From b05de0d5fac84ae25ce29749a684deb8b1b6630a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 00:54:45 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 1695 new, 2652 updated, 4456 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 55357440 -> 57020416 bytes .../wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-0.md | 33 + .../wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-1.md | 32 + .../wiki/Archaeology_by_country-0.md | 144 ++++ .../wiki/Archaeology_by_country-1.md | 162 ++++ .../wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran-0.md | 92 ++ .../wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania-0.md | 125 +++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number-0.md | 22 + .../wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta-0.md | 47 ++ ...petitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology-0.md | 34 + data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md | 2 +- .../Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-0.md | 11 + .../Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-1.md | 13 + .../Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-10.md | 329 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a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54e13168c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Achaemenid royal inscriptions" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:54.546237+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Achaemenid royal inscriptions are the surviving inscriptions in cuneiform script from the Achaemenid Empire, dating from the 6th to 4th century BCE (reigns of Cyrus II to Artaxerxes III). These inscriptions are primary sources for the history of the empire, along with archaeological evidence and the administrative archives of Persepolis. However, scholars are reliant on Greek sources (such as Herodotus) to reconstruct much of Achaemenid history. +The Achaemenid royal inscriptions differ from earlier Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions in their multilingualism, rhetorical style and their structure. The inscriptions are mostly trilingual – in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, which use two separate scripts (Babylonian and Elamite use variants of the same cuneiform). When they appear together, the privileged position is usually occupied by the Old Persian inscription: at the top when arranged vertically, and in the middle when arranged horizontally. +The initial decipherment of cuneiform was based on the Achaemenid royal inscriptions from Persepolis, later supplemented with the Behistun Inscription. Scholars deciphered the Old Persian cuneiform script first, followed by the Babylonian and Elamite language versions using the trilingual inscriptions. + +== Overview == + +The trilingual inscriptions illustrate the multi-ethnic complexity of the Achaemenid Empire: Old Persian is an Indo-European language, Babylonian is a Semitic language, and Elamite is a language isolate. The three versions of the trilingual inscriptions are not exact translations of each other. Sometimes passages are added in one language version that do not appear in the other two. There are also differences in details when the text refers to specific people: the Old Persian version often emphasizes the rulers, the Elamite version the locations, and the Babylonian version the subject peoples, reflecting the different social classes that spoke each language. +A few Achaemenid inscriptions are instead written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example in stelae found near the Suez Canal. Other hieroglyphic text has been found on crockery and pottery vessels that were made in Egypt but excavated at Persepolis, Susa, and possibly Babylonia. A statue of Darius I was also made in Egypt but brought to Susa. +Imperial Aramaic is conspicuous by its absence from the inscriptions, despite it being the official language of the empire in later periods. There are a few isolated Aramaic characters on Achaemenid objects such as seals, weights and coins. The only royal inscription in Aramaic was found at Elephantine in Upper Egypt and is a copy of the Behistun inscription. +In 1958 Richard Hallock compiled statistics on the length and numbers of the Elamite language versions of the royal inscriptions. The Behistun inscription is the longest inscription, whilst the other inscriptions are shorter and more repetitive. 44 Elamite texts are from the reign of Darius I, followed by 13 from that of Xerxes I, while the reigns of Artaxerxes I and Artaxerxes II have 7 texts each. Only two Elamite texts are from the reign of Cyrus II: the inscriptions CMa and CMc. +Most of the inscriptions have been found in the Achaemenid heartlands (in Pasargadae, Persepolis, Naqsh-e Rostam) with smaller numbers in the wider empire (at Susa, Bisutun, Ganjnameh, Babylon). The only inscriptions outside of Iran are the Xerxes I inscription at Van, in eastern Anatolia, and some from the period of Cyrus II. +The majority of the texts are found on royal monuments and statues, and many motifs are repeated. The inscriptions of Darius I were replicated by his successors, often with only small differences. Scholars have suggested that this was intended to emphasize the empire's continuity. + +== Decipherment == + +The decipherment of the Old Persian cuneiform script of the Achaemenids played a crucial role in the decipherment of the Babylonian and Elamite language versions and other cuneiform scripts in the Near East. This decipherment was initially via names, or royal names, and the Avesta, which contains the Old Persian language in a developed form. The decipherment of the Achaemenid inscriptions can be divided into three phases. +In a first step, the writing direction was found out and that the Achaemenid inscriptions are three different scripts with a common text. In 1620, García de Silva Figueroa dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621, Pietro della Valle specified the direction of writing from left to right. In 1762, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon. Carsten Niebuhr made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures. Oluf Gerhard Tychsen was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798. +The second phase, in which a first decipherment took place and correct values for a significant number of characters could be found, was initiated by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. He was the initial decipherer of Old Persian cuneiform. He was followed by Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin in 1822 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n. Eugène Burnouf identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833–1835. Christian Lassen contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from Ganjnāme for their work. +In a final step, the decipherment of the Behistun inscription was completed by Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary. + +== List of inscriptions == + +=== Designations === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba369feb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Achaemenid royal inscriptions" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:54.546237+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The designations or abbreviations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are based on the system introduced by Roland Grubb Kent in 1953. Manfred Mayrhofer (1978), Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1985) and Rüdiger Schmitt (2000) have expanded and modified it. Rüdiger Schmitt's 2009 Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden is considered the modern reference work. +The first letter of an inscription's designation does not designate the ruler or author, but the king whom the text expressly names, often right at the beginning in the nominative. The second capital letter designates the place of discovery and the third letter is an index used by scholars to distinguish multiple inscriptions from the same place. + +=== Summary === +The Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project, part of the Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus, currently contains 175 composite texts with 11,712 words. +A 2021 list of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions counted 179 texts, from Darius I to Artaxerxes III. This categorization places the "non-authentic" inscriptions (i.e. inscriptions are "genuine" and date from the Achaemenid period, but do not come from the king who is listed at the beginning of the inscriptions) under the king during whose reign they were produced. The best-known "non-authentic" inscriptions are AmHa and AsHa from Hamadan. + +=== List === + +== Forgeries == + +Forgeries from the Near East have been known since the 19th century. But it is only since the 1930s that products from Iran have flooded the art market, after illegal excavations in western Iran increased enormously. The actual "counterfeiting boom" took place after World War II until the Islamic Revolution. Fake art items were inscribed to increase the value of the item cause or to convey a supposed authenticity. The inscriptions were often copied from books in order to use them in abridged or modified form. They can be found on metal tablets, clay and stone tablets, figurative and similar objects, weapons, gems and seals. In total, Rüdiger Schmitt recorded 27 forged inscriptions. +In 1953, Roland Grubb Kent listed the known forged inscriptions ("spurious inscriptions"), gave them the name Spurium (abbreviation Spur.) and provided them with an index (spur. a–h). Manfred Mayrhofer added to the list in 1978 (i-k). Rüdiger Schmitt gave them new names in 2007: F for forged and N for replica. + +== References == + +=== Footnotes === + +=== Bibliography === + +== External links == +Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions at Livius.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..effde4412 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,144 @@ +--- +title: "Archaeology by country" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:11.135675+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of articles covering the archaeology of present-day nations, states, and dependencies. Countries are listed in bold under their respective pages, whereas territories and dependencies are not. Disputed and unrecognized countries are italicized. + +== A == + Archaeology of Afghanistan – Islamic Republic of Afghanistan + Archaeology of Albania – Republic of Albania + Archaeology of Algeria – People's Democratic Republic of Algeria + Archaeology of Andorra – Principality of Andorra + Archaeology of Angola – Republic of Angola + Archaeology of Antigua and Barbuda – Antigua and Barbuda + Archaeology of Argentina – Argentine Republic + Archaeology of Armenia – Republic of Armenia + Archaeology of Aruba – Aruba (Dutch crown dependency) + Archaeology of Australia – Australia + Archaeology of Austria – Republic of Austria + Archaeology of Azerbaijan – Republic of Azerbaijan + +== B == + Archaeology of the Bahamas – Commonwealth of The Bahamas + Archaeology of Bahrain – Kingdom of Bahrain + Archaeology of Bangladesh – People's Republic of Bangladesh + Archaeology of Barbados – Barbados + Archaeology of Belarus – Republic of Belarus + Archaeology of Belgium – Kingdom of Belgium + Archaeology of Belize – Belize + Archaeology of Benin – Republic of Benin + Archaeology of Bhutan – Kingdom of Bhutan + Archaeology of Bolivia – Plurinational State of Bolivia + Archaeology of Bosnia and Herzegovina – Bosnia and Herzegovina + Archaeology of Botswana – Republic of Botswana + Archaeology of Brazil – Federative Republic of Brazil + Archaeology of Brunei – State of Brunei Darussalam + Archaeology of Bulgaria – Republic of Bulgaria + Archaeology of Burkina Faso – Burkina Faso + Archaeology of Burundi – Republic of Burundi + +== C == + Archaeology of Cambodia – Kingdom of Cambodia + Archaeology of Cameroon – Republic of Cameroon + Archaeology of Canada – Canada + Archaeology of Cape Verde – Republic of Cape Verde + Archaeology of the Cayman Islands – Cayman Islands (UK overseas territory) + Archaeology of the Central African Republic – Central African Republic + Archaeology of Chad – Republic of Chad + Archaeology of Chile – Republic of Chile + Archaeology of China – People's Republic of China + Archaeology of Colombia – Republic of Colombia + Archaeology of Comoros – Union of the Comoros + Archaeology of the Democratic Republic of the Congo – Democratic Republic of the Congo + Archaeology of the Republic of the Congo – Republic of the Congo + Archaeology of Costa Rica – Republic of Costa Rica + Archaeology of Côte d'Ivoire – Republic of Côte d'Ivoire + Archaeology of Croatia – Republic of Croatia + Archaeology of Cuba – Republic of Cuba + Archaeology of Cyprus – Republic of Cyprus + Archaeology of the Czech Republic – Czech Republic + +== D == + Archaeology of Denmark – Kingdom of Denmark + Archaeology of Djibouti – Republic of Djibouti + Archaeology of Dominica – Commonwealth of Dominica + Archaeology of the Dominican Republic – Dominican Republic + +== E == + Archaeology of East Timor (Timor-Leste) – Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste + Archaeology of Ecuador – Republic of Ecuador + Archaeology of Egypt – Arab Republic of Egypt + Archaeology of El Salvador – Republic of El Salvador + Archaeology of Equatorial Guinea – Republic of Equatorial Guinea + Archaeology of Eritrea – State of Eritrea + Archaeology of Estonia – Republic of Estonia + Archaeology of Eswatini (Swaziland) – Kingdom of Eswatini + Archaeology of Ethiopia – Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia + +== F == + Archaeology of the Falkland Islands – Falkland Islands (British overseas territories) + Archaeology of the Faroe Islands – Faroe Islands (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of Denmark) + Archaeology of Fiji – Republic of the Fiji Islands + Archaeology of Finland – Republic of Finland + Archaeology of France – French Republic + Archaeology of French Guiana – French Guiana (French overseas community) + Archaeology of French Polynesia – French Polynesia (French overseas community) + +== G == + Archaeology of Gabon – Gabonese Republic + Archaeology of the Gambia – Republic of The Gambia +See Archaeology of Palestine for Gaza Strip + Archaeology of Georgia – Georgia + Archaeology of Germany – Federal Republic of Germany + Archaeology of Ghana – Republic of Ghana + Archaeology of Gibraltar – Gibraltar (UK overseas territory) + Archaeology of Greece – Hellenic Republic + Archaeology of Greenland – Greenland (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of Denmark) + Archaeology of Grenada – Grenada + Archaeology of Guadeloupe – Guadeloupe (French overseas community) + Archaeology of Guam – Territory of Guam (US overseas territory) + Archaeology of Guatemala – Republic of Guatemala + Archaeology of Guinea – Republic of Guinea + Archaeology of Guinea-Bissau – Republic of Guinea-Bissau + Archaeology of Guyana – Co-operative Republic of Guyana + +== H == + Archaeology of Haiti – Republic of Haiti + Archaeology of Honduras – Republic of Honduras + Archaeology of Hong Kong – Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (Area of special sovereignty) + Archaeology of Hungary – Republic of Hungary + +== I == + Archaeology of Iceland – Republic of Iceland + Archaeology of India – Republic of India + Archaeology of Indonesia – Republic of Indonesia + Archaeology of Iran – Islamic Republic of Iran + Archaeology of Iraq – Republic of Iraq + Archaeology of Ireland – Ireland +See Archaeology of the Falkland Islands for Islas Malvinas + Archaeology of the Isle of Man – Isle of Man (British Crown dependency) + Archaeology of Israel – State of Israel + Archaeology of Italy – Italian Republic + +== J == + + Archaeology of Jamaica – Jamaica + Archaeology of Japan – Japan + Archaeology of Jersey – Jersey (British crown dependency) + Archaeology of Jordan – Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan + +== K == + Archaeology of Kazakhstan – Republic of Kazakhstan + Archaeology of Kenya – Republic of Kenya + Archaeology of Kiribati – Republic of Kiribati + Archaeology of North Korea – Democratic People's Republic of Korea + Archaeology of South Korea (Republic of) – Republic of Korea + Archaeology of Kosovo – Kosovo Republic + Archaeology of Kuwait – State of Kuwait + Archaeology of Kyrgyzstan – Kyrgyz Republic \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..40c91d589 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,162 @@ +--- +title: "Archaeology by country" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:11.135675+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== L == + Archaeology of Laos – Lao People's Democratic Republic + Archaeology of Latvia – Republic of Latvia + Archaeology of Lebanon – Republic of Lebanon + Archaeology of Lesotho – Kingdom of Lesotho + Archaeology of Liberia – Republic of Liberia + Archaeology of Libya – Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya + Archaeology of Liechtenstein – Principality of Liechtenstein + Archaeology of Lithuania – Republic of Lithuania + Archaeology of Luxembourg – Grand Duchy of Luxembourg + +== M == + Archaeology of Madagascar – Republic of Madagascar + Archaeology of Malawi – Republic of Malawi + Archaeology of Malaysia – Malaysia + Archaeology of the Maldives – Republic of Maldives + Archaeology of Mali – Republic of Mali + Archaeology of Malta – Republic of Malta + Archaeology of the Marshall Islands – Republic of the Marshall Islands + Archaeology of Mauritania – Islamic Republic of Mauritania + Archaeology of Mauritius – Republic of Mauritius + Archaeology of Mayotte – Mayotte (French overseas community) + Archaeology of Mexico – United Mexican States + Archaeology of the Federated States of Micronesia – Federated States of Micronesia + Archaeology of Moldova – Republic of Moldova + Archaeology of Monaco – Principality of Monaco + Archaeology of Mongolia – Mongolia + Archaeology of Montenegro – Republic of Montenegro + Archaeology of Montserrat – Montserrat (UK overseas territory) + Archaeology of Morocco – Kingdom of Morocco + Archaeology of Mozambique – Republic of Mozambique + Archaeology of Myanmar – Republic of the Union of Myanmar + +== N == + Archaeology of Namibia – Republic of Namibia + Archaeology of Nauru – Republic of Nauru + Archaeology of Nepal – Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal + Archaeology of the Netherlands – Kingdom of the Netherlands + Archaeology of the Netherlands Antilles – Netherlands Antilles (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of the Netherlands) + Archaeology of New Caledonia – Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies (French community sui generis) + Archaeology of New Zealand – New Zealand + Archaeology of Nicaragua – Republic of Nicaragua + Archaeology of Niger – Republic of Niger + Archaeology of Nigeria – Federal Republic of Nigeria + Archaeology of Niue – Niue (Associated state of New Zealand) + Archaeology of Northern Cyprus – Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus + Archaeology of the Northern Mariana Islands – Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US overseas commonwealth) + Archaeology of North Macedonia – North Macedonia + Archaeology of Norway – Kingdom of Norway + +== O == + Archaeology of Oman – Sultanate of Oman + +== P == + Archaeology of Pakistan – Islamic Republic of Pakistan + Archaeology of Palau – Republic of Palau + Archaeology of Palestine – State of Palestine + Archaeology of Panama – Republic of Panama + Archaeology of Papua New Guinea – Independent State of Papua New Guinea + Archaeology of Paraguay – Republic of Paraguay + Archaeology of Peru – Republic of Peru + Archaeology of the Philippines – Republic of the Philippines + Archaeology of the Pitcairn Islands – Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno Islands (UK overseas territory) + Archaeology of Poland – Republic of Poland + Archaeology of Portugal – Portuguese Republic + Archaeology of Puerto Rico – Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (US overseas commonwealth) + +== Q == + Archaeology of Qatar – State of Qatar + +== R == + Archaeology of Romania – Romania + Archaeology of Russia – Russian Federation + Archaeology of Rwanda – Republic of Rwanda + +== S == + Archaeology of Saint Kitts and Nevis – Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis + Archaeology of Saint Lucia – Saint Lucia + Archaeology of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon – Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French overseas community) + Archaeology of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – Saint Vincent and the Grenadines + Archaeology of Samoa – Independent State of Samoa + Archaeology of San Marino – Most Serene Republic of San Marino + Archaeology of São Tomé and Príncipe – Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe + Archaeology of Saudi Arabia – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia + Archaeology of Senegal – Republic of Senegal + Archaeology of Serbia – Republic of Serbia + Archaeology of Seychelles – Republic of Seychelles + Archaeology of Sierra Leone – Republic of Sierra Leone + Archaeology of Singapore – Republic of Singapore + Archaeology of Slovakia – Slovak Republic + Archaeology of Slovenia – Republic of Slovenia + Archaeology of Solomon Islands – Solomon Islands + Archaeology of Somalia – Federal Republic of Somalia + Archaeology of Somaliland – Republic of Somaliland + Archaeology of South Africa – Republic of South Africa + Archaeology of South Ossetia – Republic of South Ossetia + Archaeology of South Sudan – Republic of South Sudan + Archaeology of Spain – Kingdom of Spain + Archaeology of Sri Lanka – Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka + Archaeology of Sudan – Republic of the Sudan + Archaeology of Suriname – Republic of Suriname + Archaeology of Svalbard – Svalbard (Territory of Norway) + Archaeology of Sweden – Kingdom of Sweden + Archaeology of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation + Archaeology of Syria – Syrian Arab Republic + +== T == + Archaeology of Taiwan – Republic of China + Archaeology of Tajikistan – Republic of Tajikistan + Archaeology of Tanzania – United Republic of Tanzania + Archaeology of Thailand – Kingdom of Thailand + Archaeology of Togo – Togolese Republic + Archaeology of Tokelau – Tokelau (Territory of New Zealand) + Archaeology of Tonga – Kingdom of Tonga + Archaeology of Transnistria – Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic + Archaeology of Trinidad and Tobago – Republic of Trinidad and Tobago + Archaeology of Tunisia – Tunisian Republic + Archaeology of Turkey – Republic of Turkey + Archaeology of Turkmenistan – Turkmenistan + Archaeology of the Turks and Caicos Islands – Turks and Caicos Islands (UK overseas territory) + Archaeology of Tuvalu – Tuvalu + +== U == + Archaeology of Uganda – Republic of Uganda + Archaeology of Ukraine – Ukraine + Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates – United Arab Emirates + Archaeology of the United Kingdom – United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland + Archaeology of the United States – United States of America + Archaeology of Uruguay – Oriental Republic of Uruguay + Archaeology of Uzbekistan – Republic of Uzbekistan + +== V == + Archaeology of Vanuatu – Republic of Vanuatu + Archaeology of Venezuela – Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela + Archaeology of Vietnam – Socialist Republic of Vietnam + Archaeology of the Virgin Islands – United States Virgin Islands (US overseas territory) + +== W == +See Archaeology of Palestine for West Bank + Archaeology of Western Sahara – Western Sahara + +== Y == + Archaeology of Yemen – Republic of Yemen + +== Z == + Archaeology of Zambia – Republic of Zambia + Archaeology of Zimbabwe – Republic of Zimbabwe + +== See also == +List of archaeological sites by country +History by country +All pages with titles beginning with Archaeology of \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d0e215991 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Archaeology of Iran" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:57.209815+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Archaeology of Iran encompasses the following subjects: + + +== Archaeological discoveries in Iran == +Archaeological sites in Iran: + +Achaemenid inscription in the Kharg Island +Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton +Acropole Tomb +Apadana hoard +Bardak Siah Palace +Bushel with ibex motifs +Code of Hammurabi +Egyptian statue of Darius I +Golden bowl of Hasanlu +Great Wall of Gorgan +Hasanlu Lovers +Islamic ceramics from the Susa site +Luristan bronze +Musicians plate +Narundi +Nazimaruttaš kudurru stone +Parchments of Avroman +Parthian bas-relief at Mydan Mishan +Persepolis Administrative Archives +Rock art in Iran +Shami statue +Statue of Hercules in Behistun +Victory Stele of Naram-Sin +Ziwiye hoard + + +== Archaeologists == +Geneviève Dollfus +Roman Ghirshman +Frank Hole +Wolfram Kleiss +Roland de Mecquenem +Jean Perrot +Henry T. Wright + + +== Iranian archaeologists == +Kamyar Abdi (born 1969) Iranian; Iran, Neolithic to the Bronze Age +Abbas Alizadeh (born 1951) Iranian; Iran +Massoud Azarnoush (1946–2008) Iranian; Sassanid archaeology +Hamed Vahdati Nasab (born 1974) Iranian; Iran, Human Evolution, Neanderthals, Paleolithic +Fereidoun Biglari (born 1970) Iranian Kurdish; Paleolithic +Touraj Daryaee (born 1967) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) +Seifollah Kambakhshfard (1929–2010) Iranian; Iron Age Temple of Anahita +Yousef Majidzadeh (born 1938) Iranian; Jiroft culture (Iran) +Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi (1940–2020) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) +Marjan Mashkour (born 19??) Iranian; zooarchaeology of Europe and the Middle East +Ezzat Negahban (1926–2009) Iranian; Iran +Shahrokh Razmjou (1966) Iranian; Achaemenid Archaeology +Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis (1951) Iranian; the British Museum's Curator of Middle Eastern coins +Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1942–2006) Iranian; Iran +Parviz Varjavand (1934–2007) Iranian; ancient Iran (Persia) + + +== Archaeological institutions in Iran == +Society for the National Heritage of Iran +Museum of Ancient Iran +National Museum of Iran +Zagros Paleolithic Museum +Iron Age museum + + +== Archaeological cultures in Iran == +Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity +Palaeolithic Era in Iran +Bus Mordeh phase +Kura–Araxes culture +Baradostian culture +Talish–Mughan culture +Trialetian Mesolithic +Zarzian culture +Gutian people +Jiroft culture + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8499cece0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +--- +title: "Archaeology of Romania" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:59.867956+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The archaeology of Romania began in the 19th century with the establishment of the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest in 1834 (since 1866 as part of the Romanian Academy). The institute has been publishing the journal Dacia since 1924. The National Museum of Antiquities, established in the 19th century, was merged into the Institute in 1956. +The journal Arheologia Moldovei ("Archaeology of Moldavia") was founded in 1961 in Iași, and has been published there ever since. The Iași Institute of Archaeology, founded in 1990 as part of the Romanian Academy, has taken over its publication. That same year, the Institute of Archaeology and Art History, Cluj-Napoca was founded as well. +Archaeological looting in Romania has been a recurring issue in the early 21st century. + + +== Archaeologists == + +Alexandru Odobescu (1834—1895) +Grigore Tocilescu (1850–1909) +Vasile Pârvan (1882–1927) +Constantin Daicoviciu (1898–1973) +living +Gheorghe I. Cantacuzino (b. 1938) + + +== Institutes == +Institute of Archaeology and Art History in Cluj-Napoca +Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest + + +== Museums == + +Archaeology Museum Piatra Neamț +Iron Gates Region Museum +Museum of Dacian and Roman Civilisation +National Museum of Romanian History +National Museum of Transylvanian History + + +== Sites == + +Acidava (Enoşeşti) – Dacian, Roman +Apulon (Piatra Craivii) – Dacian +Apulum (Alba Iulia) – Roman, Dacian +Argedava (Popeşti) – Dacian, possibly Burebista's court or capital +Argidava (Vărădia) – Dacian, Roman +Basarabi (Calafat) – Basarabi culture (8th - 7th centuries BC), related to Hallstatt culture +Boian Lake – Boian culture (dated to 4300–3500 BC) +Callatis (Mangalia) – Greek colony +Capidava – Dacian, Roman +Cernavodă – Cernavodă culture, Dacian +Coasta lui Damian (Măerişte) +Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains +Drobeta – Roman +Giurtelecu Şimleului +Histria – Greek colony +Lumea Noua (near Alba Iulia) – middle Neolithic to Chalcolithic +Napoca (Cluj-Napoca) – Dacian, Roman +Peștera cu Oase – the oldest early modern human remains in Europe +Porolissum (near Zalău) – Roman +Potaissa (Turda) – Roman +Sarmizegetusa Regia – Dacian capital +Sarmizegetusa Ulpia Traiana – Roman capital of province of Dacia +Trophaeum Traiani/Civitas Tropaensium (Adamclisi) – Roman +Tomis (Constanţa) – Greek colony +Ziridava/Şanţul Mare (Pecica) – Dacian, Pecica culture, 16 archaeological horizons have been distinguished, starting with the Neolithic and ending with the Feudal Age + + +== Cultures == + +Basarabi culture +Boian culture +Bug-Dniester culture +Bükk culture +Cernavoda culture +Chernyakhov culture +Coțofeni culture +Cucuteni-Trypillian culture +Danubian culture +Dudeşti culture +Globular Amphora culture +Gumelniţa-Karanovo culture +Hamangia culture +La Tène culture +Linear Pottery culture +Lipiţa culture +Otomani culture +Pecica culture +Tiszapolgár culture +Usatovo culture +Vinča culture +Wietenberg culture +Getae +Dacians +Roman + + +== Literature == +Alexandru Odobescu, Istoria arheologiei, 1877 + + +== Publications == +Dacia by Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology, published continuously since 1924 + + +== See also == +List of Romanian archaeologists +History of Romania +Prehistory of Transylvania +Bronze Age in Romania +Archaeological looting in Romania +Thracology +Dacology +Dacianism + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == + + +=== External detailed link for Romanian archaeological cultures === +National Archaeological Record of Romania (RAN) +Romania's Mapserver for National Cultural Heritage \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c986e84d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Carbon number" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:30.252946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In organic chemistry, the carbon number of a compound is the number of carbon atoms in each molecule. +The properties of hydrocarbons can be correlated with the carbon number, although the carbon number alone does not give an indication of the saturation of the organic compound. When describing a particular molecule, the "carbon number" is also the ordinal position of a particular carbon atom in a chain. + + +== Compounds by carbon number == + + +== See also == +IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..68bdc7c38 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Catacombs of Malta" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:05.403738+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are hundreds of catacombs in Malta, principally found in Mdina, the former capital of the island. The catacombs are very small, but are in good preservation. +Many of the catacombs were included on the Antiquities List of 1925. +Vincent Zammit notes that catacombs developed from earlier rock-cut tombs. Wherever burial places were discovered, it is generally presumed that a small community lived in the area. The catacombs are characterised by spaciousness, a smaller extent than those found in other countries, similar in types of tombs to others found around the Mediterranean, but having their own particular type of decorations. Decorations, nevertheless, are rare, which may indicate that with the exception of a few families who had their own private tombs, the community was not wealthy. +Prof. George Cassar observed that the catacombs of Malta have educational value. "They are the key to the understanding of the development of religious rites and beliefs and indicate the birth and spread of Christianity among the small community of Maltese living on the islands. This mysterious yet concrete environment helps towards the creation of a pedagogical setting which the educator can utilise to the full." + + +== Catacombs of Malta == +The catacombs include: + +Tal-Mintna Catacombs – Mqabba, Malta +St. Paul's Catacombs – Rabat, Malta +St. Agatha's Catacombs – Rabat, Malta +Salina Catacombs – Naxxar, Malta +St Augustine's Catacombs – Rabat, Malta +Ta' Bistra Catacombs – near Mosta, Malta +St. Cataldus Catacombs – Rabat, Malta. +There are many other catacombs in Malta. + + +== Bibliography == +Prof. Sir T. Zammit (1980). Union Press (ed.). The St. Paul's Catacombs - and other rock-cut tombs in malta. Valletta, Malta. p. 34.