (of a person, speech, or style of writing) using very few words. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21a5c44d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "List of words derived from toponyms" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +From Laconia Ancient Sparta (Greece) +Left Bank, style of life, fashion, or "look" — "Left Bank", left bank of the Seine (facing downstream) in Paris +Leghorn chicken — after Leghorn, historical name for Livorno, Italy +Lesbian, female homosexual — Lesbos, island in Greece +Lipizzaner, a breed of horse — Lipica, town in Slovenia +Magenta, colour — named after Magenta, Lombardy, Italy +Marathon, long race — Marathon, Greece, town +Madras, lightweight cotton fabric — Madras, old name for Chennai, coastal city in southeastern India +Manila envelopes, Manila fiber — Manila, city in Philippines +Marseillaise, national anthem of France — Marseille, city in France +Masada, a mass suicide when conditions are hopeless, after Masada, Israel +Mausoleum, a large and impressive tomb — Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Turkey +meander, a bend in a river — Meander, a river in Turkey +Mecca, ultimate destination or activity center — Mecca, holy city in Saudi Arabia +Mongoloid race — Mongolia, country in central Asia +Morocco leather — Morocco, country in north Africa +Muslin, a lightweight fabric — Mosul, Iraq +Neanderthal man, known by his fossils — Neanderthal, Germany, valley where the fossils were found +Nicene Creed, Christian doctrine — Nicaea, old name for İznik in Turkey +Olympics, worldwide games — Mount Olympus, tallest mountain in Greece +Ottoman (furniture), a type of stool — after the Ottoman Empire +Paisley (design), used in shawls — Paisley, Scotland +Panama hat — Panama in Central America, where it was first sold +Portland cement — named after the Isle of Portland, England +Rubicon, the point of no return — Rubicon (or Rubico), a small former river in northern Italy +Rhode Island Red — Chicken named after Rhode Island +Rugby football — Rugby School, in Rugby, Warwickshire, central England +Shanghaied — drugged and forced into service aboard a ship, from Shanghai, China +Siamese twins, conjoined twins — Siam, old name for Thailand +Siberia, a remote undesirable location — Siberia, in eastern Russia +Skid Row, originally Skid Road of Seattle, now the rundown area of a U.S. city +Sodomy, forbidden sexual acts — Sodom, Biblical town on the plain of the Dead Sea +Solecism, incorrect or ungrammatical usage of language — Soli an ancient city in Cilicia, where a dialect of Greek regarded as substandard was spoken +Spa, place having water with health-giving properties — Spa, a town in Belgium, also famous for its motor racing circuit. Suede, a durable fabric — French name for Sweden +Surrey, horse-drawn carriage — Surrey, a county in southern England +Timbuktu, metaphor for an exotic, distant land — Timbuktu, city on the Niger River in Mali, West Africa +Trojan horse, malicious computer virus — Trojan Horse, of Troy, from the Iliad +turkey, from Turkey +tuxedo, after Tuxedo Park, New York +Vaudeville, after the Vau de Vire the setting for the bawdy songs of Olivier Basselin. volcano, from Italian island of Vulcano +Xanadu, a symbol of opulence — Xanadu (or Shangdu), summer capital of Kublai Khan's empire \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a83d8aa4b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "List of words derived from toponyms" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Events and agreements == +Abu Ghraib (Iraq) – the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal in 2003 +Arraiolos — Arraiolos Group +Attica (New York) – the Attica Prison riots in 1971 +Beijing (China) – the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1994 +Brest (Belarus) – the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918 +Bretton Woods (New Hampshire) – The Bretton Woods system from 1944 +Cairo (Egypt) – the International Conference on Population and Development of 1994 +Camp David (U.S. presidential retreat in Maryland) – the Camp David Accords of 1978 and the Camp David 2000 Summit +Copenhagen (Denmark) – the World Summit for Social Development in 1995 +Dayton (Ohio) – the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 +Doha (Qatar) – the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations that began in 2001 +Durban (South Africa) – the World Conference against Racism in 2001 +Geneva (Switzerland) – the Geneva Conventions, and the unofficial Geneva Accord negotiations of 2003 +Gleneagles (Scotland) – the 31st G8 summit in Gleneagles, Scotland +Grand Trianon (a château in France) – the Treaty of Trianon in 1919 +Hillsborough (Sheffield, England) – the Hillsborough disaster of 1989 +Hiroshima (Japan) – the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945 +Jackson State (Mississippi) – the Jackson State killings in 1970 +Kent State (Ohio) – the Kent State shootings in 1970 +Kyoto (Japan) – the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 +Lisbon — the Tresty of Lisbon of 2007 +Locarno (Switzerland) – the Locarno Treaties of 1925 +Lockerbie (Scotland) – the Lockerbie bombing of 1988 +Maastricht (The Netherlands) – the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 +Marrakesh (Morocco) – the Marrakesh Agreement of 1994 establishing the World Trade Organization +Munich (Germany) – the Munich Agreement of 1938 and the Munich Massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics +Nantes – the Edict of Nantes in 1598 +My Lai (Vietnam) – the My Lai Massacre of 1968 +Nuremberg (Germany) – the Nuremberg Trials of 1945 to 1949 +Oslo (Norway) – the Oslo Accords of 1993 +Portsmouth (New Hampshire) – the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 (not Portsmouth, England) +Potsdam (Germany) – the Potsdam Conference in 1945 +Pugwash (Canada) – the Pugwash Conferences +Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) – site of the Earth Summit, officially the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) of 1992 +Saint-Germain-en-Laye (a château in France) – the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1919 +San Stefano (now Yeşilköy, Turkey) – the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 +Schengen (Luxembourg) – the Schengen treaty of 1985 +Seattle (Washington) – the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle +Tordesillas (Spain) – the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 +Trafalgar (a headland in Spain) – the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 +Uruguay – the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations from 1986 to 1994 that transformed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) into the World Trade Organization (WTO) +Versailles (France) – the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 +Yalta (Ukraine) – the Yalta Conference in 1945 +Warsaw (Poland) – the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991) +Waterloo (Belgium) – the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 +Watergate (office building in Washington, D.C.) – the Watergate scandal of 1972 to 1975 +Woodstock (New York) – the Woodstock Festival in 1969 +Worms – the Concordat of Worms in 1122 + +== Industries and professions == +Bay Street — Canada's financial industry (similar to Wall Street), after Bay Street, the main street of Toronto's financial district +Beltway — the pundits, political leaders, and opinion-makers of Washington, D.C., after the highway surrounding the city +Broadway — musical theater, after Broadway, a street in New York City +The City — London-based financial services, after the City of London +Detroit — the American automobile industry +Fleet Street — the British press, after the London street that formerly housed many newspapers +Hollywood — the American motion picture industry, after the district of Los Angeles, California, where many motion picture companies are headquartered +K Street — lobbying industry working with the U.S. Federal government +Madison Avenue — advertising industry, after Madison Avenue, a street in New York City where many advertising firms are headquartered +Savile Row — tailoring, after the street in London where the most prestigious tailors are located +Wall Street — U.S. financial services industry, after Wall Street, street in New York City where many financial services firms are headquartered + +== Food and drink (other than cheese and wine) == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..810fecaaf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +--- +title: "List of words derived from toponyms" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Anjou pear — Anjou +Arbroath smokie (a kind of smoked haddock) — Arbroath in Scotland +Bakewell Pudding — Bakewell, in Derbyshire, England +Bath bun — Bath, England +Bath Oliver (biscuit) — Bath, England +Berliner (pastry), named after Berlin +Black Forest gateau, Black Forest cake, Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte — Black Forest (Schwarzwald), Germany +Bolognese sauce — from Bologna, Italy +Bombay duck, a kind of fish — Bombay, old name for Mumbai, coastal city in western India +Brazil nut +Brussels sprout — after the capital of Belgium +Buffalo wings, named for Buffalo, New York, where they originated +Cantaloupe (also called rockmelon), a variety of melon — Cantalupo, multiple communes in Italy +Ceylon tea — from Ceylon, old name for Sri Lanka +Chelsea bun — Chelsea in London, England +Cognac +Coney Island hot dog — named after Coney Island, New York, but apparently invented in the Midwest of the United States +Cuban, sub sandwich in Florida — Cuba, country in the Caribbean +Curaçao liqueur — Curaçao +Currant, a dried raisin — Corinth in Greece +Danish, a sweet pastry — (in Denmark it is called wienerbrød, "bread from Vienna") +Darjeeling tea — Darjeeling in India +Dijon mustard — named after the French city Dijon +Dover sole — from Dover, England +Dublin Bay prawn — from Dublin, Ireland +Eccles cake — from Eccles, Greater Manchester, England +Glamorgan sausage a vegetarian sausage, Glamorgan county, Wales - +Frankfurter (or Wiener — from Vienna) +Hamburger — Hamburg, Germany +Hollandaise sauce — Holland +Jaffa orange — Jaffa +Jaffa Cakes +Java, slang for coffee — from island in Indonesia +Jerusalem artichoke — wrongly associated with Jerusalem +Kiwifruit — from Kiwi, the national symbol of and a nickname for New Zealand +Lancashire hotpot — from Lancashire, England +Lemon & Paeroa — from mineral water springs at the New Zealand town of Paeroa +Madeira cake — Madeira Islands +Manhattan cocktail — Manhattan Club in New York City +Martini — Martinez, California, where the precursor to the martini, the Martinez, was developed +Mayonnaise — from Mahón, Menorca, Spain +Mocha coffee, ice cream — Mocha, Yemen, place where the coffee is grown +Peach — from Persia, old name for Iran +Peking Duck, a Chinese dish made of duck — Peking, old name for Beijing, China +Pilsner lager — Plzeň, Czech Republic +Pomfret Cakes — from Pontefract, Yorkshire, England +Salisbury steak — Salisbury, England +Sardine, types of small fish — Sardinia, island in the Mediterranean near Italy +Seltzer (commercial name), Selters, Germany +Seville orange — Seville +Shallot — Ashkelon +Swede (vegetable) — Sweden; also known as Swedish turnip +Tabasco sauce — Tabasco, state of Mexico +Tangerine — from Tangier in Morocco +Turkish delight — Turkey +Valencia orange — Valencia, Spain +Welsh rarebit — A cheese and herb sauce drizzled over hot bread or toast; probably originating from Welsh peasants +Vichyssoise — Chilled leek and potato soup, named for Vichy, France +Virginia peanut — Virginia +Yorkshire puddings from Yorkshire +Note: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan is named after the local Saskatoon berry, rather than vice versa. + +== Cheese == + +Ackawi +American cheese, a common name for processed cheese +Asiago after Asiago, the plateau and town in northern Italy where it was first made +Brie after the Brie region in Île de France, where it was first made +Caerphilly after Caerphilly, a town in Wales +Camembert (cheese) chicken Camembert, Orne in France +Cheddar after Cheddar in Somerset, England, where it was originally made +Cheshire after Cheshire, a county in England +Colby after Colby, Wisconsin, where it was first made +Danbo cheese after Denmark +Derby cheese after Derbyshire a county in central England +Dubliner after Dublin, Ireland +Dunlop after the town of Dunlop in Ayrshire, Scotland +Edam after town of Edam in the Netherlands +Emmental after Emmental, the name of a valley in Switzerland where it was originally made +Double Gloucester cheese after Gloucester cattle, originally from Gloucester in England +Gorgonzola after Gorgonzola, a village in northern Italy +Gouda after the city Gouda in the Netherlands where originally made +Gruyère after Gruyère, a district in Switzerland where first made +Jarlsberg after the town Jarlsberg in Norway +Lancashire cheese after Lancashire in England +Lappi after Lapland region of Finland +Leicester cheese after Leicester in England +Limburger after Limburg, a former duchy of Lorraine +Manchego after La Mancha, Spain +Molbo, from the Mols peninsula in Jutland, Denmark +Monterey Jack, from Monterey, California (not Monterrey, Mexico) +Morbier +Munster after town Munster, Haut-Rhin in Alsace region of France +Nablusi +Neufchâtel, from Neufchâtel-en-Bray, the part of Normandie where it originates +Oaxaca, after Oaxaca de Juárez, a state and city in Mexico +Parmesan, from Parma, Italy +Pouligny-Saint-Pierre cheese, from Pouligny-Saint-Pierre, the place where it originates +Roma(no) after Rome, Italy +Roquefort after a village in southern France +Samsø after the island of Samsø in Denmark +Stilton after Stilton, a village in England where it was first sold +Swiss after Switzerland +Tilsit after a town in East Prussia (now Sovetsk, Russia) where it was first produced +Wensleydale cheese after Wensleydale in North Yorkshire, England + +== Wine == +Alsace +Asti — Asti (province), Italy +Beaujolais +Bordeaux +Burgundy +Chablis +Champagne, a sparkling wine named after the region of France where it is produced +Chardonnay +Gamay +Hock, indirectly from Hochheim in Germany +Madeira wine, a fortified wine and Plum in madeira, a dessert — Madeira islands of Portugal +Marsala wine, a dry or sweet wine — Marsala, a town in western Sicily +Port wine (or Porto), sweet fortified wine — Porto, in northern Portugal +Rioja — La Rioja (region), Spain +Sherry wine, an anglicisation of Jerez — Jerez de la Frontera, a city in southern Spain +Tokaji, white wine — a city in Hungary + +== Corporations == +There are some corporations whose name is simply the same as their original location. + +Évian +Iittala +Nokia +Raisio +Tikkurila +Vaasa +Vauxhall + +== Elements == +See: Chemical elements named after places \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6f9d78bf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "List of words derived from toponyms" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Musical genres == +Britpop — British popular music +Canterbury scene — after Canterbury, Kent, England +Chicago soul — after Chicago +Dixieland jazz — after Dixie, nickname for the southern United States +Dunedin sound — after the New Zealand city of Dunedin +Madchester — after Manchester, England +Memphis soul — after Memphis, Tennessee +Northern soul — after Northern England +Merseybeat — after the River Mersey +Philly soul — after Philadelphia, Pennsylvania +Urban Pasifika — after the Pacific Ocean +Goa trance – after Goa + +== Derivations from literary or mythical places == +Brobdingnagian, meaning very large in size — Brobdingnag, fictional land in the book Gulliver's Travels +Cloud cuckoo land, an unrealistically idealistic state where everything is perfect, from The Birds by Aristophanes +Eden, any paradisaical area, named after the religious Garden of Eden +El Dorado, any area of great wealth, after the mythical city of gold +hell, any horrible place, after the religious Hell +Lilliputian, meaning very small in size — Lilliput, fictional island in the book Gulliver's Travels +Munchkin, small children, dwarfs, or anything of diminutive stature — from the Munchkin country in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz +Never Never Land, a metaphor for eternal childhood, immortality, and escapism, from J. M. Barries's Peter Pan +Shangri-La, a mythical utopia, a language usage — Shangri-La, fictional place in the novel Lost Horizon +utopia, term for organized society — Utopia, fictional republic from the book of the same name + +== See also == + +Lists of etymologies +List of eponyms, names derived from people's names +Demonym +Lists of things named after places (chemical elements, chess openings, foods, drinks, mathematical problems, minor planets, other places, etc.) + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6052f6e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of political and geographic subdivisions by total area" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:07.888220+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an index of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. Due to the substantial size of these lists, references for the information provided in this table may generally be found in the individual articles on each of the bodies listed therein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap between the lists in order to maximize ease of use. + + +== Longer lists == +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area (all) +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 200,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers + + +== Shorter lists == +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 1,000,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 250 to 1,000 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50 to 250 square kilometers +List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area under 50 square kilometers + + +== See also == +List of countries and dependencies by area +List of administrative divisions by country +Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions +List of largest empires +Orders of magnitude (area) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renamed_places-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renamed_places-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..807559e67 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renamed_places-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of renamed places" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renamed_places" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:12.916684+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +These are lists of renamed places by country, sorted by continent. + + +== Africa == + Angola — List of renamed places in Angola + Chad — List of renamed places in Chad + DR Congo — List of renamed places in the Democratic Republic of the Congo + Republic of the Congo — List of renamed places in the Republic of the Congo + Eswatini — List of renamed places in Eswatini + Gambia — List of renamed places in the Gambia + Madagascar — List of renamed places in Madagascar + Malawi — List of renamed places in Malawi + Mozambique — List of renamed places in Mozambique + Namibia — List of renamed places in Namibia + South Africa — List of renamed places in South Africa + Zambia — List of renamed places in Zambia + Zimbabwe — List of renamed places in Zimbabwe + + +== Asia == + Armenia — List of renamed cities in Armenia + Azerbaijan — List of cities renamed by Azerbaijan + Bangladesh — List of renamed places in Bangladesh + India — List of renamed places in India +Renaming of cities in India + Iran — List of renamed cities in Iran + Kazakhstan — List of renamed cities in Kazakhstan + Kyrgyzstan — List of renamed cities in Kyrgyzstan + Myanmar — List of renamed places in Myanmar +List of name changes in Yangon + Pakistan — List of renamed places in Pakistan + Philippines +List of renamed cities and municipalities in the Philippines +List of renamed streets in Metro Manila + Russia — List of renamed cities and towns in Russia + Tajikistan — List of renamed cities in Tajikistan + Turkey +Place name changes in Turkey + Turkmenistan — List of renamed cities in Turkmenistan + Uzbekistan — List of renamed cities in Uzbekistan + + +== Europe == + Belarus — List of renamed cities in Belarus + Estonia — List of renamed cities in Estonia + Georgia — List of renamed cities in Georgia + Greece +Geographical name changes in Greece +List of former toponyms in Drama Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Kavala Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Grevena Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Pella Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Pieria Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Imathia Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Xanthi Prefecture +List of former toponyms in Florina Prefecture + Hungary — List of renamed places in Hungary + Italy — List of renamed municipalities in Italy + Kazakhstan — List of renamed cities in Kazakhstan + Latvia — List of renamed cities in Latvia + Lithuania — List of renamed cities in Lithuania + Moldova — List of renamed populated places in Moldova + Romania — List of renamed places in Romania + Russia — List of renamed cities and towns in Russia + Ukraine — List of renamed cities in Ukraine +List of Ukrainian placenames affected by decommunization +List of Ukrainian placenames affected by derussification +List of Ukrainian toponyms that were changed as part of decommunization in 2016 + United Kingdom +List of former Edinburgh street names + + +== North America == + United States — List of renamed places in the United States +List of former Atlanta street names +List of former place names in Brevard County, Florida +Neighborhood rebranding in New York City + + +== Oceania == + Australia +List of Australian place names changed from German names + + +== Other == +Geographical renaming +List of administrative division name changes +List of city name changes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_rivers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_rivers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..974017eff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_rivers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of rivers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:14.227341+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a comprehensive list of rivers, organized primarily by continent and country. + + +== General lists == + + +== Rivers of Africa == + + +=== Rivers of East Africa === + + +=== Rivers of Middle Africa === + + +=== Rivers of Northern Africa === + + +=== Rivers of Southern Africa === + + +=== Rivers of Western Africa === + + +== Rivers of Antarctica == +List of rivers of Antarctica + + +== Rivers of Asia == + + +=== Rivers of Central Asia === + + +=== Rivers of Eastern Asia === + + +=== Rivers of Northern Asia === +List of rivers of Russia + + +=== Rivers of South-eastern Asia === + + +=== Rivers of Southern Asia === + + +==== Rivers of India by state ==== + + +=== Rivers of Western Asia === + + +== Rivers of Europe == + + +=== General lists === + + +=== Rivers of Eastern Europe === + + +=== Rivers of Northern Europe === + + +=== Rivers of Southern Europe === + + +=== Rivers of Western Europe === + + +== Rivers of North America == + + +=== Rivers of the Caribbean === + + +=== Rivers of Central America === + + +=== Rivers of Northern America === + + +==== Rivers of Canada ==== + + +==== Rivers of Greenland ==== +List of rivers of Greenland + + +==== Rivers of the United States ==== + + +===== General lists ===== + + +===== Rivers of the United States by state ===== + + +== Rivers of Oceania == + +List of rivers of Papua New Guinea + + +== Rivers of South America == + + +== See also == +List of rivers on Titan \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_things_named_after_places-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_things_named_after_places-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e7d5fa76b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_things_named_after_places-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of things named after places" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_things_named_after_places" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:18.071059+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of chess openings named after places +List of foods and drinks named after places +List of inventions named after places +List of minor planets named after places +List of places named after places in the United States +List of places named after places in the Philippines +Locations in the United States with an English name \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b27af725 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Methocha" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:29.253247+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Methocha is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Thynnidae. +The species of this genus are found worldwide except in Australia, and attack the larvae of tiger beetles. Females are wingless, and can be mistaken for ants, while males are winged. + + +== Biology == +Female Methocha actively hunt over the ground for burrows containing tiger beetle larvae, which are ambush predators; the wasp entices the beetle larva into attacking, evades being bitten, and quickly moves in and stings the larva in its vulnerable underside, paralyzing it. It then lays an egg on the immobile beetle larva, and the wasp larva consumes it. + + +== Species == + +Methocha alutacea Linnaeus +Methocha anomala Krombein +Methocha californica Westwood, 1881 +Methocha formosa Krombein, 1954 +Methocha ichneumonides Latreille, 1804 +Methocha impolita Krombein, 1958 +Methocha krombeini Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 +Methocha paraceylonica Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 +Methocha shyamagatra Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 +Methocha stygia (Say, 1836) +Methocha uchinanensis Terayamma & Mita, 2015 +Methocha yaeyamensis Terayamma & Mita, 2015 + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..205c674f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Neisseria" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:30.648186+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Neisseria is a large genus of bacteria that colonize the mucous membranes of many animals. Of the 11 species that colonize humans, only two are pathogens: N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae. +Neisseria species are Gram-negative bacteria included among the Pseudomonadota, a large group of Gram-negative forms. Neisseria diplococci resemble coffee beans when viewed microscopically. + + +== Pathogenesis and classification == + + +=== Pathogens === +Species of this genus (family Neisseriaceae) of parasitic bacteria grow in pairs and occasionally fours, and thrive best at 98.6 °F (37 °C) in the animal body or serum media. +The genus includes: + +N. gonorrhoeae (also called the gonococcus) causes gonorrhea. +N. meningitidis (also called the meningococcus) is one of the most common causes of bacterial meningitis and the causative agent of meningococcal septicaemia. +The immune system's neutrophils are restricted in function due to the ability of Neisseria to evade opsonization by antibodies, and to replicate within neutrophils despite phagocytosis. Neisseria species are also able to alter their antigens to avoid being engulfed by a process called antigenic variation, which is observed primarily in surface-located molecules. The pathogenic species along with some commensal species, have type IV pili which serve multiple functions for this organism. Some functions of the type IV pili include: mediating attachment to various cells and tissues, twitching motility, natural competence, microcolony formation, extensive intrastrain phase, and antigenic variation. +Neisseria bacteria have also been shown to be an important factor in the early stages of canine plaque development. + + +=== Nonpathogens === +This genus also contains several, believed to be commensal, or nonpathogenic, species: + +Neisseria bacilliformis +Neisseria cinerea +Neisseria elongata +Neisseria flavescens +Neisseria lactamica +Neisseria macacae +Neisseria mucosa +Neisseria oralis +Neisseria polysaccharea +Neisseria sicca +Neisseria subflava +Neisseria flava +However, some of these can be associated with disease. + + +== Biochemical identification == +All the medically significant species of Neisseria are positive for both catalase and oxidase. Different Neisseria species can be identified by the sets of sugars from which they will produce acid. For example, N. gonorrhoeae makes acid from only glucose, but N. meningitidis produces acid from both glucose and maltose. +Polysaccharide capsule. N. meningitidis has a polysaccharide capsule that surrounds the outer membrane of the bacterium and protects against soluble immune effector mechanisms within the serum. It is considered to be an essential virulence factor for the bacteria. N. gonorrhoeae possesses no such capsule. +Unlike most other Gram-negative bacteria, which possess lipopolysaccharide (LPS), both pathogenic and commensal species of Neisseria have a lipooligosaccharide (LOS) which consists of a core polysaccharide and lipid A. It functions as an endotoxin, protects against antimicrobial peptides, and adheres to the asialoglycoprotein receptor on urethral epithelium. LOS is highly stimulatory to the human immune system. LOS sialylation (by the enzyme Lst) prevents phagocytosis by neutrophils and complement deposition. LOS modification by phosphoethanolamine (by the enzyme LptA) provides resistance to antimicrobial peptides and complement. Strains of the same species have the ability to produce different LOS glycoforms. + + +== History == +The genus Neisseria is named after the German bacteriologist Albert Neisser, who in 1879 discovered its first example, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the pathogen which causes the human disease gonorrhea. Neisser also co-discovered the pathogen that causes leprosy, Mycobacterium leprae. These discoveries were made possible by the development of new staining techniques which he helped to develop. + + +== Genomes == +The genomes of at least 10 Neisseria species have been completely sequenced. The best-studied species are N. meningitidis with more than 70 strains and N. gonorrhoeae with at least 10 strains completely sequenced. Other complete genomes are available for N. elongata, N. lactamica, and N. weaveri. Whole genome shotgun sequences are available for hundreds of other species and strains. N. meningitidis encodes 2,440 to 2,854 proteins while N. gonorrhoeae encodes from 2,603 to 2,871 proteins. N. weaveri (strain NCTC 13585) has the smallest known genome with only 2,060 encoded proteins although N. meningitidis MC58 has been reported to have only 2049 genes. The genomes are generally quite similar. For example, when the genome of N. gonorrhoeae (strain FA1090) is compared to that of N. meningitidis (strain H44/76) 68% of their genes are shared. + + +== Vaccine == +Diseases caused by N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae are significant health problems worldwide, the control of which is largely dependent on the availability and widespread use of comprehensive meningococcal vaccines. Development of neisserial vaccines has been challenging due to the nature of these organisms, in particular the heterogeneity, variability and/or poor immunogenicity of their outer surface components. As strictly human pathogens, they are highly adapted to the host environment, but have evolved several mechanisms to remain adaptable to changing microenvironments and avoid elimination by the host immune system. Currently, serogroup A, B, C, Y, and W-135 meningococcal infections can be prevented by vaccines. However, the prospect of developing a gonococcal vaccine is remote. + + +== Antibiotic resistance == +The acquisition of cephalosporin resistance in N. gonorrhoeae, particularly ceftriaxone resistance, has greatly complicated the treatment of gonorrhea, with the gonococcus now being classified as a "superbug". + + +== Genetic transformation == +Genetic transformation is the process by which a recipient bacterial cell takes up DNA from a neighboring cell and integrates this DNA into the recipient's genome by recombination. In N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae, DNA transformation requires the presence of short DNA sequences (9-10 monomers residing in coding regions) of the donor DNA. These sequences are called DNA uptake sequences (DUSs). Specific recognition of DUSs is mediated by a type IV pilin. Davidsen et al. reported that in N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae, DUSs occur at a significantly higher density in genes involved in DNA repair and recombination (as well as in restriction-modification and replication) than in other annotated gene groups. These authors proposed that the over-representation of DUS in DNA repair and recombination genes may reflect the benefit of maintaining the integrity of the DNA repair and recombination machinery by preferentially taking up genome maintenance genes that could replace their damaged counterparts in the recipient cell. Caugant and Maiden noted that the distribution of DUS is consistent with recombination being primarily a mechanism for genome repair that can occasionally result in generation of diversity, which even more occasionally, is adaptive. It was also suggested by Michod et al. that an important benefit of transformation in N. gonorrhoeae is recombinational repair of oxidative DNA damages caused by oxidative attack by the host's phagocytic cells. + + +== International Pathogenic Neisseria Conference == +The International Pathogenic Neisseria Conference (IPNC), occurring every two years, is a forum for the presentation of cutting-edge research on all aspects of the genus Neisseria. This includes immunology, vaccinology, and physiology and metabolism of N. meningitidis, N. gonorrhoeae and the commensal species. The first IPNC took place in 1978, and the most recent one was in September 2016. Normally, the location of the conference switches between North America and Europe, but it took place in Australia for the first time in 2006, where the venue was located in Cairns. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ab2345c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ +--- +title: "Nickel double salts" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:31.913544+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Nickel can form various double salts. + + +== Tutton's salts == +Nickel is one of the metals that can form Tutton's salts. The singly charged ion can be any of the full range of potassium, rubidium, cesium, ammonium (NH4), or thallium. + + +=== Mineral forms === +As a mineral the ammonium nickel salt, (NH4)2Ni(SO4)2 · 6 H2O, can be called nickelboussingaultite. With sodium, the double sulfate is nickelblödite Na2Ni(SO4)2 · 4 H2O from the blödite family. Nickel can be substituted by other divalent metals of similar sized to make mixtures that crystallise in the same form. + + +== Langbeinites == + +Anhydrous salts of the formula M2Ni2(SO4)3, which can be termed metal nickel trisulfates, belong to the family of langbeinites. The known salts include (NH4)2Ni2(SO4)3, K2Ni2(SO4)3 and Rb2Ni2(SO4)3, and those of Tl and Cs are predicted to exist. + + +== Double halides == + + +=== Fluorides === +Double fluorides include the fluoroanion salts, and those fluoronickelates such as NiF4 and NiF6: + +KNiF3·H2O and NaNiF3·H2O – apple green coloured +aluminium nickel pentafluoride (AlNiF5·7H2O) +ceric nickelous decafluoride (Ce2NiF10·7H2O) +niobium nickel fluoride (Ni3H4Nb2F20·19H2O) +vanadium nickel pentafluoride (VNiF5·7H2O) +vanadyl nickel tetrafluoride (VONiF4·7H2O) +chromic nickelous pentafluoride (CrNiF5·7H2O) +molybdenum nickel dioxytetrafluoride (NiMoO2F4·6H2O) +tungsten nickel dioxytetrafluoride hexahydrate (NiWO2F4·6H2O) and decahydrate (NiWO2F4·10H2O) +manganic nickel pentafluoride (MnNiF4·7H2O) +nickelous ferric fluoride (FeNiF5·7H2O) + + +=== Chlorides === + + +==== Trichlorides ==== +Nickel trichloride double salts exist which are polymers. Nickel is in octahedral coordination, with double halogen bridges. Examples of this include RbNiCl3, pinkish tan coloured H2NN(CH3)3NiCl3. +Other double trichlorides include: + +potassium nickel trichloride (KNiCl3·5H2O) +yellow cesium nickel trichloride (CsNiCl3) +lithium nickel trichloride (LiNiCl3·3H2O) +nickel ammonium chloride hexahydrate (NH4NiCl3·6H2O) + + +==== Tetrachlorides ==== + +The tetrachloronickelates contain a tetrahedral NiCl42− and are dark blue. Some salts of organic bases are ionic liquids at standard conditions. Tetramethylammonium nickel trichloride is pink and very insoluble. +Other tetrachlorides include: + +hyrdrazinium nickel tetrachloride +lithium nickel tetrachloride (Li2NiCl4·4H2O) – stable from 23 to 60° +rubidium nickel tetrachloride +stannous nickel tetrachloride (SnCl2·NiCl2·6H2O) + + +==== Hexachlorides ==== +Double hexachlorides include: + +cadmium dinickel hexachloride (CdCl2•2NiCl2•12H2O) – crystallises in hexagonal system +dicadmium dinickel hexachloride (2CdCl2•NiCl2•12H2O) – rhombic crystals, pleochroic varying from light to dark green. +lithium nickel hexachloride Li4NiCl6·10H2O – stable from 0 to 23° +stannic nickel hexachloride (SnCl4·NiCl2·6H2O) – tetragonal + + +==== Octochlorides ==== +Thallic nickel octochloride 2TlCl3·NiCl2·8H2O is bright green. + + +==== Oxychlorides ==== +Copper nickel dioxychloride 2CuO·NiCl2·6H2O and copper nickel trioxychloride 3CuO·NiCl2·4H2O exist. + + +=== Bromides === + +Double bromides include the tetrabromonickelates. Other salts include: + +caesium nickel tribromide (CsNiBr3) +copper nickel trioxybromide (3CuO·NiBr2·4H2O) +didymium nickel bromide (2(Pr,Nd)Br3·3NiBr2·18H2O) – reddish brown, mixture of praseodymium and neodymium +lanthanum nickel bromide (2LaBr3·3NiBr2·18H2O) +mercuric nickel bromides (Hg2NiBr6) and (HgNiBr4) +mercuric nickel oxybromide (6NiO·NiBr2•HgBr2•20H2O) – prepared by reacting nickel bromide with mercuric oxide +nickel stannic bromide or nickel bromostannate (NiSnBr6·8H2O) – apple green + + +=== Iodides === + +The tetraiodonickelates are blood-red coloured salts of the NiI4 ion with large cations. The diperiodatonickelates of nickel(IV) are strong oxidisers, and akali monoperiodatonickelates also are known. +Double iodides include: + +mercuric nickel hexaiodide (2HgI2·NiI2 · 6 H2O) +mercuric nickel tetraiodide (HgI2·NiI2 · 6 H2O) +lead nickel hexaiodide (I2·2NiI2 · 3 H2O) + + +== Double nitrates == + + +=== Lanthanides === +Nickel forms double nitrates with the lighter rare-earth elements. The solid crystals have the formula Ni3Me2(NO3)12•24H2O. The metals include La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd and the non rare earth Bi. Nickel can also be replaced by similar divalent ions Mg, Mn, Co, and Zn. For the nickel salts melting temperatures range from 110.5° for La, 108.5° for Ce, 108° for Pr, 105.6° for Nd, 92.2° for Sm and down to 72.5° for Gd, the Bi salt melting at 69°. Crystal structure is hexagonal with Z=3. Ni3La2(NO3)12•24H2O becomes ferromagnetic below 0.393 K. These double nickel nitrates have been used to separate the rare earth elements by fractional crystallization. + + +=== Actinides === +Nickel thorium nitrate has formula NiTh(NO3)6 · 8 H2O. Nickel atoms can be substituted by other ions with radius 0.69 to 0.83 Å. The nitrates are coordinated on the thorium atom and the water to the nickel. Enthalpy of solution of the octahydrate is 7 kJ/mol. Enthalpy of formation is -4360 kJ/mol. At 109° the octahydrate becomes NiTh(NO3)6•6H2O, and at 190° NiTh(NO3)6•3H2O and anhydrous at 215°. +The hexahydrate has Pa3 cubic structure. + + +== Double nitrites == + + +== Double amides == +Various double amides containing nickel clusters have been made using liquid ammonia as a solvent. These are called amidonickel compounds. +These include: + +Li3Ni4(NH2)11·NH3 (Pna21; Z = 4; a = 16.344(3) Å; b = 12.310(2) Å; c = 8.113(2) Å v=1631 D=1.942) – red +Li4Ni4(NH2)12·NH3, Na2Ni(NH2)4 +Na2Ni(NH2)4•NH3 +Na2Ni(NH2)4•2NH3 – orange red +K2Ni(NH2)4•0.23KNH2 +Rb2Ni(NH2)4•0.23RbNH2 +Cs2Ni(NH2)4•NH3 (P21/c; Z = 4; a =9.553(3) Å; b = 8.734(3) Å; c = 14.243(3) Å; β = 129.96(3)° V=910 D=2.960) + + +== Double hydrides == +Double hydrides of nickel exist, such as Mg2NiH4. + + +== Double dihydrogen phosphides == +Nickel dihydrogen phosphide (Ni(PH2)2) can form orange, green or black double salts KNi(PH2)3) that crystallise from liquid ammonia. They are unstable above -78 °C, giving off ammonia, phosphine and hydrogen. + + +== Double tetrafluoroberyllates == + +Nickel forms double salts with Tutton's salt structure with tetrafluoroberyllate and a range of cations including ammonia, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and thallium. + + +== Other minerals == +Some minerals are double salts, for example nickelzippeite Ni2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10 · 16H2O which is isomorphic to cobaltzippeite, magnesiozippeite and zinczippeite, part of the zippeite group. + + +== Table of nickel double salts == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2bcffe2b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of geology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:46.216185+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geology: +Geology is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical bodies, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. The name comes from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) 'earth' and λoγία (-logía) 'study of, discourse'. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology. It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science. + + +== Branches of geology == +Geology applies primarily to Earth, but can be applied to any planet or extraterrestrial body. + + +=== Geology of Earth === +Subdisciplines of geology: + +Biogeology – Study of the interactions between the Earth's biosphere and the lithosphere +Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value +Engineering geology – Application of geology to engineering practice +Environmental geology – Application of geology to environmental problems +Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems +Geologic modelling – Applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crustPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms +Geophysics – Physics of the Earth and its vicinity +Historical geology – Study of the geological history of Earth +Hydrogeology – Study of groundwater's movement and distribution +Marine geology – Study of the history and structure of the ocean floor +Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts +Mining geology – Extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth +Paleontology – Study of past life through fossils +Petroleum geology – Field in geology +Petrology – Study of rocks in geology +Sedimentology – Study of natural sediments and their formation processes +Stratigraphy – Study of rock layers and their formation +Structural geology – Science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust +Volcanology – Study of volcanoes + + +=== Planetary geology === +See also: Geology of solar terrestrial planets – Geology of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars and Ceres +Planetary geology – Geological study of planets + +Geology of Mercury +Geology of Venus – Geology of second planet from the Sun +Geology of the Moon – Structure and composition of the Moon +Geology of Mars – Geology of fourth planet from the Sun +Geology of Jupiter – Fifth planet from the Sun +Geology of Saturn – Sixth planet from the Sun +Geology of Uranus – Seventh planet from the Sun +Geology of Neptune – Eighth planet from the Sun +Geology of Triton – Geologic structure and composition of Triton +Geology of Pluto – Geologic structure and composition of Pluto +Geology of Charon – Geologic structure and composition of Charon + + +== Principles of geology == +Principle of cross-cutting relationships – Principle that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the two +Law of included fragments – Clasts in a rock are older than the rock formation +Principle of uniformitarianism – Assumption that natural laws are constant through time and space +Principle of original horizontality – Layers of sediment are deposited approximately horizontally under the action of gravity +Principle of superposition – Law stating that newer strata stack above older ones +Principle of faunal succession – Concept in geology + + +=== Geological processes === +Petrogenesis – Processes that form rock + + +== History of geology == +History of geology +Geological history of Earth +Timeline of geology – Chronological list of notable events in the history of the science of geology + + +== Geologic provinces == + +Geologic province – Spatial entity with common geologic attributes +Geologic provinces based on origin: + +Shield – Large stable area of exposed Precambrian crystalline rock +Platform – Continental area covered by relatively flat or gently tilted, mainly sedimentary strata +Orogen – Zone affected by mountain formationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Island arc – Arc-shaped volcanic archipelago +Continental arc – Type of volcanic arc occurring along a continental margin +Forearc – Region between an oceanic trench and associated volcanic arc +Oceanic basin – Geologic basin under the sea +Cratonic basin – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere +Foreland basin, also known as foredeep basin – Structural basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain belt +Large igneous province – Huge regional accumulation of igneous rocks +Extended crust – Outermost solid shell of astronomical bodies +Rift – Geological linear zone where the lithosphere is being pulled apart + + +== Plate tectonics == +Plate tectonics – Movement of Earth's lithosphere + + +== Occupations in geology == +The