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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-0.md

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+---
+title: "Achaemenid royal inscriptions"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:54.546237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Achaemenid royal inscriptions are the surviving inscriptions in cuneiform script from the Achaemenid Empire, dating from the 6th to 4th century BCE (reigns of Cyrus II to Artaxerxes III). These inscriptions are primary sources for the history of the empire, along with archaeological evidence and the administrative archives of Persepolis. However, scholars are reliant on Greek sources (such as Herodotus) to reconstruct much of Achaemenid history.
+The Achaemenid royal inscriptions differ from earlier Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions in their multilingualism, rhetorical style and their structure. The inscriptions are mostly trilingual – in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, which use two separate scripts (Babylonian and Elamite use variants of the same cuneiform). When they appear together, the privileged position is usually occupied by the Old Persian inscription: at the top when arranged vertically, and in the middle when arranged horizontally.
+The initial decipherment of cuneiform was based on the Achaemenid royal inscriptions from Persepolis, later supplemented with the Behistun Inscription. Scholars deciphered the Old Persian cuneiform script first, followed by the Babylonian and Elamite language versions using the trilingual inscriptions.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+The trilingual inscriptions illustrate the multi-ethnic complexity of the Achaemenid Empire: Old Persian is an Indo-European language, Babylonian is a Semitic language, and Elamite is a language isolate. The three versions of the trilingual inscriptions are not exact translations of each other. Sometimes passages are added in one language version that do not appear in the other two. There are also differences in details when the text refers to specific people: the Old Persian version often emphasizes the rulers, the Elamite version the locations, and the Babylonian version the subject peoples, reflecting the different social classes that spoke each language.
+A few Achaemenid inscriptions are instead written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example in stelae found near the Suez Canal. Other hieroglyphic text has been found on crockery and pottery vessels that were made in Egypt but excavated at Persepolis, Susa, and possibly Babylonia. A statue of Darius I was also made in Egypt but brought to Susa.
+Imperial Aramaic is conspicuous by its absence from the inscriptions, despite it being the official language of the empire in later periods. There are a few isolated Aramaic characters on Achaemenid objects such as seals, weights and coins. The only royal inscription in Aramaic was found at Elephantine in Upper Egypt and is a copy of the Behistun inscription.
+In 1958 Richard Hallock compiled statistics on the length and numbers of the Elamite language versions of the royal inscriptions. The Behistun inscription is the longest inscription, whilst the other inscriptions are shorter and more repetitive. 44 Elamite texts are from the reign of Darius I, followed by 13 from that of Xerxes I, while the reigns of Artaxerxes I and Artaxerxes II have 7 texts each. Only two Elamite texts are from the reign of Cyrus II: the inscriptions CMa and CMc.
+Most of the inscriptions have been found in the Achaemenid heartlands (in Pasargadae, Persepolis, Naqsh-e Rostam) with smaller numbers in the wider empire (at Susa, Bisutun, Ganjnameh, Babylon). The only inscriptions outside of Iran are the Xerxes I inscription at Van, in eastern Anatolia, and some from the period of Cyrus II.
+The majority of the texts are found on royal monuments and statues, and many motifs are repeated. The inscriptions of Darius I were replicated by his successors, often with only small differences. Scholars have suggested that this was intended to emphasize the empire's continuity.
+
+== Decipherment ==
+
+The decipherment of the Old Persian cuneiform script of the Achaemenids played a crucial role in the decipherment of the Babylonian and Elamite language versions and other cuneiform scripts in the Near East. This decipherment was initially via names, or royal names, and the Avesta, which contains the Old Persian language in a developed form. The decipherment of the Achaemenid inscriptions can be divided into three phases.
+In a first step, the writing direction was found out and that the Achaemenid inscriptions are three different scripts with a common text. In 1620, García de Silva Figueroa dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621, Pietro della Valle specified the direction of writing from left to right. In 1762, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon. Carsten Niebuhr made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures. Oluf Gerhard Tychsen was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798.
+The second phase, in which a first decipherment took place and correct values for a significant number of characters could be found, was initiated by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. He was the initial decipherer of Old Persian cuneiform. He was followed by Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin in 1822 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n. Eugène Burnouf identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833–1835. Christian Lassen contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from Ganjnāme for their work.
+In a final step, the decipherment of the Behistun inscription was completed by Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary.
+
+== List of inscriptions ==
+
+=== Designations ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-1.md

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+---
+title: "Achaemenid royal inscriptions"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:54.546237+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The designations or abbreviations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are based on the system introduced by Roland Grubb Kent in 1953. Manfred Mayrhofer (1978), Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1985) and Rüdiger Schmitt (2000) have expanded and modified it. Rüdiger Schmitt's 2009 Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden is considered the modern reference work.
+The first letter of an inscription's designation does not designate the ruler or author, but the king whom the text expressly names, often right at the beginning in the nominative. The second capital letter designates the place of discovery and the third letter is an index used by scholars to distinguish multiple inscriptions from the same place.
+
+=== Summary ===
+The Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project, part of the Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus, currently contains 175 composite texts with 11,712 words.
+A 2021 list of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions counted 179 texts, from Darius I to Artaxerxes III. This categorization places the "non-authentic" inscriptions (i.e. inscriptions are "genuine" and date from the Achaemenid period, but do not come from the king who is listed at the beginning of the inscriptions) under the king during whose reign they were produced. The best-known "non-authentic" inscriptions are AmHa and AsHa from Hamadan.
+
+=== List ===
+
+== Forgeries ==
+
+Forgeries from the Near East have been known since the 19th century. But it is only since the 1930s that products from Iran have flooded the art market, after illegal excavations in western Iran increased enormously. The actual "counterfeiting boom" took place after World War II until the Islamic Revolution. Fake art items were inscribed to increase the value of the item cause or to convey a supposed authenticity. The inscriptions were often copied from books in order to use them in abridged or modified form. They can be found on metal tablets, clay and stone tablets, figurative and similar objects, weapons, gems and seals. In total, Rüdiger Schmitt recorded 27 forged inscriptions.
+In 1953, Roland Grubb Kent listed the known forged inscriptions ("spurious inscriptions"), gave them the name Spurium (abbreviation Spur.) and provided them with an index (spur. a–h). Manfred Mayrhofer added to the list in 1978 (i-k). Rüdiger Schmitt gave them new names in 2007: F for forged and N for replica.
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Footnotes ===
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+
+== External links ==
+Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions at Livius.org

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-0.md

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+---
+title: "Archaeology by country"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:11.135675+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of articles covering the archaeology of present-day nations, states, and dependencies. Countries are listed in bold under their respective pages, whereas territories and dependencies are not. Disputed and unrecognized countries are italicized. 
+
+== A ==
+ Archaeology of Afghanistan – Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
+ Archaeology of Albania – Republic of Albania
+ Archaeology of Algeria – People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
+ Archaeology of Andorra – Principality of Andorra
+ Archaeology of Angola – Republic of Angola
+ Archaeology of Antigua and Barbuda – Antigua and Barbuda
+ Archaeology of Argentina – Argentine Republic
+ Archaeology of Armenia – Republic of Armenia
+ Archaeology of Aruba – Aruba (Dutch crown dependency)
+ Archaeology of Australia – Australia
+ Archaeology of Austria – Republic of Austria
+ Archaeology of Azerbaijan – Republic of Azerbaijan
+
+== B ==
+ Archaeology of the Bahamas – Commonwealth of The Bahamas
+ Archaeology of Bahrain – Kingdom of Bahrain
+ Archaeology of Bangladesh – People's Republic of Bangladesh
+ Archaeology of Barbados – Barbados
+ Archaeology of Belarus – Republic of Belarus
+ Archaeology of Belgium – Kingdom of Belgium
+ Archaeology of Belize – Belize
+ Archaeology of Benin – Republic of Benin
+ Archaeology of Bhutan – Kingdom of Bhutan
+ Archaeology of Bolivia – Plurinational State of Bolivia
+ Archaeology of Bosnia and Herzegovina – Bosnia and Herzegovina
+ Archaeology of Botswana – Republic of Botswana
+ Archaeology of Brazil – Federative Republic of Brazil
+ Archaeology of Brunei – State of Brunei Darussalam
+ Archaeology of Bulgaria – Republic of Bulgaria
+ Archaeology of Burkina Faso – Burkina Faso
+ Archaeology of Burundi – Republic of Burundi
+
+== C ==
+ Archaeology of Cambodia – Kingdom of Cambodia
+ Archaeology of Cameroon – Republic of Cameroon
+ Archaeology of Canada – Canada
+ Archaeology of Cape Verde – Republic of Cape Verde
+ Archaeology of the Cayman Islands – Cayman Islands (UK overseas territory)
+ Archaeology of the Central African Republic – Central African Republic
+ Archaeology of Chad – Republic of Chad
+ Archaeology of Chile – Republic of Chile
+ Archaeology of China – People's Republic of China
+ Archaeology of Colombia – Republic of Colombia
+ Archaeology of Comoros – Union of the Comoros
+ Archaeology of the Democratic Republic of the Congo – Democratic Republic of the Congo
+ Archaeology of the Republic of the Congo – Republic of the Congo
+ Archaeology of Costa Rica – Republic of Costa Rica
+ Archaeology of Côte d'Ivoire – Republic of Côte d'Ivoire
+ Archaeology of Croatia – Republic of Croatia
+ Archaeology of Cuba – Republic of Cuba
+ Archaeology of Cyprus – Republic of Cyprus
+ Archaeology of the Czech Republic – Czech Republic
+
+== D ==
+ Archaeology of Denmark – Kingdom of Denmark
+ Archaeology of Djibouti – Republic of Djibouti
+ Archaeology of Dominica – Commonwealth of Dominica
+ Archaeology of the Dominican Republic – Dominican Republic
+
+== E ==
+ Archaeology of East Timor (Timor-Leste) – Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
+ Archaeology of Ecuador – Republic of Ecuador
+ Archaeology of Egypt – Arab Republic of Egypt
+ Archaeology of El Salvador – Republic of El Salvador
+ Archaeology of Equatorial Guinea – Republic of Equatorial Guinea
+ Archaeology of Eritrea – State of Eritrea
+ Archaeology of Estonia – Republic of Estonia
+ Archaeology of Eswatini (Swaziland) – Kingdom of Eswatini
+ Archaeology of Ethiopia – Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
+
+== F ==
+ Archaeology of the Falkland Islands – Falkland Islands (British overseas territories)
+ Archaeology of the Faroe Islands – Faroe Islands (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of Denmark)
+ Archaeology of Fiji – Republic of the Fiji Islands
+ Archaeology of Finland – Republic of Finland
+ Archaeology of France – French Republic
+ Archaeology of French Guiana – French Guiana (French overseas community)
+ Archaeology of French Polynesia – French Polynesia (French overseas community)
+
+== G ==
+ Archaeology of Gabon – Gabonese Republic
+ Archaeology of the Gambia – Republic of The Gambia
+See Archaeology of Palestine for Gaza Strip
+ Archaeology of Georgia – Georgia
+ Archaeology of Germany – Federal Republic of Germany
+ Archaeology of Ghana – Republic of Ghana
+ Archaeology of Gibraltar – Gibraltar (UK overseas territory)
+ Archaeology of Greece – Hellenic Republic
+ Archaeology of Greenland – Greenland (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of Denmark)
+ Archaeology of Grenada – Grenada
+ Archaeology of Guadeloupe – Guadeloupe (French overseas community)
+ Archaeology of Guam – Territory of Guam (US overseas territory)
+ Archaeology of Guatemala – Republic of Guatemala
+ Archaeology of Guinea – Republic of Guinea
+ Archaeology of Guinea-Bissau – Republic of Guinea-Bissau
+ Archaeology of Guyana – Co-operative Republic of Guyana
+
+== H ==
+ Archaeology of Haiti – Republic of Haiti
+ Archaeology of Honduras – Republic of Honduras
+ Archaeology of Hong Kong – Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (Area of special sovereignty)
+ Archaeology of Hungary – Republic of Hungary
+
+== I ==
+ Archaeology of Iceland – Republic of Iceland
+ Archaeology of India – Republic of India
+ Archaeology of Indonesia – Republic of Indonesia
+ Archaeology of Iran – Islamic Republic of Iran
+ Archaeology of Iraq – Republic of Iraq
+ Archaeology of Ireland – Ireland
+See Archaeology of the Falkland Islands for Islas Malvinas
+ Archaeology of the Isle of Man – Isle of Man (British Crown dependency)
+ Archaeology of Israel – State of Israel
+ Archaeology of Italy – Italian Republic
+
+== J ==
+
+ Archaeology of Jamaica – Jamaica
+ Archaeology of Japan – Japan
+ Archaeology of Jersey – Jersey (British crown dependency)
+ Archaeology of Jordan – Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
+
+== K ==
+ Archaeology of Kazakhstan – Republic of Kazakhstan
+ Archaeology of Kenya – Republic of Kenya
+ Archaeology of Kiribati – Republic of Kiribati
+ Archaeology of North Korea – Democratic People's Republic of Korea
+ Archaeology of South Korea (Republic of) – Republic of Korea
+ Archaeology of Kosovo – Kosovo Republic
+ Archaeology of Kuwait – State of Kuwait
+ Archaeology of Kyrgyzstan – Kyrgyz Republic

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+---
+title: "Archaeology by country"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:11.135675+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== L ==
+ Archaeology of Laos – Lao People's Democratic Republic
+ Archaeology of Latvia – Republic of Latvia
+ Archaeology of Lebanon – Republic of Lebanon
+ Archaeology of Lesotho – Kingdom of Lesotho
+ Archaeology of Liberia – Republic of Liberia
+ Archaeology of Libya – Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
+ Archaeology of Liechtenstein – Principality of Liechtenstein
+ Archaeology of Lithuania – Republic of Lithuania
+ Archaeology of Luxembourg – Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
+
+== M ==
+ Archaeology of Madagascar – Republic of Madagascar
+ Archaeology of Malawi – Republic of Malawi
+ Archaeology of Malaysia – Malaysia
+ Archaeology of the Maldives – Republic of Maldives
+ Archaeology of Mali – Republic of Mali
+ Archaeology of Malta – Republic of Malta
+ Archaeology of the Marshall Islands – Republic of the Marshall Islands
+ Archaeology of Mauritania – Islamic Republic of Mauritania
+ Archaeology of Mauritius – Republic of Mauritius
+ Archaeology of Mayotte – Mayotte (French overseas community)
+ Archaeology of Mexico – United Mexican States
+ Archaeology of the Federated States of Micronesia – Federated States of Micronesia
+ Archaeology of Moldova – Republic of Moldova
+ Archaeology of Monaco – Principality of Monaco
+ Archaeology of Mongolia – Mongolia
+ Archaeology of Montenegro – Republic of Montenegro
+ Archaeology of Montserrat – Montserrat (UK overseas territory)
+ Archaeology of Morocco – Kingdom of Morocco
+ Archaeology of Mozambique – Republic of Mozambique
+ Archaeology of Myanmar – Republic of the Union of Myanmar
+
+== N ==
+ Archaeology of Namibia – Republic of Namibia
+ Archaeology of Nauru – Republic of Nauru
+ Archaeology of Nepal – Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
+ Archaeology of the Netherlands – Kingdom of the Netherlands
+ Archaeology of the Netherlands Antilles – Netherlands Antilles (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
+ Archaeology of New Caledonia – Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies (French community sui generis)
+ Archaeology of New Zealand – New Zealand
+ Archaeology of Nicaragua – Republic of Nicaragua
+ Archaeology of Niger – Republic of Niger
+ Archaeology of Nigeria – Federal Republic of Nigeria
+ Archaeology of Niue – Niue (Associated state of New Zealand)
+ Archaeology of Northern Cyprus – Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
+ Archaeology of the Northern Mariana Islands – Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US overseas commonwealth)
+ Archaeology of North Macedonia – North Macedonia
+ Archaeology of Norway – Kingdom of Norway
+
+== O ==
+ Archaeology of Oman – Sultanate of Oman
+
+== P ==
+ Archaeology of Pakistan – Islamic Republic of Pakistan
+ Archaeology of Palau – Republic of Palau
+ Archaeology of Palestine – State of Palestine
+ Archaeology of Panama – Republic of Panama
+ Archaeology of Papua New Guinea – Independent State of Papua New Guinea
+ Archaeology of Paraguay – Republic of Paraguay
+ Archaeology of Peru – Republic of Peru
+ Archaeology of the Philippines – Republic of the Philippines
+ Archaeology of the Pitcairn Islands – Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno Islands (UK overseas territory)
+ Archaeology of Poland – Republic of Poland
+ Archaeology of Portugal – Portuguese Republic
+ Archaeology of Puerto Rico – Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (US overseas commonwealth)
+
+== Q ==
+ Archaeology of Qatar – State of Qatar
+
+== R ==
+ Archaeology of Romania – Romania
+ Archaeology of Russia – Russian Federation
+ Archaeology of Rwanda – Republic of Rwanda
+
+== S ==
+ Archaeology of Saint Kitts and Nevis – Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis
+ Archaeology of Saint Lucia – Saint Lucia
+ Archaeology of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon – Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French overseas community)
+ Archaeology of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
+ Archaeology of Samoa – Independent State of Samoa
+ Archaeology of San Marino – Most Serene Republic of San Marino
+ Archaeology of São Tomé and Príncipe – Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe
+ Archaeology of Saudi Arabia – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
+ Archaeology of Senegal – Republic of Senegal
+ Archaeology of Serbia – Republic of Serbia
+ Archaeology of Seychelles – Republic of Seychelles
+ Archaeology of Sierra Leone – Republic of Sierra Leone
+ Archaeology of Singapore – Republic of Singapore
+ Archaeology of Slovakia – Slovak Republic
+ Archaeology of Slovenia – Republic of Slovenia
+ Archaeology of Solomon Islands – Solomon Islands
+ Archaeology of Somalia – Federal Republic of Somalia
+ Archaeology of Somaliland – Republic of Somaliland
+ Archaeology of South Africa – Republic of South Africa
+ Archaeology of South Ossetia – Republic of South Ossetia
+ Archaeology of South Sudan – Republic of South Sudan
+ Archaeology of Spain – Kingdom of Spain
+ Archaeology of Sri Lanka – Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
+ Archaeology of Sudan – Republic of the Sudan
+ Archaeology of Suriname – Republic of Suriname
+ Archaeology of Svalbard – Svalbard (Territory of Norway)
+ Archaeology of Sweden – Kingdom of Sweden
+ Archaeology of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation
+ Archaeology of Syria – Syrian Arab Republic
+
+== T ==
+ Archaeology of Taiwan – Republic of China
+ Archaeology of Tajikistan – Republic of Tajikistan
+ Archaeology of Tanzania – United Republic of Tanzania
+ Archaeology of Thailand – Kingdom of Thailand
+ Archaeology of Togo – Togolese Republic
+ Archaeology of Tokelau – Tokelau (Territory of New Zealand)
+ Archaeology of Tonga – Kingdom of Tonga
+ Archaeology of Transnistria – Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic
+ Archaeology of Trinidad and Tobago – Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
+ Archaeology of Tunisia – Tunisian Republic
+ Archaeology of Turkey – Republic of Turkey
+ Archaeology of Turkmenistan – Turkmenistan
+ Archaeology of the Turks and Caicos Islands – Turks and Caicos Islands (UK overseas territory)
+ Archaeology of Tuvalu – Tuvalu
+
+== U ==
+ Archaeology of Uganda – Republic of Uganda
+ Archaeology of Ukraine – Ukraine
+ Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates – United Arab Emirates
+ Archaeology of the United Kingdom – United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
+ Archaeology of the United States – United States of America
+ Archaeology of Uruguay – Oriental Republic of Uruguay
+ Archaeology of Uzbekistan – Republic of Uzbekistan
+
+== V ==
+ Archaeology of Vanuatu – Republic of Vanuatu
+ Archaeology of Venezuela – Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
+ Archaeology of Vietnam – Socialist Republic of Vietnam
+ Archaeology of the Virgin Islands – United States Virgin Islands (US overseas territory)
+
+== W ==
+See Archaeology of Palestine for West Bank
+ Archaeology of Western Sahara – Western Sahara
+
+== Y ==
+ Archaeology of Yemen – Republic of Yemen
+
+== Z ==
+ Archaeology of Zambia – Republic of Zambia
+ Archaeology of Zimbabwe – Republic of Zimbabwe
+
+== See also ==
+List of archaeological sites by country
+History by country
+All pages with titles beginning with Archaeology of

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran-0.md

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+---
+title: "Archaeology of Iran"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:57.209815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Archaeology of Iran encompasses the following subjects:
+
+
+== Archaeological discoveries in Iran ==
+Archaeological sites in Iran:
+
+Achaemenid inscription in the Kharg Island
+Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton
+Acropole Tomb
+Apadana hoard
+Bardak Siah Palace
+Bushel with ibex motifs
+Code of Hammurabi
+Egyptian statue of Darius I
+Golden bowl of Hasanlu
+Great Wall of Gorgan
+Hasanlu Lovers
+Islamic ceramics from the Susa site
+Luristan bronze
+Musicians plate
+Narundi
+Nazimaruttaš kudurru stone
+Parchments of Avroman
+Parthian bas-relief at Mydan Mishan
+Persepolis Administrative Archives
+Rock art in Iran
+Shami statue
+Statue of Hercules in Behistun
+Victory Stele of Naram-Sin
+Ziwiye hoard
+
+
+== Archaeologists ==
+Geneviève Dollfus
+Roman Ghirshman
+Frank Hole
+Wolfram Kleiss
+Roland de Mecquenem
+Jean Perrot
+Henry T. Wright
+
+
+== Iranian archaeologists ==
+Kamyar Abdi (born 1969) Iranian; Iran, Neolithic to the Bronze Age
+Abbas Alizadeh (born 1951) Iranian; Iran
+Massoud Azarnoush (1946–2008) Iranian; Sassanid archaeology
+Hamed Vahdati Nasab (born 1974) Iranian; Iran, Human Evolution, Neanderthals, Paleolithic
+Fereidoun Biglari (born 1970) Iranian Kurdish; Paleolithic
+Touraj Daryaee (born 1967) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran)
+Seifollah Kambakhshfard  (1929–2010) Iranian; Iron Age Temple of Anahita
+Yousef Majidzadeh (born 1938) Iranian; Jiroft culture (Iran)
+Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi (1940–2020) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran)
+Marjan Mashkour (born 19??) Iranian; zooarchaeology of Europe and the Middle East
+Ezzat Negahban (1926–2009) Iranian; Iran
+Shahrokh Razmjou (1966) Iranian; Achaemenid Archaeology
+Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis (1951) Iranian; the British Museum's Curator of Middle Eastern coins
+Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1942–2006) Iranian; Iran
+Parviz Varjavand (1934–2007) Iranian; ancient Iran (Persia)
+
+
+== Archaeological institutions in Iran ==
+Society for the National Heritage of Iran
+Museum of Ancient Iran
+National Museum of Iran
+Zagros Paleolithic Museum
+Iron Age museum
+
+
+== Archaeological cultures in Iran ==
+Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity
+Palaeolithic Era in Iran
+Bus Mordeh phase
+Kura–Araxes culture
+Baradostian culture
+Talish–Mughan culture
+Trialetian Mesolithic
+Zarzian culture
+Gutian people
+Jiroft culture
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania-0.md

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+---
+title: "Archaeology of Romania"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:59.867956+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The archaeology of Romania began in the 19th century with the establishment of the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest in 1834 (since 1866 as part of the Romanian Academy). The institute has been publishing the journal Dacia since 1924. The National Museum of Antiquities, established in the 19th century, was merged into the Institute in 1956.
+The journal Arheologia Moldovei ("Archaeology of Moldavia") was founded in 1961 in Iași, and has been published there ever since. The Iași Institute of Archaeology, founded in 1990 as part of the Romanian Academy, has taken over its publication. That same year, the Institute of Archaeology and Art History, Cluj-Napoca was founded as well.
+Archaeological looting in Romania has been a recurring issue in the early 21st century.
+
+
+== Archaeologists ==
+
+Alexandru Odobescu (1834—1895)
+Grigore Tocilescu (1850–1909)
+Vasile Pârvan (1882–1927)
+Constantin Daicoviciu (1898–1973)
+living
+Gheorghe I. Cantacuzino (b. 1938)
+
+
+== Institutes ==
+Institute of Archaeology and Art History in Cluj-Napoca
+Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest
+
+
+== Museums ==
+
+Archaeology Museum Piatra Neamț
+Iron Gates Region Museum
+Museum of Dacian and Roman Civilisation
+National Museum of Romanian History
+National Museum of Transylvanian History
+
+
+== Sites ==
+
+Acidava (Enoşeşti) – Dacian, Roman
+Apulon (Piatra Craivii) – Dacian
+Apulum (Alba Iulia) – Roman, Dacian
+Argedava (Popeşti) – Dacian, possibly Burebista's court or capital
+Argidava (Vărădia) – Dacian, Roman
+Basarabi (Calafat) – Basarabi culture (8th - 7th centuries BC), related to Hallstatt culture
+Boian Lake – Boian culture  (dated to 4300–3500 BC)
+Callatis (Mangalia) – Greek colony
+Capidava – Dacian, Roman
+Cernavodă – Cernavodă culture, Dacian
+Coasta lui Damian (Măerişte)
+Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains
+Drobeta – Roman
+Giurtelecu Şimleului
+Histria – Greek colony
+Lumea Noua (near  Alba Iulia) –  middle Neolithic to Chalcolithic
+Napoca (Cluj-Napoca) – Dacian, Roman
+Peștera cu Oase – the oldest early modern human remains in Europe
+Porolissum (near Zalău) – Roman
+Potaissa (Turda) – Roman
+Sarmizegetusa Regia – Dacian capital
+Sarmizegetusa Ulpia Traiana – Roman capital of province of Dacia
+Trophaeum Traiani/Civitas Tropaensium (Adamclisi) – Roman
+Tomis (Constanţa) – Greek colony
+Ziridava/Şanţul Mare (Pecica) – Dacian, Pecica culture, 16 archaeological horizons have been distinguished, starting with the Neolithic and ending with the Feudal Age
+
+
+== Cultures ==
+
+Basarabi culture
+Boian culture
+Bug-Dniester culture
+Bükk culture
+Cernavoda culture
+Chernyakhov culture
+Coțofeni culture
+Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
+Danubian culture
+Dudeşti culture
+Globular Amphora culture
+Gumelniţa-Karanovo culture
+Hamangia culture
+La Tène culture
+Linear Pottery culture
+Lipiţa culture
+Otomani culture
+Pecica culture
+Tiszapolgár culture
+Usatovo culture
+Vinča culture
+Wietenberg culture
+Getae
+Dacians
+Roman
+
+
+== Literature ==
+Alexandru Odobescu, Istoria arheologiei, 1877
+
+
+== Publications ==
+Dacia by Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology, published continuously since 1924
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of Romanian archaeologists
+History of Romania
+Prehistory of Transylvania
+Bronze Age in Romania
+Archaeological looting in Romania
+Thracology
+Dacology
+Dacianism
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+
+=== External detailed link for Romanian archaeological cultures ===
+National Archaeological Record of Romania (RAN)
+Romania's Mapserver for National Cultural Heritage

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number-0.md

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+---
+title: "Carbon number"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:30.252946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In organic chemistry, the carbon number of a compound is the number of carbon atoms in each molecule.
+The properties of hydrocarbons can be correlated with the carbon number, although the carbon number alone does not give an indication of the saturation of the organic compound. When describing a particular molecule, the "carbon number" is also the ordinal position of a particular carbon atom in a chain. 
+
+
+== Compounds by carbon number ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta-0.md

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+---
+title: "Catacombs of Malta"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:05.403738+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are hundreds of catacombs in Malta, principally found in Mdina, the former capital of the island. The catacombs are very small, but are in good preservation.
+Many of the catacombs were included on the Antiquities List of 1925.
+Vincent Zammit notes that catacombs developed from earlier rock-cut tombs. Wherever burial places were discovered, it is generally presumed that a small community lived in the area. The catacombs are characterised by spaciousness, a smaller extent than those found in other countries, similar in types of tombs to others found around the Mediterranean, but having their own particular type of decorations. Decorations, nevertheless, are rare, which may indicate that with the exception of a few families who had their own private tombs, the community was not wealthy.
+Prof. George Cassar observed that the catacombs of Malta have educational value. "They are the key to the understanding of the development of religious rites and beliefs and indicate the birth and spread of Christianity among the small community of Maltese living on the islands. This mysterious yet concrete environment helps towards the creation of a pedagogical setting which the educator can utilise to the full."
+
+
+== Catacombs of Malta ==
+The catacombs include:
+
+Tal-Mintna Catacombs –  Mqabba, Malta
+St. Paul's Catacombs –  Rabat, Malta
+St. Agatha's Catacombs –  Rabat, Malta
+Salina Catacombs –  Naxxar, Malta
+St Augustine's Catacombs – Rabat, Malta
+Ta' Bistra Catacombs – near Mosta, Malta
+St. Cataldus Catacombs  – Rabat, Malta.
+There are many other catacombs in Malta.
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Prof. Sir T. Zammit (1980). Union Press (ed.). The St. Paul's Catacombs - and other rock-cut tombs in malta. Valletta, Malta. p. 34.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+A A Caruana. Ancient Pagan Tombs and Christian Cemeteries in the Islands of Malta. Government Printing Office. Malta. 1898.
+A. Mayr, "Die altchristlichen Begrabnisstatten auf Malta" 15 Romische Quartalschrift 216 and 352
+Piotr Drag in Barrowclough and Malone (eds). "Cult of the Dead or Cult for the Dead: Studies of Jewish Catacombs in Malta in Context" in Cult in Context: Reconsidering Ritual in Archaeology. Oxbow Books. Chapter 16.
+Camilleri and Gingell-Littlejohn. "The Triclinia in the Catacombs of Malta". In Scibberas (ed). Proceedings of History Week 1993. Historical Society of Malta. 1997.
+Mario Buhagiar. The Christianisation of Malta: Catacombs, Cult Centres and Churches in Malta. BAR International Series 1674. Archaeopress. 2007. Google Books. Christian Catacombs, Cult Centres and Churches in Malta to 1530. University of London. 1994.
+Rachel Hachlili. "The Hypogea of Malta" in Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora. Brill. 1998. Page 273.
+George Percy Badger. "Catacombs" in Description of Malta and Gozo. Malta. 1838. Page 255 et seq.
+"Visit to the Catacombs" in "Palestine Mission" 19 Missionary Herald 138 (No 5, May 1823)
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Buhagiar, Mario (1986). Late Roman and Byzantine Catacombs and Related Burial Places in the Maltese Islands. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology-0.md

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+---
+title: "Competitions and prizes in biotechnology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:08.653822+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There exist a number of competitions and prizes to reward distinguished contributions and to encourage developments in biotechnology.
+
+
+== Inducement prizes ==
+The Archon X Prize for Genomics of US$10,000,000 is to be awarded to "the first Team that can build a device and use it to sequence 100 human genomes within 10 days or less, with an accuracy of no more than one error in every 100,000 bases sequenced, with sequences accurately covering at least 98% of the genome, and at a recurring cost of no more than $10,000 (US) per genome."
+The Prize4Life ALS biomarker prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a reliable way of tracking progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
+The Prize4Life ALS treatment prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a therapy that reliably and effectively extends the life of ALS mice by 25%.
+People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is offering a US$1,000,000 reward for a method of producing enough meat to be marketed in 10 U.S. states at a price competitive with chicken prices.
+Illumina iDEA Challenge to develop new visualization and data analysis techniques.
+
+
+== Recognition prizes ==
+The Gotham Prize for Cancer Research was a US$1,000,000 prize awarded annually to "encourage new and innovative approaches to cancer research by fostering collaboration among top thinkers in the field--with the goal of leading to progress in the prevention, diagnosis, etiology and treatment of cancer."
+Gruber Prize in Genetics is a US$500,000 prize awarded annually for distinguished contributions in any realm of genetics research.
+The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is an annual grant worth approximately 10 million SEK.  It is routinely awarded for contributions to biotechnology.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Inducement prize contest
+Golden Eurydice Award
+List of challenge awards
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md

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 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:13.542687+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md

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 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:50.237695+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:18.485594+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md

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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:35.076948+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:00.083558+00:00"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-0.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 1/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This glossary of aerospace engineering terms pertains specifically to aerospace engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields including aviation and aeronautics. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-10.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 11/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        ∇
+        
+          u
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            i
+            ,
+            j
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  i
+                
+              
+              
+                u
+                
+                  j
+                
+              
+            
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\nabla \mathbf {u} |^{2}=\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}\left|\partial _{i}u^{j}\right|^{2}}
+  
+. This is quantity is the same as the squared seminorm 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          u
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            
+              H
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+            (
+            Ω
+            
+              )
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |_{H^{1}(\Omega )^{n}}^{2}}
+  
+of the solution in the Sobolev space ::::
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          H
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        Ω
+        
+          )
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle H^{1}(\Omega )^{n}}
+  
+.
+In the case that the flow is incompressible, or equivalently that 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∇
+        ⋅
+        
+          u
+        
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {u} =0}
+  
+, the enstrophy can be described as the integral of the square of the vorticity 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ω
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {\omega } }
+  
+,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            E
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          ω
+        
+        )
+        ≡
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            Ω
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        
+          ω
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+        d
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}({\boldsymbol {\omega }})\equiv \int _{\Omega }|{\boldsymbol {\omega }}|^{2}\,dx}
+  
+
+or, in terms of the flow velocity,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            E
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          u
+        
+        )
+        ≡
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        ∇
+        ×
+        
+          u
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+        d
+        S
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}(\mathbf {u} )\equiv \int _{S}|\nabla \times \mathbf {u} |^{2}\,dS\,.}
+  
+
+In the context of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, enstrophy appears in the following useful result
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            d
+            
+              d
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          (
+          
+            
+              
+                1
+                2
+              
+            
+            
+              ∫
+              
+                Ω
+              
+            
+            
+              |
+            
+            
+              u
+            
+            
+              
+                |
+              
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+          )
+        
+        =
+        −
+        ν
+        
+          
+            E
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          u
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left({\frac {1}{2}}\int _{\Omega }|\mathbf {u} |^{2}\right)=-\nu {\mathcal {E}}(\mathbf {u} )}
+  
+
+The quantity in parentheses on the left is the energy in the flow, so the result says that energy declines proportional to the kinematic viscosity 
+  
+    
+      
+        ν
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \nu }
+  
+ times the enstrophy.
+Equations of motion – In physics, equations of motion are equations that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a function of time. More specifically, the equations of motion describe the behavior of a physical system as a set of mathematical functions in terms of dynamic variables. These variables are usually spatial coordinates and time, but may include momentum components. The most general choice are generalized coordinates which can be any convenient variables characteristic of the physical system. The functions are defined in a Euclidean space in classical mechanics, but are replaced by curved spaces in relativity. If the dynamics of a system is known, the equations are the solutions for the differential equations describing the motion of the dynamics.
+ESA – European Space Agency
+ET – (Space Shuttle) external tank
+Euler angles – are three angles introduced by Leonhard Euler to describe the orientation of a rigid body with respect to a fixed coordinate system.  They can also represent the orientation of a mobile frame of reference in physics or the orientation of a general basis in 3-dimensional linear algebra. Alternative forms were later introduced by Peter Guthrie Tait and George H. Bryan intended for use in aeronautics and engineering.
+European Space Agency –
+Expander cycle (rocket) – is a power cycle of a bipropellant rocket engine. In this cycle, the fuel is used to cool the engine's combustion chamber, picking up heat and changing phase. The now heated and gaseous fuel then powers the turbine that drives the engine's fuel and oxidizer pumps before being injected into the combustion chamber and burned for thrust.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-12.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 13/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fluid mechanics – is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology. It can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid statics – or hydrostatics, is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies the condition of the equilibrium of a floating body and submerged body "fluids at hydrostatic equilibrium and the pressure in a fluid, or exerted by a fluid, on an immersed body". FMS – Flight management system. Force – In physics, a force is any influence that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newton (N). Force is represented by the symbol F (formerly P). Freefall – In Newtonian physics, free fall is any motion of a body where gravity is the only force acting upon it. In the context of general relativity, where gravitation is reduced to a space-time curvature, a body in free fall has no force acting on it. An object in the technical sense of the term "free fall" may not necessarily be falling down in the usual sense of the term. An object moving upwards might not normally be considered to be falling, but if it is subject to only the force of gravity, it is said to be in free fall. The Moon is thus in free fall around the Earth, though its orbital speed keeps it in very far orbit from the Earth's surface. In a roughly uniform gravitational field, in the absence of any other forces, gravitation acts on each part of the body roughly equally. When there is no normal force exerted between a body (e.g. an astronaut in orbit) and its surrounding objects, it will result in the sensation of weightlessness, a condition that also occurs when the gravitational field is weak (such as when far away from any source of gravity). Fuselage – In aeronautics, the fuselage (; from the French fuselé "spindle-shaped") is an aircraft's main body section. It holds crew, passengers, or cargo. In single-engine aircraft, it will usually contain an engine, as well, although in some amphibious aircraft the single engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage, which in turn is used as a floating hull. The fuselage also serves to position the control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. Future Air Navigation System – (FANS), is an avionics system which provides direct data link communication between the pilot and the air traffic controller. The communications include air traffic control clearances, pilot requests and position reporting. Flying wing – is a tailless fixed-wing aircraft that has no definite fuselage, with its crew, payload, fuel, and equipment housed inside the main wing structure. A flying wing may have various small protuberances such as pods, nacelles, blisters, booms, or vertical stabilizers.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-14.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 15/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become weaker as objects get further away.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-15.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 16/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== H ==
+Hall effect thruster – In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Hall-effect thrusters (based on the discovery by Edwin Hall) are sometimes referred to as Hall thrusters or Hall-current thrusters. Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse (1,600 s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s.
+Heat shield – A heat shield is designed to protect an object from overheating by dissipating, reflecting, absorbing heat, or simply gradually burn and fall away from the aircraft, pulling the excess heat with it. The term is most often used in reference to exhaust heat management and to systems for dissipation of heat due to friction.
+Helicopter – is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally-spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL (Vertical TakeOff and Landing) aircraft cannot perform.
+High-hypersonic –
+Hohmann transfer orbit – In orbital mechanics, the Hohmann transfer orbit () is an elliptical orbit used to transfer between two circular orbits of different radii around a central body in the same plane. The Hohmann transfer often uses the lowest possible amount of propellant in traveling between these orbits, but bi-elliptic transfers can use less in some cases.
+Hybrid rocket – A hybrid-propellant rocket is a rocket with a rocket motor that uses rocket propellants in two different phases: one solid and the other either gas or liquid. The hybrid rocket concept can be traced back to at least the 1930s.
+Hydrodynamics – In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics  is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids—liquids and gases.  It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion).  Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modelling fission weapon detonation.
+Hydrostatics – Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies the condition of the equilibrium of a floating body and submerged body "fluids at hydrostatic equilibrium and the pressure in a fluid, or exerted by a fluid, on an immersed body".  It encompasses the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Hydrostatics is a subcategory of fluid statics, which is the study of all fluids, both compressible or incompressible, at rest.
+Hyperbolic partial differential equation – In mathematics, a hyperbolic partial differential equation of order 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n}
+  
+ is a partial differential equation (PDE) that, roughly speaking, has a well-posed initial value problem for the first 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n-1}
+  
+ derivatives. More precisely, the Cauchy problem can be locally solved for arbitrary initial data along any non-characteristic hypersurface.  Many of the equations of mechanics are hyperbolic, and so the study of hyperbolic equations is of substantial contemporary interest. The model hyperbolic equation is the wave equation.  In one spatial dimension, this is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              u
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              
+                t
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          c
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                ∂
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+              u
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              
+                x
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial t^{2}}}=c^{2}{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}}
+  
+
+The equation has the property that, if u and its first time derivative are arbitrarily specified initial data on the line t = 0 (with sufficient smoothness properties), then there exists a solution for all time t.
+Hypersonic speed – In aerodynamics, a hypersonic speed is one that greatly exceeds the speed of sound, often stated as starting at speeds of Mach 5 and above.  The precise Mach number at which a craft can be said to be flying at hypersonic speed varies, since individual physical changes in the airflow (like molecular dissociation and ionization) occur at different speeds; these effects collectively become important around Mach 5–10. The hypersonic regime can also be alternatively defined as speeds where specific heat capacity changes with the temperature of the flow as kinetic energy of the moving object is converted into heat.
+Hypoxia – is a condition  in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 17/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== I ==
+Impulse – Specific impulse (usually abbreviated Isp) is a measure of how efficiently a rocket uses propellant or a jet engine uses fuel. For engines whose reaction mass is only the fuel they carry, specific impulse is exactly proportional to exhaust gas velocity.
+Indicated airspeed – (IAS), is the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator (ASI) on an aircraft, driven by the pitot-static system. It uses the difference between total pressure and static pressure, provided by the system, to either mechanically or electronically measure dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure includes terms for both density and airspeed. Since the airspeed indicator cannot know the density, it is by design calibrated to assume the sea level standard atmospheric density when calculating airspeed. Since the actual density will vary considerably from this assumed value as the aircraft changes altitude, IAS varies considerably from true airspeed (TAS), the relative velocity between the aircraft and the surrounding air mass. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the IAS corrected for instrument and position error.  An aircraft's indicated airspeed in knots is typically abbreviated KIAS for "Knots-Indicated Air Speed" (vs. KCAS for calibrated airspeed and KTAS for true airspeed).
+Instrument landing system – In aviation, the instrument landing system (ILS) is a radio navigation system that provides short-range guidance to aircraft to allow them to approach a runway at night or in bad weather. In its original form, it allows an aircraft to approach until it is 200 feet (61 m) over the ground, within a 1⁄2 mile (800 m) of the runway. At that point the runway should be visible to the pilot; if it is not, they perform a missed approach. Bringing the aircraft this close to the runway dramatically improves the weather conditions in which a safe landing can be made. Later versions of the system, or "categories", have further reduced the minimum altitudes.
+Interplanetary Transport Network – (ITN) is a collection of gravitationally determined pathways through the Solar System that require very little energy for an object to follow.  The ITN makes particular use of Lagrange points as locations where trajectories through space can be redirected using little or no energy. These points have the peculiar property of allowing objects to orbit around them, despite lacking an object to orbit. While it would use little energy, transport along the network would take a long time.
+Interplanetary travel – Interplanetary spaceflight or interplanetary travel is the crewed or uncrewed travel between stars and planets, usually within a single planetary system.
+Interstellar travel – refers to the currently theoretical idea of interstellar probes or crewed spacecraft moving between stars or planetary systems in a galaxy. Interstellar travel would be much more difficult than interplanetary spaceflight. Whereas the distances between the planets in the Solar System are less than 30 astronomical units (AU), the distances between stars are typically hundreds of thousands of AU, and usually expressed in light-years. Because of the vastness of those distances, practical interstellar travel based on known physics would need to occur at a high percentage of the speed of light; even so, travel times would be long, at least decades and perhaps millennia or longer.
+Ion thruster – An ion thruster, ion drive, or ion engine is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity.
+ISRO – The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) or (IAST : Bhāratīya Antrikṣ Anusandhān Saṅgaṭhan) is the national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru. It operates under the Department of Space (DOS) which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India, while Chairman of ISRO acts as executive of DOS as well. ISRO is the primary agency in India to perform tasks related to space based applications, space exploration and development of related technologies. It is one of six government space agencies in the world which possess full launch capabilities, deploy cryogenic engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and operate large fleets of artificial satellites.
+
+== J ==
+Jet engine – is a type of reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 18/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== K ==
+Keel effect – In aeronautics, the keel effect (also known as the pendulum effect or pendulum stability) is the result of the sideforce-generating surfaces being above (or below) the center of mass (which coincides with the center of gravity) in an aircraft. Along with dihedral, sweepback, and weight distribution, keel effect is one of the four main design considerations in aircraft lateral stability.
+Kepler's laws of planetary motion – In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, published by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, describe the orbits of planets around the Sun. The laws modified the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, replacing its circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how planetary velocities vary. The three laws state that:
+The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
+A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
+The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
+The elliptical orbits of planets were indicated by calculations of the orbit of Mars. From this, Kepler inferred that other bodies in the Solar System, including those farther away from the Sun, also have elliptical orbits. The second law helps to establish that when a planet is closer to the Sun, it travels faster. The third law expresses that the farther a planet is from the Sun, the slower its orbital speed, and vice versa.
+Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the Solar System as a consequence of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation.
+Kessler syndrome – (also called the Kessler effect, collisional cascading, or ablation cascade), proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, is a theoretical scenario in which the density of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) due to space pollution is high enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade in which each collision generates space debris that increases the likelihood of further collisions. One implication is that the distribution of debris in orbit could render space activities and the use of satellites in specific orbital ranges difficult for many generations.
+Kinetic energy – In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion.  It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body when decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.  In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v is 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            1
+            2
+          
+        
+        m
+        
+          v
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}}
+  
+. In relativistic mechanics, this is a good approximation only when v is much less than the speed of light.
+Kite – is a tethered heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to create lift and drag forces. A kite consists of wings, tethers and anchors. Kites often have a bridle and tail to guide the face of the kite so the wind can lift it. Some kite designs don't need a bridle; box kites can have a single attachment point. A kite may have fixed or moving anchors that can balance the kite. One technical definition is that a kite is "a collection of tether-coupled wing sets". The name derives from its resemblance to a hovering bird.
+Kutta condition – is a principle in steady-flow fluid dynamics, especially aerodynamics, that is applicable to solid bodies with sharp corners, such as the trailing edges of airfoils.  It is named for German mathematician and aerodynamicist Martin Kutta.
+Kuethe and Schetzer state the Kutta condition as follows:
+A body with a sharp trailing edge which is moving through a fluid will create about itself a circulation of sufficient strength to hold the rear stagnation point at the trailing edge.
+In fluid flow around a body with a sharp corner, the Kutta condition refers to the flow pattern in which fluid approaches the corner from above and below, meets at the corner, and then flows away from the body. None of the fluid flows around the sharp corner.
+The Kutta condition is significant when using the Kutta–Joukowski theorem to calculate the lift created by an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge. The value of circulation of the flow around the airfoil must be that value that would cause the Kutta condition to exist.
+Kutta–Joukowski theorem – is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics used for the calculation of lift of an airfoil and any two-dimensional bodies including circular cylinders translating into a uniform fluid at a constant speed large enough so that the flow seen in the body-fixed frame is steady and unseparated. The theorem relates the lift generated by an airfoil to the speed of the airfoil through the fluid, the density of the fluid and the circulation around the airfoil. The circulation is defined as the line integral around a closed-loop enclosing the airfoil of the component of the velocity of the fluid tangent to the loop. It is named after Martin Kutta and Nikolai Zhukovsky (or Joukowski) who first developed its key ideas in the early 20th century. Kutta–Joukowski theorem is an inviscid theory, but it is a good approximation for real viscous flow in typical aerodynamic applications.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-18.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 19/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== L ==
+Lander – spacecraft designed to soft-land intact or almost undamaged on the surface of a celestial body and eventually take-off from it
+Landing – is the last part of a flight, where an aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown"a or "splashdown" as well. A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing.
+Landing gear – is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally needed for both.  Also, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheeled landing gear is the most common, with skis or floats needed to operate from snow/ice/water and skids for vertical operation on land. Faster aircraft have retractable undercarriages, which fold away during flight to reduce drag.
+Lagrangian mechanics – Introduced by the Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788, Lagrangian mechanics is a formulation of classical mechanics and is founded on the stationary action principle.
+Lagrangian mechanics defines a mechanical system to be a pair 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        M
+        ,
+        L
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (M,L)}
+  
+ of a configuration space 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+ and a smooth function 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        =
+        L
+        (
+        q
+        ,
+        v
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L=L(q,v,t)}
+  
+ called Lagrangian. By convention, 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        =
+        T
+        −
+        V
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L=T-V,}
+  
+ where 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        V
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle V}
+  
+ are the kinetic and potential energy of the system, respectively. Here 
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+        ∈
+        M
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q\in M,}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v}
+  
+ is the velocity vector at 
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q}
+  
+ 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        v
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (v}
+  
+ is tangential to 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M).}
+  
+ (For those familiar with tangent bundles, 
+  
+    
+      
+        L
+        :
+        T
+        M
+        ×
+        
+          
+            R
+          
+          
+            t
+          
+        
+        →
+        
+          R
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L:TM\times \mathbb {R} _{t}\to \mathbb {R} ,}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        v
+        ∈
+        
+          T
+          
+            q
+          
+        
+        M
+        )
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v\in T_{q}M).}
+  
+
+Given the time instants 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{1}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{2},}
+  
+ Lagrangian mechanics postulates that a smooth path 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+        :
+        [
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ]
+        →
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{0}:[t_{1},t_{2}]\to M}
+  
+ describes the time evolution of the given system if and only if 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{0}}
+  
+ is a stationary point of the action functional
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        [
+        x
+        ]
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                =
+              
+              
+                def
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            
+              t
+              
+                1
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            
+              t
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        L
+        (
+        x
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ,
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        (
+        t
+        )
+        ,
+        t
+        )
+        
+        d
+        t
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\cal {S}}[x]\,{\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\,\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(x(t),{\dot {x}}(t),t)\,dt.}
+  
+
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        M
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M}
+  
+ is an open subset of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            R
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{1},}
+  
+ 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle t_{2}}
+  
+ are finite, then the smooth path 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{0}}
+  
+ is a stationary point of 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\cal {S}}}
+  
+ if all its directional derivatives at 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            0
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x_{0}}
+  
+ vanish, i.e., for every smooth 
+  
+    
+      
+        δ
+        :
+        [
+        
+          t
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        ,
+        
+          t
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        ]
+        →
+        
+          
+            R
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \delta :[t_{1},t_{2}]\to \mathbb {R} ^{n},}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        δ
+        
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+         
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                =
+              
+              
+                def
+              
+            
+          
+        
+         
+        
+          
+            d
+            
+              d
+              ε
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              |
+            
+          
+          
+            ε
+            =
+            0
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+        
+          [
+          
+            
+              x
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+            +
+            ε
+            δ
+          
+          ]
+        
+        =
+        0.
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \delta {\cal {S}}\ {\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\ {\frac {d}{d\varepsilon }}{\Biggl |}_{\varepsilon =0}{\cal {S}}\left[x_{0}+\varepsilon \delta \right]=0.}
+  