Dictionary of Occupational Titles lists the following occupations in Geology, which it describes as "concerned with the investigation of the composition, structure, and physical and biological history of the earth's crust and the application of this knowledge in such fields as archeology, mining, construction, and environmental impact": + +Crystallographer – Scientific study of crystal structures +Geodesist +Geologist – Scientist who studies geology +Petroleum Geologist – Earth scientist who works in geological aspects of oil discovery and production +Geophysical Prospector – Systematic collection of geophysical data for spatial studies +Geophysicist – Physics of the Earth and its vicinityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Hydrologist – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on EarthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Mineralogist – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifactsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Paleontologist – Study of past life through fossilsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Petrologist – Study of rocks in geologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Seismologist – Scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planetPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Stratigrapher – Study of rock layers and their formationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Volcanologist +Engineer, Soils +Geophysical-Laboratory Chief (Alternate Titles: Director, Geophysical) +Geological Aide (Petrol. & Gas) +Prospector – Physical search for minerals +Paleontological Helper – Study of past life through fossils +Laboratory Assistant (Petrol. & Gas) (Alternate Titles: Analyst, Geochemical Prospecting; Core Analyst; Laboratory Tester) + + +== Influential geologists == +List of geologists + + +== Geology lists == + +Glossary of geological terms +Lists of geological features of the Solar System +Geologic time scale – System that relates geologic strata to time +List of compounds – Set index article +Lists of earthquakes +List of chemical elements +Geology of the English counties – List of Wikipedia articles on the geology of English counties +List of geologists +List of Russian geologists +List of largest volcanic eruptions +List of minerals +List of oil fields – Some of the major oilfields of the past and present +List of plate tectonics topics – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to plate tectonicsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +List of rock types +List of tectonic plates +Lists of volcanoes + + +== See also == + +Outline of geography – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to geography +American Geophysical Union +American Geosciences Institute +European Geosciences Union +Geological Society of America +Geological Society of London + + +== References == + + +== External links == +A. Balasubramanian, First edition, July, 2017 +Earth Science News, Maps, Dictionary, Articles, Jobs +Video-interviews with famous geologists +"Geology, Importance, Branches, Career in Geology, Indian Education System for a career in Geology +Geology Buzz: Branches of Geology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d0a03ac4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,287 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of geophysics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:04.019806+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geophysics: +Geophysics – the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations have a broader definition that includes the hydrological cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets. + + +== Nature of geophysics == +Geophysics can be described as all of the following: + +An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. +A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several geophysics-related scientific journals. +A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. +A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. +An earth science – one that studies the planet Earth and its surroundings. +A biological science – one that studies the effect of organisms on their physical environment. +An interdisciplinary field – one that overlaps atmospheric sciences, geology, glaciology, hydrology, oceanography and physics. + + +== Branches of geophysics == +Biogeophysics – study of how plants, microbial activity and other organisms alter geologic materials and affect geophysical signatures. +Exploration geophysics – the use of surface methods to detect concentrations of ore minerals and hydrocarbons. +Geophysical fluid dynamics – study of naturally occurring, large-scale flows on Earth and other planets. +Geodesy – measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field. +Geodynamics – study of modes of transport deformation within the Earth: rock deformation, mantle convection, heat flow, and lithosphere dynamics. +Geomagnetism – study of the Earth's magnetic field, including its origin, telluric currents driven by the magnetic field, the Van Allen belts, and the interaction between the magnetosphere and the solar wind. +Mathematical geophysics – development and applications of mathematical methods and techniques for the solution of geophysical problems. +Mineral physics – science of materials that compose the interior of planets, particularly the Earth. +Near-surface geophysics – the use of geophysical methods to investigate small-scale features in the shallow (tens of meters) subsurface. +Paleomagnetism – measurement of the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field over the geologic past. +Planetary Science – science of studying planets, celestial bodies, and planetary systems and their properties and processes. +Seismology – study of the structure and composition of the Earth through seismic waves, and of surface deformations during earthquakes and seismic hazards. +Tectonophysics – study of the physical processes that cause and result from plate tectonics. + + +== History of geophysics == +History of geophysics + +History of geomagnetism +Timeline of the development of tectonophysics +Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis + + +== General geophysics concepts == + + +=== Gravity === +Gravity of Earth + +Bouguer anomaly +Isostatic gravity anomaly +Geoid +Geopotential +Gravity anomaly +Undulation of the geoid + + +=== Heat flow === +Geothermal gradient + +Internal heating + + +=== Electricity === + + +==== Atmospheric electricity ==== +Atmospheric electricity + +Lightning +Sprite (lightning) + + +==== Electricity in Earth ==== +Electrical resistivity tomography +Induced polarization +Seismoelectrical method +Spectral induced polarisation +Spontaneous potential +Telluric current + + +=== Electromagnetic waves === +Alfvén wave +Dawn chorus (electromagnetic) +Hiss (electromagnetic) +Magnetotellurics +Seismo-electromagnetics +Transient electromagnetics +Whistler (radio) + + +=== Fluid dynamics === +Geophysical fluid dynamics + +Isostasy +Post-glacial rebound +Mantle convection +Geodynamo + + +=== Magnetism === + + +==== Geomagnetism subfields ==== +Environmental magnetism +Magnetostratigraphy +Paleomagnetism +Rock magnetism + + +==== Earth's magnetic field ==== + + +===== Description ===== +Geomagnetic pole +Magnetic declination +Magnetic inclination +North Magnetic Pole +South Magnetic Pole + + +===== Sources ===== +Geodynamo +Magnetic anomaly +Magnetosphere + + +===== Short-term changes ===== +Secular variation +Geomagnetic secular variation +Geomagnetic jerk + + +===== Long term behavior ===== +Apparent polar wander +Geomagnetic excursion +Geomagnetic pole +Geomagnetic reversal +Geomagnetic secular variation +Polar wander +True polar wander + + +==== Magnetostratigraphy ==== +Archaeomagnetic dating +Polarity chron +Magnetostratigraphy +Superchron (currently redirected to Geomagnetic reversal#Moyero Reversed Superchron) + + +==== Rock magnetism ==== +Rock magnetism + +Magnetic mineralogy +Natural remanent magnetization +Saturation isothermal remanence +Thermoremanent magnetization +Viscous remanent magnetization + + +==== Tectonic applications ==== +Plate reconstruction + + +==== Magnetic survey ==== +Aeromagnetic survey +Geophysical survey +Magnetic survey (archaeology) +Magnetometer + + +=== Radioactivity === +Age of the Earth +Geochronology +Radiometric dating + + +=== Mineral physics === +Mineral physics + +Creep +Elasticity +Melting +Rheology +Thermal expansion +Viscosity + + +=== Vibration === +Seismology + +Earthquake – a motion that causes seismic waves. +Aftershock – follows larger earthquake. +Blind thrust – along a thrust fault that does not show on the Earth's surface. +Foreshock – precedes larger earthquake. +Harmonic tremor – long-duration, with distinct frequencies, associated with a volcanic eruption. +Interplate – at the boundary between two tectonic plates. +Intraplate – in the interior of a tectonic plate. +Megathrust – at subduction zones +Remotely triggered earthquakes – after main shock but outside the aftershock zone. +Slow – over a period of hours to months. +Submarine – under a body of water. +Supershear – rupture propagates faster than seismic shear wave velocity. +Tsunami – triggers a tsunami. +Seismic waves +P +S +Surface +Love +Raleigh +Reflection seismology +Seismic refraction +Seismic tomography +Structure of the Earth + + +== Closely allied sciences == + + +=== Atmospheric sciences === +Atmospheric sciences + +Aeronomy – the study of the physical structure and chemistry of the atmosphere. +Meteorology – the study of weather processes and forecasting. +Climatology – the study of weather conditions averaged over a period of time. + + +=== Geology === +Geology + +Mineralogy – the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. +Petrophysics – The study of the origin, structure, and composition of rocks. +Volcanology – the study of volcanoes, volcanic features (hot springs, geysers, fumaroles), volcanic rock, and heat flow related to volcanoes. + + +=== Engineering === +Geophysical engineering – the application of geophysics to the engineering design of facilities including roads, tunnels, and mines. + + +=== Water on the Earth === +Glaciology – the study of ice and natural phenomena that involve ice, particularly glaciers. +Hydrology – the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets. +Physical oceanography – the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters. + + +== Society == + + +=== Influential persons === +List of geophysicists + + +=== Organizations === +American Geophysical Union +Canadian Geophysical Union +Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society +European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers +European Geosciences Union +International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics +Royal Astronomical Society +Society of Exploration Geophysicists +Seismological Society of America + + +=== Publications === +Geophysics journals +Important publications in geophysics (physics) + + +== Geophysics lists == + + +== See also == + +Outline of geology +Outline of physics + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de396b8cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,286 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of hydrology" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:09.297016+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to hydrology: +Hydrology – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. + +== What type of thing is hydrology? == +Hydrology can be described as all of the following: + +a branch of science +a branch of natural science +a branch of physical science +a branch of Earth science +a branch of geography +a branch of physical geography + +=== Essence of hydrology === +Water +Hydrologic cycle +Cryosphere +Origin of water on Earth +Water distribution on Earth + +== Branches of hydrology == +Hydrometry – the measurement of the different components of the hydrologic cycle +Chemical hydrology – the study of the chemical characteristics of water +Ecohydrology – the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle +Hydrogeology – the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers +Hydroinformatics – the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications +Hydrometeorology – the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere +Isotope hydrology – the study of the isotopic signatures of water +Surface hydrology – the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near the Earth's surface +Catchment hydrology – study of the governing processes in a given hydrologically defined catchment +Drainage basin management – covers water-storage, in the form of reservoirs, and flood-protection. +Water quality – includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of pollutants and natural solutes. + +== History of hydrology == +History of hydrology + +== Things studied by hydrology == + +=== Abstract concepts in hydrology === +Field capacity + +=== Phenomena studied by hydrology === + +==== Water movement pathways ==== +Water cycle (aka "hydrological cycle") + +Above ground +Evaporation – +Pan evaporation – +Condensation – +Precipitation – condensed water, is pulled by gravity back to Earth, in the form of: +Drizzle +Rain +Sleet +Snow +Graupel +Hail +Interception – +Evapotranspiration – +Stemflow – +Throughfall – +On ground +Surface runoff – flow of surface water +First flush +Floods +Flash floods +Overland flow – +Horton overland flow – +Below ground +Infiltration – +Pipeflow – +Baseflow – +Subsurface flow – flow of ground water + +=== Physical things studied by hydrology === +Ground water +Soil moisture +Surface water + +=== Environmental issues === +Desertification/Oasification – +Hypoxia – +Erosion – +Water pollution – + +== Measurement tools == + +=== Groundwater === +Source: + +Aquifer characterization +Flow direction +Piezometer - groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth (see: aquifer test) +Conductivity, storativity, transmisivity +Geophysical methods +Vadose zone characterization +Infiltration +Infiltrometer - infiltration +Soil moisture +Capacitance probe-soil moisture +Time domain reflectometer - soil moisture +Tensiometer - soil moisture +Solute sampling +Geophysical methods + +=== Surface water === +Source: + +Water level +Mechanical pressure gauge – +Electronic pressure gauge – +Acoustic pressure gauge – +Channel shape +Dumpy level – +Discharge +Acoustic Doppler velocimeter – +Dilution tracing – + +=== Meteorological === +Precipitation +Rain gauge – rainfall depth (unit) and intensity (unit time−1) +Disdrometer – raindrop size, total precipitation depth and intensity +Doppler weather radar – raindrop size, total precipitation depth and intensity, rain cloud reflectivity converted to precipitation intensity through calibration to rain gauges +Wind profiler – precipitation vertical and horizontal motion, vertical cross-section of reflectivity and typing +Frozen precipitation (on ground) +Pressure sensors – pressure, depth, and liquid water equivalent +Acoustic sensors – pressure, depth, and liquid water equivalent +Mean windspeed and direction +Anemometer – +Doppler sonar – +Wind profiler – air vertical and horizontal motion +Mean air temperature +Thermometer – +Humidity +Infrared thermometer – a form of remote sensing +Hygrometer (Psychrometer) – measures relative humidity +Air pressure +Barometer – +Heat flux +Net radiometer – +Pyranometer – +Pyrgeometer – +Heat flux sensor – +Lysimeter – +Cloudiness/Sunshine +Spectroradiometer – +Campbell–Stokes recorder – +Evapotranspiration +Water budget method +Basin water balance – +Evaporation pan – +Lysimetry – +Soil moisture depletion – +Water vapor transfer method +Bowen ratio – considers the energy budget +Eddy covariance – +Component analysis +Porometry/Sap flow – +Interception loss – +Soil evaporation – +Large-scale +Scintillometer – +Remote sensing estimates – +LIDAR – + +=== Soil/porous media === +Source: + +Bulk density & porosity +Oven dried sample – +Matric potential +Suction plate – determines relationship between the water volume and matric potential +Resistance thermometer – relates to matric potential from previous calibration +Hydraulic conductivity +Disc permeameter – measures soil hydraulic conductivity +Rainfall simulator – measures output through the application of constant input ("rain") in a sealed area +Slug test – addition or removal of water and monitors the time until return to predisturbance level +Piezometer – +Soil moisture content (water volume percentage) +Frequency domain sensor – +Time domain reflectometer – +Neutron probe – + +=== Water quality === +Source: + +Conductivity +Electrical conductivity – variety of probes used +pH +pH meter – +Dissolved oxygen (DO) +Winkler test – +Turbidity +Nephelometer (Turbidimeter) – +Water clarity +Secchi disk – +Bed load +Erosion/deposition + +== Modeling == +Behavioral modeling in hydrology + +=== Equations === +Basin + +Hack's law – +Catchment + +Water balance – +Evaporation + +Penman – +Penman-Monteith – +Infiltration/Soil Movement + +Darcy's law – +Darcy-Weisbach – +Richards equation – +Streamflow/Open channel + +Fick's law of diffusion – +Chézy formula – +Manning formula – +Strahler number – +Standard step method – computational technique for modeling steady state open channel surface profiles +Erosion + +Hjulström curve – +Groundwater + +Dupuit–Forchheimer assumption – +Groundwater flow equation – + +=== Power/Uncertainty === +Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient +GLUE + +==== Models ==== +Hydrological transport model + +Canadian Land Surface Scheme +CHyM – Cetemps Hydrological Model +DRAINMOD[1] +DSSAM +FEHM +Flood Modeller Pro +Groundwater model +GSSHA +HBV hydrology model +HEC-HMS +HydroGeoSphere +Hydrologic evaluation of landfill performance +Hydrological transport model +Isochrone map +Litpack +METRIC +MIKE 11 +MODFLOW +Mouse +RheinBlick2050 +Runoff model (reservoir) +SahysMod +SaltMod +SEDCAD +SHETRAN +Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model +SWAT model +Temporal Analyst +Vflo +WAFLEX +WaterGAP +WEAP +ZOOMQ3D + +== Applications of hydrology == +Some examples of applications of hydrology: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0cdd9f67b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of hydrology" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:09.297016+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Analyzing the impacts of antecedent moisture on sanitary sewer systems +Assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines +Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources +Designing bridges +Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation +Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity +Designing riparian restoration projects +Designing sewers and urban drainage system +Determining the agricultural water balance +Determining the water balance of a region +Fog collection +Part of the hazard module in catastrophe modeling +Predicting and mitigating flood, landslide and drought risk +Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation +Providing drinking water +Real-time flood forecasting and flood warning + +== Hydrology organizations == + +=== Intergovernmental organizations === +International Hydrological Programme (IHP) + +=== International research bodies === +International Water Management Institute (IWMI) +UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education + +=== National research bodies === +Centre for Ecology and Hydrology – UK +Centre for Water Science, Cranfield University, UK +eawag – aquatic research, ETH Zürich, Switzerland +Institute of Hydrology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany +United States Geological Survey – Water Resources of the United States +NOAA's National Weather Service – Office of Hydrologic Development, USA +US Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center, USA +Hydrologic Research Center, USA +NOAA Economics and Social Sciences, USA +University of Oklahoma Center for Natural Hazards and Disasters Research, USA +National Hydrology Research Centre, Canada +National Institute of Hydrology, India + +=== National and international societies === +Geological Society of America (GSA) – Hydrogeology Division +American Geophysical Union (AGU) – Hydrology Section +National Ground Water Association (NGWA) +American Water Resources Association +Consortium of Universities for the Advancement of Hydrologic Science, Inc. (CUAHSI) +International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) +Statistics in Hydrology Working Group (subgroup of IAHS) +German Hydrological Society (DHG: Deutsche Hydrologische Gesellschaft) +Italian Hydrological Society (SII-IHS) – http://www.sii-ihs.it +Nordic Association for Hydrology +British Hydrological Society +Russian Geographical Society (Moscow Center) – Hydrology Commission +International Association for Environmental Hydrology +International Association of Hydrogeologists + +=== Basin- and catchment-wide overviews === +Connected Waters Initiative, University of New South Wales – Investigating and raising awareness of groundwater and water resource issues in Australia +Murray Darling Basin Initiative, Department of Environment and Heritage, Australia + +== Hydrology publications == + +=== Hydrology-related journals === +Hydrological Processes, ISSN 1099-1085 (electronic) 0885-6087 (paper), John Wiley & Sons +Hydrology Research, ISSN 0029-1277, IWA Publishing (formerly Nordic Hydrology) +Journal of Hydroinformatics, ISSN 1464-7141, IWA Publishing +Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ISSN 0733-9496, ASCE Publication +Journal of Hydrology +Water Research +Water Resources Research +Hydrological Sciences Journal – Journal of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) ISSN 0262-6667 (Print), ISSN 2150-3435 (Online) + +== Persons influential in the field of hydrology == +Hein de Baar +Günter Blöschl +Chen Xing (hydrologist) +Ven Te Chow +Gedeon Dagan +James Dooge +Endre Dudich +G. H. Dury +Saeid Eslamian +Philipp Forchheimer +François-Alphonse Forel +Pieter Harting +Majid Hassanizadeh +Alf Howard +Jan Vladimír Hráský +Hydra (skater) +Shahbaz Khan (hydrologist) +Vit Klemes +Michal Kravčík +Torben Larsen +John R. Philip +Giovanni Roncagli +Arturo Sanchez-Azofeifa +Alireza Shokoohi +Bojidar Spiriev +Valeryan Uryvaev +Jasper A. Vrugt +John Williams (water scientist) +Czesław Zakaszewski + +== Allied sciences == +Aquatic chemistry – +Civil engineering – +Hydraulic engineering – +Climatology – +Environmental engineering – +Environmental Engineering Science – +Geomorphology – +Hydroacoustics – +Hydrography – +Limnology – +Oceanography – +Physical geography – + +== Hydrology lists == +Drainage basins by area – largest hydrologically defined watersheds in the world +Floods – chronological and geographic list of major floods worldwide +Waterways – worldwide listing of waterbodies classified as rivers, canals, estuaries, and firths + +== See also == +Outline of meteorology +Other water-related fields +Oceanography – more general study of water in the oceans and estuaries. +Meteorology – more general study of the atmosphere and of weather, including precipitation as snow and rainfall. +Limnology – study of inland waters (running and standing waters, both fresh and saline, natural or man-made), including their biological, chemical, physical, geological, and other attributes. This includes the study of lakes and ponds, rivers, springs, streams and wetlands. +Water resources – sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Hydrology studies the availability of those resources, but usually not their uses. + +== References == + +== External links == + +Hydrology.nl – Portal to international hydrology and water resources +Decision tree to choose an uncertainty method for hydrological and hydraulic modelling +Experimental Hydrology Wiki \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..699f2dfdf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of linguistics" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics: +Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. Linguistics has two subdivisions, general and applied. + +== Branches of linguistics == + +=== Subfields of linguistics === +General linguistics +Phonetics – the study of the speech faculty +Phonology – the usage of vocalized sounds and systems of sounds to form language +Morphology – the property of sound and meaning dynamics in language +Syntax – the property of grammar that governs sentence structure +Semantics – the study of meaning as encoded in grammar +Pragmatics – the study of how context contributes to meaning +Graphemics – the study of writing systems +Graphetics – the study of writing shapes as assigned to sounds or ideas +Theoretical linguistics – the study of language as an abstract object +Generative linguistics – an approach which seeks to ground grammar in a specialized language module +Formalism (linguistics) – the theory of language as a formal system with mathematical-logical rules and a formal grammar +Functional linguistics – language as used and coming from use +Quantitative linguistics – the study of quantitative language laws and corresponding general theories +Formal semantics – the study of semantics through formal logic-based models +Descriptive linguistics – describing how a particular language is used +Anthropological linguistics – the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures +Historical linguistics – the study of historical language change over time +Comparative linguistics – comparing languages to find similarities and historical connections +Etymology – the study of word histories and origins +Lexicology – the study of vocabularies and the structural relationships between many different words +Sociolinguistics – the study of society's effects on language +Discourse analysis – analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed) +Linguistic typology – comparative study of the similarities and differences between language structures in the world's languages. +Applied linguistics – finding solutions to real-life problems related to language +Computational linguistics – the use of computation applied to language databasing, analysis, translation, and synthesis +Forensic linguistics – language science applied to the processes of law and justice +Internet linguistics – the study of language usage on the Internet +Language assessment – assessing first or second language faculty in individuals +Language documentation – comprehensive description of the grammar and use practices of languages of a particular group +Language revitalization – an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one +Language education – teaching specific language and language science +Linguistic anthropology – the study of how language influences social life +Psycholinguistics – the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language +Cognitive linguistics – an approach which seeks to ground grammar in general cognition +Language acquisition – the study of how children and adults acquire language knowledge and ability +Language development – the study of early language formation +Second-language acquisition – the study of how a second language is learned + +==== Subfields, by linguistic structures studied ==== +Sub-fields of structure-focused linguistics include: + +Phonetics – the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception +Phonology – the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning +Morphology – the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified +Syntax – study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences +Semantics – the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these compose to form the meanings of sentences +Pragmatics – the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts – and the role played by context and nonlinguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning + +==== Subfields, by nonlinguistic factors studied ==== +Applied linguistics – the study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and education. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.) +Biolinguistics – the study of the biological and evolutionary components of human language +Clinical linguistics – application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology +Computational linguistics – the study of linguistic issues in a way that is 'computationally responsible', i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties implementations +Developmental linguistics – the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood +Historical linguistics – the study of language change over time. Also called diachronic linguistics +Language geography – the study of the geographical distribution of languages and linguistic features +Neurolinguistics – the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication +Psycholinguistics – the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use +Sociolinguistics – the study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors +Stylistics – the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d9b119fe3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,149 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of linguistics" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Other subfields of linguistics === +Contrastive linguistics – an approach which seeks to analyze a pair of languages via their similarities and differences +Corpus linguistics – an empirical linguistic methodology that aims to study language by using large, searchable, annotated databases (corpora) +Dialectology – the study of language dialects, i.e, subsets of a language +Discourse analysis – an approach that studies language as it is naturally used and constituted within discourses, with discourses considered generally as semiotic structures +Grammar – the system of rules and principles governing the composition and usage of a language +Interlinguistics – the study of auxiliary and planned languages for the facilitation of communication between speakers of different languages and their design +Language acquisition – process by which an individual acquires their first language (L1) +Language education – teaching specific language and language science +Language for specific purposes – the study of language learning in context of highly specific goals and purposes for which the language is learnt, particularly in education and applied linguistcs +Lexicology – the study of the lexicon of a given language and its structure +Orthography – sets of conventions for writing a language, including spelling, punctuation, word boundaries, capitalization, hyphenation, and emphasis +Rhetoric – the study of the techniques by which language can be used to persuade +Text linguistics – an approach that views texts as communicative systems, particularly focusing on the study of texts as a whole + +=== Schools, movements, and approaches of linguistics === +Cognitive linguistics +Danish functional linguistics +Functionalism +Generative grammar +Geneva School +Interactional linguistics +Kazan School +Neogrammarian +Prague linguistic circle +Prescription and description +Soviet linguistics +Stratificational linguistics +Structural linguistics +Systemic functional linguistics +Tagmemics + +== Related fields == +Semiotics – the study of the relationship between signs and what they signify more broadly. From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation. +Terminology – the study of terms and their use +Terminology science – the study of special vocabulary +Philosophy of language – takes a philosophical approach to language. Many formal semanticists are philosophers of language, differing from linguist semanticists only in their metaphysical assumptions (if at all). +Philosophical logic +Topic / Theme +Discourse + +== History of linguistics == + +=== Timeline of discovery of basic linguistics concepts === +When were the basic concepts first described and by whom? + +Ancient Sanskrit grammarians +Ancient Greek study of language +Roman elaborations of Greek study +Medieval philosophical work in Latin +Beginnings of modern linguistics in the 19th century +Behaviorism and mental tabula rasa hypothesis +Chomsky and the cognitive revolution +The Linguistics wars +Compositional formal semantics arises from the work of Richard Montague and Barbara Partee +Alternate syntactic systems develop in the 1980s +Computational linguistics becomes feasible in the late 1980s +Neurolinguistics and the biological basis of cognition +Deep learning in the 2010s + +== Questions in linguistics == +What is language? +How did it/does it evolve? +How does language serve as a medium of communication? +How does language serve as a medium of thinking? +What is common to all languages? +How do languages differ? + +== Basic concepts == +What basic concepts / terms do I have to know to talk about linguistics? + +Morphology +morpheme, inflection, paradigm, declension, derivation, compound +Phonology +phoneme, allophone, segment, mora, syllable, foot, stress, tone +Grammar +category, tense, aspect, mood and modality, grammatical number, grammatical gender, case +Syntax +phrase, clause, grammatical function, grammatical voice +Lexicology +word, lexeme, lemma, lexicon, vocabulary, terminology +Semantics +meaning, sense, entailment, truth condition, compositionality +Pragmatics +presupposition, implicature, deixis + +== Languages of the world == + +=== Languages by continent and country === + +== Linguistics scholars == + +People who had a significant influence on the development of the field + +J.L. Austin +Leonard Bloomfield +Franz Bopp +Noam Chomsky +Victoria Fromkin +Jean Berko Gleason +Joseph Greenberg +Paul Grice +M.A.K. Halliday +Louis Hjelmslev +Roman Jakobson +Sir William Jones +William Labov +George Lakoff +Ronald Langacker +Richard Montague +Pāṇini +Barbara Partee +Kenneth L. Pike +Rasmus Rask +Edward Sapir +Ferdinand de Saussure +August Schleicher +Lucien Tesnière +Nikolai Trubetzkoy +Benjamin Lee Whorf + +== Linguistics lists == +Languages +Language families and languages +ISO 639 +Official languages +Definitions by language +Alphabets & Orthography +List of writing systems + +Ideograms - Chinese and Japanese +Syllabaries - Korean +Mixed: Ancient Egyptian +Common misspellings +English words without rhymes +Acronym +Wiktionary:Definitions of acronyms and abbreviations + +== The placement of linguistics within broader frameworks == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5481a438d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of linguistics" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Linguistics can be described as an academic discipline and, at least in its theoretical subfields, as a field of science, being a widely recognized category of specialized expertise, embodying its own terminology, nomenclature, and scientific journals. Many linguists, such as David Crystal, conceptualize the field as being primarily scientific. +Linguistics is a multi-disciplinary field of research that combines tools from natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences, and the humanities. +Historically, there has been some lack of consensus on the disciplinary classification of linguistics, particularly theoretical linguistics. Linguistic realists viewed linguistics as a formal science; linguistic nominalists (the American structuralists) viewed linguistics as an empirical or even physical science; linguistic conceptualists viewed linguistics as a branch of psychology and therefore a social science; others yet have argued for viewing linguistics as a mixed science. +Linguistics is heterogeneous in its methods of research, so that each area of theoretical linguistics may resemble methodologically either formal science or empirical science, to different degrees. For example, phonetics uses empirical approaches to study the physical acoustics of spoken language. On the other hand, semantically and grammatically, the usability of a formal or natural language is dependent on a formal and arbitrary axiomatization of rules or norms. Furthermore, as studied in pragmatics and semiotics, linguistic meaning is influenced by social context. +To enable communication by upholding a lexico-semantic norm, the speakers of a shared language need to agree on the meaning of a sequence of phonemes; for instance, "aunt" (/æ/, /n/, /t/) would be acknowledged to signify "parent's sister or parent's sister-in-law", instead of "drummer" or "guest". Likewise, grammatically, it may be necessary for the interlocutors to agree on the morphological and syntactic properties of the sequence; say, that the sequence (/æ/, /n/, /t/) would be treated as a singular noun convertible morphologically to plurality by the addition of the suffix -s, or that as a noun it must not be modified syntactically by an adverb (for instance, "Let's call our immediately aunt" would thus be recognized as a grammatically incoherent structure, in a manner similar to a mathematically undefined expression). + +== See also == + +Number of words in English +Lexicography + +== References == + +== External links == +Glottopedia, MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction +Subfields according to the Linguistic Society of America +"Linguistics" section of A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain) +Linguistics and language-related wiki articles on Scholarpedia and Citizendium \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7c5d70aff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of plate tectonics" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of articles related to plate tectonics and tectonic plates. + +== What is plate tectonics? == + +Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid- to late 1960s. The processes that result in plates and shape Earth's crust are called tectonics. +Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults tend to be geologically active, with earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. +Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent plate boundaries, the process of subduction carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the mantle. This process reduces the total surface area (crust) of Earth. The lost surface is balanced by the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading, keeping the total surface area constant in a tectonic "conveyor belt". +While Earth is the only planet known to currently have active plate tectonics, evidence suggests that other planets and moons have experienced or exhibit forms of tectonic activity. Jupiter's moon Europa shows signs of ice crustal plates moving and interacting, similar to Earth's plate tectonics. Mars and Venus are thought to have had tectonic activity in the past, though not of the same form as Earth. +Tectonic plates are relatively rigid and float across the ductile asthenosphere beneath. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection currents, the slow creeping motion of Earth's solid mantle. At a seafloor spreading ridge, plates move away from the ridge, which is a topographic high, and the newly formed crust cools as it moves away, increasing its density and contributing to the motion. At a subduction zone, the relatively cold, dense oceanic crust sinks down into the mantle, forming the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell, which is the strongest driver of plate motion. The relative importance and interaction of other proposed factors such as active convection, upwelling inside the mantle, and tidal drag of the Moon are subjects of debate. (Full article...) + +== General concepts == +Asthenosphere – Highly viscous, ductile, and mechanically weak region of Earth's mantle +Aulacogen – Failed arm of a triple junction, an inactive rift zone +Back-arc basin – Submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones +Bimodal volcanism – Eruption of both mafic and felsic lavas from a single volcanic centre +Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention +Crust – Outermost solid shell of astronomical bodies +Epeirogenic movement – Upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting long wavelengths and little folding +Fault (geology) – Fracture or discontinuity in displaced rock +Fault mechanics – Field of study that investigates the behavior of geologic faults +Active fault – Geological fault likely to be the source of an earthquake sometime in the future +Flux melting – Reduction in melting point of solid rock +Geodynamics – Study of dynamics of the Earth +Island arc – Arc-shaped volcanic archipelago +Mantle – Layer inside a planetary-mass object +Mohorovičić discontinuity – Boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle +Mountain – Large natural elevation of the Earth's surface +Mid-ocean ridge, also known as Oceanic ridge – Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading +Oceanic trench – Long and narrow depressions of the sea floor +Paleoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate +Paleomap – Map of continents and mountain ranges in the past based on plate reconstructions +Seamount – Mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach the water's surface +Slab (geology) – Portion of a tectonic plate that is being subducted +Slab gap hypothesis – Theory in plate tectonics +Slab window – Type of gap in a subducted oceanic plate +Supercontinent – Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton +Terrane – Fragment of crust formed on one tectonic plate and accreted to another +Volcano – Rupture in a planet's crust where material escapes + +=== Tectonic plate interactions === +Tectonic plate interactions – Types of plate boundaries + +Continental drift – Movement of Earth's continents relative to each other +Convergent boundary – Region of active deformation between colliding tectonic plates +Divergent boundary – Linear feature between two tectonic plates +Extensional tectonics – Geological process of stretching planet crust +Isostasy – State of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust and mantle +Leaky transform fault – Transform fault producing new crust +Mantle convection – Gradual movement of the planet's mantle +Obduction – Geological process at tectonic plate boundaries +Orogeny – Formation of mountain ranges +Passive margin – Transition between oceanic and continental lithosphere that is not an active plate margin +Plume tectonics – Geophysical theory of movement of mantle plumes under tectonic plates +Ridge push – Proposed driving force for tectonic plate motion +Seafloor spreading – Geological process at mid-ocean ridges +Strike-slip tectonics – Deformation dominated by horizontal movement in Earth's lithosphere +Subduction – Geological process at tectonic plate boundaries +Tectonic uplift – Geologic uplift of Earth's surface that is attributed to plate tectonics +Thrust tectonics – Concept in structural geology +Transform fault, also known as Transform boundary – Plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal +Triple junction – Meeting point of three tectonic plates + +== Back arc basins == +Back-arc basin – Submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b38793a1b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of plate tectonics" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Continents == +Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention + +Africa – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces +Antarctica – Earth's southernmost continent +Asia – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces +Australia (continent) – One of Earth's seven main divisions of land +Europe – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces +North America – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces +South America – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces +Supercontinent – Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton + +Eurasia – Combined landmasses of Europe and Asia + +=== Paleocontinents === +Paleocontinent – Major landmass in the geological past + +Amazonian Craton – Geologic province in South America +Appalachia (Mesozoic) – Mesozoic land mass separated from Laramidia to the west by the Western Interior SeawayPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Arctica – Ancient continent in the Neoarchean era +Armorican terrane – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana +Asiamerica – Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Atlantica – Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago +Australia (continent) – One of Earth's seven main divisions of land (Also known as Sahul) +Avalonia – Microcontinent in the Paleozoic era +Baltica – Late-Proterozoic to early-Palaeozoic continent +Cathaysia – Late Paleozoic microcontinent +Chilenia – Ancient microcontinent, containing central Chile and western Argentina +Chiloé Block – Tectonic unit under Chile +Cimmeria (continent) – Ancient string of microcontinents that rifted from Gondwana +Congo Craton – Precambrian craton that with four others makes up the modern continent of Africa +Chilenia – Ancient microcontinent, containing central Chile and western Argentina +Cuyania – Ancient microcontinent now part of Argentina +Laramidia – Island continent that existed until the end of the Late Cretaceous period +Iberian plate – Small tectonic plate now part of the Eurasian plate +Insular India – Isolated land mass which became the Indian subcontinent +Kalahari Craton – African geological area +Kazakhstania – Geological region in Central Asia +Kerguelen Plateau – Oceanic plateau in the southern Indian Ocean +Laramidia – Island continent that existed until the end of the Late Cretaceous period +Laurentia – Craton forming the geological core of North America +Mauritia (microcontinent) – Precambrian microcontinent that broke off India and Madagascar +North China Craton – Continental crustal block in China, Inner Mongolia, the Yellow Sea, and North Korea +Pampia – Ancient microcontinent or terrane +Río de la Plata Craton – Medium-sized continental block in Uruguay, eastern Argentina and southern Brazil +São Francisco Craton – Ancient craton in eastern South America +Siberia (continent) – Ancient craton forming the Central Siberian Plateau +South China Craton – Precambrian continental block located in China +Sundaland – Biogeographic region of Southeast