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-19.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 20/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The function 
+  
+    
+      
+        δ
+        (
+        t
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \delta (t)}
+  
+ on the right-hand side is called perturbation or virtual displacement. The directional derivative 
+  
+    
+      
+        δ
+        
+          
+            S
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \delta {\cal {S}}}
+  
+ on the left is known as variation in physics and Gateaux derivative in mathematics. Lagrangian mechanics has been extended to allow for non-conservative forces. Lagrangian point – In celestial mechanics, the Lagrange points  (also Lagrangian points, L-points, or libration points) are points near two large orbiting bodies. Normally, the two objects exert an unbalanced gravitational force at a point, altering the orbit of whatever is at that point. At the Lagrange points, the gravitational forces of the two large bodies and the centrifugal force balance each other. This can make Lagrange points an excellent location for satellites, as few orbit corrections are needed to maintain the desired orbit. Small objects placed in orbit at Lagrange points are in equilibrium in at least two directions relative to the center of mass of the large bodies. Laser broom – is a proposed ground-based laser beam-powered propulsion system whose purpose is to sweep space debris out of the path of other artificial satellites such as the International Space Station. It would heat one side of an object enough to change its orbit and make it hit the atmosphere sooner. Space researchers have proposed that a laser broom may help mitigate Kessler syndrome, a theoretical runaway cascade of collision events between orbiting objects. Space-based laser broom systems using a laser mounted on a satellite or space station have also been proposed. Laser Camera System – (LCS), is short-range, high precision autosynchronous triangulation scanner. The camera uses a laser to measure the distance between itself and points on a target and is able to create a three-dimensional representation of the area it has scanned. Latus rectum – is the chord parallel to the directrix and passing through a focus; its half-length is the semi-latus rectum (ℓ). Launch window – In the context of spaceflight, launch period is the collection of days and launch window is the time period on a given day during which a particular rocket must be launched in order to reach its intended target. If the rocket is not launched within a given window, it has to wait for the window on the next day of the period. Launch periods and launch windows are very dependent on both the rocket's capability and the orbit to which it is going. Leading edge – The leading edge of an airfoil surface such as a wing is its foremost edge and is therefore the part which first meets the oncoming air. Lift –
+Lift coefficient – is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting body to the fluid density around the body, the fluid velocity and an associated reference area. A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixed-wing aircraft. CL is a function of the angle of the body to the flow, its Reynolds number and its Mach number. The lift coefficient cl refers to the dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil section, with the reference area replaced by the foil chord. Lightcraft – The Lightcraft is a space- or air-vehicle driven by beam-powered propulsion, the energy source powering the craft being external. It was conceptualized by aerospace engineering professor Leik Myrabo at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1976, who developed the concept further with working prototypes, funded in the 1980s by the Strategic Defense Initiative organization, and the decade after by the Advanced Concept Division of the US Air Force AFRL, NASA's MFSC and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Lighter than air – A lifting gas or lighter than air gas is a gas that has a lower density than normal atmospheric gases and rises above them as a result. It is required for aerostats to create buoyancy, particularly in lighter-than-air aircraft, which include free balloons, moored balloons, and airships. Only certain lighter than air gases are suitable as lifting gases. Dry air has a density of about 1.29 g/L (gram per liter) at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP) and an average molecular mass of 28.97 g/mol, and so lighter than air gases have a density lower than this. Liquid air cycle engine – (LACE), is a type of spacecraft propulsion engine that attempts to increase its efficiency by gathering part of its oxidizer from the atmosphere. A liquid air cycle engine uses liquid hydrogen (LH2) fuel to liquefy the air. Liquid fuel – Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid fuels that are flammable instead of the fluid. Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from fossil fuels; however, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, and biodiesel, which are also categorized as a liquid fuel. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in transportation and the economy. Liquid fuels are contrasted with solid fuels and gaseous fuels. Liquid-propellant rocket – or liquid rocket, utilizes a rocket engine that uses liquid propellants. Liquids are desirable because they have a reasonably high density and high specific impulse (Isp). This allows the volume of the propellant tanks to be relatively low. It is also possible to use lightweight centrifugal turbopumps to pump the rocket propellant from the tanks into the combustion chamber, which means that the propellants can be kept under low pressure. This permits the use of low-mass propellant tanks that do not need to resist the high pressures needed to store significant amounts of gases, resulting in a low mass ratio for the rocket. Liquid rocket propellant – The highest specific impulse chemical rockets use liquid propellants (liquid-propellant rockets). They can consist of a single chemical (a monopropellant) or a mix of two chemicals, called bipropellants. Bipropellants can further be divided into two categories; hypergolic propellants, which ignite when the fuel and oxidizer make contact, and non-hypergolic propellants which require an ignition source. Lithobraking – is a landing technique used by uncrewed space vehicles to safely reach the surface of a celestial body while reducing landing speed by impact with the body's surface. Loiter – In aeronautics and aviation, loiter is the phase of flight  consisting of flying over some small region. Low Earth orbit – (LEO), is an Earth-centered orbit close to the planet, often specified as an orbital period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial objects in outer space are in LEO, with an altitude never more than about one-third of the radius of the Earth. Lunar Module – The Apollo Lunar Module, or simply Lunar Module (LM ), originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), was the Lunar lander spacecraft that was flown between lunar orbit and the Moon's surface during the United States' Apollo program. It was the first crewed spacecraft to operate exclusively in the airless vacuum of space, and remains the only crewed vehicle to land anywhere beyond Earth.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 3/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The rocket's rotation (induced by the deployment from the aircraft) is slowed by a small parachute attached to its tail, then ignited once the carrier aircraft has passed it. It is ignited before it is pointing fully vertically, however it will turn to do so, and accelerates to pass behind the carrier aircraft. AGL – Above ground level
+Aileron – is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal axis), which normally results in a change in flight path due to the tilting of the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or 'banking'. Air-augmented rocket –
+Aircraft – is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, and hot air balloons. Aircraft flight control systems – A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. Aircraft flight mechanics –
+Airfoil – An airfoil (American English) or aerofoil (British English) is the cross-sectional shape of a wing, blade (of a propeller, rotor, or turbine), or sail (as seen in cross-section). Airlock – is a device which permits the passage of people and objects between a pressure vessel and its surroundings while minimizing the change of pressure in the vessel and loss of air from it. The lock consists of a small chamber with two airtight doors in series which do not open simultaneously. Airship – An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a lifting gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. Albedo – is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Anemometer – is a device used for measuring wind speed, and is also a common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, which means wind, and is used to describe any wind speed instrument used in meteorology. Angle of attack – In fluid dynamics, angle of attack (AOA, or 
+  
+    
+      
+        α
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \alpha }
+  
+) is the angle between a reference line on a body (often the chord line of an airfoil) and the vector representing the relative motion between the body and the fluid through which it is moving. Angle of attack is the angle between the body's reference line and the oncoming flow. Angular momentum – In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque. Angular velocity – In physics, the angular velocity of a particle is the rate at which it rotates around a chosen center point: that is, the time rate of change of its angular displacement relative to the origin (i.e. in layman's terms: how quickly an object goes around something over a period of time – e.g. how fast the earth orbits the sun). It is measured in angle per unit time, radians per second in SI units, and is usually represented by the symbol omega (ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise. Anticyclone – An anticyclone (that is, opposite to a cyclone) is a weather phenomenon defined by the United States National Weather Service's glossary as "a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere". Antimatter rocket – is a proposed class of rockets that use antimatter as their power source. There are several designs that attempt to accomplish this goal. The advantage to this class of rocket is that a large fraction of the rest mass of a matter/antimatter mixture may be converted to energy, allowing antimatter rockets to have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than any other proposed class of rocket. Apsis – is an extreme point in the orbit of an object. The word comes via Latin from Greek and is cognate with apse. For elliptic orbits about a larger body, there are two apsides, named with the prefixes peri- (from  περί (peri) 'near') and ap-/apo- (from  ἀπ(ό) (ap(ó)) 'away from') added to a reference to the body being orbited. Arcjet rocket – or arcjet thruster is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, in which an electrical discharge (arc) is created in a flow of propellant (typically hydrazine or ammonia). This imparts additional energy to the propellant, so that one can extract more work out of each kilogram of propellant, at the expense of increased power consumption and (usually) higher cost. Also, the thrust levels available from typically used arcjet engines are very low compared with chemical engines. Areal velocity – In classical mechanics, areal velocity (also called sector velocity or sectorial velocity) is the rate at which area is swept out by a particle as it moves along a curve. Argument of periapsis – (also called argument of perifocus or argument of pericenter), symbolized as ω, is one of the orbital elements of an orbiting body. Parametrically, ω is the angle from the body's ascending node to its periapsis, measured in the direction of motion. ARP4761 –
+Aspect ratio (aeronautics) – In aeronautics, the aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio. Aspect ratio and other features of the planform are often used to predict the aerodynamic efficiency of a wing because the lift-to-drag ratio increases with aspect ratio, improving fuel economy in aircraft. Asteroid – Asteroids are minor planets, especially of the inner Solar System. Larger asteroids have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not resemble a planet-like disc and was not observed to have characteristics of an active comet such as a tail. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered they were typically found to have volatile-rich surfaces similar to comets.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 21/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lunar space elevator – or lunar spacelift, is a proposed transportation system for moving a mechanical climbing vehicle up and down a ribbon-shaped tethered cable that is set between the surface of the Moon "at the bottom" and a docking port suspended tens of thousands of kilometers above in space at the top.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 22/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== M ==
+Mach number – In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound.
+Magnetic sail – or magsail, is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion which would use a static magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated by the Sun as a plasma wind, and thus impart momentum to accelerate the spacecraft.   A magnetic sail could also thrust directly against planetary and solar magnetospheres.
+Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster – A magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster (MPDT) is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion which uses the Lorentz force (the force on a charged particle by an electromagnetic field) to generate thrust. It is sometimes referred  to as Lorentz Force Accelerator (LFA) or (mostly in Japan) MPD arcjet.
+Mass – is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (rate of change of velocity with respect to time) when a net force is applied. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies.  The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the object's weight using a spring scale, rather than balance scale comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass. This is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that (along with gravity) determines the strength of this force.
+Mass driver – or electromagnetic catapult, is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds.  All existing and contemplated mass drivers use coils of wire energized by electricity to make electromagnets. Sequential firing of a row of electromagnets accelerates the payload along a path. After leaving the path, the payload continues to move due to momentum.
+Mechanics of fluids –
+Membrane mirror –
+Metre per second –
+Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion –
+Moment of inertia – otherwise known as the mass moment of inertia, angular mass, second moment of mass, or most accurately, rotational inertia, of a rigid body is a quantity that determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis, akin to how mass determines the force needed for a desired acceleration. It depends on the body's mass distribution and the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque to change the body's rate of rotation.
+Momentum – In Newtonian mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction. If m is an object's mass and v is its velocity (also a vector quantity), then the object's momentum p is
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          p
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          v
+        
+        .
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =m\mathbf {v} .}
+  
+
+In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kg⋅m/s), which is equivalent to the newton-second.
+Momentum wheel –
+Monopropellant rocket – or monochemical rocket, is a rocket that uses a single chemical as its propellant.
+Motion – In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position. Motion is mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed, and time. The motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame with change in time. The branch of physics describing the motion of objects without reference to its cause is kinematics; the branch studying forces and their effect on motion is dynamics.
+Multistage rocket – or step rocket is a launch vehicle that uses two or more rocket stages, each of which contains its own engines and propellant. A tandem or serial stage is mounted on top of another stage; a parallel stage is attached alongside another stage. The result is effectively two or more rockets stacked on top of or attached next to each other. Two-stage rockets are quite common, but rockets with as many as five separate stages have been successfully launched.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 23/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== N ==
+NACA – United States National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, replaced by NASA in 1958.
+NASA – United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
+Navier–Stokes equations – In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations() are certain partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician George Gabriel Stokes.  They were developed over several decades of progressively building the theories, from 1822 (Navier) to 1842–1850 (Stokes).
+The Navier–Stokes equations mathematically express conservation of momentum and conservation of mass for Newtonian fluids. They are sometimes accompanied by an equation of state relating pressure, temperature  and density. They arise from applying Isaac Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to the gradient of velocity) and a pressure term—hence describing viscous flow. The difference between them and the closely related Euler equations is that Navier–Stokes equations take viscosity into account while the Euler equations model only inviscid flow. As a result, the Navier–Stokes are a parabolic equation and therefore have better analytic properties, at the expense of having less mathematical structure (e.g. they are never completely integrable).
+Newton (unit) – The newton (symbol: N) is the International System of Units (SI) derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, specifically Newton's second law of motion.
+A newton is defined as 1 kg⋅m/s2, which is the force which gives a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second, per second.
+Newton's law of universal gravitation – is usually stated as that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. The publication of the theory has become known as the "first great unification", as it marked the unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors.
+This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning. It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. When Newton presented Book 1 of the unpublished text in April 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him.
+In today's language, the law states that every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force acting along the line intersecting the two points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
+The equation for universal gravitation thus takes the form:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        F
+        =
+        G
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                m
+                
+                  1
+                
+              
+              
+                m
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              r
+              
+                2
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ,
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}},}
+  
+
+where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant.
+Newton's laws of motion – are three laws of classical mechanics that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws can be paraphrased as follows:
+Law 1. A body continues in its state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by a force.
+Law 2. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that the time rate of change of momentum equals the force.
+Law 3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
+The three laws of motion were first stated by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687. Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems, which laid the foundation for Newtonian mechanics.
+Nose cone design – Given the problem of the aerodynamic design of the nose cone section of any vehicle or body meant to travel through a compressible fluid medium (such as a rocket or aircraft,  missile or bullet), an important problem is the determination of the nose cone geometrical shape for optimum performance. For many applications, such a task requires the definition of a solid of revolution shape that experiences minimal resistance to rapid motion through such a fluid medium.
+Nozzle – is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe.   A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross-sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of its pressure energy.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 24/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== O ==
+Orbit – In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the center of mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion.  For most situations, orbital motion is adequately approximated by Newtonian mechanics, which explains gravity as a force obeying an inverse-square law. However, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which accounts for gravity as due to curvature of spacetime, with orbits following geodesics, provides a more accurate calculation and understanding of the exact mechanics of orbital motion.
+Orbit phasing – In astrodynamics, orbit phasing is the adjustment of the time-position of spacecraft along its orbit, usually described as adjusting the orbiting spacecraft's true anomaly. Orbital phasing is primarily used in scenarios where a spacecraft in a given orbit must be moved to a different location within the same orbit. The change in position within the orbit is usually defined as the phase angle, ϕ, and is the change in true anomaly required between the spacecraft's current position to the final position.
+Orbital eccentricity – In astrodynamics, the orbital eccentricity of an astronomical object is a dimensionless parameter that determines the amount by which its orbit around another body deviates from a perfect circle. A value of 0 is a circular orbit, values between 0 and 1 form an elliptic orbit, 1 is a parabolic escape orbit, and greater than 1 is a hyperbola. The term derives its name from the parameters of conic sections, as every Kepler orbit is a conic section. It is normally used for the isolated two-body problem, but extensions exist for objects following a rosette orbit through the galaxy.
+Orbital elements – are the parameters required to uniquely identify a specific orbit. In celestial mechanics these elements are  considered in two-body systems using a Kepler orbit. There are many different ways to mathematically describe the same orbit, but certain schemes, each consisting of a set of six parameters, are commonly used in astronomy and orbital mechanics.  A real orbit and its elements change over time due to gravitational perturbations by other objects and the effects of general relativity. A Kepler orbit is an idealized, mathematical approximation of the orbit at a particular time.
+Orbital inclination – measures the tilt of an object's orbit around a celestial body.  It is expressed as the angle between a reference plane and the orbital plane or axis of direction of the orbiting object.
+Orbital inclination change – is an orbital maneuver aimed at changing the inclination of an orbiting body's orbit. This maneuver is also known as an orbital plane change as the plane of the orbit is tipped. This maneuver requires a change in the orbital velocity vector (delta v) at the orbital nodes (i.e. the point where the initial and desired orbits intersect, the line of orbital nodes is defined by the intersection of the two orbital planes).
+Orbital maneuver – In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver (otherwise known as a burn) is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft.
+Orbital mechanics – or astrodynamics, is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation. Orbital mechanics is a core discipline within space-mission design and control.
+Orbital node – is either of the two points where an orbit intersects a plane of reference to which it is inclined. A non-inclined orbit, which is contained in the reference plane, has no nodes.
+Orbital period – (also revolution period), is the time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object, and applies in astronomy usually to planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets, exoplanets orbiting other stars, or binary stars.
+Orbital station-keeping – In astrodynamics, orbital station-keeping is keeping a spacecraft at a fixed distance from another spacecraft. It requires a series of orbital maneuvers made with thruster burns to keep the active craft in the same orbit as its target. For many low Earth orbit satellites, the effects of non-Keplerian forces, i.e. the deviations of the gravitational force of the Earth from that of a homogeneous sphere, gravitational forces from Sun/Moon, solar radiation pressure and air drag, must be counteracted.
+Orbiter Boom Sensor System –  (OBSS), was a 50-foot (15.24 m) boom carried on board NASA's Space Shuttles. The boom was grappled by the Canadarm and served as an extension of the arm, doubling its length to a combined total of 100 feet (30 m).[1] At the far end of the boom was an instrumentation package of cameras and lasers used to scan the leading edges of the wings, the nose cap, and the crew compartment after each lift-off and before each landing. If flight engineers suspected potential damage to other areas, as evidenced in imagery captured during lift-off or the rendezvous pitch maneuver, then additional regions could be scanned.
+Osculating orbit – In astronomy, and in particular in astrodynamics, the osculating orbit of an object in space at a given moment in time is the gravitational Kepler orbit (i.e. an elliptic or other conic one) that it would have around its central body if perturbations were absent. That is, it is the orbit that coincides with the current orbital state vectors (position and velocity).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-24.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 25/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== P ==
+Parallel axis theorem – also known as Huygens–Steiner theorem, or just as Steiner's theorem, named after Christiaan Huygens and Jakob Steiner, can be used to determine the moment of inertia or the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the object's center of gravity and the perpendicular distance between the axes.
+Parasitic drag – also known as profile drag, is a type of aerodynamic drag that acts on any object when the object is moving through a fluid. Parasitic drag is a combination of form drag and skin friction drag. It affects all objects regardless of whether they are capable of generating lift.  Total drag on an aircraft is made up of parasitic drag and lift-induced drag. Parasitic drag is so named because it is not useful, whereas lift-induced drag is the result of an airfoil generating lift. Parasitic drag comprises all types of drag except lift-induced drag.
+Perpendicular axes theorem – states that the moment of inertia of a planar lamina (i.e. 2-D body) about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about the two axes at right angles to each other, in its own plane intersecting each other at the point where the perpendicular axis passes through it.
+Define perpendicular axes 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x}
+  
+, 
+  
+    
+      
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle y}
+  
+, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        z
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle z}
+  
+ (which meet at origin 
+  
+    
+      
+        O
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle O}
+  
+) so that the body lies in the 
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        y
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle xy}
+  
+ plane, and the 
+  
+    
+      
+        z
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle z}
+  
+ axis is perpendicular to the plane of the body.  Let Ix, Iy and Iz be moments of inertia about axis x, y, z respectively. Then the perpendicular axis theorem states that
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            z
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          I
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          I
+          
+            y
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{z}=I_{x}+I_{y}}
+  
+
+This rule can be applied with the parallel axis theorem and the stretch rule to find polar moments of inertia for a variety of shapes.
+If a planar object (or prism, by the stretch rule) has rotational symmetry such that 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{x}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            y
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{y}}
+  
+ are equal,
+then the perpendicular axes theorem provides the useful relationship:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          I
+          
+            z
+          
+        
+        =
+        2
+        
+          I
+          
+            x
+          
+        
+        =
+        2
+        
+          I
+          
+            y
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle I_{z}=2I_{x}=2I_{y}}
+  
+
+Pitch Angle –
+Plasma (physics) – (from Ancient Greek  πλάσμα 'moldable substance') is one of the four fundamental states of matter. It consists of a gas of ions – atoms or molecules which have at least one orbital electron stripped (or an extra electron attached) and, thus, an electric charge.  It is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe, being mostly associated with stars, including the Sun.  It extends to the rarefied intracluster medium and possibly to intergalactic regions.
+Plug nozzle – is a type of nozzle which includes a centerbody or plug around which the working fluid flows.  Plug nozzles have applications in aircraft, rockets, and numerous other fluid flow devices.
+Pogo oscillation –
+Prandtl–Glauert singularity –
+Precession –
+Pressure –
+Pressure altitude –
+Pressure-fed engine –
+Propeller –
+Proper orbital elements –
+Pulsed inductive thruster –
+Pulsed plasma thruster –
+Propulsion –
+
+== Q ==
+
+== R ==
+Radar – system using the reflection from transmitted electromagnetic waves to detect the distance and rough shape of an object, working even in outer space, unlike sonar
+Radio direction finder –
+Railgun –
+Ram accelerator –
+Ramjet –
+Rate of climb –
+RCS (Reaction control system) – set of rocket thrusters used for spacecraft maneuvers over the craft's three rotation axes in outer space
+Reentry –
+Reflection –
+Relativistic rocket –
+Remote Manipulator System –
+Resistojet rocket –
+Reusable launch system –
+Reynolds number –
+RL-10 (rocket engine) –
+Rocket –
+Rocket engine –
+Rocket engine nozzle –
+Rocket fuel –
+Rocket launch –
+Rogallo wing – is a flexible type of wing. In 1948, Francis Rogallo, a NASA engineer, and his wife Gertrude Rogallo, invented a self-inflating flexible wing they called the Parawing, also known after them as the "Rogallo Wing" and flexible wing. NASA considered Rogallo's flexible wing as an alternative recovery system for the Mercury and Gemini space capsules, and for possible use in other spacecraft landings, but the idea was dropped from Gemini in 1964 in favor of conventional parachutes.
+Rudder –

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-25.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 26/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== S ==
+SABRE –
+Satellite –
+Saturn (rocket family) –
+Scalar (physics) – A quantity with magnitude but no direction.
+Schlieren –
+Schlieren photography –
+Scramjet –
+Second moment of area –
+Shock wave –
+SI –
+Single point of failure –
+Single-stage-to-orbit – spacecraft able to fly from a celestial body (usually the Earth or the Moon)'s surface to its orbit without using external boosters
+Skyhook (structure) –
+Slew –
+Stream function –
+Streamline –
+Solar panel –
+Solar sail –
+Solar thermal rocket –
+Solid of revolution –
+Solid rocket –
+Sound barrier –
+Space activity suit –
+Space elevator –
+Space fountain –
+Space Shuttle – crewed NASA spacecraft used between 1981 and 2011, consisting of a reusable spaceplane (the Space Shuttle orbiter, capable of airplane-like landing) attached to an expendable external tank (which disintegrated during re-entry) and two recoverable solid rocket boosters (which re-entered the Earth's atmosphere and splash-landed)
+Space Shuttle external tank – external tank attached to the orbiter and the solid rocket boosters in the NASA Space Shuttle program
+Space Shuttle main engine –
+Space Shuttle orbiter – reusable NASA VTHL spaceplane used during the Space Shuttle program (1981–2011)
+Space station – habitable artificial satellite
+Space suit –
+Space technology –
+Space transport –
+Spacecraft –
+Spacecraft design –
+Spacecraft propulsion –
+Spaceplane – vehicle capable of both atmospheric flight according to the laws of aerodynamics (like an aircraft) and spaceflight in outer space (like a spacecraft)
+Special relativity –
+Specific impulse –
+Speed of sound –
+SRB – solid rocket booster
+SSTO – single-stage-to-orbit
+Staged combustion cycle (rocket) –
+Subsonic – inferior to the speed of sound
+Supersonic – superior to the speed of sound
+Surface of revolution –
+Sweep theory –
+
+== T ==
+Tait–Bryan rotations –
+Temperature –
+Terminal velocity – is the maximum velocity (speed) attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.
+Test target –
+Tether propulsion –
+Thermal protection system –
+Thermodynamics –
+Thrust –
+Thruster –
+Torricelli's equation –   In physics, Torricelli's equation, or Torricelli's formula, is an equation created by Evangelista Torricelli to find the final velocity of an object moving with a constant acceleration along an axis (for example, the x axis) without having a known time interval.
+The equation itself is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+          
+            f
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          v
+          
+            i
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        +
+        2
+        a
+        Δ
+        x
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v_{f}^{2}=v_{i}^{2}+2a\Delta x\,}
+  
+
+where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+          
+            f
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v_{f}}
+  
+ is the object's final velocity along the x axis on which the acceleration is constant.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          v
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle v_{i}}
+  
+ is the object's initial velocity along the x axis.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        a
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle a}
+  
+ is the object's acceleration along the x axis, which is given as a constant.
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        x
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta x\,}
+  
+ is the object's change in position along the x axis, also called displacement.
+This equation is valid along any axis on which the acceleration is constant.
+Total air temperature – In aviation, stagnation temperature is known as total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft. The probe is designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft. As the air is brought to rest, kinetic energy is converted to internal energy. The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature. Therefore, total air temperature is higher than the static (or ambient) air temperature.  Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable the computation of static air temperature and hence true airspeed.
+Trajectory – or flight path, is the path that an object with mass in motion follows through space as a function of time. In classical mechanics, a trajectory is defined by Hamiltonian mechanics via canonical coordinates; hence, a complete trajectory is defined by position and momentum, simultaneously.  The mass might be a projectile or a satellite. For example, it can be an orbit — the path of a planet, asteroid, or comet as it travels around a central mass.
+Trailing edge –
+Trans Lunar Injection –
+Transonic –
+Transverse wave –
+Tripropellant rocket –
+Tsiolkovsky rocket equation –
+Turbomachinery –
+Two-stage-to-orbit –
+
+== U ==
+UFO – An unidentified flying object is any perceived aerial phenomenon that cannot be immediately identified or explained. On investigation, most UFOs are identified as known objects or atmospheric phenomena, while a small number remain unexplained.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 27/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== V ==
+V-2 rocket – The V-2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, "Retribution Weapon 2"), with the technical name Aggregat 4 (A4), was the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed during the Second World War in Germany as a "vengeance weapon" and assigned to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings against German cities. The V-2 rocket also became the first artificial object to travel into space by crossing the Kármán line with the vertical launch of MW 18014 on 20 June 1944.
+Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket – (VASIMR), is an electrothermal thruster under development for possible use in spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat an inert propellant, forming a plasma, then a magnetic field to confine and accelerate the expanding plasma, generating thrust. It is a plasma propulsion engine, one of several types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems.
+Velocity – The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference, and is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an object's speed and direction of motion (e.g. 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is a fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of bodies.
+Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called speed, being a coherent derived unit whose quantity is measured in the SI (metric system) as metres per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar, whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or both, then the object is said to be undergoing an acceleration.
+Viscometer – (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used. Thus, a rheometer can be considered as a special type of viscometer. Viscometers only measure under one flow condition.
+Viscosity – The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
+Vortex generator – (VG), is an aerodynamic device, consisting of a small vane usually attached to a lifting surface (or airfoil, such as an aircraft wing) or a rotor blade of a wind turbine. VGs may also be attached to some part of an aerodynamic vehicle such as an aircraft fuselage or a car.  When the airfoil or the body is in motion relative to the air, the VG creates a vortex,  which, by removing some part of the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the airfoil surface, delays local flow separation and aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the effectiveness of wings and control surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and rudders.
+
+== W ==
+Wave drag – In aeronautics, wave drag is a component of the aerodynamic drag on aircraft wings and fuselage, propeller blade tips and projectiles moving at transonic and supersonic speeds, due to the presence of shock waves. Wave drag is independent of viscous effects, and tends to present itself as a sudden and dramatic increase in drag as the vehicle increases speed to the Critical Mach number. It is the sudden and dramatic rise of wave drag that leads to the concept of a sound barrier.
+Weight – In science and engineering, the weight of an object is the force acting on the object due to gravity.
+Weight function –  is a mathematical device used when performing a sum, integral, or average to give some elements more "weight" or influence on the result than other elements in the same set. The result of this application of a weight function is a weighted sum or weighted average. Weight functions occur frequently in statistics and analysis, and are closely related to the concept of a measure.  Weight functions can be employed in both discrete and continuous settings. They can be used to construct systems of calculus called "weighted calculus" and "meta-calculus".
+Wind tunnels –  are large tubes with air blowing through them which are used to replicate the interaction between air and an object flying through the air or moving along the ground. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly. NASA uses wind tunnels to test scale models of aircraft and spacecraft. Some wind tunnels are large enough to contain full-size versions of vehicles. The wind tunnel moves air around an object, making it seem as if the object is flying.
+Wing – is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. A high lift-to-drag ratio requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings through the air at sufficient lift.
+Wright Flyer – The Wright Flyer (the Kitty Hawk, also known as Flyer I or 1903 Flyer) made the first sustained flight by a manned heavier-than-air powered and controlled aircraft—an airplane—on 17 December 1903. Invented and flown by Orville and Wilbur Wright, it marked the beginning of the "pioneer era" of aviation.
+Wright Glider – The Wright brothers designed, built and flew a series of three manned gliders in 1900–1902 as they worked towards achieving powered flight. They also made preliminary tests with a kite in 1899. In 1911 Orville conducted tests with a much more sophisticated glider. Neither the kite nor any of the gliders were preserved, but replicas of all have been built.
+
+== X ==
+
+== Y ==
+
+== Z ==
+
+== See also ==
+Aerospace engineering
+List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations
+Engineering
+Glossary of engineering
+National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES)
+Fundamentals of Engineering Examination
+Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination (PE exam)
+Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE)
+Glossary of areas of mathematics
+Glossary of artificial intelligence
+Glossary of astronomy
+Glossary of biology
+Glossary of chemistry
+Glossary of civil engineering
+Glossary of economics
+Glossary of mechanical engineering
+Glossary of physics
+Glossary of probability and statistics
+Glossary of structural engineering
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 4/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+As a result, they were often distinguished from objects found in the main asteroid belt. Astrodynamics – Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. Atmospheric entry – is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet, dwarf planet or natural satellite. There are two main types of atmospheric entry: uncontrolled entry, such as the entry of astronomical objects, space debris or bolides; and controlled entry (or reentry) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course. Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric entry, descent and landing of spacecraft are collectively termed as EDL. Attitude control – is controlling the orientation of an object with respect to an inertial frame of reference or another entity like the celestial sphere, certain fields, and nearby objects, etc. Controlling vehicle attitude requires sensors to measure vehicle orientation, actuators to apply the torques needed to re-orient the vehicle to a desired attitude, and algorithms to command the actuators based on (1) sensor measurements of the current attitude and (2) specification of a desired attitude. The integrated field that studies the combination of sensors, actuators and algorithms is called "Guidance, Navigation and Control" (GNC). Automatic direction finder – (ADF) is a marine or aircraft radio-navigation instrument that automatically and continuously displays the relative bearing from the ship or aircraft to a suitable radio station. Avionics – are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. Axial stress – a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 5/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== B ==
+Balloon – In aeronautics, a balloon is an unpowered aerostat, which remains aloft or floats due to its buoyancy. A balloon may be free, moving with the wind, or tethered to a fixed point. It is distinct from an airship, which is a powered aerostat that can propel itself through the air in a controlled manner.
+Ballute – (a portmanteau of balloon and parachute) is a parachute-like braking device optimized for use at high altitudes and supersonic velocities. Invented by Goodyear in 1958, the original ballute was a cone-shaped balloon with a toroidal burble fence fitted around its widest point. A burble fence is an inflated structure intended to ensure flow separation.
+This stabilizes the ballute as it decelerates through different flow regimes (from supersonic to subsonic).
+
+Beam-powered propulsion – also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous.  A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines.
+Bearing – In navigation, bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and another object, or between it and that of true north. Absolute bearing refers to the angle between the magnetic North (magnetic bearing) or true North (true bearing) and an object. For example, an object to the East would have an absolute bearing of 90 degrees. Relative bearing refers to the angle between the craft's forward direction, and the location of another object. For example, an object relative bearing of 0 degrees would be dead ahead; an object relative bearing 180 degrees would be behind. Bearings can be measured in mils or degrees.
+Bernoulli's principle – In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.
+Bi-elliptic transfer – is an orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one orbit to another and may, in certain situations, require less delta-v than a Hohmann transfer maneuver. The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two half-elliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a first burn expends delta-v to boost the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with an apoapsis at some point 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          r
+          
+            b
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle r_{b}}
+  
+ away from the central body. At this point a second burn sends the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit with periapsis at the radius of the final desired orbit, where a third burn is performed, injecting the spacecraft into the desired orbit.
+Big dumb booster – (BDB), is a general class of launch vehicle based on the premise that it is cheaper to operate large rockets of simple design than it is to operate smaller, more complex ones regardless of the lower payload efficiency.
+Bleed air – produced by gas turbine engines is compressed air that is taken from the compressor stage of those engines, which is upstream of the fuel-burning sections.
+Booster – A booster rocket (or engine) is either the first stage of a multistage launch vehicle, or else a shorter-burning rocket used in parallel with longer-burning sustainer rockets to augment the space vehicle's takeoff thrust and payload capability.
+Boundary layer – In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is an important concept and refers to the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface.  On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow.
+Buoyancy – In physics, buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. This pressure difference results in a net upwards force on the object. The magnitude of that force exerted is proportional to that pressure difference, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fluid.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 6/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== C ==
+Cabin pressurization – is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft, in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary, before it is distributed to the cabin by one or more environmental control systems. The cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve.
+Cable lacing – is a method for tying wiring harnesses and cable looms, traditionally used in telecommunication, naval, and aerospace applications.  This old cable management technique, taught to generations of linemen, is still used in some modern applications since it does not create obstructions along the length of the cable, avoiding the handling problems of cables groomed by plastic or hook-and-loop cable ties.
+Camber – the asymmetric curves on the top and bottom, or front and back, of an aerofoil
+Canard – is an aeronautical arrangement wherein a small forewing or foreplane is placed forward of the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft.  The term "canard" may be used to describe the aircraft itself, the wing configuration or the foreplane.
+Centennial challenges –
+Center of gravity – A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. Where a gravity field can be considered to be uniform, the mass-center and the center-of-gravity will be the same. However, for satellites in orbit around a planet, in the absence of other torques being applied to a satellite, the slight variation (gradient) in gravitational field between closer-to (stronger) and further-from (weaker) the planet can lead to a torque that will tend to align the satellite such that its long axis is vertical. In such a case, it is important to make the distinction between the center-of-gravity and the mass-center. Any horizontal offset between the two will result in an applied torque.
+Center of mass – In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero, or the point where if a force is applied it moves in the direction of the force without rotating. The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its coordinates.
+Center of pressure – is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point.
+Centrifugal compressor – Centrifugal compressors, sometimes called radial compressors, are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. They achieve a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. The pressure rise in the impeller is in most cases almost equal to the rise in the diffuser.
+Chord – is the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil.  The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and the point on the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge.
+Clean configuration – is the flight configuration of a fixed-wing aircraft when its external equipment is retracted to minimize drag and thus maximize airspeed for a given power setting.
+Cockpit – or flight deck, is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft.
+Collimated beam – A collimated beam of light or other electromagnetic radiation has parallel rays, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated light beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance. Such a beam cannot be created, due to diffraction.
+Comet – is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail.
+Compressibility – In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility or isothermal compressibility) is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress) change. In its simple form, the compressibility 
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta }
+  
+ may be expressed as

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 7/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        β
+        =
+        −
+        
+          
+            1
+            V
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              ∂
+              V
+            
+            
+              ∂
+              p
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta =-{\frac {1}{V}}{\frac {\partial V}{\partial p}}}
+  
+, where V is volume and p is pressure. The choice to define compressibility as the opposite of the fraction makes compressibility positive in the (usual) case that an increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume.  t is also known as reciprocal of bulk modulus(k) of elasticity of a fluid.
+Compression – In mechanics, compression is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") forces to different points on a material or structure, that is, forces with no net sum or torque directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions. It is contrasted with tension or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with shearing forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other.  The compressive strength of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration.
+Compressor map – is a diagram showing significant performance parameters for a rotating compressor, and how they vary with changing ambient conditions of pressure and temperature.
+Computational fluid dynamics – (CFD), is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows.  Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems.
+Conservation of momentum – The total momentum of objects involved in a collision remains constant regardless of friction and permanent deformation that may occur during the collision. The law of conservation of momentum can be used to analyse the interactions between objects, even in the presence of friction and other non-conservative forces. Conservation of momentum is a consequence of Newton's laws of motion.
+Constant speed drive – (CSD), is a type of transmission that takes an input shaft rotating at a wide range of speeds, delivering this power to an output shaft that rotates at a constant speed, despite the varying input. They are used to drive mechanisms, typically electrical generators, that require a constant input speed.  The term is most commonly applied to hydraulic transmissions found on the accessory drives of gas turbine engines, such as aircraft jet engines. On modern aircraft, the CSD is often combined with a generator into a single unit known as an integrated drive generator (IDG).
+Control engineering – or control systems engineering, is an engineering discipline that applies automatic control theory to design systems with desired behaviors in control environments. The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering at many institutions around the world.
+Controllability –
+Crew Exploration Vehicle –
+Critical mach – In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr or M* ) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but does not exceed it. At the lower critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is subsonic.  At the upper critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is supersonic.
+Cylinder stress – In mechanics, a cylinder stress is a stress distribution with rotational symmetry; that is, which remains unchanged if the stressed object is rotated about some fixed axis.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 8/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== D ==
+Damage tolerance – is a property of a structure relating to its ability to sustain defects safely until repair can be effected. The approach to engineering design to account for damage tolerance is based on the assumption that flaws can exist in any structure and such flaws propagate with usage. Decalage – Decalage on a fixed-wing aircraft is the angle difference between the upper and lower wings of a biplane, i.e. the acute angle contained between the chords of the wings in question. Decalage is said to be positive when the upper wing has a higher angle of incidence than the lower wing, and negative when the lower wing's incidence is greater than that of the upper wing. Positive decalage results in greater lift from the upper wing than the lower wing, the difference increasing with the amount of decalage. De Laval nozzle – (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle), is a tube that is pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape. It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher supersonic speed in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow into kinetic energy. Because of this, the nozzle is widely used in some types of steam turbines and rocket engine nozzles. It also sees use in supersonic jet engines. Dead reckoning – In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating one's current position by using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course. Deflection – is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance. Deformation (engineering) – In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due to an applied force (the deformation energy, in this case, is transferred through work) or a change in temperature (the deformation energy, in this case, is transferred through heat). Deformation (mechanics) – in continuum mechanics is the transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration. A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body. A deformation may be caused by external loads, body forces (such as gravity or electromagnetic forces), or changes in temperature, moisture content, or chemical reactions, etc. Delta-v – (literally "change in velocity"), symbolised as ∆v and pronounced delta-vee, as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launch from, or landing on a planet or moon, or in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is not the same as the physical change in velocity of the vehicle. Delta-v budget – is an estimate of the total delta-v required for a space mission. It is calculated as the sum of the delta-v required for the propulsive maneuvers during the mission, and as input to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, determines how much propellant is required for a vehicle of given mass and propulsion system. Delta wing – is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta (Δ). Although long studied, it did not find significant applications until the jet age, when it proved suitable for high-speed subsonic and supersonic flight. Density –
+Departure resistance – is a quality of an aircraft which enables it to remain in controlled flight and resist entering potentially dangerous less-controlled maneuvers such as spin. Derivative – The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity: this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time advances. Digital Datcom – The United States Air Force Stability and Control Digital DATCOM is a computer program that implements the methods contained in the USAF Stability and Control DATCOM to calculate the static stability, control and dynamic derivative characteristics of fixed-wing aircraft. Digital DATCOM requires an input file containing a geometric description of an aircraft, and outputs its corresponding dimensionless stability derivatives according to the specified flight conditions. The values obtained can be used to calculate meaningful aspects of flight dynamics. Dihedral – Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. "Anhedral angle" is the name given to negative dihedral angle, that is, when there is a downward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Disk loading – In fluid dynamics, disk loading or disc loading is the average pressure change across an actuator disk, such as an airscrew. Airscrews with a relatively low disk loading are typically called rotors, including helicopter main rotors and tail rotors; propellers typically have a higher disk loading. Displacement (vector) –
+Distance measuring equipment – (DME), is a radio navigation technology that measures the slant range (distance) between an aircraft and a ground station by timing the propagation delay of radio signals in the frequency band between 960 and 1215 megahertz (MHz). Line-of-visibility between the aircraft and ground station is required. An interrogator (airborne) initiates an exchange by transmitting a pulse pair, on an assigned 'channel', to the transponder ground station. The channel assignment specifies the carrier frequency and the spacing between the pulses. After a known delay, the transponder replies by transmitting a pulse pair on a frequency that is offset from the interrogation frequency by 63 MHz and having specified separation. DME – distance measuring equipment. DO-178B –
+DO-254 –
+Drag (physics) – In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow and the squared velocity for a turbulent flow. Even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid's path. Drag coefficient – In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as: 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            C
+            
+              
+                d
+              
+            
+          
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle C_{\mathrm {d} }\,}
+  
+, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            C
+            
+              
+                x
+              
+            
+          
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle C_{\mathrm {x} }\,}
+  
+ or 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            C
+            
+              
+                w
+              
+            
+          
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \scriptstyle C_{\mathrm {w} }\,}
+  
+) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water. It is used in the drag equation in which a lower drag coefficient indicates the object will have less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-8.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 9/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area. Drag equation – In fluid dynamics, the drag equation is a formula used to calculate the force of drag experienced by an object due to movement through a fully enclosing fluid. The equation is:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-9.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering"
+chunk: 10/27
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+        =
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              1
+              2
+            
+          
+        
+        
+        ρ
+        
+        
+          u
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+        
+          C
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+        
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F_{D}\,=\,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\rho \,u^{2}\,C_{D}\,A}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F_{D}}
+  
+ is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of the flow velocity,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        ρ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho }
+  
+ is the mass density of the fluid,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        u
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle u}
+  
+ is the flow velocity relative to the object,
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  
+ is the reference area, and
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          C
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C_{D}}
+  
+ is the drag coefficient – a dimensionless coefficient related to the object's geometry and taking into account both skin friction and form drag. In general, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          C
+          
+            D
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C_{D}}
+  
+ depends on the Reynolds number.
+Drop test – is a method of testing the in-flight characteristics of prototype or experimental aircraft and spacecraft by raising the test vehicle to a specific altitude and then releasing it.  Test flights involving powered aircraft, particularly rocket-powered aircraft, may be referred to as drop launches due to the launch of the aircraft's rockets after release from its carrier aircraft.
+Dual mode propulsion rocket – Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of bipropellant rockets with the reliability and simplicity of monopropellant rockets. It is based upon the use of two rocket fuels, liquid hydrogen and more dense hydrocarbon fuels, like RP, which are all burned with liquid oxygen.
+Ductility – is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.
+
+== E ==
+Earth's atmosphere – The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
+Eccentric anomaly – In orbital mechanics, the eccentric anomaly is an angular parameter that defines the position of a body that is moving along an elliptic Kepler orbit. The eccentric anomaly is one of three angular parameters ("anomalies") that define a position along an orbit, the other two being the true anomaly and the mean anomaly.
+Eccentricity vector – In celestial mechanics, the eccentricity vector of a Kepler orbit is the dimensionless vector with direction pointing from apoapsis to periapsis and with magnitude equal to the orbit's scalar eccentricity. For Kepler orbits the eccentricity vector is a constant of motion. Its main use is in the analysis of almost circular orbits, as perturbing (non-Keplerian) forces on an actual orbit will cause the osculating eccentricity vector to change continuously. For the eccentricity and argument of periapsis parameters, eccentricity zero (circular orbit) corresponds to a singularity. The magnitude of the eccentricity vector represents the eccentricity of the orbit. Note that the velocity and position vectors need to be relative to the inertial frame of the central body.
+Eigenvector slew – In aerospace engineering, especially those areas dealing with spacecraft, the eigenvector slew is a method to calculate a steering correction (called a slew) by rotating the spacecraft around one fixed axis, or a gimbal.  This corresponds in general to the fastest and most efficient way to reach the desired target orientation as there is only one acceleration phase and one braking phase for the angular rate. If this fixed axis is not a principal axis a time varying torque must be applied to force the spacecraft to rotate as desired, though. Also the gyroscopic effect of momentum wheels must be compensated for.
+Electrostatic ion thruster – is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity.
+Elevator – is a flight control surface, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircraft's pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer.
+Elliptic partial differential equation –
+Empennage – The empennage ( or ), also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at the rear of an aircraft that provides stability during flight, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from the French language verb empenner which means "to feather an arrow". Most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilising surfaces which stabilise the flight dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces.
+Enstrophy – In fluid dynamics, the enstrophy E can be interpreted as another type of potential density; or, more concretely, the quantity directly related to the kinetic energy in the flow model that corresponds to dissipation effects in the fluid. It is particularly useful in the study of turbulent flows, and is often identified in the study of thrusters as well as the field of combustion theory.
+Given a domain 
+  
+    
+      
+        Ω
+        ⊆
+        
+          
+            R
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Omega \subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}}
+  
+ and a once-weakly differentiable vector field 
+  
+    
+      
+        u
+        ∈
+        
+          H
+          
+            1
+          
+        
+        (
+        
+          
+            R
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          )
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle u\in H^{1}(\mathbb {R} ^{n})^{n}}
+  
+ which represents a fluid flow, such as a solution to the Navier-Stokes equations, its enstrophy is given by:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            E
+          
+        
+        (
+        u
+        )
+        :=
+        
+          ∫
+          
+            Ω
+          
+        
+        
+          |
+        
+        ∇
+        
+          u
+        
+        
+          
+            |
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+        d
+        x
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}(u):=\int _{\Omega }|\nabla \mathbf {u} |^{2}\,dx}
+  