Asia +Supercontinent – Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton +Columbia (supercontinent) – Ancient supercontinent of approximately 2,500 to 1,500 million years ago +Euramerica – Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Gondwana – Neoproterozoic to Cretaceous landmass +Kenorland – Hypothetical Neoarchaean supercontinent from about 2.8 billion years ago +Laurasia – Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent +Nena (supercontinent) – Early Proterozoic supercontinent +Pangaea – Supercontinent from the late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic eras +Pannotia – Hypothesized Neoproterozoic supercontinent +Rodinia – Hypothetical Neoproterozoic supercontinent +Ur (continent) – Hypothetical Archaean supercontinent from about 3.1 billion years ago +Vaalbara – Hypothetical Archaean supercontinent from about 3.6 to 2.7 billion years ago + +== Earthquakes == +Earthquake – Sudden movement of the Earth's crust + +Blind thrust earthquake – Movement along a thrust fault that is not visible at the surface +Intraplate earthquake – Earthquake that occurs within the interior of a tectonic plate +Interplate earthquake – Earthquake that occurs at the boundary between two tectonic plates +Megathrust earthquake – Type of earthquake at convergent plate boundaries + +== Oceans == +Ocean – Body of salt water covering most of Earth + +=== Ancient oceans === +List of ancient oceans – List of Earth's former oceans \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f287266b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of plate tectonics" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Adamastor Ocean – Precambrian "proto-Atlantic" ocean in the Southern Hemisphere +Boreal Sea – Mesozoic-era seaway that lay along the northern border of Laurasia +Bridge River Ocean – Ancient ocean between North America and the Insular Islands during the Mesozoic +Central American Seaway – Body of water +Goianides Ocean – Ocean in South America in Neoproterozoic +Goiás Ocean – Major shear zone that developed in the PrecambrianPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Hudson Seaway – Major seaway of North America during the Cretaceous Period +Iapetus Ocean – Ocean that existed in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic eras +Khanty Ocean – Small Precambrian ocean between Baltica and the Siberian continent +Lapland-Kola Ocean – Geology of Norway, Finland and RussiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Mirovia – Hypothesized superocean surrounding the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era +Paleo-Tethys Ocean – Ocean on the margin of Gondwana between the Middle Cambrian and Late Triassic +Pan-African Ocean – Hypothesized paleo-ocean whose closure created the supercontinent of Pannotia +Pannonian Sea – Shallow ancient sea where the Pannonian Basin in Central Europe is today +Panthalassa – Prehistoric superocean that surrounded Pangaea +Paratethys – Prehistoric shallow inland sea in Eurasia +Pharusian Ocean – Ancient ocean that existed from 800 to 635 million years ago +Piemont-Liguria Ocean – Former piece of oceanic crust that is seen as part of the Tethys Ocean +Poseidon Ocean – Supposed ocean that existed in the Mesoproterozoic period +Pre-Svecofennian Ocean – Geological processes in Sweden, Finland, and RussiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Proto-Tethys Ocean – Ancient ocean that existed from the latest Ediacaran to the Carboniferous +Rheic Ocean – Ancient ocean which separated two major palaeocontinents, Gondwana and Laurussia +Slide Mountain Ocean – Ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and North America +Sundance Sea – Jurassic inland sea +Tethys Ocean – Prehistoric ocean between Gondwana and Laurasia +Tornquist Sea – Sea between the palaeocontinents Avalonia and Baltica about 600 to 450 million years ago +Turgai Sea – Large shallow body of salt water of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ErasPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Ural Ocean – Small, ancient ocean between Siberia and Baltica +Valais Ocean – Subducted ocean basin. Remnants found in the Alps in the North Penninic nappes. +Western Interior Seaway – Prehistoric inland sea that split the continent of North America + +==== Superoceans ==== +Superocean – Ocean that surrounds a supercontinent + +Mirovia – Hypothesized superocean surrounding the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era +Pan-African Ocean – Hypothesized paleo-ocean whose closure created the supercontinent of Pannotia +Panthalassa – Prehistoric superocean that surrounded Pangaea + +== Orogenies == +Orogeny – Formation of mountain ranges + +List of orogenies – Known mountain building events of the Earth's history +Mountain formation – Geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains +Fold mountains – Mountains formed by compressive crumpling of the layers of rock +Algoman orogeny – Late Archaean episode of mountain building in what is now North America + +== Rifts == +Rift – Geological linear zone where the lithosphere is being pulled apart + +Mid-ocean ridge – Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading +Saint Lawrence rift system – Seismically active zone paralleling the Saint Lawrence River + +=== Active rifts === +Propagating rift – Seafloor geological feature + +==== Continental rifts ==== +Afar Triangle – Geological depression caused by the Afar triple junction +East African Rift – Active continental rift zone in East Africa +Laptev Sea Rift – Tectonic boundary between the North American and Eurasian Plates + +==== Oceanic ridges ==== +Aden Ridge – Rift portion in Gulf of Aden +Cocos Ridge – Aseismic ridge within the Cocos plate +Explorer Ridge – Mid-ocean ridge west of British Columbia, Canada +Gorda Ridge – Tectonic spreading center off the northern coast of California and southern Oregon +Juan de Fuca Ridge – Divergent plate boundary off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America +South American–Antarctic Ridge – Mid-ocean ridge in the South Atlantic +Chile Rise – Submarine oceanic ridge in the Pacific OceanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +East Pacific Rise – Ridge on the floor of the Pacific Ocean +East Scotia Ridge – Minor oceanic tectonic plate between the Antarctic and South American platesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Gakkel Ridge – Mid-oceanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean(Mid-Arctic Ridge) +Nazca Ridge – Submarine ridge off the coast of Peru +Pacific-Antarctic Ridge – Tectonic plate boundary in the South Pacific OceanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Central Indian Ridge – North-south-trending mid-ocean ridge in the western Indian Ocean +Carlsberg Ridge – Tectonic plate ridge +Southeast Indian Ridge – Mid-ocean ridge in the southern Indian Ocean +Southwest Indian Ridge – Mid-ocean ridge in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans +Mid-Atlantic Ridge – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary +Kolbeinsey Ridge (North of Iceland) +Mohns Ridge +Knipovich – Russian zoologistPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen) +Reykjanes Ridge – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundaryPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (South of Iceland) + +=== Aulacogens === +Aulacogen – Failed arm of a triple junction, an inactive rift zone \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1680e31c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of plate tectonics" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Adelaide Rift Complex – Major geological province in AustraliaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Alpha Ridge – Major volcanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean +Aegir Ridge – Extinct mid-ocean ridge in the far-northern Atlantic Ocean +Anza trough – Rift in Kenya that was formed in the Jurassic Period +Bahr el Arab rift – Major geological feature in the southwest Sudan +Benue Trough – Major geological structure underlying a large part of Nigeria +Central Lowlands – Geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland +Eastern North America Rift Basins – Assemblage of Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic sedimentary rocksPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Fundy Basin – Sediment-filled rift basin on the Atlantic coast of southeastern Canada +Gulf of Suez Rift – Ancient geological rift +Gulf St Vincent – Inlet in South Australia +Kula-Farallon Ridge – Ancient mid-ocean ridgePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Melut Basin – Rift basin in South Sudan +Midcontinent Rift System – Geological rift in the center of the North American continent +Mississippi embayment – Low-lying basin filled with Cretaceous to recent sediments +Muglad Basin – Large rift basin in southern Sudan and South Sudan +Narmada River – River in central India +New Madrid Seismic Zone – Major seismic zone in the southern and midwestern United StatesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Newark Basin – Rift basin in northeast US +Nipigon Embayment – Inactive continental rift zone in Northwestern Ontario, Canada +Oslo Graben – Inactive Permian geological rift in Norway +Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben – Rift valley extending from near Montréal through Ottawa in Canada +Pacific-Farallon Ridge – Spreading ridge during the Late CretaceousPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Pacific-Kula Ridge – Former mid-ocean ridgePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Phoenix Ridge – Ancient mid-ocean ridge between the Phoenix and Pacific platesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Saguenay Graben – Rift valley in the geological Grenville Province of southern Quebec, Canada +Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen – Failed rift of tectonic plates in the southern US +Spencer Gulf – Large inlet in South Australia +Timiskaming Graben – Northwesterly extension of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben +Wichita Mountains – Mountains in the US state Oklahoma + +== Subduction zones == +Subduction zone – Geological process at tectonic plate boundaries + +Middle America Trench – Subduction zone in the eastern Pacific off the southwestern coast of Middle America + +== Suture zones == +Suture (geology) – Joining together of separate terranes along a major fault zone + +Great Falls Tectonic Zone – Major intracontinental shear zone between the Hearne craton and Wyoming craton +Huincul Fault – Fault that extends from the Neuquén Basin eastwards into the Argentine Shelf +Iapetus Suture – Ancient geological fault +Indus-Yarlung suture zone – Tectonic suture in southern Tibet +Jormua Ophiolite – Remnant of ancient oceanic lithosphere near Jormua, Finland +Magallanes-Fagnano Fault – Continental transform fault between the Scotia plate and the South American plate +Morais ophiolite complex – Metamorphic complex of oceanic and continental crust terranes in Portugal +Periadriatic Seam – Border between the Adriatic and European plates +Pieniny Klippen Belt – Zone in the Western Carpathians, with a very complex geological structure +Trans-European Suture Zone – Boundary between the East European Craton and the orogens of South-Western Europe +Vulcan structure – Tectonic boundary in North America + +== Tectonic plates == +Tectonic plate – Movement of Earth's lithospherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets + +List of tectonic plates +African plate – Tectonic plate underlying Africa +Anatolian plate – Continental tectonic plate comprising most of the Anatolian Peninsula (Asia Minor) +Antarctic plate – Major tectonic plate containing Antarctica and the surrounding ocean floor +Arabian plate – Minor tectonic plate +Burma plate – Minor tectonic plate in Southeast Asia +Cocos plate – Tectonic plate beneath the Pacific Ocean +Eurasian plate – Tectonic plate which includes most of Eurasia +Explorer plate – Northeast Pacific tectonic plate +Farallon plate – Ancient oceanic plate that has mostly subducted under the North American plate +Gorda plate – One of the northern remnants of the Farallon plate +Indian plate – Minor plate that separated from Gondwana +Juan de Fuca plate – Small tectonic plate in the eastern North Pacific +Halmahera plate – Small tectonic plate in the Molucca Sea +Indo-Australian plate – Major tectonic plate formed by the fusion of the Indian and Australian plates +Pacific plate – Oceanic tectonic plate under the Pacific Ocean +Molucca Sea plate – Small fully subducted tectonic plate near Indonesia +Nazca plate – Oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin +North American plate – Large tectonic plate including most of North America, Greenland and part of Siberia +Philippine Sea plate – Oceanic tectonic plate to the east of the Philippines +South American plate – Major tectonic plate +Sunda plate – Tectonic plate including Southeast Asia + +== terranes == +terrane – Fragment of crust formed on one tectonic plate and accreted to another \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fbc19bc7e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of plate tectonics" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Arctic Alaska-Chukotka terrane – Terrane that includes parts of Alaska, Siberia and the continental shelf between them +Arequipa-Antofalla – South American geology +Armorican Massif – Geologic massif that covers a large area in the northwest of France +Armorican terrane – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana +Avalonia – Microcontinent in the Paleozoic era +Briançonnais zone – Piece of continental crust in the Penninic nappes of the Alps +Bronson Hill Arc – Bimodal volcanic arc and associated Ordovician sediments +Buffalo Head terrane – Terrane in the western Canadian Shield in northern Alberta +Cache Creek terrane – Geologic terrane in British Columbia and southern Yukon, Canada +Carolina terrane – Exotic terrane from central Georgia to central Virginia in the United States +Cassiar terrane – Cretaceous terrane in Canada +Chilenia – Ancient microcontinent, containing central Chile and western Argentina +Chiloé Block – Tectonic unit under Chile +Cuyania – Ancient microcontinent now part of Argentina +Cymru terrane – Inferred fault bounded terrane of the basement rocks of the southern United Kingdom +Florida Platform – Geological feature +Franciscan Assemblage – Late Mesozoic terrane of heterogeneous rocks in the California Coast RangesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Ganderia – Terrane in the northern Appalachians which broke off the supercontinent Gondwana +Gascoyne Complex – Granite and metamorphic rock in Western Australia +Great Lakes tectonic zone – Geologic province +Great Valley Sequence – Group of late Mesozoic formations in the Central Valley of California +Hebridean terrane – Part of the Caledonian orogenic belt in northwest Scotland +Hottah terrane – Paleoproterozoic terrane in the northwestern end of the Canadian Shield +Irumide Belt – Mesoproterozoic terrane on the southern margin of the Bangweulu Block in Zambia +Ivrea zone – Tectonic terrane in the Italian Alps +Lhasa terrane – Fragment of crustal material that forms present-day southern Tibet +Madre de Dios terrane – Distinct fragment of Earth's crust in southwestern Patagonia +Meguma terrane – Terrane exposed in southern Nova Scotia +Narooma terrane – Geological structural region on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia +Narryer Gneiss terrane – Geological complex of ancient rocks in Western Australia +Omineca Arc – Volcanic arc terrane in western North America +Pampia – Ancient microcontinent or terrane +Pelso plate – Small tectonic unit in the Pannonian Basin in Europe +Salinian Block – Terrane west of the main trace of the San Andreas Fault system in California +Shan–Thai terrane – Mass of continental crust extending from Tibet into Southeast Asia +Slide Mountain terrane – Late Paleozoic terrane in British Columbia, Canada +Smartville Block – Volcanic arc accreted onto the North American Plate +Sonoma Volcanics – Geologic formation of volcanic origin in California +Sonomia terrane – Crustal block accreted onto the North American Plate in Northwest Nevada +Spavinaw terrane – Intrusive and volcanic rocks in the mid-continent region of the United States +Stikinia – Fragment of Earth's crust in British Columbia, Canada +Tuareg Shield – West African geological formation +Western Gneiss region – Large geological unit in Norway, part of the Baltic shield +Wrangellia terrane – Geological area in northwestern North America +Wrekin terrane – Inferred basement rock terrane of the southern United Kingdom +Yakutat Block – Earth crust fragment in Alaska +Yukon–Tanana terrane – Largest tectonostratigraphic terrane in the northern North American Cordillera + +== Triple junctions == +Triple junction – Meeting point of three tectonic plates + +Aden-Owen-Carlsberg triple junction – Junction of three tectonic plates in the northwest Indian OceanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Afar triple junction – Place where three tectonic rifts meet in East Africa +Azores triple junction – Tectonic plates intersection +Banda Sea triple junction – Point where three tectonic plates meet +Boso triple junction – Meeting point of the Okhotsk, Pacific, and Philippine Sea plates +Bouvet triple junction – Meeting point of three tectonic plates +Chile triple junction – Place where the South American, Nazca and Antarctic tectonic plates meet +Fifteen-Twenty fracture zone – Fracture zone on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge +Mount Fuji – Volcano in Japan +Galapagos triple junction – Tectonic plate junction in the Pacific OceanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Iapetus Suture – Ancient geological fault +Kamchatka-Aleutian triple junction – Place where the Pacific plate, the Okhotsk plate, and the North American plate meetPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Karlıova triple junction – Place where the Anatolian plate, the Eurasian plate and the Arabian plate meet +Macquarie triple junction – Place where the Indo-Australian plate, Pacific plate, and Antarctic plate meet +Mendocino triple junction – Point where the Gorda plate, the North American plate, and the Pacific plate meet +Queen Charlotte triple junction – Point where the Pacific plate, the North American plate, and the Explorer plate meet +Rivera triple junction – Place where the North American plate, the Rivera plate, and the Pacific plate meet +Rodrigues triple junction – Place where the African plate, the Indo-Australian plate, and the Antarctic plate meet +Tongareva triple junction – Defunct triple junction of the Pacific plate, the Farallon plate, and the Phoenix plate + +== Other plate tectonics topics == +Computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics – Organization that advances Earth science +Paleoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate +Paleomap – Map of continents and mountain ranges in the past based on plate reconstructions +Plate reconstruction – Process of reconstructing the positions of tectonic plates in the geological past +Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (after 1952) – Chronological listing of significant events in the history of tectonophysics +Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954) – Chronological listing of significant events in the history of tectonophysics +Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis – Concept in plate tectonics +Eclogitization – Tectonic process in which eclogite is formed + +== Specific areas == +(to be reallocated) + +Alpine Fault – Large geological fault in New Zealand +Benham Rise, also known as Benham Plateau – Extinct volcanic ridge in the Philippine Sea +Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain – Pacific Ocean geologic feature +Geology of the Alps +Indian subcontinent – Physiographical region in South Asia +Mariana Trench – Deepest oceanic trench on Earth +Mid-Atlantic Ridge – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary +Mohorovičić discontinuity – Boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle +Molucca Sea Collision Zone – Region of complex tectonic activity in Indonesia +Pacific-Antarctic Ridge – Tectonic plate boundary in the South Pacific OceanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Philippine Mobile Belt – Tectonic boundary +Ring of Fire – Tectonic belt of earthquakes and volcanoes +San Andreas Fault – Geologic feature in California, United States +Tethys Ocean, also known as Tethys Sea – Prehistoric ocean between Gondwana and Laurasia \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..431929154 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "P. microphylla" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:33.148769+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +P. microphylla may refer to different species of plants, algae, fungi, and even animals. The specific epithet microphylla derives from Greek μικροϛ (micros) and φυλλον (phyllon) and means 'small leaves'. + +Pannaria microphylla, a lichen in the family Pannariaceae +Paraerva microphylla, a plant in the family Amaranthaceae +Paraquilegia microphylla, a plant in the family Ranunculaceae +Paratrophis microphylla, a tree in the family Moraceae +Paravallaris microphylla, a plant in the family Apocynaceae +Parietaria microphylla, a plant in the family Parietarieae +Parkinsonia microphylla, a palo verde tree in the family Fabaceae +Parmelia microphylla, a lichen in the family Parmeliaceae +Parmeliella microphylla, a lichen in the family Pannariaceae +Paronychia microphylla, a plant in the family Paronychieae +Parosela microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae +Passerina microphylla, a plant in the family Thymelaeaceae +Patellaria microphylla, a fungus in the family Patellariaceae +Pauridiantha microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae +Pavetta microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae +Payena microphylla, a tree in the family Sapotaceae +Pedicularis microphylla, a plant in the family Orobanchaceae +Peixotoa microphylla, a plant in the family Malpighiaceae +Pellaea microphylla, currently called Argyrochosma microphylla, a fern in the family Pteridaceae +Pellegrinia microphylla, a plant in the family Ericaceae +Peltigera microphylla, a lichen in the family Peltigeraceae +Penaea microphylla, a plant in the family Penaeaceae +Pentameris microphylla, a plant in the family Poaceae +Pentanisia microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae +Pentaschistis microphylla, a plant in the family Poaceae +Pentzia microphylla, a plant in the family Asteraceae +Peperomia microphylla, a plant in the family Piperoideae +Pernettya microphylla, a plant in the family Ericaceae +Persea microphylla, a plant in the family Lauraceae +Persoonia microphylla, a plant in the family Proteaceae +Phaca microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae +Phaulopsis microphylla, a plant in the family Acanthaceae +Philistina microphylla, a beetle in the family Cetoniidae +Phlomis microphylla, a plant in the