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-0.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 1/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This glossary of agriculture is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in agriculture, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including horticulture, animal husbandry, agribusiness, and agricultural policy. For other glossaries relevant to agricultural science, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of botanical terms.
+
+== A ==
+
+abattoir
+See slaughterhouse.
+
+aboiteau
+Plural aboiteaux.
+A sluice or conduit built beneath a coastal dike, with a hinged gate or a one-way valve that closes during high tide but remains open during low tide, preventing salt water from flowing into the sluice and flooding the land behind the dike while allowing fresh water precipitation and irrigation runoff to drain from the land into the sea. The term may also refer to a method of land reclamation which relies on these gated sluices to convert tidal flats and coastal marshes into land suitable for agriculture. Aboiteau systems are usually installed several seasons prior to planting to allow time for natural flows of fresh water to drain through the soil and reduce its salinity. This method is practiced in areas with extremely high tidal amplitudes, particularly Atlantic Canada, where large tracts of coastal land would otherwise be rendered useless by regular tidal inundation.
+
+acaricide
+A pesticide intended to kill or incapacitate members of the arthropod subclass Acari, which includes ticks and mites, either by targeting adults or by preventing the growth and development of their eggs or larvae. Acaricides specifically helpful against ticks may also be known as ixodicides and those specific to mites may be known as miticides. Though ticks and mites are not technically insects, in common usage, acaricides are sometimes referred to as insecticides.
+
+acre (ac)
+A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of one chain (66 feet) by one furlong (660 feet), equivalent to 43,560 square feet (0.001563 sq mi; 4,047 m2), or about 0.40 hectare.
+
+acreage
+A quantity of land; several acres considered collectively, united by their ownership, management, usage, geographical location, or some other unifying feature.
+
+acre-foot
+A customary unit of volume defined as the volume of one acre of surface area to a depth of one foot, commonly used in the United States about large-scale water or soil resources. One acre-foot is equal to 43,560 cubic feet (1,233 m3).
+
+adjuvant
+A chemical compound added to a pesticide formulation to increase its efficacy or safety.
+
+aerial seeding
+A type of broadcast seeding in which large quantities of seed are dropped from aircraft flying over crop fields. Aircraft can be useful for quickly seeding vast expanses of land or wherever the terrain makes conventional ground-based seeding methods difficult or impractical, e.g., in marshy or flooded areas, where they are commonly used for sowing rice paddies.
+
+aeroponics
+The cultivation of plants with the roots suspended in an air or mist environment rather than in soil or a solid aggregate medium, usually inside a closed or partially closed chamber where the properties of the air can be easily controlled. Plants are typically supported by the chamber itself or with foam supports or trellises. Sometimes, only the roots are inside the growth chamber; stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits may or may not be. The primary benefits of aeroponics are increased gas exchange in the root zone and reduced access by pests and pathogens borne by solid or liquid growth media. It is often practiced in research contexts. Aeroponics is sometimes considered a subclass of hydroponics since water is still delivered to the plant via atomized droplets from a mist sprayer. However, unlike conventional hydroponics, the roots are not continuously suspended in flowing water.
+
+agrarian system
+The dynamic set of economic and technological factors that affect agricultural practices in a particular region.
+
+agrarianism
+A social or political philosophy that values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker. Agrarianism argues in favor of farming as a way of life that can shape ideal social values.
+
+agribusiness
+The business of agricultural production, including the entire range of activities and disciplines encompassed by modern food and fiber production chains and those agents and institutions that influence them.
+
+agricultural aircraft
+
+agricultural cooperative
+Also farmers' co-op or simply a co-op.
+Any association of farmers or agricultural businesses who voluntarily pool their resources to meet their common agricultural needs and goals by cooperating in a jointly owned enterprise. Agricultural cooperatives may be distinguished between "service" cooperatives, which provide inputs for agricultural production (seeds, fertilizers, fuels, etc.) or transportation and marketing services to members who run their farms individually, and "production" cooperatives, in which members run their farms jointly using shared land, machinery, or other resources; an example of the latter is collective farming.
+
+agricultural cycle
+The annual or seasonal cycle of activities related to the production of a particular agricultural product, especially the growth and harvest of plant crops, inclusive of all steps normally involved in the complete process from initial preparations (e.g. tilling, sowing, fertilizing, and irrigating) through sale and distribution of the finished product (e.g. harvesting, storage, packing, and marketing).
+
+agricultural economics
+A branch of economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food, fiber, and other products of agriculture.
+
+agricultural engineering
+A branch of engineering concerned with agricultural production and processing. It combines elements of mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and food science, among other disciplines.
+
+agricultural extension
+The application of new knowledge and techniques obtained through scientific research to agricultural practices by educating farmers and agricultural communities, with the goals of improving the efficiency and productivity of agriculture, improving living standards in rural areas, and raising awareness of environmental issues. The term encompasses a variety of educational and outreach activities organized by professional educators from a wide range of disciplines, often with an emphasis on agricultural marketing, land management, sustainability, food safety, and public health.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 2/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+agricultural fencing
+Any fence or barrier used to keep domestic or wild animals (or humans) inside or outside of an agricultural area. Fencing materials and designs vary widely depending on terrain and the kinds of animals they are intended to deter, though wooden logs, barbed wire, and electrified fences are common. They must often be continuous for long distances to surround farms or pastures. In many places, ranchers are required by law to build fences to enclose their grazing livestock within designated rangeland; in others, livestock are allowed to roam freely, and responsibility for fencing belongs to those who wish to prevent animals from accessing their land.
+
+agricultural land
+Any land devoted solely to agriculture, i.e., the deliberate and systematic reproduction of living organisms to produce commodities that humans can use. In the broadest sense, agricultural land may also include certain types used only partially or seasonally for agricultural purposes, such as pastures and wild forests. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and arable land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct.
+
+agricultural machinery
+The mechanical or electrical tools, devices, and structures used in farming or any other type of agriculture. The broadest definition includes handheld power tools, but in general usage the term implies huge motorized machines, particularly tractors and the many types of farm implements which they tow and/or supply power to. The mechanization of agricultural tasks is a defining element of industrial agriculture.
+
+agricultural productivity
+A measure of the economic productivity of a given quantity of agricultural land (or any other agricultural input), typically expressed as the ratio of outputs to inputs. In modern agricultural industries, "output" is often quantified as the market value of the agricultural product at the end of the production chain (i.e., immediately before its purchase by a consumer).
+
+agricultural recession
+A period of economic recession for an agricultural industry, characterized chiefly by low crop prices and/or low incomes for farming operations.
+
+agricultural science
+Also agriscience or ag science, and often pluralized as in agricultural sciences.
+The application of scientific methods to agriculture, or the study of agriculture as a scientific discipline. It is a multidisciplinary field encompassing all elements of the natural, economic, and social sciences which are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. A professional in this field may be called an agricultural scientist or agriculturist.
+
+agriculture
+The science and art of cultivating plants, animals, or other living organisms in order to produce any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food, fibers, fuels, and raw materials.
+
+agriculturist
+Also agriculturalist, agricultural scientist, agrologist, or agronomist.
+A professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness.
+
+agritourism
+Any primarily agricultural operation or activity that brings visitors to a farm or ranch, either for direct-to-consumer sales (e.g. farm stands and "You-Pick" operations), education, hospitality, recreation, or entertainment.
+
+agrivoltaics
+The simultaneous use of land area for both solar energy production and agriculture, by installing solar panels in the same spaces where crops are grown or animals are raised.
+
+agrobiology
+The study of plant nutrition and growth, especially as a means of increasing crop yield.
+
+agroecology
+The study of ecology as it pertains to agriculture, particularly the application of knowledge about ecological processes to agricultural production systems.
+
+agroecosystem
+An ecosystem that supports an agricultural production system, such as in a farm or garden; the network of ecological interactions that influences and is influenced by the human practice of agriculture. Agroecosystems are the basic unit of study in agroecology.
+
+agroforestry
+The combination of the knowledge and practices of agriculture and forestry, resulting in a system of land use in which forest trees or shrubs are grown around or among agricultural crops or pastureland, with the goal of enhancing the functionality and sustainability of a farming system. Agroforestry shares principles with intercropping but may involve complex ecological interactions between hundreds of species.
+
+agrology
+The branch of soil science concerning the agricultural production of crop plants. The term is often used interchangeably with agronomy, agricultural science, and agricultural soil science.
+
+agronomy
+The science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land restoration.
+
+algaculture
+A specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of algae, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, including food ingredients, fertilizers, colorants and dyes, pharmaceuticals, and chemical feedstock.
+
+alley cropping
+An agroforestry technique in which annual field crops are grown in the open "alleys" between widely spaced rows of planted trees. Many different species have been cultivated in these systems but the cash crops are usually staples such as wheat, corn, soybeans, and hay, while the trees are commonly large hardwood fruit and nut trees such as walnut, pecan, persimmon, and willow; trees that harbor nitrogen-fixing microorganisms or that have deep taproots capable of drawing large quantities of nutrients to the soil surface are especially valuable. Alley cropping is popular as a form of sustainable and value-added polyculture, where the presence of trees confers many benefits normally absent from traditional open fields, including improved nutrition and moisture retention, shade, and protection from extreme weather. Trees may also yield useful produce, fuelwood, or fodder in their own right, potentially allowing farmers to diversify their sources of income as well.
+
+animal engine
+Any machine powered by an animal. Domestic animals, especially horses, mules, donkeys, oxen, and dogs, have frequently been trained by humans to provide power for various agricultural machinery and operations such as ploughing and milling.
+
+animal feed
+See fodder.
+
+animal unit
+A standard measure, based on feed requirements, used to combine various classes of livestock according to size, weight, age, and intended use. On federal lands in the United States, one animal unit represents one mature cow, bull, steer, heifer, horse, or mule, or five sheep or goats, all over six months of age.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-10.md