family Lamiaceae +Phoebe microphylla, a plant in the family Lauraceae +Phthirusa microphylla, a plant in the family Loranthaceae +Phyllophaga microphylla, a scarab beetle in the family Scarabaeidae +Phyllostachys microphylla, a bamboo in the family Poaceae +Phyllostegia microphylla, a plant in the family Lamiaceae +Physcia microphylla, a lichen in the family Physciaceae +Pilea microphylla, a plant the family Urticaceae +Pimelea microphylla, a plant in the family Thymelaeaceae +Pinalia microphylla, a plant in the family Orchidaceae +Piptadenia microphylla, currently Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil, a plant in the family Fabaceae +Pisonia microphylla, a plant in the family Nyctaginaceae +Pityrogramma microphylla, a plant in the family Pteridaceae +Placopsis microphylla, a lichen in the family Agyriaceae +Plagiochila microphylla, a plant in the family Plagiochilaceae +Planchonella microphylla, a plant in the family Sapotaceae +Platea microphylla, a plant in the family Icacinaceae +Plectaneia microphylla, a plant in the family Apocynaceae +Pleione microphylla, a plant in the family Orchidaceae +Pleurothallis microphylla, a plant in the family Orchidaceae +Podalyria microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae +Podospadix microphylla, a plant in the family Araceae +Poincianella microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae +Polygala microphylla, a plant in the family Polygalaceae +Polylepis microphylla, a plant in the family Rosaceae +Popowia microphylla, a plant in the family Annonaceae +Porandra microphylla, a plant in the family Commelinaceae +Poranthera microphylla, a plant in the family Phyllanthaceae +Porlieria microphylla, a plant in the family Zygophyllaceae +Porphyra microphylla, a seaweed in the family Bangiaceae +Portulaca microphylla, currently known as Portulaca quadrifida, a plant in the family Portulacaceae +Potameia microphylla, a plant in the family Lauraceae +Potentilla microphylla, currently known as Argentina microphylla, a plant in the family Rosaceae +Praravinia microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae +Premna microphylla, a tree in the family Lamiaceae +Primula microphylla, a plant in the family Primulaceae +Prostanthera microphylla, a plant in the family Westringieae +Prunus microphylla, a shrub in the family Rosaceae +Pseudoleskea microphylla, a plant in the family Leskeaceae +Psora microphylla, a lichen in the family Psoraceae +Psychotria microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae +Ptelea microphylla, a plant in the family Rutaceae +Pteris microphylla, a fern in the family Pteridaceae +Pteronia microphylla, a plant in the family Asteraceae +Pterostylis microphylla, a plant in the family Orchidaceae +Pultenaea microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae +Purdiaea microphylla, a plant in the family Clethraceae +Putoria microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae +Pyrenaria microphylla, a plant in the family Theaceae +Pyrus microphylla, currently called Cotoneaster microphyllus, a plant in the family Rosaceae + + +== See also == +P. macrophyllum +P. microphyllus +P. macrophylla \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond_Creek_(Little_Wapwallopen_Creek_tributary)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond_Creek_(Little_Wapwallopen_Creek_tributary)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e46f9670 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond_Creek_(Little_Wapwallopen_Creek_tributary)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Pond Creek (Little Wapwallopen Creek tributary)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond_Creek_(Little_Wapwallopen_Creek_tributary)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:09.173396+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pond Creek (also known as Long Pond Creek) is a tributary of Little Wapwallopen Creek in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately 6.4 miles (10.3 km) long and flows through Slocum Township and Conyngham Township. The watershed of the creek has an area of 9.69 square miles (25.1 km2) and is part of the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin. A bridge was built over the creek in 1956. In the early 1900s, the Glen Brook Water Company planned to construct a dam on the creek. The surficial geology in the vicinity of Pond Creek includes Wisconsinan Till, alluvium, boulder alluvium, alluvial fan, and bedrock consisting of sandstone and shale, as well as some patches of wetland. + + +== Course == + +Pond Creek begins on the southern side of Penobscot Mountain, a few hundred feet from the border between Slocum Township and Newport Township. It flows west-southwest for several tenths of a mile before passing through Cranberry Pond and turning northwest. The creek then turns west-southwest and passes through Lily Lake, where it exits Slocum Township and enters Conyngham Township. At the southern edge of the lake, it turns south for a short distance before turning southwest for several tenths of a mile and entering a valley. The creek then turns south for several tenths of a mile and receives an unnamed tributary from the left before meandering southwest. After several tenths of a mile, it turns west and receives an unnamed tributary from the right before turning due south for several tenths of a mile as its valley becomes much deeper. The creek then receives another unnamed tributary from the left and abruptly turns west-southwest. After a few tenths of a mile, it turns sharply to the east for a few tenths of a mile and leaves its valley. The creek then turns west-southwest and reaches its confluence with Little Wapwallopen Creek. +Pond Creek joins Little Wapwallopen Creek 1.52 miles (2.45 km) upstream of its mouth. + + +=== Tributaries === +Pond Creek has no officially named tributaries. However, it does have several unnamed tributaries. The first tributary is approximately 3 miles (4.8 km) long, the second is approximately 0.4 miles (0.64 km) long, and the third is approximately 0.8 miles (1.3 km) long. One tributary of the creek was referred to as Black Creek in a 1908 report by the Pennsylvania Department of Health. + + +== Geography and geology == + +The elevation near the mouth of Pond Creek is 522 feet (159 m) above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,000 and 1,020 feet (300 and 310 m) above sea level. +Pond Creek is in the vicinity of the Wyoming mountains, flowing along their south side. The creek flows through a gorge in its lower reaches. In the gorge, the creek flows through a ledge of tough rocks with few cracks or fissures. +Most of the upper reaches of the watershed of Pond Creek are on a glacial or resedimented till known as Wisconsinan Till. However, outcroppings of bedrock consisting of sandstone and shale occur on Penobscot Mountain. Small patches of alluvium and boulder alluvium occur along the creek downstream of Lily Lake. In its lower reaches, the valley of the creek mostly contains alluvium and Wisconsinan Ice-Contact Stratified Drift. Wisconsinan Ice-Contact Stratified Drift consists of stratified sand and gravel, as well as some boulders. Bedrock consisting of sandstone and shale surrounds the valley and an alluvial fan occurs at its mouth. + + +== Watershed == + +The watershed of Pond Creek has an area of 9.69 square miles (25.1 km2). The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Sybertsville. However, its source is in the quadrangle of Nanticoke. The watershed of the creek is part of the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin. Pond Creek flows generally in a westward direction. +A pond known as Mud Pond is located in the watershed of Pond Creek. It is on a tributary of Pond Creek, not on the main stem itself. There are patches of wetland at the headwaters of the creek. +Wild trout naturally reproduce in Pond Creek. + + +== History == +Pond Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1184234. +A prestressed box beam bridge was built over Pond Creek in 1956. The bridge is located 1 mile (1.6 km) east of State Route 3006 and carries T-466/Cemetery Road. Two bridges were built over tributaries of the creek in 1956 and 1966. +In the early 1900s, the Glen Brook Water Company had plans to construct a masonry dam on Pond Creek. The dam was planned to be 65 feet (20 m) high and the resulting reservoir (known as the Pond Creek Reservoir) was intended to have an area of 16 acres and a volume of 125,000,000 gallons. The dam was to be situated 0.25 miles (0.40 km) upstream of the creek's mouth, in a gorge. + + +== See also == +Nuangola Outlet, next tributary of Little Wapwallopen Creek going upstream +List of rivers of Pennsylvania + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e198885a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Primate city" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:10.506810+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A primate city is a city that is the largest in its country, province, state, or region, and disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy. A primate city distribution is a rank-size distribution that has one very large city with many much smaller cities and towns and no intermediate-sized urban centers, creating a statistical king effect. +The law of the primate city was first proposed by the geographer Mark Jefferson in 1939. He defines a primate city as being "at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as significant." Aside from size and population, a primate city will usually have precedence in all other aspects of its country's society such as economics, politics, culture, and education. Primate cities also serve as targets for the majority of a country or region's internal migration. +In geography, the phenomenon of excessive concentration of population and development of the main city of a country or a region (often to the detriment of other areas) is called urban primacy or urban macrocephaly. + +== Measurement == +Urban primacy can be measured as the share of a country's population that lives in the primate city. Relative primacy indicates the ratio of the primate city's population to that of the second largest in a country or region. + +== Significance == +There is debate as to whether a primate city serves a parasitic or generative function. The presence of a primate city in a country may indicate an imbalance in development—usually a progressive core and a lagging periphery—on which the city depends for labor and other resources. However, the urban structure is not directly dependent on a country's level of economic development. +Many primate cities gain an increasing share of their country's population. This can be due to a reduction in blue-collar population in the hinterlands because of mechanization and automation. Simultaneously, the number of educated employees in white-collar endeavors such as politics, finance, media, and higher education rises. These sectors are clustered predominantly in primate cities where power and wealth are concentrated. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4cebf03cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Primate city" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:10.506810+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Examples == +Some global cities are considered national or regional primate cities. An example of a global city that is also a primate city is Istanbul in Turkey. Istanbul serves as the primate city of Turkey due to the unmatched economic, political, cultural, and educational influence that the city possesses in comparison to other Turkish cities such as the capital Ankara, İzmir, or Bursa. Likewise, Mexico City, Paris, Cairo, Jakarta, and Seoul have also been described as primate cities of their respective countries. However, not all regions and countries possess a primate city. The United States has never had a primate city on a national level due to the decentralized nature of the country and because the country's second-largest city, Los Angeles, is not far behind the country's largest city, New York City, in either population or GDP. The metropolitan area of New York City has over 19 million residents, while Los Angeles's has roughly 13 million residents, as of 2022. +Sub-national divisions can also have primate cities. For instance, New York City is the State of New York's primate city, because its population is 32 times bigger than the state's second-largest city of Buffalo. New York City has 44% of the population and 65% of the GDP of the State of New York. The city of Anchorage is another U.S. example, with around 40% of the total population of Alaska living within the city's limits. China does not have a primate city at a national level, but several provincial capitals are disproportionately larger than other urban areas in the respective provinces. For example, Henan, Hubei, and Sichuan have provincial capitals (Zhengzhou, Wuhan, and Chengdu, respectively) that are significantly larger than the second-largest cities in those provinces, and each of those provinces has a population similar to that of a large European country. India does not have a primate city, as Delhi is not much larger than Mumbai or Kolkata in terms of population. However, many Indian states, such as Karnataka, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Telangana, do have primate cities: Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, respectively. Other Indian states, such as Uttar Pradesh and Kerala, do not have any primate cities. +Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, has been called "the most primate city on Earth": in 2000 it was 40 times larger than the second-largest city of that time, Nakhon Ratchasima. As of 2022, Bangkok is nearly nine times larger than Thailand's current second-largest city of Chiang Mai, which has been growing in population and has also had its boundaries expanded to reflect that growth. Taking the concept from his examination of the primate city during the 2010 Thai political protests and applying it to the role that primate cities play if they are national capitals, researcher Jack Fong noted that when primate cities like Bangkok function as national capitals, they are inherently vulnerable to insurrection by the military and the dispossessed. He cites the fact that most primate cities serving as national capitals contain major headquarters for the country. Thus, logistically, it is rather "efficient" to target a national capital that is also a primate city; most of the governing power is contained in that one small area, and so are most of the people. +The metropolitan area of the city of Moscow, the capital of Russia, is 2.3 times the size of the metropolitan area of the next largest city, Saint Petersburg, and plays a unique and uncontested role of the cultural and political center of the country. It can therefore be considered a primate city. +Primate cities need not be capital cities: governments may establish a new capital city in an attempt to challenge the primacy of the largest city or provide more balanced growth. For example, in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam is still the primate city even though the capital was moved to Dodoma, a new city built to a plan, in 1996. A similar process (though without building a planned city) occurred when the existing city of Wellington was chosen as New Zealand's capital in 1865; Auckland, the capital before the relocation, commanded (and still commands) a greater share of the population and economy. + +== List == + +=== Africa === + +=== Asia === + +For the Philippines, figures are for Metro Manila and Metro Cebu. Manila is the national capital, which is within Metro Manila, a region. Meanwhile, Cebu City is the capital city of the province of Cebu, with Metro Cebu being its main urban center. Metro Manila is within Mega Manila, the megapolis that has a population of around 25 million. +For Malaysia, data for Kuala Lumpur includes the surrounding state of Selangor and the Federal Territory of Putrajaya; while data for George Town includes the entire State of Penang and adjoining regions of Kulim and Kuala Muda (Sungai Petani) in the neighboring State of Kedah. +In Vietnam, Hanoi (population 8,053,663) is the primate city of Northern Vietnam, having 3.97 times the population of the area's second largest, Haiphong (2,028,514). Ho Chi Minh City (population 8,993,082) is the primate city of Southern Vietnam, having 7.28 times the population of the area's second largest, Cần Thơ (1,235,171). However, there's no primate city in Central Vietnam as the most populous city (Da Nang, population 1,134,310) has nearly the same population of the area's next largest (Huế, population 1,128,620). See also: List of cities in Vietnam + +=== Europe === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ba329b20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Primate city" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:10.506810+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In Germany, Munich (city proper population ca 1.5 million, with surrounding Landkreise ~3 million) is the primate city of the state of Bavaria, having nearly three times the population than the state's second largest, Nuremberg (ca 500,000 people, metro area ~1.35 million). Likewise, in Hesse, Frankfurt (~750,000 people) is nearly three times larger than the state's second largest, Wiesbaden (~275,000) and they are both part of the Rhine-Main metropolitan area, the largest city outside of the area, Kassel, has a population of ca. 200,000 people. +In Italy, primate cities exist at regional level: capital Rome (~2.7 million) alone has nearly half of the population of the Lazio region and is about 21 times larger than the second largest city Latina, and nearly three quarters of the region's population live in the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital. In Lombardy, Milan at ~1.35 million is seven times larger than second largest Brescia (ca 200,000); in Piedmont, Turin has eight-nine times the population of Novara and Alessandria; in Campania, Naples has 7 times the population of second-largest Salerno and in Liguria, Genoa at ~550,000 has six times the population of second largest La Spezia and the Metropolitan City of Genoa has three times the population of Province of Savona. +There are many more regional primate cities in Europe. If excluding national capitals, examples include Gothenburg in Västra Götaland, Sweden, Bergen in Vestland and Trondheim, Trøndelag in Norway, Tampere in Pirkanmaa, Finland and Aarhus in Midtjylland, Denmark. +In Portugal, the Lisbon Metropolitan Area has around 2.8 million people while the Porto Metropolitan Area, the second biggest and other only official metropolitan area, has around 1.7 million people. These two metropolitan areas have around 40% the country's population and are multiple times larger than the third-biggest city, Braga. + +=== North and Central America === + +In the United States, many primate cities exist at the state level. In California, the population of Los Angeles (~4 million) is nearly three times that of the second-largest city in the state, San Diego. Likewise, in Illinois, Chicago has 15 times the population of the state's second-largest city, Aurora, which itself is a suburb of Chicago, and 18 times the population of Rockford, the state's fifth-largest city and the largest outside of the Chicago metropolitan area, which comprises nearly two-thirds of the state's population. In New York, New York City, with a 2022 population of about 8.3 million, is more than 30 times larger than the state's second-largest city of Buffalo. Erie County, where Buffalo is located, is the eighth-largest county in the state and the largest outside of the New York metropolitan area, with around 950,000 residents; on the other hand, New York City alone contains four of the six largest counties in the state, each with at least 1.35 million residents. +Canada also has several primate cities at the provincial level: Vancouver for British Columbia; Winnipeg for Manitoba; Toronto for Ontario; Montreal for Quebec; Halifax for Nova Scotia; and St. John's for Newfoundland and Labrador. + +=== Oceania === + +Australia does not have a primate city, but at the state level, each of the capital cities of the states and territories act as the primate city of that state or territory. + +=== South America === + +Brazil does not have a primate city, but Brazilian state capitals typically act as the primate city for their respective state. + +== See also == +Capital city +Primate (disambiguation) +Global city +Megacity +Metropolis +Rank–size distribution +Secondary city + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1631533b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Sativum" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:34.332549+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sativa, sativus, and sativum are Latin botanical adjectives meaning cultivated. It is often associated botanically with plants that promote good health and used to designate certain seed-grown domestic crops. + + +== Usage == +Sativa (ending in -a) is the feminine form of the adjective, but masculine (-us) and neuter (-um) endings are also used to agree with the gender of the nouns they modify; for example, the masculine Crocus sativus and neuter Pisum sativum. + + +== List of plant names containing sativum == + +Examples of crops incorporating this word and its variations into their Latin name include: + +Allium sativum, garlic. +Avena sativa, the common oat. +Cannabis sativa, one of three forms of cannabis. +Castanea sativa, sweet chestnut. +Coriandrum sativum, coriander, also known as cilantro, an annual herb. +Crocus sativus, the saffron crocus. +Cucumis sativus, the cucumber. +Daucus carota subsp. sativus, the carrot. +Eruca sativa, the rocket or arugula, a leaf vegetable. +Hordeum sativum, barley. +Lactuca sativa, lettuce. +Lathyrus sativus, grass pea +Lepidium sativum, garden cress. +Madia sativa, Chilean tarweed. +Medicago sativa, alfalfa. +Nigella sativa, a flower whose edible seeds are sometimes known as "black cumin" or "black caraway". +Oryza sativa, rice. +Pastinaca sativa., parsnip, a root vegetable closely related to the carrot and parsley; all belong to the family Apiaceae. +Pisum sativum, pea plant. +Ribes sativum, the whitecurrant. +Vicia sativa, common vetch. + + +== See also == +List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4bf2f914d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Spiroplasma" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:35.702836+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Spiroplasma is a genus of Mollicutes, a group of small bacteria without cell walls. Spiroplasma shares the simple metabolism, parasitic lifestyle, fried-egg colony morphology and small genome of other Mollicutes, but has a distinctive helical morphology, unlike Mycoplasma. It has a spiral shape and moves in a corkscrew motion. Many Spiroplasma are found either in the gut or haemolymph of insects where they can act to manipulate host reproduction, or defend the host as endosymbionts. Spiroplasma are also disease-causing agents in the phloem of plants. Spiroplasmas are fastidious organisms, which require a rich culture medium. Typically they grow well at 30 °C, but not at 37 °C. A few species, notably Spiroplasma mirum, grow well at 37 °C (human body temperature), and cause cataracts and neurological damage in suckling mice. +The best studied species of spiroplasmas are Spiroplasma poulsonii, a reproductive manipulator and defensive insect symbiont, Spiroplasma citri, the causative agent of citrus stubborn disease, and Spiroplasma kunkelii, the causative agent of corn stunt disease. + +== Genus structure == +Spiroplasma as currently circumscribeed is not monophyletic and consists of four separate clades: + +Spiroplasma sensu stricto consists of the large clade around S. citri. This clade has been subdivided into mirum, chrysopicola, citri, and poulsonii clades, which can be readily distinguished in the phylogenetic trees provided below. +The ixodetis clade contains two species. +The apis clade contains 24 species in the broadest view. +"Candidatus Spiroplasma holothuricola" was named in 2018, creating the fourth clade due to its position on the phylogenetic tree. It was found in an unnamed sea cucumber species close to Zygothuria oxysclera. + +=== Phylogeny === +The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). + +Notes on individual species: + +Spiroplasma mirum has also been called Spiroplasma mira, an attempt at correcting the grammatical gender of the specific epithet to match that of the genus name. However, mirum is of neuter gender and requires no correction. In addition, LPSN (and the LoRN) and GTDB treat S. atrichopogonis as a heterotypic synonym. +S. insolitum, S. phoeniceum, S. melliferum, and S. diminutum are also grammatically correct and in no need of correction per LPSN. + +== In arthropods == + +=== Insect symbioses === +Many Spiroplasma strains are vertically transmitted endosymbionts of Drosophila species, with a variety of host-altering mechanisms similar to Wolbachia. These strains are from the Spiroplasma poulsonii clade, and can have important effects on host fitness. The S. poulsonii strain of Drosophila neotestacea protects its host against parasitic nematodes. This interaction is an example of defensive symbiosis, where the fitness of the symbiont is intricately tied to the fitness of the host. The D. neotestacea S. poulsonii also defends its fly host from infestation by parasitic wasps. The mechanism through which S. poulsonii attacks nematodes and parasitic wasps relies on the presence of toxins called ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs), similar to Sarcin or Ricin. These toxins depurinate a conserved adenine site in eukaryotic 28S ribosomal RNA called the Sarcin-Ricin loop by cleaving the N-glycosidic bond between the rRNA backbone and the adenine. Spiroplasma associations highlight a growing movement to consider heritable symbionts as important drivers in patterns of evolution. Protection against wasp attack can be thermally sensitive, ablated at lower environmental temperatures. +The S. poulsonii strain of Drosophila melanogaster can also attack parasitoid wasps, but is not regarded as a primarily defensive symbiont. This is because this strain called MSRO kills D. melanogaster eggs fertilized by Y-bearing sperm. This mode of reproductive manipulation benefits the symbiont as the female fly has a greater reproductive output than males. Work by Veneti and colleagues demonstrated that male-killing was ablated by loss of function of any gene in the dosage compensation complex (DCC), leading to the hypothesis that the target of male-killing was the single X chromosome of males, and enabled by the DCC binding to this chromosome. Work in D. nebulosa demonstrated male death was associated with widespread apoptosis in male embryos during mid/late embryogenesis. The genetic basis of this male-killing was discovered in 2018, solving a decades-old mystery of how the bacteria targeted male-specific cells. In an interview with the Global Health Institute, Dr. Toshiyuki Harumoto said this discovery is the first example of a bacterial effector protein that affects host cellular machinery in a sex-specific manner, and the first endosymbiont factor identified to explain the cause of male-killing. Thus it should have a big impact on the fields of symbiosis, sex determination, and evolution. +Beyond Drosophila, Spiroplasma sensu stricto and that of the ixodetis clade are also found in many insects and arthropods, including ticks, spiders, bees, ants, beetles, and butterflies: + +=== Crustacean diseases === +Crustaceans are an economically important group of arthropods. + +An epidemic of tremor disease in the Chinese mitten crab was traced to a new species which has since been named Spiroplasma eriocheiris. +S. eriocheiris also causes disease in Procambarus clarkii crayfish. +S. penaei causes up to 90% mortality in whiteleg shrimps in Colombia. + +== In plants == + +=== Plant diseases === +Spiroplasma citri is the causative agent of Citrus stubborn disease, a plant disease affecting species in the genus Citrus. It infects the phloem of the affected plant, causing fruit deformities. +Spiroplasma kunkelii is also referred to as Corn Stunt Spiroplasma as it is the causative agent of Corn stunt disease, a disease of corn and other grasses that stunts plant growth. Spiroplasma kunkelii represents a major economic risk, as corn production in the United States is an industry worth over $50 billion. +Both Spiroplasma citri and Spiroplasma kunkelii are transmitted by leafhoppers. Both plant pathogens belong to the citri clade. Another member of the clade that infects plants is S. phoeniceum, which causes periwinkle yellowing disease. The rest of the clade infects arthopods. + +=== Plant symbiosis === +Spiroplasma floricola lives on the surface of the flowers of the tulip tree Liriodendron tulipifera. + +== In vertebrates == +One member of this species, Spiroplasma mirum, readily infects newborn rodents but not adult rodents. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42567b8eb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Spiroplasma" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:35.702836+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== In humans === +In 1997, an unnamed species closest to S. taiwanense was found in a newborn with unilateral cataract and anterior uveitis. This is the first known human infection. +In 2014, S. turonicum caused a systemic infection in an immunocompromised individual with hypogammaglobulinemia and rheumatoid arthritis, the latter being treated with biologics. This was the first human systemic infection reported. +In 2022, an unnamed species closest to S. eriocheiris caused a bloodstream and lung infection in a man who underwent surgery for aortic dissection. The genome has been sequenced. GTDB calls this species Spiroplasma sp040940205, a placeholder name based on the GenBank/RefSeq genome assembly identifier. + +=== Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy theory === +There is some disputed evidence for the role of spiroplasmas in the etiology of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), due primarily to the work of Frank Bastian, summarized below. Other researchers have failed to replicate this work, while the prion model for TSEs has gained very wide acceptance. A 2006 study appears to refute the role of spiroplasmas in the best small animal scrapie model (hamsters). Bastian et al. (2007) have responded to this challenge with the isolation of a spiroplasma species from scrapie-infected tissue, grown it in cell-free culture, and demonstrated its infectivity in deer. Another experiment in the same study isolates S. mirum from ticks and demonstrates its infectivity in deer. The study also claims S. mirum was previously demonstrated to cause TSE in rodents. A 2011 study fails to cause TSE in raccoons with S. mirum, but succeeded with sick raccoon brain tissue. +In 2014, yet another argument for this theory was put forward by Bastian, this time pointing to the production of alpha-synuclein in mammalian cells cultured with Spiroplasma and biofilm formation. The same article also repeats the previous claims about other supportive evidence. No specific rebuttal has been found among PubMed articles that cite this paper. Only one of the 8 citations dealt with any form of TSE as the main topic. + +== Genetics and molecular evolution == +Spiroplasma, like other mollicutes, have a distinct genetic code, with two rather than three stop codons. Molecular evolution studies, using Spiroplasma passaged vertically in Drosophila, indicate a very fast rate of molecular evolution. Spiroplasma genomes are commonly extremely AT rich, can contain a variety of prophage (viral) elements, and also plasmids.CRISPR defences are found in some members of the genus. Genome sizes are generally between 0.7 and 2.2 Mb. + +== See also == +Mycoplasma, a similar organism causing disease in animals including humans and linked to autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis. +Phytoplasma, another similar organism causing disease in plants. +Prion +Virino +List of bacterial orders +List of bacteria genera + +== References == + +== External links == +Spiroplasma may cause Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. An interview with a leading expert in infectious diseases: Frank O. Bastsian, MD. +Spiroplasma & Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies, Ed Gehrman +Spiroplasma Genome Projects from Genomes OnLine Database +Jaenike, J.; Unckless, R.; Cockburn, S. N.; Boelio, L. M.; Perlman, S. J. (8 July 2010). "Adaptation via Symbiosis: Recent Spread of a Drosophila Defensive Symbiont". Science. 329 (5988): 212–215. Bibcode:2010Sci...329..212J. doi:10.1126/science.1188235. PMID 20616278. S2CID 206526012. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500–1899)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500–1899)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..622918cfb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500–1899)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of geopolitical changes (1500–1899)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500–1899)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:22.182605+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world between 1500 and 1899. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territorial ownership such as the annexation, occupation, cession, concession, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of major military campaigns, but changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included. + + +== 16th century == + + +== 17th century == + + +=== 1600s === + + +=== 1610s === + + +=== 1620s === + + +=== 1630s === + + +=== 1640s === + + +=== 1650s === + + +=== 1660s === + + +=== 1670s === + + +=== 1680s === + + +=== 1690s === + + +== 18th century == + + +=== 1700s === + + +=== 1710s === + + +=== 1720s === + + +=== 1730s === + + +=== 1740s === + + +=== 1750s === + + +=== 1760s === + + +=== 1770s === + + +=== 1780s === + + +=== 1790s === + + +== 19th century == + + +=== 1800s === + + +=== 1810s === + + +=== 1820s === + + +=== 1830s === + + +=== 1840s === + + +=== 1850s === + + +=== 1860s === + + +=== 1870s === + + +=== 1880s === + + +=== 1890s === + + +== Maps == + + +== See also == +Timeline of national independence +Geopolitics – Study of geography's effects on politics +List of administrative division name changes +List of city name changes +List of national border changes (1914–present) +Lists of political entities by century +Sovereign state – State having the highest authority over a territory +List of former sovereign states +List of sovereign states +List of sovereign states by date of formation +List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent +Political history of the world + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Beck, Roger B. (2008). Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (eds.). World History: Patterns of Interaction. +Chavez, Thomas E. (2003). Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift. University of New Mexico Press. +Kuroda, Nagahisa (1954). "Report on a trip to Marcus Island, with notes on the birds". Pacific Science. 8 (1). +Marley, David F. (1998). Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World, 1492 to the Present. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 0874368375. +Marley, David F. (2005). "Bahamas". Historic Cities of the Americas: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Vol. 1: The Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 3–15. ISBN 1576070271. Retrieved January 9, 2017. +Moore, John Bassett (1906). A Digest of International Law as Embodied in Diplomatic Discussions, Treaties and Other International Agreements, International Awards, the Decisions of Municipal Courts, and the Writings of Jurists and Especially in Documents, Published and Unpublished, Issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State of the United States, the Opinions of the Attorneys-General, and the Decisions of Courts, Federal and State. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on May 1, 2016. +Panton, Kenneth J. (2015). "Chronology". Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. London: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-7524-1. Archived from the original on April 8, 2016. Retrieved July 4, 2015. +Slade, William (1823). Vermont state papers; being a collection of records and documents, connected with the assumption and establishment of government by the people of Vermont; together with the journal of the Council of safety, the first constitution, the early journals of the General assembly, and the laws from the year 1779 to 1786, inclusive. To which are added the Proceedings of the first and second Councils of censors. Middlebury, Vermont: J.W. Copeland, Printer. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900–1999)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900–1999)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a9b1e48c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900–1999)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of geopolitical changes (1900–1999)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900–1999)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:23.823551+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world between 1900 and 1999. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territory such as the annexation, cession, concession, occupation, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of military campaigns, but changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included. Changes in airspace and maritime territory are included only when they are subject to a dispute. Over 50% of the world's borders today were drawn as a result of British and French imperialism. The British and French drew the modern borders of the Middle East, 80% of the borders of Africa, in Asia after the independence of the British Raj and French Indochina and the borders of Europe after World War I as victors, as a result of the Paris treaties. + + +== 1900s == + + +== 1910s == + + +== 1920s == + + +== 1930s == + + +== 1940s == + + +== 1950s == + + +== 1960s == + + +== 1970s == + + +== 1980s == + + +== 1990s == + + +== See also == +Timeline of national independence +Geopolitics – Study of geography's effects on politics +List of administrative division name changes +List of city name changes +List of national border changes (1914–present) +Lists of political entities by century +Sovereign state – State having the highest authority over a territory +List of former sovereign states +List of sovereign states +List of sovereign states by date of formation +List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent +Political history of the world +Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Panton, Kenneth J. (2015). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. London: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-7524-1. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2015. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000–present)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000–present)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c8c5a5a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000–present)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of geopolitical changes (2000–present)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000–present)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:25.146063+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world since 2000. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territory such as the annexation, cession, concession, occupation, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of military campaigns. However, those changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included in this list. Changes in airspace and maritime territory are included only when they are subject to a dispute. + + +== 2000s == + + +== 2010s == + + +== 2020s == + + +== See also == +Timeline of national independence +Geopolitics – Study of geography's effects on politics +List of administrative division name changes +List of city name changes +List of national border changes (1914–present) +Lists of political entities by century +Sovereign state – State having the highest authority over a territory +List of former sovereign states +List of sovereign states +List of modern sovereign states by date of formation +List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent +Political history of the world +Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..841cc7e68 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of geopolitical changes (before 1500)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:08:26.429639+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world prior to 1500. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territorial ownership such as the annexation, occupation, cession, concession, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of major military campaigns, but changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included. + + +== Before the Common Era (BCE) == + + +=== Fourth Millennium BCE === +From the 4th Millennium BCE to the 2nd Millennium BCE, hundreds of proto-cities in the Near East, Egypt, and the Indus Valley transition into city-states. Records of those geopolitical changes are complicated by mythologization, historical revisionism, missing information, lack of corroborating primary sources, and lack of archeological evidence. Consequently, the tables in that range are not comprehensive. + + +=== Third Millennium BCE === + + +=== Second Millennium BCE === + + +=== First Millennium BCE === + + +== Common Era (CE) == + + +=== First Millennium CE === + + +==== 1st century ==== + + +==== 2nd century ==== + + +==== 3rd century ==== + + +==== 4th century ==== + + +==== 5th century ==== + + +==== 6th century ==== + + +==== 7th century ==== + + +==== 8th century ==== + + +==== 9th century ==== + + +==== 10th century ==== + + +=== Second Millennium CE === + + +==== 11th century ==== + + +==== 12th century ==== + + +==== 13th century ==== + + +==== 14th century ==== + + +==== 15th century ==== + + +== Maps == + + +== See also == +Timeline of national independence +Geopolitics – Study of geography's effects on politics +List of administrative division name changes +List of city name changes +List of national border changes (1914–present) +Lists of political entities by century +Sovereign state – State having the highest authority over a territory +List of former sovereign states +List of sovereign states +List of sovereign states by date of formation +List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent +Political history of the world + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Chua, Amy (2018). Political Tribes: Group Instinct and the Fate of Nations. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0399562853. +Ryholt, Kim S.B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. +Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815034-2. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..950cac49b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of volcanism on Earth" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed. +Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption. Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini caldera, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone. +Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too. +In addition to the events listed below, there are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula, which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward. + +== Large Quaternary eruptions == + +The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP (10,000 14C years ago). + +=== 1000–2000 AD === +Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, June 15; VEI 6; 6 to 16 km3 (1.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra; an estimated 20,000,000 tonnes (22,000,000 short tons) of SO2 were emitted +Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, June 6; VEI 6; 13 to 15 km3 (3.1 to 3.6 cu mi) of lava +Santa Maria, Guatemala; 1903, October 24; VEI 6; 20 km3 (4.8 cu mi) of tephra +Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI 6; 21 km3 (5.0 cu mi) of tephra +Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI 7; 160–213 km3 (38–51 cu mi) of tephra; an estimated 200,000,000 t (220,000,000 short tons) of SO2 were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer" +1808 mystery eruption, VEI 6–7; discovered from ice cores in the 1980s. +Grímsvötn, Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; Laki; 1783–1784; VEI 2; 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of lava, an estimated 120,000,000 t (130,000,000 short tons) of SO2 were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere. +Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 ±20; VEI 6; 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of tephra +Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, February 19; VEI 6; 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of tephra +Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 ±20; VEI 6; 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of tephra +Bárðarbunga, Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI 6; 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra +1465 mystery eruption "the location of this eruption is uncertain, as it has only been identified from distant ice core records and atmospheric events around the time of King Alfonso II of Naples's wedding; it is believed to have been VEI 7 and possibly even larger than Mount Tambora's in 1815. +1452/1453 mystery eruption in the New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; the location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain, as it has been identified from distant ice core records; the only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; 36 to 96 km3 (8.6 to 23.0 cu mi) of tephra; 175,000,000–700,000,000 t (193,000,000–772,000,000 short tons) of sulfuric acid +1280(?) in Quilotoa, Ecuador; VEI 6; 21 km3 (5.0 cu mi) of tephra +1257 Samalas eruption, Rinjani volcanic complex, Lombok Island, Indonesia; 40 km3 (dense-rock equivalent) of tephra, Arctic and Antarctic Ice cores provide compelling evidence to link the ice core sulfate spike of 1258/1259 A.D. to this volcano. + +=== Overview of Common Era === + +This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius. Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included. + +Note: +Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Ōkataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, and Tarawera volcanic complex all had the same magma source in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field all had Yellowstone hotspot as magma source. + +=== Earlier Quaternary eruptions === + +2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42ba92a4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of volcanism on Earth" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9 ka; VEI 6; 6 cubic kilometers (1.4 cu mi) of tephra. +Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 17 ka ±5; more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra. +Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17 ka. +Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 29 ka +Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI 6; 30 ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite). +Phlegraean Fields, Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka (Campanian Ignimbrite eruption). +Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5 ka; VEI 7 +Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8 km), West Sumatra; VEI 7; around 52 ka; 220 to 250 cubic kilometers (52.8 to 60.0 cu mi) of tephra. +Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30 km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI 8; 73 ka ±4; 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers (599.8 to 719.7 cu mi) of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff). +Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20 km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84 ka; VEI 7; 300 km3 (72 cu mi) of tephra. +Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90 ka; last eruption was more than 600 cubic kilometers (144 cu mi) of tephra. +Sierra la Primavera volcanic complex (size: 11 km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95 ka; 20 cubic kilometers (5 cu mi) of Tala Tuff. +Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 120 ka; 80 km3 (19 cu mi) of tephra. +Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 140 ka; 80 km3 (19 cu mi) of tephra. +Puy de Sancy, Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years. +Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 233 ka; more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra. +Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; caldera formed as a result of four huge caldera eruptions; 270 ka; 80 cubic kilometers (19 cu mi) of tephra. +Uzon-Geyzernaya calderas (size: 9 x 18 km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 325–175 ka 20 km3 (4.8 cu mi) of ignimbrite deposits. +Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex (size: 20 x 16 km), Argentina-Chile; 450 ka; 450 cubic kilometers (108 cu mi) of tephra. +Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera (size: 45 x 85 km); 640 ka; VEI 8; more than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of tephra (Lava Creek Tuff) +Three Sisters (Oregon), USA; Tumalo volcanic center; with eruptions from 600–700 to 170 ka years ago +Uinkaret volcanic field, Arizona, USA; the Colorado River was dammed by lava flows multiple times from 725 to 100 ka. +Mono County, California, USA; Long Valley Caldera; 758.9 ka ±1.8; VEI 7; 600 cubic kilometers (144 cu mi) of Bishop Tuff. +Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.25 Ma; VEI 7; around 600 cubic kilometers (144 cu mi) of the Tshirege Member (Upper Bandelier Tuff) eruption. +Sutter Buttes, Central Valley of California, USA; were formed over 1.5 Ma by a now-extinct volcano. +Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.61 Ma; VEI 7; over 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of the Otowi Member (Lower Bandelier Tuff) eruption. +Ebisutoge-Fukuda tephras, Japan; 1.75 Ma; 380 to 490 cubic kilometers (91.2 to 117.6 cu mi) of tephra. +Yellowstone hotspot; Island Park Caldera (size: 100 x 50 km); 2.1 Ma; VEI 8; 2,450 cubic kilometers (588 cu mi) of Huckleberry Ridge Tuff. +Cerro Galán (size: 32 km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 2.2 Ma; VEI 8; 1,050 cubic kilometers (252 cu mi) of Cerro Galán Ignimbrite. + +== Large Neogene eruptions == + +=== Pliocene eruptions === + +Approximately 5.332 million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI. + +Boring Lava Field, Boring, Oregon, USA; the zone became active at least 2.7 Ma, and has been extinct for about 300,000 years. +Norfolk Island, Australia; remnant of a basaltic volcano active around 2.3 to 3 Ma. +Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, Bolivia; 2.9 Ma; VEI 7; more than 820 cubic kilometers (197 cu mi) of Pastos Grandes Ignimbrite. +Little Barrier Island, northeastern coast of New Zealand's North Island; it erupted from 1 million to 3 Ma. +Mount Kenya; a stratovolcano created approximately 3 Ma after the opening of the East African rift. +Pacana Caldera (size: 60 x 35 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile; 4 Ma; VEI 8; 2,500 cubic kilometers (600 cu mi) of Atana Ignimbrite. +Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 4 Ma; 620 cubic kilometers (149 cu mi) of Frailes Ignimbrite E. +Cerro Galán (size: 32 km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 4.2 Ma; 510 cubic kilometers (122 cu mi) of Real Grande and Cueva Negra tephra. +Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Kilgore Caldera (size: 80 x 60 km); VEI 8; 1,800 cubic kilometers (432 cu mi) of Kilgore Tuff; 4.45 Ma ±0.05. +Khari Khari Caldera, Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 5 Ma; 470 cubic kilometers (113 cu mi) of tephra. + +=== Miocene eruptions === + +Approximately 23.03 million years BP, the Neogene period and Miocene epoch begin. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4a4850f79 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of volcanism on Earth" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6–5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite). +Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma. +Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff). +Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff. +Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Panizos Ignimbrite. +Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff). +Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; 1,500 cubic kilometers (360 cu mi) of Blacktail Tuff. +Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Sifon Ignimbrite. +Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10 Ma +Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9 Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12 Ma. +Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8–10 Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot. +Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10 Ma. +Yellowstone hotspot, Grey's Landing Supereruption, Idaho; 8.72 Ma, 2,800 cubic kilometers (672 cu mi) of Grey's Landing Ignimbrite. +Yellowstone hotspot, McMullen Supereruption, Idaho; 8.99 Ma, 1,700 cubic kilometers (408 cu mi) of volcanic material +Yellowstone hotspot, Picabo volcanic field, Idaho; 10.21 Ma ± 0.03 (Arbon Valley Tuff). +Mount Cargill, New Zealand; the last eruptive phase ended some 10 Ma. The center of the caldera is about Port Chalmers, the main port of the city of Dunedin. Much of the caldera is filled by Otago Harbour. +Yellowstone hotspot, Idaho; Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field; 10.0 to 12.5 Ma (Ashfall Fossil Beds eruption). +Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the Anahim Volcanic Belt over the last 13 million years. +Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9 Ma. +Tejeda Caldera, Gran Canaria, Spain; 13.9 Ma; the 80 km3 eruption produced a composite ignimbrite (P1) of rhyolite, trachyte and basaltic materials, with a thickness of 30 metres at 10 km from the caldera center +Gran Canaria shield basalt eruption, Spain; 14.5 to 14 Ma; 1,000 km3 of tholeiitic to alkali basalts +Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 14.9 Ma; 79 cubic kilometers (19 cu mi) of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff. +Huaylillas Ignimbrite, Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile; 15 Ma ±1; 1,100 cubic kilometers (264 cu mi) of tephra. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Whitehorse Caldera (size: 15 km wide), Oregon; 15 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Whitehorse Creek Tuff. +Yellowstone hotspot (?), Lake Owyhee volcanic field; 15.0 to 15.5 Ma. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Jordan Meadow Caldera, (size: 10–15 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 350 cubic kilometers (84 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 2–3. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Longridge Caldera, (size: 33 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 400 cubic kilometers (96 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 5. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7 Ma; 300 cubic kilometers (72 cu mi) of Double H Tuff. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16 Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10 km), Oregon; 15.8 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff. +Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548 Ma; 250 cubic kilometers (60 cu mi) of Oregon Canyon Tuff. +Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5 Ma. +Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and Columbia River flood basalts, Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 14 to 17 Ma; 180,000 cubic kilometers (43,184 cu mi) of lava. +Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17 Ma after 4 million years of activity. +Oxaya Ignimbrites, northern Chile (around 18°S); 19 Ma; 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of tephra. +Pemberton Volcanic Belt was erupting about 21 to 22 Ma. + +== Volcanism before the Neogene == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..432e45864 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of volcanism on Earth" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Paleogene ends 23 million years ago. +The formation of the Chilcotin Group basalts occurs between 10–6 million years ago. +The formation of the Columbia River Basalt Group occurs between 17 and 6 million years ago. +La Garita Caldera erupts in the Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA, eruption several VEI 8 events (Possibly as high as a VEI 9), 5,000 cubic kilometers (1,200 cu mi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single, major eruption about 27.8 million years ago. +Unknown source in Ethiopia erupts 29 million years ago with at least 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of Green Tuff and SAM. +Sam Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.5 million years ago, at least 5,550 cubic kilometers (1,332 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites. +Jabal Kura’a Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.6million years ago, at least 3,700 cubic kilometers (888 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites. +The Ethiopian Highlands flood basalt begins 30 million years ago +About 33.9 million ago, the Oligocene epoch of the Paleogene period begins +The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up begins 40 million years ago and lasts until 25 million years ago. +Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex erupts 50 million years ago with a VEI 7 850 cubic kilometers (204 cu mi) of tephra. +Canary hotspot is believed to have first appeared about 60 million years ago. +Formation of the Brito-Arctic province begins 61 million years ago +Réunion hotspot, Deccan Traps, India, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago which are thought to have played a role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. +The Louisville hotspot has produced the Louisville Ridge, it is active for at least 80 million years. It may have originated the Ontong Java Plateau around 120 million years ago. +Hawaii hotspot, Meiji Seamount is the oldest extant seamount in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, with an estimated age of 82 million years. +The Kerguelen Plateau begins forming 110 million years ago. +The Rahjamal Traps form from 117 to 116 million years ago. +The Ontong Java Plateau forms from 125 to 120 million years ago +Paraná and Etendeka traps, Brazil, Namibia and Angola form from 128 to 138 million years ago. 132 million years ago, a possible supervolcanic eruption occurred, ejecting 8,600 cubic kilometers (2,063 cu mi). +Formation of the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalts begins 183 million years ago. +The flood basalts of the Central Atlantic magmatic province are thought to have contributed to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event about 199 million years ago. +The Siberian Traps are thought to have played a significant role in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 million years ago. +Formation of the Emeishan Traps began 260 million years ago. +The Late Devonian extinction occurs about 374 million years ago. +The Ordovician–Silurian extinction event occurs between 450 and 440 million years ago. +Glen Coe, Scotland; VEI 8; 420 million years ago +Scafells, Lake District, England; VEI 8; Ordovician (488.3–443.7 million years ago). +Flat Landing Brook; VEI 8, A Supervolcanic eruption occurred 466 million years ago, as it erupted in one of the largest explosive volcanic eruptions known in Earth's history with a volume of ejecta at around 2,000–12,000 cubic kilometers (480–2,879 cu mi). +The Phanerozoic eon begins 539 million years ago. +Midcontinent Rift System of North America begins forming 1,000 million years ago. +Mackenzie Large Igneous Province forms 1,270 million years ago. +Mistassini dike swarm and Matachewan dike swarm form 2,500 million years ago. +Blake River Megacaldera Complex forms 2,704–2,707 million years ago. +Approximately 2,500 million years ago, the Proterozoic eon of the Precambrian period begins +About 3,800 million years ago, the Archean eon of the Precambrian period begins \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0eef918d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of volcanism on Earth" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Notes == +The Mackenzie Large Igneous Province contains the largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth. The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest dike swarm on Earth, covering an area of 2,700,000 km2 (1,000,000 mi2). +The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27–26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, Wheeler Geologic Area, La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just west of Lake City, Colorado. +The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the Valles Caldera, the Potrillo volcanic field, and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system. The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2 mm/year. +The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or Yucca Mountain volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain – Oasis Valley caldera complex, Crater Flat Group, and Yucca Mountain. Towns nearby: Beatty, Mercury, Goldfield. It is aligned as a Crater Flat volcanic field, Réveille Range, Lunar Crater volcanic field, Zone (CFLC). The Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah is nearby too. +McDermitt volcanic field, or Orevada rift volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon, nearby are: McDermitt, Trout Creek Mountains, Bilk Creek Mountains, Steens Mountain, Jordan Meadow Mountain (6,816 ft), Long Ridge, Trout Creek, and Whitehorse Creek. +Emmons Lake stratovolcano (caldera size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, was formed through six eruptions. Mount Emmons, Mount Hague, and Double Crater are post-caldera cones. +The topography of the Basin and Range Province is a result of crustal extension within this part of the North American Plate (rifting of the North American craton or Laurentia from Western North America; e.g. Gulf of California, Rio Grande rift, Oregon-Idaho graben). The crust here has been stretched up to 100% of its original width. In fact, the crust underneath the Basin and Range, especially under the Great Basin (includes Nevada), is some of the thinnest in the world. +Topographically visible calderas: South part of the McDermitt volcanic field (four overlapping and nested calderas), West of McDermitt; Cochetopa Park Caldera, West of the North Pass; Henry's Fork Caldera; Banks Peninsula, New Zealand (Photo) and Valles Caldera. Newer drawings show McDermitt volcanic field (South), as five overlapping and nested calderas. Hoppin Peaks Caldera is included too. +Repose periods: Toba (0.38 Ma), Valles Caldera (0.35 Ma), Yellowstone Caldera (0.7 Ma). +Kiloannum (ka), is a unit of time equal to one thousand years. Megaannum (Ma), is a unit of time equal to one million years, one can assume that "ago" is implied. + +=== Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) === + +=== Volcanic dimming === + +The global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and sulfur dioxide) is quite independent of the eruption VEI. When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at standard state: -10 °C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to sulfuric acid), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs ultraviolet. Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the global dimming and the influence of the high albedo of the deposited ash layer. The lower snow line and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period. Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), Cosigüina (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and El Chichón (1982), and the 1808 mystery eruption. And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii (19°32'N) detected only five eruptions: + +June 11, 2009, Sarychev Peak (?), Kuril Islands, 400 tons of tephra, VEI 4 +48°05′30″N 153°12′0″E +June 12–15, 1991 (eruptive climax), Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 11,000 ±0.5 tons of tephra, VEI 6 +Global cooling: 0.5 °C, 15°08′0″N 120°21′0″E +March 28, 1982, El Chichón, Mexico, 2,300 tons of tephra, VEI 5 +17°21′36″N 93°13′40″W +October 10, 1974, Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala, 400 tons of tephra, VEI 4 +14°28′22″N 90°52′49″W +February 18, 1963, Mount Agung, Lesser Sunda Islands, 100 tons of lava, more than 1,000 tons of tephra, VEI 5 +Northern Hemisphere cooling: 0.3 °C,8°20′30″S 115°30′30″E + +But very large sulfur dioxide emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide's and methane's concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's carbon dioxide solubility goes down. + +=== Map gallery === + +== See also == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7b7b639b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Timeline of volcanism on Earth" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Further reading == +Ammann, Caspar M.; Philippe Naveau (6 March 2003). "Statistical analysis of tropical explosive volcanism occurrences over the last 6 centuries" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (5): 1210. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1210A. doi:10.1029/2002GL016388. S2CID 135288077. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2010. +Froggatt, P.C.; Lowe, D.J. (1990). "A review of late Quaternary silicic and some other tephra formations from New Zealand: their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and age". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 33 (1): 89–109. Bibcode:1990NZJGG..33...89F. doi:10.1080/00288306.1990.10427576. hdl:10289/176. +Lipman, P.W. (September 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research. 89 (B10): 8801–8841. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8801L. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801. +Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497. +Newhall, Christopher G.; Dzurisin, Daniel (1988). "Historical unrest at large calderas of the world". USGS Bulletin 1855. p. 1108. Archived from the original on 2009-05-12. +Siebert L.; Simkin T. (2002). "Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions". Digital Information Series (GVP-3). Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program. Archived from the original on 2012-10-24.). +Simkin T. & Siebert L. (1994). Volcanoes of the World. Geoscience Press, Tucson, 2nd edition. p. 349. ISBN 978-0-945005-12-4. +Simkin T. & Siebert L. (2000). "Earth's volcanoes and eruptions: an overview". In Sigurdsson, H. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 249–261. +Simkin, T.; Siebert L.; McClelland L.; Bridge D.; Newhall C.; Latter J.H. (1981). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years. Hutchinson-Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. pp. 232. ISBN 978-0-87933-408-6. +Stern, Charles R. (December 2004). "Active Andean volcanism: its geologic and tectonic setting". Revista Geológica de Chile. 31 (2): 161–206. doi:10.4067/S0716-02082004000200001. +United States Geological Survey; Cascades Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, Washington; Index to CVO online volcanoes +Map: Tom Simkin, Robert I. Tilling, Peter R. Vogt, Stephen H. Kirby, Paul Kimberly, and David B. Stewart, Third Edition (Published 2006) interactive world map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics +Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (PDF). Thin Solid Films. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-19. +Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16. +Supplementary Table II: "Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009)" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16. + +== External links == +Volcano World Information +Volcano Live, John Seach +Holocene Volcanoes in Kamchatka +Reference Database of the International Association of Volcanology (XLS file) +Reference Database of Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (XLS file) +Volcanic sulfate record in the GISP2 core (ftp protocol) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md index f3f7ac169..b611e7c0d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:22.626670+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:14.194723+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md index 79752be50..fc5d73df2 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:22.626670+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:09:14.194723+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" ---