@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 11/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+dipping
+The process of immersing a live animal into a bath containing a liquid formulation of insecticide (and sometimes also fungicide), usually a dilute solution of organophosphorus compounds, as a means of removing lice, ticks, or other ectoparasites which may otherwise cause disease. Sheep are commonly treated in a sheep dip, and cattle in a plunge dip.
+
+disc harrow
+Also disk harrow.
+A type of harrow designed to till the soil surface and simultaneously chop up weeds and crop residues, consisting of one or more rows of concave metal discs which may be scalloped or oriented at an oblique angle and which rotate freely as the implement moves forward. It is usually pulled behind a tractor or mounted upon a three-point linkage.
+
+dockage
+Waste material which is removed from grain as it is being processed, prior to milling.
+
+docking
+Also cropping or tailing.
+The intentional removal of all or part of an animal's tail by any of a variety of methods, usually by cutting with a knife or scalpel, applying a hot iron, or constricting blood circulation with a rubber ring to cause the tail to fall off. Docking of swine is performed in order to reduce potentially harmful tail biting behaviors between cohabitating pigs; in sheep and cattle, it is often practiced with the rationale that shorter tails are less likely to trap dirt and feces and transfer them to other body parts (e.g. the udder in dairy cattle), thereby reducing pathogen infestation and improving the animal's cleanliness and well-being and consequently the quality of any products harvested from the animal, though the efficacy of docking for these purposes has not been conclusively demonstrated.
+
+doddie
+Also doddy, dody, and duddie.
+A hornless cow or bull, especially one that has been polled.
+
+doe
+Also nanny goat.
+An adult female goat.
+
+dogie
+Also dogey, dogy, and doggie.
+A stray or motherless calf. See also poddy.
+
+domestication
+
+dovecote
+Also dovecot and columbarium.
+A man-made structure intended to house domestic pigeons or doves, usually consisting of a sheltered space with one or more holes allowing the birds to nest inside, either free-standing or built into the side or roof of a building.
+
+draff
+Refuse obtained as a byproduct of the distillation of grain and used as an animal feed, especially malt left over from the brewing process.
+
+draft animal
+Also draught animal.
+An animal used to pull heavy loads such as wagons or ploughs, usually a horse, mule, donkey, ox, or camel.
+
+drawbar
+Also towbar.
+A horizontal metal bar on the rear of a vehicle such as a tractor to which trailers or farm implements may be hitched or attached.
+
+drenching
+The process of administering a liquid drug or medication to a domestic animal via the throat, usually for treatment of internal parasites.
+
+dressed weight
+The weight of an animal carcass after it has been slaughtered and partially butchered or "dressed", typically when still containing bones and cartilage but after the hide, head, hooves, and internal organs have been removed. When weighed immediately following slaughter and prior to chilling, it may be called the hot dressed carcass weight or hot dressed weight. Dressed weight is commonly used to calculate the price of meat.
+
+drinker
+An automated water line used to provide drinking water to livestock such as cattle or poultry.
+
+drip irrigation
+Also trickle irrigation.
+A type of micro-irrigation system that supplies water and/or liquid fertilizer solution to crops by allowing it to leak slowly from perforated plastic or rubber tubes into the soil surrounding the plants' roots, with the primary goal of delivering water directly to the root zone and thereby minimizing wasting due to evaporation and runoff (which are often significant problems in surface irrigation and sprinkler irrigation). Drip systems distribute water through a network of valves, pipes, emitters, and flexible, lightweight tubing called drip line or drip tape, which can be positioned above or buried below the soil surface. Drip irrigation is most commonly used in small-scale outdoor operations, high tunnels, and greenhouses, where it is often much more efficient than alternative irrigation methods and has the advantage of allowing water and fertilizers to be applied gradually, uniformly, and in precise quantities to each individual plant.
+
+drop shed
+Also drop pen.
+A shelter where lambing ewes are housed.
+
+droving
+Also driving.
+The process of moving livestock on foot over long distances, generally by herding them together and encouraging or compelling them to walk in a particular direction. Very large herds of cattle, sheep, and horses are commonly moved in this way between different pastures, or from rangeland to a market where they can be sold; such a journey may be called a drive. Herds are traditionally moved by cowboys on horses, though drovers may also employ dogs, vehicles, and goads to keep the animals clustered together and moving in the right direction.
+
+dry cow
+A milk cow which has ceased to produce milk from a particular lactation, especially because it is within 60 days of calving and beginning a new lactation.
+
+dry milling
+
+dryland farming
+Also dry farming or arid-zone agriculture.
+The cultivation of plant crops in arid or semiarid climates, or wherever there is, for any reason, a relative scarcity of fresh water resources available for agricultural uses either year-round or during the growing season. Dry farming thus encompasses a set of agricultural techniques and management practices adapted specifically for growing crops without the aid of irrigation, which generally emphasize the strict conservation of existing soil moisture and the selection of cultivars which are drought-tolerant or otherwise well-suited for the specific challenges of arid environments. Other common dryland practices include wider than normal spacing between individual plants, minimal tillage and use of heavy machinery, aggressive weed control, and frequent fallowing.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-11.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 12/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+dubbing
+Also dewattling.
+The removal of any of the fleshy caruncles from the heads of poultry, i.e. the comb, wattles, and/or earlobes. Dubbing is often done with the rationale that it reduces the chances that these parts will be injured, become infected, and thereby potentially compromise the bird's overall health, though the practice has been criticized for being unnecessarily stressful to birds, and also because combs and wattles are thought to have important functions in the regulation of body temperature and in certain social behaviors.
+
+dynamic compaction
+A method of increasing the density of soil deposits by repeatedly dropping a very heavy weight onto the ground at regularly spaced locations, which can compress underground voids, improve soil structure and stability, and prevent settling and undesirable soil movement beneath buildings. It has many applications, including in agriculture, where it can be used to increase water and amendment retention in seedbeds, especially when subsurface constraints make alternative methods of compaction inappropriate.
+
+== E ==
+
+earlage
+A high-energy feed for cattle composed of ears of maize (both kernels and cobs) chopped into small pieces and fermented into silage.
+
+earmark
+A cut or notch made in, or a tag attached to, one or both ears of a livestock animal (most commonly cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep) as an easily visible mark of identification, usually to indicate age, sex, medical status, or ownership. Compare brand.
+
+earthing up
+See hilling.
+
+ecological farming
+1.  Another name for organic farming.
+2.  A specific approach to organic and sustainable agriculture that focuses on the environmental and ecological aspects of farming, emphasizing the incorporation of methods which prevent soil erosion, preserve or improve water percolation and soil retention, limit greenhouse gas emissions, sequester carbon in the form of humus, increase biodiversity, and regenerate ecosystem services, and thereby minimizing the environmental pressures posed by conventional agricultural systems. Specific techniques include polyculture, no-till farming, cover cropping, strip cropping, contour farming, shelterbelts, and use of biodigestors, among others.
+
+ecology
+The scientific study of interactions between biological organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology, geography, and Earth science.
+
+economic maturity
+The optimum time at which to harvest a tree or stand of trees (or any other perennial plants), as determined by the age at which the growth rate slows enough to cause the average annual profit over the life of the stand to begin to decrease.
+
+edaphology
+The scientific study of the influence of soils on living organisms, particularly plants, and of how soils are used and modified by humans for agriculture.
+
+edge effects
+Changes in ecological characteristics (e.g. population or community structure) associated with the boundary between two dissimilar habitat types, ecosystems, or agricultural land uses, potentially affecting the biological and ecological traits of the resident plant or animal communities.
+
+effective precipitation
+The portion of the cumulative or mean total precipitation received within a specified area, on a particular farm or field, or by an individual plant during a given time period that is or becomes available for plant growth because it is stored in the soil within the rooting depth of the plants or persists on the surface long enough to eventually drain into and occupy that rooting depth before it is lost by evaporating or running off.
+
+emblements
+
+energy crop
+Any crop grown exclusively as a source of fuel for the purpose of energy production. Such crops are processed into solid, liquid, or gaseous biofuels (as with bioethanol and biogas) which are then burned to generate power or heat for human purposes.
+
+ensiling
+See silage.
+
+entire
+Also intact.
+(of a domestic animal) Not neutered or castrated; capable of giving rise to offspring via copulation.
+
+ewe
+A female sheep, especially one that is sexually mature.
+
+exclosure
+An area of land from which grazing or browsing animals, often domestic livestock but sometimes wild animals such as deer, are excluded by fencing or other means. Fenced exclosures are common in open range areas, where it is the landowner's responsibility to keep unwanted animals off their land.
+
+extensive agriculture
+Also extensive farming.
+Any system of agricultural production that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizer, and/or capital relative to the land area used for production, in contrast to intensive agriculture.
+
+== F ==
+
+factory farming
+See intensive animal farming.
+
+fallow
+1.  (adj.) The condition of any arable land which is deliberately not planted or which is left unsown for one or more production cycles or growing seasons, usually with the intent of allowing the soil to restore depleted nutrients and other organic matter that is critical for ecological function, while retaining moisture and disrupting the life cycles of agricultural pests by temporarily removing their hosts. Fallowing is an important technique in crop rotation.
+2.  (n.) Any period of time during which arable land is not used for cultivation.
+
+fallow crop
+A crop that is grown in widely spaced rows so that it is possible to hoe and cultivate between the rows.
+
+family farm
+A farm which on average produces a harvest sufficient to support one family, or a farm which is owned and/or operated by a single family, as opposed to farms operated as collectives, non-family corporations, or in other institutionalized forms.
+
+farm
+An area of land devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food or other crops. In common usage the term may include ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations, smallholdings and hobby farms, fish farms, and even industrial operations such as wind farms.
+
+farm assurance
+A type of agricultural product certification that emphasizes the principles of quality assurance and signals to consumers that the certified producer has adhered to a particular set of standards and principles during production, such as in good agricultural practice.
+
+farm crisis
+A predominantly American term for an agricultural recession.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-12.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 13/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+farm gate value
+The market value of an agricultural product minus the subsequent costs of transporting, storing, marketing, and selling the product to a consumer; the net value of the product as it is at the "farm gate", i.e. upon leaving the agricultural operation, before such costs are added to the market price. The market or retail price paid by the consumer is often far higher than the amount the farmer actually receives for the product, particularly if the farmer sells wholesale to a retailer rather than directly to the end consumer as in farm gate marketing.
+
+farm stand
+Also farm shop.
+A type of retail outlet which sells fresh produce directly from a particular farm or group of farms. Direct sales to consumers allow farmers to retain a larger portion of the resulting profit than they can usually obtain by selling to a wholesaler. See also farmers' market.
+
+farm water
+Water that is committed for use in agriculture of any type. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops as well as in the watering of livestock.
+
+farm-to-fork
+The tracing or connecting of all stages of the supply chain of a food from production to consumption.
+
+farm-to-market
+A movement in sustainable agriculture that promotes the sale of farm products by the farmers or producers themselves directly to the end-consumers, as opposed to indirectly via intermediate retailers.
+
+farm-to-table
+Also sometimes farm-to-fork.
+A movement in sustainable agriculture which promotes the consumption of locally produced foods, and particularly the serving of such foods at public establishments such as restaurants and school cafeterias. This is usually accomplished by purchasing food directly from the farmers or producers (rather than an intermediate retailer), or by the restaurant or school cultivating its own food. Farm-to-table emphasizes food traceability, freshness, and environmental awareness. The idea is central to the practice of locavorism.
+
+farmer
+A person who owns or works on a farm; or anyone who participates in agricultural production, especially the raising of field crops, poultry, or livestock.
+
+farmers' co-op
+See agricultural cooperative.
+
+farmers' market
+A retail marketplace, often outdoors, where farmers are able to sell fresh produce, live plants and animals, and sometimes prepared foods and other agricultural products directly to consumers (rather than to a wholesaler). These markets are often community-organized businesses consisting of multiple farm stands operated independently by individual farmers, who are free to set up a booth or table and sell their own goods at prices they set themselves.
+
+farming
+The practice of intentionally performing an agricultural activity, such as growing crops or raising livestock, on land dedicated to the purpose, known as a farm. The term is often used very loosely to refer to many different agricultural processes of different scales and with different goals, or, in the broadest sense, as a synonym for agriculture in general.
+
+farmland
+See agricultural land.
+
+farmstead
+The set of buildings and service areas associated with a farm or other agricultural holding, traditionally including residential accommodations such as a farmhouse for the operator's family as well as various buildings dedicated to the particularities of agricultural production, including pens, yards, stables, and corrals for housing draft animals or livestock; barns, silos, and mangers for storing crops, grains, or animal fodder; garages and sheds for storing farm vehicles and equipment; and other structures involved in the processing of raw materials into commercial products. The farmstead as a whole typically consists of a core complex of such buildings as well as clusters of outlying buildings.
+
+farrow
+A young domestic pig, or a litter of newborn pigs. See also piglet.
+
+farrowing
+The process of giving birth in swine, by which a pregnant sow gives birth to a farrow.
+
+fatling
+A young animal, e.g. a calf or lamb, that has been fattened in preparation for slaughter.
+
+fatstock
+Livestock which have been fattened in order to be slaughtered for meat, particularly those animals that have achieved the target weight and conformation required for slaughter.
+
+fattening
+See finishing.
+
+feather meal
+A protein supplement included in some formulated animal feed and organic fertilizers as a nitrogen source, made by grinding and drying poultry feathers under elevated heat and pressure.
+
+fed cattle
+Cattle at the time they leave a feedlot, i.e. after fattening and finishing, when they are ready to be sold for slaughter.
+
+feed
+See fodder.
+
+feed grain
+Any cereal grain grown specifically so that it can be used as fodder to feed livestock. Corn, barley, and sorghum are commonly grown for this purpose.
+
+feeder
+1.  A receptacle from which domestic animals are fed, such as a manger or a hayrack. Some feeders have separate compartments for fresh forage and concentrate feed.
+2.  Any farm implement or machine used to distribute animal feed.
+3.  A domestic animal raised for its meat that is of sufficient age and weight to be placed into a feedlot for finishing prior to slaughter.
+
+feedlot
+Also feed yard.
+An animal feeding operation consisting of a densely concentrated area of enclosures or pens containing individual animals, which is used for the efficient raising, fattening, and finishing of numerous livestock prior to slaughter, especially beef cattle, but also swine, horses, sheep, and poultry.
+
+fencerow
+The area of ground immediately adjacent to a fence that is left unmowed or untilled because it is difficult or inconvenient to maneuver large agricultural machinery in this space without removing or damaging the fence. Grasses and weeds are therefore able to grow unrestricted in this area, often providing shelter for birds and wild animals, unless more precise tools are employed.
+
+fertigation
+The application of fertilizers, soil amendments, or other water-soluble compounds to agricultural land by mixing them with the water distributed by an irrigation system.
+
+fertilizer
+Also fertiliser.
+Any natural or synthetic material that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply one or more nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
+
+fiber crop
+Any crop plant cultivated for the fiber that can be produced from it, e.g. cotton, flax, sisal, and jute.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-13.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 14/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+field
+Any area of land, enclosed or otherwise, used for agricultural purposes, such as for the cultivation of crops or as a paddock for livestock.
+
+field crop
+Any crop suited to cultivation in a large open field, or which must generally be grown in great quantities, on a larger scale than in gardens, in order to produce a meaningful yield, such as most cereals, hay, and cotton.
+
+field day
+A large public trade show for the agricultural industry at which agricultural equipment, techniques, and business ideas are exhibited and demonstrated.
+
+filly
+An immature female horse, too young to be called a mare (generally less than four or five years old).
+
+filter strip
+Also conservation buffer or buffer strip.
+A strip of grass or other dense, permanent vegetation lining the edge of an agricultural field and acting as a buffer zone between the field and its surrounding environment, usually designed with the primary goal of controlling non-point source pollution by filtering agricultural surface runoff before it drains into an adjacent body of water, e.g. a pond, lake, stream, diversion terrace, or irrigation canal. The roots of the vegetation trap and remove agrichemicals including fertilizers and pesticides from the runoff and may also help reduce sediment erosion, thereby preventing the contamination and eutrophication of natural ecosystems.
+
+finishing
+Also fattening.
+The bringing of livestock such as cattle up to market weight, or the weight at which they are ready to be slaughtered, by feeding them. Some ranching operations specialize in finishing, buying young weanlings from a breeder, fattening them on fodder or forage, and then selling them to a slaughterhouse.
+
+fire farming
+The use of fire to clear patches of land for cultivation. See also slash-and-burn and shifting cultivation.
+
+fired
+(of a plant's lower stems or stalks) Extremely dry or desiccated due to drought or nutrient deficiency.
+
+fish emulsion
+A nutrient-rich emulsion used as a fertilizer for plant crops, produced from the liquid remains of fish which have been industrially processed for fish oil or fish meal.
+
+fish farming
+See pisciculture.
+
+fixing
+See neutering.
+
+flash grazing
+The practice of moving numerous head of grazing livestock into the same area of pasture for a very brief period before moving them to a new area, in order to prevent the excessive growth of forage. See also undergrazing.
+
+flat planting
+The sowing of seed upon flat, unfurrowed land using a planter that minimizes disturbance to the smooth soil surface.
+
+flood irrigation
+Any method of surface irrigation that covers the entire cultivated soil surface with water, usually to a specific depth and for a specific duration. Flood irrigation may be carefully controlled, as with basin irrigation and border irrigation, or may simply rely on the natural flooding of adjacent rivers and streams.
+
+fleece
+The shorn wool of an individual sheep, especially when in the form of grease wool (i.e. newly shorn and not yet scoured or processed).
+
+flock
+A group or herd of sheep; or a group of birds such as poultry, especially when travelling together.
+
+floriculture
+Also flower farming.
+A branch of horticulture involving the cultivation of flowering plants and ornamental plants for gardens and landscaping as well as for commercial floristry.
+
+flushing
+In animal husbandry, the practice of changing the diet fed to female livestock prior to breeding, with the intention of stimulating the estrous cycle and increasing ovulation rate.
+
+foal
+A young equine animal (a horse or donkey) of either sex, usually less than one year old. A male foal may be called a colt and a female foal may be called a filly, though these terms may also be used for juvenile animals that are older than one year of age.
+
+foaling
+The process of giving birth in horses or donkeys, by which a pregnant mare gives birth to a foal.
+
+fodder
+Also provender, animal feed, or simply feed.
+Any agricultural foodstuff used to feed domesticated livestock, and more specifically food given to the animals directly (such as hay, straw, silage, and compound feeds), as opposed to that which they forage for themselves.
+
+food security
+The availability of edible food within a country or other geographic area and the ability of humans within that area to access, afford, and attain sufficient, safe, and nutritious foodstuffs, either by gathering, producing, or importing them, in order to meet their dietary needs for active and healthy lifestyles.
+
+food systems
+The totality of interconnected principles, processes, and infrastructures that influence food, nutrition, health, and agriculture in human communities; i.e. the complete set of components involved in feeding a human population, including the growth, management, harvesting, processing, packaging, storage, distribution, marketing, consumption, and disposal of agricultural food products and food-related items. Food systems encompass the entire range of actors and their value-adding activities in the lifespan of a food product from production to consumption, and thus operate within and are influenced by numerous social, political, economic, technological, and environmental contexts at various steps in the process.
+
+foodscaping
+Also edible landscaping.
+The practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes, cultivating them not only for the food they produce but also for their aesthetic qualities.
+
+foodshed
+The geographic region which produces most or all of the food consumed in a particular place or by a particular population, by analogy with a watershed.
+
+food-feed system
+An integrated livestock-crop production system in which crops are harvested for human consumption and then the crop residues or byproducts are used as feed for livestock, often on the same or nearby agricultural land.
+
+foliar feeding
+The practice of providing supplemental nutrition to plants by applying liquid fertilizer directly to their leaves, stems, or bark, as opposed to their roots, which are the usual target for conventional fertilizing methods. Most plants are perfectly capable of absorbing nutrients through these aboveground parts, and there may be good reasons to prefer that the nutrients travel by these routes rather than through the soil surrounding the roots.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-14.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 15/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+forage
+Any plant material, especially leaves and stems, eaten by grazing livestock, especially that which is grazed by animals in pastures. In a looser sense it may also include fodder (plant material deliberately cut and given to animals as food).
+
+forcing
+The practice of intentionally breaking the dormancy of a cultivated plant and encouraging germination, active growth, and/or flowering and fruiting outside of its natural growing season (e.g. in the winter). This involves exposing a seed or other propagule, or a mature perennial plant, to a specific sequence of carefully controlled environmental conditions (e.g. cold stratification) intended to simulate the environmental cues the plant normally receives at the beginning of its seasonal growth cycle, which trigger the internal chemical reactions that cause it to grow and develop. The term is used particularly in the indoor horticulture of plants that grow from bulbs, corms, or rhizomes, but can also refer more broadly to the off-season cultivation of any plant or propagule.
+
+forest farming
+A practice in agroforestry involving the cultivation of high-value specialty crops under a forest canopy that is deliberately modified or maintained to provide habitat and shade levels which enhance crop yields. Most crops produced by such methods are non-timber forest products or niche crops such as ginseng and certain varieties of mushroom.
+
+founder
+Also laminitis.
+Inflammation of connective tissues known as laminae in the hoof of an animal, especially horses and cattle, which over time can displace bones in the foot and in severe cases render the animal unable to walk or stand up. It can have many causes, including cold weather, excessive stress, and overeating grain or green forage.
+
+free range
+A method of animal farming and animal husbandry in which the animals are permitted to roam freely outdoors, rather than being confined in enclosures, for at least part of each day. Though in practice the outdoor ranging area is usually fenced-in and therefore technically also an enclosure, free-range systems offer the opportunity for extensive locomotion, fresh air, and sunlight that is otherwise reduced or entirely prevented by indoor housing systems. The term may apply to farming for meat, eggs, or dairy products; in ranching, it is sometimes used interchangeably with open range.
+
+freemartin
+An infertile female bovine animal (a cow) that shows masculinized behavior, in particular one that is born as a twin to a male animal and, despite being phenotypically female, is actually a genetic chimera, having acquired some XY cells by exchange of cellular material with the male twin in utero, causing various hormonal alterations to normal female reproductive development.
+
+freshening
+The process by which cows naturally begin to produce milk after a calf is born.
+
+frost control
+Any of a variety of measures taken to reduce or prevent damage to agricultural crops caused by extremely cold temperatures, especially plants on farms, in gardens, and in orchards. Common frost control methods include covering crop plants with cold frames, keeping soils wet with continuous irrigation, and providing supplementary heat sources such as smudge pots.
+
+fruticulture
+See pomology.
+
+fryer
+A chicken of either sex between 8 and 12 weeks of age and weighing 3 to 4 pounds (1.4 to 1.8 kg), especially one raised specifically for meat production. The term is often used interchangeably with broiler.
+
+fuelwood
+Any wood intended for use in cooking, heating, or power generation, valuable for its ability to produce large amounts of energy when burned. It may come from trees cultivated specifically for this purpose, or from wild trees and shrubs, either as trimmings from the woody trunks and branches of live plants or from dead logs, brush, or other woody debris.
+
+fungiculture
+The cultivation of fungi with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, such as foods, medicines, or scientific research materials.
+
+fur farming
+The practice of breeding or raising certain animal species in order to harvest their fur.
+
+furrow irrigation
+A type of irrigation which relies on long, shallow, parallel channels, known as furrows, dug into the soil along the length of an agricultural field to deliver water to crops planted on the ridges between the furrows. Water is applied to one end of the furrows, which are often aligned in the direction of the field's predominant natural slope, and flows down the furrows by gravity. Furrow irrigation is particularly suited to broadacre row crops such as cotton, maize, and sugarcane.
+
+== G ==
+
+garden
+Any indoor or outdoor space reserved for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of wild or domesticated plants and other organisms; i.e. a plot of land dedicated to horticulture, being managed and maintained by humans in a practice known as gardening, generally on a scale smaller than most farming operations.
+
+gardening
+The horticultural practice of growing and cultivating plants in a garden, indoors or outdoors, whether for consumption of the produce or for aesthetic reasons, and often as a hobby or to make use of available space on residential, commercial, or civic land. Gardening involves active participation in the entire process of cultivation and tends to be labor-intensive, which distinguishes it from the much larger-scale mechanized or automated operations often encountered in farming and forestry.
+
+gelding
+1.  A castrated male horse, or more generally any animal deliberately made sterile, especially one that was castrated before reaching reproductive maturity.
+2.  The process of castrating or neutering an animal for any reason, commonly for mitigating aggressive behavior and/or preventing unwanted intercourse in very large domestic livestock such as cattle and horses.
+
+genetically modified organism (GMO)
+
+germination
+The sprouting of a seedling from a plant seed, the development of a sporeling from a spore, or the growth of a pollen tube from the pollen grain of a seed plant.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-15.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 16/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+gestation crate
+Also farrowing crate or sow stall.
+An enclosure in which a domestic sow used for breeding is confined during pregnancy. Often these cages are not much larger than the sow herself, being designed to maximize breeding efficiency for industrial-scale production, and hence are banned in some jurisdictions for being detrimental to animal welfare. See also maternity pen.
+
+ghost acres
+That land area in less developed countries on which agricultural products are produced cheaply for export to more developed countries.
+
+gilt
+A young female hog, usually less than one year old.
+
+ginning
+The process of separating cotton fibers from the seeds they naturally enclose, particularly when performed by a machine which does so automatically, known as a cotton gin. Both the fibers and seeds may then be processed further.
+
+glasshouse
+See greenhouse.
+
+gleaning
+The practice of collecting unharvested crops from fields or obtaining unused agricultural products from farmers, processors, or retailers, often for distribution to food banks or charitable organizations.
+
+glyphosate
+An organophosphorus compound widely used as a post-emergent broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant, especially to kill annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crop plants. It is the primary ingredient in the herbicide Roundup.
+
+goad
+Also cattle prod or simply prod.
+A pointed stick, sometimes electrified, used to drive or guide livestock, especially cattle, both draft animals and grazing herds.
+
+gobbler
+A mature male turkey.
+
+good agricultural practice (GAP)
+Any collection of specific principles or methods applied by agricultural producers in order to create food or non-food products that are safe, healthy, and wholesome for consumers while also taking into account economic, social, and environmental sustainability. GAPs may be applied to a wide range of production systems and at different scales, and often vary with geographical context.
+
+grain
+Any small, hard, dry seed (with or without the outer shell or other parts of the fruit) that is harvested for human or animal consumption, or the plant from which these seeds are harvested. Crops considered grains include all cereals (such as maize, wheat, and rice) as well as pseudocereals (amaranth, buckwheat, quinoa), certain legumes (soybeans and lentils), and certain oilseed plants (rapeseed and flax).
+
+grain drying
+The process of removing or reducing the moisture content of harvested grain to prevent spoilage during storage. Drying may occur by natural means, e.g. exposing the grain to air and sunshine, or by artificial fuel- or electric-powered processes, or both.
+
+grain elevator
+Also simply elevator.
+A tower containing a bucket elevator or pneumatic conveyor designed to carry harvested grain upwards from a lower level (often from some type of transport) and deposit it into a silo or grain bin for long-term storage. The term may also refer more specifically to the elevator mechanism itself, known as a grain leg; or more generally to a complex of agricultural buildings containing an elevator, as well as offices, weighbridges, and storage facilities, or to a business or organization that operates or controls multiple elevators in different locations. Grain elevators facilitate the mechanical movement of bulk quantities of grain into vertical storage bins with valves at the bottom, which function as enormous hoppers from which the grain can later be dispensed into trucks or barges by gravity alone, obviating the difficult and time-consuming labor of manually lifting and moving individual containers of grain from place to place. The introduction of this system in the 19th century popularized the modern collective storage model whereby a grain elevator rents storage space to farmers and millers, who pay to store their harvested grain at the elevator instead of in their own barns.
+grain leg
+Also grain elevator or bucket elevator.
+A mechanism for hauling flowable bulk materials vertically, commonly grain as the central operation of a grain elevator. Modern grain legs typically consist of a pneumatic conveyor belt with attached bins or buckets which lift grain from an in-ground pit and carry it to the top of the leg, where the buckets tip as they rotate over the head drive wheel, spilling the grain into a system of pipes which distribute it by gravity or additional conveyors to grain bins for storage.
+
+grain spear
+An instrument used to measure the temperature and moisture content of stored grain, consisting of a thermometer and hygrometer attached to the end of a long rod which is pushed into the center of a bulk volume of the grain.
+
+granary
+A storage facility for threshed or husked grain.
+
+grass-fed
+Describing livestock such as cattle which have been raised exclusively on grass, pasture, or other forages (wild or cultivated), as opposed to being fed processed animal feeds.
+
+grass sickness
+Also equine dysautonomia.
+A rare but often fatal neurological disease resulting in paralysis of the involuntary muscles of the digestive system, capable of affecting all ruminant mammals but especially equines such as horses, ponies, and donkeys. Symptoms include colic, patchy sweating, muscle wasting, dysphagia, and rapid weight loss. The exact cause remains unknown but the soil-borne bacterium Clostridium botulinum (responsible for botulism) has been suggested.
+
+grazier
+Also pastoralist or runholder.
+A person engaged in pastoral farming and the raising of grazing livestock. The term is used primarily in Australia and other former British Commonwealth territories, and has the same meaning as the North American term rancher.
+
+grazing
+1.  A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds on grasses and other non-woody vegetation, as opposed to browsing, which involves feeding on taller trees and shrubs.
+2.  A method of animal husbandry which relies on this type of herbivory, whereby domestic livestock such as cattle are allowed to roam freely, often on wild pasture that is unsuitable for farming, in order to graze wild grasses and other forage.
+
+grease wool
+Wool recently shorn from a sheep, before any processing.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 17/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+green chop
+Forage that is cut or harvested in the field while still green and succulent and then fed directly to livestock as fresh fodder (in contrast to hay and other types of feed which have been dried and stored). If wrapped and allowed to ferment, it can be made into silage.
+
+green manure
+Fresh or recently living plant material sourced from crop residues or even whole plants which is ploughed or tilled into the soil while still green (and usually when the plant tissues have reached peak maturity, often shortly after flowering and before developing seeds) so that it can serve as a mulch or an organic fertilizer. This is in contrast to brown manure, which consists of wilted or decayed plants that are simply left on the soil surface. Plants used for green manure are often cover crops grown specifically for this purpose and tilled into the same field in which a cash crop is subsequently cultivated.
+
+Green Revolution
+Also called the Third Agricultural Revolution.
+The dramatic increase in agricultural production that occurred worldwide during the second half of the 20th century, primarily due to the adoption of modern scientific methods of farming and large-scale management techniques; the development of high-yielding varieties of many crop plants (especially cereal grains); the expansion of irrigation infrastructures; the mechanization of many agricultural tasks with modern agricultural machinery; and the increase in the availability and use of chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, all of which led to a marked increase in production rates, farm yields, food quality and consistency, and crop prices in most parts of the world. The Green Revolution also accordingly led to an increase in land conversion and consolidation and the emergence of mass-market industrial agriculture, as well as to concerns about sustainability and the impact of agricultural practices on public health and the environment.
+
+greenhouse
+Also glasshouse.
+A building or structure designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of the environment inside, generally by having roofs and walls made of transparent panes of glass or plastic which permit sunlight to enter the interior but prevent heat from leaving it, effectively trapping solar energy inside and thereby heating the interior space to temperatures well above those of the outdoor environment. Thus greenhouses provide warm, sheltered environments where plants can grow even when the outdoor weather is cold and unsuitable, while still permitting enough sunlight for photosynthesis. This greenhouse effect is widely employed in agriculture and horticulture at many different scales (e.g. in cold frames and polytunnels) as a method of season extension or of controlled-environment agriculture. Greenhouses are usually designed to be easily ventilated (to prevent temperatures from increasing too much) and to supply or trap moisture as well as heat; in modern practice these systems are often fully automated.
+
+grelinette
+See broadfork.
+
+grist
+Grain that has been separated from its chaff in preparation for grinding in a mill; less commonly, the term is also used to describe grain after the process of grinding, i.e. grain that has already been ground.
+
+gristmill
+A mill that grinds grist (grain that has been separated from its chaff) into flour and middlings. The term may refer to either the grinding mechanism itself or the building that contains it.
+
+groundcover
+Wild or cultivated plants covering an area of land, thereby protecting the soil beneath from erosion and drought. See also cover crop.
+
+growing degree-days (GDD)
+
+growing season
+The part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e. temperature and precipitation) permit the normal growth of plants in a given location. Though the timing of plant growth and reproduction can vary widely by species, many plants adapted to the same environment show considerable phenological overlap, and so the term commonly refers to a single generic season that encompasses a majority of the plants or crops growing in a given location. In many places, the local "growing season" is defined as the period of time between the average date of the last frost (typically in the spring or early summer) and the average date of the first frost (typically in the autumn).
+
+== H ==
+
+hake bar
+A coupling device which links a trailed plough to a tractor.
+
+hardpan
+Also plough pan.
+Any dense, resistant layer of soil, usually found below the uppermost topsoil, that is difficult to dig or till and largely impervious to water and root growth. Hardpans can vary in thickness and depth below the surface; some form naturally from deposits such as silica that fuse and bind the soil particles, while others are human-made such as those caused by chronic soil compaction as a result of repeated ploughing, heavy traffic, or pollution.
+
+harrow
+A farm implement used to break up and smooth out the surface of a plot of soil. Harrowing often follows coarser ploughing, generally with the purpose of breaking up large lumps of soil so as to provide a better tilth that is suitable for use as a seedbed, and sometimes also to remove weeds or to cover seed after sowing.
+
+harvest
+1.  To collect an agricultural product from a mature crop, a process known as harvesting.
+2.  The collected crop itself, considered as a whole; or the season in which harvesting occurs, generally marking the final phase of the agricultural cycle or growing season for the particular crop. The harvest is often the busiest time of year on a commercial farm.
+
+harvest index
+The weight of the harvested grain portion of a grain crop as a percentage of the total above-ground dry weight of the crop plants at maturity.
+
+harvested acres
+For a particular crop, the number of acres of cropland that are actually harvested, as opposed to planted but not harvested. At the national level, this statistic is usually lower than the total number of planted acres due to abandonment caused by weather damage or low market prices at some point during the growing season, or because the crop is repurposed for livestock grazing.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 18/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+harvesting
+The process of gathering a ripe crop from an agricultural area such as a field or greenhouse. Harvesting is often the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season or utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated implements or machinery. In general usage, the term may also include immediate postharvest practices such as cleaning, sorting, packing, cooling, and storing the gathered crops.
+
+haulm
+The stalks and stems left as residues by the harvesting of certain crops, especially peas, beans, and potatoes.
+
+hay
+Grasses, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored as fodder for animals, especially livestock.
+
+hay bucking
+The manual labor of lifting and moving heavy bales of hay by hand, each usually weighing 50–150 pounds (23–68 kg), for the purpose of stacking them in a storage area or on the bed of a vehicle for transportation. The act of throwing bales up above one's head to stack them is called "bucking hay". This labor is notoriously strenuous and physically demanding. Teams of laborers often work together, wearing chaps and using hay hooks to handle the bales. The same task may also be accomplished mechanically with forklifts, balers, or powered elevators.
+
+hay fever
+Another name for allergic rhinitis, a type of inflammation predominantly in the nose and eyes resulting from an immune reaction to any of a wide variety of airborne allergens, including but not limited to pollen grains from grasses and other plants. The term is often used to describe the sudden onset of symptoms following inhalation of the dry particulate dust associated with manufacturing and handling hay, though it is now also used colloquially to refer to allergic reactions of any cause.
+
+hay knife
+A handheld agricultural tool consisting of a long-bladed knife, sometimes with a serrated edge, that is used for cutting or sawing through compact bundles, sheaves, or bales of hay or silage.
+
+hay rake
+A type of rake used to collect cut hay or straw into windrows for later collection (e.g. by a baler) and/or to "fluff up" the hay so that it dries more quickly.
+
+hay steaming
+A method of treating harvested hay by placing it in an airtight vessel and exposing it to high-temperature moisture, which dampens the respirable dust that occurs naturally in dried hay, preventing it from becoming airborne and thereby reducing its inhalation by humans and livestock, and also potentially killing bacterial or fungal spores which may be present.
+
+hay-sweep
+A handheld implement used to collect hay from swaths and carry it to a haystack.
+
+haycock
+Also haystack or simply stack or cock.
+A small pile of hay, uncompressed and left to dry in a field.
+
+haylage
+Silage with a high dry-matter content, made from the same grasses or legumes from which hay is made (such as alfalfa, timothy, and others) but not dried as much as hay nor as little as direct-chop/green-chop silage (before being ensiled).
+
+hayloft
+Also haymow.
+A storage area in the upper part of a barn or stable, used for storing hay or other fodder.
+
+hayrack
+
+hayseed
+The seed of those grasses and legumes which are used for producing hay, especially when shaken from mown hay, and therefore sometimes inclusive of weed seed.
+
+haystack
+Also hayrick or simply rick.
+1.  Another name for a stook or haycock, or more broadly for any pile of mown hay left in a field to dry, whether loosely stacked or bound and compacted.
+2.  A large number of sheaves or bales of dried hay stacked vertically one upon another, either manually or mechanically, for long-term storage. Methods of storing hay vary widely between different parts of the world, though in general they all have the same goals of keeping the hay dry and preventing spoilage. To this end haystacks are often constructed inside a barn or beneath a tarp, shelter, or moveable roof so as to protect them from the elements, and sometimes also on top of a wood or metal foundation rather than the bare ground. Small rectangular bales are stacked in a manner akin to bricklaying, overlapping or in a crisscrossed fashion, for structural stability.
+
+headland
+Also turnrow.
+A wide strip of land at each end of a planted field used for turning or maneuvering large farm machinery such as ploughs. The headland runs perpendicular to the lay of the field and may itself be planted at the beginning of the season; in such cases it is usually the first area to be harvested in order to minimize crop damage.
+
+headrace
+The part of a millrace that is upstream of the water wheel or turbine that drives the mill; the channel or sluice that conducts water from a water source to the mill. Compare tailrace.
+
+hectare (ha)
+A metric unit of area defined as the area of a square with sides of 100 by 100 metres (330 by 330 feet), equivalent to 10,000 square metres (0.003861 sq mi), or about 2.47 acres.
+
+heifer
+An adult cow that has not yet given birth to her first calf.
+
+hefting
+The process by which a flock of sheep becomes accustomed to one particular area within a larger pasture or rangeland, making individuals less likely to roam to distant areas and the flock easier to track and manage.
+
+heirloom
+
+heliciculture
+The cultivation of land snails with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, usually food or cosmetics, or as a form of biological pest control.
+
+hemerochory
+The distribution by humans, intentionally or unintentionally, of cultivated plants or their seeds, cuttings, or propagules into habitats they have been unable to colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but in which they are nonetheless able to survive and propagate without additional support from human activities.
+
+hen
+1.  A mature female chicken or other fowl.
+2.  A female lobster.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-18.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 19/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+herbicide
+A pesticide intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of unwanted plants such as weeds, by any of a wide variety of mechanisms. The most common herbicides are chemical substances which are applied directly to the foliage, stems, or roots of the target plant or to the soil or water around it. Selective herbicides are designed to be effective only against particular plant species or taxa, while leaving other plants such as agricultural crops relatively unharmed. By contrast, non-selective or broad-spectrum herbicides are capable of harming many or all types of plants, such that care must be taken when applying them so as to avoid harming valuable species. The use of chemical herbicides is a major aspect of weed control.
+
+herbicide resistance
+The development of a biological resistance to the deleterious effects of a herbicide, particularly in weeds or undesirable plants specifically targeted by and normally vulnerable to the herbicide. Such resistance is a common consequence of prolonged use of the same chemical formulation to control the same plant species, because doing so may artificially select for individual plants which express resistance traits.
+
+herding
+Also mustering.
+The act of gathering individual animals together into a group (known as a herd), maintaining the group as a unit, and/or moving the group from place to place. Many social animals, including cattle, sheep, and horses, naturally live in herds. Raising these animals as livestock involves a significant amount of time and energy managing and arranging herds, e.g. to separate animals by sex, breed, ownership, or medical status, or to move them between different grazing lands or to a marketplace.
+
+hide
+The skin of an animal, especially when removed from the animal and tanned or treated for human use, after which it is also known as leather. Domestic animals, particularly cattle, horses, sheep, and goats, are sometimes raised specifically for their hides.
+
+high tunnel
+See polytunnel.
+
+high-yielding variety (HYV)
+
+hill farming
+A type of extensive agriculture practiced in hilly, upland areas unsuitable for intensive management, typically involving the grazing of livestock and especially sheep.
+
+hilling
+Also ridging or earthing up.
+The piling of soil around the base of a plant, creating a small mound or ridge of earth, so as to aid plant growth in any of a variety of ways, often by improving retention of water or soil amendments.
+
+hinny
+A domestic hybrid equine that is the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey; i.e. the reciprocal cross to the mule.
+
+hobby farm
+A small farm or smallholding that is operated without the expectation of it being a primary source of food or income. Hobby farms may provide a secondary income or may be maintained for other reasons, e.g. in order to provide recreational land for people or animals, or simply for the pleasure of doing so, i.e. as a hobby or passion project.
+
+hoe
+A handheld tool or farm implement generally consisting of a flat, moderately sharpened metal blade, often square or pointed, that is attached at an acute angle to a long handle intended to be held with two hands. Hoes come in many shapes and sizes and are widely used in agriculture and horticulture for a huge variety of purposes, including digging, shaping, and tilling soil, removing weeds, harvesting crops by cutting stems or roots, and clearing the soil after harvest by burying or raking crop residues.
+
+hog
+Another name for a pig or domesticated swine, especially one weighing at least 120 pounds (54 kg) and being prepared for market.
+
+hog off
+To harvest a grain crop by allowing domestic pigs to eat it when the grain is nearly ripe, often because it is a poor crop that is not worth harvesting for market.
+
+hogget
+A domestic sheep between one and two years old that has not yet been sheared, or the meat or wool of such an animal.
+
+hogging
+Also roaching.
+The complete removal of the mane of a horse or pony by cutting, usually to keep the animal clean or for aesthetic reasons.
+
+home-grown
+Cultivated or produced locally, as with crops or livestock raised on one's own property (especially on land that also serves as the grower's place of residence, e.g. in a household garden), on a nearby farm, or in the same state or nation where they are offered for sale and consumption.
+
+honey plant
+Any plant used by bees as a source of nectar for making honey, especially one that imparts a distinctive flavor to the honey made from it. Examples include alfalfa, buckwheat, clover, goldenrod, mesquite, and sumac.
+
+honey wagon
+See manure spreader.
+
+hoophouse
+See polytunnel.
+
+hop kiln
+See oast.
+
+hopper
+A container with a hole at the bottom used to distribute bulk quantities of granular or particulate material by gravity at a consistent rate. Hoppers are employed in a wide variety of applications, commonly for sowing seeds; spreading granulated or pelletized fertilizers, pesticides, or other soil amendments; and feeding livestock.
+
+horticulture
+The cultivation of plants for any purpose, including for food, materials, and decoration. Horticulturists apply a variety of knowledge, skills, and technologies relevant to plant growth and propagation, typically in intensively managed gardens, in order to grow plants for subsistence purposes, for profit, for scientific research, or for personal or social needs.
+
+hot dressed carcass weight
+See dressed weight.
+
+hotbed
+An area of decaying organic matter (e.g. manure) that is warmer than its surroundings as a result of the decomposition of organic substances by microorganisms. Hotbeds enclosed by a small glass cover are often used as a kind of natural hothouse.
+
+hothouse
+A heated greenhouse.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 20/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+humus
+1.  A characteristically dark-colored, nutrient-rich organic matter in soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals; a topsoil horizon containing a large accumulation of organic carbon.
+2.  In agriculture, any natural compost gathered from a woodland or some spontaneous source and used as a soil amendment to aid crop nutrition and improve moisture retention.
+3.  The solid residues that are a byproduct of the sewage sludge treatment of wastewater, which are also sometimes composted and added to agricultural soils.
+
+hundredweight (cwt)
+Also centum weight or quintal.
+A unit of weight or mass used in the United States and British Commonwealth territories and defined differently in each: the short hundredweight or cental, used in the U.S. customary system, is defined as exactly 100 pounds (45.4 kilograms), while the long or imperial hundredweight, used in the British imperial system, is defined as 112 pounds (50.8 kilograms). In agriculture, the weight of harvested crops or produce is sometimes reported in hundredweight.
+
+husbandry
+
+husk
+The protective outer coating or shell of a seed, especially of a cereal grain such as wheat, or the leafy outer casing that surrounds an ear of maize. The husk is generally removed and discarded during the harvest by threshing, winnowing, or husking.
+
+hybrid
+An offspring resulting from sexual reproduction between parent organisms belonging to different breeds, strains, varieties, species, or genera, thereby combining different biological characteristics in a single organism. The traits of hybrids are often mixtures of their parents' traits or are intermediate between them, though they may also differ substantially from either parent, as with hybrid vigor.
+
+hybrid vigor
+Also heterosis or outbreeding enhancement.
+Improved or increased size, strength, durability, yield, or any other biological function or quality in a hybrid offspring, relative to the same characteristics as observed in its parents.
+
+hydroponics
+
+== I ==
+
+idle land
+Land that is arable, tillable, or generally in a condition suitable for the cultivation of agricultural crops without first requiring major modifications such as clearing of vegetation or rocks or drainage of water, but which nonetheless is not being cultivated, fallowed, or used as pasture.
+
+in-bye
+An area of enclosed land surrounded by a hedge or fence near a farmstead, most commonly used as permanent pasture. The term is used primarily in the United Kingdom, where it usually refers to relatively sheltered pasture below the more open moorland to which sheep or cattle may be moved for the winter or during inclement weather.
+
+incubator
+In the poultry industry, a heated space in which newly laid eggs are placed in order to keep them warm and sheltered prior to hatching, simulating natural avian incubation in a controlled environment at optimal temperature and humidity and sometimes featuring an automated mechanism capable of periodically turning the eggs as well.
+
+indicator species
+Any species whose natural (i.e. uncultivated) presence or status can reveal the qualitative health or condition of its local environment, often by suggesting the existence of one or more specific environmental characteristics, e.g. wetness, salinity, acidity, etc.
+
+industrial agriculture
+
+industrial crop
+Also technical crop.
+Any crop that is specifically grown in order to yield a useful product for human industrial processes, such as fuels, fibers, oils, rubber, chemicals, resins, waxes, or dyes; the term generally also includes energy crops.
+
+input
+
+insecticide
+A pesticide intended to kill or incapacitate insects, either by targeting adult insects or by preventing the growth and development of insect eggs or larvae. Insecticides may be effective against a broad spectrum of different types of insects or may target particular species or taxa. In common usage, the term may also include pesticides intended for other kinds of arthropods which are not technically insects, such as mites and ticks. See also miticide.
+
+intact
+See entire.
+
+integrated farming (IF)
+Also integrated farm management (IFM) or integrated production (IP).
+A holistic approach to farming which combines traditional practices with modern tools and technologies in an effort to optimize both productivity and sustainability, ensuring a low environmental impact without compromising the quality or quantity of agricultural products. This philosophy views the farm and its surroundings as an intricately connected agroecosystem and integrates knowledge from numerous disciplines in order to match cultivation techniques as closely as possible to the demands of specific crops and to the farm's specific location and circumstances. Particular emphasis is placed on organic methods, efficient use of resources, careful management of soil integrity and fertility, attention to nutrient cycles, preservation of biodiversity, precision technologies, health and welfare of domestic animals, adherence to ethical criteria, and in general balancing all inputs and activities with the objectives of protecting the environment, maintaining economic profitability, and fulfilling social or cultural requirements.
+
+intensive agriculture
+Also intensive farming.
+Any system of agricultural production that uses relatively large inputs of labor, fertilizer, and/or capital per unit land area and is accordingly characterized by high production outputs, in contrast to extensive agriculture. In the developed world, most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways.
+
+intensive animal farming
+Also factory farming.
+An intensive approach to animal husbandry and the production of animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs, practiced at very large scales and intended to maximize productivity while minimizing expenses. It is generally characterized by raising very large numbers of livestock (e.g. cattle, pigs, poultry, and fish) simultaneously at high densities (e.g. on feedlots), using modern machinery to mechanize or automate agricultural tasks, and incorporating biotechnology methods (e.g. growth hormones) to increase yields, decrease production times, and prevent losses from pests and disease. Primarily practiced by corporate agribusinesses in the developed world, its outputs are often marketed globally and are major contributors to worldwide food surpluses, though it has also been criticized for environmental and ethical issues.
+
+intercropping
+Also interculture.
+A type of multiple cropping involving the cultivation of two or more crops in proximity, usually with the goal of producing a greater yield within a given area of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-2.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 3/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+animal-free agriculture
+Also veganic farming.
+Any agricultural practice or farming method that does not make use of animals or animal products, such as farmed animal manures. Animal-free agriculture may use organic or non-organic techniques.
+
+apiculture
+Also beekeeping.
+The maintenance of colonies of bees, commonly in human-made beehives, by humans for any of a variety of purposes, including collecting honey or other products created by bees, pollinating crops, and breeding bees for sale. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary and a person who practices apiculture is called an apiarist or beekeeper.
+
+aquaculture
+Also aquafarming.
+The cultivation of aquatic organisms in either freshwater or saltwater habitats, including fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, and others, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans. Branches of aquaculture include pisciculture, algaculture, and mariculture.
+
+aquaponics
+A variant of hydroponic agriculture that recycles nutrient-rich waters sourced from an aquaculture operation and uses them to feed hydroponically grown plants.
+
+arable land
+Any land which is capable of producing viable agricultural crops in its present state, and which does not require substantial clearing or other improvements apart from routine tillage operations. This may include both natural, unaltered landscapes that are fertile enough to immediately support agriculture, as well as land that has been made arable by previous modification and cultivation. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and agricultural land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct.
+
+arboricide
+1.  A pesticide intended to kill trees, shrubs, or other woody plants. See also herbicide.
+2.  The intentional or unintentional killing of trees.
+
+artificial daylight supplementation
+
+artificial selection
+Also selective breeding.
+The process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively control the development of particular phenotypic traits in organisms by choosing which individual organisms will reproduce and create offspring. Artificial selection involves the deliberate exploitation of knowledge about genetics and reproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics in descendant organisms. It is widely practiced in agriculture, but it may also be unintentional and may produce unintended results.
+
+assarting
+The act of clearing forested land in order to prepare it for agriculture or other purposes.
+
+== B ==
+
+backfat
+The fat covering the back of a live animal or a carcass, especially beef cattle. The amount of backfat on an animal is often used as a metric for estimating yield before it is slaughtered.
+
+backgrounding
+The preparation of young cattle for living in a feedlot by getting them accustomed to confinement facilities and processed feed.
+
+bale
+1.  A large cylindrical or rectangular bundle of compressed hay, straw, cotton, wool, or other plant or animal fibers which have been compacted and bound together by twine, wire, netting, or plastic wrap for easy movement and handling. Bales are usually made by machines known as balers.
+2.  A unit of measurement of hay, equal to 10 flakes or approximately 70–90 pounds (32–41 kilograms).
+
+baler
+Also hay baler.
+A large farm machine used to cut and compress raked crops, commonly hay, cotton, and silage, into compact bales that are easier to handle, transport, and store. Balers may be towed by or mounted upon a tractor, or they may be self-propelled; they can produce bales of various shapes and sizes, variously bound with twine, strapping, netting, or baling wire.
+
+bale wrapper
+A tractor-drawn implement which automates the action of completely surrounding bales of hay with plastic, triggering the natural anoxic fermentation that turns hay into silage.
+
+barbed wire
+Also sometimes barb wire.
+A type of agricultural fencing consisting of two to five metal rungs or strands, each made from paired steel wires twisted together, with sharp, pointed, nail-like barbs attached at regular intervals. The barbs are intended to poke or scratch livestock and wild animals, discouraging them from climbing or destroying the fence. Barbed wire is widely popular on rangeland and in many other contexts because it is much cheaper and easier to erect than alternative types of fencing.
+
+barn
+A large agricultural building serving any of a wide variety of purposes, especially as storage space for hay, grain, harvested crops, animal feed, or farm equipment, or as a shelter to house livestock.
+
+barnyard
+A fenced-in lot or pen adjacent to a barn, used especially to enclose livestock.
+
+barrow
+A young male domestic pig that has been castrated.
+
+bearing acres
+Agricultural land or acreage on which plants are being cultivated and are of sufficient maturity to produce a commercially viable crop (even if they are not yet producing at their full capacity).
+
+beaverslide
+A device used to build very large stacks of loose, unbaled hay to be stored in place in a field, consisting of an inclined plane up which a load of hay is pushed by a pulley-operated platform or basket, as much as 30 feet (9.1 m) in height, in order to be dropped through a large gap to the ground; successive loads are piled on top of each other and allowed to compress naturally under their own weight. The resulting haystacks, which can weigh up to 20 tons, are weatherproof and can be left in the open for multiple seasons. Beaverslides were once widely used in the northwestern United States.
+
+beef cattle
+Cattle bred or raised specifically for their meat, known as beef, in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as for their milk or so that they can be employed as working animals.
+
+beefalo
+Also catalo.
+A hybrid offspring of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) and the American bison (Bison bison); when intentional, usually obtained by crossing a male bovine with a female bison.
+
+beekeeping
+See apiculture.
+
+biennial bearing
+Describing a perennial crop that alternates from year to year between extremely productive growing seasons with very high yields and extremely unproductive growing seasons where yields are relatively low and harvests are small. Many fruit trees, including apples, pears, mangoes, and apricots, as well as coffee, bear flowers and fruits that exhibit this irregular production.
+
+billy goat
+See buck.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-20.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 21/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+irrigation
+The application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals, especially for the purposes of growing agricultural crops, maintaining landscapes, or revegetating disturbed or drought-affected soils. Irrigation systems may also be used as a means of protecting crops from frost, suppressing the growth of weeds, preventing soil consolidation, providing water to livestock and keeping them cool in hot weather, and controlling airborne dust.
+
+== J ==
+
+jack
+A male donkey.
+
+jenny
+Also jennet.
+A female donkey.
+
+== K ==
+
+kernel
+The edible seed and the hard outer husk or shell of a cereal grain, especially wheat and maize; i.e. the whole grain of a cereal crop.
+
+kid
+A juvenile goat of either sex.
+
+kidding
+The process of giving birth in goats, by which a pregnant doe gives birth to a kid.
+
+== L ==
+
+lamb
+1.  A young sheep, usually less than one year old.
+2.  The meat from a young sheep less than one year old; or, in common usage, from a sheep of any age.
+
+lairage
+A holding pen or other accommodation where livestock are rested before slaughter, usually adjacent to a slaughterhouse, market, or port.
+
+lambing
+The process of giving birth in sheep, by which a pregnant ewe gives birth to a lamb.
+
+land improvement
+The process by which an area of land is altered from a natural or semi-natural state in order to make it usable for human purposes, e.g. to convert it into arable land for agriculture. Improvement for agricultural purposes typically involves extensive clearing of trees and other vegetation, removal of large rocks, tilling of soils, and/or flattening or terracing of the natural topography.
+
+landrace
+A traditional domesticated variety of a crop species that has become locally adapted over time to its specific natural and agricultural environment and has remained isolated from other wild and domesticated populations of the species. Landraces are often distinguished from cultivars and breeds in the standardized sense, although the term landrace breed is sometimes used when referring to cattle. Compare heirloom variety.
+
+lard
+A white, semi-solid fat product obtained by rendering the fatty tissue of swine, comparable to the tallow derived from cattle or sheep.
+
+layer
+A mature female chicken that lays eggs regularly. A good layer typically produces 200–250 eggs per year.
+
+leaching
+
+liming
+The application of calcium- and magnesium-rich minerals (collectively known as lime) to soil, in any of a variety of forms, including marl, chalk, limestone, burnt lime, or hydrated lime, usually as a means of increasing soil pH. By acting as bases, these materials can help to neutralize very acidic soils, improving plant growth and increasing the activity of soil microbes. Structure liming can also improve aggregate stability in clay soils.
+
+linear aeration
+The process of aerating soil by applying organic matter or soil amendments directly to the soil surface (typically during fallow periods), then mechanically cutting long, narrow, linear grooves or channels into the soil profile to permit infiltration of the additives into the deeper layers of the soil, and finally recovering or refilling the grooves within the same operation. Linear aeration is employed in both gardens and lawns to aid penetration of fertilizers and soil softeners, to improve water retention, and to alleviate soil compaction in heavily traveled areas, while minimizing disturbances to soil structure.
+
+lint
+Ginned cotton, i.e. the fibers themselves after the seeds have been removed.
+
+liquid manure
+A mixture of animal faeces and various other organic matter such as crop residues, commonly aged in a slurry pit and then diluted with water, which is used as an agricultural fertilizer.
+
+livestock
+Any domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting in order to produce labor and/or agricultural commodities such as meat, milk, eggs, fur, leather, and wool. In certain contexts the term may be used more narrowly to refer exclusively to animals that are bred for consumption, or only to farmed ruminants such as cattle and goats; sheep, pigs, and horses are also often considered livestock, while poultry and fish are usually excluded.
+
+liveweight
+The weight of a live animal prior to slaughter. The price paid for the meat of slaughtered animals is commonly based on either a liveweight or deadweight basis.
+
+living mulch
+A cover crop that is interplanted or undersown with a main crop in an agricultural field with the intention of filling the same role as ordinary mulch, namely weed suppression and regulation of soil temperature and moisture content. Whereas most cover crops are grown while the soil lies fallow and then buried or removed prior to planting a cash crop, living mulch is not removed and instead grown simultaneously with the cash crop.
+
+lodging
+The tendency of the normally erect stems of certain crop plants, especially cereal grains such as wheat, rye, and barley, to bend over and break near ground level and become flattened against the ground, which makes them very difficult to harvest and can dramatically reduce yield. Lodging is most commonly caused by adverse weather conditions such as heavy rainfall, hail, and strong winds, but may also occur due to trampling by animals.
+
+lumber
+Also timber.
+Wood that has been processed into uniform sizes suitable for construction, carpentry, or other uses, particularly by sawing cut logs into dimensional boards, planks, beams, etc. which are either rough-sawn or smoothly surfaced on one or more faces. Lumber is referred to as "timber" in many parts of the world, though in the United States and Canada "timber" refers specifically to unprocessed wood in the form of cut logs or standing trees intended for logging.
+
+lynchet
+Also linchet.
+A type of agricultural terrace made from earth, or a strip of green, unploughed land left between two areas of ploughed land, often used to mark a temporary boundary between fields.
+
+== M ==
+
+magnanery
+A building or property dedicated to sericulture, in which silk is cultivated and/or manufactured.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-21.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 22/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+malt
+The sprouted grain of a cereal which has been malted, or any product of the process of malting. The term may also refer more specifically to a viscous mixture of fermentable sugars extracted from the malted grain, rich in maltose, maltotriose, and maltodextrins, or to any of the various products which can be made with this extract, such as malt whisky and malted milk.
+
+malt house
+Also malt barn or maltings.
+A building where cereal grain is converted into malt through the process of malting.
+
+manger
+Also trough or feeder.
+A trough or bin used to hold animal fodder which permits animals to eat from it; or a structure or building containing such troughs, where numerous livestock are able to feed simultaneously.
+
+manure
+Any organic matter that is used as an organic fertilizer in agriculture, typically consisting of animal excreta, compost, and/or plant material. Manures contribute to soil fertility by adding organic compounds and nutrients such as nitrogen which are essential for plant growth and for the development of ecological networks with soil microorganisms.
+
+manure spreader
+Also muck spreader or honey wagon.
+A machine used to distribute manure over an agricultural field as fertilizer. Modern manure spreaders typically consist of a trailer towed behind a tractor with a conveyor and/or rotating mechanism driven by the tractor's power take-off.
+
+marc
+The solid residue that results from processing fruits, sugarcane, or sugar beets, and in particular from trampling and squeezing grapes or olives to extract juice. Marc residues have many uses, including as livestock feed.
+
+mare
+A mature female horse, donkey, or other equine animal.
+
+mariculture
+A specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms in the open ocean, enclosed sections of the ocean, or saltwater tanks or raceways, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly foods but also non-food products such as jewellery and cosmetics. Mariculture includes the farming of marine fish, shellfish, molluscs such as clams and oysters, and seaweed, among many other organisms.
+
+mash
+A poultry feed consisting of a complete ration of ground grain, soybean meal, alfalfa meal, byproducts from meat processing, skimmed milk, limestone, salt, and/or fish oil, often fortified with vitamins and minerals.
+
+mast
+The fruit of forest trees and shrubs, e.g. acorns and nuts, especially when accumulated on the ground.
+
+maternity pen
+A warm, well-bedded enclosure in which pregnant animals about to give birth are kept isolated, preventing other animals from disturbing the mother or otherwise interfering with the birthing process.
+
+matron
+An adult female horse (a mare) that has given birth to a foal.
+
+maverick
+An unbranded calf, cow, or steer on open range, especially one separated from its mother.
+
+meadow
+An open field covered primarily by native grasses, herbs, and other vegetation, with few or no trees and shrubs. Meadows may occur naturally but may also be maintained or artificially created by humans for the production of hay or fodder or to serve as pasture for livestock.
+
+mechanized agriculture
+Also mechanised agriculture.
+The use of agricultural machinery to mechanize the work of agriculture, thereby substantially increasing the productivity of an agricultural operation. Modern mechanized agriculture may make use of tractors, combine harvesters, aircraft, computers, and satellite imagery, among other technologies.
+
+merchantable volume
+In silviculture, the amount of wood in a tree or stand of trees (typically expressed in units of volume, e.g. board-feet) that is of a quality suitable for harvesting and marketing as lumber. The term is most commonly used to describe an estimated yield with respect to a particular economic context, which may vary as market conditions and consumer preferences change.
+
+methyl viologen
+See paraquat.
+
+microbial inoculant
+See soil inoculant.
+
+micro-irrigation
+Any method of irrigation that uses lower water pressures and volumes than traditional irrigation systems. Micro-irrigation champions the approach of distributing small volumes of water very slowly via small-gauge tubing or drip tape to precise points, often within or immediately above the plant's root zone, which allows time for water to penetrate slow-percolation soils rather than simply running off and minimizes the risk of overwatering.
+
+middlings
+See wheat middlings.
+
+milk
+A white liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals, which serves as the primary source of nutrition for nursing infants before they are able to digest solid food. Milk is naturally rich in protein, fats, sugars, and many other nutrients. The collection of milk from various mammal species, including cattle, goats, sheep, water buffalo, yaks, camels, horses, and donkeys, among others, is the basis of the dairy industry.
+
+milk cow
+A cow kept primarily for the purpose of producing milk for home use or limited commercial sale, especially when belonging to a herd of cattle being raised for other purposes.
+
+milking
+The process of extracting milk, traditionally by hand but also by automated machine, from the mammary glands of lactating mammals, especially cattle, goats, sheep, and water buffalo, or more rarely camels, horses, or donkeys. Lactation occurs naturally in all sexually mature female mammals, though in usable quantities only during or immediately after pregnancy.
+
+milking parlor
+An enclosed, dedicated space where dairy animals are milked.
+
+milkshed
+A large rural area which produces most or all of the milk consumed in a particular place or by a particular population, by analogy with a watershed. See also foodshed.
+
+mill
+1.  Any structure or device used to break solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting, a process known as milling.
+2.  A business or factory which manufactures textiles by spinning, weaving, or knitting.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-22.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 23/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+milling
+The process of grinding, crushing, cutting, or pulverizing solid matter into smaller pieces, reducing the average particle size and often changing the shape and other physical properties as well; or the process of breaking down, separating, sorting, grading, or classifying aggregate material into particles of uniform size. Milling is an important primary operation in the postharvest processing of many agricultural crops, mainly cereal grains and pseudocereals. Historically mills were powered manually or with draft animals such as oxen, horses, or donkeys, or by the force of the wind or the flow of water, though in modern contexts they are usually electrically powered.
+
+millrace
+Also millrun, lade, leat, flume, or penstock.
+The current of flowing water that turns a water wheel, or the channel or sluice that carries this water. A millrace is usually a man-made conduit or ditch that delivers a narrow, rapid, and powerful stream from a reservoir such as a mill pond or diverts it from a natural watercourse such as a river, with the force generated by the flow used to power a turbine or mill. The part of the millrace that is upstream of the water wheel is called the headrace, while the part downstream of the wheel is the tailrace.
+
+minimum tillage
+A type of conservation tillage designed to conserve soil quality by minimizing the amount of soil manipulation necessary for successful crop production, typically by completely avoiding primary tillage and practicing only minimal secondary tillage.
+
+minor crop
+A crop plant that is high in value but is not widely grown. Many fruits, vegetables, and tree nuts may be considered minor crops.
+
+miticide
+See acaricide.
+
+mixed farming
+The simultaneous cultivation of crops and raising of livestock for meat, eggs, or milk on the same farm, especially on the same or adjacent lands, and often reusing or recycling the products of one operation to supply the other, e.g. by using some part of the crop harvest for animal fodder, or by using animal manure as a crop fertilizer.
+
+monocropping
+Also continuous cropping.
+The practice of cultivating a single crop species repeatedly on the same land for many consecutive growing seasons. Monocropping allows farmers to optimize their time and labor by applying the same inputs, growing methods, machinery, pest controls, etc. to the same crop in the same spaces year after year, but also forgoes the potential benefits of natural diversity and may eventually prove unsustainable by exhausting soil nutrients and requiring increasingly large inputs to compensate.
+
+monoculture
+The practice of growing or raising a single crop or livestock species, variety, or breed on a particular area of land at a time. Contrast polyculture.
+
+mote
+Waste material from the cotton ginning process, primarily from lint cleaning.
+
+mouldboard
+A curved blade or plate attached to a plough or bulldozer which lifts and at least partially overturns soil and/or pushes it to the side. Mouldboard ploughs generally have a flat bottom spanning the entire width of the tillage zone and may reach depths of 100 to 200 millimetres (4 to 8 in) below the surface.
+
+mouthing
+The process of inspecting an animal's teeth to determine its age, as is commonly done with sheep and horses.
+
+mulch
+Any layer of material applied to the surface of soil for the purpose of conserving soil moisture, improving soil health and fertility, reducing weed growth, and/or enhancing the soil's aesthetic appeal. Mulches are usually organic in nature (e.g. bark chips, manure, and compost) though plastic sheeting and other types of artificial mulch are also common.
+
+mule
+A domestic hybrid equine that is the offspring of a female horse and a male donkey; i.e. the reciprocal cross to the hinny.
+
+muley
+A polled cow.
+
+multigerm seed
+Any type of seed product sold as a cluster of seeds fused together and which produces more than one plant when it germinates, after which the multiple plants are typically reduced to individual plants by a process called singling.
+
+multiple cropping
+The practice of growing two or more crops on the same area of land in the same growing season (as opposed to growing only one crop); the crops may be harvested at the same time or at different times. It is a form of polyculture. See also companion planting.
+
+mustering
+See herding.
+
+mutton
+1.  The meat from an adult sheep more than one year old. See also lamb.
+2.  A castrated male goat.
+
+== N ==
+
+nanny goat
+See doe.
+
+naps
+Large, tangled masses of cotton fibers present in ginned cotton, often a consequence of ginning cotton which has not dried sufficiently. Compare neps.
+
+natural growth promoter (NGP)
+
+neps
+Very small, snarled or knotted clusters of cotton fibers present in ginned cotton which are difficult to detect, looking like dots or specks in the lint, and equally difficult to remove. Neps are generally a more serious concern than naps because if not detected they will appear as defects in the finished yarn or fabric.
+
+net farm income
+The return, both monetary and non-monetary, to farm operators for their labor, management, and capital, after all production expenses have been paid; i.e. gross farm income minus production expenses. It includes net income from sales of the farm's agricultural products as well as net income attributed to the rental value of farm dwellings, the value of any commodities consumed on the farm, depreciation, and inventory changes. The term is used primarily in United States agricultural policy.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-23.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 24/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+neutering
+Also fixing.
+The surgical removal of all or most of the reproductive organ(s) of an animal, male or female, usually with the goal of irreversibly sterilizing the animal by eliminating sex organs which are essential to its ability to reproduce. In the broadest sense the term may also encompass non-surgical methods of sterilization such as those that employ pharmaceutical drugs, which may or may not be reversible. The male-specific term for neutering is castration and the female-specific term is spaying, though colloquially "neutering" may be used interchangeably with both. An animal that has not been neutered is said to be intact or entire.
+
+non-program crop
+Any agricultural crop or commodity not covered by a federally funded commodity program. Contrast program crop.
+
+northern vigor
+The phenomenon by which certain varieties of plants adapted to high-latitude climates produce hardier, better-tasting, or higher-yield crops when grown in lower-latitude climates. The effect has been observed in many types of produce grown in the northern United States and Canada, including potatoes, strawberries, and garlic.
+
+no-till farming
+Any method of growing crops or maintaining pasture without disturbing the soil through tillage, and typically involving minimal or no seedbed preparation. Proponents assert that in certain contexts no-till or low-till techniques can increase the soil's retention of water and organic matter and reduce soil erosion.
+
+noxious weed
+A weed or other undesirable plant that is not merely a nuisance but actually harmful to cultivated crops or other useful plants (by acting as a parasitic plant, strongly outcompeting other plants, or releasing allelopathic chemicals into the soil) or to humans or domestic animals such as livestock (by poisoning or causing other injury). Many places specify which weeds are noxious and require land users to take steps to control these species.
+
+NPK
+
+nurse cow
+A cow which is milked in order to supply milk to nursing calves other than her own.
+
+nurse crop
+Any annual crop plant used to assist in the establishment of a perennial crop. Nurse crops may help to reduce the incidence of weeds, prevent soil erosion, and shade the perennial crop's seedlings from excessive sunlight; often the nurse crop itself is harvested for a particular product.
+
+nursery
+1.  Any place, often sheltered and irrigated, where plants are cultivated from seed, cuttings, grafts, or some other propagule and young plants are raised until they are mature enough to be transplanted, or to serve as a source of vegetative clones, rootstock, or grafting stock, either for the grower's own use or for commercial sale.
+2.  A building designed and maintained specifically for raising young animals, especially calves or piglets.
+
+nutrient pollution
+The contamination, particularly of surface water sources, by excessive inputs of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from agricultural fields and pastures (where large quantities of nutrient-rich fertilizers are commonly applied), discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from combustion.
+
+== O ==
+
+oast
+Also oast house or hop kiln.
+A building designed for kilning or drying harvested hops for use in the brewing of beer.
+
+off-farm stocks
+Harvested whole grains or oilseeds produced by a particular farm or agricultural operation which have been removed from the farm where they were produced and stored off-site in temporary or permanent storage, e.g. at grain elevators, mills, or other processing facilities, regardless of their ownership or intended use. This includes supplies of grain which have been sold or distributed to consumers or retailers as well as supplies which have not yet been sold but for which there is no available storage space on the farmer's property. Compare on-farm stocks.
+
+oilseed crop
+Any plant crop cultivated specifically for the edible and/or inedible oils that can be extracted from its seeds, which may be used in cooking or in certain non-food products; the non-oil byproducts are also commonly used to produce high-protein animal feed. Examples of oilseed crops include soybeans, peanuts, cottonseed, flaxseed, canola, sunflower seeds, and safflower seeds.
+
+olericulture
+The cultivation of vegetables (i.e. non-woody herbaceous plants) for food, or the science that studies the growing of these plants as edible produce.
+
+once grown seed
+Seed obtained from plants that have been grown from a certified seed intended for use only by the farmer on his own farm, and not for resale.
+
+once-over tillage
+An operation in which a field is tilled and planted simultaneously or in quick succession.
+
+on-farm stocks
+Harvested whole grains or oilseeds which are stored on-site in temporary or permanent storage at or near the same farm where they were grown, regardless of their ownership or intended use. This includes supplies of grain which have already been sold but not yet distributed to consumers or retailers as well as supplies kept for the farmer's own use, and in the broadest sense may also include grain which is still growing in the field and has not yet been harvested. Compare off-farm stocks.
+
+on-the-hoof
+(of livestock) Sold live for slaughter.
+
+open
+(of livestock) Fertile but not yet pregnant; able to be impregnated.
+
+open range
+A type of rangeland on which livestock, particularly cattle, roam freely regardless of land ownership and without being enclosed by fences. Where open range is prescribed by law, the land owner (and not the animal owner) is responsible for erecting exclosure fences to keep animals off of private or public property.
+
+orchard
+Any intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Most orchards are planted with a single variety of fruit- or nut-producing tree, and are often laid out in a regular grid with wide spacing and grazed or mown grass or bare soil between individual trees to make maintenance and harvesting easy.
+
+orchardry
+The cultivation of trees or shrubs in an orchard, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, especially foods.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-24.md

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 25/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+organic farming
+Also organic agriculture, biological farming, and ecological farming.
+An agricultural production system which excludes or eschews the use of synthetic chemical compounds (particularly fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides for plant crops, and growth hormones, antibiotics, and synthetic feed additives for livestock production) and instead emphasizes the use of naturally occurring, organic substances and alternative methods for solving the problems of agriculture, including crop rotation, companion planting and polyculture, permaculture, natural fertilizers such as manure and field residues, beneficial microbes, trap crops, biological pest controls, etc. Organic production usually prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms and sometimes mechanized farm equipment as well. In many places the label "organic" has a specific legal meaning and its use may require certification, whereby certified organic farms must adhere to national organic production standards. Many organic methods are also core elements of sustainable agriculture, though whether or not organic methods actually affect the environment and human health in more positive ways than conventional methods is disputed.
+
+organic fertilizer
+Also natural fertilizer.
+Any fertilizer made from non-synthetic, naturally occurring substances, often compost or plant and animal products such as crop residues or manure. This is in contrast to many large-scale commercial fertilizers which contain synthetic chemical compounds. Use of organic fertilizers is widely practiced in organic agriculture.
+
+orthodox seed
+Seeds which can survive long periods of time in storage and still retain their viability to germinate, especially those capable of tolerating the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)). Orthodox seeds can be dried to a very low internal moisture content. Contrast recalcitrant seed.
+
+outbuilding
+Any building that is part of an agricultural or residential complex but is detached or distant from other structures, especially one dedicated to some practical purpose and isolated by necessity or convenience on a remote part of a large property. Common agricultural outbuildings include barns, stables, cellars, silos, granaries, sheds, and housing for farm laborers.
+
+outfarm
+A cluster of outbuildings located near outlying fields or pastures which are distant or isolated from a primary farmstead, providing facilities for agricultural operations in remote areas of a very large farm or ranch.
+
+out-wintering
+The practice of keeping livestock (especially cattle) outdoors on pastureland during the winter, leaving them to fend for themselves for protection from the elements, rather than housing them in an indoor shelter.
+
+overcropping
+The practice of growing too many crops on the same land in the same growing season, which may reduce yield for any of a variety of reasons, usually because soil fertility is insufficient to support multiple cropping or repeated growing cycles without periodic fallowing.
+
+overgrazing
+Excessive or intensive grazing by livestock of the same pasture or food source for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery of vegetation or soils during the intervals between grazing periods. Poor livestock management often results in overgrazing, though it may also be caused by wild animals that are restricted from traveling due to man-made obstacles such as fences.
+
+ox
+Plural oxen; also bullock.
+A bovine animal of either sex which is trained and used as a draft animal, especially for plowing, threshing, milling, pulling carts or wagons, or hauling loads. Oxen are most commonly castrated adult male cattle, though cows and intact males may also be employed as oxen.
+
+== P ==
+
+packinghouse
+A building in which harvested agricultural produce (e.g. fruits and vegetables) is packaged for sale prior to distribution to market. Other forms of postharvest processing such as cleaning may also take place in the same facility.
+
+paddy farming
+A form of wet-field agriculture in which semiaquatic plants such as rice and taro are grown in soils inundated in shallow pools of water, generally 10–15 centimetres (3.9–5.9 in) in depth, for most or all of the growing cycle. Most plants cannot survive in these conditions, but rice is specially adapted to supply oxygen to its lower parts even when fully submersed. Paddy fields involve huge quantities of water and so are most common in humid wetlands such as in many parts of East Asia. It remains the dominant method of rice farming in modern times.
+
+paddy field
+Also simply paddy.
+A flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops such as rice and taro.
+
+pannage
+The practice of releasing livestock, especially pigs, into a wild forest so that they can feed on fallen mast such as acorns, beechnuts, and chestnuts.
+
+paraquat
+Also methyl viologen.
+An organic compound once widely used as a quick-acting, broad-spectrum herbicide for its ability to act as a defoliant by non-selectively killing green leaves and stems. It is rapidly decomposed in soil (and so has little effect on roots) but is highly toxic to mammals, and thus its use is now prohibited or restricted in many countries, where it has largely been replaced by glyphosate.
+
+pasteurization
+The practice of applying moderate heat to milk and other heat-sensitive liquids in order to reduce the native microbial load. Pasteurization uses temperatures which are much lower than in conventional sterilization techniques but still high enough to deactivate or denature the proteins and other molecules used by bacteria and other microorganisms, usually not killing them outright but significantly slowing their growth and reproduction, thereby delaying the inevitable onset of spoilage and extending the product's shelf-life.
+
+pastoral farming
+Also livestock farming or grazing.
+A sedentary form of pastoralism in which livestock are raised on the same pastureland for most or all of their lives, rather than continuously being moved as in traditional nomadic pastoralism. Pastoral farmers typically have some form of ownership of the land they use, giving them an economic incentive to improve the land to meet the needs of their animals (e.g. by irrigation).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-25.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 26/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+pastoralism
+A type of animal husbandry in which herds of domestic animals are released onto large areas of vegetated outdoor land, known as pastures, for grazing, traditionally by fully or partially nomadic peoples who move around with their herds, and generally in places where environmental conditions such as aridity, poor soils, and extreme temperatures make growing crops difficult or impossible.
+
+pasture
+Any land used for grazing, especially enclosed tracts of farmland grazed by domesticated livestock such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. Pasture vegetation mainly consists of grasses and forbs and is typically grazed throughout the summer. Pasture is often distinguished from, but may in the broadest sense include, other agricultural land types such as meadows, rangelands, or other unenclosed pastoral areas.
+
+pastureland
+A type of agricultural land used as pasture for grazing animals.
+
+patch
+A relatively small cultivated area with only one type of crop growing in it, e.g. a pumpkin patch or onion patch.
+
+pegging
+A developmental stage of the peanut plant in which a fertilized flower produces an elongated ovary which enters the soil and develops underground into a pod and eventually a peanut.
+
+pellet mill
+Also pellet press.
+A type of mill or machine press used to compress and mold bulk quantities of powdered or fine-grained material into compact, high-density, homogeneous units called pellets, which are often much easier to store, transport, and distribute than in their original form. Many agricultural materials are commonly pelletized, including fertilizers and pesticides. Compound animal feed is usually milled from a feed mixture into small pellets the size of a kernel of corn so as to ensure a uniform ration for each fed animal.
+
+perishable
+Describing an agricultural product, particularly a food, that is vulnerable to natural processes of decomposition and decay within a relatively short time after being harvested or sold to a consumer (usually a few days or weeks), such that the product gradually spoils or rots, irreversibly losing the structure, consistency, flavor, nutritional value, and/or other qualities characteristic of its fresh form. In the absence of specific treatments, virtually all raw foods eventually succumb to these processes via chemical reactions with their environment, both biotic (e.g. decomposition by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi) and abiotic (e.g. dehydration by atmospheric evaporation), though some foods decay faster than others. Many methods of food processing and preservation have been developed to prevent or delay decomposition in order to make foods usable or marketable for longer periods. These range from storage in cold, dry, or oxygen-poor environments (all of which can greatly reduce the rate of microbial growth) to pasteurization or treatment with protective waxes or preservatives. The most perishable foods are generally those for which preservation is difficult or undesirable, especially fresh produce such as fruits and vegetables, but also animal meat. Commercial foods sold in a cooked, canned, or highly processed form may be considered "non-perishable" for the purpose of calculating shelf life or expiration dates.
+
+perlite
+An amorphous glass mineral of volcanic origin with a relatively high water content and the unusual property of expanding to many times its original volume when heated sufficiently. Expanded perlite is commonly used as a soil amendment in horticulture, where its low density and high permeability help to improve drainage and prevent soil compaction. It is also sometimes used alone as a growth medium for starting cuttings or in hydroponics.
+
+permaculture
+An approach to land management that adopts arrangements observed in healthy natural ecosystems, with particular emphasis on utilizing creative design principles derived from whole systems thinking. Permaculture principles are often employed in regenerative agriculture, rewilding, and sustainable agriculture, but the concept has a wide range of applications, including in ecological engineering, water resource management, and architecture.
+
+permanent crop
+Any crop produced from a perennial plant which produces crops repeatedly over multiple seasons, rather than having to be replanted after each harvest.
+
+permanent wilting point (PWP)
+Also simply wilting point (WP).
+
+pesticide
+Any chemical or biological agent used to deter, incapacitate, kill, sterilize, or otherwise discourage the activity or proliferation of one or more target organisms considered pests by humans, which includes herbicides used to control noxious plants, insecticides, miticides, fungicides, nematicides, antimicrobials for bacteria and viruses, and any other substance intended to control a pathogen of any kind. Pesticides are widely used in agriculture to protect crop plants or domestic animals from pathogens which may cause or transmit disease or destroy crop value, though they are also used for a huge variety of other purposes. Some are applied directly to the pest, while others are applied to the crop or animal itself, or to the air or soil around it. Pesticide use may also have drawbacks, including unintended or off-target effects such as toxicity to humans.
+
+pesticide refuge
+
+pharming
+Also molecular farming, molecular pharming, and biopharming.
+The use of genetic engineering technologies to insert one or more genes encoding useful pharmaceuticals into a host plant or animal that would otherwise not express those genes, thereby creating a genetically modified organism. Crops modified in this way are sometimes called pharma crops.
+
+picking
+The harvesting of fruit or vegetable crops by removing, by hand or machine, the fruits or vegetables from the plants, as with apples and berries.
+
+pig
+Also hog.
+A domestic swine of either sex, especially a member of the species Sus domesticus, often considered a domesticated subspecies of the wild boar, Sus scrofa.
+
+piglet
+A young domestic pig of either sex. See also farrow.
+
+pigsty
+See sty.
+
+pineapple pit
+A method of cultivating pineapples in temperate climates, consisting of a trench dug into the ground and covered with transparent glass, with two internal walls dividing it into three troughs. Pineapples are grown in the central trough while the outer troughs are filled with fresh manure, which gives off heat as it decomposes, keeping the central trough warm and humid.
+
+pinery
+1.  A natural or cultivated pine forest which is harvested for timber.
+2.  A plantation where pineapples are grown, or another name for a pineapple pit.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-26.md

@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 27/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+pioneer crop
+A crop grown to improve the general fertility of a parcel of land prior to sowing another, typically more valuable crop on the same land. Farmers often permit livestock to graze the pioneer crop in the hope that their dung will add soil nutrients.
+
+pisciculture
+Also fish farming.
+A branch of aquaculture involving the raising of fish in tanks, enclosures, or hatcheries with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food.
+
+pitchfork
+A two-handed agricultural tool with between two and five long, thin tines and a long handle, used to efficiently pitch or toss large clumps of loose material such as hay, straw, leaves, or manure. Pitchforks are used for a wide variety of tasks such as feeding cattle and bucking hay.
+
+plant breeding
+The deliberate and systematic reproduction of plants in agriculture and horticulture, typically involving the artificial selection of which individual plants will breed in order to produce progeny with desirable characteristics.
+
+plantation
+A large-scale estate which specializes in farming cash crops, most commonly cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, opium, fruit trees, rubber trees, and forest trees.
+
+plashing
+See pleaching.
+
+plastic mulch
+An artificial mulch consisting of a thin film of plastic polymers, used in both crop production and landscaping for the same reasons as natural mulches, i.e. to suppress weeds, conserve water, and maintain soil integrity. Crops grow through regularly spaced holes cut in the plastic film. It is most commonly used with row crops, often in conjunction with drip irrigation.
+
+plasticulture
+The use of plastic materials in agricultural applications. Plastics are used for a huge variety of purposes in all types of agriculture, including as irrigation drip tape, row covers, plastic mulch, bale wrap and postharvest packaging, polytunnels, and feed troughs, among numerous others.
+
+pleaching
+Also plashing.
+The practice of interweaving the living and dead branches of a hedgerow so that they become tangled, either for the purpose of strengthening the hedge by forming a natural fence or wall which continues to thicken as it grows, or for ornamental reasons.
+
+plough
+Also plow.
+Any farm implement used to loosen or overturn soil in preparation for sowing seed or transplanting, a practice known as ploughing. Ploughs typically consist of a series of blades attached to a wooden or metallic frame, often with wheels, which is then pushed or pulled either by humans, by draft animals, or, on modern farms, with a tractor.
+
+plough pan
+Also plow pan.
+A hard layer in the subsoil caused by excessive compression due to repeated ploughing at the same depth over multiple consecutive seasons. See also hardpan.
+
+plough planting
+Also plow planting.
+A reduced-tillage system in which a planting or seeding apparatus is mounted directly behind a plough such that a field is ploughed and sown simultaneously in a single step, with no intervening secondary tillage. See also once-over tillage.
+
+plough-to-plate
+See farm-to-fork.
+
+ploughing
+Also plowing.
+The use of a plough in the cultivation of agricultural land. Ploughing is an ancient and fundamental agricultural technique, the primary purpose of which is to evenly distribute fresh nutrients, moisture, and air through the uppermost layers of the soil while also burying weeds and crop residues to decay. Modern ploughed fields are typically left to dry and then harrowed prior to planting. The use of a plough usually leaves the soil with a rough, unfinished look and parallel trenches called furrows; conventional, intensive ploughing practices may contribute to soil erosion and the formation of hardpan.
+
+ploughshare
+Also plowshare.
+The large metal blade that is the leading edge of the mouldboard of a plough, used to cut through large amounts of soil to the bottom of the furrow. Certain ploughs have a coulter immediately preceding the ploughshare.
+
+plug
+In horticulture, a juvenile plant, seedling, or cutting germinated and grown individually in a very small container filled with a small amount of potting soil or other growth medium, with the intention of transplanting it into a larger container or into the ground after it has grown to a certain size (at which point the soil or growth medium is held together by the plant's roots, allowing it to be easily removed from the starting container). Plug plants are often grown by commercial nurseries in large numbers in portable seed starter trays under controlled conditions, which makes it convenient to manage numerous plants during the early stages of growth and to ensure their health and viability before selling to customers, who may find establishing a garden with transplanted plugs to be easier than starting from seed.
+
+plunge dip
+A deep trough or basin designed to immerse and bathe livestock in a liquid pesticide formulation or other treatment. Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, or horses are prodded to walk through a narrow channel containing the liquid, briefly submerging most or all of their bodies, which makes it possible to treat large herds of animals quickly and efficiently. See also drenching.
+
+poddy
+Also poddy calf.
+A calf that has been orphaned by the loss of its mother. See also dogie.
+
+pollarding
+
+polled
+Born without horns, used when describing livestock of a species that is normally horned, e.g. in cattle, goats, and sheep. The term may refer to animals that have been selectively bred to be naturally hornless or, in the broadest sense, to otherwise horned animals that have had their horn buds removed after birth by disbudding.
+
+pollen drift
+Unintentional cross-pollination of wild plants by crop plants or vice versa, or between distinct crop varieties or cultivars, through natural mechanisms of pollen dispersal (e.g. wind or insects).
+
+polyculture
+The practice of growing or raising more than one species, variety, or breed at the same time and place, often in imitation of the biodiversity of natural ecosystems. Contrast monoculture.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-27.md

@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 28/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+polytunnel
+Also polyhouse, hoophouse, grow tunnel, or high tunnel.
+A type of greenhouse in the form of a typically semi-circular, elongated tunnel made from a steel frame covered with transparent polyethylene; temperature, humidity, and air circulation can be adjusted by the opening and closing of doors or vents. Polytunnels are used in similar ways to glass greenhouses and row covers, e.g. for season extension or as nurseries. Though primarily designed to provide temperature increases ranging from 5 to 35 °C (9 to 63 °F) above the outdoor air temperature, they can also protect plants (and animals) against extreme weather and the drying effect of wind.
+
+pomology
+Also fruticulture.
+The study of fruit and its cultivation.
+
+ponding
+The formation of small ponds or pools of water in agricultural fields due to surface runoff from oversaturated or poorly draining soils, or from heavy precipitation or irrigation.
+
+pork
+The meat of hogs or pigs.
+
+porker
+A pig specifically raised for fresh pork, as opposed to bacon or other processed meats.
+
+postemergent
+Occurring after the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class of herbicides intended to be applied to weeds which are already leafy or established. Post-emergent herbicides such as glyphosate typically work by killing the cells of mature leaves, thereby inhibiting photosynthesis and causing the whole plant to die; they are generally ineffective on very young plants and seeds. Contrast pre-emergent.
+
+postharvest
+1.  The stage of commercial crop production immediately following harvesting, which may include any of various processing and handling activities necessary for the harvested crop to become marketable, such as cleaning, drying, cooling, sorting, and packing. Postharvest treatment largely determines a crop's final quality and how and whether it can be sold.
+2.  Any activities that occur after agricultural products leave or are sold from the farm or ranch where they were produced.
+
+postharvest losses
+
+poult
+A young turkey, especially one too young for its sex to be determined.
+
+poultry
+Any domesticated birds cultivated by humans for their meat, eggs, or feathers, most commonly various species of fowl, especially chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and pigeons.
+
+poundage quota
+A quantitative limit on the amount of an agricultural commodity (e.g. tobacco or peanuts) that can be produced and/or marketed under the provisions of a governmental price support program.
+
+power take-off (PTO)
+A device, commonly found on tractors but also sometimes on farm trucks or other vehicles, that transmits electrical and/or mechanical energy from a power source (e.g. a running engine) to an attached implement or a separate machine which is either pulled behind on a trailer or mounted on the vehicle itself. Modern tractors almost always have a power take-off, which can be connected to a wide variety of equipment to supply power for virtually any automatable agricultural task, e.g. mowing, ploughing, tilling, compacting, distributing agrochemicals, harvesting, etc.
+
+precision agriculture (PA)
+Also satellite farming and site-specific crop management.
+A large-scale agricultural management strategy based on observing, measuring, and responding to inter- and intra-field variability in crops and crop yields with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs while preserving resources. Precision agriculture relies on advanced technologies such as GPS, remote sensing, satellite imagery, multispectral imagery, and agricultural drones to collect data on numerous agricultural variables and to generate datasets and maps of spatial variability which can then be used by variable-rate (and often fully automated) applications to optimally distribute resources.
+
+precision seeding
+A method of seeding that involves placing seed with attention to precise spacing and depth, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed to broadcast seeding. Precision seeding usually requires less seed and avoids overcrowding and the need for thinning, but is best suited for plants with very high germination rates in order to make full use of the seeded area.
+
+precleaning
+Removing unwanted foreign material such as weeds, seeds, dirt, stems, and cobs from harvested grain before it is dried.
+
+preemergent
+Occurring before germination, or before the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class of herbicides intended to be applied to weeds before their leaves have become established. Pre-emergent herbicides such as paraquat work by inhibiting one or more enzymes that are active in cell division only in new seedlings; they do not inhibit germination from seed itself, nor are they effective on established, mature plants. Contrast post-emergent.
+
+preharvest
+
+prices paid index
+An economic index used to monitor and indicate changes in the prices paid by farmers for goods and services used in crop and livestock production as well as those needed for farm family living. In addition to the prices of common farm inputs such as fertilizer, the index also includes interest on debt, taxes payable on farm real estate, and wage rates paid to hired labor. It is used to calculate the price of many fees and fines required by agricultural law, e.g. fees for grazing livestock on federal land.
+
+prices received index
+An economic index used to monitor and indicate changes in the prices received by farmers for their products at the point of first sale, usually the farm itself or a local market. Together with the prices paid index, it is used to calculate the parity ratio.
+
+prilled
+Pelletized and sold in the form of small, round, solid globules, as is common with many fertilizers, compound animal feeds, and other agrichemicals.
+
+primary tillage
+Any general-purpose tillage that is relatively deep and thorough and which leaves the soil surface with a rough, unfinished texture, such as ploughing, as opposed to subsequent, shallower, and more selective secondary tillage. Primary tillage is usually performed immediately after the last harvest, with the objectives of loosening, softening, and aerating the soil to a particular depth, incorporating crop residues and/or fertilizers, and killing weeds.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-28.md

@@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 29/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+priming
+1.  The process of moistening seeds in order to initiate germination prior to sowing in soil or other substrate.
+2.  The process of removing ripened leaves from tobacco plants by hand.
+
+prizing
+The process of packing harvested tobacco leaves into hogsheads.
+
+prod
+See goad.
+
+produce
+A generalized term used to refer to a variety of farm-produced food crops, usually including fruits and vegetables and sometimes also grains and other products, especially implying that such foods are fresh and generally in the same state as when and where they were harvested.
+
+profit crop
+See cash crop.
+
+program crop
+A crop for which deficiency payments are paid by a government agency to participating producers, e.g. wheat, corn, barley, grain sorghum, oats, upland cotton, and rice. Contrast non-program crop.
+
+protein crop
+Any crop plant whose harvested products naturally contain high concentrations of proteins or amino acids and are therefore important as staple foods or in helping to meet the nutritional requirements of humans or domestic animals. Many oilseeds and grains are considered protein crops.
+
+provender
+See fodder.
+
+pruning
+The selective removal of certain unwanted plant parts or tissues, such as branches, buds, or roots, from crops or landscape plants during cultivation for any of a variety of reasons, including controlling or redirecting growth, improving or sustaining the plant's health or appearance, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing juvenile plants for transplanting, and increasing the yield or quality of harvestable flowers and fruits. See also topping, pollarding, and coppicing.
+
+pseudocereal
+Also pseudograin.
+Any domesticated non-grass species that is not a true cereal but is nonetheless cultivated and harvested in much the same way as a cereal, with its "grain" or seed being milled into flour and otherwise used in the same manner as cereal grain. Common examples include amaranth, quinoa, buckwheat, and chia. Compared with true cereals, pseudocereals are similarly rich in many different nutrients but do not contain gluten, making them popular substitutes in gluten-free foods.
+
+puddling
+The practice of tilling rice paddies while flooded, traditionally accomplished by dragging a weighted harrow through the submerged soil of the paddy field but also with mechanized implements.
+
+pullet
+An immature female chicken.
+
+pulpwood
+Any wood used in the manufacture of paper, fiberboard, or other pulp-based products.
+
+push–pull technology
+An agricultural pest control strategy that utilizes the intercropping of repellent "push" plants and attractive "pull" plants to divert pests, typically insects, away from vulnerable cash crops. For example, noxious plants (e.g. catnip and Desmodium) may be planted between rows of a valuable cereal crop to repel or "push" certain herbivorous insects away from the cereal, while a more preferable trap crop (e.g. some Brachiaria grasses) is simultaneously planted around the perimeter of the field to attract or "pull" in the insects and keep them there.
+
+== Q ==
+
+quern-stone
+Also simply quern.
+A traditional stone tool for manually grinding various materials, especially for milling grain into flour, consisting of a pair of smooth, heavy stones which are rubbed against each other with the grain in between them. A lower stone, called a saddle quern, is usually stationary, while another stone, called a muller, rubber, or handstone, is placed on top of the lower stone and moved by hand in a back-and-forth or rotary motion; often the upper stone has a central hole through which the unground grain is poured and a handle to help rotate it.
+
+== R ==
+
+rafter
+To plough a field with furrows so that the earth removed from each furrow is turned over onto the adjacent unplowed ground.
+
+rainfed field
+An unirrigated field depending solely on natural precipitation for its water supply, generally surrounded by levees to prevent surface runoff.
+
+raised-bed gardening
+A type of horticulture in which the soil surface is raised above the surrounding ground level and usually enclosed in some way within a structure known as a raised bed. These elevated seedbeds allow gardeners to separate their gardens from the surrounding environment and therefore easily maintain the properties of the soil by optimizing density, nutrient levels, and water infiltration and drainage, and adding a barrier to the movement of pests and pathogens from adjacent natural soils. They may also be desirable because they do not require digging into the ground, which may be difficult or impractical in some places.
+
+ram
+An adult male sheep of breeding age.
+
+ramification
+The natural division of the stems, shoots, or limbs of a plant into successively smaller versions of the same structures as they grow and develop; e.g. the trunks of trees diverge into branches which themselves diverge into smaller branches and so on. Horticulturists artificially stimulate ramification through repeated pruning, coppicing, or pollarding, which in many species, particularly trees and shrubs, induces the divergence of new branches from existing branches. This technique can increase the yield of orchards by inducing the formation of numerous fruit-bearing branches in fruit trees.
+
+ranch
+A tract of land dedicated to ranching, i.e. the raising of grazing livestock such as cattle and sheep. The term is used primarily in North America, where it usually implies a very large, open area of privately owned or leased grassland (i.e. pastureland), though similar livestock operations exist worldwide on all types of land. See also station.
+
+rancher
+Also cattleman or stockgrower.
+A person who owns or works on a ranch, or who breeds or raises livestock for sale. The term is used primarily in North America. See also grazier.
+
+ranching
+The practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle, sheep, and horses on an area of land called a ranch.
+
+rangeland
+Also simply range.
+Any grassland, shrubland, woodland, wetland, or desert area that is grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals and is generally not suitable for cultivating crops. Rangelands are less intensively managed than pasturelands in that they are dominated primarily by native vegetation rather than by plants established by humans, and typically are not subjected to agricultural practices such as irrigation and the use of fertilizers.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-29.md

@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 30/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ratooning
+The practice of harvesting a crop plant (particularly a monocot species) by cutting most of the above-ground portion of the plant but leaving the roots and the shoot apices intact so as to allow the plant to recover and produce a fresh crop in a subsequent growing season. This procedure usually can be sustained only for a few seasons, as yield tends to decline with each season. Ratoon crops include sugarcane, pineapples, and bananas.
+
+reaping
+
+recalcitrant seed
+Seeds that cannot survive the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)) and which therefore cannot be stored for long periods of time because they tend to rapidly lose viability. Recalcitrant seeds do not acquire desiccation tolerance during development and are often shed from their parent plants with a relatively high moisture content, making them especially vulnerable to moisture loss. Contrast orthodox seed.
+
+registered livestock
+
+registered seed
+
+relay cropping
+A type of succession planting in which a new crop is sown or planted in the same field as an existing crop shortly before harvesting the existing crop and clearing it from the field, which then leaves the land available for the newly planted crop to use. This cycle may be repeated throughout the growing season or even year-round with crops intended for various uses, including cash crops and cover crops, as long as the soil remains fertile.
+
+remainder
+See crop residue.
+
+rendering
+The processing of animal products into stable, usable materials, especially the conversion of fatty tissue into lard or tallow, but also the repurposing of bones, cartilage, and other offal left behind after slaughtering, or any other material which for aesthetic or sanitary reasons is not suitable as food. Rendering may be done in various ways but generally involves grinding or finely chopping the material, drying it (often by steam-drying), and separating the fat from bone, protein, and fine solids (usually by pressing or centrifugation). Both edible and inedible commodities can be produced in this way. Many slaughterhouses perform their own rendering, while others sell their offal to independent rendering operations.
+
+residue
+See crop residue.
+
+residue-to-product ratio
+A ratio of the amount of unused crop residue left in a field or polytunnel after harvesting a particular crop to the amount of useful crop products harvested (i.e. the yield), usually expressed in terms of the relative masses of residues and products and particularly useful as a metric for the efficiency of bioenergy operations which convert the residues to biochar.
+
+rhizosphere
+See root zone.
+
+ribbon farm
+
+riddle
+To grade and sort produce (e.g. potatoes) according to size, using a sieve.
+
+ridge-till
+
+ridging
+See hilling.
+
+right-to-farm law
+A state law or local ordinance intended to protect agricultural operations from public and private nuisance lawsuits, so long as the operations are in compliance with accepted standards. Such laws typically make it difficult for neighboring property owners or the general public to initiate legal complaints against farmers regarding noise, odor, visual clutter, or dangerous structures associated with their farms.
+
+ripper
+See subsoiler.
+
+roaching
+See hogging.
+
+roaster
+A large chicken raised for its meat and suitable for roasting, generally at least 12 weeks old and weighing at least 4 pounds (1.8 kilograms). Compare broiler.
+
+roguing
+The practice of identifying and removing plants with undesirable characteristics (e.g. plants that are diseased or of an unwanted shape, color, or variety) from agricultural fields, often by hand. The plants, known as rogues, are removed to preserve the quality of the desirable crop plants, often by way of preventing undesirable characteristics from propagating into subsequent generations.
+
+roller
+An agricultural implement, typically tractor-drawn, used for flattening an area of land by breaking up large clumps of soil, pushing stones into the soil, and generally creating a smooth, firm seedbed, especially following ploughing or disc harrowing.
+
+rooster
+An adult male chicken.
+
+root crop
+Also rootcrop.
+Any crop plant whose edible or usable portion is harvested from under the ground. Examples include beets, carrots, onions, potatoes, and turnips. These parts may or may not include the plant's actual roots.
+
+root pruning
+The mechanical severing or trimming of plant roots, either intentionally or unintentionally, often by the passage of an agricultural implement through soil. When deliberate, it is often done so as to make a plant easier to transplant or to slow its growth.
+
+root zone
+Also rooting depth or rhizosphere.
+The layers of soil or other substrate penetrated by a plant's roots and from which the roots uptake water and nutrients, i.e. the subterranean space that directly influences and is influenced by root growth and activity, encompassing the entire network of vascular roots, rhizomes, tubers, and all other below-ground plant parts extending vertically and laterally beneath the surface, and by some definitions including aerial roots as well. Providing this space with consistent access to water, oxygen, and mineral nutrients is essential for normal plant growth.
+
+rotation crop
+A crop that is rotated with other crops as part of a crop rotation sequence.
+
+rotational grazing
+The practice of periodically moving herds of grazing livestock between enclosed sections of pasture known as paddocks, allowing the animals to graze the new paddock while the unoccupied paddocks recover and regrow vegetation, as opposed to allowing continuous grazing of the same land indefinitely or feeding the animals in a feedlot. See also crop rotation.
+
+roughage
+Any animal feedstuff with high fiber content, such as hay or straw.
+
+row cover
+Any flexible, transparent or semi-transparent material, such as fabric or plastic sheeting, that is used as a protective covering to shield plants from extreme temperatures and wind, as well as from insect damage and large herbivores. Row cover can also provide a limited amount of warming in the same way as greenhouses.
+
+row crop
+Any crop that can be planted in rows wide enough to allow it to be tilled or otherwise cultivated by agricultural machinery specifically designed for that purpose. Such crops are generally sown by drilling rather than by broadcast seeding.
+
+runholder
+See grazier.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 4/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+bin burn
+The discoloration and deterioration of harvested grain due to heat during long-term storage in bins.
+
+biochar
+A fine-grained, porous charcoal produced from organic matter via pyrolysis (i.e. in low-temperature, anoxic conditions) rather than standard combustion. It is often used as a soil amendment to increase soil fertility and sequester carbon.
+
+biodynamic agriculture
+A type of alternative agriculture which incorporates holistic ecological approaches and aspects of organic and integrated farming but also emphasizes various esoteric perspectives, including spiritual and mystical beliefs about nature. The efficacy of biodynamic agricultural techniques lacks scientific evidence, and the practice has been labeled a pseudoscience.
+
+bioeffector
+Any viable microorganism or naturally occurring chemical compound which directly or indirectly affects plant growth, development, production, and/or yield quality (e.g. organic fertilizers and biofertilizers) and thus has the potential to reduce or replace use of conventional chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
+
+biofertilizer
+A substance containing living microorganisms such as bacteria and algae which, when applied to seeds, plant parts, or soil, colonize plant tissues or the rhizosphere surrounding the roots and promote the growth and health of the host plant by increasing the supply or bioavailability of useful nutrients. Biofertilizers serve the same purpose as conventional fertilizers, though instead of delivering nutrients directly to plants they work indirectly by stimulating natural processes (e.g. fixing nitrogen and solubilizing phosphorus) which cause essential nutrients or other growth-promoting substances to accumulate in the local microenvironment; nearby plant tissues can then uptake these nutrients for themselves. The presence of symbiotic microorganisms can improve soil fertility and increase soil organic matter, making them a sustainable alternative to the application of synthetic fertilizers and other agrichemicals.
+
+biofortification
+The selective breeding or genetic engineering of edible plant crops with the goal of increasing their nutritional value. Though many foods are chemically fortified or enriched with micronutrient additives such as iron and vitamin D during post-harvest processing, biofortification instead attempts to cultivate plant varieties which naturally produce high concentrations of these nutrients while growing, such that the resulting crops already contain high concentrations at the time of harvest.
+
+biofuel
+Any fuel produced from recently living biomass, as opposed to fuels produced by slow geological processes such as fossil fuels. Biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are commonly produced from agricultural energy crops.
+
+bioinoculant
+See soil inoculant.
+
+biological farming
+See organic farming.
+
+biosaline agriculture
+
+biosolarization
+A variant of soil solarization in which compost or organic amendments are added to the soil before it is covered with transparent plastic, which can promote increased microbial activity and thereby contribute to small but significant increases in soil temperature, potentially speeding up and improving the efficiency of the solarization process.
+
+bioturbation
+The mixing and turning of soil caused by organisms moving through the soil.
+
+blood meal
+A byproduct made from the fresh blood of slaughtered animals, commonly used as an organic fertilizer for cultivated plants. It is rich in crude protein and amino acids.
+
+boar
+An adult male hog of breeding age.
+
+board foot (FBM)
+Also rendered board-foot and abbreviated as BDFT or BF.
+A unit of volume of lumber, defined as the volume of a board or plank of wood that is one foot long, one foot wide, and one inch thick, i.e. 12 in × 12 in × 1 in (305 mm × 305 mm × 25.4 mm), which is equivalent to 1⁄12 of a cubic foot (ft3), 144 in3, or 2,360 cm3. The board foot is used to measure rough lumber (before drying and planing) as well as planed lumber.
+
+bobby calf
+A young bovine calf of either sex which is designated to be slaughtered for its meat. See also vealer.
+
+boll
+The rounded seed pod of cotton or flax plants, inside of which the seeds are embedded within a cushion of valuable natural fibers.
+
+bolting
+The process by which certain crops cultivated for their leaves or roots produce flowers or other reproductive parts prematurely, before the crop is intended to be harvested, in an attempt to reproduce sexually and generate seeds. This necessarily diverts resources away from its edible or usable non-reproductive parts, which can negatively impact their flavor and texture and the quality of the harvest in general. The phenomenon is of particular concern in certain annual or biennial vegetable crops, including lettuce, spinach, cabbage, onions, leeks, carrots, and beetroot. Warm temperatures and changes in day length can both trigger the phytohormonal changes that cause bolting, and it may also occur as part of the plant's natural response to stress. In many species it manifests as the sudden rapid growth of unusually elongated stems which, if not removed, will produce an inflorescence.
+
+bone meal
+A byproduct made from animal bones which have been steamed under high pressure and ground into a powder. A rich source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium, bone meal is commonly used as an organic fertilizer for cultivated plants.
+
+border irrigation
+A type of flood irrigation in which a gently sloping field is divided into narrow strips by a series of low, parallel ridges of soil which align with the direction of the slope. Water is supplied to the upper edge or border of each strip, between the ridges, which act as levees to guide the flow of water as it moves down the length of the field by gravity. This method is useful for efficiently irrigating large areas of closely growing crops as well as certain row crops and orchards where topography and soils are suitable.
+
+bran
+Also miller's bran.
+The hard outer layers surrounding the endosperm in a cereal grain, consisting of the combined aleurone and pericarp and, in maize, also the pedicel. Bran is typically removed along with the germ during milling and thus excluded from refined grains, but remains included in whole grains. After removal it is commonly repurposed as animal feed.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-30.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 31/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ruralism
+The advocacy of rural lifestyles, including care of forests and nature. See also agrarianism.
+
+== S ==
+
+scalping
+A method of wildland range renovation in which existing vegetation is turned over in a series of long strips, effectively clearing the land in order to improve water infiltration, hasten the decay of organic matter, and reduce competition for nutrients in the soil, which can help plant species usable by grazing animals to colonize and spread across the range.
+
+scarify
+1.  To stir a soil surface with an implement possessing tines, e.g. a wire rake, but without turning the soil over completely, often to remove shallow-rooted weeds.
+2.  To use a sharp tool to create a nick or slit in the hard outer coat of a seed in order to aid the penetration of moisture to the endosperm and thereby speed up germination.
+
+scion
+An aerial or above-ground plant structure, e.g. a stem or branchlet, that is grafted onto the rootstock of another plant.
+
+scythe
+A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, used for mowing grass or harvesting crops, especially reaping grain crops prior to threshing. The action of the scythe has largely been automated in modern agricultural machinery such as reapers and combine harvesters. The scythe is similar to a sickle, but has a longer handle intended to be used with two hands instead of one.
+
+season extension
+Any method that allows a crop to be grown and/or harvested beyond its natural outdoor growing season or harvest season. Season extension practices most commonly aim to overcome low temperatures or inadequate sunlight in climates where cold weather and shorter days limit the growing season in the spring and fall, but can also include techniques designed to address other seasonally varying conditions such as precipitation and consumer demand, or simply to keep mature crops alive until immediately before the harvest (as opposed to applying postharvest food preservation technologies to prevent spoilage during storage).
+
+second
+To hoe between rows of rootcrops that have previously been thinned out.
+
+secondary tillage
+
+seed cotton
+Raw cotton which has been harvested but not yet ginned or processed in any other way, containing seeds, lint, and possibly foreign matter.
+
+seed crop
+A crop grown specifically so that seeds can be harvested from the mature plants, as opposed to crops grown for their edible or usable non-seed parts without regard for the quality or quantity of any seeds they may produce. A secondary seed crop may be maintained alongside a primary cash crop in order to ensure an adequate supply of seeds for future plantings and/or to manage crop phenotypes by the artificial selection of seeds from parents with desirable characteristics.
+
+seed dressing
+The process of coating plant seeds with clay, biofertilizers, pesticides, or inert materials to give them a uniform shape and to increase their size and weight in order to improve visibility, ease of planting, germination rates, or resistance to disease.
+
+seed drill
+A mounted or tractor-drawn machine that automates the action of sowing crop seeds, usually by permitting a specified quantity of seed to pass through a hopper with each rotation of a drive wheel and then through tubes that extend to the soil surface, where the seeds are deposited and covered with soil to a precise depth. The result is a series of evenly spaced rows with seeds distributed uniformly between them.
+
+seed enhancement
+Any treatment applied to seeds in order to improve their viability in storage or their likelihood of germination upon being sown. A huge variety of physical, chemical, and biological methods have been developed for different plant species, generally to protect the seed from extreme temperatures or pathogens and to aid the establishment of young seedlings into mature plants, including priming, steeping, hardening, pelleting, coating, stratification, and pregermination, among others.
+
+seedbed
+Also seedling bed.
+The local soil environment in which seeds are sown, often including not only the soil but also a specially built cold frame, hotbed, or raised bed used to germinate the seeds in a controlled environment before transplanting the resulting seedlings into more natural soils in a garden or field. The use of seedbeds can substantially increase germination rates.
+
+seeding
+See sowing.
+
+seedling
+The young plant that germinates from a plant embryo contained within a seed.
+
+seedlot
+A quantity of seeds, cones, or any other plant propagule of the same species, source, or quality, especially a quantity representing a single collection collected on the same date and at the same location, or even from the same individual plant.
+
+sericulture
+The cultivation of silkworms with the goal of producing silk.
+
+set
+In orchardry, the total amount of blossoms or fruits growing on one or more cultivated trees at a particular time, or the total amount produced by or harvested from one or more trees during a growing season or production cycle; an approximate quantification of a tree or orchard's total productivity.
+
+setting
+(of a brooding hen) In the process of incubating eggs.
+
+shade house
+Any structure with a roof or covering that partially obstructs light from reaching the space beneath it (e.g. a mesh fabric or wood slats), providing partial shade to plants or animals living inside. Shade houses are commonly used in horticulture to provide optimal conditions for the growth of shade-loving plants, attenuating direct sunlight and keeping temperatures cool while still permitting air circulation and enough light for photosynthesis to occur.
+
+share
+See ploughshare.
+
+sharecropping
+A type of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to cultivate a portion of his or her land in return for a share of the crops produced on that land.
+
+sharefarming

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-31.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 32/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+shattering
+The natural detachment and dispersal of a plant's fruit or seeds upon reaching maturity, i.e. when the fruit is ripe. For agricultural crops where the harvested seed is valuable, such as cereal grains, shattering is usually undesirable because natural dispersal mechanisms often scatter the small seeds haphazardly over the ground, making it difficult or impossible to collect them, while seeds that remain attached to the plant are much easier to harvest. Hence farmers try to time the harvest to occur immediately before their crops begin to shatter. Heavy rain and strong winds may cause premature shattering, which can result in significant yield losses.
+
+sheaf
+A bundle of cut stems from a cereal crop (especially wheat) which have been bound together after reaping, traditionally by sickle or scythe but on some modern farms by machines such as a reaper-binder. Multiple sheaves are then "shocked" or arranged into conical stooks to allow the grain to dry before threshing.
+
+shearing
+The process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep or other wool-bearing mammal is cut or shaved from its body. Adult sheep are typically shorn once each year.
+
+shearing shed
+Also woolshed.
+A building or facility which accommodates large-scale shearing of wool-bearing animals such as sheep, and sometimes also related activities such as classing, pressing, and storing the wool.
+
+shearling
+1.  A yearling or one-year-old sheep.
+2.  The skin from a recently shorn sheep or lamb that has been tanned or dressed with the wool left on, having a suede surface on one side and clipped fur on the other.
+
+sheep dip
+A plunge dip designed specifically for sheep, containing a liquid pesticide formulation in which the sheep are briefly bathed or immersed in order to kill or remove ectoparasites living on their skin or in their wool.
+
+sheep station
+See station.
+
+sheet mulching
+
+shelterbelt
+See windbreak.
+
+shifting cultivation
+A type of agriculture in which specific plots of land are cleared and cultivated temporarily, often by slash-and-burn methods and for just a few growing seasons, then abandoned and allowed to lie fallow, reverting to their natural vegetation over many more seasons, while the cultivator migrates to a new plot.
+
+shoat
+A young domestic pig of either sex, usually from the age of weaning up to five months old and weighing 50 to 160 pounds (23 to 73 kg).
+
+shock
+See stook.
+
+shrinkage
+
+sickle
+A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, and typically used for reaping grain crops or cutting succulent forage for feeding livestock. The sickle is similar to a scythe, but used with one hand instead of two.
+
+sickle feather
+Either of a pair of long, curved feathers in the tail feathers of a rooster.
+
+side dressing
+The practice of applying fertilizers, manure, pesticides, or other soil amendments to the edge or side of a row of crops rather than from directly above, typically by using a cultivator fitted with a side-distributing attachment or another implement specially designed for this purpose. This method is usually slower but allows more precise and more cost-effective distribution than overhead application.
+
+silage
+A type of animal fodder made from the green foliage of crop plants preserved by a process of fermentation and storage called ensilage, ensiling, or silaging, which typically involves piling and compressing large amounts of cut green vegetation in an oxygen-poor environment, such as a pit or silo or a bale wrapped tightly with plastic film. Silage is usually made from maize, sorghum, or other cereals, using the entire green plant (not just the grain).
+
+silo
+Any structure designed for storing bulk materials. In agriculture, tower silos are commonly used to store fermented grain known as silage.
+
+silviculture
+The practice of managing or directly controlling the establishment, growth, composition, and quality of natural or deliberately planted forests for any of a number of reasons, especially timber production but also for the cultivation of other forest crops.
+
+sire
+The male parent of an animal. The term is used alongside dam, especially for domestic mammals such as cattle and horses.
+
+site-specific crop management (SSCM)
+See precision agriculture.
+
+skylark plot
+A small area of land in a winter cereal field that is intentionally not drilled with seed so as to leave a patch of shorter vegetation that enables easier foraging for ground-nesting birds such as the skylark.
+
+slash-and-burn
+
+slash-and-char
+
+slaughter
+The killing, dressing, and butchering of domestic livestock, usually for food but also for other reasons, including harvesting pelts or culling animals that are diseased or otherwise unsuitable for consumption.
+
+slaughter weight
+The total weight of a livestock animal immediately before it is slaughtered.
+
+slaughterhouse
+Also abattoir.
+A building or facility where livestock are slaughtered for food. Slaughterhouses produce raw meat, which is then usually processed and preserved in some way before being packaged, distributed, and sold to consumers.
+
+sled row
+Also truck row.
+An unplanted skip row left between planted rows in a tobacco field to allow people and machinery to access the plants in the middle of the field. Usually, two sled rows are left for every four rows of tobacco plants.
+
+slip
+A cutting, shoot, or leaf capable of vegetative propagation when rooted.
+
+slurry
+Liquid waste from animals that is stored in tanks or open-air lagoons, treated, and then distributed as a fertilizer, often by a tractor-hauled machine such as a slurry spreader.
+
+slurry pit
+Also slurry tank, slurry lagoon, or slurry store.
+A hole, tank, reservoir, or other holding area, often lined with concrete but open to the air, into which liquid animal waste and other unusable organic byproducts of agricultural operations, known as slurry, is dumped and then allowed to decompose naturally over a long period of time into a nutrient-rich solution that can with further treatment be reused as a fertilizer. The decomposition process often releases toxic gases, necessitating the use of personal protective equipment when working near slurry pits.
+
+smallholding

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 33/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+smother crop
+A dense, fast-growing plant species capable and often cultivated specifically for the purpose of suppressing the growth of weeds by competing strongly for access to light, water, and nutrients. An ideal smother crop competes with the weeds but not with other crops. Once it has served its purpose, it may be ploughed into the soil as green manure along with any weeds that may have survived. Smother crops are an example of biological pest control.
+
+smudge pot
+Any heat-producing device placed between the trees of an orchard to keep the trees warm and prevent the accumulation of frost on fruits and flowers, which are often highly vulnerable to damage from cold temperatures. Historically, smudge pots burned petroleum to produce an open flame at the top of a long chimney, though colloquially the term now encompasses modern frost control methods, which usually rely on propane or electric space heaters instead.
+
+soil amendment
+Also soil improvement or soil conditioner.
+Any substance which is added to soil to improve the soil's quality, especially its fertility and mechanics, either to make poor soils more usable or to maintain soils that are already in good condition. In the broadest sense, the term includes all organic and synthetic soil-borne fertilizers, pesticides, and other agrichemicals, as well as other soil additives such as perlite and vermiculite.
+
+soil compaction
+The degradation of soil structure, generally by an increase in bulk density and/or decrease in porosity, due to externally or internally applied loads. Conventional agricultural methods, especially the repeated use of heavy machinery, often lead to compaction of the subsoil, creating impermeable underground layers such as hardpan which severely restrict water and nutrient cycles and thereby adversely affect crop growth, yield, and quality, not to mention numerous off-site ecological processes.
+
+soil inoculant
+Also microbial inoculant and bioinoculant.
+A soil amendment containing living microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi which form symbiotic, mutualistic relationships with plants growing in the soil, benefiting the growth and health of plants in any of a variety of ways, typically by improving plant nutrition (as with biofertilizers), stimulating plant hormone production, or inducing systemic acquired resistance to plant diseases.
+
+soil science
+The scientific study of soil as a natural resource, including its formation, classification, and mapping; the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils; and how these properties relate to the use and management of soils for agricultural purposes.
+
+soil solarization
+A non-chemical pest control method applied to soils before planting, in which the soil is mulched, covered with a transparent plastic sheet, and then exposed to direct sunlight, creating a greenhouse effect which traps solar energy and increases the soil temperature to levels that kill or weaken soil-borne pathogens, including many bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, mites, and weeds, thereby preventing their proliferation when the sheet is removed and the soil is finally cultivated. Solarization is most effective in warm climates, and is usually practiced on a relatively small scale in gardens or on organic farms.
+
+southwest injury
+See sunscald.
+
+sow
+A mature female hog, especially one that has given birth at least once.
+
+sow stall
+See gestation crate.
+
+sowing
+Often used interchangeably with seeding and planting.
+The process of distributing the seeds (or any other type of propagule) of crop plants in or upon an area of fertile soil, either by hand or by mechanical methods. Sowing is one of the first steps in any seasonal farming operation.
+
+spaying
+The surgical removal of the ovaries (and sometimes also the oviducts and uterus) of a female animal, which permanently prevents reproduction and eliminates the secretion of ovarian hormones. It is commonly performed on livestock as a method of birth control or behavioral modification, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g. heifers are usually spayed at a young age in order to improve the quality of their meat. The male equivalent is called castration.
+
+spoilage
+The process by which an agricultural product (typically food) becomes unsuitable for use or ingestion by the consumer. Natural decomposition of agricultural crops by bacteria and fungi is the most common cause of food spoilage. Depending on the type of product, shelf life may be significantly increased with proper packaging and storage and by the application of various food preservation techniques.
+
+sprigging
+The planting of small sections of a plant cut from rhizomes or stolons, known as sprigs, including crowns and roots, but without any accompanying soil (i.e. only the bare-root sprig itself is planted). This differs from plugs, which are transplanted from containers along with small amounts of soil, and sod, which consists of sheets of turfgrass and the uppermost layers of the soil substrate. Sprigs may be planted manually or mechanically, and are usually placed at regularly spaced intervals in furrows or holes.
+
+springer
+A pregnant cow, especially a heifer, that is due to give birth soon.
+
+sprinkler irrigation
+The overhead application of water to a crop by any of a wide range of mechanisms and designs, encompassing both stationary and moving sprinklers, which are often fully or partially automated, e.g. wheel lines and center-pivot systems.
+
+sprout damage
+The undesirable germination of wheat kernels that often occurs on wheat crops when wet field conditions persist in the final stage of crop maturation, just prior to and during the harvest. Recently cut wheat that has been left lying in the field prior to threshing is particularly vulnerable; windrowing and drying the cut stalks as quickly as possible is therefore a high priority for wheat farmers. Sprouted kernels contain extremely high concentrations of the enzyme alpha-amylase, which can negatively impact the baking quality of flour made from the wheat; the presence of this enzyme can be determined by the Falling Number test.
+
+stable
+A building divided into separate stalls in which domestic livestock, especially horses, are kept, sheltering them from the elements and giving them a private space where they can reside during illness or pregnancy.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-33.md

@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 34/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+stag
+A male bovine animal (a bull) that has been castrated relatively late in life, e.g. after reaching maturity, as opposed to the normal practice of castrating males while they are still calves. Compare steer.
+
+staking
+The practice of supporting the growth of a plant by placing a stake or artificial support in the ground next to it. It is widely used to cultivate plants with vine-like habits.
+
+stalk rot
+A generic term for a variety of plant diseases caused by molds and other fungi which grow in the stems and stalks of plant crops and weaken their structural integrity so greatly that they easily fall over in wind, rain, or snow, potentially killing the crop or making it much more difficult to harvest.
+
+stallion
+An adult male horse or donkey that has not been gelded, especially one used for breeding purposes.
+
+staple fiber
+Any textile fiber, natural or synthetic, of discrete and consistent length, as opposed to a filament fiber, for which length varies continuously. Staple fibers are defined by a characteristic length, to which either natural fibers consistently grow (e.g. certain cultivars of cotton tend to produce short, medium, long, or extra-long staple lengths), or to which synthetic fibers or blends are consistently cut after manufacture.
+
+staple food
+Also simply staple.
+A food that is eaten routinely and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of the standard diet for a given population or demographic, supplying many or most of the basic nutrients needed for survival or health. Staple foods vary by location and culture but are typically inexpensive or readily available foods that can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling or decaying. Examples include cereals, starchy tubers or root vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products.
+
+station
+Also cattle station, sheep station, or run.
+A large landholding dedicated to the raising of grazing livestock, especially cattle or sheep. The term is used primarily in Australia, New Zealand, and other British Commonwealth territories, and has the same meaning as the North American term ranch. An owner or operator of a station is called a grazier, pastoralist, or runholder.
+
+steer
+A male bovine animal (a bull) that has been castrated, usually as a young calf so as to yield better-quality meat later in life. Compare stag.
+
+stocker
+Any cattle being backgrounded prior to finishing, especially a calf or yearling.
+
+stockgrower
+See rancher.
+
+stockyard
+A holding area for livestock, especially at a market where they are being sold.
+
+stook
+Also shock or stack.
+An upright conical or tent-like arrangement of sheaves of the cut stalks of a grain crop, placed so as to keep the grain-heads off the ground prior to collection for threshing. Stooked grains typically include wheat, barley, oats, and maize.
+
+stool
+The living roots and stumps of felled trees, especially of trees that have been coppiced and from which new growth eventually sprouts.
+
+storage clamp
+A compact pile, mound, or heap of materials, especially one used for the temporary storage of root crops such as potatoes, turnips, and rutabagas.
+
+stover
+The leaves, stalks, and other field residues of certain crops, especially maize, sorghum, and soybean, that are left in a field after harvesting. It may be used as a mulch or green manure, directly grazed by livestock, or dried and collected as fodder.
+
+stratification
+The process of treating the seeds of certain plant crops with any of various treatments intended to simulate the natural conditions that the seeds typically experience prior to germination. The seeds of many plant species naturally undergo a phase of embryonic dormancy which prevents them from sprouting prematurely in environments with suboptimal growing conditions, where the probability of survival is low. In order to break this dormancy, generally these seeds must be exposed to a precise combination of cold temperatures, moisture, and/or some form of physical damage capable of penetrating the hard outer seed coat, often in a specific order and for specific lengths of time. Only after surpassing this developmental barrier are the internal biochemical reactions triggered that allow the seed to begin growing into a new seedling.
+
+straw
+An agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. Straw has numerous different uses, including as mulch, biofuel, bedding and fodder for livestock, and construction material.
+
+strip cropping
+
+stubble
+A field residue consisting of the portion of a plant remaining in the ground after harvesting is complete, usually the roots below the surface and an attached portion of the stem or stalk extending upright above the surface.
+
+stubble-mulching
+The practice of leaving the stubble or crop residue essentially in place on a plot of harvested cropland as a mulch or surface cover during a fallow period. Stubble-mulching can prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture.
+
+stud
+
+stumpage
+The price paid by a logging business to a landowner for the right to harvest timber from their land, usually determined by a rate applied to the number of trees or the volume (in cubic metres or board-feet) or mass (in tons) of wood harvested.
+
+sty
+Also pigsty, pig pen, pig parlor, or pig-cote.
+A small outdoor enclosure in which domestic swine are raised as livestock, generally little more than a fenced-in area of bare dirt or mud.
+
+subirrigation
+Also subsurface irrigation or seepage irrigation.
+The practice of delivering irrigation water through ditches or pipelines directly into porous underground spaces within a crop's rooting depth; more broadly, any method of supplying water to plants from underneath the soil surface, including those grown in pots and containers, as opposed to supplying it at the surface or from above.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-34.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 35/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+subsistence agriculture
+Agricultural production that is practiced in order to meet the needs of the farmer or producer, as opposed to that practiced in order to generate profit by selling the agricultural products to consumers. Subsistence agriculture usually refers to farmers growing various food crops strictly for use by themselves and their families, typically on smallholdings, with the output of the farm targeted principally at fulfilling basic survival needs and local requirements, and generally implies small amounts of inputs, use of crude or traditional farming tools, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), low yields, and little or no surplus. It primarily occurs in the developing world, though most modern subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree.
+
+subsoiler
+Also flat lifter.
+A tractor-mounted farm implement used for tilling soil at depths much below the levels normally worked by mouldboard ploughs, disc harrows, or rototillers. While most such tools break up and turn over surface soil to a depth of 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in), subsoilers can often extend the action to as deep as 75 centimetres (30 in). They typically consist of three or more heavy, curved shanks fitted with replaceable points and sometimes with horizontal wings, which are used to lift and shatter the hardpan that builds up in deeper layers due to soil compaction.
+
+succession planting
+
+suckle
+To supply or take milk from the breast or udder of an animal, used especially to describe the nourishment of newborn mammals including swine and cattle.
+
+suckling
+An infant or young animal that suckles milk for most or all of its nourishment; one that has not yet been weaned.
+
+sugar bush
+A natural or cultivated stand of maple trees used for the production of maple syrup.
+
+summer fallow
+The practice of deliberately not producing crops from a particular field or area of cropland (fallowing) during the summer, or during the regular growing season. The term may also refer to the unused land itself. Intensive cultivation depletes soils of moisture and nutrients and disrupts many of the natural ecological processes that would ordinarily restore them, which are typically most active during the summer. Fallowing fields in the summer thus maximizes the opportunity for impoverished soils to recover by allowing these processes to continue instead of interrupting them with another season of cultivation. It is a common technique in dryland farming.
+
+summer range
+Also summer pasture.
+Land or pasture reserved for grazing during the warmer months (i.e. spring and summer), when wild or cultivated forage is abundant and can satisfy all or nearly all of an animal's feed requirements, such that the need to supply fodder for sustenance is greatly reduced and thus feed costs are cheaper. More generally, the term may describe the areas occupied or frequented during the warm season by open-range livestock or wild animals which exhibit seasonal migration patterns, moving between higher, cooler elevations in the summer and lower, warmer elevations in the winter. Contrast winter range.
+
+sun-cured
+Also sun-dried.
+(of a food) Having been dried by a process in which the freshly harvested produce (e.g. tomatoes) is exposed to direct sunlight in open air, often for multiple days, causing most of the water of the fresh weight to be lost by evaporation.
+
+sunscald
+Also southwest injury.
+Permanent damage to the bark covering tree trunks and branches, often in the form of conspicuous cracks and fissures, caused by an abrupt change from relatively high daytime temperatures to freezing conditions at night, usually during the winter in warm temperate or subtropical climates. These conditions may compromise the health of trees growing in orchards, and may damage flowers and fruits as well.
+
+super seeder
+
+support price
+A legislated minimum price for a particular commodity, maintained through a variety of mechanisms, such as minimum import prices, nonrecourse loans, and purchase programs.
+
+sustainable agriculture
+
+swampbusting
+The drainage of a natural swamp or wetland in order to make the land arable for the cultivation of agricultural crops, or to render it usable for any other purpose.
+
+swathe
+
+swather
+Also windrower.
+A machine that cuts hay or small grain crops and forms them into windrows, with the goal of decreasing the time required for drying the crop to a moisture content suitable for harvesting and storage. A sickle bar or mower cuts the stems of the crop, and a reel helps the cut stems fall neatly onto a conveyor, which then deposits them into a windrow with all stems oriented in the same direction. The mown strip left behind is called the swathe.
+
+sweetening
+The sowing of additional seed of the same crop into a previously sown field without disrupting the original planting, in order to supplement thinly planted areas which did not or are not expected to germinate at the same density as the rest of the field. Even when the original seed is uniformly sown, it may fail to establish at the expected density due to low viability or adverse weather conditions such as a late frost.
+
+swill
+A mixture of water and discarded kitchen refuse that is fed to livestock (especially swine); or any liquid food for animals.
+
+swine
+Also pig or hog.
+Any member of several species of omnivorous mammals of the family Suidae, having cloven hooves, flat snouts, and thick hides covered with sparse, coarse hair; the term may be applied to such animals both collectively and individually. Adult males are called boars and adult females are called sows. Domestic swine are commonly raised for their meat, known as pork, and wild swine are often hunted.
+
+== T ==
+
+tagging
+See crutching.
+
+tailing
+See docking.
+
+tailrace
+A manmade channel or millrace built to carry water away from a mill, water wheel, turbine, or mining operation. Compare headrace.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-35.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 36/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+tailwater
+1.  In furrow and border irrigation, water that drains from the lower end of the furrows, having run off instead of penetrating the soil. It is sometimes subsequently usable for the irrigation of lower-lying land.
+2.  The water immediately downstream of a dam, spillway, bridge, culvert, or any other hydraulic structure, or the water that passes through a tailrace.
+
+tallow
+Fat rendered from the tissue of slaughtered cattle, sheep, or other livestock to be used in the manufacture of candles, soap, or any of a variety of other products.
+
+tame hay
+Hay cut from domesticated, cultivated crop plants such as clover, timothy, or alfalfa, as opposed to wild hay, which is cut from wild or native grasses.
+
+tankage
+A highly nutritive animal feed concentrate made of processed meat byproducts.
+
+tapping
+The process by which sap or latex is extracted from the trunks of cultivated trees.
+
+teart
+Plants or soils that contain high concentrations of molybdenum; or the poisoning of livestock that graze on vegetation grown in these soils.
+
+tedder
+Also hay tedder.
+A tractor-drawn machine that uses rapidly moving pitchfork-like tines to aerate or "wuffle" freshly cut hay on the ground in a process known as tedding, typically prior to windrowing. Use of a tedder allows the hay to dry more quickly, which can result in improved aroma and color.
+
+tedding
+The spreading of material across an agricultural field, especially manure to serve as a fertilizer, or certain crops (e.g. hay and flax) to help them dry on the ground before collecting them. Traditionally tedding was done manually with tools such as pitchforks, but in modern practice it is often done by a mechanized manure spreader or hay tedder.
+
+tempering
+Also conditioning.
+One of several steps in the dry milling and fractionation of certain cereal crops such as wheat and maize, in which moisture is added to the grain in order to aid the removal of bran from the endosperm.
+
+tenant farmer
+A person who operates and resides on farmland owned by a landlord. Tenant farming involves a contract between the landowner and the tenant farmer in which the landowner contributes his land and often a measure of operating capital and management in exchange for the tenant farmer's labor. The tenant farmer may also pay rent to the landowner, though the form and measures of payment and the rights the tenant has to the land vary widely with local custom.
+
+tensiometer
+An instrument used in irrigation management to measure the amount of moisture in cultivated soil and thereby provide an indicator of how much and how frequently to irrigate.
+
+terrace
+A sloped plane such as a hillside that has been landscaped into a series of flat surfaces or platforms resembling steps, i.e. successively receding as one travels uphill, and following the lateral contours of the topography. Graduated terraces are commonly built to create level spaces for agriculture in hilly or mountainous terrain. The shaping of a natural landscape into terraces is known as terracing.
+
+threshing
+The process of loosening and separating the edible part of a grain or other crop from the chaff to which it is attached, without removing the bran. In grain cultivation, threshing immediately follows reaping and precedes winnowing.
+
+threshing floor
+A specially flattened outdoor or indoor surface of earth, stone, or wood, often circular and paved, against which grain was traditionally threshed by trampling or stamping it into the ground with the feet of people or animals, and where it was subsequently winnowed as well. Mechanized threshing machines have since made threshing floors obsolete.
+
+threshing machine
+Also thresher.
+
+threshing stone
+
+tillage
+1.  The preparation of agricultural soil by any of various types of mechanical agitation, whether human-powered, animal-powered, or mechanised, such as digging, hoeing, raking, ploughing, and harrowing. In this sense, it is also referred to as tilling.
+2.  The land that is tilled.
+
+tiller
+1.  A stem or shoot which arises from the base or crown of a grass plant, especially any shoot that emerges after the initial parent shoot germinates from a seed. Many grass species, including cereals such as barley, produce multiple tillers which grow laterally from the same dense tuft in moist soils, a form of vegetative propagation known as tillering.
+2.  Colloquially, any farm implement used for tilling soil, e.g. a rotary tiller.
+
+tilth
+The physical texture, structure, and general condition of soil with respect to its suitability for planting or growing a crop, as indicated by parameters such as moisture content, aeration, soil aggregate stability, rate of water infiltration, and drainage. Soil with good tilth has large pore spaces allowing air and water movement, yet is also capable of holding water and plant nutrients for substantial periods of time. The primary objective of tillage is to improve tilth by mechanical manipulation of the soil, with the goal of increasing crop yield; fertilization, irrigation, and soil amendments can also positively impact tilth. When applied excessively, however, these practices may have the opposite effect, causing the soil to lose its structure and become compacted.
+
+timber
+See lumber.
+
+tobacco barn
+A barn specially designed for air-curing tobacco plants.
+
+tom
+A young male turkey, usually less than one year old.
+
+top dressing
+Also topdressing.
+The practice of applying fertilizers, manure, pesticides, or other soil amendments to the surface of agricultural land (i.e. broadcasting it from above and without subsequently tilling it into the soil), often directly onto a growing crop, and especially implying aerial application from aircraft. This is in contrast to applying amendments on the side or individually to each plant via more precise methods.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-36.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 37/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+topographical tetrazolium test
+Also TTC assay or tetrazolium test.
+A test of seed viability in which ungerminated seeds are nicked and then soaked in an aqueous solution containing triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC), a chemical indicator which is reduced by the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes in living tissues, changing their color from white to red, but remains unreacted in metabolically inactive or necrotic tissues. A seed embryo that stains red is assumed to be metabolically active and therefore likely to germinate. The TTC assay is used in agriculture for quick estimations of viability without having to wait for actual germination, which can often take days or weeks, but may also yield misleading or unreliable results in certain plant species.
+
+topping
+The removal by mowing or cutting of the aerial parts of a plant, i.e. the uppermost parts of the canopy, including the highest or most distal ends of shoots, stems, stalks, trunks, or branches, for any of a variety of reasons, especially in order to prevent the development of terminal reproductive structures such as flowers and fruits, with the ultimate aim of diverting the plant's resources to the growth of other structures such as roots and leaves, or of preventing unwanted dispersal of seeds. Cover crops are commonly topped to prevent their seeds from contaminating the soil they are covering. Topping is also done for health and aesthetic reasons. See also pruning, coppicing and pollarding.
+
+topsoil
+The uppermost layer of soil, nearest the surface, widely variable in depth but typically less dense and more pliable than layers below it, making it easy to till but also more susceptible to erosion. In many places topsoils will form naturally from a mixture of organic and inorganic material over time, but it may also be added to a ground surface or created by ploughing.
+
+towbar
+See drawbar.
+
+tractor
+A type of heavy engineering vehicle designed specifically to deliver very high tractive effort or torque at slow speeds for the purpose of hauling a trailer or machinery, especially one which provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks. Modern tractors serve a wide variety of different functions, with many types of agricultural implements able to be towed behind or mounted on them, such as ploughs, harrows, and cultivators; tractors may also provide a source of electrical power if the implement is mechanized.
+
+transhumance
+A type of pastoralism involving the seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures.
+
+transplanter
+An agricultural machine designed to automate the process of transplanting small plants or seedlings from starter pots to a field, obviating the time and labor required for manual transplanting.
+
+transplanting
+Also outplanting or replanting.
+The process of moving a plant from one location to another, i.e. physically removing the whole plant, including its roots, from the substrate of the original location and then replanting it in the substrate of the new location. Seeds and plugs are often initially planted in starter pots in a nursery and then transplanted to outdoor settings only after the young plants have become sufficiently established, as an alternative to simply sowing seeds outdoors from the beginning. Transplanting may also be done for other reasons, e.g. when moving container-grown plants to larger pots as they grow in size. A machine that automates the action of transplanting is known as a transplanter. Many agricultural crops are relatively tolerant of being transplanted and are quick to re-establish themselves in new locations, while other species are susceptible to transplant shock, such that horticulturists must exercise great caution when moving them.
+
+trap crop
+Any plant that is cultivated in order to attract the attention of agricultural pests, usually insects, and thereby distract them away from nearby crops. In small farms or gardens, this practice can help save the primary crop from decimation by pests without the use of pesticides.
+
+tree farm
+A wild forest that is managed for timber production, or a plantation or nursery where trees are deliberately planted and cultivated for commercial sale, either for timber or as ornamental plants.
+
+tree wrapping
+The practice of completely covering the lower trunk of a tree (commonly a sapling) or any other sensitive plant with straw, crêpe paper, burlap, or plastic, generally in order to protect it from cold temperatures, wind, sunscald, or insects.
+
+trellis
+Also treillage.
+A lattice or framework of interwoven or intersecting rods of wood, bamboo, metal, or plastic used to support or display climbing plants, especially trees and shrubs but also garden crops such as tomatoes.
+
+trench silo
+A long, deep trench dug in the ground, often in a hillside, and sometimes lined with wooden or concrete retaining walls to be used as an in-ground silo for storing silage. They are common in arid climates where the ground is well-drained.
+
+trickle irrigation
+See drip irrigation.
+
+trough
+See manger.
+
+truck farm
+A farm that grows vegetables or fruits and then ships the harvested produce, often in boxes hauled by trucks, to one or more markets for sale to consumers (as opposed to selling the produce at the farm itself, as with a farm stand).
+
+tup
+A mature male sheep (a ram), at least 18 months old and capable of siring offspring.
+
+tupping
+Copulation between a ram and a ewe.
+
+turning out
+The release of livestock from a shelter or enclosure into an open space, usually onto pasture after a period of being housed. For example, cattle that have been kept in buildings during the winter are turned out to grass in the spring.
+
+turnrow
+See headland.
+
+twibill
+A type of mattock which pairs a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze blade, combining chopping and levering functions in a single tool.
+
+== U ==
+
+U-fork
+See broadfork.
+
+U-Pick
+See You-Pick.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-37.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 38/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+udder
+The fleshy, bag-like mammary gland found just in front of the hind legs of many female ungulate mammals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. The udder contains nipples or teats that secrete milk, which is used as a food source for nursing young and collected by humans in the process of milking.
+
+undergrazing
+The practice of neglecting to allow livestock to graze an area of pasture for an excessively long period of time, such that the vegetation covering it reaches maturity or the end of its life cycle well before animals have the opportunity to graze it and thus is not eaten when it is optimally palatable or nutritious.
+
+urban agriculture
+The practice of agriculture in urban environments (as opposed to rural areas, with which agriculture is more commonly associated), especially the cultivation of plants for food production but also inclusive of animal husbandry, aquaponics, beekeeping, or any other type of agriculture which has been adapted to an urban context. Urban areas present unique challenges for agriculture due to space limitations, difficult or inconsistent access to adequate fresh water, fertile soil, and sunlight, and exposure to urban pollutants. Urban agriculture is often practiced in the interest of food security, locavorism, and sustainable urban development, or simply as a hobby or for aesthetic reasons. Examples include community gardens, vertical farming, windowfarming, rooftop gardening, and building-integrated agriculture.
+
+== V ==
+
+vapor drift
+The unintentional diffusion of vapors from an area where pesticides are applied (generally by large-scale fumigation methods) to adjacent areas, which can harm non-target crops or animals, as well as humans.
+
+Vavilovian mimicry
+A form of mimicry in plants in which a weed or unwanted plant species evolves to share one or more characteristics with a domesticated plant species, often an agricultural crop, through many generations of unintentional selection caused by the practice of removing weeds. The deliberate removal of weeds from crop fields artificially selects against traits that distinguish the weed from the crop plant, because weeds that physically or chemically resemble the crop plant, or otherwise follow the same phenology or growth habit, are more likely to escape notice by the farmer, evade chemical or mechanical removal, and thereby survive to reproduce.
+
+veal
+The meat of calves, as opposed to the beef of older cattle.
+
+vealer
+A calf, especially of a dairy breed, that is usually raised on milk only and slaughtered at less than four months old and less than 350 pounds (160 kg), to be sold as veal.
+
+veganic farming
+See animal-free agriculture.
+
+vermicompost
+A type of compost produced as a result of the decomposition processes performed by certain species of earthworms as they feed on decaying organic matter. The final product, typically a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and worm castings, is popular as a fertilizer and soil amendment.
+
+vermiculite
+A hydrated magnesium-aluminum silicate mineral resembling mica which exfoliates upon heating to form a lightweight, incombustible, and highly hygroscopic substance widely used in agriculture and horticulture as a soil amendment, where it helps to aerate soil and retain water and nutrient ions, releasing them slowly over time. These properties make it a useful growth medium for sowing seeds and propagating cuttings, either alone, mixed with compost, or just covering the surface. It is commonly used in combination with perlite.
+
+vermiculture
+The cultivation of worms, usually red wigglers and other types of earthworms, for the purpose of producing vermicompost.
+
+vermiponics
+
+vernalization
+
+vertical farming
+The practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers, usually indoors as a type of controlled-environment agriculture and by incorporating soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics.
+
+vineyard
+A plantation or plot of land where grapevines are grown for the cultivation of grapes, particularly for winemaking.
+
+virtual water
+The total volume of freshwater used in the production of a food or non-food agricultural product, represented figuratively and in most cases estimated rather than directly measured. Virtual water may include the water physically embodied in the product itself (e.g. inside a fruit) as well as any water used during production which does not ultimately become part of the product (e.g. all water consumed in the process of irrigation, whether actually uptaken by the crop or not).
+
+viticulture
+Also winegrowing.
+The practice and study of the cultivation of grapes, especially for use in winemaking.
+
+volunteer
+Any plant, especially a feral crop plant or crop descendant, that grows in an agricultural field or garden unintentionally, rather than by deliberate planting by a farmer or gardener. Volunteers often grow from seeds that have been dispersed by the wind or animals or inadvertently mixed into compost. Unlike weeds, volunteers are not necessarily unwanted, and may even be encouraged to grow, especially if they show desirable characteristics that can be selected to produce new cultivars.
+
+== W ==
+
+walking tractor
+Also two-wheel tractor or single-axle tractor.
+A self-propelled, two-wheeled tractor vehicle with a single axle, designed to pull and supply power to any of a variety of agricultural implements which are mounted upon or towed behind it, including ploughs, seeders, cultivators, harvesters, or other trailers, with the operator either walking behind it or riding the implement being towed. These tractors, usually much smaller and cheaper than four-wheeled tractors, are best suited for small fields and relatively light-duty tasks.
+
+wares
+Potatoes grown or marketed for human consumption, as opposed to those grown for seed; or the largest, highest-quality potatoes that are separated from smaller, lower-quality chats during post-harvest sorting.
+
+warm-up ration
+A ration of grain and/or silage fed to free-range cattle to prepare them for placement in a feedlot, where they will be fed on similar rations consisting entirely of processed feed.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-38.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 39/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+water rights
+The right of a landowner to make use of the banks, bed, or waters of a water source, e.g. a river, stream, pond, spring, or underground aquifer. The water source need not necessarily be contained within or border on the user's property, as human-made reservoirs, aqueducts, and other water distribution systems have made it possible to allocate water to places outside of the source's natural drainage basin. Water rights are of major significance for managing irrigation, especially in arid regions, though the legal principles regulating access and usage vary widely by jurisdiction.
+
+water wheel
+A mechanical device that converts the kinetic energy of flowing or falling water into mechanical energy, generally a series of blades, paddles, or buckets attached to the outer rim of a wooden or metal wheel which the water in a natural or artificial channel pushes against, causing the wheel to turn and thereby providing a drive mechanism that can be used to perform useful work such as grinding grain into flour in a gristmill, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, and pounding plant fibers for clothmaking, among many other uses.
+
+waterlogging
+The saturation of soil with water, such that water completely fills all available pores and voids in the soil, restricting air circulation in the root zone and creating an anaerobic environment. Waterlogging occurs when water is added to a field faster than it can percolate through the soil or run off from the surface, either because of excessive precipitation or over-irrigation. In some contexts such as flood irrigation, crops are intentionally waterlogged, though total saturation is usually brief. Prolonged waterlogging is usually unintentional, as it deprives plant roots of aerobic respiration and can prevent proper drainage of mineral salts, causing an undesirable increase in soil salinity; with the exception of certain crops like rice grown in paddy fields, most plants are highly intolerant of it. A variety of agricultural practices are designed to facilitate drainage and prevent waterlogging.
+
+water-meadow
+A flat area of grassland that is periodically flooded through the use of controlled irrigation in order to increase agricultural productivity. The technique is practiced primarily in Europe.
+
+watermill
+Also water mill.
+A mill powered by the movement of water through a water wheel or turbine, which drives the grinding or crushing mechanism.
+
+water-wheel irrigation
+See center-pivot irrigation.
+
+weaning
+The gradual introduction of an infant mammal to an adult diet while withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk; the infant is considered fully weaned, and may be called a weanling, when it is no longer nursed on any breast milk. More generally the term can also refer to the physical separation of a calf from its mother for any reason, usually by putting them in different herds.
+
+weanling
+Also weaner.
+An animal which has recently been weaned, especially a young horse, usually between six months and one year of age. The term is also sometimes used to refer to newly weaned cattle and swine.
+
+weed
+Any plant considered undesirable in a particular context, growing where it conflicts with human preferences, needs, or goals. Plants considered weeds may include those that are hazardous to humans or animals; harbor pests or diseases; are difficult to control in managed environments; are aesthetically unappealing; or are simply a general nuisance, having negative characteristics that outweigh their positive ones. Such plants tend to reproduce quickly and produce large numbers of seeds, and often have biological characteristics that allow them to thrive in disturbed environments or that make them difficult to eradicate. Weed control is of great importance in agriculture and horticulture, since weeds may compete with cultivated crops for soil, sunlight, water, nutrients, and other resources and cause significant losses in crop yields.
+
+weed control
+A form of pest control which attempts to stop or reduce the growth and proliferation of weeds in areas where they are not wanted (such as in agricultural fields or gardens), generally with the aim of reducing their competition with desirable flora or fauna (such as domesticated crop plants or livestock) or, outside of agricultural contexts, of preventing non-native plant species from invading and damaging natural ecosystems by competing with native species. Methods of controlling existing weed populations include manually or mechanically damaging or removing them, smothering them with mulch, deeply tilling or solarizing the soil, burning them, or applying postemergent chemical herbicides. Weed control may also encompass prophylactic measures intended to prevent weeds from invading and germinating in areas where they are not yet growing, such as applying preemergent herbicides or practicing long-term strategies such as periodically rotating crops or fallowing the land.
+
+weed of cultivation
+Any plant considered a weed that is well-adapted to environments in which the land is cultivated for growing some other plant. See also crop weed.
+
+weeder
+Any of a variety of hand-operated, towed, or power-driven agricultural implements used to pull, cut, dig, or otherwise remove undesirable plants from an area intended for cultivation.
+
+weeding
+The destruction or removal of weeds by manual or mechanical means, often with the use of implements such as hoes or cultivators, but also simply by manually pulling them from the ground; or, in the broadest sense, any type of weed control applied to existing populations of weeds, including chemical herbicides.
+
+wether
+A castrated male goat or sheep.
+
+wet-milling
+A milling operation in which plant material containing seeds is steeped in water, with or without sulfur dioxide, in order to soften the seed kernels and separate the material into its various components. The technique is commonly used to convert maize into products that can be used as animal feed.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 40/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+wheat middlings (WM)
+Also wheat mill run (WMR), millfeed (MF), and midds.
+A byproduct of the milling of wheat consisting of all components of the wheat kernel remaining after the flour portion is separated, generally a mixture of both coarse and fine particles including screenings, bran, germ, shorts, red dog, and offal from other mill streams. Sometimes these components are further sorted into their own separate fractions, though they are also commonly recycled into a single combined fraction representing approximately 25–30 percent of the original grain. Wheat middlings are inexpensive and rich in protein, lipids, digestible fiber, phosphorus, and many vitamins and minerals, making them a popular animal feed.
+
+wheatings
+Also weatings.
+A byproduct of the milling of wheat consisting of brans of various sizes and varying amounts of attached endosperm, commonly used as animal feed. See also wheat middlings.
+
+wigging
+The shearing of wool from around the eyes and face of a sheep.
+
+wild hay
+Hay cut from wild or native grasses, as opposed to tame hay, which is cut from cultivated crops.
+
+wildcrafting
+The human practice of foraging for uncultivated plants or fungi from their natural or "wild" habitats, primarily for food or medicine.
+
+wildling
+A crop seedling which has begun growing, unintentionally, outside of managed agricultural lands or the area where it was intended to be cultivated.
+
+wilting point
+See permanent wilting point.
+
+windbreak
+Also shelterbelt.
+One or more rows of closely spaced trees or shrubs planted in such a way as to provide shelter from the wind to an adjacent agricultural field, thereby protecting the area from excessive cold and soil erosion. Windbreaks commonly take the form of hedgerows planted around the edges of fields on farms, but may also be made from artificial materials such as large canvas panels. Aside from decreasing wind speeds, they may also be designed to separate farms from motorways or to collect snowdrifts that will provide water to dry farmland when the snow melts in the spring.
+
+windmill
+A mill powered by the wind, using large vanes called sails or blades to catch the movement of the air and convert it into rotational energy which drives a turbine. Traditionally, windmills were used specifically as gristmills to mill grain, but in modern usage the term may encompass many other wind-powered devices which are not used for milling.
+
+windrow
+A row of cut or mown hay or small grain crop that is allowed to dry in a field before being baled, combined, or rolled. Windrows may be built deliberately after cutting, or they may form automatically as a result of the method by which the crop is mown.
+
+windrower
+See swather.
+
+windsnap
+The breaking of the bole or trunk of a tree by very strong winds, a type of blowdown. Compare windthrow.
+
+windthrow
+The uprooting of a tree by very strong winds, a type of blowdown. Compare windsnap.
+
+winnowing
+The process, performed either manually or mechanically, by which the economic fraction of a grain crop (i.e. the grain) is separated from the undesirable chaff. Traditional manual winnowing involves throwing the unseparated mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, while the heavier grains fall back to the ground for recovery. In modern agriculture, winnowing is often entirely mechanized. It is the final of the three major steps of grain harvesting, following reaping and threshing.
+
+winter range
+Land or pasture reserved for grazing during the colder months (i.e. fall and winter), when forage is less abundant and thus fodder must often be supplied to animals to meet their feed requirements. More generally, the term may describe the areas occupied or frequented during the cold season by livestock or wild animals that migrate seasonally between higher, cooler elevations in the summer and lower, warmer elevations in the winter. Contrast summer range.
+
+winter wheat
+Any variety of wheat that is planted in the autumn or early winter in order to be harvested the following summer, as opposed to spring or summer wheat. After planting, winter wheat germinates and develops briefly but then enters a period of dormancy during the winter months in which it only grows vegetatively, before resuming its normal growth and reproductive cycle in the spring. These varieties are naturally tolerant of cold temperatures and make it possible for farmers to produce crops year-round instead of being restricted to the summer growing season.
+
+wool
+The fiber produced by clipping and collecting hair from sheep or other mammals, including goats, rabbits, llamas, and alpacas. Animal wool is one of the major classes of fiber used in the textile industry.
+
+wool alien
+A plant species, especially a non-native plant or weed, which has been unintentionally introduced to a particular place as a result of activities related to the manufacture of wool products. This usually occurs when a seed, bur, or even a whole plant becomes entangled in the wool of a sheep or other wool-bearing animal and then survives shearing, transportation of the shorn wool, and cleaning at a refinery, where impurities in the wool are removed and discarded such that intact plant propagules are able to germinate and establish themselves in new habitats. Wool aliens are commonly found near woollen mills or in fields or orchards where byproducts of the wool cleaning process have been repurposed as soil conditioners.
+
+woolshed
+See shearing shed.
+
+worming
+See deworming.
+
+== X ==
+
+xeriscaping
+The practice of gardening or landscaping so as to reduce or eliminate the need for supplemental water from irrigation. Xeriscaping requires the selection of plants whose natural requirements are appropriate to the local climate, with a particular emphasis on water conservation, and focuses on designing and maintaining the land in such a way as to avoid losing water to evaporation and runoff. See also dryland farming.
+
+== Y ==
+
+yean
+To give birth. The term is used especially of sheep and goats.
+
+yeanling
+A newborn sheep or goat (i.e. a lamb or kid).

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 5/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+branding
+A technique for marking and identifying livestock in which a permanent scar, known as a brand, is made in the animal's hide, traditionally by applying an extremely hot or cold branding iron which has been shaped or placed in such a way as to create a unique, specific symbol or series of numbers, usually for the purpose of indicating ownership. Branding may be used in conjunction with other forms of animal identification, including earmarking, ear tagging, and radio-frequency identification (RFID).
+
+branding iron
+A handheld metal tool with one end shaped into a letter, number, or other symbol, intended as a unique identifier, which is heated, chilled, or electrified and then pressed against the skin of an animal in a process known as branding.
+
+brash
+1.  The decaying residues of a previous crop, along with any weeds that may be present on or near the soil surface, in an area that has not been ploughed. This debris may impede subsequent cultivation unless it is removed or buried.
+2.  In forestry, the small branches and foliage removed when trees are felled. Where trees such as hazel are coppiced, brash is often placed over the stool to deter animals from browsing the regrowth.
+
+brashing
+The pruning of the lower branches of trees grown in arboriculture in order to make physical access easier and improve timber quality. See also coppicing.
+
+breadbasket
+A geographic region which, because it has a climate and soils well suited to grain farming, produces a large proportion of the total grain (or, by extension, other food products) consumed by a population or economy.
+
+break crop
+A secondary crop grown in a crop rotation scheme in order to disrupt the repeated cultivation of a primary crop. The break crop species is usually of a different family or genus than the primary crop species, and the most effective break crops not only interfere with the build-up of pathogens but also restore soil fertility.
+
+broadacre
+An expansive parcel of land suitable for farms practicing large-scale crop production. The term is used primarily in Australia.
+
+broadcast seeding
+A method of seeding that involves scattering seed over a relatively large and imprecise area, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed to precision seeding and hydroseeding. Broadcast seeding is easier and faster than seeding in rows but usually requires more seed and may result in overcrowded and uneven distributions of plant cover. It is generally reserved for plants that do not have strict spacing or depth requirements or that are easily thinned after germination.
+
+broadfork
+Also U-fork or grelinette.
+A handheld farming tool consisting of a series of long metal tines attached to a horizontal crossbar, operated with two long handles extending from either end, which is used to manually break up densely packed soil such as hardpan without inverting or mixing the soil layers and thereby preserving its structure, often as part of no-till or reduced-till seedbed preparation.
+
+broiler
+Sometimes used interchangeably with fryer.
+A chicken of either sex that is bred and raised specifically for meat production.
+
+brood
+1.  A mature female animal, often a hen, which is kept for breeding purposes because of her strong mothering and nurturing instincts.
+2.  In apiculture, a bee brood, the collective name for the eggs, larvae, and/or pupae of a bee colony; or, more generally, the young offspring of any animal.
+
+brooding
+Also incubating.
+1.  An instinctual behavior whereby female birds sit on a clutch of eggs to incubate them prior to hatching, often for very long periods of time without eating or drinking and generally characterized by the near-total devotion of the mother's time and energy to caring for the eggs. Many poultry species will naturally attempt to brood newly laid eggs if they are not collected first.
+2.  The practice in poultry farming of raising young chickens or turkeys in environments with warm, carefully controlled temperatures during the first few weeks of life.
+
+brown manure
+Withered or decaying plant material which is used as a mulch or an organic fertilizer simply by leaving it to decompose on the soil surface (rather than tilling it into the soil while still green, as with green manure). Brown manure may consist of uprooted or dehisced crop residues or even whole plants which are specifically grown for this purpose and then sprayed with a selective herbicide to cause them to wilt and die. This practice, known as brown manuring, is often employed as a no-till alternative to other fertilizing techniques.
+
+browsing
+A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds on leaves, soft shoots, or fruits of relatively tall, woody plants such as shrubs and trees, as opposed to grazing, which involves feeding on grasses and other low-lying vegetation. Browsing may also refer to feeding on any non-grasses, including both woody and herbaceous dicots.
+
+Bt crop
+
+buck
+Also billy goat.
+An intact adult male goat.
+
+bucking
+See hay bucking.
+
+bull
+An adult male bovine animal which has not been castrated (as opposed to a steer, which has been).
+
+bullock
+See ox.
+
+bumper crop
+Any crop that yields an unusually large or productive harvest.
+
+bushel
+
+== C ==
+
+calf
+Plural calves.
+A young domestic bovine animal of either sex (i.e. a cow or bull), generally weighing less than 500 pounds. The term is usually applied from birth to weaning (which typically occurs around nine months of age), though it is also sometimes used until the animal is a yearling. Calves may be raised to become adult cattle, but are also commonly slaughtered for their meat, called veal, or their hides. The young of many other species, including bison, water buffalo, camels, and deer, are also called calves.
+
+calf hutch
+An enclosure used to house pre-weaned calves individually.
+
+calving
+The process of giving birth in cattle, by which a pregnant cow gives birth to a calf.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 41/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+yearling
+A male or female horse, donkey, bovine animal, or any other domestic mammal that is too young to breed, generally between one and two years of age.
+
+yield
+Also agricultural output.
+
+yield mapping
+The preparation of agricultural maps using data obtained from physical sensors (known as yield monitors) attached to agricultural machinery such as combines or tractors, in combination with precise position information from satellite or GIS technologies, in order to visualize and study the spatial variation of variables such as crop yield and moisture content across an agricultural field. These data are often compared with records of the application of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation, allowing farmers to understand how particular combinations of inputs influence the yield harvested from different parts of the same field and to develop strategies for increasing yields in future production cycles. Yield mapping is a major component of precision agriculture.
+
+You-Pick
+
+== See also ==
+Index of agriculture articles
+Outline of agriculture
+Outline of organic gardening and farming
+Outline of sustainable agriculture
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+National Agricultural Library Thesaurus Concept Space – National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture
+Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition – CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service
+The Agropedia – Agriculture Glossary

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-5.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 6/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+candling
+In the poultry egg industry, the process of examining eggs for quality and defects by holding them in front of a bright light source, illuminating the internal contents of the egg through the translucent shell without having to break it open. 
+
+cane mill
+A mill at which sugarcane is ground into raw sugar.
+
+capon
+A male chicken which has been castrated or neutered before reaching maturity, allowing it to grow faster and obtain a larger adult size.
+
+care farming
+The practice of farming (or of agricultural activities in general) for the purpose of providing or promoting mental or physical health or well-being, especially as a form of therapy or to aid convalescence or for social or educational services.
+
+carryover
+The supply of a farm commodity that is not yet used at the end of a marketing season and subsequently stored and made available for sale in the next marketing season. An excessively large carryover may be considered a surplus, and may cause prices to fall.
+
+carton
+1.  A container used for fruit or other produce leaving a packinghouse.
+2.  A unit of mass or volume representing a standardized size of these containers, equal to 425 pounds (193 kilograms) or 4⁄5 US bushel (6.4 US dry gallons), respectively.
+
+cash crop
+Also profit crop.
+Any crop that is grown so that it can be marketed and sold for profit, as opposed to a subsistence crop, which is grown for the grower's own use. While historically cash crops have often been only a small part of a farm's total yield, almost all modern crops in developed nations are grown primarily for revenue.
+
+castration
+The surgical removal or chemical impairment of the testes of a male animal, which prevents reproduction (irreversibly in the case of surgery, though potentially reversibly in drug-dependent chemical castration) and also greatly reduces the production of certain hormones, particularly androgens. It is commonly performed on livestock as a method of birth control, to mitigate aggressive or sexual behaviors, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g. steers are usually castrated at a young age in order to prevent age-related hormonal changes that would otherwise make them more difficult to fatten or alter the quality of their meat. The female equivalent is called spaying. See also gelding and neutering.
+
+catalo
+See beefalo.
+
+catch crop
+Any fast-growing crop that is grown between successive plantings of a primary crop on the same land. Its practice, known as catch cropping, is a type of succession planting.
+
+cattle
+A group of large, domesticated, bovid mammals of the genus Bos and especially the species Bos taurus, which are commonly raised as livestock for their meat (known as beef), their milk, their hides, their dung (used as manure or as fuel), or as draft animals or riding animals. Mature female cattle are known as cows, mature male cattle as bulls, and young cattle of either sex as calves, though colloquially "cow" is often used to refer to all bovine animals, irrespective of age or sex.
+
+cattle cycle
+The cyclical fluctuation of supply and prices observed in cattle markets, analogous to the pork cycle. In the United States, the cattle cycle refers to the approximately 10-year period during which the industry-wide population of beef cattle is alternately expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived changes in profitability by beef producers. Low prices occur when cattle numbers or beef supplies are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation; as cattle numbers decline and supplies diminish, prices gradually begin to rise along with renewed demand, causing cattle producers to begin breeding cattle and expanding their herds again.
+
+cattle drive
+See droving.
+
+cattle prod
+See goad.
+
+cattle station
+See station.
+
+cattleman
+See rancher.
+
+cellular agriculture
+The cultivation and production of agricultural products from cell cultures grown in a laboratory, such as cultured meat, by using techniques of molecular biology and biochemistry to directly synthesize the complex mixture of proteins, fats, and other substances which are found naturally in living tissues. Most of the industry is focused on cultivating animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs by growing animal tissues from stem cells in vitro and then simulating the same series of biochemical processes that occurs naturally in actual animal bodies, as opposed to raising and slaughtering farmed livestock as in conventional animal husbandry, which has long been criticized for its negative impacts on the environment, human health, food security, and animal welfare. Cellular agriculture has therefore been championed as a sustainable and ethical alternative, though the necessary procedures and infrastructure are usually highly specific and technical.
+
+cellulosic fiber
+Any fiber of plant origin, composed of ethers or esters of cellulose, hemicellulose, and/or lignin obtained from the bark, wood, or leaves of plants or another plant-based material. This includes natural fibers such as cotton, linen, jute, and hemp, as well as semi-synthetic fibers such as rayon and cellulose acetate.
+
+census of agriculture
+The periodic collection, processing, and dissemination of statistical data regarding agricultural activities within a country, state, county, or other polity. Agricultural censuses attempt to accurately measure and classify metrics such as number and size of farms or other holdings, types of land tenure and land use, crop acreage, livestock numbers, agricultural inputs and expenses, productivity and profits, types and uses of facilities and machinery, demographics of owners and workers, product quality, and sustainability, among others. In the United States and many other places, censuses are conducted at the holding level every five years.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 7/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+center-pivot irrigation
+Also circle irrigation or water-wheel irrigation.
+A method of crop irrigation in which a long line of sprinklers mounted upon or dangling from a metal frame with multiple sets of wheels rotates slowly around a pivot at the center of a field, watering a very large circular area centered on this point. Water is usually supplied by a well or an underground pipeline near the pivot, and the wheeled frame is propelled by hydraulic pressure or electric motors. A typical center-pivot line is 400 metres (1,300 feet) long and capable of irrigating a 125-acre (51 ha) circle within a 160-acre (65 ha) square, covering about 78% of the surface area; some systems can also irrigate the corners of the square by means of an end gun at the end of the line or a trailing segment of frame that swings out into the corner areas. Modern center-pivot systems are often fully automated and programmable for specific rates of rotation, variable water distribution patterns, and other precision controls.
+
+cereal
+Any member of the grass family cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (the "cereal grain"). Compare pseudocereal.
+
+certified seed
+Plant seeds that have been approved by a certifying agency or agricultural retailer as meeting established standards of quality and productivity, e.g. of germination, varietal purity, sustainable sourcing, and/or freedom from contamination with disease-causing pathogens, weed seeds, and synthetic chemicals. See also registered seed.
+
+chaff
+The dry, scaly, protective casing around the seeds of cereal grains, or any other similar plant material. Chaff is generally inedible by humans but is often used as fodder for livestock or is ploughed into the soil as a type of green manure.
+
+chemical fallow
+The use of chemical herbicides to prevent the growth of vegetation on fallow land.
+
+chemigation
+Often used interchangeably with fertigation.
+The practice of delivering any natural or synthetic chemical compound or mixture of compounds (such as fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendments, etc.) to crop plants via the water supply used for irrigation.
+
+chevon
+The meat of a young goat.
+
+chisel plough
+Also chisel plow.
+A type of plough consisting of a long row of multiple shanks which break and loosen soil to depths of 46 centimetres (18 in) without inverting or turning it, leaving accumulated crop residues on the soil surface instead of burying them. Chisel plows are used to plow very deeply (such as to break up hardpan) without disturbing the organic matter present on the surface, in a process sometimes called chiseling, often as part of low-till or no-till practices.
+
+circle irrigation
+See center-pivot irrigation.
+
+citriculture
+The cultivation of citrus fruit trees.
+
+cloche
+A bell-shaped glass or plastic covering placed over an individual plant to protect it from cold temperatures, used especially in gardening. Row cover serves the same function on a larger scale. See also cold frame.
+
+cock
+See rooster.
+
+cockerel
+A young male chicken, generally less than one year old.
+
+cold frame
+An enclosure with a transparent glass or plastic roof, built low to the ground, that is designed to protect juvenile plants and small gardens from cold or wet weather. Cold frames are used to extend the growing season by acting as miniature greenhouses.
+
+collective farming
+Also communal farming.
+Any type of agricultural production in which multiple farmers or producers run their holdings as a joint enterprise using shared land, water resources, machinery, equipment, or other agricultural inputs in order to meet common needs and goals. Communal farms may be either voluntary agricultural cooperatives or mandatory state farms owned and operated directly by a central government.
+
+colostrum
+The first milk produced by a cow following calving, generally rich in fat, protein, and immunoglobulins.
+
+colt
+A young male horse or mule, typically under four years of age.
+
+columbarium
+See dovecote.
+
+combine harvester
+Also simply combine.
+A large agricultural machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of different grain crops by combining three traditionally separate harvesting operations – reaping, threshing, and winnowing – into a single mechanical process. The harvested grain is stored either in an on-board compartment or offloaded into a separate storage bin, while the remaining straw and other undesirable residue is typically discarded on to the field.
+
+companion planting
+The practice of planting different crops in proximity for any of a number of different reasons, including as a means of controlling pests, aiding pollination, providing habitat for beneficial insects, maximizing the use of space, or otherwise increasing agricultural productivity. It is a type of polyculture.
+
+complete feed
+
+compost
+Any mixture of decomposing plant and food waste and/or other recycled organic materials that is used to fertilize and improve soils. Such mixtures are rich in plant nutrients and beneficial organisms which can increase soil fertility and aid plant growth by acting as a natural soil conditioner, increasing the humic content of the soil, and suppressing pathogens. Often compost is made simply by allowing gathered green and brown waste to decompose naturally in open-air piles for many months, though it can also be made with more precise measurements and controls.
+
+compound feed
+
+condensery
+A manufacturing facility where condensed or evaporated milk is produced.
+
+conservation tillage
+Any tillage practice which aims to reduce soil erosion and preserve natural soil conditions, generally by leaving significant amounts of crop residue to cover previously harvested agricultural land; such practices can also enhance biological pest control and reduce fuel consumption and soil compaction. Conservation tillage includes no-till, strip-till, and mulch-till systems.
+
+container gardening
+The practice of cultivating plants by growing them in containers or pots rather than planting them in the ground. The containers are generally small, portable, plastic or ceramic pots or trays which limit the soil space available to the plant's roots but have the advantage of allowing the gardener to easily move the plant to avoid inclement weather or other suboptimal conditions.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 8/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+continuous harvest
+A method of cultivation whereby crops are harvested more or less continuously throughout an extended or indefinite growing season, without any significant pause or interruption such as for replanting. For most conventionally grown plant and animal crops, production is limited to specific times of year by the need for suitable weather or for periods of inactivity during which soils can recover fertility and producers can resupply inputs and otherwise prepare for the start of the next production cycle, meaning the harvested products are only available to consumers for a few weeks or months at the end of each growing season. In some places, however, where the climate is largely consistent throughout the year, or wherever labor and inputs are consistently available, certain crops may be grown, harvested, and sold during unusually long seasons or even year-round. Some seasonal crops can also have their harvest windows extended by growing them in highly controlled environments or by deliberately staggering planting times so that different groups of plants are of different ages and thus one or more groups are ready for harvest at any given time of year.
+
+contour farming
+Also contouring.
+The practice of ploughing and/or planting a sloping field by following its natural contour lines, such that the resulting furrows and crop rows curve around the slope perpendicular to the direction of the force of gravity, with each remaining at approximately the same elevation for its entire length. This orientation helps prevent surface runoff and soil erosion by reducing the velocity with which water and soil moves down the slope, minimizing the formation of rills and gullies during heavy precipitation and allowing more time for the water to settle into the soil. Contour farming also reduces the runoff of agrichemicals, power consumption, and wear on machines, thereby increasing production efficiency.
+
+contract farming
+Farming or other agricultural production carried out on the basis of an agreement between the buyer or consumer and the farmer or producer. Contracts typically involve the producer agreeing to supply certain quantities of a crop or other product according to quality standards and delivery requirements specified by the buyer, and the buyer agreeing to buy the product, often at a price established in advance; the buyer often also agrees to support the producer in various ways, e.g. by supplying inputs, assisting with land preparation, providing production advice, and helping to transport the finished product.
+
+controlled traffic farming (CTF)
+A farming practice which attempts to manage and reduce the damage done to cultivated soils by repeated passes of heavy agricultural machinery such as tractors over the same area of land, particularly soil compaction, which often has negative consequences for numerous aspects of crop production.
+
+controlled-environment agriculture (CEA)
+Any agricultural production that occurs in a specialized, enclosed space, typically indoors, where all variables affecting production (e.g. temperature and light intensity) can be carefully managed throughout the production cycle so as to provide an optimal environment that maximizes yield or efficiency or some other production target. Indoor growing spaces such as greenhouses are common examples, and the practice is central to urban agriculture and agricultural research.
+
+conventional tillage
+Traditional, intensive methods of tillage using a mouldboard plough, disc harrow, or other powered implement to mix and completely invert the entirety of the soil surface prior to or during planting. Conventional methods usually involve repeated passes of heavy machinery over the same field and tend to bury crop residues left by previous harvests; subsequent use of other implements is often necessary to smooth the soil surface. These practices contrast with conservation tillage and low-till methods, which aim to minimize soil disturbance.
+
+coop
+A building or shelter designed to house poultry birds such as chickens and to provide hens with a warm, dry place to nest and incubate their eggs.
+
+co-op
+See agricultural cooperative.
+
+coppicing
+A method of forest management by which the trunks and stems of young trees are regularly cut down to near ground level, exploiting the ability of many tree species to regenerate new growth from living stumps, known as stools. After a number of years of growth, the intended products of the coppiced tree are harvested and the cycle begins anew. Pollarding is a similar process carried out at higher levels on the tree; both practices are important techniques in silviculture.
+
+copse
+A forest that has been coppiced.
+
+corn crib
+Also corn house, ambar, or hórreo.
+A granary used to dry and store harvested maize.
+
+corporate farming
+The practice of large-scale agriculture on farms owned or greatly influenced by corporations or large private businesses. The concept includes not only corporate ownership of farmland and the means of production, but also the roles such companies play in influencing agricultural education, research, and public policy through lobbying and funding initiatives.
+
+cotton gin
+A machine that automates the process of ginning cotton, separating cotton fibers from their seeds much more quickly and efficiently than traditional manual separation.
+
+cover crop
+Any plant that is planted as soil cover rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cover crops may be used to manage soil erosion, soil fertility, water content, weeds, pests, agricultural diseases, and biodiversity on land that is repeatedly farmed. They are commonly off-season crops planted after harvesting a cash crop in order to help conserve the integrity of the land through a fallow period.
+
+cow
+An adult female bovine animal. Colloquially, the term is often used to refer to all kinds of cattle, irrespective of age or sex.
+
+cowbell
+A bell worn around the neck of free-roaming livestock, including but not limited to cattle, so that ranchers and herders can keep track of the animal's movements via the sound of the bell, which can be useful in hilly landscapes or vast plains when the animal is grazing out of view.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 9/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+cow–calf operation
+Also single-suckler herd.
+A ranch which specializes in producing young beef cattle, maintaining a permanent herd of cows in order to breed and rear their calves and then sell them to other operations while still young, either to other ranches where they are raised into adults or to slaughterhouses for their meat or hides.
+
+cow-calf separation
+Also dam-calf separation.
+The widespread but controversial practice, in the beef and dairy industries, of separating calves from their mothers shortly after birth.
+
+creamery
+A dairy operation or facility which processes raw milk and/or cream into finished dairy products, such as consumer-grade milk, butter, cheese, and ice cream, and prepares them for market.
+
+creep feeding
+The practice of supplementing the diet of young livestock which are still nursing, usually beef calves and swine, with prepared feed. This may be done in order to introduce the animals to feed before weaning or to facilitate quicker fattening, but is only cost-effective when the price of animal feed is very low.
+
+crop
+Any plant, animal, or other product of a living organism that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. The term may refer to the organism or species itself, the harvested parts, or the harvest in a more refined state. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture and its sub-disciplines, commonly (but not exclusively) as food for humans or fodder for livestock; other crops are gathered from the wild.
+
+crop insurance
+Insurance purchased by agricultural producers, often subsidized by a government agency, to protect against the loss of potential revenue from crop sales due to extraneous circumstances, such as reductions in crop yield caused by natural disasters (drought, floods, hail, etc.) or declines in the prices of agricultural commodities.
+
+crop mark
+
+crop residue
+Any organic material left in an agricultural field or orchard after a crop has been harvested, such as stalks and stems, leaves, seed pods, etc., or after a crop is processed for consumer use, such as seeds, husks, roots, bagasse, or other byproducts of processing. Field residues may be maintained as soil cover, burned, or ploughed into the soil as green manure; process residues are often used as animal fodder or soil amendments.
+
+crop rotation
+The practice of cultivating a series of different crops in the same space over the course of multiple growing seasons, often in a specific sequence that repeats in a cycle every few seasons. The alternative to crop rotation, monocropping, may gradually deplete the soil of certain nutrients and select for highly competitive communities of pests and weeds, decreasing productivity in the absence of high volumes of external inputs such as fertilizers and herbicides. Crop rotation can reduce reliance upon these inputs by making use of the natural ecosystem services that accompany diverse sets of crops, usually by improving soil quality and reducing the probability of pests and weeds developing resistances to control measures.
+
+crop water productivity
+
+crop weed
+Any weed or undesirable plant that grows among crop plants. See also weed of cultivation.
+
+crop wild relative (CWR)
+A wild plant taxon that is closely related to a domesticated plant taxon (e.g. a wild ancestor of the domesticated plant) and which therefore may be indirectly useful to plant breeders by presenting the possibility of introducing genetic material from the wild plant into the domestic relative by crossbreeding.
+
+cropdusting
+Also aerial application or topdressing.
+The use of an agricultural aircraft to apply protective chemicals or other amendments, especially pesticides and fertilizers, to crops from above. Such aircraft may include either fixed-wing airplanes or helicopters, but are typically highly specialized and purpose-built to distribute very large amounts of liquid product over very large land areas in a relatively efficient manner.
+
+crop-lien system
+A farm financing scheme whereby money is loaned at the beginning of a growing season to pay for farming operations, with the subsequent harvest used as collateral for the loan.
+
+cropping
+
+crutching
+Also dagging.
+The removal of wool from around the anus, genitals, or udder of wool-bearing animals such as sheep, generally to prevent urine, feces, or dirt from becoming trapped in the wool near these areas and potentially contributing to the spread of disease.
+
+cryophilous crop
+A plant crop that requires a period of exposure to low temperatures in order to break dormancy and produce flowers and seeds.
+
+cull
+
+cultipacker
+A farm implement consisting of a series of heavy, disc-shaped metal rollers, each bearing regularly spaced protrusions designed to crush dirt clods and push stones and field residues into the soil as they are pulled across a field (usually after it has been tilled and sown), with the goal of preparing a uniformly smooth, flat, firm seedbed devoid of air pockets, where seeds placed at shallow depths can maintain good contact with the surrounding soil.
+
+cultivar
+Also cultigen.
+A cultivated variety of a particular plant species, domesticated by humans and artificially selected for desirable traits which distinguish it from other varieties of the same species, and which breeds true and retains those traits when propagated. Plant species grown as agricultural crops may have dozens, hundreds, or thousands of distinct cultivars which have been deliberately bred by farmers and horticulturists by carefully managing their reproduction over many generations, e.g. by planting asexual vegetative propagules or by crossbreeding specific plants to create hybrid offspring. Not all cultivated plants are considered cultivars; by the strictest definition the term may be reserved for officially registered or patented commercial varieties, though in common usage it may be applied more broadly, even to wild plants with distinctive characteristics.
+
+cultivation
+1.  The act of improving an area of land for or by agriculture, especially through the deliberate growing of plants (but not necessarily excluding other types of agriculture). Land upon which plants are sown, nurtured, and harvested, or more broadly any land dedicated to agricultural purposes, is said to be cultivated.
+2.  Another name for tillage, especially the shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of agriculture"
+chunk: 10/41
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+cultural control
+An approach to pest control which emphasizes the modification of the agricultural environment in order to reduce the prevalence and proliferation of unwanted pests, as an alternative to applying chemical pesticides. Examples of cultural control include altering physical properties of the growing environment (e.g. soil pH or fertility, amount of sunlight, temperature, humidity, irrigation, etc.) in order to make it difficult or impossible for pests to live there, adhering to a strict program of fallowing and weeding, and using pest-eating predators such as chickens or ladybugs as a form of biocontrol. Systematic implementation of these practices can reduce the need for curative interventions and thus avoid the detrimental effects of conventional top-down approaches to pest control such as those associated with chronic pesticide use.
+
+cultured meat
+Also cultivated meat or lab-grown meat.
+Meat-like animal tissue that is grown in a laboratory by culturing animal cells in vitro, in a process known as cellular agriculture, as opposed to meat obtained from whole animals that are raised on farms and then slaughtered.
+
+custom harvesting
+The contracting of independent operators of farm equipment to harvest crops, especially grains, on a particular farm. Custom harvesters provide their own combines and other machinery and often charge for their work by the acre, with additional charges for high yields.
+
+== D ==
+
+dagging
+See crutching.
+
+dairy cattle
+Cattle bred or raised specifically for milk production, from which any of a variety of dairy products can be made. This is in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as for their meat or so that they can be employed as working animals.
+
+dam
+The female parent of an animal. The term is used alongside sire, especially for domestic mammals such as cattle and horses.
+
+damping off
+A disease of newly germinated seedlings caused by any of a variety of fungi (e.g. Rhizoctonia or Aphanomyces) which spread in warm, damp conditions and parasitize roots and lower stems. Damping off is a common cause of seedling loss in greenhouses.
+
+dead hedge
+
+dead stock
+All implements, tools, appliances, and machinery used on a particular farm; sometimes inclusive of seed, fertilizer, and feedingstuffs.
+
+deadheading
+The practice of removing dead or spent flowers from a live plant in order to encourage further flowering, to prevent seed development, or to improve the plant's appearance. See also deblossoming.
+
+deadweight
+The weight of an animal carcass after slaughter. Animals raised for their meat may be sold on either a deadweight or liveweight basis.
+
+deblossoming
+Also deflowering.
+The practice of removing flowers, spent or unspent, from live plants for any reason, especially to encourage or improve the subsequent growth, reproduction, health, or appearance of the plant's non-flower parts. Deblossoming is often done in order to divert the plant's limited resources away from sexual reproduction and towards vegetative propagation, e.g. by roots and runners; early in a perennial plant's life in order to allow it to establish and grow to maturity before dedicating resources to reproduction; or near the end of the growing season in order to maximize the size and quality of existing fruits, seeds, or other useful crop parts by diverting energy and nutrients away from new buds that will likely not have time to develop into useful crops anyway.
+
+defoliant
+Any herbicidal chemical which causes leaves or other foliage to detach and drop from a plant. Defoliants are sometimes used on very leafy trees and shrubs to make finding and harvesting the non-leaf crop parts easier, or more commonly to control weeds.
+
+deintensified farming
+Any agricultural operation which was formerly intensive but has since become deliberately extensive.
+
+dent corn
+Also grain corn.
+A type of field corn named for the characteristic indentation that forms at the crown of each wedge-shaped kernel and known for its high soft starch content, for which it is widely cultivated in order to produce animal feed, oils, waxes, paint, paper, and ethanol fuels.
+
+dessert crop
+Any crop that is (or historically was) grown or used only for special occasions, as an elite or luxury item, or for pleasure rather than sustenance. Crops historically considered dessert crops include coffee, tea, sugar, cocoa, and tobacco.
+
+detasseling
+In maize farming, the process of removing the pollen-producing flowers, known as tassels, from the tops of maize plants in order to prevent self-pollination. It is used as a crossbreeding strategy to ensure that the detasseled plants are receptive to pollen from non-self sources, e.g. from different cultivars when creating hybrid varieties.
+
+dewatering
+The removal of water from a harvested crop by pressing and compacting layers of plant material for long periods of time. Dewatering can be significantly cheaper than other artificial drying techniques.
+
+dewattling
+See dubbing.
+
+deworming
+Also worming.
+The process of treating a domestic animal with any treatment intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of endoparasitic worms (i.e. a vermicide), including roundworms, flukes, and tapeworms, usually by applying an antihelminthic drug either orally (via a feed supplement or drenching), topically (by pouring a liquid on the animal's skin), or by injection.
+
+diatomaceous earth
+Also diatomite, celite, or kieselguhr.
+A naturally occurring siliceous sedimentary rock consisting of the fossilized shells of microscopic single-celled algae known as diatoms, generally in the form of a crumbly, abrasive powder composed of silica, alumina, and iron oxides. It has many applications in agriculture, including as an anti-caking additive in animal feed and stored grain, as an organic insecticide, and as a soil conditioner or growing medium, where its low density and high porosity allow it to retain water and nutrients, circulate oxygen, and drain quickly.
+
+dibber
+Also dibble or dibbler.
+A handheld pointed wooden or plastic stick used to make small holes in soil so that seeds, seedlings, or small bulbs can be planted in them.
+
+digeponics
+
+digital agriculture
+Also smart farming and e-agriculture.
+The use of electronic sensors, computers, and information technology to digitally collect, store, analyze, and share agricultural data.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 1/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This page is a glossary of architecture.
+
+== A ==
+
+Abacus
+A flat slab forming the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column.
+
+Accolade
+A sculptural embellishment of an arch.
+
+Aisle
+The subsidiary space alongside the body of a building, separated from it by columns, piers, or posts.
+
+ Anta
+The posts or pillars on either side of a doorway or entrance of a Greek temple – the slightly projecting piers which terminate the side walls (of the naos).
+
+Ante-choir
+The space enclosed in a church between the outer gate or railing of the rood screen and the door of the screen.
+
+Apron
+1.  A raised panel below a window or wall monument or tablet.
+2.  An open portion of a marine terminal immediately adjacent to a vessel berth, used in the direct transfer of cargo between the vessel and the terminal.
+3.  A concrete slab immediately outside a vehicular door or passageway used to limit the wear on asphalt paving due to repetitive turning movements or heavy loads.
+
+Apse
+A vaulted semicircular or polygonal end of a chancel or chapel.  That portion of a church, usually Christian, beyond the "crossing" and opposite the nave.  In some churches, the choir is seated in this space.
+
+Araeostyle
+A style of intercolumniation in which the distance between columns is at least four diameters. The large interval between columns necessitates the use of a wooden architrave.
+
+Araeosystyle
+An architectural term applied to a colonnade, in which the intercolumniation is alternately wide and narrow.
+
+Arcade
+A passage or walkway covered over by a succession of arches or vaults supported by columns.  Blind arcade or arcading: the same applied to the wall surface.
+
+Arch
+A curved structure capable of spanning a space while supporting significant weight.
+
+Architrave
+A formalized lintel, the lowest member of the classical entablature. Also the moulded frame of a door or window (often borrowing the profile of a classical architrave).
+
+Area or basement area
+In Georgian architecture, the small paved yard giving entry, via "area steps", to the basement floor at the front of a terraced house.
+
+Arris
+A sharp edge created when two surfaces converge; this includes the raised edge between two flutes on a column or pilaster, if that edge is sharp.
+
+Arris Rail
+A type of rail, often wooden, with a cross-section resembling an isosceles triangle.
+
+Arrowslit
+A thin vertical aperture in a fortification through which an archer can launch arrows.
+
+Articulation
+The manner or method of jointing parts such that each part is clear and distinct in relation to the others, even though joined.
+
+Ashlar
+Masonry of large blocks cut with even faces and square edges.
+
+Astragal
+A moulding profile composed of a half-round surface surrounded by two flat planes (fillets).
+
+Atlas
+A support sculpted in the form of a man, which may take the place of a column, a pier or a pilaster.
+
+Atrium
+(plural: atria) The inner court of a Roman house; in a multi-story building, a toplit covered court rising through all stories.
+
+Attic
+A small top story within a roof above the uppermost ceiling. The story above the main entablature of a classical façade.
+
+== B ==
+
+Balconet
+A false balcony, or railing at the outer plane of a window.
+
+Ball flower
+An architectural ornament in the form of a ball inserted in the cup of a flower, which came into use in the latter part of the 13th, and was in great vogue in the early part of the 14th century.
+
+Baluster
+A small moulded shaft, square or circular, in stone or wood, sometimes metal, supporting the coping of a parapet or the handrail of a staircase. A series of balusters supporting a handrail or coping is called a balustrade.
+
+Bar-stayed girder
+A structural member of inadequate capacity for its load or span that is augmented by one or two steel bars anchored to each bearing end at or above the centroid of the girder to assume the tension forces.  The bar(s) runs down and below the girder and stand off the girder on one or more struts anchored to the girder at its bottom surface.  The struts are sized to accept the compressive forces imposed without bending. The load limit to this member is the crippling capacity (horizontal failure) of the girder.
+
+Bargeboard
+A board fastened to the projecting gables of a roof.
+
+Barrel vault
+An architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance.
+
+Bartizan
+An overhanging, wall-mounted turret projecting from the walls, usually at the corners, of medieval fortifications or churches.
+
+Basement
+Usually the lowest, subordinate storey of building, generally either entirely or partially below ground level; the lowest part of classical elevation, below the piano nobile.
+
+Basilica
+Originally a Roman, large roofed hall erected for transacting business and disposing of legal matters; later the term came to describe an aisled building with a clerestory. Medieval cathedral plans were a development of the basilica plan type.
+
+Batement Lights
+The lights in the upper part of a perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of those below.
+
+Batter (walls)
+An upwardly receding slope of a wall or column.
+
+Battlement
+A parapet (i.e., a defensive low wall between chest-height and head-height), in which rectangular gaps or indentations occur at intervals to allow for the discharge of arrows or other missiles.
+
+Bays
+The internal compartments of a building, each divided from the other by subtle means such as the boundaries implied by divisions marked in the side walls (columns, pilasters, etc.) or the ceiling (beams, etc.). Also, the external divisions of a building by fenestration (windows).
+
+Bay window
+A window of one or more storeys projecting from the face of a building. Canted: with a straight front and angled sides. Bow window: curved. Oriel: rests on corbels or brackets and starts above ground level; also the bay window at the dais end of a medieval great hall.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 2/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Belfry 
+A chamber or stage in a tower where bells are hung. The term is also used to describe the manner in which bricks are laid in a wall so that they interlock.
+
+Bench table
+A stone seat which runs round the walls of large churches, and sometimes round the piers; it very generally is placed in the porches.
+
+Bond
+Brickwork with overlapping bricks. Types of bond include stretcher, English, header, Flemish, garden wall, herringbone, basket, American, and Chinese.
+
+Boss
+1.  A roughly cut stone set in place for later carving.
+2.  An ornamental projection, a carved keystone of a ribbed vault at the intersection of the ogives.
+
+Bossage
+Uncut stone that is laid in place in a building, projecting outward from the building, to later be carved into decorative mouldings, capitals, arms, etc. Bossages are also rustic work, consisting of stones which seem to advance beyond the surface of the building, by reason of indentures, or channels left in the joinings; used chiefly in the corners of buildings, and called rustic quoins. The cavity or indenture may be round, square, chamfered, beveled, diamond-shaped, or enclosed with a cavetto or listel.
+
+Boutant
+A type of support. An arc-boutant, or flying buttress, serves to sustain a vault, and is self-sustained by some strong wall or massive work. A pillar boutant is a large chain or jamb of stone, made to support a wall, terrace, or vault. The word is French, and comes from the verb bouter, "to butt" or "abut".
+
+Bracket (see also corbel)
+A weight-bearing member made of wood, stone, or metal that overhangs a wall.
+
+Bressummer
+(literally "breast- beam") A large, horizontal beam supporting the wall above, especially in a jettied building.
+
+Brise soleil
+Projecting fins or canopies which shade windows from direct sunlight.
+
+Broken pediment
+A style of pediment in which the center is left open (and often ornamented) by stopping the sloping sides short of the pediment's apex. A variant of this in which the sides are curved to resemble esses is called a swan's neck pediment.
+
+Bullseye window
+Either a small oval window, or an early type of window glass.
+
+Bulwark
+A Barricade of beams and soil used in 15th- and 16th-century fortifications designed to mount artillery. On board ships the term refers to the woodwork running round the ship above the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence. Dutch loanword; Bolwerk
+
+Buttress
+A vertical member projecting from a wall to stabilize it or to resist the lateral thrust of an arch, roof, or vault. A flying buttress transmits the thrust to a heavy abutment by means of an arch or half-arch.
+
+== C ==
+
+Cancellus
+(plural: Cancelli) Barriers which correspond to the modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing the body of a church from the part occupied by the ministers hence chancel. The Romans employed cancelli to partition off portions of the courts of law.
+
+Cant
+An angled (oblique) line or surface, especially one that cuts off a corner.
+
+Cantilever
+An unsupported overhang acting as a lever, like a flagpole sticking out of the side of a wall.
+
+Capital
+The topmost member of a column (or pilaster).
+
+Caryatid
+A sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head.
+
+Casement window
+A window hung vertically, hinged one side, so that it swings inward or outward.
+
+Cauliculus, or caulicole 
+Stalks (eight in number) with two leaves from which rise the helices or spiral scrolls of the Corinthian capital to support the abacus.
+
+Cavetto
+A moulding in which the negative space makes a quarter-circle.
+
+Cella
+The inner chamber of a temple in classical architecture.
+
+Chalcidicum
+In Roman architecture, the vestibule or portico of a public building opening on to the forum, as in the basilica of Eumachia at Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine at Rome, where it was placed at one end. See: Lacunar.
+
+Chamfer
+A transitional edge, often 45 degrees, formed by paring down an arris diagonally. Some buildings may be chamfered such that the base is octagonal.
+
+Chancel (also Presbytery) 
+In church architecture, the space around the altar at the east end of a traditional Christian church building, including the choir and sanctuary.
+
+Chandrashala
+The circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many Indian cave temples and shrines.
+
+Chigi
+In Japanese architecture, a V-shaped finial used almost exclusively on Shinto shrines, where they are placed near the ends of the ridgeline(s) of the roof through extension of or attachment to the gable. In most cases, the direction of the cut at the top of a chigi indicates the sex of the kami within.
+
+Chimera
+A fantastic, mythical or grotesque figure used for decorative purposes.
+
+Chimney
+A structure which provides ventilation.
+
+Chresmographion
+A chamber between the pronaos and the cella in Greek temples where oracles were delivered.
+
+Cincture
+A ring, list, or fillet at the top and bottom of a column, which divides the shaft from the capital and base.
+
+Cinquecento
+A style which became prevalent in Italy in the century following 1500, now usually called 16th-century work. It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in architecture.
+
+Cippus
+(plural: cippi) A low, round or rectangular pedestal set up by the Romans for military purposes such as a milestone or a boundary post. The inscriptions on some cippi in the British Museum show that they were occasionally used as funeral memorials.
+
+Circulation
+Describes the flow of people throughout a building.
+
+Cleithral
+A covered Greek temple, in contradistinction to hypaethral, which designates one that is uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.
+
+Clerestory
+The upper part of the nave of a large church, containing a series of windows.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 3/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Clock gable
+A gable or facade with a decorative shape characteristic of traditional Dutch architecture. The top of the gable is shaped like a church bell.
+
+Coffer
+A sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon that serves as a decorative device, usually in a ceiling or vault. Also called caissons, or lacunar.
+
+Colarin or Hypotrachelium
+(also colarino, collarino, or hypotrachelium) The little frieze of the capital of the Tuscan and Doric column placed between the astragal and the annulets. It was called hypotrachelium by Vitruvius.
+
+Column
+A structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below.
+
+Compass
+In carpentry, architecture, and shipbuilding, a compass is a curved circular form.
+
+Compluvium
+The Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman house (domus) for lighting it and the rooms round.
+
+Coping
+The capping or covering of a wall.
+
+Corbel
+A structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight.
+
+Corbiesteps
+A series of steps along the slopes of a gable. Also called crow-steps. A gable featuring corbiesteps is known as a corbie gable, crow-step gable, or stepped gable.
+
+Corinthian order
+One of the three orders or organisational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterised by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple with a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a capital decorated with acanthus leaves, that flared from the column to meet an abacus with concave sides at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried.
+
+Cornice
+The upper section of an entablature or a projecting shelf along the top of a wall often supported by brackets or corbels.
+
+Course
+A layer of the same unit running horizontally in a wall.
+
+Cresting
+Ornamentation along the ridge of a roof.
+
+Cross Springer
+A block from which the diagonal ribs of a vault spring or start.  The top of the springer is known as the skewback.
+
+Cross-wing
+A wing attached to a main or original house block, its axis at right angles to the original block, and often gabled.
+
+Crypt
+A stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics.
+
+Cryptoporticus
+A concealed or covered passage, generally underground, though lighted and ventilated from the open air. One of the best-known examples is the crypto-porticus under the palaces of the Caesars in Rome. In Hadrian's Villa in Rome they formed the principal private intercommunication between the several buildings.
+
+Cuneus
+A wedge-shaped division of the Roman theatre separated by the scalae or stairways. This shape also occurred in medieval architecture.
+
+Cupola
+A small, most often dome-like, structure on top of a building.
+
+Cyma
+A projecting moulding whose edge forms an S-curve. The two major types of cyma are the cyma recta, in which the upper curve is concave, and the cyma reversa (also known as the ogee), in which the lower curve is concave.
+
+Cyrto-style
+A circular projecting portico with columns.
+
+== D ==
+
+Denticulation
+Finely toothed or notched; having dentils.
+
+Dentil
+One of a series of small rectangular blocks projecting from a moulding or beneath a cornice. A string of dentils is known as dentillation.
+
+Diastyle
+An intercolumniation of three or four diameters.
+
+Diaulos
+Peristyle around the great court of the palaestra, described by Vitruvius, which measured two stadia (1,200 ft.) in length, on the south side this peristyle had two rows of columns, so that in stormy weather the rain might not be driven into the inner part. The word was also used in ancient Greece for a foot race of twice the usual length.
+
+Diazoma
+A horizontal aisle in an ancient Greek theater that separates the lower and upper tiers of  semi-circular seating and intersects with the vertical aisles.
+
+Dikka
+An Islamic architectural term for the tribune raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque.
+
+Dipteral
+Temples which have a double range of columns in the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
+
+Distyle in antis
+Having two columns.
+
+A portico having two columns between two anta
+
+Dodecastyle
+A temple where the portico has twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the Temple of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the Peiraeus.
+
+Doric order
+One of the three orders or organisational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterised by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple without a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried.
+
+Dormer
+A structural element of a building that protrudes from the plane of a sloping roof surface. Dormers are used, either in original construction or as later additions, to create usable space in the roof of a building by adding headroom and usually also by enabling addition of windows.
+
+Dosseret, or impost block 
+A cubical block of stone above the capitals in a Byzantine church, used to carry the arches and vault, the springing of which had a superficial area greatly in excess of the column which carried them.
+
+Double-depth plan
+A plan for a structure that is two rooms deep but lacking a central corridor.
+
+Dromos
+An entrance passage or avenue leading to a building, tomb or passageway. Those leading to beehive tombs are enclosed between stone walls and sometimes in-filled between successive uses of the tomb. In ancient Egypt the dromos was a straight, paved avenue flanked by sphinxes.
+
+Dutch gable
+A gable whose sides have a shape made up of one or more curves and has a pediment at the top.
+
+== E ==
+
+Eave return
+An element of Classical Revival architecture in American domestic architecture.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-3.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 4/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Egg-and-dart
+An ornamental moulding in which an ovolo is inscribed with alternating oval and V-shaped motifs.
+
+Enfilade
+A row of rooms with aligned doorways, creating a linear processional route. Enfilades were common in upper-class Baroque architecture and are used in museum layouts to manage flow.
+
+Engaged column
+A column built into and partially projecting from a wall, particularly notable in Roman architecture.
+
+Engawa
+In Japanese architecture, a section of floor outside the shoji that encircles the structure's rooms, similar to a porch or, when itself enclosed by storm doors or sheet glass, a sunroom.
+
+Entablature
+A superstructure of mouldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals.
+
+Entasis
+The application of a convex curve to a surface for aesthetic purposes. Its best-known use is in certain orders of Classical columns that curve slightly as their diameter is decreased from the bottom upward. It also may serve an engineering function regarding strength.
+
+Ephebeum
+(ephebion) A large hall in the ancient Palaestra furnished with seats, the length of which should be a third larger than the width. It served for the exercises of youths of from sixteen to eighteen years of age.
+
+Epinaos
+An open vestibule behind the nave. The term is not found in any classic author, but is a modern coinage, originating in Germany, to differentiate the feature from the opisthodomos, which in the Parthenon was an enclosed chamber.
+
+Estípite
+In  Churrigueresque Baroque architecture, an elaborate pilaster with a tapered base.
+
+Estrade
+The French term for a raised platform or dais. In the Levant, the estrade of a divan is called a Sopha, from which comes our word 'sofa'. In historical gardening, an estrade plant was pruned and trained with the main stem bare in sections, to achieve an appearance often likened to a "wedding cake".   
+
+Eustyle
+Intercolumniation defined by Vitruvius as being of the best proportion, i.e. two and a quarter diameters.
+
+== F ==
+
+Facade
+An exterior side of a building, usually the front.
+
+Fanlight
+A window, semicircular or semi-elliptical in shape, with glazing bars or tracery sets radiating out like an open fan.
+
+Fan Vault
+A conoid architectural element in which a series of equidistant curved ribs projects radially from a central axis, often a vertical wall support such as a column. Fan vaults are particularly connected with the English Gothic style.
+
+Fascia
+1.  A board attached to the lower ends of rafters at the eaves. Along with the soffit, the fascia helps enclose the eave.
+2.  In some Classical orders, one of a series of bands (either fillets or faces) sometimes seen around the architrave.
+
+Feretory
+An enclosure or chapel within which the fereter shrine, or tomb (as in Henry VII's chapel), was placed.
+
+Fillet
+1.  A small band, either raised or sunken and usually square, used to separate mouldings.
+2.  The raised edge between two flutes on a column or pilaster, if that edge is flat.
+
+Finial
+An element marking the top or end of some object — such as a dome, tower, or gable — often formed to be a decorative feature. Small finials may also be used as ornamentation for furniture, poles, and light fixtures.
+
+Flushwork
+The decorative combination on the same flat plane of flint and ashlar stone.  It is characteristic of medieval buildings, most of the survivors churches, in several areas of Southern England, but especially East Anglia. If the stone projects from a flat flint wall, the term is proudwork as the stone stands "proud" rather than being "flush" with the wall.
+
+Flying buttress
+A type of buttress that transmits the thrust to a heavy abutment by means of a half-arch.
+
+Flying rib
+An exposed structural beam over the uppermost part of a building which is not otherwise connected to the building at its highest point. A feature of H frame constructed concrete buildings and some modern skyscrapers.
+
+Foil
+An architectural device based on a symmetrical rendering of leaf shapes, defined by overlapping circles of the same diameter that produce a series of cusps to make a lobe. Typically, the number of cusps can be three (trefoil), four (quatrefoil), five (cinquefoil), or a larger number.
+
+Footprint
+The area on a plane directly beneath a structure, that has the same perimeter as the structure.
+
+Foot-stall
+The lower part of a pier. (A literal translation of "pedestal.")
+
+Formeret
+The French term for the wall-rib carrying the web or filling-in of a vault.
+
+Fractable
+A coping, often ornamental, on a gable that hides the slope of the roof and becomes a parapet.
+
+Fusuma
+An opaque partition consisting of a cloth or paper sheet over a wood framework, commonly seen in traditional Japanese architecture. Fusuma are built to be moved (usually by sliding them along tracks) or removed, allowing rooms to be reorganized and reshaped as desired and, in earlier constructions, allowing the interior of a structure to open directly to the outdoors. Some fusuma are painted, though many now feature printed graphics. Shoji are similar to fusuma but are generally translucent.
+
+== G ==
+
+Gable
+A triangular portion of an end wall between the edges of a sloping roof.
+
+Gablets
+Triangular terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English and Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally terminated in pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally plain, and very sharp in pitch. In the Decorated period they are often enriched with paneling and crockets. They are sometimes finished with small crosses, but more often with finials.
+
+Gadrooning
+A carved or curved moulding used in architecture and interior design as a decorative motif, often consisting of flutes which are inverted and curved. Popular during the Italian Renaissance.
+
+Galletting (also Garretting) 
+The process in which the gallets or small splinters of stone are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints. They are stuck in while the mortar is wet.
+
+Gambrel
+A symmetrical two-sided roof with two slopes on each side.
+
+Gargoyle
+A carved stone grotesque with a spout designed to convey water from a roof.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-4.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 5/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Garret
+A habitable attic at the top of a larger building, generally with sloping walls, and with skylights or dormer windows.
+
+Gauged brickwork (also rubbed brickwork) 
+Brickwork constructed of soft bricks rubbed to achieve a fine smooth finish with narrow joints between courses.
+
+Gazebo
+A freestanding pavilion  structure often found in parks, gardens and public areas.
+
+Geison
+(Greek: γεῖσον — often interchangeable with cornice) The part of the entablature that projects outward from the top of the frieze in the Doric order and from the top of the frieze course of the Ionic and Corinthian orders; it forms the outer edge of the roof on the sides of a structure with a sloped roof.
+
+Gorgerin
+On some capitals, a smooth or ornate part placed above the astragalus of a column.
+
+Geodesic dome
+A structure formed of straight wood or metal members between points (or nodes) on a circular sphere (or part thereof) that are "pinned" at each connection point to two or more other members that transfer loads imposed on the structure to the base of the structure. The geometric areas between individual members may support a "skin" if the structure is to be enclosed.  A "regular" geodesic structure have members of equal length but strengths of members may vary depending on location in the geodesic "grid".
+
+Grotto
+An exterior submerged room that is decorated with landscaping or art in which has no exterior exit or entrance. One enters and exits only through the building.
+
+Gutta
+In a Doric entablature, one of a number of small, projecting, drop-like ornaments under the triglyphs between the taenia and the architrave as well as under the mutules.
+
+== H ==
+
+Hip roof
+A type of roof where all sides slope downwards from the ridge to the eaves.
+
+Hood mould
+An external moulded projection from a wall over an opening to throw off rainwater. Also known as a dripstone.
+
+Hyphen
+Possibly from an older term "heifunon", a structural section connecting the main portion of a building with its projecting "dependencies" or wings.
+
+== I ==
+
+Imperial roof decoration
+A row of small figures along the unions of the roofs of Chinese official buildings.
+
+Intercolumniation
+The interval separating one column from another in a colonnade. Intercolumniation regularly occurs in six forms: pycnostyle, systyle, eustyle, diastyle, araeostyle, and araeosystyle.
+
+Interlaced arches
+A scheme of decoration employed in Romanesque and Gothic architecture, where arches are thrown from alternate piers, interlacing or intersecting one another. In the former case, the first arch mould is carried alternately over and under the second, in the latter the mouldings actually intersect and stop one another.
+
+Ionic order
+One of the three orders or organisational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterised by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple with a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a capital with volutes, that flared from the column to meet a rectangular abacus with carved ovolo moulding, at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried.
+
+== J ==
+
+Jagati
+A raised surface, platform or terrace upon which an Indian temple is placed.
+
+Jettying
+A building technique used in medieval timber frame buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below.
+
+== K ==
+
+Kamoi
+In Japanese architecture, the upper rail, made from wood, to which shoji or fusuma are attached.
+
+Katsuogi
+In Japanese architecture, a log used as ornamentation atop the roof. Katsuogi are normally round and are placed in parallel lines perpendicular to the ridge. They are currently only used on Shinto shrines, placed behind chigi and sometimes helping to convey, by their parity, the sex of the kami within.
+
+Keystone
+The architectural piece at the crown of a vault or arch and marks its apex, locking the other pieces into position.
+
+== L ==
+
+Lacunar
+The Latin term for a paneled or coffered ceiling, soffit, or vault adorned with a pattern of recessed panels.
+
+Latticework
+An ornamental, lattice framework consisting of small strips in a criss-crossed pattern.
+
+Lesene
+A type of pilaster that lacks a base or capital.
+
+Light
+The opening(s) in a window between mullions and muntins through which light enters an interior space.   A 6:6 window is a window that has six lights in the upper sash and six in the lower sash.
+
+Lightning rod
+A conductive bar of copper or zinc coated steel mounted on the ridge or a roof or on the parapet of a building connected to a large capacity conductor, usually copper, routed to a ground rod driven into the earth for the purpose of safely directing electrical charges caused by a lightning strike to the ground to avoid damage or fire to the structure.
+
+Lintel
+A horizontal block that spans the space between two supports usually over an opening such as a window or door.
+
+Loculus
+An architectural niche that houses a body, as in a catacomb, hypogeum, mausoleum or other place of entombment.
+
+Loggia
+A gallery formed by a colonnade open on one or more sides. The space is often located on an upper floor of a building overlooking an open court or garden.
+
+Lunette
+A half-moon shaped space, either masonry or void.
+
+== M ==
+
+Mandapa
+In Indian architecture, a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals.
+
+Maqsurah (maqsura) 
+In Islamic architecture, the sanctuary or praying-chamber in a mosque, sometimes enclosed with a screen of lattice-work; occasionally, a similar enclosure round a tomb.
+
+Mansard roof
+A curb hip roof in which each face has two slopes, the lower one steeper than the upper; from the French mansarde after the accomplished 17th-century French architect noted for using (not inventing) this style, François Mansart, died 1666.
+
+Marriage stone
+A stone lintel, usually carved, with a marriage date.
+
+Mascaron
+A face, usually human, sometimes frightening or chimeric, used as a decorative element.
+
+Meander
+A decorative border consisting of a repeated linear motif, particularly of intersecting perpendicular lines. Also known as a fret or a key pattern.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-5.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 6/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Metope
+In a Doric entablature, the space between triglyphs along the frieze. These may be ornamented or plain, and may be square or rectangular.
+
+Mihrab
+In Islamic architecture, a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the direction of prayer.
+
+Minaret
+In Islamic architecture, a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown, on or near a mosque, that is used by the imam to give the prayer call.
+
+Modillion
+An enriched block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice and above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It is probably so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances.
+
+Moulding
+A decorative finishing strip.
+
+Monotriglyph
+The interval of the intercolumniation of the Doric column, which is observed by the intervention of one triglyph only between the triglyphs which come over the axes of the columns. This is the usual arrangement, but in the Propylaea at Athens there are two triglyphs over the central intercolumniation, in order to give increased width to the roadway, up which chariots and beasts of sacrifice ascended.
+
+Mullion
+A vertical structural element of stone, wood or metal within a window frame (cp. transom).
+
+Muntin
+A vertical or horizontal piece that divides a pane of glass into two or more panes or lites in a window.
+
+Muqarnas
+A type of decorative corbel used in Islamic architecture that in some circumstances, resembles stalactites.
+
+Mutule 
+A rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek Doric temple, which is studded with guttae. It is supposed to represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows the sloping rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian cornice.
+
+== N ==
+
+Narthex
+An enclosed passage between the main entrance and the nave of a church.
+
+Nave
+The main body of a church where the congregants are usually seated. It provides the central approach to the high altar.
+
+Newel
+The central supporting pillar of a spiral staircase. It can also refer to an upright post that supports the handrail of a stair railing and forms the lower, upper or an intermediate terminus of a stair railing usually at a landing.
+
+Niche
+In classical architecture, an exedra or apse that has been reduced in size, retaining the half-dome heading usual for an apse.
+
+== O ==
+
+Oculus
+A circular opening in the center of a dome such as the one in the roof of the Pantheon in Rome or in a wall.
+
+Oillets
+Arrow slits in the walls of medieval fortifications, but more strictly applied to the round hole or circle with which the openings terminate. The same term is applied to the small circles inserted in the tracery-head of the windows of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, sometimes varied with trefoils and quatrefoils.
+
+Onion dome
+A dome whose shape resembles an onion.
+
+Order
+A term for a standard arrangement of architectural features; most often refers to the three traditional classical orders of Western architecture: the Doric order, Ionic order and Corinthian order, though there are others.  Can also refer to types of mouldings most often found in Romanesque and Gothic arches.
+
+Orthostates
+(Greek: ὀρθοστάτης, standing upright) The Greek term for the lowest course of masonry of the external walls of the naos or cella, consisting of vertical slabs of stone or marble equal in height to two or three of the horizontal courses which constitute the inner part of the wall.
+
+Orthostyle
+(Greek: ὃρθος, straight, and στῦλος, a column) A range of columns placed in a straight row, as for instance those of the portico or flanks of a classic temple.
+
+Ovolo
+A moulding whose edge forms a convex quarter-circle or quarter-ellipse.
+
+== P ==
+
+Panelling
+A millwork wall covering constructed from rigid or semi-rigid components. These are traditionally interlocking wood, but could be plastic or other materials.
+
+Panelling was developed in antiquity to make rooms in stone buildings more comfortable. The panels served to insulate the room from the cold stone. In more modern buildings, such panelling is often installed for decorative purposes. Panelling, such as wainscoting and boiserie in particular, may be extremely ornate and is particularly associated with seventeenth and eighteenth century interior design, Victorian architecture in Britain, and its international contemporaries.
+
+Parapet
+A low wall built up above the level of a roof, to hide the roof or to provide protection against falling, and similar structures associated with balconies, bridges etc.
+
+Parclose screen
+A screen or railing used to enclose a chantry chapel, tomb or manorial chapel, in a church, and for the space thus enclosed.
+
+Parterre
+A garden design made from patterns of mostly low elements such as plant beds and small hedges interwoven with gravel or grass paths, historically meant to be open spaces. Modern parterres are often denser and taller.
+
+Pavilion
+A freestanding structure near the main building or an ending structure on building wings.
+
+Pedestal (also Plinth) 
+The base or support on which a statue, obelisk, or column is mounted. A plinth is a lower terminus of the face trim on a door that is thicker and often wider than the trim which it augments.
+
+Pediment
+(Gr. ἀετός, Lat. fastigium, Fr. ponton) In classic architecture, the triangular-shaped portion of the wall above the cornice which formed the termination of the roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which surround it enclose the tympanum, which is sometimes decorated with sculpture.
+
+Pelmet
+A framework placed above a window.
+
+Pendentive
+Three-dimensional spandrels supporting the weight of a dome over a square or rectangular base.
+
+Peripteral
+A temple or other structure surrounded on all sides by columns forming a continuous portico at the distance of one or two intercolumniations from the walls of the naos or cella. Almost all the Greek temples were peripteral, whether Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-6.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 7/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Peristasis
+(Greek: Περίστασις) A four-sided porch or hall of columns surrounding the cella in an ancient Greek peripteros temple (see also Peristyle). In ecclesial architecture, it is also used of the area between the baluster of a Catholic church and the high altar (what is usually called the sanctuary or chancel).
+
+Peristyle
+A continuous porch of columns surrounding a courtyard or garden (see also Peristasis). In ecclesial architecture, the term cloister is used.
+
+Phiale
+A building or columned arcade around a fountain.
+
+Piano nobile
+The principal floor of a large house, built in the style of renaissance architecture.
+
+Pier
+An upright support for a superstructure, such as an arch or bridge.
+
+Pilaster
+A flat, slightly projecting element that resembles a pillar or pier and is engaged in the face of a wall. Pilasters usually do not serve a structural purpose.
+
+Planceer or Planchier 
+A building element sometimes used in the same sense as a soffit, but more correctly applied to the soffit of the corona in a cornice.
+
+Plate girder
+A steel girder formed from a vertical center web of steel plate with steel angles forming the top and bottom flanges welded, bolted or riveted to the web. Some deep plate girders also may have vertical stiffeners (angles) attached to the web to resist crippling (horizontal failure) of the web.
+
+Plinth
+The base or platform upon which a column, pedestal, statue, monument or structure rests. A plinth is a lower terminus of the face trim on a door that is thicker and often wider than the trim which it augments.
+
+Poppyheads
+Finials or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends, either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads, sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliage or finials, and sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cut out of the thickness of the bench end and chamfered. The term is probably derived from the French poupee doll or puppet used also in this sense, or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape.
+
+Portcullis
+A heavy wooden or metallic grid vertically-sliding down and thus blocking the main gateway of a medieval castle or fortification.
+
+Porte-cochère
+An often ornate porch- or portico-like structure at a main or secondary entrance to a building through which vehicles can pass in order for the occupants to alight under cover, protected from the weather.
+
+Portico
+A series of columns or arches in front of a building, generally as a covered walkway.
+
+Prick post
+An old architectural name given sometimes to the queen posts of a roof, and sometimes to the filling in quarters in framing.
+
+Prostyle
+Freestanding columns that are widely spaced apart in a row.  The term is often used as an adjective when referring to a portico which projects from the main structure.
+
+Pseudodipteral
+A temple similar to a dipteral temple, in which the columns surrounding the naos have had walls built between them, so that they become engaged columns, as in the great temple at Agrigentum. In Roman temples, in order to increase the size of the celia, the columns on either side and at the rear became engaged columns, the portico only having isolated columns.
+
+Pteroma
+In Classical architecture, the enclosed space of a portico, peristyle, or stoa, generally behind a screen of columns.
+
+Pycnostyle
+A term given by Vitruvius to the intercolumniation between the columns of a temple, when this was equal to one and a half diameters.
+
+== Q ==
+
+Quadriporticus
+Also known as a quadriportico, a four-sided portico. The closest modern parallel would be a colonnaded quadrangle.
+
+Quirk
+A small recess, often V-shaped, at the edge of a moulding.
+
+Quoin
+The cornerstones of brick or stone walls. Quoins are also common in some brickwork corners that are alternately recessed and expressed.
+
+== R ==
+
+Rake
+The diagonal outside facing edge of a gable, sometimes called a raking cornice or a sloping cornice.  Rake is equivalent to slope which is the ratio of the rise to the run of the roof.
+
+Rear vault
+A vault of the internal hood of a doorway or window to which a splay has been given on the reveal, sometimes the vaulting surface is terminated by a small rib known as the scoinson rib, and a further development is given by angle shafts carrying this rib, known as scoinson shafts.
+
+Ressaut
+A projection in an entablature
+
+Return
+The receding edge of a flat face. On a flat signboard, for example, the return is the edge which makes up the board's depth.
+
+Revolving door
+An entrance door for excluding drafts from an interior of a building. A revolving door typically consists of three or four doors that hang on a center shaft and rotate around a vertical axis within a round enclosure.
+
+Rib vault
+The intersection of two or three barrel vaults.
+
+Ridge board
+A structural member that runs the length of the ridge (high point) on a sloped roof to which the upper ends of rafters are attached.
+
+Roof comb
+The structure that tops a pyramid in monumental Mesoamerican architecture (also common as a decorative embellishment on the ridge of metal roofs of some domestic Gothic-style architecture in America in the 19th century).
+
+Rotunda
+A large and high circular hall or room in a building, usually but not always, surmounted by a dome.
+
+== S ==
+
+Sash
+The horizontal and vertical frame that encloses the glazing of a window.  A sash may be fixed or operable and may be of several different types depending on operation (i.e. casement, single or double hung, awning, hopper or sliding).
+
+Screens passage
+The passage at one end of the Great hall of an English medieval house or castle, and separated from it by the spere.
+
+Scroll
+An ornamental element featuring a sequence of spiraled, circled or heart-shaped motifs. There are, among others, flower scrolls, foliated scrolls, plants scrolls, vines scrolls.
+
+Shiki-i
+In Japanese architecture, the lower rail, made from wood, to which shoji or fusuma are attached.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of architecture"
+chunk: 8/8
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Shoji
+A translucent partition consisting of a paper sheet over a wood framework, commonly seen in traditional Japanese architecture. Shoji are built to be moved (usually by sliding them along tracks) or removed, allowing rooms to be reorganized and reshaped as desired and, in earlier constructions, allowing the interior of a structure to open directly to the outdoors. Because of their translucence, shoji are notable for diffusing light, air, and sound. Fusuma are similar to shoji but are generally opaque.
+
+Site-specific architecture
+Architecture which is of its time and of its place. It is designed to respond to both its physical context, and the metaphysical context within which it has been conceived and executed
+
+Skeiling
+A straight sloped part of a ceiling, such as on the underside of a pitched roof.
+
+Soffit
+Any architectural element's underside, especially the board connecting the walls of a structure to the fascia or the end of the roof, enclosing the eave.
+
+Sommer or Summer 
+A girder or main "summer beam" of a floor: if supported on two storey posts and open below, also called a "bress" or "breast-summer". Often found at the centerline of the house to support one end of a joist, and to bear the weight of the structure above.
+
+Spandrel
+1.  In a building facade, the space between the top of the window in one story and the sill of the window in the story above.
+2.  The space between two arches or between an arch and a rectangular enclosure.
+
+Spere
+The fixed structure between the great hall and the screens passage in an English medieval timber house.
+
+Spire
+A tapering conical or pyramidal structure on the top of a building.
+
+Splay
+A slant created by cutting a wall around an opening such that the inside of the opening is wider or narrower than the outside.
+
+Springer
+The lowest voussoir on each side of an arch.
+
+Squinch
+A piece of construction used for filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a proper base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome.
+
+Squint
+An opening, often arched, through an internal wall of a church providing an oblique view of the altar.
+
+Stoop
+A small staircase ending in a platform and leading to the entrance of an apartment building or other building.
+
+Sunburst
+A design or figure commonly used in architectural ornaments and design patterns, including art nouveau.
+
+Syrian arch
+In American architecture, esp. Richardsonian Romanesque, an archway that begins at the ground, rather than being set upon a supporting pedestal. [Cf. Richardsonian Romanesque: Syrian arch ]
+
+Systyle
+In the classical orders, columns rather thickly set, with an intercolumniation to which two diameters are assigned.
+
+== T ==
+
+Taenia
+In a Doric entablature, a raised fillet separating the architrave from the frieze.
+
+Throating
+A continuous groove underneath a coping or other projecting element, to prevent water from running back onto the wall beneath.
+
+Timber framing
+The method of creating structures using heavy timbers jointed by pegged mortise and tenon joints.
+
+Trabeated arch
+A simple construction method using a lintel, header, or architrave as the horizontal member over a building void supported at its ends by two vertical columns, pillars, or posts.
+
+Tracery
+The stonework elements that support the glass in a Gothic window.
+
+Transom (architectural)
+A window or element, fixed or operable, above a door but within its vertical frame; also horizontal structural element of stone, wood or metal within a window frame (cp. mullion).
+
+Triglyph
+In a Doric entablature, an ornament along the frieze consisting of three vertical recesses.
+
+Truss
+A structural component made of straight wood or metal members, usually in a triangular pattern, with "pinned" connections at the top and bottom chords and which is used to support structural loads, as those on a floor, roof or bridge.
+
+Turret 
+A small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle.
+
+Tympanum
+(Greek τύμπανον, from τύπτειν, to strike) The triangular space enclosed between the horizontal cornice of the entablature and the sloping cornice of the pediment. Though sometimes left plain, it is often decorated.
+
+== U ==
+
+Undercroft
+Traditionally, a cellar or storage room. In modern usage, a ground-level area that is relatively open to the sides, but covered by the building above.
+
+== V ==
+
+Ventilation shaft
+A small, vertical space within a tall building which permits ventilation of the building.
+
+Vierendeel truss
+A rectilinear truss usually fabricated of steel or concrete with horizontal top and bottom chords and vertical web members (no diagonals) in which the loads imposed on it are transferred to the supports through bending forces resisted in its connections.
+
+Volute
+A spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order.
+
+Voussoir
+A wedge-shaped or tapered stone between the springer and the keystone used to construct an arch.
+
+== W ==
+
+Wing
+1.  A lateral part or projection of a building or structure such as a wing wall.
+2.  A subordinate part of a building possibly not connected to the main building.
+3.  The sides of a stage (theatre).
+
+Widow's walk
+A railed rooftop platform often having an inner cupola/turret frequently found on 19th-century North American coastal houses.
+
+== Z ==
+
+Zaguan
+A passageway of a central passage plan house, or the complex as a whole, in Territorial or Territorial Revival architecture in the American Southwest.
+
+Ziggurat
+A temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian valley, having the form of a terraced pyramid of successively receding stories.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Outline of architecture
+List of classical architecture terms
+Classical order
+List of architectural vaults
+List of structural elements
+Glossary of engineering
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Ching, Francis D.K. (1995). A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 30. ISBN 0-471-28451-3.
+Deurer (2011). "Glossary of Egyptian Mythology". Retrieved 2019-05-17.
+Table of contents. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica  – via Wikisource. Page has search box.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mathematics is a broad subject that is commonly divided in many areas  or branches that may be defined by their objects of study, by the used methods, or by both. For example, analytic number theory is a subarea of number theory devoted to the use of methods of analysis for the study of natural numbers.
+This glossary is alphabetically sorted. This hides a large part of the relationships between areas. For the broadest areas of mathematics, see Mathematics § Areas of mathematics. The Mathematics Subject Classification is a hierarchical list of areas and subjects of study that has been elaborated by the community of mathematicians. It is used by most publishers for classifying mathematical articles and books.
+
+== A ==
+
+Absolute differential calculus
+ An older name of Ricci calculus 
+Absolute geometry
+ Also called neutral geometry, a synthetic geometry similar to Euclidean geometry but without the parallel postulate.
+Abstract algebra
+ The part of algebra devoted to the study of algebraic structures in themselves. Occasionally named modern algebra in course titles.
+Abstract analytic number theory
+ The study of arithmetic semigroups as a means to extend notions from classical analytic number theory.
+Abstract differential geometry
+ A form of differential geometry without the notion of smoothness from calculus. Instead it is built using sheaf theory and sheaf cohomology.
+Abstract harmonic analysis
+ A modern branch of harmonic analysis that extends upon the generalized Fourier transforms that can be defined on locally compact groups.
+Abstract homotopy theory
+ A part of topology that deals with homotopic functions, i.e. functions from one topological space to another which are homotopic (the functions can be deformed into one another).
+Actuarial science
+ The discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in insurance, finance and other industries and professions. More generally, actuaries apply rigorous mathematics to model matters of uncertainty.
+Additive combinatorics
+ The part of arithmetic combinatorics devoted to the operations of addition and subtraction.
+Additive number theory
+ A part of number theory that studies subsets of integers and their behaviour under addition.
+Affine geometry
+ A branch of geometry that deals with properties that are independent from distances and angles, such as alignment and parallelism.
+Affine geometry of curves
+ The study of curve properties that are invariant under affine transformations.
+Affine differential geometry
+ A type of differential geometry dedicated to differential invariants under volume-preserving affine transformations.
+Ahlfors theory
+ A part of complex analysis being the geometric counterpart of Nevanlinna theory. It was invented by Lars Ahlfors.
+Algebra
+ One of the major areas of mathematics. Roughly speaking, it is the art of manipulating and computing with operations acting on symbols called variables that represent indeterminate numbers or other mathematical objects, such as vectors, matrices, or elements of algebraic structures.
+Algebraic analysis
+ motivated by systems of linear partial differential equations, it is a branch of algebraic geometry and algebraic topology that uses methods from sheaf theory and complex analysis, to study the properties and generalizations of functions. It was started by Mikio Sato.
+Algebraic combinatorics
+ an area that employs methods of abstract algebra to problems of combinatorics. It also refers to the application of methods from combinatorics to problems in abstract algebra.
+Algebraic computation
+ An older name of computer algebra.
+Algebraic geometry
+ a branch that combines techniques from abstract algebra with the language and problems of geometry. Fundamentally, it studies algebraic varieties.
+Algebraic graph theory
+ a branch of graph theory in which methods are taken from algebra and employed to problems about graphs. The methods are commonly taken from group theory and linear algebra.
+ Algebraic K-theory
+ an important part of homological algebra concerned with defining and applying a certain sequence of functors from rings to abelian groups.
+ Algebraic number theory
+ The part of number theory devoted to the use of algebraic methods, mainly those of commutative algebra, for the study of number fields and their rings of integers.
+Algebraic statistics
+ the use of algebra to advance statistics, although the term is sometimes restricted to label the use of algebraic geometry and commutative algebra in statistics.
+Algebraic topology
+a branch that uses tools from abstract algebra for topology to study topological spaces.
+Algorithmic number theory
+ also known as computational number theory, it is the study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations.
+Anabelian geometry
+ an area of study based on the theory proposed by Alexander Grothendieck in the 1980s that describes the way a geometric object of an algebraic variety (such as an algebraic fundamental group) can be mapped into another object, without it being an abelian group.
+Analysis
+ A wide area of mathematics centered on the study of continuous functions and including such topics as differentiation, integration, limits, and series.
+Analytic combinatorics
+ part of enumerative combinatorics where methods of complex analysis are applied to generating functions.
+Analytic geometry
+1.  Also known as Cartesian geometry, the study of Euclidean geometry using  Cartesian coordinates.
+2.  Analogue to differential geometry, where differentiable functions are replaced with analytic functions. It is a subarea of both complex analysis and algebraic geometry.
+ Analytic number theory
+ An area of number theory that applies methods from mathematical analysis to solve problems about integers.
+ Analytic theory of L-functions
+Applied mathematics
+ a combination of various parts of mathematics that concern a variety of mathematical methods that can be applied to practical and theoretical problems. Typically the methods used are for science, engineering, finance, economics and logistics.
+Approximation theory
+ part of analysis that studies how well functions can be approximated by simpler ones (such as polynomials or trigonometric polynomials)
+Arakelov geometry
+ also known as Arakelov theory
+ Arakelov theory
+ an approach to Diophantine geometry used to study Diophantine equations in higher dimensions (using techniques from algebraic geometry). It is named after Suren Arakelov.
+ Arithmetic
+1.   Also known as elementary arithmetic, the methods and rules for computing with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers.
+2.   Also known as higher arithmetic, another name for number theory.
+ Arithmetic algebraic geometry
+ See arithmetic geometry.
+Arithmetic combinatorics
+ the study of the estimates from combinatorics that are associated with arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
+Arithmetic dynamics
+ Arithmetic dynamics is the study of the number-theoretic properties of integer, rational, p-adic, and/or algebraic points under repeated application of a polynomial or rational function. A fundamental goal is to describe arithmetic properties in terms of underlying geometric structures.
+ Arithmetic geometry
+ The use of algebraic geometry and more specially scheme theory for solving problems of number theory.
+ Arithmetic topology
+ a combination of algebraic number theory and topology studying analogies between prime ideals and knots
+ Arithmetical algebraic geometry
+ Another name for arithmetic algebraic geometry
+ Asymptotic combinatorics
+ It uses the internal structure of the objects to derive formulas for their generating functions and then complex analysis techniques to get asymptotics.
+ Asymptotic theory 
+ the study of asymptotic expansions
+ Auslander–Reiten theory
+ the study of the representation theory of Artinian rings
+ Axiomatic geometry
+ also known as synthetic geometry: it is a branch of geometry that uses axioms and logical arguments to draw conclusions as opposed to analytic and algebraic methods.
+ Axiomatic set theory
+ the study of systems of axioms in a context relevant to set theory and mathematical logic.

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+---
+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== B ==
+
+ Bifurcation theory
+ the study of changes in the qualitative or topological structure of a given family. It is a part of dynamical systems theory
+ Biostatistics
+ the development and application of statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology.
+ Birational geometry
+a part of algebraic geometry that deals with the geometry (of an algebraic variety) that is dependent only on its function field.
+ Bolyai–Lobachevskian geometry
+ see hyperbolic geometry
+
+== C ==
+
+ C*-algebra theory
+ a complex algebra A of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties-(i) A is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.(ii)A is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators.
+ Cartesian geometry
+ see analytic geometry
+ Calculus
+ An area of mathematics connected by the fundamental theorem of calculus.
+ Calculus of infinitesimals
+Also called infinitesimal calculus
+ A foundation of calculus, first developed in the 17th century, that makes use of infinitesimal numbers.
+ Calculus of moving surfaces
+ an extension of the theory of tensor calculus to include deforming manifolds.
+ Calculus of variations
+ the field dedicated to maximizing or minimizing functionals. It used to be called functional calculus.
+ Catastrophe theory
+ a branch of bifurcation theory from dynamical systems theory, and also a special case of the more general singularity theory from geometry. It analyses the germs of the catastrophe geometries.
+ Categorical logic
+ a branch of category theory adjacent to the mathematical logic. It is based on type theory for intuitionistic logics.
+ Category theory
+ the study of the properties of particular mathematical concepts by formalising them as collections of objects and arrows.
+ Chaos theory
+ the study of the behaviour of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to their initial conditions.
+ Character theory
+ a branch of group theory that studies the characters of group representations or modular representations.
+ Class field theory
+ a branch of algebraic number theory that studies abelian extensions of number fields.
+ Classical differential geometry
+ also known as Euclidean differential geometry. see Euclidean differential geometry.
+ Classical algebraic topology
+ see algebraic topology
+ Classical analysis
+ usually refers to the more traditional topics of analysis such as real analysis and complex analysis. It includes any work that does not use techniques from functional analysis and is sometimes called hard analysis. However it may also refer to mathematical analysis done according to the principles of classical mathematics.
+ Classical analytic number theory
+ Classical differential calculus
+ Classical Diophantine geometry
+ Classical Euclidean geometry 
+ see Euclidean geometry
+ Classical geometry
+ may refer to solid geometry or classical Euclidean geometry. See geometry
+ Classical invariant theory
+ the form of invariant theory that deals with describing polynomial functions that are invariant under transformations from a given linear group.
+ Classical mathematics
+ the standard approach to mathematics based on classical logic and ZFC set theory.
+ Classical projective geometry
+ Classical tensor calculus
+ Clifford algebra
+ Clifford analysis
+the study of Dirac operators and Dirac type operators from geometry and analysis using clifford algebras.
+ Clifford theory
+ is a branch of representation theory spawned from Cliffords theorem.
+ Cobordism theory
+ Coding theory
+ the study of the properties of codes and their respective fitness for specific applications.
+ Cohomology theory
+ Combinatorial analysis
+ Combinatorial commutative algebra
+ a discipline viewed as the intersection between commutative algebra and combinatorics. It frequently employs methods from one to address problems arising in the other. Polyhedral geometry also plays a significant role.
+Combinatorial design theory
+ a part of combinatorial mathematics that deals with the existence and construction of systems of finite sets whose intersections have certain properties.
+ Combinatorial game theory
+ Combinatorial geometry
+ see discrete geometry
+Combinatorial group theory
+ the theory of free groups and the presentation of a group. It is closely related to geometric group theory and is applied in geometric topology.
+Combinatorial mathematics
+ an area primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and an end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures.
+Combinatorial number theory
+Combinatorial optimization
+Combinatorial set theory
+ also known as Infinitary combinatorics. see infinitary combinatorics
+Combinatorial theory
+Combinatorial topology
+ an old name for algebraic topology, when topological invariants of spaces were regarded as derived from combinatorial decompositions.
+Combinatorics
+ a branch of discrete mathematics concerned with countable structures. Branches of it include enumerative combinatorics, combinatorial design theory, matroid theory, extremal combinatorics and algebraic combinatorics, as well as many more.
+Commutative algebra
+ a branch of abstract algebra studying commutative rings.
+Complex algebraic geometry
+ the mainstream of algebraic geometry devoted to the study of the complex points of algebraic varieties.
+Complex analysis
+ a part of analysis that deals with functions of a complex variable.
+Complex analytic dynamics
+ a subdivision of complex dynamics being the study of the dynamic systems defined by analytic functions.
+Complex analytic geometry
+ the application of complex numbers to plane geometry.
+Complex differential geometry
+ a branch of differential geometry that studies complex manifolds.
+Complex dynamics
+ the study of dynamical systems defined by iterated functions on complex number spaces.
+Complex geometry 
+ the study of complex manifolds and functions of complex variables. It includes complex algebraic geometry and complex analytic geometry.
+Complexity theory
+ the study of complex systems with the inclusion of the theory of complex systems.
+Computable analysis
+ the study of which parts of real analysis and functional analysis can be carried out in a computable manner. It is closely related to constructive analysis.
+Computable model theory
+ a branch of model theory dealing with the relevant questions computability.
+Computability theory
+ a branch of mathematical logic originating in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees, but now includes the study of generalized computability and definability. It overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory.
+Computational algebraic geometry
+Computational complexity theory
+ a branch of mathematics and theoretical computer science that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other.
+Computational geometry
+ a branch of computer science devoted to the study of algorithms which can be stated in terms of geometry. 
+Computational group theory
+ the study of groups by means of computers.
+Computational mathematics
+ the mathematical research in areas of science where computing plays an essential role.
+Computational number theory
+ also known as algorithmic number theory, it is the study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations.
+Computational statistics
+Computational synthetic geometry
+Computational topology
+Computer algebra
+ see symbolic computation
+Conformal geometry
+ the study of conformal transformations on a space.
+Constructive analysis
+ mathematical analysis done according to the principles of constructive mathematics. This differs from classical analysis.
+Constructive function theory
+ a branch of analysis that is closely related to approximation theory, studying the connection between the smoothness of a function and its degree of approximation
+Constructive mathematics
+ mathematics which tends to use intuitionistic logic. Essentially that is classical logic but without the assumption that the law of the excluded middle is an axiom.
+Constructive quantum field theory
+ a branch of mathematical physics that is devoted to showing that quantum theory is mathematically compatible with special relativity.
+Constructive set theory
+ an approach to mathematical constructivism following the program of axiomatic set theory, using the usual first-order language of classical set theory.
+Contact geometry
+ a branch of differential geometry and topology, closely related to and considered the odd-dimensional counterpart of symplectic geometry. It is the study of a geometric structure called a contact structure on a differentiable manifold.
+Convex analysis
+ the study of properties of convex functions and convex sets.
+Convex geometry
+ part of geometry devoted to the study of convex sets.
+Coordinate geometry
+ see analytic geometry
+CR geometry
+ a branch of differential geometry, being the study of CR manifolds.
+Cryptography

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+---
+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== D ==
+
+Decision analysis
+Decision theory
+Derived noncommutative algebraic geometry
+Descriptive set theory
+a part of mathematical logic, more specifically a part of set theory dedicated to the study of Polish spaces.
+Differential algebraic geometry
+the adaption of methods and concepts from algebraic geometry to systems of algebraic differential equations.
+Differential calculus
+The branch of calculus contrasted to integral calculus, and concerned with derivatives.
+Differential Galois theory
+the study of the Galois groups of differential fields.
+Differential geometry
+a form of geometry that uses techniques from integral and differential calculus as well as linear and multilinear algebra to study problems in geometry. Classically, these were problems of Euclidean geometry, although now it has been expanded. It is generally concerned with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential topology.
+Differential geometry of curves
+the study of smooth curves in Euclidean space by using techniques from differential geometry
+Differential geometry of surfaces
+the study of smooth surfaces with various additional structures using the techniques of differential geometry.
+Differential topology
+a branch of topology that deals with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds.
+Diffiety theory
+Diophantine geometry
+in general the study of algebraic varieties over fields that are finitely generated over their prime fields.
+Discrepancy theory
+Discrete differential geometry
+Discrete exterior calculus
+Discrete geometry
+a branch of geometry that studies combinatorial properties and constructive methods of discrete geometric objects.
+Discrete mathematics
+the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous.
+Discrete Morse theory
+a combinatorial adaption of Morse theory.
+Distance geometry
+Domain theory
+a branch that studies special kinds of partially ordered sets (posets) commonly called domains.
+Donaldson theory
+the study of smooth 4-manifolds using gauge theory.
+Dyadic algebra
+Dynamical systems theory
+an area used to describe the behavior of the complex dynamical systems, usually by employing differential equations or difference equations.
+
+== E ==
+
+Econometrics
+the application of mathematical and statistical methods to economic data.
+Effective descriptive set theory
+a branch of descriptive set theory dealing with set of real numbers that have lightface definitions. It uses aspects of computability theory.
+Elementary algebra
+a fundamental form of algebra extending on elementary arithmetic to include the concept of variables.
+Elementary arithmetic
+the simplified portion of arithmetic considered necessary for primary education. It includes the usage addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of the natural numbers. It also includes the concept of fractions and negative numbers.
+Elementary mathematics
+parts of mathematics frequently taught at the primary and secondary school levels. This includes elementary arithmetic, geometry, probability and statistics, elementary algebra and trigonometry. (calculus is not usually considered a part)
+Elementary group theory
+the study of the basics of group theory
+Elimination theory
+the classical name for algorithmic approaches to eliminating between polynomials of several variables. It is a part of commutative algebra and algebraic geometry.
+Elliptic geometry
+a type of non-Euclidean geometry (it violates Euclid's parallel postulate) and is based on spherical geometry. It is constructed in elliptic space.
+Enumerative combinatorics
+an area of combinatorics that deals with the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed.
+Enumerative geometry
+a branch of algebraic geometry concerned with counting the number of solutions to geometric questions. This is usually done by means of intersection theory.
+Epidemiology
+Equivariant noncommutative algebraic geometry
+Ergodic Ramsey theory
+a branch where problems are motivated by additive combinatorics and solved using ergodic theory.
+Ergodic theory
+the study of dynamical systems with an invariant measure, and related problems.
+Euclidean geometry
+ An area of geometry based on the axiom system and synthetic methods of the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid.
+Euclidean differential geometry
+also known as classical differential geometry. See differential geometry.
+Euler calculus
+a methodology from applied algebraic topology and integral geometry that integrates constructible functions and more recently definable functions by integrating with respect to the Euler characteristic as a finitely-additive measure.
+Experimental mathematics
+an approach to mathematics in which computation is used to investigate mathematical objects and identify properties and patterns.
+ Exterior algebra
+ Exterior calculus
+Extraordinary cohomology theory
+Extremal combinatorics
+a branch of combinatorics, it is the study of the possible sizes of a collection of finite objects given certain restrictions.
+Extremal graph theory
+a branch of mathematics that studies how global properties of a graph influence local substructure.
+
+== F ==
+
+Field theory
+ The branch of algebra dedicated to fields, a type of algebraic structure.
+Finite geometry
+Finite model theory
+a restriction of model theory to interpretations on finite structures, which have a finite universe.
+Finsler geometry
+a branch of differential geometry whose main object of study is Finsler manifolds, a generalisation of a Riemannian manifolds.
+First order arithmetic
+Fourier analysis
+the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of trigonometric functions.
+Fractal geometry
+Fractional calculus
+a branch of analysis that studies the possibility of taking real or complex powers of the differentiation operator.
+Fractional dynamics
+investigates the behaviour of objects and systems that are described by differentiation and integration of fractional orders using methods of fractional calculus.
+Fredholm theory
+part of spectral theory studying integral equations.
+Function theory
+an ambiguous term that generally refers to mathematical analysis.
+Functional analysis
+a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of function spaces, which are some sort of topological vector spaces.
+Functional calculus
+historically the term was used synonymously with calculus of variations, but now refers to a branch of functional analysis connected with spectral theory
+Fuzzy mathematics
+a branch of mathematics based on fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic.
+Fuzzy measure theory
+Fuzzy set theory
+a form of set theory that studies fuzzy sets, that is sets that have degrees of membership.
+
+== G ==

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+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Galois cohomology
+an application of homological algebra, it is the study of group cohomology of Galois modules.
+Galois theory
+named after Évariste Galois, it is a branch of abstract algebra providing a connection between field theory and group theory.
+Galois geometry
+a branch of finite geometry concerned with algebraic and analytic geometry over a Galois field.
+Game theory
+the study of mathematical models of strategic interaction among rational decision-makers.
+Gauge theory
+General topology
+also known as point-set topology, it is a branch of topology studying the properties of topological spaces and structures defined on them. It differs from other branches of topology as the topological spaces do not have to be similar to manifolds.
+Generalized trigonometry
+developments of trigonometric methods from the application to real numbers of Euclidean geometry to any geometry or space. This includes spherical trigonometry, hyperbolic trigonometry, gyrotrigonometry, and universal hyperbolic trigonometry.
+Geometric algebra
+an alternative approach to classical, computational and relativistic geometry. It shows a natural correspondence between geometric entities and elements of algebra.
+Geometric analysis
+a discipline that uses methods from differential geometry to study partial differential equations as well as the applications to geometry.
+Geometric calculus
+extends the geometric algebra to include differentiation and integration.
+Geometric combinatorics
+a branch of combinatorics.  It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry.
+Geometric function theory
+the study of geometric properties of analytic functions.
+Geometric invariant theory
+a method for constructing quotients by group actions in algebraic geometry, used to construct moduli spaces.
+Geometric graph theory
+a large and amorphous subfield of graph theory, concerned with graphs defined by geometric means.
+Geometric group theory
+the study of finitely generated groups via exploring the connections between algebraic properties of such groups and topological and geometric properties of spaces on which these groups act (that is, when the groups in question are realized as geometric symmetries or continuous transformations of some spaces).
+Geometric measure theory
+the study of geometric properties of sets (typically in Euclidean space) through measure theory.
+Geometric number theory
+Geometric topology
+a branch of topology studying manifolds and mappings between them; in particular the embedding of one manifold into another.
+Geometry
+a branch of mathematics concerned with shape and the properties of space. Classically it arose as what is now known as solid geometry; this was concerning practical knowledge of length, area and volume. It was then put into an axiomatic form by Euclid, giving rise to what is now known as classical Euclidean geometry. The use of coordinates by René Descartes gave rise to Cartesian geometry enabling a more analytical approach to geometric entities. Since then many other branches have appeared including projective geometry, differential geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, Fractal geometry and algebraic geometry. Geometry also gave rise to the modern discipline of topology.
+Geometry of numbers
+initiated by Hermann Minkowski, it is a branch of number theory studying convex bodies and integer vectors.
+Global analysis
+the study of differential equations on manifolds and the relationship between differential equations and topology.
+Global arithmetic dynamics
+Graph theory
+a branch of discrete mathematics devoted to the study of graphs. It has many applications in physical, biological and social systems.
+Group-character theory
+the part of character theory dedicated to the study of characters of group representations.
+Group representation theory
+Group theory
+the study of algebraic structures known as groups.
+Gyrotrigonometry
+a form of trigonometry used in gyrovector space for hyperbolic geometry. (An analogy of the vector space in Euclidean geometry.)
+
+== H ==
+
+Hard analysis
+see classical analysis
+Harmonic analysis
+part of analysis concerned with the representations of functions in terms of waves. It generalizes the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms from the Fourier analysis.
+Higher arithmetic
+Higher category theory
+the part of category theory at a higher order, which means that some equalities are replaced by explicit arrows in order to be able to explicitly study the structure behind those equalities.
+Higher-dimensional algebra
+the study of categorified structures.
+Hodge theory
+a method for studying the cohomology groups of a smooth manifold M using partial differential equations.
+Hodge–Arakelov theory
+Holomorphic functional calculus
+a branch of functional calculus starting with holomorphic functions.
+Homological algebra
+the study of homology in general algebraic settings.
+Homology theory
+Homotopy theory
+Hyperbolic geometry
+also known as Lobachevskian geometry or Bolyai-Lobachevskian geometry. It is a non-Euclidean geometry looking at hyperbolic space.
+hyperbolic trigonometry
+the study of hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry, or hyperbolic functions in Euclidean geometry. Other forms include gyrotrigonometry and universal hyperbolic trigonometry.
+Hypercomplex analysis
+the extension of real analysis and complex analysis to the study of functions where the argument is a hypercomplex number.
+Hyperfunction theory
+
+== I ==

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+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ideal theory
+once the precursor name for what is now known as commutative algebra; it is the theory of ideals in commutative rings.
+Idempotent analysis
+the study of idempotent semirings, such as the tropical semiring.
+Incidence geometry
+the study of relations of incidence between various geometric objects, like curves and lines.
+Inconsistent mathematics
+see paraconsistent mathematics.
+Infinitary combinatorics
+an expansion of ideas in combinatorics to account for infinite sets.
+Infinitesimal analysis
+once a synonym for infinitesimal calculus
+Infinitesimal calculus
+ See calculus of infinitesimals 
+Information geometry
+an interdisciplinary field that applies the techniques of differential geometry to study probability theory and statistics. It studies statistical manifolds, which are Riemannian manifolds whose points correspond to probability distributions.
+Integral calculus
+The branch of calculus concerned with integralss, contrasted to differential calculus.
+Integral geometry
+the theory of measures on a geometrical space invariant under the symmetry group of that space.
+Intersection theory
+a branch of algebraic geometry and algebraic topology
+Intuitionistic type theory
+a type theory and an alternative foundation of mathematics.
+Invariant theory
+studies how group actions on algebraic varieties affect functions.
+Inventory theory
+Inversive geometry
+the study of invariants preserved by a type of transformation known as inversion
+Inversive plane geometry
+inversive geometry that is limited to two dimensions
+Inversive ring geometry
+Itô calculus
+extends the methods of calculus to stochastic processes such as Brownian motion (see Wiener process). It has important applications in mathematical finance and stochastic differential equations.
+Iwasawa theory
+the study of objects of arithmetic interest over infinite towers of number fields.
+Iwasawa-Tate theory
+
+== J ==
+
+ Job shop scheduling
+
+== K ==
+
+K-theory
+originated as the study of a ring generated by vector bundles over a topological space or scheme. In algebraic topology it is an extraordinary cohomology theory known as topological K-theory. In algebra and algebraic geometry it is referred to as algebraic K-theory. In physics, K-theory has appeared in type II string theory. (In particular twisted K-theory.)
+K-homology
+a homology theory on the category of locally compact Hausdorff spaces. 
+Kähler geometry
+a branch of differential geometry, more specifically a union of Riemannian geometry, complex differential geometry and symplectic geometry. It is the study of Kähler manifolds. (named after Erich Kähler)
+KK-theory
+a common generalization both of K-homology and K-theory as an additive bivariant functor on separable C*-algebras.
+Klein geometry
+More specifically, it is a homogeneous space X together with a transitive action on X by a Lie group G, which acts as the symmetry group of the geometry.
+Knot theory
+part of topology dealing with knots
+Kummer theory
+provides a description of certain types of field extensions involving the adjunction of nth roots of elements of the base field
+
+== L ==
+
+L-theory
+ the K-theory of quadratic forms.
+Large deviations theory
+ part of probability theory studying events of small probability (tail events).
+Large sample theory
+ also known as asymptotic theory
+Lattice theory
+ the study of lattices, being important in order theory and universal algebra
+Lie algebra theory
+Lie group theory
+Lie sphere geometry
+geometrical theory of planar or spatial geometry in which the fundamental concept is the circle or sphere.
+Lie theory
+Line geometry
+Linear algebra
+a branch of algebra studying linear spaces and linear maps. It has applications in fields such as abstract algebra and functional analysis; it can be represented in analytic geometry and it is generalized in operator theory and in module theory. Sometimes matrix theory is considered a branch, although linear algebra is restricted to only finite dimensions. Extensions of the methods used belong to multilinear algebra.
+Linear functional analysis
+Linear programming
+a method to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements are represented by linear relationships.
+List of graphical methods
+Included are diagram techniques, chart techniques, plot techniques, and other forms of visualization.
+Local algebra
+a term sometimes applied to the theory of local rings.
+Local class field theory
+the study of abelian extensions of local fields.
+Low-dimensional topology
+the branch of topology that studies manifolds, or more generally topological spaces, of four or fewer dimensions.
+
+== M ==

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+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Malliavin calculus
+a set of mathematical techniques and ideas that extend the mathematical field of calculus of variations from  deterministic functions to stochastic processes.
+Mathematical biology
+the mathematical modeling of biological phenomena.
+Mathematical chemistry
+the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
+Mathematical economics
+the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics.
+Mathematical finance
+a field of applied mathematics, concerned with mathematical modeling of financial markets. 
+Mathematical logic
+a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics.
+Mathematical optimization
+Mathematical physics
+ The development of mathematical methods suitable for application to problems in physics.
+Mathematical psychology
+an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, thought, cognitive and motor processes, and on the establishment of law-like rules that relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable behavior.
+Mathematical sciences
+refers to academic disciplines that are mathematical in nature, but are not considered proper subfields of mathematics. Examples include statistics, cryptography, game theory and actuarial science.
+Mathematical sociology
+the area of sociology that uses mathematics to construct social theories.
+Mathematical statistics
+the application of probability theory, a branch of mathematics, to statistics, as opposed to techniques for collecting statistical data.
+Mathematical system theory
+Matrix algebra
+Matrix calculus
+Matrix theory
+Matroid theory
+Measure theory
+Metric geometry
+Microlocal analysis
+Model theory
+the study of classes of mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields, graphs, universes of set theory) from the perspective of mathematical logic.
+Modern algebra
+ Occasionally used for abstract algebra. The term was coined by van der Waerden as the title of his book Moderne Algebra, which was renamed Algebra in the latest editions.
+Modern algebraic geometry
+the form of algebraic geometry given by Alexander Grothendieck and Jean-Pierre Serre drawing on sheaf theory.
+Modern invariant theory
+the form of invariant theory that analyses the decomposition of representations into irreducibles.
+Modular representation theory
+a part of representation theory that studies linear representations of finite groups over a field K of positive characteristic p, necessarily a prime number.
+Module theory
+Molecular geometry
+Morse theory
+a part of differential topology, it analyzes the topological space of a manifold by studying differentiable functions on that manifold.
+Motivic cohomology
+Multilinear algebra
+an extension of linear algebra building upon concepts of p-vectors and multivectors with Grassmann algebra.
+Multiplicative number theory
+a subfield of analytic number theory that deals with prime numbers, factorization and divisors.
+Multivariable calculus
+the extension of calculus in one variable to calculus with functions of several variables: the differentiation and integration of functions involving several variables, rather than just one.
+Multiple-scale analysis
+
+== N ==
+
+Neutral geometry
+See absolute geometry. 
+Nevanlinna theory
+part of complex analysis studying the value distribution of meromorphic functions. It is named after Rolf Nevanlinna
+Nielsen theory
+an area of mathematical research with its origins in fixed point topology, developed by Jakob Nielsen
+Non-abelian class field theory
+Non-classical analysis
+Non-Euclidean geometry
+Non-standard analysis
+Non-standard calculus
+Nonarchimedean dynamics
+also known as p-adic analysis or local arithmetic dynamics
+Noncommutative algebra
+Noncommutative algebraic geometry
+a direction in noncommutative geometry studying the geometric properties of formal duals of non-commutative algebraic objects.
+Noncommutative geometry
+Noncommutative harmonic analysis
+see representation theory
+Noncommutative topology
+Nonlinear analysis
+Nonlinear functional analysis
+Number theory
+a branch of pure mathematics primarily devoted to the study of the integers. Originally it was known as arithmetic or higher arithmetic.
+Numerical analysis
+Numerical linear algebra
+
+== O ==
+
+ Operad theory 
+ a type of abstract algebra concerned with prototypical algebras.
+Operation research
+Operator K-theory
+Operator theory
+part of functional analysis studying operators.
+Optimal control theory
+a generalization of the calculus of variations.
+Optimal maintenance
+Orbifold theory
+Order theory
+a branch that investigates the intuitive notion of order using binary relations.
+Ordered geometry
+a form of geometry  omitting the notion of measurement but featuring the concept of intermediacy. It is a fundamental geometry forming a common framework for affine geometry, Euclidean geometry, absolute geometry and hyperbolic geometry.
+Oscillation theory
+
+== P ==
+
+p-adic analysis
+a branch of number theory that deals with the analysis of functions of p-adic numbers.
+p-adic dynamics
+an application of p-adic analysis looking at p-adic differential equations.
+p-adic Hodge theory
+Parabolic geometry
+Paraconsistent mathematics
+sometimes called inconsistent mathematics, it is an attempt to develop the classical infrastructure of mathematics based on a foundation of paraconsistent logic instead of classical logic.
+Partition theory
+Perturbation theory
+Picard–Vessiot theory
+Plane geometry
+Point-set topology
+see general topology
+Pointless topology
+Poisson geometry
+Polyhedral combinatorics
+a branch within combinatorics and discrete geometry that studies the problems of  describing convex polytopes.
+Possibility theory
+Potential theory
+Precalculus
+Predicative mathematics
+Probability theory
+Probabilistic combinatorics
+Probabilistic graph theory
+Probabilistic number theory
+Projective geometry
+a form of geometry that studies geometric properties that are invariant under a projective transformation.
+Projective differential geometry
+Proof theory
+Pseudo-Riemannian geometry
+generalizes Riemannian geometry to the study of pseudo-Riemannian manifolds.
+Pure mathematics
+the part of mathematics that studies entirely abstract concepts.
+
+== Q ==
+
+Quantum calculus
+a form of calculus without the notion of limits.
+Quantum geometry
+the generalization of concepts of geometry used to describe the physical phenomena of quantum physics
+Quaternionic analysis
+
+== R ==

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+---
+title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ramsey theory
+the study of the conditions in which order must appear. It is named after Frank P. Ramsey.
+Rational geometry
+Real algebra
+the study of the part of algebra relevant to real algebraic geometry.
+Real algebraic geometry
+the part of algebraic geometry that studies real points of the algebraic varieties.
+Real analysis
+a branch of mathematical analysis; in particular hard analysis, that is the study of real numbers and functions of Real values. It provides a rigorous formulation of the calculus of real numbers in terms of continuity and smoothness, whilst the theory is extended to the complex numbers in complex analysis.
+ Real Clifford algebra
+Real K-theory
+Recreational mathematics
+the area dedicated to mathematical puzzles and mathematical games.
+Recursion theory
+see computability theory
+Representation theory
+a subfield of abstract algebra; it studies algebraic structures by representing their elements as linear transformations of vector spaces. It also studies modules over these algebraic structures, providing a way of reducing problems in abstract algebra to problems in linear algebra.
+Representation theory of groups
+Representation theory of the Galilean group
+Representation theory of the Lorentz group
+Representation theory of the Poincaré group
+Representation theory of the symmetric group
+Ribbon theory
+a branch of topology studying ribbons.
+Ricci calculus
+ Also called absolute differential calculus.
+A foundation of tensor calculus, developed by Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro in 1887–1896, and later developed for its applications to  general relativity and differential geometry.
+Ring theory
+Riemannian geometry
+a branch of differential geometry that is more specifically, the study of Riemannian manifolds. It is named after Bernhard Riemann and it features many generalizations of concepts from Euclidean geometry, analysis and calculus.
+Rough set theory
+the a form of set theory based on rough sets.
+
+== S ==
+
+Sampling theory
+Scheme theory
+the study of schemes introduced by Alexander Grothendieck. It allows the use of sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties and is considered the central part of modern algebraic geometry.
+Secondary calculus
+Semialgebraic geometry
+a part of algebraic geometry; more specifically a branch of real algebraic geometry that studies semialgebraic sets.
+Set-theoretic topology
+Set theory
+Sheaf theory
+ The study of sheaves, which connect local and global properties of geometric objects.
+Sheaf cohomology
+Sieve theory
+Single operator theory
+deals with the properties and classifications of single operators.
+Singularity theory
+a branch, notably of geometry; that studies the failure of manifold structure.
+Smooth infinitesimal analysis
+a rigorous reformation of infinitesimal calculus employing methods of category theory. As a theory, it is a subset of synthetic differential geometry.
+Solid geometry
+Spatial geometry
+Spectral geometry
+a field that concerns the relationships between geometric structures of manifolds and spectra of canonically defined differential operators.
+Spectral graph theory
+the study of properties of a graph using methods from matrix theory.
+Spectral theory
+part of operator theory extending the concepts of eigenvalues and eigenvectors from linear algebra and matrix theory.
+Spectral theory of ordinary differential equations
+part of spectral theory concerned with the spectrum and eigenfunction expansion associated with linear ordinary differential equations.
+Spectrum continuation analysis
+generalizes the concept of a Fourier series to non-periodic functions.
+Spherical geometry
+a branch of non-Euclidean geometry, studying the 2-dimensional surface of a sphere.
+Spherical trigonometry
+a branch of spherical geometry that studies polygons on the surface of a sphere. Usually the polygons are triangles.
+Statistical mechanics
+Statistical modelling
+Statistical theory
+Statistics
+although the term may refer to the more general study of statistics, the term is used in mathematics to refer to the mathematical study of statistics and related fields. This includes probability theory.
+Steganography
+Stochastic calculus
+Stochastic calculus of variations
+Stochastic geometry
+the study of random patterns of points
+Stochastic process
+Stratified Morse theory
+Super linear algebra
+Surgery theory
+a part of geometric topology referring to methods used to produce one manifold from another (in a controlled way.)
+Survey sampling
+Survey methodology
+Symbolic computation
+also known as algebraic computation and computer algebra. It refers to the techniques used to manipulate mathematical expressions and equations in symbolic form as opposed to manipulating them by the numerical quantities represented by them.
+Symbolic dynamics
+Symplectic geometry
+a branch of differential geometry and topology whose main object of study is the symplectic manifold.
+Symplectic topology
+Synthetic differential geometry
+a reformulation of differential geometry in the language of topos theory and in the context of an intuitionistic logic.
+Synthetic geometry
+also known as axiomatic geometry, it is a branch of geometry that uses axioms and logical arguments to draw conclusions as opposed to analytic and algebraic methods.
+Systolic geometry
+a branch of differential geometry studying systolic invariants of manifolds and polyhedra.
+Systolic hyperbolic geometry
+the study of systoles in hyperbolic geometry.
+
+== T ==
+
+Tensor algebra, Tensor analysis, Tensor calculus, Tensor theory
+the study and use of tensors, which are generalizations of vectors. A tensor algebra is also an algebraic structure that is used in the formal definition of tensors.
+Tessellation
+when periodic tiling has a repeating pattern.
+Theoretical physics
+a branch primarily of the science physics that uses mathematical models and abstraction of physics to rationalize and predict phenomena.
+Theory of computation
+Time-scale calculus
+Topology
+Topological combinatorics
+the application of methods from algebraic topology to solve problems in combinatorics.
+Topological degree theory
+Topological graph theory
+Topological K-theory
+Topos theory
+Toric geometry
+Transcendental number theory
+a branch of number theory that revolves around the transcendental numbers.
+Transformation geometry
+Trigonometry
+the study of triangles and the relationships between the length of their sides, and the angles between them. It is essential to many parts of applied mathematics.
+Tropical analysis
+see idempotent analysis
+Tropical geometry
+Twisted K-theory
+a variation on K-theory, spanning abstract algebra, algebraic topology and operator theory.
+Type theory
+
+== U ==
+
+Umbral calculus
+the study of Sheffer sequences
+Uncertainty theory
+a new branch of mathematics based on normality, monotonicity, self-duality, countable subadditivity, and product measure axioms.
+Universal algebra
+a field studying the formalization of algebraic structures itself.
+Universal hyperbolic trigonometry
+an approach to hyperbolic trigonometry based on rational geometry.
+
+== V ==
+
+Valuation theory
+Variational analysis
+Vector algebra
+a part of linear algebra concerned with the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication, although it may also refer to vector operations of vector calculus, including the dot and cross product. In this case it can be contrasted with geometric algebra which generalizes into higher dimensions.
+Vector analysis
+also known as vector calculus, see vector calculus.
+Vector calculus
+a branch of multivariable calculus concerned with differentiation and integration of vector fields. Primarily it is concerned with 3-dimensional Euclidean space.
+
+== W ==
+
+Wavelets
+
+== See also ==
+Lists of mathematics topics
+Outline of mathematics
+Category:Glossaries of mathematics
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md

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+---
+title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence"
+chunk: 1/21
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This glossary of artificial intelligence is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of artificial intelligence (AI), its subdisciplines, and related fields. Related glossaries include Glossary of computer science, Glossary of robotics, Glossary of machine vision, and Glossary of logic.
+
+== A ==
+
+A* search
+Pronounced "A-star".A graph traversal and pathfinding algorithm which is used in many fields of computer science due to its completeness, optimality, and optimal efficiency.
+abductive logic programming (ALP)
+A high-level knowledge-representation framework that can be used to solve problems declaratively based on abductive reasoning. It extends normal logic programming by allowing some predicates to be incompletely defined, declared as abducible predicates.
+
+abductive reasoning
+Also abduction.A form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. abductive inference, or retroduction
+ablation
+The removal of a component of an AI system. An ablation study aims to determine the contribution of a component to an AI system by removing the component, and then analyzing the resultant performance of the system.
+
+abstract data type
+A mathematical model for data types, where a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations.
+
+abstraction
+The process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details or attributes in the study of objects or systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest
+
+accelerating change
+A perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history, which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change.
+
+action language
+A language for specifying state transition systems, and is commonly used to create formal models of the effects of actions on the world. Action languages are commonly used in the artificial intelligence and robotics domains, where they describe how actions affect the states of systems over time, and may be used for automated planning.
+
+action model learning
+An area of machine learning concerned with creation and modification of software agent's knowledge about effects and preconditions of the actions that can be executed within its environment. This knowledge is usually represented in logic-based action description language and used as the input for automated planners.
+
+action selection
+A way of characterizing the most basic problem of intelligent systems: what to do next. In artificial intelligence and computational cognitive science, "the action selection problem" is typically associated with intelligent agents and animats—artificial systems that exhibit complex behaviour in an agent environment.
+
+activation function
+In artificial neural networks, the activation function of a node defines the output of that node given an input or set of inputs.
+
+adaptive algorithm
+An algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on a priori defined reward mechanism or criterion.
+
+adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
+Also adaptive network-based fuzzy inference system.A kind of artificial neural network that is based on Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system. The technique was developed in the early 1990s. Since it integrates both neural networks and fuzzy logic principles, it has potential to capture the benefits of both in a single framework. Its inference system corresponds to a set of fuzzy IF–THEN rules that have learning capability to approximate nonlinear functions. Hence, ANFIS is considered to be a universal estimator. For using the ANFIS in a more efficient and optimal way, one can use the best parameters obtained by genetic algorithm.
+admissible heuristic
+In computer science, specifically in algorithms related to pathfinding, a heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to reach the goal is not higher than the lowest possible cost from the current point in the path.
+
+affective computing
+Also artificial emotional intelligence or emotion AI.The study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects. Affective computing is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer science, psychology, and cognitive science.
+agent architecture
+A blueprint for software agents and intelligent control systems, depicting the arrangement of components. The architectures implemented by intelligent agents are referred to as cognitive architectures.
+
+AI bubble
+Theorised stock market bubble growing amidst the AI boom, a period of rapid increase in investment in artificial intelligence (AI) that is affecting the broader economy.
+
+AI accelerator
+A class of microprocessor or computer system designed as hardware acceleration for artificial intelligence applications, especially artificial neural networks, machine vision, and machine learning.
+
+AI-complete
+In the field of artificial intelligence, the most difficult problems are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to that of solving the central artificial intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or strong AI. To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it would not be solved by a simple specific algorithm.
+
+AI data center
+A specialized data center facility designed for the computationally intensive tasks of training and running inference for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning models. Unlike general-purpose data centers, they are optimized for the parallel processing demands of AI workloads, typically utilizing hardware such as AI accelerators (e.g., GPUs, TPUs) and high-speed interconnects. 
+
+algorithm
+An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks. Algorithms are fundamental to computer science and are used to solve problems efficiently by defining a sequence of logical steps.