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). + + +== References == + +A A Caruana. Ancient Pagan Tombs and Christian Cemeteries in the Islands of Malta. Government Printing Office. Malta. 1898. +A. Mayr, "Die altchristlichen Begrabnisstatten auf Malta" 15 Romische Quartalschrift 216 and 352 +Piotr Drag in Barrowclough and Malone (eds). "Cult of the Dead or Cult for the Dead: Studies of Jewish Catacombs in Malta in Context" in Cult in Context: Reconsidering Ritual in Archaeology. Oxbow Books. Chapter 16. +Camilleri and Gingell-Littlejohn. "The Triclinia in the Catacombs of Malta". In Scibberas (ed). Proceedings of History Week 1993. Historical Society of Malta. 1997. +Mario Buhagiar. The Christianisation of Malta: Catacombs, Cult Centres and Churches in Malta. BAR International Series 1674. Archaeopress. 2007. Google Books. Christian Catacombs, Cult Centres and Churches in Malta to 1530. University of London. 1994. +Rachel Hachlili. "The Hypogea of Malta" in Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora. Brill. 1998. Page 273. +George Percy Badger. "Catacombs" in Description of Malta and Gozo. Malta. 1838. Page 255 et seq. +"Visit to the Catacombs" in "Palestine Mission" 19 Missionary Herald 138 (No 5, May 1823) + + +== Further reading == +Buhagiar, Mario (1986). Late Roman and Byzantine Catacombs and Related Burial Places in the Maltese Islands. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d58c1920 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Competitions and prizes in biotechnology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:08.653822+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There exist a number of competitions and prizes to reward distinguished contributions and to encourage developments in biotechnology. + + +== Inducement prizes == +The Archon X Prize for Genomics of US$10,000,000 is to be awarded to "the first Team that can build a device and use it to sequence 100 human genomes within 10 days or less, with an accuracy of no more than one error in every 100,000 bases sequenced, with sequences accurately covering at least 98% of the genome, and at a recurring cost of no more than $10,000 (US) per genome." +The Prize4Life ALS biomarker prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a reliable way of tracking progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). +The Prize4Life ALS treatment prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a therapy that reliably and effectively extends the life of ALS mice by 25%. +People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is offering a US$1,000,000 reward for a method of producing enough meat to be marketed in 10 U.S. states at a price competitive with chicken prices. +Illumina iDEA Challenge to develop new visualization and data analysis techniques. + + +== Recognition prizes == +The Gotham Prize for Cancer Research was a US$1,000,000 prize awarded annually to "encourage new and innovative approaches to cancer research by fostering collaboration among top thinkers in the field--with the goal of leading to progress in the prevention, diagnosis, etiology and treatment of cancer." +Gruber Prize in Genetics is a US$500,000 prize awarded annually for distinguished contributions in any realm of genetics research. +The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is an annual grant worth approximately 10 million SEK. It is routinely awarded for contributions to biotechnology. + + +== See also == +Inducement prize contest +Golden Eurydice Award +List of challenge awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md index ca7657238..795917fcc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:42:16.933827+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:13.542687+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md index 63f8bf55b..3ad7bdcd5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:50.237695+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:18.485594+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md index 9ae76b28a..0b8bdeea7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:35.076948+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:00.083558+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c7562e12 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 1/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of aerospace engineering terms pertains specifically to aerospace engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields including aviation and aeronautics. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..41de2db36 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 2/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== A == +Above ground level – In aviation, atmospheric sciences and broadcasting, a height above ground level (AGL) is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. This is as opposed to altitude/elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), or (in broadcast engineering) height above average terrain (HAAT). In other words, these expressions (AGL, AMSL, HAAT) indicate where the "zero level" or "reference altitude" is located. Absolute humidity – describes the water content of air and is expressed in either grams per cubic meter or grams per kilogram. Absolute value – In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign. Namely, |x| = x for a positive x, |x| = −x for a negative x (in which case −x is positive), and |0| = 0. For example, the absolute value of 3 is 3, and the absolute value of −3 is also 3. The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero. Acceleration – In physics, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's second law. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m s−2). Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law. As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and its acceleration. Acquisition of signal – A pass, in spaceflight and satellite communications, is the period in which a satellite or other spacecraft is above the local horizon and available for radio communication with a particular ground station, satellite receiver, or relay satellite (or, in some cases, for visual sighting). The beginning of a pass is termed acquisition of signal; the end of a pass is termed loss of signal. The point at which a spacecraft comes closest to a ground observer is the time of closest approach. Action – In physics, action is an attribute of the dynamics of a physical system from which the equations of motion of the system can be derived. It is a mathematical functional which takes the trajectory, also called path or history, of the system as its argument and has a real number as its result. Generally, the action takes different values for different paths. Action has the dimensions of [energy]⋅[time] or [momentum]⋅[length], and its SI unit is joule-second. ADF – Automatic direction finder +Advanced Space Vision System – The Advanced Space Vision System (also known as the Space Vision System or by its acronym SVS) is a computer vision system designed primarily for International Space Station (ISS) assembly. The system uses regular 2D cameras in the Space Shuttle bay, on the Canadarm, or on the ISS along with cooperative targets to calculate the 3D position of an object. Aeroacoustics – is a branch of acoustics that studies noise generation via either turbulent fluid motion or aerodynamic forces interacting with surfaces. Noise generation can also be associated with periodically varying flows. A notable example of this phenomenon is the Aeolian tones produced by wind blowing over fixed objects. Aerobraking – is a spaceflight maneuver that reduces the high point of an elliptical orbit (apoapsis) by flying the vehicle through the atmosphere at the low point of the orbit (periapsis). The resulting drag slows the spacecraft. Aerobraking is used when a spacecraft requires a low orbit after arriving at a body with an atmosphere, and it requires less fuel than does the direct use of a rocket engine. Aerocapture – is an orbital transfer maneuver used to reduce the velocity of a spacecraft from a hyperbolic trajectory to an elliptical orbit around the targeted celestial body. Aerodynamics – is the study of the motion of air, particularly with respect to its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of gas dynamics, which in turn is a sub-field of fluid dynamics. Many aspects and principles of aerodynamics theory are common to these three fields. Aeroelasticity – is the branch of physics and engineering that studies the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces that occur when an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. Although historical studies have been focused on aeronautical applications, recent research has found applications in fields such as energy harvesting and understanding snoring. The study of aeroelasticity may be broadly classified into two fields: static aeroelasticity, which deals with the static or steady response of an elastic body to a fluid flow; and dynamic aeroelasticity, which deals with the body's dynamic (typically vibrational) response. Aeroelasticity draws on the study of fluid mechanics, solid mechanics, structural dynamics and dynamical systems. The synthesis of aeroelasticity with thermodynamics is known as aerothermoelasticity, and its synthesis with control theory is known as aeroservoelasticity. Aeronautics – is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. Aerospace architecture – is broadly defined to encompass architectural design of non-habitable and habitable structures and living and working environments in aerospace-related facilities, habitats, and vehicles. These environments include, but are not limited to: science platform aircraft and aircraft-deployable systems; space vehicles, space stations, habitats and lunar and planetary surface construction bases; and Earth-based control, experiment, launch, logistics, payload, simulation and test facilities. Earth analogs to space applications may include Antarctic, desert, high altitude, underground, undersea environments and closed ecological systems. Aerospace bearing – Aerospace bearings are the bearings installed in aircraft and aerospace systems including commercial, private, military, or space applications. Aerospace engineering – is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping branches: Aeronautical engineering and Astronautical Engineering. Avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering. Aerospace materials – are materials, frequently metal alloys, that have either been developed for, or have come to prominence through, their use for aerospace purposes. These uses often require exceptional performance, strength or heat resistance, even at the cost of considerable expense in their production or machining. Others are chosen for their long-term reliability in this safety-conscious field, particularly for their resistance to fatigue. Aerospike engine – is a type of rocket engine that maintains its aerodynamic efficiency across a wide range of altitudes. It belongs to the class of altitude compensating nozzle engines. A vehicle with an aerospike engine uses 25–30% less fuel at low altitudes, where most missions have the greatest need for thrust. Aerostat – is a lighter than air aircraft that gains its lift through the use of a buoyant gas. Aerostats include unpowered balloons and powered airships. Aerostructure – is a component of an aircraft's airframe. This may include all or part of the fuselage, wings, or flight control surfaces. Aft-crossing trajectory – is an alternate flight path for a rocket. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75efcd008 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,329 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 11/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Where + + + + + | + + ∇ + + u + + + + | + + + 2 + + + = + + ∑ + + i + , + j + = + 1 + + + n + + + + + | + + + ∂ + + i + + + + u + + j + + + + | + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle |\nabla \mathbf {u} |^{2}=\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}\left|\partial _{i}u^{j}\right|^{2}} + +. This is quantity is the same as the squared seminorm + + + + + | + + + u + + + + | + + + + H + + 1 + + + ( + Ω + + ) + + n + + + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |_{H^{1}(\Omega )^{n}}^{2}} + +of the solution in the Sobolev space :::: + + + + + H + + 1 + + + ( + Ω + + ) + + n + + + + + {\displaystyle H^{1}(\Omega )^{n}} + +. +In the case that the flow is incompressible, or equivalently that + + + + ∇ + ⋅ + + u + + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {u} =0} + +, the enstrophy can be described as the integral of the square of the vorticity + + + + + ω + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {\omega } } + +, + + + + + + + E + + + ( + + ω + + ) + ≡ + + ∫ + + Ω + + + + | + + + ω + + + + | + + + 2 + + + + d + x + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}({\boldsymbol {\omega }})\equiv \int _{\Omega }|{\boldsymbol {\omega }}|^{2}\,dx} + + +or, in terms of the flow velocity, + + + + + + + E + + + ( + + u + + ) + ≡ + + ∫ + + S + + + + | + + ∇ + × + + u + + + + | + + + 2 + + + + d + S + + . + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}(\mathbf {u} )\equiv \int _{S}|\nabla \times \mathbf {u} |^{2}\,dS\,.} + + +In the context of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, enstrophy appears in the following useful result + + + + + + + d + + d + t + + + + + ( + + + + 1 + 2 + + + + ∫ + + Ω + + + + | + + + u + + + + | + + + 2 + + + + ) + + = + − + ν + + + E + + + ( + + u + + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left({\frac {1}{2}}\int _{\Omega }|\mathbf {u} |^{2}\right)=-\nu {\mathcal {E}}(\mathbf {u} )} + + +The quantity in parentheses on the left is the energy in the flow, so the result says that energy declines proportional to the kinematic viscosity + + + + ν + + + {\displaystyle \nu } + + times the enstrophy. +Equations of motion – In physics, equations of motion are equations that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a function of time. More specifically, the equations of motion describe the behavior of a physical system as a set of mathematical functions in terms of dynamic variables. These variables are usually spatial coordinates and time, but may include momentum components. The most general choice are generalized coordinates which can be any convenient variables characteristic of the physical system. The functions are defined in a Euclidean space in classical mechanics, but are replaced by curved spaces in relativity. If the dynamics of a system is known, the equations are the solutions for the differential equations describing the motion of the dynamics. +ESA – European Space Agency +ET – (Space Shuttle) external tank +Euler angles – are three angles introduced by Leonhard Euler to describe the orientation of a rigid body with respect to a fixed coordinate system. They can also represent the orientation of a mobile frame of reference in physics or the orientation of a general basis in 3-dimensional linear algebra. Alternative forms were later introduced by Peter Guthrie Tait and George H. Bryan intended for use in aeronautics and engineering. +European Space Agency – +Expander cycle (rocket) – is a power cycle of a bipropellant rocket engine. In this cycle, the fuel is used to cool the engine's combustion chamber, picking up heat and changing phase. The now heated and gaseous fuel then powers the turbine that drives the engine's fuel and oxidizer pumps before being injected into the combustion chamber and burned for thrust. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..24bdafddb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 12/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== F == +Fatigue – In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit. Field-emission electric propulsion – (FEEP), is an advanced electrostatic space propulsion concept, a form of ion thruster, that uses a liquid metal as a propellant – usually either caesium, indium, or mercury. Fixed-wing aircraft – is a heavier-than-air flying machine, such as an airplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the aircraft's forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft (in which the wings form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft or "mast"), and ornithopters (in which the wings flap in a manner similar to that of a bird). The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are not necessarily rigid; kites, hang gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft and airplanes that use wing morphing are all examples of fixed-wing aircraft. Flange – +Flap – is a high-lift device used to reduce the stalling speed of an aircraft wing at a given weight. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft. Flaps are used to reduce the take-off distance and the landing distance. Flaps also cause an increase in drag so they are retracted when not needed. Flight control surfaces – are aerodynamic devices allowing a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft's flight attitude. Flight control system (aircraft) – A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. Flight control system (helicopter) – A helicopter pilot manipulates the helicopter flight controls to achieve and maintain controlled aerodynamic flight. Changes to the aircraft flight control system transmit mechanically to the rotor, producing aerodynamic effects on the rotor blades that make the helicopter move in a deliberate way. To tilt forward and back (pitch) or sideways (roll) requires that the controls alter the angle of attack of the main rotor blades cyclically during rotation, creating differing amounts of lift (force) at different points in the cycle. To increase or decrease overall lift requires that the controls alter the angle of attack for all blades collectively by equal amounts at the same time, resulting in ascent, descent, acceleration and deceleration. Flight dynamics – is the study of the performance, stability, and control of vehicles flying through the air or in outer space. It is concerned with how forces acting on the vehicle determine its velocity and attitude with respect to time. For a fixed-wing aircraft, its changing orientation with respect to the local air flow is represented by two critical angles, the angle of attack of the wing ("alpha") and the angle of attack of the vertical tail, known as the sideslip angle ("beta"). A sideslip angle will arise if an aircraft yaws about its centre of gravity and if the aircraft sideslips bodily, i.e. the centre of gravity moves sideways. These angles are important because they are the principal source of changes in the aerodynamic forces and moments applied to the aircraft. Spacecraft flight dynamics involve three main forces: propulsive (rocket engine), gravitational, and atmospheric resistance. Propulsive force and atmospheric resistance have significantly less influence over a given spacecraft compared to gravitational forces. Flight management system – A flight management system (FMS) is a fundamental component of a modern airliner's avionics. An FMS is a specialized computer system that automates a wide variety of in-flight tasks, reducing the workload on the flight crew to the point that modern civilian aircraft no longer carry flight engineers or navigators. A primary function is in-flight management of the flight plan. Using various sensors (such as GPS and INS often backed up by radio navigation) to determine the aircraft's position, the FMS can guide the aircraft along the flight plan. From the cockpit, the FMS is normally controlled through a Control Display Unit (CDU) which incorporates a small screen and keyboard or touchscreen. The FMS sends the flight plan for display to the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS), Navigation Display (ND), or Multifunction Display (MFD). The FMS can be summarised as being a dual system consisting of the Flight Management Computer (FMC), CDU and a cross talk bus. Floatstick – is a device to measure fuel levels in modern large aircraft. It consists of a closed tube rising from the bottom of the fuel tank. Surrounding the tube is a ring-shaped float, and inside it is a graduated rod indicating fuel capacity. The float and the top of the rod contain magnets. The rod is withdrawn from the bottom of the wing until the magnets stick, the distance it is withdrawn indicating the level of the fuel. When not in use, the stick is secured within the tube. Flutter- In terms of aeroelasticity, flutter is a dynamic oscillation that occurs when an elastic object experiences a cyclical and unsteady response due to the interaction among aerodynamic forces, inertial forces, as well as elastic forces, all occurring simultaneously with one another and resulting in unevenly distributed forces. When the elastic structure is subjected to a fluid (such as air) flowing at speeds greater than a critical speed (the flutter speed), the force of the flowing fluid on the elastic structure will be greater than the damping that exists to dissipate energy from the elastic structure. The resulting effect is that small cyclical displacements of the elastic structure become larger in size and will ultimately produce fast structural failure (due to flutter). Flutter typically occurs in fixed wing aircraft via a combination of bending mode and torsional mode coupling of the aircraft's wings or control surfaces, but there are similar instances of flutter occurring within the fan blades of a gas turbine machine (whirl flutter), within propellers (whirl flutter), and within cables used in suspension bridges. The prevention of flutter throughout an aircraft's envelop of operation is an important requirement for aircraft certification and is typically validated by a combination of analytical modelling, ground vibration testing, and actual in-flight flutter testing. Fluid – In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that continuously deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them. Fluid dynamics – In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids—liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, and understanding nebulae in interstellar space. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c370c5e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 13/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fluid mechanics – is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology. It can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid statics – or hydrostatics, is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies the condition of the equilibrium of a floating body and submerged body "fluids at hydrostatic equilibrium and the pressure in a fluid, or exerted by a fluid, on an immersed body". FMS – Flight management system. Force – In physics, a force is any influence that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newton (N). Force is represented by the symbol F (formerly P). Freefall – In Newtonian physics, free fall is any motion of a body where gravity is the only force acting upon it. In the context of general relativity, where gravitation is reduced to a space-time curvature, a body in free fall has no force acting on it. An object in the technical sense of the term "free fall" may not necessarily be falling down in the usual sense of the term. An object moving upwards might not normally be considered to be falling, but if it is subject to only the force of gravity, it is said to be in free fall. The Moon is thus in free fall around the Earth, though its orbital speed keeps it in very far orbit from the Earth's surface. In a roughly uniform gravitational field, in the absence of any other forces, gravitation acts on each part of the body roughly equally. When there is no normal force exerted between a body (e.g. an astronaut in orbit) and its surrounding objects, it will result in the sensation of weightlessness, a condition that also occurs when the gravitational field is weak (such as when far away from any source of gravity). Fuselage – In aeronautics, the fuselage (; from the French fuselé "spindle-shaped") is an aircraft's main body section. It holds crew, passengers, or cargo. In single-engine aircraft, it will usually contain an engine, as well, although in some amphibious aircraft the single engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage, which in turn is used as a floating hull. The fuselage also serves to position the control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. Future Air Navigation System – (FANS), is an avionics system which provides direct data link communication between the pilot and the air traffic controller. The communications include air traffic control clearances, pilot requests and position reporting. Flying wing – is a tailless fixed-wing aircraft that has no definite fuselage, with its crew, payload, fuel, and equipment housed inside the main wing structure. A flying wing may have various small protuberances such as pods, nacelles, blisters, booms, or vertical stabilizers. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a8d4956c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 14/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +Galaxy – is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. The word is derived from the Greek galaxias (γαλαξίας), literally "milky", a reference to the Milky Way. Galaxies range in size from dwarfs with just a few hundred million (108) stars to giants with one hundred trillion (1014) stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Gas-generator cycle (rocket) – is a power cycle of a pumped liquid bipropellant rocket engine. Part of the unburned propellant is burned in a gas generator (or preburner) and the resulting hot gas is used to power the propellant pumps before being exhausted overboard, and lost. Because of this loss, this type of engine is termed open cycle. Geostationary orbit – also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO), is a circular geosynchronous orbit 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles) in altitude above Earth's equator (42,164 kilometers in radius from Earth's center) and following the direction of Earth's rotation. An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth's rotational period, one sidereal day, and so to ground observers it appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. Geosynchronous orbit – (sometimes abbreviated GSO) is an Earth-centered orbit with an orbital period that matches Earth's rotation on its axis, 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds (one sidereal day). The synchronization of rotation and orbital period means that, for an observer on Earth's surface, an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to exactly the same position in the sky after a period of one sidereal day. Over the course of a day, the object's position in the sky may remain still or trace out a path, typically in a figure-8 form, whose precise characteristics depend on the orbit's inclination and eccentricity. A circular geosynchronous orbit has a constant altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 mi), and all geosynchronous orbits share that semi-major axis. A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the geostationary orbit, which is a circular geosynchronous orbit in Earth's equatorial plane. A satellite in a geostationary orbit remains in the same position in the sky to observers on the surface. Glide ratio – As the aircraft fuselage and control surfaces will also add drag and possibly some lift, it is fair to consider the lift-to-drag ratio (or L/D ratio) of the aircraft as a whole. As it turns out, the glide ratio, which is the ratio of an (unpowered) aircraft's forward motion to its descent, is (when flown at constant speed) numerically equal to the aircraft's L/D. This is especially of interest in the design and operation of high performance sailplanes, which can have glide ratios almost 60 to 1 (60 units of distance forward for each unit of descent) in the best cases, but with 30:1 being considered good performance for general recreational use. Achieving a glider's best L/D in practice requires precise control of airspeed and smooth and restrained operation of the controls to reduce drag from deflected control surfaces. In zero wind conditions, L/D will equal distance traveled divided by altitude lost. Achieving the maximum distance for altitude lost in wind conditions requires further modification of the best airspeed, as does alternating cruising and thermaling. To achieve high speed across country, glider pilots anticipating strong thermals often load their gliders (sailplanes) with water ballast: the increased wing loading means optimum glide ratio at greater airspeed, but at the cost of climbing more slowly in thermals. The maximum L/D is not dependent on weight or wing loading, but with greater wing loading the maximum L/D occurs at a faster airspeed. Also, the faster airspeed means the aircraft will fly at greater Reynolds number and this will usually bring about a lower zero-lift drag coefficient. Glider – is a fixed-wing aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine. Most gliders do not have an engine, although motor-gliders have small engines for extending their flight when necessary by sustaining the altitude (normally a sailplane relies on rising air to maintain altitude) with some being powerful enough to take off self-launch. Global Positioning System – (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Obstacles such as mountains and buildings can block the relatively weak GPS signals. Goddard problem – In rocketry, the Goddard problem is to optimize the peak altitude of a rocket, ascending vertically, and taking into account atmospheric drag and the gravitational field. This was first posed by Robert H. Goddard in his 1919 publication, "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes". GPS – Global Positioning System +Gravitational constant – The gravitational constant (also known as the universal gravitational constant, the Newtonian constant of gravitation, or the Cavendish gravitational constant), denoted by the letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. In Newton's law, it is the proportionality constant connecting the gravitational force between two bodies with the product of their masses and the inverse square of their distance. In the Einstein field equations, it quantifies the relation between the geometry of spacetime and the energy–momentum tensor (also referred to as the stress–energy tensor). The measured value of the constant is known with some certainty to four significant digits. In SI units, its value is approximately 6.674×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The modern notation of Newton's law involving G was introduced in the 1890s by C. V. Boys. The first implicit measurement with an accuracy within about 1% is attributed to Henry Cavendish in a 1798 experiment. Gravitational slingshot – In orbital mechanics and aerospace engineering, a gravitational slingshot, gravity assist maneuver, or swing-by is the use of the relative movement (e.g. orbit around the Sun) and gravity of a planet or other astronomical object to alter the path and speed of a spacecraft, typically to save propellant and reduce expense. Gravity assistance can be used to accelerate a spacecraft, that is, to increase or decrease its speed or redirect its path. The "assist" is provided by the motion of the gravitating body as it pulls on the spacecraft. Gravity – (from Latin gravitas 'weight'), or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light—are attracted to (or gravitate toward) one another. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects, and the Moon's gravity causes the tides of the oceans. The gravitational attraction of the original gaseous matter present in the Universe caused it to begin coalescing and forming stars and caused the stars to group together into galaxies, so gravity is responsible for many of the large-scale structures in the Universe. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..097684e59 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 15/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become weaker as objects get further away. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47aed90c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 16/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == +Hall effect thruster – In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Hall-effect thrusters (based on the discovery by Edwin Hall) are sometimes referred to as Hall thrusters or Hall-current thrusters. Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse (1,600 s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s. +Heat shield – A heat shield is designed to protect an object from overheating by dissipating, reflecting, absorbing heat, or simply gradually burn and fall away from the aircraft, pulling the excess heat with it. The term is most often used in reference to exhaust heat management and to systems for dissipation of heat due to friction. +Helicopter – is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally-spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL (Vertical TakeOff and Landing) aircraft cannot perform. +High-hypersonic – +Hohmann transfer orbit – In orbital mechanics, the Hohmann transfer orbit () is an elliptical orbit used to transfer between two circular orbits of different radii around a central body in the same plane. The Hohmann transfer often uses the lowest possible amount of propellant in traveling between these orbits, but bi-elliptic transfers can use less in some cases. +Hybrid rocket – A hybrid-propellant rocket is a rocket with a rocket motor that uses rocket propellants in two different phases: one solid and the other either gas or liquid. The hybrid rocket concept can be traced back to at least the 1930s. +Hydrodynamics – In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids—liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modelling fission weapon detonation. +Hydrostatics – Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies the condition of the equilibrium of a floating body and submerged body "fluids at hydrostatic equilibrium and the pressure in a fluid, or exerted by a fluid, on an immersed body". It encompasses the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Hydrostatics is a subcategory of fluid statics, which is the study of all fluids, both compressible or incompressible, at rest. +Hyperbolic partial differential equation – In mathematics, a hyperbolic partial differential equation of order + + + + n + + + {\displaystyle n} + + is a partial differential equation (PDE) that, roughly speaking, has a well-posed initial value problem for the first + + + + n + − + 1 + + + {\displaystyle n-1} + + derivatives. More precisely, the Cauchy problem can be locally solved for arbitrary initial data along any non-characteristic hypersurface. Many of the equations of mechanics are hyperbolic, and so the study of hyperbolic equations is of substantial contemporary interest. The model hyperbolic equation is the wave equation. In one spatial dimension, this is + + + + + + + + + ∂ + + 2 + + + u + + + ∂ + + t + + 2 + + + + + + = + + c + + 2 + + + + + + + ∂ + + 2 + + + u + + + ∂ + + x + + 2 + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial t^{2}}}=c^{2}{\frac {\partial ^{2}u}{\partial x^{2}}}} + + +The equation has the property that, if u and its first time derivative are arbitrarily specified initial data on the line t = 0 (with sufficient smoothness properties), then there exists a solution for all time t. +Hypersonic speed – In aerodynamics, a hypersonic speed is one that greatly exceeds the speed of sound, often stated as starting at speeds of Mach 5 and above. The precise Mach number at which a craft can be said to be flying at hypersonic speed varies, since individual physical changes in the airflow (like molecular dissociation and ionization) occur at different speeds; these effects collectively become important around Mach 5–10. The hypersonic regime can also be alternatively defined as speeds where specific heat capacity changes with the temperature of the flow as kinetic energy of the moving object is converted into heat. +Hypoxia – is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71b38a695 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 17/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +Impulse – Specific impulse (usually abbreviated Isp) is a measure of how efficiently a rocket uses propellant or a jet engine uses fuel. For engines whose reaction mass is only the fuel they carry, specific impulse is exactly proportional to exhaust gas velocity. +Indicated airspeed – (IAS), is the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator (ASI) on an aircraft, driven by the pitot-static system. It uses the difference between total pressure and static pressure, provided by the system, to either mechanically or electronically measure dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure includes terms for both density and airspeed. Since the airspeed indicator cannot know the density, it is by design calibrated to assume the sea level standard atmospheric density when calculating airspeed. Since the actual density will vary considerably from this assumed value as the aircraft changes altitude, IAS varies considerably from true airspeed (TAS), the relative velocity between the aircraft and the surrounding air mass. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the IAS corrected for instrument and position error. An aircraft's indicated airspeed in knots is typically abbreviated KIAS for "Knots-Indicated Air Speed" (vs. KCAS for calibrated airspeed and KTAS for true airspeed). +Instrument landing system – In aviation, the instrument landing system (ILS) is a radio navigation system that provides short-range guidance to aircraft to allow them to approach a runway at night or in bad weather. In its original form, it allows an aircraft to approach until it is 200 feet (61 m) over the ground, within a 1⁄2 mile (800 m) of the runway. At that point the runway should be visible to the pilot; if it is not, they perform a missed approach. Bringing the aircraft this close to the runway dramatically improves the weather conditions in which a safe landing can be made. Later versions of the system, or "categories", have further reduced the minimum altitudes. +Interplanetary Transport Network – (ITN) is a collection of gravitationally determined pathways through the Solar System that require very little energy for an object to follow. The ITN makes particular use of Lagrange points as locations where trajectories through space can be redirected using little or no energy. These points have the peculiar property of allowing objects to orbit around them, despite lacking an object to orbit. While it would use little energy, transport along the network would take a long time. +Interplanetary travel – Interplanetary spaceflight or interplanetary travel is the crewed or uncrewed travel between stars and planets, usually within a single planetary system. +Interstellar travel – refers to the currently theoretical idea of interstellar probes or crewed spacecraft moving between stars or planetary systems in a galaxy. Interstellar travel would be much more difficult than interplanetary spaceflight. Whereas the distances between the planets in the Solar System are less than 30 astronomical units (AU), the distances between stars are typically hundreds of thousands of AU, and usually expressed in light-years. Because of the vastness of those distances, practical interstellar travel based on known physics would need to occur at a high percentage of the speed of light; even so, travel times would be long, at least decades and perhaps millennia or longer. +Ion thruster – An ion thruster, ion drive, or ion engine is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity. +ISRO – The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) or (IAST : Bhāratīya Antrikṣ Anusandhān Saṅgaṭhan) is the national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru. It operates under the Department of Space (DOS) which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India, while Chairman of ISRO acts as executive of DOS as well. ISRO is the primary agency in India to perform tasks related to space based applications, space exploration and development of related technologies. It is one of six government space agencies in the world which possess full launch capabilities, deploy cryogenic engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and operate large fleets of artificial satellites. + +== J == +Jet engine – is a type of reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f750c47fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 18/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== K == +Keel effect – In aeronautics, the keel effect (also known as the pendulum effect or pendulum stability) is the result of the sideforce-generating surfaces being above (or below) the center of mass (which coincides with the center of gravity) in an aircraft. Along with dihedral, sweepback, and weight distribution, keel effect is one of the four main design considerations in aircraft lateral stability. +Kepler's laws of planetary motion – In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, published by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, describe the orbits of planets around the Sun. The laws modified the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, replacing its circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how planetary velocities vary. The three laws state that: +The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. +A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. +The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its orbit. +The elliptical orbits of planets were indicated by calculations of the orbit of Mars. From this, Kepler inferred that other bodies in the Solar System, including those farther away from the Sun, also have elliptical orbits. The second law helps to establish that when a planet is closer to the Sun, it travels faster. The third law expresses that the farther a planet is from the Sun, the slower its orbital speed, and vice versa. +Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the Solar System as a consequence of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation. +Kessler syndrome – (also called the Kessler effect, collisional cascading, or ablation cascade), proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, is a theoretical scenario in which the density of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) due to space pollution is high enough that collisions between objects could cause a cascade in which each collision generates space debris that increases the likelihood of further collisions. One implication is that the distribution of debris in orbit could render space activities and the use of satellites in specific orbital ranges difficult for many generations. +Kinetic energy – In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same amount of work is done by the body when decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v is + + + + + + 1 + 2 + + + m + + v + + 2 + + + + + {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}} + +. In relativistic mechanics, this is a good approximation only when v is much less than the speed of light. +Kite – is a tethered heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to create lift and drag forces. A kite consists of wings, tethers and anchors. Kites often have a bridle and tail to guide the face of the kite so the wind can lift it. Some kite designs don't need a bridle; box kites can have a single attachment point. A kite may have fixed or moving anchors that can balance the kite. One technical definition is that a kite is "a collection of tether-coupled wing sets". The name derives from its resemblance to a hovering bird. +Kutta condition – is a principle in steady-flow fluid dynamics, especially aerodynamics, that is applicable to solid bodies with sharp corners, such as the trailing edges of airfoils. It is named for German mathematician and aerodynamicist Martin Kutta. +Kuethe and Schetzer state the Kutta condition as follows: +A body with a sharp trailing edge which is moving through a fluid will create about itself a circulation of sufficient strength to hold the rear stagnation point at the trailing edge. +In fluid flow around a body with a sharp corner, the Kutta condition refers to the flow pattern in which fluid approaches the corner from above and below, meets at the corner, and then flows away from the body. None of the fluid flows around the sharp corner. +The Kutta condition is significant when using the Kutta–Joukowski theorem to calculate the lift created by an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge. The value of circulation of the flow around the airfoil must be that value that would cause the Kutta condition to exist. +Kutta–Joukowski theorem – is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics used for the calculation of lift of an airfoil and any two-dimensional bodies including circular cylinders translating into a uniform fluid at a constant speed large enough so that the flow seen in the body-fixed frame is steady and unseparated. The theorem relates the lift generated by an airfoil to the speed of the airfoil through the fluid, the density of the fluid and the circulation around the airfoil. The circulation is defined as the line integral around a closed-loop enclosing the airfoil of the component of the velocity of the fluid tangent to the loop. It is named after Martin Kutta and Nikolai Zhukovsky (or Joukowski) who first developed its key ideas in the early 20th century. Kutta–Joukowski theorem is an inviscid theory, but it is a good approximation for real viscous flow in typical aerodynamic applications. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54ddbd8e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,536 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 19/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== L == +Lander – spacecraft designed to soft-land intact or almost undamaged on the surface of a celestial body and eventually take-off from it +Landing – is the last part of a flight, where an aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown"a or "splashdown" as well. A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing. +Landing gear – is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally needed for both. Also, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheeled landing gear is the most common, with skis or floats needed to operate from snow/ice/water and skids for vertical operation on land. Faster aircraft have retractable undercarriages, which fold away during flight to reduce drag. +Lagrangian mechanics – Introduced by the Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788, Lagrangian mechanics is a formulation of classical mechanics and is founded on the stationary action principle. +Lagrangian mechanics defines a mechanical system to be a pair + + + + ( + M + , + L + ) + + + {\displaystyle (M,L)} + + of a configuration space + + + + M + + + {\displaystyle M} + + and a smooth function + + + + L + = + L + ( + q + , + v + , + t + ) + + + {\displaystyle L=L(q,v,t)} + + called Lagrangian. By convention, + + + + L + = + T + − + V + , + + + {\displaystyle L=T-V,} + + where + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + and + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + + are the kinetic and potential energy of the system, respectively. Here + + + + q + ∈ + M + , + + + {\displaystyle q\in M,} + + and + + + + v + + + {\displaystyle v} + + is the velocity vector at + + + + q + + + {\displaystyle q} + + + + + + ( + v + + + {\displaystyle (v} + + is tangential to + + + + M + ) + . + + + {\displaystyle M).} + + (For those familiar with tangent bundles, + + + + L + : + T + M + × + + + R + + + t + + + → + + R + + , + + + {\displaystyle L:TM\times \mathbb {R} _{t}\to \mathbb {R} ,} + + and + + + + v + ∈ + + T + + q + + + M + ) + . + + + {\displaystyle v\in T_{q}M).} + + +Given the time instants + + + + + t + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle t_{1}} + + and + + + + + t + + 2 + + + , + + + {\displaystyle t_{2},} + + Lagrangian mechanics postulates that a smooth path + + + + + x + + 0 + + + : + [ + + t + + 1 + + + , + + t + + 2 + + + ] + → + M + + + {\displaystyle x_{0}:[t_{1},t_{2}]\to M} + + describes the time evolution of the given system if and only if + + + + + x + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle x_{0}} + + is a stationary point of the action functional + + + + + + + S + + + [ + x + ] + + + + + + = + + + def + + + + + + + ∫ + + + t + + 1 + + + + + + t + + 2 + + + + + L + ( + x + ( + t + ) + , + + + + x + ˙ + + + + ( + t + ) + , + t + ) + + d + t + . + + + {\displaystyle {\cal {S}}[x]\,{\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\,\int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(x(t),{\dot {x}}(t),t)\,dt.} + + +If + + + + M + + + {\displaystyle M} + + is an open subset of + + + + + + R + + + n + + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} + + and + + + + + t + + 1 + + + , + + + {\displaystyle t_{1},} + + + + + + + t + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle t_{2}} + + are finite, then the smooth path + + + + + x + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle x_{0}} + + is a stationary point of + + + + + + S + + + + + {\displaystyle {\cal {S}}} + + if all its directional derivatives at + + + + + x + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle x_{0}} + + vanish, i.e., for every smooth + + + + δ + : + [ + + t + + 1 + + + , + + t + + 2 + + + ] + → + + + R + + + n + + + , + + + {\displaystyle \delta :[t_{1},t_{2}]\to \mathbb {R} ^{n},} + + + + + + δ + + + S + + + + + + + + = + + + def + + + + + + + + d + + d + ε + + + + + + + | + + + + ε + = + 0 + + + + + S + + + + [ + + + x + + 0 + + + + + ε + δ + + ] + + = + 0. + + + {\displaystyle \delta {\cal {S}}\ {\stackrel {\text{def}}{=}}\ {\frac {d}{d\varepsilon }}{\Biggl |}_{\varepsilon =0}{\cal {S}}\left[x_{0}+\varepsilon \delta \right]=0.} + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1bf790d20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 20/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The function + + + + δ + ( + t + ) + + + {\displaystyle \delta (t)} + + on the right-hand side is called perturbation or virtual displacement. The directional derivative + + + + δ + + + S + + + + + {\displaystyle \delta {\cal {S}}} + + on the left is known as variation in physics and Gateaux derivative in mathematics. Lagrangian mechanics has been extended to allow for non-conservative forces. Lagrangian point – In celestial mechanics, the Lagrange points (also Lagrangian points, L-points, or libration points) are points near two large orbiting bodies. Normally, the two objects exert an unbalanced gravitational force at a point, altering the orbit of whatever is at that point. At the Lagrange points, the gravitational forces of the two large bodies and the centrifugal force balance each other. This can make Lagrange points an excellent location for satellites, as few orbit corrections are needed to maintain the desired orbit. Small objects placed in orbit at Lagrange points are in equilibrium in at least two directions relative to the center of mass of the large bodies. Laser broom – is a proposed ground-based laser beam-powered propulsion system whose purpose is to sweep space debris out of the path of other artificial satellites such as the International Space Station. It would heat one side of an object enough to change its orbit and make it hit the atmosphere sooner. Space researchers have proposed that a laser broom may help mitigate Kessler syndrome, a theoretical runaway cascade of collision events between orbiting objects. Space-based laser broom systems using a laser mounted on a satellite or space station have also been proposed. Laser Camera System – (LCS), is short-range, high precision autosynchronous triangulation scanner. The camera uses a laser to measure the distance between itself and points on a target and is able to create a three-dimensional representation of the area it has scanned. Latus rectum – is the chord parallel to the directrix and passing through a focus; its half-length is the semi-latus rectum (ℓ). Launch window – In the context of spaceflight, launch period is the collection of days and launch window is the time period on a given day during which a particular rocket must be launched in order to reach its intended target. If the rocket is not launched within a given window, it has to wait for the window on the next day of the period. Launch periods and launch windows are very dependent on both the rocket's capability and the orbit to which it is going. Leading edge – The leading edge of an airfoil surface such as a wing is its foremost edge and is therefore the part which first meets the oncoming air. Lift – +Lift coefficient – is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting body to the fluid density around the body, the fluid velocity and an associated reference area. A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixed-wing aircraft. CL is a function of the angle of the body to the flow, its Reynolds number and its Mach number. The lift coefficient cl refers to the dynamic lift characteristics of a two-dimensional foil section, with the reference area replaced by the foil chord. Lightcraft – The Lightcraft is a space- or air-vehicle driven by beam-powered propulsion, the energy source powering the craft being external. It was conceptualized by aerospace engineering professor Leik Myrabo at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1976, who developed the concept further with working prototypes, funded in the 1980s by the Strategic Defense Initiative organization, and the decade after by the Advanced Concept Division of the US Air Force AFRL, NASA's MFSC and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Lighter than air – A lifting gas or lighter than air gas is a gas that has a lower density than normal atmospheric gases and rises above them as a result. It is required for aerostats to create buoyancy, particularly in lighter-than-air aircraft, which include free balloons, moored balloons, and airships. Only certain lighter than air gases are suitable as lifting gases. Dry air has a density of about 1.29 g/L (gram per liter) at standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP) and an average molecular mass of 28.97 g/mol, and so lighter than air gases have a density lower than this. Liquid air cycle engine – (LACE), is a type of spacecraft propulsion engine that attempts to increase its efficiency by gathering part of its oxidizer from the atmosphere. A liquid air cycle engine uses liquid hydrogen (LH2) fuel to liquefy the air. Liquid fuel – Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid fuels that are flammable instead of the fluid. Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from fossil fuels; however, there are several types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, and biodiesel, which are also categorized as a liquid fuel. Many liquid fuels play a primary role in transportation and the economy. Liquid fuels are contrasted with solid fuels and gaseous fuels. Liquid-propellant rocket – or liquid rocket, utilizes a rocket engine that uses liquid propellants. Liquids are desirable because they have a reasonably high density and high specific impulse (Isp). This allows the volume of the propellant tanks to be relatively low. It is also possible to use lightweight centrifugal turbopumps to pump the rocket propellant from the tanks into the combustion chamber, which means that the propellants can be kept under low pressure. This permits the use of low-mass propellant tanks that do not need to resist the high pressures needed to store significant amounts of gases, resulting in a low mass ratio for the rocket. Liquid rocket propellant – The highest specific impulse chemical rockets use liquid propellants (liquid-propellant rockets). They can consist of a single chemical (a monopropellant) or a mix of two chemicals, called bipropellants. Bipropellants can further be divided into two categories; hypergolic propellants, which ignite when the fuel and oxidizer make contact, and non-hypergolic propellants which require an ignition source. Lithobraking – is a landing technique used by uncrewed space vehicles to safely reach the surface of a celestial body while reducing landing speed by impact with the body's surface. Loiter – In aeronautics and aviation, loiter is the phase of flight consisting of flying over some small region. Low Earth orbit – (LEO), is an Earth-centered orbit close to the planet, often specified as an orbital period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial objects in outer space are in LEO, with an altitude never more than about one-third of the radius of the Earth. Lunar Module – The Apollo Lunar Module, or simply Lunar Module (LM ), originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), was the Lunar lander spacecraft that was flown between lunar orbit and the Moon's surface during the United States' Apollo program. It was the first crewed spacecraft to operate exclusively in the airless vacuum of space, and remains the only crewed vehicle to land anywhere beyond Earth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed80c154a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 3/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The rocket's rotation (induced by the deployment from the aircraft) is slowed by a small parachute attached to its tail, then ignited once the carrier aircraft has passed it. It is ignited before it is pointing fully vertically, however it will turn to do so, and accelerates to pass behind the carrier aircraft. AGL – Above ground level +Aileron – is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal axis), which normally results in a change in flight path due to the tilting of the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or 'banking'. Air-augmented rocket – +Aircraft – is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, and hot air balloons. Aircraft flight control systems – A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit controls, connecting linkages, and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft's direction in flight. Aircraft engine controls are also considered as flight controls as they change speed. Aircraft flight mechanics – +Airfoil – An airfoil (American English) or aerofoil (British English) is the cross-sectional shape of a wing, blade (of a propeller, rotor, or turbine), or sail (as seen in cross-section). Airlock – is a device which permits the passage of people and objects between a pressure vessel and its surroundings while minimizing the change of pressure in the vessel and loss of air from it. The lock consists of a small chamber with two airtight doors in series which do not open simultaneously. Airship – An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a lifting gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. Albedo – is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Anemometer – is a device used for measuring wind speed, and is also a common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, which means wind, and is used to describe any wind speed instrument used in meteorology. Angle of attack – In fluid dynamics, angle of attack (AOA, or + + + + α + + + {\displaystyle \alpha } + +) is the angle between a reference line on a body (often the chord line of an airfoil) and the vector representing the relative motion between the body and the fluid through which it is moving. Angle of attack is the angle between the body's reference line and the oncoming flow. Angular momentum – In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque. Angular velocity – In physics, the angular velocity of a particle is the rate at which it rotates around a chosen center point: that is, the time rate of change of its angular displacement relative to the origin (i.e. in layman's terms: how quickly an object goes around something over a period of time – e.g. how fast the earth orbits the sun). It is measured in angle per unit time, radians per second in SI units, and is usually represented by the symbol omega (ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise. Anticyclone – An anticyclone (that is, opposite to a cyclone) is a weather phenomenon defined by the United States National Weather Service's glossary as "a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere". Antimatter rocket – is a proposed class of rockets that use antimatter as their power source. There are several designs that attempt to accomplish this goal. The advantage to this class of rocket is that a large fraction of the rest mass of a matter/antimatter mixture may be converted to energy, allowing antimatter rockets to have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than any other proposed class of rocket. Apsis – is an extreme point in the orbit of an object. The word comes via Latin from Greek and is cognate with apse. For elliptic orbits about a larger body, there are two apsides, named with the prefixes peri- (from περί (peri) 'near') and ap-/apo- (from ἀπ(ό) (ap(ó)) 'away from') added to a reference to the body being orbited. Arcjet rocket – or arcjet thruster is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, in which an electrical discharge (arc) is created in a flow of propellant (typically hydrazine or ammonia). This imparts additional energy to the propellant, so that one can extract more work out of each kilogram of propellant, at the expense of increased power consumption and (usually) higher cost. Also, the thrust levels available from typically used arcjet engines are very low compared with chemical engines. Areal velocity – In classical mechanics, areal velocity (also called sector velocity or sectorial velocity) is the rate at which area is swept out by a particle as it moves along a curve. Argument of periapsis – (also called argument of perifocus or argument of pericenter), symbolized as ω, is one of the orbital elements of an orbiting body. Parametrically, ω is the angle from the body's ascending node to its periapsis, measured in the direction of motion. ARP4761 – +Aspect ratio (aeronautics) – In aeronautics, the aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio. Aspect ratio and other features of the planform are often used to predict the aerodynamic efficiency of a wing because the lift-to-drag ratio increases with aspect ratio, improving fuel economy in aircraft. Asteroid – Asteroids are minor planets, especially of the inner Solar System. Larger asteroids have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not resemble a planet-like disc and was not observed to have characteristics of an active comet such as a tail. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered they were typically found to have volatile-rich surfaces similar to comets. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b31634cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 21/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lunar space elevator – or lunar spacelift, is a proposed transportation system for moving a mechanical climbing vehicle up and down a ribbon-shaped tethered cable that is set between the surface of the Moon "at the bottom" and a docking port suspended tens of thousands of kilometers above in space at the top. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82bbfae27 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-21.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 22/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +Mach number – In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. +Magnetic sail – or magsail, is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion which would use a static magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated by the Sun as a plasma wind, and thus impart momentum to accelerate the spacecraft. A magnetic sail could also thrust directly against planetary and solar magnetospheres. +Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster – A magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster (MPDT) is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion which uses the Lorentz force (the force on a charged particle by an electromagnetic field) to generate thrust. It is sometimes referred to as Lorentz Force Accelerator (LFA) or (mostly in Japan) MPD arcjet. +Mass – is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (rate of change of velocity with respect to time) when a net force is applied. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies. The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the object's weight using a spring scale, rather than balance scale comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass. This is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that (along with gravity) determines the strength of this force. +Mass driver – or electromagnetic catapult, is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds. All existing and contemplated mass drivers use coils of wire energized by electricity to make electromagnets. Sequential firing of a row of electromagnets accelerates the payload along a path. After leaving the path, the payload continues to move due to momentum. +Mechanics of fluids – +Membrane mirror – +Metre per second – +Mini-magnetospheric plasma propulsion – +Moment of inertia – otherwise known as the mass moment of inertia, angular mass, second moment of mass, or most accurately, rotational inertia, of a rigid body is a quantity that determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis, akin to how mass determines the force needed for a desired acceleration. It depends on the body's mass distribution and the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque to change the body's rate of rotation. +Momentum – In Newtonian mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction. If m is an object's mass and v is its velocity (also a vector quantity), then the object's momentum p is + + + + + + p + + = + m + + v + + . + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =m\mathbf {v} .} + + +In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kg⋅m/s), which is equivalent to the newton-second. +Momentum wheel – +Monopropellant rocket – or monochemical rocket, is a rocket that uses a single chemical as its propellant. +Motion – In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position. Motion is mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed, and time. The motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in position of the body relative to that frame with change in time. The branch of physics describing the motion of objects without reference to its cause is kinematics; the branch studying forces and their effect on motion is dynamics. +Multistage rocket – or step rocket is a launch vehicle that uses two or more rocket stages, each of which contains its own engines and propellant. A tandem or serial stage is mounted on top of another stage; a parallel stage is attached alongside another stage. The result is effectively two or more rockets stacked on top of or attached next to each other. Two-stage rockets are quite common, but rockets with as many as five separate stages have been successfully launched. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-22.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58b3a3beb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-22.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 23/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== N == +NACA – United States National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, replaced by NASA in 1958. +NASA – United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration. +Navier–Stokes equations – In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations() are certain partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician George Gabriel Stokes. They were developed over several decades of progressively building the theories, from 1822 (Navier) to 1842–1850 (Stokes). +The Navier–Stokes equations mathematically express conservation of momentum and conservation of mass for Newtonian fluids. They are sometimes accompanied by an equation of state relating pressure, temperature and density. They arise from applying Isaac Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to the gradient of velocity) and a pressure term—hence describing viscous flow. The difference between them and the closely related Euler equations is that Navier–Stokes equations take viscosity into account while the Euler equations model only inviscid flow. As a result, the Navier–Stokes are a parabolic equation and therefore have better analytic properties, at the expense of having less mathematical structure (e.g. they are never completely integrable). +Newton (unit) – The newton (symbol: N) is the International System of Units (SI) derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, specifically Newton's second law of motion. +A newton is defined as 1 kg⋅m/s2, which is the force which gives a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second, per second. +Newton's law of universal gravitation – is usually stated as that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. The publication of the theory has become known as the "first great unification", as it marked the unification of the previously described phenomena of gravity on Earth with known astronomical behaviors. +This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called inductive reasoning. It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. When Newton presented Book 1 of the unpublished text in April 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him. +In today's language, the law states that every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force acting along the line intersecting the two points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. +The equation for universal gravitation thus takes the form: + + + + + F + = + G + + + + + m + + 1 + + + + m + + 2 + + + + + r + + 2 + + + + + , + + + {\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}},} + + +where F is the gravitational force acting between two objects, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects, r is the distance between the centers of their masses, and G is the gravitational constant. +Newton's laws of motion – are three laws of classical mechanics that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws can be paraphrased as follows: +Law 1. A body continues in its state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by a force. +Law 2. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that the time rate of change of momentum equals the force. +Law 3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. +The three laws of motion were first stated by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687. Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems, which laid the foundation for Newtonian mechanics. +Nose cone design – Given the problem of the aerodynamic design of the nose cone section of any vehicle or body meant to travel through a compressible fluid medium (such as a rocket or aircraft, missile or bullet), an important problem is the determination of the nose cone geometrical shape for optimum performance. For many applications, such a task requires the definition of a solid of revolution shape that experiences minimal resistance to rapid motion through such a fluid medium. +Nozzle – is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe. A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross-sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of its pressure energy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-23.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b54189a92 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-23.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 24/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== O == +Orbit – In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the center of mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion. For most situations, orbital motion is adequately approximated by Newtonian mechanics, which explains gravity as a force obeying an inverse-square law. However, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which accounts for gravity as due to curvature of spacetime, with orbits following geodesics, provides a more accurate calculation and understanding of the exact mechanics of orbital motion. +Orbit phasing – In astrodynamics, orbit phasing is the adjustment of the time-position of spacecraft along its orbit, usually described as adjusting the orbiting spacecraft's true anomaly. Orbital phasing is primarily used in scenarios where a spacecraft in a given orbit must be moved to a different location within the same orbit. The change in position within the orbit is usually defined as the phase angle, ϕ, and is the change in true anomaly required between the spacecraft's current position to the final position. +Orbital eccentricity – In astrodynamics, the orbital eccentricity of an astronomical object is a dimensionless parameter that determines the amount by which its orbit around another body deviates from a perfect circle. A value of 0 is a circular orbit, values between 0 and 1 form an elliptic orbit, 1 is a parabolic escape orbit, and greater than 1 is a hyperbola. The term derives its name from the parameters of conic sections, as every Kepler orbit is a conic section. It is normally used for the isolated two-body problem, but extensions exist for objects following a rosette orbit through the galaxy. +Orbital elements – are the parameters required to uniquely identify a specific orbit. In celestial mechanics these elements are considered in two-body systems using a Kepler orbit. There are many different ways to mathematically describe the same orbit, but certain schemes, each consisting of a set of six parameters, are commonly used in astronomy and orbital mechanics. A real orbit and its elements change over time due to gravitational perturbations by other objects and the effects of general relativity. A Kepler orbit is an idealized, mathematical approximation of the orbit at a particular time. +Orbital inclination – measures the tilt of an object's orbit around a celestial body. It is expressed as the angle between a reference plane and the orbital plane or axis of direction of the orbiting object. +Orbital inclination change – is an orbital maneuver aimed at changing the inclination of an orbiting body's orbit. This maneuver is also known as an orbital plane change as the plane of the orbit is tipped. This maneuver requires a change in the orbital velocity vector (delta v) at the orbital nodes (i.e. the point where the initial and desired orbits intersect, the line of orbital nodes is defined by the intersection of the two orbital planes). +Orbital maneuver – In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver (otherwise known as a burn) is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft. +Orbital mechanics – or astrodynamics, is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation. Orbital mechanics is a core discipline within space-mission design and control. +Orbital node – is either of the two points where an orbit intersects a plane of reference to which it is inclined. A non-inclined orbit, which is contained in the reference plane, has no nodes. +Orbital period – (also revolution period), is the time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object, and applies in astronomy usually to planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets, exoplanets orbiting other stars, or binary stars. +Orbital station-keeping – In astrodynamics, orbital station-keeping is keeping a spacecraft at a fixed distance from another spacecraft. It requires a series of orbital maneuvers made with thruster burns to keep the active craft in the same orbit as its target. For many low Earth orbit satellites, the effects of non-Keplerian forces, i.e. the deviations of the gravitational force of the Earth from that of a homogeneous sphere, gravitational forces from Sun/Moon, solar radiation pressure and air drag, must be counteracted. +Orbiter Boom Sensor System – (OBSS), was a 50-foot (15.24 m) boom carried on board NASA's Space Shuttles. The boom was grappled by the Canadarm and served as an extension of the arm, doubling its length to a combined total of 100 feet (30 m).[1] At the far end of the boom was an instrumentation package of cameras and lasers used to scan the leading edges of the wings, the nose cap, and the crew compartment after each lift-off and before each landing. If flight engineers suspected potential damage to other areas, as evidenced in imagery captured during lift-off or the rendezvous pitch maneuver, then additional regions could be scanned. +Osculating orbit – In astronomy, and in particular in astrodynamics, the osculating orbit of an object in space at a given moment in time is the gravitational Kepler orbit (i.e. an elliptic or other conic one) that it would have around its central body if perturbations were absent. That is, it is the orbit that coincides with the current orbital state vectors (position and velocity). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-24.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..514c75cdc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-24.md @@ -0,0 +1,201 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 25/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +Parallel axis theorem – also known as Huygens–Steiner theorem, or just as Steiner's theorem, named after Christiaan Huygens and Jakob Steiner, can be used to determine the moment of inertia or the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the object's center of gravity and the perpendicular distance between the axes. +Parasitic drag – also known as profile drag, is a type of aerodynamic drag that acts on any object when the object is moving through a fluid. Parasitic drag is a combination of form drag and skin friction drag. It affects all objects regardless of whether they are capable of generating lift. Total drag on an aircraft is made up of parasitic drag and lift-induced drag. Parasitic drag is so named because it is not useful, whereas lift-induced drag is the result of an airfoil generating lift. Parasitic drag comprises all types of drag except lift-induced drag. +Perpendicular axes theorem – states that the moment of inertia of a planar lamina (i.e. 2-D body) about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about the two axes at right angles to each other, in its own plane intersecting each other at the point where the perpendicular axis passes through it. +Define perpendicular axes + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + +, + + + + y + + + {\displaystyle y} + +, and + + + + z + + + {\displaystyle z} + + (which meet at origin + + + + O + + + {\displaystyle O} + +) so that the body lies in the + + + + x + y + + + {\displaystyle xy} + + plane, and the + + + + z + + + {\displaystyle z} + + axis is perpendicular to the plane of the body. Let Ix, Iy and Iz be moments of inertia about axis x, y, z respectively. Then the perpendicular axis theorem states that + + + + + + I + + z + + + = + + I + + x + + + + + + I + + y + + + + + {\displaystyle I_{z}=I_{x}+I_{y}} + + +This rule can be applied with the parallel axis theorem and the stretch rule to find polar moments of inertia for a variety of shapes. +If a planar object (or prism, by the stretch rule) has rotational symmetry such that + + + + + I + + x + + + + + {\displaystyle I_{x}} + + and + + + + + I + + y + + + + + {\displaystyle I_{y}} + + are equal, +then the perpendicular axes theorem provides the useful relationship: + + + + + + I + + z + + + = + 2 + + I + + x + + + = + 2 + + I + + y + + + + + {\displaystyle I_{z}=2I_{x}=2I_{y}} + + +Pitch Angle – +Plasma (physics) – (from Ancient Greek πλάσμα 'moldable substance') is one of the four fundamental states of matter. It consists of a gas of ions – atoms or molecules which have at least one orbital electron stripped (or an extra electron attached) and, thus, an electric charge. It is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe, being mostly associated with stars, including the Sun. It extends to the rarefied intracluster medium and possibly to intergalactic regions. +Plug nozzle – is a type of nozzle which includes a centerbody or plug around which the working fluid flows. Plug nozzles have applications in aircraft, rockets, and numerous other fluid flow devices. +Pogo oscillation – +Prandtl–Glauert singularity – +Precession – +Pressure – +Pressure altitude – +Pressure-fed engine – +Propeller – +Proper orbital elements – +Pulsed inductive thruster – +Pulsed plasma thruster – +Propulsion – + +== Q == + +== R == +Radar – system using the reflection from transmitted electromagnetic waves to detect the distance and rough shape of an object, working even in outer space, unlike sonar +Radio direction finder – +Railgun – +Ram accelerator – +Ramjet – +Rate of climb – +RCS (Reaction control system) – set of rocket thrusters used for spacecraft maneuvers over the craft's three rotation axes in outer space +Reentry – +Reflection – +Relativistic rocket – +Remote Manipulator System – +Resistojet rocket – +Reusable launch system – +Reynolds number – +RL-10 (rocket engine) – +Rocket – +Rocket engine – +Rocket engine nozzle – +Rocket fuel – +Rocket launch – +Rogallo wing – is a flexible type of wing. In 1948, Francis Rogallo, a NASA engineer, and his wife Gertrude Rogallo, invented a self-inflating flexible wing they called the Parawing, also known after them as the "Rogallo Wing" and flexible wing. NASA considered Rogallo's flexible wing as an alternative recovery system for the Mercury and Gemini space capsules, and for possible use in other spacecraft landings, but the idea was dropped from Gemini in 1964 in favor of conventional parachutes. +Rudder – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-25.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-25.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80f2ea6ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-25.md @@ -0,0 +1,172 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 26/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +SABRE – +Satellite – +Saturn (rocket family) – +Scalar (physics) – A quantity with magnitude but no direction. +Schlieren – +Schlieren photography – +Scramjet – +Second moment of area – +Shock wave – +SI – +Single point of failure – +Single-stage-to-orbit – spacecraft able to fly from a celestial body (usually the Earth or the Moon)'s surface to its orbit without using external boosters +Skyhook (structure) – +Slew – +Stream function – +Streamline – +Solar panel – +Solar sail – +Solar thermal rocket – +Solid of revolution – +Solid rocket – +Sound barrier – +Space activity suit – +Space elevator – +Space fountain – +Space Shuttle – crewed NASA spacecraft used between 1981 and 2011, consisting of a reusable spaceplane (the Space Shuttle orbiter, capable of airplane-like landing) attached to an expendable external tank (which disintegrated during re-entry) and two recoverable solid rocket boosters (which re-entered the Earth's atmosphere and splash-landed) +Space Shuttle external tank – external tank attached to the orbiter and the solid rocket boosters in the NASA Space Shuttle program +Space Shuttle main engine – +Space Shuttle orbiter – reusable NASA VTHL spaceplane used during the Space Shuttle program (1981–2011) +Space station – habitable artificial satellite +Space suit – +Space technology – +Space transport – +Spacecraft – +Spacecraft design – +Spacecraft propulsion – +Spaceplane – vehicle capable of both atmospheric flight according to the laws of aerodynamics (like an aircraft) and spaceflight in outer space (like a spacecraft) +Special relativity – +Specific impulse – +Speed of sound – +SRB – solid rocket booster +SSTO – single-stage-to-orbit +Staged combustion cycle (rocket) – +Subsonic – inferior to the speed of sound +Supersonic – superior to the speed of sound +Surface of revolution – +Sweep theory – + +== T == +Tait–Bryan rotations – +Temperature – +Terminal velocity – is the maximum velocity (speed) attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration. +Test target – +Tether propulsion – +Thermal protection system – +Thermodynamics – +Thrust – +Thruster – +Torricelli's equation – In physics, Torricelli's equation, or Torricelli's formula, is an equation created by Evangelista Torricelli to find the final velocity of an object moving with a constant acceleration along an axis (for example, the x axis) without having a known time interval. +The equation itself is: + + + + + + v + + f + + + 2 + + + = + + v + + i + + + 2 + + + + + 2 + a + Δ + x + + + + {\displaystyle v_{f}^{2}=v_{i}^{2}+2a\Delta x\,} + + +where + + + + + + v + + f + + + + + {\displaystyle v_{f}} + + is the object's final velocity along the x axis on which the acceleration is constant. + + + + + + v + + i + + + + + {\displaystyle v_{i}} + + is the object's initial velocity along the x axis. + + + + + a + + + {\displaystyle a} + + is the object's acceleration along the x axis, which is given as a constant. + + + + + Δ + x + + + + {\displaystyle \Delta x\,} + + is the object's change in position along the x axis, also called displacement. +This equation is valid along any axis on which the acceleration is constant. +Total air temperature – In aviation, stagnation temperature is known as total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft. The probe is designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft. As the air is brought to rest, kinetic energy is converted to internal energy. The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature. Therefore, total air temperature is higher than the static (or ambient) air temperature. Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable the computation of static air temperature and hence true airspeed. +Trajectory – or flight path, is the path that an object with mass in motion follows through space as a function of time. In classical mechanics, a trajectory is defined by Hamiltonian mechanics via canonical coordinates; hence, a complete trajectory is defined by position and momentum, simultaneously. The mass might be a projectile or a satellite. For example, it can be an orbit — the path of a planet, asteroid, or comet as it travels around a central mass. +Trailing edge – +Trans Lunar Injection – +Transonic – +Transverse wave – +Tripropellant rocket – +Tsiolkovsky rocket equation – +Turbomachinery – +Two-stage-to-orbit – + +== U == +UFO – An unidentified flying object is any perceived aerial phenomenon that cannot be immediately identified or explained. On investigation, most UFOs are identified as known objects or atmospheric phenomena, while a small number remain unexplained. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-26.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-26.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11ae27e05 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-26.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 27/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== V == +V-2 rocket – The V-2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, "Retribution Weapon 2"), with the technical name Aggregat 4 (A4), was the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed during the Second World War in Germany as a "vengeance weapon" and assigned to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings against German cities. The V-2 rocket also became the first artificial object to travel into space by crossing the Kármán line with the vertical launch of MW 18014 on 20 June 1944. +Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket – (VASIMR), is an electrothermal thruster under development for possible use in spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat an inert propellant, forming a plasma, then a magnetic field to confine and accelerate the expanding plasma, generating thrust. It is a plasma propulsion engine, one of several types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems. +Velocity – The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference, and is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an object's speed and direction of motion (e.g. 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is a fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of bodies. +Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called speed, being a coherent derived unit whose quantity is measured in the SI (metric system) as metres per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar, whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or both, then the object is said to be undergoing an acceleration. +Viscometer – (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used. Thus, a rheometer can be considered as a special type of viscometer. Viscometers only measure under one flow condition. +Viscosity – The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water. +Vortex generator – (VG), is an aerodynamic device, consisting of a small vane usually attached to a lifting surface (or airfoil, such as an aircraft wing) or a rotor blade of a wind turbine. VGs may also be attached to some part of an aerodynamic vehicle such as an aircraft fuselage or a car. When the airfoil or the body is in motion relative to the air, the VG creates a vortex, which, by removing some part of the slow-moving boundary layer in contact with the airfoil surface, delays local flow separation and aerodynamic stalling, thereby improving the effectiveness of wings and control surfaces, such as flaps, elevators, ailerons, and rudders. + +== W == +Wave drag – In aeronautics, wave drag is a component of the aerodynamic drag on aircraft wings and fuselage, propeller blade tips and projectiles moving at transonic and supersonic speeds, due to the presence of shock waves. Wave drag is independent of viscous effects, and tends to present itself as a sudden and dramatic increase in drag as the vehicle increases speed to the Critical Mach number. It is the sudden and dramatic rise of wave drag that leads to the concept of a sound barrier. +Weight – In science and engineering, the weight of an object is the force acting on the object due to gravity. +Weight function – is a mathematical device used when performing a sum, integral, or average to give some elements more "weight" or influence on the result than other elements in the same set. The result of this application of a weight function is a weighted sum or weighted average. Weight functions occur frequently in statistics and analysis, and are closely related to the concept of a measure. Weight functions can be employed in both discrete and continuous settings. They can be used to construct systems of calculus called "weighted calculus" and "meta-calculus". +Wind tunnels – are large tubes with air blowing through them which are used to replicate the interaction between air and an object flying through the air or moving along the ground. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft will fly. NASA uses wind tunnels to test scale models of aircraft and spacecraft. Some wind tunnels are large enough to contain full-size versions of vehicles. The wind tunnel moves air around an object, making it seem as if the object is flying. +Wing – is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. A high lift-to-drag ratio requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings through the air at sufficient lift. +Wright Flyer – The Wright Flyer (the Kitty Hawk, also known as Flyer I or 1903 Flyer) made the first sustained flight by a manned heavier-than-air powered and controlled aircraft—an airplane—on 17 December 1903. Invented and flown by Orville and Wilbur Wright, it marked the beginning of the "pioneer era" of aviation. +Wright Glider – The Wright brothers designed, built and flew a series of three manned gliders in 1900–1902 as they worked towards achieving powered flight. They also made preliminary tests with a kite in 1899. In 1911 Orville conducted tests with a much more sophisticated glider. Neither the kite nor any of the gliders were preserved, but replicas of all have been built. + +== X == + +== Y == + +== Z == + +== See also == +Aerospace engineering +List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations +Engineering +Glossary of engineering +National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) +Fundamentals of Engineering Examination +Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination (PE exam) +Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) +Glossary of areas of mathematics +Glossary of artificial intelligence +Glossary of astronomy +Glossary of biology +Glossary of chemistry +Glossary of civil engineering +Glossary of economics +Glossary of mechanical engineering +Glossary of physics +Glossary of probability and statistics +Glossary of structural engineering + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3c7f8591b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 4/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +As a result, they were often distinguished from objects found in the main asteroid belt. Astrodynamics – Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. Atmospheric entry – is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet, dwarf planet or natural satellite. There are two main types of atmospheric entry: uncontrolled entry, such as the entry of astronomical objects, space debris or bolides; and controlled entry (or reentry) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course. Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric entry, descent and landing of spacecraft are collectively termed as EDL. Attitude control – is controlling the orientation of an object with respect to an inertial frame of reference or another entity like the celestial sphere, certain fields, and nearby objects, etc. Controlling vehicle attitude requires sensors to measure vehicle orientation, actuators to apply the torques needed to re-orient the vehicle to a desired attitude, and algorithms to command the actuators based on (1) sensor measurements of the current attitude and (2) specification of a desired attitude. The integrated field that studies the combination of sensors, actuators and algorithms is called "Guidance, Navigation and Control" (GNC). Automatic direction finder – (ADF) is a marine or aircraft radio-navigation instrument that automatically and continuously displays the relative bearing from the ship or aircraft to a suitable radio station. Avionics – are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. Axial stress – a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e047f36a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 5/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +Balloon – In aeronautics, a balloon is an unpowered aerostat, which remains aloft or floats due to its buoyancy. A balloon may be free, moving with the wind, or tethered to a fixed point. It is distinct from an airship, which is a powered aerostat that can propel itself through the air in a controlled manner. +Ballute – (a portmanteau of balloon and parachute) is a parachute-like braking device optimized for use at high altitudes and supersonic velocities. Invented by Goodyear in 1958, the original ballute was a cone-shaped balloon with a toroidal burble fence fitted around its widest point. A burble fence is an inflated structure intended to ensure flow separation. +This stabilizes the ballute as it decelerates through different flow regimes (from supersonic to subsonic). + +Beam-powered propulsion – also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to ablative thrusters and pulse detonation engines. +Bearing – In navigation, bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and another object, or between it and that of true north. Absolute bearing refers to the angle between the magnetic North (magnetic bearing) or true North (true bearing) and an object. For example, an object to the East would have an absolute bearing of 90 degrees. Relative bearing refers to the angle between the craft's forward direction, and the location of another object. For example, an object relative bearing of 0 degrees would be dead ahead; an object relative bearing 180 degrees would be behind. Bearings can be measured in mils or degrees. +Bernoulli's principle – In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. +Bi-elliptic transfer – is an orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one orbit to another and may, in certain situations, require less delta-v than a Hohmann transfer maneuver. The bi-elliptic transfer consists of two half-elliptic orbits. From the initial orbit, a first burn expends delta-v to boost the spacecraft into the first transfer orbit with an apoapsis at some point + + + + + r + + b + + + + + {\displaystyle r_{b}} + + away from the central body. At this point a second burn sends the spacecraft into the second elliptical orbit with periapsis at the radius of the final desired orbit, where a third burn is performed, injecting the spacecraft into the desired orbit. +Big dumb booster – (BDB), is a general class of launch vehicle based on the premise that it is cheaper to operate large rockets of simple design than it is to operate smaller, more complex ones regardless of the lower payload efficiency. +Bleed air – produced by gas turbine engines is compressed air that is taken from the compressor stage of those engines, which is upstream of the fuel-burning sections. +Booster – A booster rocket (or engine) is either the first stage of a multistage launch vehicle, or else a shorter-burning rocket used in parallel with longer-burning sustainer rockets to augment the space vehicle's takeoff thrust and payload capability. +Boundary layer – In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is an important concept and refers to the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. +Buoyancy – In physics, buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. This pressure difference results in a net upwards force on the object. The magnitude of that force exerted is proportional to that pressure difference, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fluid. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e98ffb428 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 6/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +Cabin pressurization – is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft, in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary, before it is distributed to the cabin by one or more environmental control systems. The cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve. +Cable lacing – is a method for tying wiring harnesses and cable looms, traditionally used in telecommunication, naval, and aerospace applications. This old cable management technique, taught to generations of linemen, is still used in some modern applications since it does not create obstructions along the length of the cable, avoiding the handling problems of cables groomed by plastic or hook-and-loop cable ties. +Camber – the asymmetric curves on the top and bottom, or front and back, of an aerofoil +Canard – is an aeronautical arrangement wherein a small forewing or foreplane is placed forward of the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term "canard" may be used to describe the aircraft itself, the wing configuration or the foreplane. +Centennial challenges – +Center of gravity – A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. Where a gravity field can be considered to be uniform, the mass-center and the center-of-gravity will be the same. However, for satellites in orbit around a planet, in the absence of other torques being applied to a satellite, the slight variation (gradient) in gravitational field between closer-to (stronger) and further-from (weaker) the planet can lead to a torque that will tend to align the satellite such that its long axis is vertical. In such a case, it is important to make the distinction between the center-of-gravity and the mass-center. Any horizontal offset between the two will result in an applied torque. +Center of mass – In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero, or the point where if a force is applied it moves in the direction of the force without rotating. The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its coordinates. +Center of pressure – is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point. +Centrifugal compressor – Centrifugal compressors, sometimes called radial compressors, are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. They achieve a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. The pressure rise in the impeller is in most cases almost equal to the rise in the diffuser. +Chord – is the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil. The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and the point on the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge. +Clean configuration – is the flight configuration of a fixed-wing aircraft when its external equipment is retracted to minimize drag and thus maximize airspeed for a given power setting. +Cockpit – or flight deck, is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. +Collimated beam – A collimated beam of light or other electromagnetic radiation has parallel rays, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated light beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance. Such a beam cannot be created, due to diffraction. +Comet – is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. +Compressibility – In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility or isothermal compressibility) is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress) change. In its simple form, the compressibility + + + + β + + + {\displaystyle \beta } + + may be expressed as \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3c30c8581 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 7/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + + + + β + = + − + + + 1 + V + + + + + + ∂ + V + + + ∂ + p + + + + + + {\displaystyle \beta =-{\frac {1}{V}}{\frac {\partial V}{\partial p}}} + +, where V is volume and p is pressure. The choice to define compressibility as the opposite of the fraction makes compressibility positive in the (usual) case that an increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume. t is also known as reciprocal of bulk modulus(k) of elasticity of a fluid. +Compression – In mechanics, compression is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") forces to different points on a material or structure, that is, forces with no net sum or torque directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions. It is contrasted with tension or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with shearing forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other. The compressive strength of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration. +Compressor map – is a diagram showing significant performance parameters for a rotating compressor, and how they vary with changing ambient conditions of pressure and temperature. +Computational fluid dynamics – (CFD), is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems. +Conservation of momentum – The total momentum of objects involved in a collision remains constant regardless of friction and permanent deformation that may occur during the collision. The law of conservation of momentum can be used to analyse the interactions between objects, even in the presence of friction and other non-conservative forces. Conservation of momentum is a consequence of Newton's laws of motion. +Constant speed drive – (CSD), is a type of transmission that takes an input shaft rotating at a wide range of speeds, delivering this power to an output shaft that rotates at a constant speed, despite the varying input. They are used to drive mechanisms, typically electrical generators, that require a constant input speed. The term is most commonly applied to hydraulic transmissions found on the accessory drives of gas turbine engines, such as aircraft jet engines. On modern aircraft, the CSD is often combined with a generator into a single unit known as an integrated drive generator (IDG). +Control engineering – or control systems engineering, is an engineering discipline that applies automatic control theory to design systems with desired behaviors in control environments. The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering at many institutions around the world. +Controllability – +Crew Exploration Vehicle – +Critical mach – In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr or M* ) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but does not exceed it. At the lower critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is subsonic. At the upper critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is supersonic. +Cylinder stress – In mechanics, a cylinder stress is a stress distribution with rotational symmetry; that is, which remains unchanged if the stressed object is rotated about some fixed axis. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f2ee2fa8d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 8/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +Damage tolerance – is a property of a structure relating to its ability to sustain defects safely until repair can be effected. The approach to engineering design to account for damage tolerance is based on the assumption that flaws can exist in any structure and such flaws propagate with usage. Decalage – Decalage on a fixed-wing aircraft is the angle difference between the upper and lower wings of a biplane, i.e. the acute angle contained between the chords of the wings in question. Decalage is said to be positive when the upper wing has a higher angle of incidence than the lower wing, and negative when the lower wing's incidence is greater than that of the upper wing. Positive decalage results in greater lift from the upper wing than the lower wing, the difference increasing with the amount of decalage. De Laval nozzle – (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle), is a tube that is pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape. It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher supersonic speed in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow into kinetic energy. Because of this, the nozzle is widely used in some types of steam turbines and rocket engine nozzles. It also sees use in supersonic jet engines. Dead reckoning – In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating one's current position by using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course. Deflection – is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance. Deformation (engineering) – In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due to an applied force (the deformation energy, in this case, is transferred through work) or a change in temperature (the deformation energy, in this case, is transferred through heat). Deformation (mechanics) – in continuum mechanics is the transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration. A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body. A deformation may be caused by external loads, body forces (such as gravity or electromagnetic forces), or changes in temperature, moisture content, or chemical reactions, etc. Delta-v – (literally "change in velocity"), symbolised as ∆v and pronounced delta-vee, as used in spacecraft flight dynamics, is a measure of the impulse that is needed to perform a maneuver such as launch from, or landing on a planet or moon, or in-space orbital maneuver. It is a scalar that has the units of speed. As used in this context, it is not the same as the physical change in velocity of the vehicle. Delta-v budget – is an estimate of the total delta-v required for a space mission. It is calculated as the sum of the delta-v required for the propulsive maneuvers during the mission, and as input to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, determines how much propellant is required for a vehicle of given mass and propulsion system. Delta wing – is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta (Δ). Although long studied, it did not find significant applications until the jet age, when it proved suitable for high-speed subsonic and supersonic flight. Density – +Departure resistance – is a quality of an aircraft which enables it to remain in controlled flight and resist entering potentially dangerous less-controlled maneuvers such as spin. Derivative – The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity: this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time advances. Digital Datcom – The United States Air Force Stability and Control Digital DATCOM is a computer program that implements the methods contained in the USAF Stability and Control DATCOM to calculate the static stability, control and dynamic derivative characteristics of fixed-wing aircraft. Digital DATCOM requires an input file containing a geometric description of an aircraft, and outputs its corresponding dimensionless stability derivatives according to the specified flight conditions. The values obtained can be used to calculate meaningful aspects of flight dynamics. Dihedral – Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. "Anhedral angle" is the name given to negative dihedral angle, that is, when there is a downward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Disk loading – In fluid dynamics, disk loading or disc loading is the average pressure change across an actuator disk, such as an airscrew. Airscrews with a relatively low disk loading are typically called rotors, including helicopter main rotors and tail rotors; propellers typically have a higher disk loading. Displacement (vector) – +Distance measuring equipment – (DME), is a radio navigation technology that measures the slant range (distance) between an aircraft and a ground station by timing the propagation delay of radio signals in the frequency band between 960 and 1215 megahertz (MHz). Line-of-visibility between the aircraft and ground station is required. An interrogator (airborne) initiates an exchange by transmitting a pulse pair, on an assigned 'channel', to the transponder ground station. The channel assignment specifies the carrier frequency and the spacing between the pulses. After a known delay, the transponder replies by transmitting a pulse pair on a frequency that is offset from the interrogation frequency by 63 MHz and having specified separation. DME – distance measuring equipment. DO-178B – +DO-254 – +Drag (physics) – In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow and the squared velocity for a turbulent flow. Even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid's path. Drag coefficient – In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as: + + + + + + C + + + d + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle C_{\mathrm {d} }\,} + +, + + + + + + C + + + x + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle C_{\mathrm {x} }\,} + + or + + + + + + C + + + w + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle C_{\mathrm {w} }\,} + +) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water. It is used in the drag equation in which a lower drag coefficient indicates the object will have less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8fe0fa84 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 9/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area. Drag equation – In fluid dynamics, the drag equation is a formula used to calculate the force of drag experienced by an object due to movement through a fully enclosing fluid. The equation is: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f98c31345 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,231 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of aerospace engineering" +chunk: 10/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + + + + + F + + D + + + + = + + + + + 1 + 2 + + + + + ρ + + + u + + 2 + + + + + C + + D + + + + A + + + {\displaystyle F_{D}\,=\,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\rho \,u^{2}\,C_{D}\,A} + + + + + + + F + + D + + + + + {\displaystyle F_{D}} + + is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of the flow velocity, + + + + + ρ + + + {\displaystyle \rho } + + is the mass density of the fluid, + + + + + u + + + {\displaystyle u} + + is the flow velocity relative to the object, + + + + + A + + + {\displaystyle A} + + is the reference area, and + + + + + + C + + D + + + + + {\displaystyle C_{D}} + + is the drag coefficient – a dimensionless coefficient related to the object's geometry and taking into account both skin friction and form drag. In general, + + + + + C + + D + + + + + {\displaystyle C_{D}} + + depends on the Reynolds number. +Drop test – is a method of testing the in-flight characteristics of prototype or experimental aircraft and spacecraft by raising the test vehicle to a specific altitude and then releasing it. Test flights involving powered aircraft, particularly rocket-powered aircraft, may be referred to as drop launches due to the launch of the aircraft's rockets after release from its carrier aircraft. +Dual mode propulsion rocket – Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of bipropellant rockets with the reliability and simplicity of monopropellant rockets. It is based upon the use of two rocket fuels, liquid hydrogen and more dense hydrocarbon fuels, like RP, which are all burned with liquid oxygen. +Ductility – is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test. + +== E == +Earth's atmosphere – The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation). +Eccentric anomaly – In orbital mechanics, the eccentric anomaly is an angular parameter that defines the position of a body that is moving along an elliptic Kepler orbit. The eccentric anomaly is one of three angular parameters ("anomalies") that define a position along an orbit, the other two being the true anomaly and the mean anomaly. +Eccentricity vector – In celestial mechanics, the eccentricity vector of a Kepler orbit is the dimensionless vector with direction pointing from apoapsis to periapsis and with magnitude equal to the orbit's scalar eccentricity. For Kepler orbits the eccentricity vector is a constant of motion. Its main use is in the analysis of almost circular orbits, as perturbing (non-Keplerian) forces on an actual orbit will cause the osculating eccentricity vector to change continuously. For the eccentricity and argument of periapsis parameters, eccentricity zero (circular orbit) corresponds to a singularity. The magnitude of the eccentricity vector represents the eccentricity of the orbit. Note that the velocity and position vectors need to be relative to the inertial frame of the central body. +Eigenvector slew – In aerospace engineering, especially those areas dealing with spacecraft, the eigenvector slew is a method to calculate a steering correction (called a slew) by rotating the spacecraft around one fixed axis, or a gimbal. This corresponds in general to the fastest and most efficient way to reach the desired target orientation as there is only one acceleration phase and one braking phase for the angular rate. If this fixed axis is not a principal axis a time varying torque must be applied to force the spacecraft to rotate as desired, though. Also the gyroscopic effect of momentum wheels must be compensated for. +Electrostatic ion thruster – is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity. +Elevator – is a flight control surface, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircraft's pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer. +Elliptic partial differential equation – +Empennage – The empennage ( or ), also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at the rear of an aircraft that provides stability during flight, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from the French language verb empenner which means "to feather an arrow". Most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilising surfaces which stabilise the flight dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces. +Enstrophy – In fluid dynamics, the enstrophy E can be interpreted as another type of potential density; or, more concretely, the quantity directly related to the kinetic energy in the flow model that corresponds to dissipation effects in the fluid. It is particularly useful in the study of turbulent flows, and is often identified in the study of thrusters as well as the field of combustion theory. +Given a domain + + + + Ω + ⊆ + + + R + + + n + + + + + {\displaystyle \Omega \subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}} + + and a once-weakly differentiable vector field + + + + u + ∈ + + H + + 1 + + + ( + + + R + + + n + + + + ) + + n + + + + + {\displaystyle u\in H^{1}(\mathbb {R} ^{n})^{n}} + + which represents a fluid flow, such as a solution to the Navier-Stokes equations, its enstrophy is given by: + + + + + + + E + + + ( + u + ) + := + + ∫ + + Ω + + + + | + + ∇ + + u + + + + | + + + 2 + + + + d + x + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}(u):=\int _{\Omega }|\nabla \mathbf {u} |^{2}\,dx} + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..601dca026 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 1/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of agriculture is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in agriculture, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including horticulture, animal husbandry, agribusiness, and agricultural policy. For other glossaries relevant to agricultural science, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of botanical terms. + +== A == + +abattoir +See slaughterhouse. + +aboiteau +Plural aboiteaux. +A sluice or conduit built beneath a coastal dike, with a hinged gate or a one-way valve that closes during high tide but remains open during low tide, preventing salt water from flowing into the sluice and flooding the land behind the dike while allowing fresh water precipitation and irrigation runoff to drain from the land into the sea. The term may also refer to a method of land reclamation which relies on these gated sluices to convert tidal flats and coastal marshes into land suitable for agriculture. Aboiteau systems are usually installed several seasons prior to planting to allow time for natural flows of fresh water to drain through the soil and reduce its salinity. This method is practiced in areas with extremely high tidal amplitudes, particularly Atlantic Canada, where large tracts of coastal land would otherwise be rendered useless by regular tidal inundation. + +acaricide +A pesticide intended to kill or incapacitate members of the arthropod subclass Acari, which includes ticks and mites, either by targeting adults or by preventing the growth and development of their eggs or larvae. Acaricides specifically helpful against ticks may also be known as ixodicides and those specific to mites may be known as miticides. Though ticks and mites are not technically insects, in common usage, acaricides are sometimes referred to as insecticides. + +acre (ac) +A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of one chain (66 feet) by one furlong (660 feet), equivalent to 43,560 square feet (0.001563 sq mi; 4,047 m2), or about 0.40 hectare. + +acreage +A quantity of land; several acres considered collectively, united by their ownership, management, usage, geographical location, or some other unifying feature. + +acre-foot +A customary unit of volume defined as the volume of one acre of surface area to a depth of one foot, commonly used in the United States about large-scale water or soil resources. One acre-foot is equal to 43,560 cubic feet (1,233 m3). + +adjuvant +A chemical compound added to a pesticide formulation to increase its efficacy or safety. + +aerial seeding +A type of broadcast seeding in which large quantities of seed are dropped from aircraft flying over crop fields. Aircraft can be useful for quickly seeding vast expanses of land or wherever the terrain makes conventional ground-based seeding methods difficult or impractical, e.g., in marshy or flooded areas, where they are commonly used for sowing rice paddies. + +aeroponics +The cultivation of plants with the roots suspended in an air or mist environment rather than in soil or a solid aggregate medium, usually inside a closed or partially closed chamber where the properties of the air can be easily controlled. Plants are typically supported by the chamber itself or with foam supports or trellises. Sometimes, only the roots are inside the growth chamber; stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits may or may not be. The primary benefits of aeroponics are increased gas exchange in the root zone and reduced access by pests and pathogens borne by solid or liquid growth media. It is often practiced in research contexts. Aeroponics is sometimes considered a subclass of hydroponics since water is still delivered to the plant via atomized droplets from a mist sprayer. However, unlike conventional hydroponics, the roots are not continuously suspended in flowing water. + +agrarian system +The dynamic set of economic and technological factors that affect agricultural practices in a particular region. + +agrarianism +A social or political philosophy that values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker. Agrarianism argues in favor of farming as a way of life that can shape ideal social values. + +agribusiness +The business of agricultural production, including the entire range of activities and disciplines encompassed by modern food and fiber production chains and those agents and institutions that influence them. + +agricultural aircraft + +agricultural cooperative +Also farmers' co-op or simply a co-op. +Any association of farmers or agricultural businesses who voluntarily pool their resources to meet their common agricultural needs and goals by cooperating in a jointly owned enterprise. Agricultural cooperatives may be distinguished between "service" cooperatives, which provide inputs for agricultural production (seeds, fertilizers, fuels, etc.) or transportation and marketing services to members who run their farms individually, and "production" cooperatives, in which members run their farms jointly using shared land, machinery, or other resources; an example of the latter is collective farming. + +agricultural cycle +The annual or seasonal cycle of activities related to the production of a particular agricultural product, especially the growth and harvest of plant crops, inclusive of all steps normally involved in the complete process from initial preparations (e.g. tilling, sowing, fertilizing, and irrigating) through sale and distribution of the finished product (e.g. harvesting, storage, packing, and marketing). + +agricultural economics +A branch of economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food, fiber, and other products of agriculture. + +agricultural engineering +A branch of engineering concerned with agricultural production and processing. It combines elements of mechanical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and food science, among other disciplines. + +agricultural extension +The application of new knowledge and techniques obtained through scientific research to agricultural practices by educating farmers and agricultural communities, with the goals of improving the efficiency and productivity of agriculture, improving living standards in rural areas, and raising awareness of environmental issues. The term encompasses a variety of educational and outreach activities organized by professional educators from a wide range of disciplines, often with an emphasis on agricultural marketing, land management, sustainability, food safety, and public health. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..20be46b55 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 2/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +agricultural fencing +Any fence or barrier used to keep domestic or wild animals (or humans) inside or outside of an agricultural area. Fencing materials and designs vary widely depending on terrain and the kinds of animals they are intended to deter, though wooden logs, barbed wire, and electrified fences are common. They must often be continuous for long distances to surround farms or pastures. In many places, ranchers are required by law to build fences to enclose their grazing livestock within designated rangeland; in others, livestock are allowed to roam freely, and responsibility for fencing belongs to those who wish to prevent animals from accessing their land. + +agricultural land +Any land devoted solely to agriculture, i.e., the deliberate and systematic reproduction of living organisms to produce commodities that humans can use. In the broadest sense, agricultural land may also include certain types used only partially or seasonally for agricultural purposes, such as pastures and wild forests. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and arable land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct. + +agricultural machinery +The mechanical or electrical tools, devices, and structures used in farming or any other type of agriculture. The broadest definition includes handheld power tools, but in general usage the term implies huge motorized machines, particularly tractors and the many types of farm implements which they tow and/or supply power to. The mechanization of agricultural tasks is a defining element of industrial agriculture. + +agricultural productivity +A measure of the economic productivity of a given quantity of agricultural land (or any other agricultural input), typically expressed as the ratio of outputs to inputs. In modern agricultural industries, "output" is often quantified as the market value of the agricultural product at the end of the production chain (i.e., immediately before its purchase by a consumer). + +agricultural recession +A period of economic recession for an agricultural industry, characterized chiefly by low crop prices and/or low incomes for farming operations. + +agricultural science +Also agriscience or ag science, and often pluralized as in agricultural sciences. +The application of scientific methods to agriculture, or the study of agriculture as a scientific discipline. It is a multidisciplinary field encompassing all elements of the natural, economic, and social sciences which are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. A professional in this field may be called an agricultural scientist or agriculturist. + +agriculture +The science and art of cultivating plants, animals, or other living organisms in order to produce any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. + +agriculturist +Also agriculturalist, agricultural scientist, agrologist, or agronomist. +A professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness. + +agritourism +Any primarily agricultural operation or activity that brings visitors to a farm or ranch, either for direct-to-consumer sales (e.g. farm stands and "You-Pick" operations), education, hospitality, recreation, or entertainment. + +agrivoltaics +The simultaneous use of land area for both solar energy production and agriculture, by installing solar panels in the same spaces where crops are grown or animals are raised. + +agrobiology +The study of plant nutrition and growth, especially as a means of increasing crop yield. + +agroecology +The study of ecology as it pertains to agriculture, particularly the application of knowledge about ecological processes to agricultural production systems. + +agroecosystem +An ecosystem that supports an agricultural production system, such as in a farm or garden; the network of ecological interactions that influences and is influenced by the human practice of agriculture. Agroecosystems are the basic unit of study in agroecology. + +agroforestry +The combination of the knowledge and practices of agriculture and forestry, resulting in a system of land use in which forest trees or shrubs are grown around or among agricultural crops or pastureland, with the goal of enhancing the functionality and sustainability of a farming system. Agroforestry shares principles with intercropping but may involve complex ecological interactions between hundreds of species. + +agrology +The branch of soil science concerning the agricultural production of crop plants. The term is often used interchangeably with agronomy, agricultural science, and agricultural soil science. + +agronomy +The science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land restoration. + +algaculture +A specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of algae, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, including food ingredients, fertilizers, colorants and dyes, pharmaceuticals, and chemical feedstock. + +alley cropping +An agroforestry technique in which annual field crops are grown in the open "alleys" between widely spaced rows of planted trees. Many different species have been cultivated in these systems but the cash crops are usually staples such as wheat, corn, soybeans, and hay, while the trees are commonly large hardwood fruit and nut trees such as walnut, pecan, persimmon, and willow; trees that harbor nitrogen-fixing microorganisms or that have deep taproots capable of drawing large quantities of nutrients to the soil surface are especially valuable. Alley cropping is popular as a form of sustainable and value-added polyculture, where the presence of trees confers many benefits normally absent from traditional open fields, including improved nutrition and moisture retention, shade, and protection from extreme weather. Trees may also yield useful produce, fuelwood, or fodder in their own right, potentially allowing farmers to diversify their sources of income as well. + +animal engine +Any machine powered by an animal. Domestic animals, especially horses, mules, donkeys, oxen, and dogs, have frequently been trained by humans to provide power for various agricultural machinery and operations such as ploughing and milling. + +animal feed +See fodder. + +animal unit +A standard measure, based on feed requirements, used to combine various classes of livestock according to size, weight, age, and intended use. On federal lands in the United States, one animal unit represents one mature cow, bull, steer, heifer, horse, or mule, or five sheep or goats, all over six months of age. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b09f76a89 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 11/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +dipping +The process of immersing a live animal into a bath containing a liquid formulation of insecticide (and sometimes also fungicide), usually a dilute solution of organophosphorus compounds, as a means of removing lice, ticks, or other ectoparasites which may otherwise cause disease. Sheep are commonly treated in a sheep dip, and cattle in a plunge dip. + +disc harrow +Also disk harrow. +A type of harrow designed to till the soil surface and simultaneously chop up weeds and crop residues, consisting of one or more rows of concave metal discs which may be scalloped or oriented at an oblique angle and which rotate freely as the implement moves forward. It is usually pulled behind a tractor or mounted upon a three-point linkage. + +dockage +Waste material which is removed from grain as it is being processed, prior to milling. + +docking +Also cropping or tailing. +The intentional removal of all or part of an animal's tail by any of a variety of methods, usually by cutting with a knife or scalpel, applying a hot iron, or constricting blood circulation with a rubber ring to cause the tail to fall off. Docking of swine is performed in order to reduce potentially harmful tail biting behaviors between cohabitating pigs; in sheep and cattle, it is often practiced with the rationale that shorter tails are less likely to trap dirt and feces and transfer them to other body parts (e.g. the udder in dairy cattle), thereby reducing pathogen infestation and improving the animal's cleanliness and well-being and consequently the quality of any products harvested from the animal, though the efficacy of docking for these purposes has not been conclusively demonstrated. + +doddie +Also doddy, dody, and duddie. +A hornless cow or bull, especially one that has been polled. + +doe +Also nanny goat. +An adult female goat. + +dogie +Also dogey, dogy, and doggie. +A stray or motherless calf. See also poddy. + +domestication + +dovecote +Also dovecot and columbarium. +A man-made structure intended to house domestic pigeons or doves, usually consisting of a sheltered space with one or more holes allowing the birds to nest inside, either free-standing or built into the side or roof of a building. + +draff +Refuse obtained as a byproduct of the distillation of grain and used as an animal feed, especially malt left over from the brewing process. + +draft animal +Also draught animal. +An animal used to pull heavy loads such as wagons or ploughs, usually a horse, mule, donkey, ox, or camel. + +drawbar +Also towbar. +A horizontal metal bar on the rear of a vehicle such as a tractor to which trailers or farm implements may be hitched or attached. + +drenching +The process of administering a liquid drug or medication to a domestic animal via the throat, usually for treatment of internal parasites. + +dressed weight +The weight of an animal carcass after it has been slaughtered and partially butchered or "dressed", typically when still containing bones and cartilage but after the hide, head, hooves, and internal organs have been removed. When weighed immediately following slaughter and prior to chilling, it may be called the hot dressed carcass weight or hot dressed weight. Dressed weight is commonly used to calculate the price of meat. + +drinker +An automated water line used to provide drinking water to livestock such as cattle or poultry. + +drip irrigation +Also trickle irrigation. +A type of micro-irrigation system that supplies water and/or liquid fertilizer solution to crops by allowing it to leak slowly from perforated plastic or rubber tubes into the soil surrounding the plants' roots, with the primary goal of delivering water directly to the root zone and thereby minimizing wasting due to evaporation and runoff (which are often significant problems in surface irrigation and sprinkler irrigation). Drip systems distribute water through a network of valves, pipes, emitters, and flexible, lightweight tubing called drip line or drip tape, which can be positioned above or buried below the soil surface. Drip irrigation is most commonly used in small-scale outdoor operations, high tunnels, and greenhouses, where it is often much more efficient than alternative irrigation methods and has the advantage of allowing water and fertilizers to be applied gradually, uniformly, and in precise quantities to each individual plant. + +drop shed +Also drop pen. +A shelter where lambing ewes are housed. + +droving +Also driving. +The process of moving livestock on foot over long distances, generally by herding them together and encouraging or compelling them to walk in a particular direction. Very large herds of cattle, sheep, and horses are commonly moved in this way between different pastures, or from rangeland to a market where they can be sold; such a journey may be called a drive. Herds are traditionally moved by cowboys on horses, though drovers may also employ dogs, vehicles, and goads to keep the animals clustered together and moving in the right direction. + +dry cow +A milk cow which has ceased to produce milk from a particular lactation, especially because it is within 60 days of calving and beginning a new lactation. + +dry milling + +dryland farming +Also dry farming or arid-zone agriculture. +The cultivation of plant crops in arid or semiarid climates, or wherever there is, for any reason, a relative scarcity of fresh water resources available for agricultural uses either year-round or during the growing season. Dry farming thus encompasses a set of agricultural techniques and management practices adapted specifically for growing crops without the aid of irrigation, which generally emphasize the strict conservation of existing soil moisture and the selection of cultivars which are drought-tolerant or otherwise well-suited for the specific challenges of arid environments. Other common dryland practices include wider than normal spacing between individual plants, minimal tillage and use of heavy machinery, aggressive weed control, and frequent fallowing. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0247c2d8b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 12/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +dubbing +Also dewattling. +The removal of any of the fleshy caruncles from the heads of poultry, i.e. the comb, wattles, and/or earlobes. Dubbing is often done with the rationale that it reduces the chances that these parts will be injured, become infected, and thereby potentially compromise the bird's overall health, though the practice has been criticized for being unnecessarily stressful to birds, and also because combs and wattles are thought to have important functions in the regulation of body temperature and in certain social behaviors. + +dynamic compaction +A method of increasing the density of soil deposits by repeatedly dropping a very heavy weight onto the ground at regularly spaced locations, which can compress underground voids, improve soil structure and stability, and prevent settling and undesirable soil movement beneath buildings. It has many applications, including in agriculture, where it can be used to increase water and amendment retention in seedbeds, especially when subsurface constraints make alternative methods of compaction inappropriate. + +== E == + +earlage +A high-energy feed for cattle composed of ears of maize (both kernels and cobs) chopped into small pieces and fermented into silage. + +earmark +A cut or notch made in, or a tag attached to, one or both ears of a livestock animal (most commonly cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep) as an easily visible mark of identification, usually to indicate age, sex, medical status, or ownership. Compare brand. + +earthing up +See hilling. + +ecological farming +1. Another name for organic farming. +2. A specific approach to organic and sustainable agriculture that focuses on the environmental and ecological aspects of farming, emphasizing the incorporation of methods which prevent soil erosion, preserve or improve water percolation and soil retention, limit greenhouse gas emissions, sequester carbon in the form of humus, increase biodiversity, and regenerate ecosystem services, and thereby minimizing the environmental pressures posed by conventional agricultural systems. Specific techniques include polyculture, no-till farming, cover cropping, strip cropping, contour farming, shelterbelts, and use of biodigestors, among others. + +ecology +The scientific study of interactions between biological organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology, geography, and Earth science. + +economic maturity +The optimum time at which to harvest a tree or stand of trees (or any other perennial plants), as determined by the age at which the growth rate slows enough to cause the average annual profit over the life of the stand to begin to decrease. + +edaphology +The scientific study of the influence of soils on living organisms, particularly plants, and of how soils are used and modified by humans for agriculture. + +edge effects +Changes in ecological characteristics (e.g. population or community structure) associated with the boundary between two dissimilar habitat types, ecosystems, or agricultural land uses, potentially affecting the biological and ecological traits of the resident plant or animal communities. + +effective precipitation +The portion of the cumulative or mean total precipitation received within a specified area, on a particular farm or field, or by an individual plant during a given time period that is or becomes available for plant growth because it is stored in the soil within the rooting depth of the plants or persists on the surface long enough to eventually drain into and occupy that rooting depth before it is lost by evaporating or running off. + +emblements + +energy crop +Any crop grown exclusively as a source of fuel for the purpose of energy production. Such crops are processed into solid, liquid, or gaseous biofuels (as with bioethanol and biogas) which are then burned to generate power or heat for human purposes. + +ensiling +See silage. + +entire +Also intact. +(of a domestic animal) Not neutered or castrated; capable of giving rise to offspring via copulation. + +ewe +A female sheep, especially one that is sexually mature. + +exclosure +An area of land from which grazing or browsing animals, often domestic livestock but sometimes wild animals such as deer, are excluded by fencing or other means. Fenced exclosures are common in open range areas, where it is the landowner's responsibility to keep unwanted animals off their land. + +extensive agriculture +Also extensive farming. +Any system of agricultural production that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizer, and/or capital relative to the land area used for production, in contrast to intensive agriculture. + +== F == + +factory farming +See intensive animal farming. + +fallow +1. (adj.) The condition of any arable land which is deliberately not planted or which is left unsown for one or more production cycles or growing seasons, usually with the intent of allowing the soil to restore depleted nutrients and other organic matter that is critical for ecological function, while retaining moisture and disrupting the life cycles of agricultural pests by temporarily removing their hosts. Fallowing is an important technique in crop rotation. +2. (n.) Any period of time during which arable land is not used for cultivation. + +fallow crop +A crop that is grown in widely spaced rows so that it is possible to hoe and cultivate between the rows. + +family farm +A farm which on average produces a harvest sufficient to support one family, or a farm which is owned and/or operated by a single family, as opposed to farms operated as collectives, non-family corporations, or in other institutionalized forms. + +farm +An area of land devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food or other crops. In common usage the term may include ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations, smallholdings and hobby farms, fish farms, and even industrial operations such as wind farms. + +farm assurance +A type of agricultural product certification that emphasizes the principles of quality assurance and signals to consumers that the certified producer has adhered to a particular set of standards and principles during production, such as in good agricultural practice. + +farm crisis +A predominantly American term for an agricultural recession. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d3df056ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 13/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +farm gate value +The market value of an agricultural product minus the subsequent costs of transporting, storing, marketing, and selling the product to a consumer; the net value of the product as it is at the "farm gate", i.e. upon leaving the agricultural operation, before such costs are added to the market price. The market or retail price paid by the consumer is often far higher than the amount the farmer actually receives for the product, particularly if the farmer sells wholesale to a retailer rather than directly to the end consumer as in farm gate marketing. + +farm stand +Also farm shop. +A type of retail outlet which sells fresh produce directly from a particular farm or group of farms. Direct sales to consumers allow farmers to retain a larger portion of the resulting profit than they can usually obtain by selling to a wholesaler. See also farmers' market. + +farm water +Water that is committed for use in agriculture of any type. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops as well as in the watering of livestock. + +farm-to-fork +The tracing or connecting of all stages of the supply chain of a food from production to consumption. + +farm-to-market +A movement in sustainable agriculture that promotes the sale of farm products by the farmers or producers themselves directly to the end-consumers, as opposed to indirectly via intermediate retailers. + +farm-to-table +Also sometimes farm-to-fork. +A movement in sustainable agriculture which promotes the consumption of locally produced foods, and particularly the serving of such foods at public establishments such as restaurants and school cafeterias. This is usually accomplished by purchasing food directly from the farmers or producers (rather than an intermediate retailer), or by the restaurant or school cultivating its own food. Farm-to-table emphasizes food traceability, freshness, and environmental awareness. The idea is central to the practice of locavorism. + +farmer +A person who owns or works on a farm; or anyone who participates in agricultural production, especially the raising of field crops, poultry, or livestock. + +farmers' co-op +See agricultural cooperative. + +farmers' market +A retail marketplace, often outdoors, where farmers are able to sell fresh produce, live plants and animals, and sometimes prepared foods and other agricultural products directly to consumers (rather than to a wholesaler). These markets are often community-organized businesses consisting of multiple farm stands operated independently by individual farmers, who are free to set up a booth or table and sell their own goods at prices they set themselves. + +farming +The practice of intentionally performing an agricultural activity, such as growing crops or raising livestock, on land dedicated to the purpose, known as a farm. The term is often used very loosely to refer to many different agricultural processes of different scales and with different goals, or, in the broadest sense, as a synonym for agriculture in general. + +farmland +See agricultural land. + +farmstead +The set of buildings and service areas associated with a farm or other agricultural holding, traditionally including residential accommodations such as a farmhouse for the operator's family as well as various buildings dedicated to the particularities of agricultural production, including pens, yards, stables, and corrals for housing draft animals or livestock; barns, silos, and mangers for storing crops, grains, or animal fodder; garages and sheds for storing farm vehicles and equipment; and other structures involved in the processing of raw materials into commercial products. The farmstead as a whole typically consists of a core complex of such buildings as well as clusters of outlying buildings. + +farrow +A young domestic pig, or a litter of newborn pigs. See also piglet. + +farrowing +The process of giving birth in swine, by which a pregnant sow gives birth to a farrow. + +fatling +A young animal, e.g. a calf or lamb, that has been fattened in preparation for slaughter. + +fatstock +Livestock which have been fattened in order to be slaughtered for meat, particularly those animals that have achieved the target weight and conformation required for slaughter. + +fattening +See finishing. + +feather meal +A protein supplement included in some formulated animal feed and organic fertilizers as a nitrogen source, made by grinding and drying poultry feathers under elevated heat and pressure. + +fed cattle +Cattle at the time they leave a feedlot, i.e. after fattening and finishing, when they are ready to be sold for slaughter. + +feed +See fodder. + +feed grain +Any cereal grain grown specifically so that it can be used as fodder to feed livestock. Corn, barley, and sorghum are commonly grown for this purpose. + +feeder +1. A receptacle from which domestic animals are fed, such as a manger or a hayrack. Some feeders have separate compartments for fresh forage and concentrate feed. +2. Any farm implement or machine used to distribute animal feed. +3. A domestic animal raised for its meat that is of sufficient age and weight to be placed into a feedlot for finishing prior to slaughter. + +feedlot +Also feed yard. +An animal feeding operation consisting of a densely concentrated area of enclosures or pens containing individual animals, which is used for the efficient raising, fattening, and finishing of numerous livestock prior to slaughter, especially beef cattle, but also swine, horses, sheep, and poultry. + +fencerow +The area of ground immediately adjacent to a fence that is left unmowed or untilled because it is difficult or inconvenient to maneuver large agricultural machinery in this space without removing or damaging the fence. Grasses and weeds are therefore able to grow unrestricted in this area, often providing shelter for birds and wild animals, unless more precise tools are employed. + +fertigation +The application of fertilizers, soil amendments, or other water-soluble compounds to agricultural land by mixing them with the water distributed by an irrigation system. + +fertilizer +Also fertiliser. +Any natural or synthetic material that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply one or more nutrients essential to the growth of plants. + +fiber crop +Any crop plant cultivated for the fiber that can be produced from it, e.g. cotton, flax, sisal, and jute. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f8da52b5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 14/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +field +Any area of land, enclosed or otherwise, used for agricultural purposes, such as for the cultivation of crops or as a paddock for livestock. + +field crop +Any crop suited to cultivation in a large open field, or which must generally be grown in great quantities, on a larger scale than in gardens, in order to produce a meaningful yield, such as most cereals, hay, and cotton. + +field day +A large public trade show for the agricultural industry at which agricultural equipment, techniques, and business ideas are exhibited and demonstrated. + +filly +An immature female horse, too young to be called a mare (generally less than four or five years old). + +filter strip +Also conservation buffer or buffer strip. +A strip of grass or other dense, permanent vegetation lining the edge of an agricultural field and acting as a buffer zone between the field and its surrounding environment, usually designed with the primary goal of controlling non-point source pollution by filtering agricultural surface runoff before it drains into an adjacent body of water, e.g. a pond, lake, stream, diversion terrace, or irrigation canal. The roots of the vegetation trap and remove agrichemicals including fertilizers and pesticides from the runoff and may also help reduce sediment erosion, thereby preventing the contamination and eutrophication of natural ecosystems. + +finishing +Also fattening. +The bringing of livestock such as cattle up to market weight, or the weight at which they are ready to be slaughtered, by feeding them. Some ranching operations specialize in finishing, buying young weanlings from a breeder, fattening them on fodder or forage, and then selling them to a slaughterhouse. + +fire farming +The use of fire to clear patches of land for cultivation. See also slash-and-burn and shifting cultivation. + +fired +(of a plant's lower stems or stalks) Extremely dry or desiccated due to drought or nutrient deficiency. + +fish emulsion +A nutrient-rich emulsion used as a fertilizer for plant crops, produced from the liquid remains of fish which have been industrially processed for fish oil or fish meal. + +fish farming +See pisciculture. + +fixing +See neutering. + +flash grazing +The practice of moving numerous head of grazing livestock into the same area of pasture for a very brief period before moving them to a new area, in order to prevent the excessive growth of forage. See also undergrazing. + +flat planting +The sowing of seed upon flat, unfurrowed land using a planter that minimizes disturbance to the smooth soil surface. + +flood irrigation +Any method of surface irrigation that covers the entire cultivated soil surface with water, usually to a specific depth and for a specific duration. Flood irrigation may be carefully controlled, as with basin irrigation and border irrigation, or may simply rely on the natural flooding of adjacent rivers and streams. + +fleece +The shorn wool of an individual sheep, especially when in the form of grease wool (i.e. newly shorn and not yet scoured or processed). + +flock +A group or herd of sheep; or a group of birds such as poultry, especially when travelling together. + +floriculture +Also flower farming. +A branch of horticulture involving the cultivation of flowering plants and ornamental plants for gardens and landscaping as well as for commercial floristry. + +flushing +In animal husbandry, the practice of changing the diet fed to female livestock prior to breeding, with the intention of stimulating the estrous cycle and increasing ovulation rate. + +foal +A young equine animal (a horse or donkey) of either sex, usually less than one year old. A male foal may be called a colt and a female foal may be called a filly, though these terms may also be used for juvenile animals that are older than one year of age. + +foaling +The process of giving birth in horses or donkeys, by which a pregnant mare gives birth to a foal. + +fodder +Also provender, animal feed, or simply feed. +Any agricultural foodstuff used to feed domesticated livestock, and more specifically food given to the animals directly (such as hay, straw, silage, and compound feeds), as opposed to that which they forage for themselves. + +food security +The availability of edible food within a country or other geographic area and the ability of humans within that area to access, afford, and attain sufficient, safe, and nutritious foodstuffs, either by gathering, producing, or importing them, in order to meet their dietary needs for active and healthy lifestyles. + +food systems +The totality of interconnected principles, processes, and infrastructures that influence food, nutrition, health, and agriculture in human communities; i.e. the complete set of components involved in feeding a human population, including the growth, management, harvesting, processing, packaging, storage, distribution, marketing, consumption, and disposal of agricultural food products and food-related items. Food systems encompass the entire range of actors and their value-adding activities in the lifespan of a food product from production to consumption, and thus operate within and are influenced by numerous social, political, economic, technological, and environmental contexts at various steps in the process. + +foodscaping +Also edible landscaping. +The practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes, cultivating them not only for the food they produce but also for their aesthetic qualities. + +foodshed +The geographic region which produces most or all of the food consumed in a particular place or by a particular population, by analogy with a watershed. + +food-feed system +An integrated livestock-crop production system in which crops are harvested for human consumption and then the crop residues or byproducts are used as feed for livestock, often on the same or nearby agricultural land. + +foliar feeding +The practice of providing supplemental nutrition to plants by applying liquid fertilizer directly to their leaves, stems, or bark, as opposed to their roots, which are the usual target for conventional fertilizing methods. Most plants are perfectly capable of absorbing nutrients through these aboveground parts, and there may be good reasons to prefer that the nutrients travel by these routes rather than through the soil surrounding the roots. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f902f2095 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 15/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +forage +Any plant material, especially leaves and stems, eaten by grazing livestock, especially that which is grazed by animals in pastures. In a looser sense it may also include fodder (plant material deliberately cut and given to animals as food). + +forcing +The practice of intentionally breaking the dormancy of a cultivated plant and encouraging germination, active growth, and/or flowering and fruiting outside of its natural growing season (e.g. in the winter). This involves exposing a seed or other propagule, or a mature perennial plant, to a specific sequence of carefully controlled environmental conditions (e.g. cold stratification) intended to simulate the environmental cues the plant normally receives at the beginning of its seasonal growth cycle, which trigger the internal chemical reactions that cause it to grow and develop. The term is used particularly in the indoor horticulture of plants that grow from bulbs, corms, or rhizomes, but can also refer more broadly to the off-season cultivation of any plant or propagule. + +forest farming +A practice in agroforestry involving the cultivation of high-value specialty crops under a forest canopy that is deliberately modified or maintained to provide habitat and shade levels which enhance crop yields. Most crops produced by such methods are non-timber forest products or niche crops such as ginseng and certain varieties of mushroom. + +founder +Also laminitis. +Inflammation of connective tissues known as laminae in the hoof of an animal, especially horses and cattle, which over time can displace bones in the foot and in severe cases render the animal unable to walk or stand up. It can have many causes, including cold weather, excessive stress, and overeating grain or green forage. + +free range +A method of animal farming and animal husbandry in which the animals are permitted to roam freely outdoors, rather than being confined in enclosures, for at least part of each day. Though in practice the outdoor ranging area is usually fenced-in and therefore technically also an enclosure, free-range systems offer the opportunity for extensive locomotion, fresh air, and sunlight that is otherwise reduced or entirely prevented by indoor housing systems. The term may apply to farming for meat, eggs, or dairy products; in ranching, it is sometimes used interchangeably with open range. + +freemartin +An infertile female bovine animal (a cow) that shows masculinized behavior, in particular one that is born as a twin to a male animal and, despite being phenotypically female, is actually a genetic chimera, having acquired some XY cells by exchange of cellular material with the male twin in utero, causing various hormonal alterations to normal female reproductive development. + +freshening +The process by which cows naturally begin to produce milk after a calf is born. + +frost control +Any of a variety of measures taken to reduce or prevent damage to agricultural crops caused by extremely cold temperatures, especially plants on farms, in gardens, and in orchards. Common frost control methods include covering crop plants with cold frames, keeping soils wet with continuous irrigation, and providing supplementary heat sources such as smudge pots. + +fruticulture +See pomology. + +fryer +A chicken of either sex between 8 and 12 weeks of age and weighing 3 to 4 pounds (1.4 to 1.8 kg), especially one raised specifically for meat production. The term is often used interchangeably with broiler. + +fuelwood +Any wood intended for use in cooking, heating, or power generation, valuable for its ability to produce large amounts of energy when burned. It may come from trees cultivated specifically for this purpose, or from wild trees and shrubs, either as trimmings from the woody trunks and branches of live plants or from dead logs, brush, or other woody debris. + +fungiculture +The cultivation of fungi with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, such as foods, medicines, or scientific research materials. + +fur farming +The practice of breeding or raising certain animal species in order to harvest their fur. + +furrow irrigation +A type of irrigation which relies on long, shallow, parallel channels, known as furrows, dug into the soil along the length of an agricultural field to deliver water to crops planted on the ridges between the furrows. Water is applied to one end of the furrows, which are often aligned in the direction of the field's predominant natural slope, and flows down the furrows by gravity. Furrow irrigation is particularly suited to broadacre row crops such as cotton, maize, and sugarcane. + +== G == + +garden +Any indoor or outdoor space reserved for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of wild or domesticated plants and other organisms; i.e. a plot of land dedicated to horticulture, being managed and maintained by humans in a practice known as gardening, generally on a scale smaller than most farming operations. + +gardening +The horticultural practice of growing and cultivating plants in a garden, indoors or outdoors, whether for consumption of the produce or for aesthetic reasons, and often as a hobby or to make use of available space on residential, commercial, or civic land. Gardening involves active participation in the entire process of cultivation and tends to be labor-intensive, which distinguishes it from the much larger-scale mechanized or automated operations often encountered in farming and forestry. + +gelding +1. A castrated male horse, or more generally any animal deliberately made sterile, especially one that was castrated before reaching reproductive maturity. +2. The process of castrating or neutering an animal for any reason, commonly for mitigating aggressive behavior and/or preventing unwanted intercourse in very large domestic livestock such as cattle and horses. + +genetically modified organism (GMO) + +germination +The sprouting of a seedling from a plant seed, the development of a sporeling from a spore, or the growth of a pollen tube from the pollen grain of a seed plant. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b5b7a892d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 16/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +gestation crate +Also farrowing crate or sow stall. +An enclosure in which a domestic sow used for breeding is confined during pregnancy. Often these cages are not much larger than the sow herself, being designed to maximize breeding efficiency for industrial-scale production, and hence are banned in some jurisdictions for being detrimental to animal welfare. See also maternity pen. + +ghost acres +That land area in less developed countries on which agricultural products are produced cheaply for export to more developed countries. + +gilt +A young female hog, usually less than one year old. + +ginning +The process of separating cotton fibers from the seeds they naturally enclose, particularly when performed by a machine which does so automatically, known as a cotton gin. Both the fibers and seeds may then be processed further. + +glasshouse +See greenhouse. + +gleaning +The practice of collecting unharvested crops from fields or obtaining unused agricultural products from farmers, processors, or retailers, often for distribution to food banks or charitable organizations. + +glyphosate +An organophosphorus compound widely used as a post-emergent broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant, especially to kill annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crop plants. It is the primary ingredient in the herbicide Roundup. + +goad +Also cattle prod or simply prod. +A pointed stick, sometimes electrified, used to drive or guide livestock, especially cattle, both draft animals and grazing herds. + +gobbler +A mature male turkey. + +good agricultural practice (GAP) +Any collection of specific principles or methods applied by agricultural producers in order to create food or non-food products that are safe, healthy, and wholesome for consumers while also taking into account economic, social, and environmental sustainability. GAPs may be applied to a wide range of production systems and at different scales, and often vary with geographical context. + +grain +Any small, hard, dry seed (with or without the outer shell or other parts of the fruit) that is harvested for human or animal consumption, or the plant from which these seeds are harvested. Crops considered grains include all cereals (such as maize, wheat, and rice) as well as pseudocereals (amaranth, buckwheat, quinoa), certain legumes (soybeans and lentils), and certain oilseed plants (rapeseed and flax). + +grain drying +The process of removing or reducing the moisture content of harvested grain to prevent spoilage during storage. Drying may occur by natural means, e.g. exposing the grain to air and sunshine, or by artificial fuel- or electric-powered processes, or both. + +grain elevator +Also simply elevator. +A tower containing a bucket elevator or pneumatic conveyor designed to carry harvested grain upwards from a lower level (often from some type of transport) and deposit it into a silo or grain bin for long-term storage. The term may also refer more specifically to the elevator mechanism itself, known as a grain leg; or more generally to a complex of agricultural buildings containing an elevator, as well as offices, weighbridges, and storage facilities, or to a business or organization that operates or controls multiple elevators in different locations. Grain elevators facilitate the mechanical movement of bulk quantities of grain into vertical storage bins with valves at the bottom, which function as enormous hoppers from which the grain can later be dispensed into trucks or barges by gravity alone, obviating the difficult and time-consuming labor of manually lifting and moving individual containers of grain from place to place. The introduction of this system in the 19th century popularized the modern collective storage model whereby a grain elevator rents storage space to farmers and millers, who pay to store their harvested grain at the elevator instead of in their own barns. +grain leg +Also grain elevator or bucket elevator. +A mechanism for hauling flowable bulk materials vertically, commonly grain as the central operation of a grain elevator. Modern grain legs typically consist of a pneumatic conveyor belt with attached bins or buckets which lift grain from an in-ground pit and carry it to the top of the leg, where the buckets tip as they rotate over the head drive wheel, spilling the grain into a system of pipes which distribute it by gravity or additional conveyors to grain bins for storage. + +grain spear +An instrument used to measure the temperature and moisture content of stored grain, consisting of a thermometer and hygrometer attached to the end of a long rod which is pushed into the center of a bulk volume of the grain. + +granary +A storage facility for threshed or husked grain. + +grass-fed +Describing livestock such as cattle which have been raised exclusively on grass, pasture, or other forages (wild or cultivated), as opposed to being fed processed animal feeds. + +grass sickness +Also equine dysautonomia. +A rare but often fatal neurological disease resulting in paralysis of the involuntary muscles of the digestive system, capable of affecting all ruminant mammals but especially equines such as horses, ponies, and donkeys. Symptoms include colic, patchy sweating, muscle wasting, dysphagia, and rapid weight loss. The exact cause remains unknown but the soil-borne bacterium Clostridium botulinum (responsible for botulism) has been suggested. + +grazier +Also pastoralist or runholder. +A person engaged in pastoral farming and the raising of grazing livestock. The term is used primarily in Australia and other former British Commonwealth territories, and has the same meaning as the North American term rancher. + +grazing +1. A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds on grasses and other non-woody vegetation, as opposed to browsing, which involves feeding on taller trees and shrubs. +2. A method of animal husbandry which relies on this type of herbivory, whereby domestic livestock such as cattle are allowed to roam freely, often on wild pasture that is unsuitable for farming, in order to graze wild grasses and other forage. + +grease wool +Wool recently shorn from a sheep, before any processing. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..02f2135d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 17/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +green chop +Forage that is cut or harvested in the field while still green and succulent and then fed directly to livestock as fresh fodder (in contrast to hay and other types of feed which have been dried and stored). If wrapped and allowed to ferment, it can be made into silage. + +green manure +Fresh or recently living plant material sourced from crop residues or even whole plants which is ploughed or tilled into the soil while still green (and usually when the plant tissues have reached peak maturity, often shortly after flowering and before developing seeds) so that it can serve as a mulch or an organic fertilizer. This is in contrast to brown manure, which consists of wilted or decayed plants that are simply left on the soil surface. Plants used for green manure are often cover crops grown specifically for this purpose and tilled into the same field in which a cash crop is subsequently cultivated. + +Green Revolution +Also called the Third Agricultural Revolution. +The dramatic increase in agricultural production that occurred worldwide during the second half of the 20th century, primarily due to the adoption of modern scientific methods of farming and large-scale management techniques; the development of high-yielding varieties of many crop plants (especially cereal grains); the expansion of irrigation infrastructures; the mechanization of many agricultural tasks with modern agricultural machinery; and the increase in the availability and use of chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, all of which led to a marked increase in production rates, farm yields, food quality and consistency, and crop prices in most parts of the world. The Green Revolution also accordingly led to an increase in land conversion and consolidation and the emergence of mass-market industrial agriculture, as well as to concerns about sustainability and the impact of agricultural practices on public health and the environment. + +greenhouse +Also glasshouse. +A building or structure designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of the environment inside, generally by having roofs and walls made of transparent panes of glass or plastic which permit sunlight to enter the interior but prevent heat from leaving it, effectively trapping solar energy inside and thereby heating the interior space to temperatures well above those of the outdoor environment. Thus greenhouses provide warm, sheltered environments where plants can grow even when the outdoor weather is cold and unsuitable, while still permitting enough sunlight for photosynthesis. This greenhouse effect is widely employed in agriculture and horticulture at many different scales (e.g. in cold frames and polytunnels) as a method of season extension or of controlled-environment agriculture. Greenhouses are usually designed to be easily ventilated (to prevent temperatures from increasing too much) and to supply or trap moisture as well as heat; in modern practice these systems are often fully automated. + +grelinette +See broadfork. + +grist +Grain that has been separated from its chaff in preparation for grinding in a mill; less commonly, the term is also used to describe grain after the process of grinding, i.e. grain that has already been ground. + +gristmill +A mill that grinds grist (grain that has been separated from its chaff) into flour and middlings. The term may refer to either the grinding mechanism itself or the building that contains it. + +groundcover +Wild or cultivated plants covering an area of land, thereby protecting the soil beneath from erosion and drought. See also cover crop. + +growing degree-days (GDD) + +growing season +The part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e. temperature and precipitation) permit the normal growth of plants in a given location. Though the timing of plant growth and reproduction can vary widely by species, many plants adapted to the same environment show considerable phenological overlap, and so the term commonly refers to a single generic season that encompasses a majority of the plants or crops growing in a given location. In many places, the local "growing season" is defined as the period of time between the average date of the last frost (typically in the spring or early summer) and the average date of the first frost (typically in the autumn). + +== H == + +hake bar +A coupling device which links a trailed plough to a tractor. + +hardpan +Also plough pan. +Any dense, resistant layer of soil, usually found below the uppermost topsoil, that is difficult to dig or till and largely impervious to water and root growth. Hardpans can vary in thickness and depth below the surface; some form naturally from deposits such as silica that fuse and bind the soil particles, while others are human-made such as those caused by chronic soil compaction as a result of repeated ploughing, heavy traffic, or pollution. + +harrow +A farm implement used to break up and smooth out the surface of a plot of soil. Harrowing often follows coarser ploughing, generally with the purpose of breaking up large lumps of soil so as to provide a better tilth that is suitable for use as a seedbed, and sometimes also to remove weeds or to cover seed after sowing. + +harvest +1. To collect an agricultural product from a mature crop, a process known as harvesting. +2. The collected crop itself, considered as a whole; or the season in which harvesting occurs, generally marking the final phase of the agricultural cycle or growing season for the particular crop. The harvest is often the busiest time of year on a commercial farm. + +harvest index +The weight of the harvested grain portion of a grain crop as a percentage of the total above-ground dry weight of the crop plants at maturity. + +harvested acres +For a particular crop, the number of acres of cropland that are actually harvested, as opposed to planted but not harvested. At the national level, this statistic is usually lower than the total number of planted acres due to abandonment caused by weather damage or low market prices at some point during the growing season, or because the crop is repurposed for livestock grazing. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..364ab823d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 18/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +harvesting +The process of gathering a ripe crop from an agricultural area such as a field or greenhouse. Harvesting is often the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season or utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated implements or machinery. In general usage, the term may also include immediate postharvest practices such as cleaning, sorting, packing, cooling, and storing the gathered crops. + +haulm +The stalks and stems left as residues by the harvesting of certain crops, especially peas, beans, and potatoes. + +hay +Grasses, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored as fodder for animals, especially livestock. + +hay bucking +The manual labor of lifting and moving heavy bales of hay by hand, each usually weighing 50–150 pounds (23–68 kg), for the purpose of stacking them in a storage area or on the bed of a vehicle for transportation. The act of throwing bales up above one's head to stack them is called "bucking hay". This labor is notoriously strenuous and physically demanding. Teams of laborers often work together, wearing chaps and using hay hooks to handle the bales. The same task may also be accomplished mechanically with forklifts, balers, or powered elevators. + +hay fever +Another name for allergic rhinitis, a type of inflammation predominantly in the nose and eyes resulting from an immune reaction to any of a wide variety of airborne allergens, including but not limited to pollen grains from grasses and other plants. The term is often used to describe the sudden onset of symptoms following inhalation of the dry particulate dust associated with manufacturing and handling hay, though it is now also used colloquially to refer to allergic reactions of any cause. + +hay knife +A handheld agricultural tool consisting of a long-bladed knife, sometimes with a serrated edge, that is used for cutting or sawing through compact bundles, sheaves, or bales of hay or silage. + +hay rake +A type of rake used to collect cut hay or straw into windrows for later collection (e.g. by a baler) and/or to "fluff up" the hay so that it dries more quickly. + +hay steaming +A method of treating harvested hay by placing it in an airtight vessel and exposing it to high-temperature moisture, which dampens the respirable dust that occurs naturally in dried hay, preventing it from becoming airborne and thereby reducing its inhalation by humans and livestock, and also potentially killing bacterial or fungal spores which may be present. + +hay-sweep +A handheld implement used to collect hay from swaths and carry it to a haystack. + +haycock +Also haystack or simply stack or cock. +A small pile of hay, uncompressed and left to dry in a field. + +haylage +Silage with a high dry-matter content, made from the same grasses or legumes from which hay is made (such as alfalfa, timothy, and others) but not dried as much as hay nor as little as direct-chop/green-chop silage (before being ensiled). + +hayloft +Also haymow. +A storage area in the upper part of a barn or stable, used for storing hay or other fodder. + +hayrack + +hayseed +The seed of those grasses and legumes which are used for producing hay, especially when shaken from mown hay, and therefore sometimes inclusive of weed seed. + +haystack +Also hayrick or simply rick. +1. Another name for a stook or haycock, or more broadly for any pile of mown hay left in a field to dry, whether loosely stacked or bound and compacted. +2. A large number of sheaves or bales of dried hay stacked vertically one upon another, either manually or mechanically, for long-term storage. Methods of storing hay vary widely between different parts of the world, though in general they all have the same goals of keeping the hay dry and preventing spoilage. To this end haystacks are often constructed inside a barn or beneath a tarp, shelter, or moveable roof so as to protect them from the elements, and sometimes also on top of a wood or metal foundation rather than the bare ground. Small rectangular bales are stacked in a manner akin to bricklaying, overlapping or in a crisscrossed fashion, for structural stability. + +headland +Also turnrow. +A wide strip of land at each end of a planted field used for turning or maneuvering large farm machinery such as ploughs. The headland runs perpendicular to the lay of the field and may itself be planted at the beginning of the season; in such cases it is usually the first area to be harvested in order to minimize crop damage. + +headrace +The part of a millrace that is upstream of the water wheel or turbine that drives the mill; the channel or sluice that conducts water from a water source to the mill. Compare tailrace. + +hectare (ha) +A metric unit of area defined as the area of a square with sides of 100 by 100 metres (330 by 330 feet), equivalent to 10,000 square metres (0.003861 sq mi), or about 2.47 acres. + +heifer +An adult cow that has not yet given birth to her first calf. + +hefting +The process by which a flock of sheep becomes accustomed to one particular area within a larger pasture or rangeland, making individuals less likely to roam to distant areas and the flock easier to track and manage. + +heirloom + +heliciculture +The cultivation of land snails with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, usually food or cosmetics, or as a form of biological pest control. + +hemerochory +The distribution by humans, intentionally or unintentionally, of cultivated plants or their seeds, cuttings, or propagules into habitats they have been unable to colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but in which they are nonetheless able to survive and propagate without additional support from human activities. + +hen +1. A mature female chicken or other fowl. +2. A female lobster. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d771d8623 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 19/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +herbicide +A pesticide intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of unwanted plants such as weeds, by any of a wide variety of mechanisms. The most common herbicides are chemical substances which are applied directly to the foliage, stems, or roots of the target plant or to the soil or water around it. Selective herbicides are designed to be effective only against particular plant species or taxa, while leaving other plants such as agricultural crops relatively unharmed. By contrast, non-selective or broad-spectrum herbicides are capable of harming many or all types of plants, such that care must be taken when applying them so as to avoid harming valuable species. The use of chemical herbicides is a major aspect of weed control. + +herbicide resistance +The development of a biological resistance to the deleterious effects of a herbicide, particularly in weeds or undesirable plants specifically targeted by and normally vulnerable to the herbicide. Such resistance is a common consequence of prolonged use of the same chemical formulation to control the same plant species, because doing so may artificially select for individual plants which express resistance traits. + +herding +Also mustering. +The act of gathering individual animals together into a group (known as a herd), maintaining the group as a unit, and/or moving the group from place to place. Many social animals, including cattle, sheep, and horses, naturally live in herds. Raising these animals as livestock involves a significant amount of time and energy managing and arranging herds, e.g. to separate animals by sex, breed, ownership, or medical status, or to move them between different grazing lands or to a marketplace. + +hide +The skin of an animal, especially when removed from the animal and tanned or treated for human use, after which it is also known as leather. Domestic animals, particularly cattle, horses, sheep, and goats, are sometimes raised specifically for their hides. + +high tunnel +See polytunnel. + +high-yielding variety (HYV) + +hill farming +A type of extensive agriculture practiced in hilly, upland areas unsuitable for intensive management, typically involving the grazing of livestock and especially sheep. + +hilling +Also ridging or earthing up. +The piling of soil around the base of a plant, creating a small mound or ridge of earth, so as to aid plant growth in any of a variety of ways, often by improving retention of water or soil amendments. + +hinny +A domestic hybrid equine that is the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey; i.e. the reciprocal cross to the mule. + +hobby farm +A small farm or smallholding that is operated without the expectation of it being a primary source of food or income. Hobby farms may provide a secondary income or may be maintained for other reasons, e.g. in order to provide recreational land for people or animals, or simply for the pleasure of doing so, i.e. as a hobby or passion project. + +hoe +A handheld tool or farm implement generally consisting of a flat, moderately sharpened metal blade, often square or pointed, that is attached at an acute angle to a long handle intended to be held with two hands. Hoes come in many shapes and sizes and are widely used in agriculture and horticulture for a huge variety of purposes, including digging, shaping, and tilling soil, removing weeds, harvesting crops by cutting stems or roots, and clearing the soil after harvest by burying or raking crop residues. + +hog +Another name for a pig or domesticated swine, especially one weighing at least 120 pounds (54 kg) and being prepared for market. + +hog off +To harvest a grain crop by allowing domestic pigs to eat it when the grain is nearly ripe, often because it is a poor crop that is not worth harvesting for market. + +hogget +A domestic sheep between one and two years old that has not yet been sheared, or the meat or wool of such an animal. + +hogging +Also roaching. +The complete removal of the mane of a horse or pony by cutting, usually to keep the animal clean or for aesthetic reasons. + +home-grown +Cultivated or produced locally, as with crops or livestock raised on one's own property (especially on land that also serves as the grower's place of residence, e.g. in a household garden), on a nearby farm, or in the same state or nation where they are offered for sale and consumption. + +honey plant +Any plant used by bees as a source of nectar for making honey, especially one that imparts a distinctive flavor to the honey made from it. Examples include alfalfa, buckwheat, clover, goldenrod, mesquite, and sumac. + +honey wagon +See manure spreader. + +hoophouse +See polytunnel. + +hop kiln +See oast. + +hopper +A container with a hole at the bottom used to distribute bulk quantities of granular or particulate material by gravity at a consistent rate. Hoppers are employed in a wide variety of applications, commonly for sowing seeds; spreading granulated or pelletized fertilizers, pesticides, or other soil amendments; and feeding livestock. + +horticulture +The cultivation of plants for any purpose, including for food, materials, and decoration. Horticulturists apply a variety of knowledge, skills, and technologies relevant to plant growth and propagation, typically in intensively managed gardens, in order to grow plants for subsistence purposes, for profit, for scientific research, or for personal or social needs. + +hot dressed carcass weight +See dressed weight. + +hotbed +An area of decaying organic matter (e.g. manure) that is warmer than its surroundings as a result of the decomposition of organic substances by microorganisms. Hotbeds enclosed by a small glass cover are often used as a kind of natural hothouse. + +hothouse +A heated greenhouse. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9825b300c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 20/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +humus +1. A characteristically dark-colored, nutrient-rich organic matter in soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals; a topsoil horizon containing a large accumulation of organic carbon. +2. In agriculture, any natural compost gathered from a woodland or some spontaneous source and used as a soil amendment to aid crop nutrition and improve moisture retention. +3. The solid residues that are a byproduct of the sewage sludge treatment of wastewater, which are also sometimes composted and added to agricultural soils. + +hundredweight (cwt) +Also centum weight or quintal. +A unit of weight or mass used in the United States and British Commonwealth territories and defined differently in each: the short hundredweight or cental, used in the U.S. customary system, is defined as exactly 100 pounds (45.4 kilograms), while the long or imperial hundredweight, used in the British imperial system, is defined as 112 pounds (50.8 kilograms). In agriculture, the weight of harvested crops or produce is sometimes reported in hundredweight. + +husbandry + +husk +The protective outer coating or shell of a seed, especially of a cereal grain such as wheat, or the leafy outer casing that surrounds an ear of maize. The husk is generally removed and discarded during the harvest by threshing, winnowing, or husking. + +hybrid +An offspring resulting from sexual reproduction between parent organisms belonging to different breeds, strains, varieties, species, or genera, thereby combining different biological characteristics in a single organism. The traits of hybrids are often mixtures of their parents' traits or are intermediate between them, though they may also differ substantially from either parent, as with hybrid vigor. + +hybrid vigor +Also heterosis or outbreeding enhancement. +Improved or increased size, strength, durability, yield, or any other biological function or quality in a hybrid offspring, relative to the same characteristics as observed in its parents. + +hydroponics + +== I == + +idle land +Land that is arable, tillable, or generally in a condition suitable for the cultivation of agricultural crops without first requiring major modifications such as clearing of vegetation or rocks or drainage of water, but which nonetheless is not being cultivated, fallowed, or used as pasture. + +in-bye +An area of enclosed land surrounded by a hedge or fence near a farmstead, most commonly used as permanent pasture. The term is used primarily in the United Kingdom, where it usually refers to relatively sheltered pasture below the more open moorland to which sheep or cattle may be moved for the winter or during inclement weather. + +incubator +In the poultry industry, a heated space in which newly laid eggs are placed in order to keep them warm and sheltered prior to hatching, simulating natural avian incubation in a controlled environment at optimal temperature and humidity and sometimes featuring an automated mechanism capable of periodically turning the eggs as well. + +indicator species +Any species whose natural (i.e. uncultivated) presence or status can reveal the qualitative health or condition of its local environment, often by suggesting the existence of one or more specific environmental characteristics, e.g. wetness, salinity, acidity, etc. + +industrial agriculture + +industrial crop +Also technical crop. +Any crop that is specifically grown in order to yield a useful product for human industrial processes, such as fuels, fibers, oils, rubber, chemicals, resins, waxes, or dyes; the term generally also includes energy crops. + +input + +insecticide +A pesticide intended to kill or incapacitate insects, either by targeting adult insects or by preventing the growth and development of insect eggs or larvae. Insecticides may be effective against a broad spectrum of different types of insects or may target particular species or taxa. In common usage, the term may also include pesticides intended for other kinds of arthropods which are not technically insects, such as mites and ticks. See also miticide. + +intact +See entire. + +integrated farming (IF) +Also integrated farm management (IFM) or integrated production (IP). +A holistic approach to farming which combines traditional practices with modern tools and technologies in an effort to optimize both productivity and sustainability, ensuring a low environmental impact without compromising the quality or quantity of agricultural products. This philosophy views the farm and its surroundings as an intricately connected agroecosystem and integrates knowledge from numerous disciplines in order to match cultivation techniques as closely as possible to the demands of specific crops and to the farm's specific location and circumstances. Particular emphasis is placed on organic methods, efficient use of resources, careful management of soil integrity and fertility, attention to nutrient cycles, preservation of biodiversity, precision technologies, health and welfare of domestic animals, adherence to ethical criteria, and in general balancing all inputs and activities with the objectives of protecting the environment, maintaining economic profitability, and fulfilling social or cultural requirements. + +intensive agriculture +Also intensive farming. +Any system of agricultural production that uses relatively large inputs of labor, fertilizer, and/or capital per unit land area and is accordingly characterized by high production outputs, in contrast to extensive agriculture. In the developed world, most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways. + +intensive animal farming +Also factory farming. +An intensive approach to animal husbandry and the production of animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs, practiced at very large scales and intended to maximize productivity while minimizing expenses. It is generally characterized by raising very large numbers of livestock (e.g. cattle, pigs, poultry, and fish) simultaneously at high densities (e.g. on feedlots), using modern machinery to mechanize or automate agricultural tasks, and incorporating biotechnology methods (e.g. growth hormones) to increase yields, decrease production times, and prevent losses from pests and disease. Primarily practiced by corporate agribusinesses in the developed world, its outputs are often marketed globally and are major contributors to worldwide food surpluses, though it has also been criticized for environmental and ethical issues. + +intercropping +Also interculture. +A type of multiple cropping involving the cultivation of two or more crops in proximity, usually with the goal of producing a greater yield within a given area of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a68052515 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 3/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +animal-free agriculture +Also veganic farming. +Any agricultural practice or farming method that does not make use of animals or animal products, such as farmed animal manures. Animal-free agriculture may use organic or non-organic techniques. + +apiculture +Also beekeeping. +The maintenance of colonies of bees, commonly in human-made beehives, by humans for any of a variety of purposes, including collecting honey or other products created by bees, pollinating crops, and breeding bees for sale. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary and a person who practices apiculture is called an apiarist or beekeeper. + +aquaculture +Also aquafarming. +The cultivation of aquatic organisms in either freshwater or saltwater habitats, including fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, and others, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans. Branches of aquaculture include pisciculture, algaculture, and mariculture. + +aquaponics +A variant of hydroponic agriculture that recycles nutrient-rich waters sourced from an aquaculture operation and uses them to feed hydroponically grown plants. + +arable land +Any land which is capable of producing viable agricultural crops in its present state, and which does not require substantial clearing or other improvements apart from routine tillage operations. This may include both natural, unaltered landscapes that are fertile enough to immediately support agriculture, as well as land that has been made arable by previous modification and cultivation. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and agricultural land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct. + +arboricide +1. A pesticide intended to kill trees, shrubs, or other woody plants. See also herbicide. +2. The intentional or unintentional killing of trees. + +artificial daylight supplementation + +artificial selection +Also selective breeding. +The process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively control the development of particular phenotypic traits in organisms by choosing which individual organisms will reproduce and create offspring. Artificial selection involves the deliberate exploitation of knowledge about genetics and reproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics in descendant organisms. It is widely practiced in agriculture, but it may also be unintentional and may produce unintended results. + +assarting +The act of clearing forested land in order to prepare it for agriculture or other purposes. + +== B == + +backfat +The fat covering the back of a live animal or a carcass, especially beef cattle. The amount of backfat on an animal is often used as a metric for estimating yield before it is slaughtered. + +backgrounding +The preparation of young cattle for living in a feedlot by getting them accustomed to confinement facilities and processed feed. + +bale +1. A large cylindrical or rectangular bundle of compressed hay, straw, cotton, wool, or other plant or animal fibers which have been compacted and bound together by twine, wire, netting, or plastic wrap for easy movement and handling. Bales are usually made by machines known as balers. +2. A unit of measurement of hay, equal to 10 flakes or approximately 70–90 pounds (32–41 kilograms). + +baler +Also hay baler. +A large farm machine used to cut and compress raked crops, commonly hay, cotton, and silage, into compact bales that are easier to handle, transport, and store. Balers may be towed by or mounted upon a tractor, or they may be self-propelled; they can produce bales of various shapes and sizes, variously bound with twine, strapping, netting, or baling wire. + +bale wrapper +A tractor-drawn implement which automates the action of completely surrounding bales of hay with plastic, triggering the natural anoxic fermentation that turns hay into silage. + +barbed wire +Also sometimes barb wire. +A type of agricultural fencing consisting of two to five metal rungs or strands, each made from paired steel wires twisted together, with sharp, pointed, nail-like barbs attached at regular intervals. The barbs are intended to poke or scratch livestock and wild animals, discouraging them from climbing or destroying the fence. Barbed wire is widely popular on rangeland and in many other contexts because it is much cheaper and easier to erect than alternative types of fencing. + +barn +A large agricultural building serving any of a wide variety of purposes, especially as storage space for hay, grain, harvested crops, animal feed, or farm equipment, or as a shelter to house livestock. + +barnyard +A fenced-in lot or pen adjacent to a barn, used especially to enclose livestock. + +barrow +A young male domestic pig that has been castrated. + +bearing acres +Agricultural land or acreage on which plants are being cultivated and are of sufficient maturity to produce a commercially viable crop (even if they are not yet producing at their full capacity). + +beaverslide +A device used to build very large stacks of loose, unbaled hay to be stored in place in a field, consisting of an inclined plane up which a load of hay is pushed by a pulley-operated platform or basket, as much as 30 feet (9.1 m) in height, in order to be dropped through a large gap to the ground; successive loads are piled on top of each other and allowed to compress naturally under their own weight. The resulting haystacks, which can weigh up to 20 tons, are weatherproof and can be left in the open for multiple seasons. Beaverslides were once widely used in the northwestern United States. + +beef cattle +Cattle bred or raised specifically for their meat, known as beef, in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as for their milk or so that they can be employed as working animals. + +beefalo +Also catalo. +A hybrid offspring of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) and the American bison (Bison bison); when intentional, usually obtained by crossing a male bovine with a female bison. + +beekeeping +See apiculture. + +biennial bearing +Describing a perennial crop that alternates from year to year between extremely productive growing seasons with very high yields and extremely unproductive growing seasons where yields are relatively low and harvests are small. Many fruit trees, including apples, pears, mangoes, and apricots, as well as coffee, bear flowers and fruits that exhibit this irregular production. + +billy goat +See buck. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fdbe2a98a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 21/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +irrigation +The application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals, especially for the purposes of growing agricultural crops, maintaining landscapes, or revegetating disturbed or drought-affected soils. Irrigation systems may also be used as a means of protecting crops from frost, suppressing the growth of weeds, preventing soil consolidation, providing water to livestock and keeping them cool in hot weather, and controlling airborne dust. + +== J == + +jack +A male donkey. + +jenny +Also jennet. +A female donkey. + +== K == + +kernel +The edible seed and the hard outer husk or shell of a cereal grain, especially wheat and maize; i.e. the whole grain of a cereal crop. + +kid +A juvenile goat of either sex. + +kidding +The process of giving birth in goats, by which a pregnant doe gives birth to a kid. + +== L == + +lamb +1. A young sheep, usually less than one year old. +2. The meat from a young sheep less than one year old; or, in common usage, from a sheep of any age. + +lairage +A holding pen or other accommodation where livestock are rested before slaughter, usually adjacent to a slaughterhouse, market, or port. + +lambing +The process of giving birth in sheep, by which a pregnant ewe gives birth to a lamb. + +land improvement +The process by which an area of land is altered from a natural or semi-natural state in order to make it usable for human purposes, e.g. to convert it into arable land for agriculture. Improvement for agricultural purposes typically involves extensive clearing of trees and other vegetation, removal of large rocks, tilling of soils, and/or flattening or terracing of the natural topography. + +landrace +A traditional domesticated variety of a crop species that has become locally adapted over time to its specific natural and agricultural environment and has remained isolated from other wild and domesticated populations of the species. Landraces are often distinguished from cultivars and breeds in the standardized sense, although the term landrace breed is sometimes used when referring to cattle. Compare heirloom variety. + +lard +A white, semi-solid fat product obtained by rendering the fatty tissue of swine, comparable to the tallow derived from cattle or sheep. + +layer +A mature female chicken that lays eggs regularly. A good layer typically produces 200–250 eggs per year. + +leaching + +liming +The application of calcium- and magnesium-rich minerals (collectively known as lime) to soil, in any of a variety of forms, including marl, chalk, limestone, burnt lime, or hydrated lime, usually as a means of increasing soil pH. By acting as bases, these materials can help to neutralize very acidic soils, improving plant growth and increasing the activity of soil microbes. Structure liming can also improve aggregate stability in clay soils. + +linear aeration +The process of aerating soil by applying organic matter or soil amendments directly to the soil surface (typically during fallow periods), then mechanically cutting long, narrow, linear grooves or channels into the soil profile to permit infiltration of the additives into the deeper layers of the soil, and finally recovering or refilling the grooves within the same operation. Linear aeration is employed in both gardens and lawns to aid penetration of fertilizers and soil softeners, to improve water retention, and to alleviate soil compaction in heavily traveled areas, while minimizing disturbances to soil structure. + +lint +Ginned cotton, i.e. the fibers themselves after the seeds have been removed. + +liquid manure +A mixture of animal faeces and various other organic matter such as crop residues, commonly aged in a slurry pit and then diluted with water, which is used as an agricultural fertilizer. + +livestock +Any domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting in order to produce labor and/or agricultural commodities such as meat, milk, eggs, fur, leather, and wool. In certain contexts the term may be used more narrowly to refer exclusively to animals that are bred for consumption, or only to farmed ruminants such as cattle and goats; sheep, pigs, and horses are also often considered livestock, while poultry and fish are usually excluded. + +liveweight +The weight of a live animal prior to slaughter. The price paid for the meat of slaughtered animals is commonly based on either a liveweight or deadweight basis. + +living mulch +A cover crop that is interplanted or undersown with a main crop in an agricultural field with the intention of filling the same role as ordinary mulch, namely weed suppression and regulation of soil temperature and moisture content. Whereas most cover crops are grown while the soil lies fallow and then buried or removed prior to planting a cash crop, living mulch is not removed and instead grown simultaneously with the cash crop. + +lodging +The tendency of the normally erect stems of certain crop plants, especially cereal grains such as wheat, rye, and barley, to bend over and break near ground level and become flattened against the ground, which makes them very difficult to harvest and can dramatically reduce yield. Lodging is most commonly caused by adverse weather conditions such as heavy rainfall, hail, and strong winds, but may also occur due to trampling by animals. + +lumber +Also timber. +Wood that has been processed into uniform sizes suitable for construction, carpentry, or other uses, particularly by sawing cut logs into dimensional boards, planks, beams, etc. which are either rough-sawn or smoothly surfaced on one or more faces. Lumber is referred to as "timber" in many parts of the world, though in the United States and Canada "timber" refers specifically to unprocessed wood in the form of cut logs or standing trees intended for logging. + +lynchet +Also linchet. +A type of agricultural terrace made from earth, or a strip of green, unploughed land left between two areas of ploughed land, often used to mark a temporary boundary between fields. + +== M == + +magnanery +A building or property dedicated to sericulture, in which silk is cultivated and/or manufactured. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..46b013f01 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-21.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 22/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +malt +The sprouted grain of a cereal which has been malted, or any product of the process of malting. The term may also refer more specifically to a viscous mixture of fermentable sugars extracted from the malted grain, rich in maltose, maltotriose, and maltodextrins, or to any of the various products which can be made with this extract, such as malt whisky and malted milk. + +malt house +Also malt barn or maltings. +A building where cereal grain is converted into malt through the process of malting. + +manger +Also trough or feeder. +A trough or bin used to hold animal fodder which permits animals to eat from it; or a structure or building containing such troughs, where numerous livestock are able to feed simultaneously. + +manure +Any organic matter that is used as an organic fertilizer in agriculture, typically consisting of animal excreta, compost, and/or plant material. Manures contribute to soil fertility by adding organic compounds and nutrients such as nitrogen which are essential for plant growth and for the development of ecological networks with soil microorganisms. + +manure spreader +Also muck spreader or honey wagon. +A machine used to distribute manure over an agricultural field as fertilizer. Modern manure spreaders typically consist of a trailer towed behind a tractor with a conveyor and/or rotating mechanism driven by the tractor's power take-off. + +marc +The solid residue that results from processing fruits, sugarcane, or sugar beets, and in particular from trampling and squeezing grapes or olives to extract juice. Marc residues have many uses, including as livestock feed. + +mare +A mature female horse, donkey, or other equine animal. + +mariculture +A specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms in the open ocean, enclosed sections of the ocean, or saltwater tanks or raceways, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly foods but also non-food products such as jewellery and cosmetics. Mariculture includes the farming of marine fish, shellfish, molluscs such as clams and oysters, and seaweed, among many other organisms. + +mash +A poultry feed consisting of a complete ration of ground grain, soybean meal, alfalfa meal, byproducts from meat processing, skimmed milk, limestone, salt, and/or fish oil, often fortified with vitamins and minerals. + +mast +The fruit of forest trees and shrubs, e.g. acorns and nuts, especially when accumulated on the ground. + +maternity pen +A warm, well-bedded enclosure in which pregnant animals about to give birth are kept isolated, preventing other animals from disturbing the mother or otherwise interfering with the birthing process. + +matron +An adult female horse (a mare) that has given birth to a foal. + +maverick +An unbranded calf, cow, or steer on open range, especially one separated from its mother. + +meadow +An open field covered primarily by native grasses, herbs, and other vegetation, with few or no trees and shrubs. Meadows may occur naturally but may also be maintained or artificially created by humans for the production of hay or fodder or to serve as pasture for livestock. + +mechanized agriculture +Also mechanised agriculture. +The use of agricultural machinery to mechanize the work of agriculture, thereby substantially increasing the productivity of an agricultural operation. Modern mechanized agriculture may make use of tractors, combine harvesters, aircraft, computers, and satellite imagery, among other technologies. + +merchantable volume +In silviculture, the amount of wood in a tree or stand of trees (typically expressed in units of volume, e.g. board-feet) that is of a quality suitable for harvesting and marketing as lumber. The term is most commonly used to describe an estimated yield with respect to a particular economic context, which may vary as market conditions and consumer preferences change. + +methyl viologen +See paraquat. + +microbial inoculant +See soil inoculant. + +micro-irrigation +Any method of irrigation that uses lower water pressures and volumes than traditional irrigation systems. Micro-irrigation champions the approach of distributing small volumes of water very slowly via small-gauge tubing or drip tape to precise points, often within or immediately above the plant's root zone, which allows time for water to penetrate slow-percolation soils rather than simply running off and minimizes the risk of overwatering. + +middlings +See wheat middlings. + +milk +A white liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals, which serves as the primary source of nutrition for nursing infants before they are able to digest solid food. Milk is naturally rich in protein, fats, sugars, and many other nutrients. The collection of milk from various mammal species, including cattle, goats, sheep, water buffalo, yaks, camels, horses, and donkeys, among others, is the basis of the dairy industry. + +milk cow +A cow kept primarily for the purpose of producing milk for home use or limited commercial sale, especially when belonging to a herd of cattle being raised for other purposes. + +milking +The process of extracting milk, traditionally by hand but also by automated machine, from the mammary glands of lactating mammals, especially cattle, goats, sheep, and water buffalo, or more rarely camels, horses, or donkeys. Lactation occurs naturally in all sexually mature female mammals, though in usable quantities only during or immediately after pregnancy. + +milking parlor +An enclosed, dedicated space where dairy animals are milked. + +milkshed +A large rural area which produces most or all of the milk consumed in a particular place or by a particular population, by analogy with a watershed. See also foodshed. + +mill +1. Any structure or device used to break solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting, a process known as milling. +2. A business or factory which manufactures textiles by spinning, weaving, or knitting. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-22.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..30bb3f7ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-22.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 23/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +milling +The process of grinding, crushing, cutting, or pulverizing solid matter into smaller pieces, reducing the average particle size and often changing the shape and other physical properties as well; or the process of breaking down, separating, sorting, grading, or classifying aggregate material into particles of uniform size. Milling is an important primary operation in the postharvest processing of many agricultural crops, mainly cereal grains and pseudocereals. Historically mills were powered manually or with draft animals such as oxen, horses, or donkeys, or by the force of the wind or the flow of water, though in modern contexts they are usually electrically powered. + +millrace +Also millrun, lade, leat, flume, or penstock. +The current of flowing water that turns a water wheel, or the channel or sluice that carries this water. A millrace is usually a man-made conduit or ditch that delivers a narrow, rapid, and powerful stream from a reservoir such as a mill pond or diverts it from a natural watercourse such as a river, with the force generated by the flow used to power a turbine or mill. The part of the millrace that is upstream of the water wheel is called the headrace, while the part downstream of the wheel is the tailrace. + +minimum tillage +A type of conservation tillage designed to conserve soil quality by minimizing the amount of soil manipulation necessary for successful crop production, typically by completely avoiding primary tillage and practicing only minimal secondary tillage. + +minor crop +A crop plant that is high in value but is not widely grown. Many fruits, vegetables, and tree nuts may be considered minor crops. + +miticide +See acaricide. + +mixed farming +The simultaneous cultivation of crops and raising of livestock for meat, eggs, or milk on the same farm, especially on the same or adjacent lands, and often reusing or recycling the products of one operation to supply the other, e.g. by using some part of the crop harvest for animal fodder, or by using animal manure as a crop fertilizer. + +monocropping +Also continuous cropping. +The practice of cultivating a single crop species repeatedly on the same land for many consecutive growing seasons. Monocropping allows farmers to optimize their time and labor by applying the same inputs, growing methods, machinery, pest controls, etc. to the same crop in the same spaces year after year, but also forgoes the potential benefits of natural diversity and may eventually prove unsustainable by exhausting soil nutrients and requiring increasingly large inputs to compensate. + +monoculture +The practice of growing or raising a single crop or livestock species, variety, or breed on a particular area of land at a time. Contrast polyculture. + +mote +Waste material from the cotton ginning process, primarily from lint cleaning. + +mouldboard +A curved blade or plate attached to a plough or bulldozer which lifts and at least partially overturns soil and/or pushes it to the side. Mouldboard ploughs generally have a flat bottom spanning the entire width of the tillage zone and may reach depths of 100 to 200 millimetres (4 to 8 in) below the surface. + +mouthing +The process of inspecting an animal's teeth to determine its age, as is commonly done with sheep and horses. + +mulch +Any layer of material applied to the surface of soil for the purpose of conserving soil moisture, improving soil health and fertility, reducing weed growth, and/or enhancing the soil's aesthetic appeal. Mulches are usually organic in nature (e.g. bark chips, manure, and compost) though plastic sheeting and other types of artificial mulch are also common. + +mule +A domestic hybrid equine that is the offspring of a female horse and a male donkey; i.e. the reciprocal cross to the hinny. + +muley +A polled cow. + +multigerm seed +Any type of seed product sold as a cluster of seeds fused together and which produces more than one plant when it germinates, after which the multiple plants are typically reduced to individual plants by a process called singling. + +multiple cropping +The practice of growing two or more crops on the same area of land in the same growing season (as opposed to growing only one crop); the crops may be harvested at the same time or at different times. It is a form of polyculture. See also companion planting. + +mustering +See herding. + +mutton +1. The meat from an adult sheep more than one year old. See also lamb. +2. A castrated male goat. + +== N == + +nanny goat +See doe. + +naps +Large, tangled masses of cotton fibers present in ginned cotton, often a consequence of ginning cotton which has not dried sufficiently. Compare neps. + +natural growth promoter (NGP) + +neps +Very small, snarled or knotted clusters of cotton fibers present in ginned cotton which are difficult to detect, looking like dots or specks in the lint, and equally difficult to remove. Neps are generally a more serious concern than naps because if not detected they will appear as defects in the finished yarn or fabric. + +net farm income +The return, both monetary and non-monetary, to farm operators for their labor, management, and capital, after all production expenses have been paid; i.e. gross farm income minus production expenses. It includes net income from sales of the farm's agricultural products as well as net income attributed to the rental value of farm dwellings, the value of any commodities consumed on the farm, depreciation, and inventory changes. The term is used primarily in United States agricultural policy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-23.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bf602858e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-23.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 24/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +neutering +Also fixing. +The surgical removal of all or most of the reproductive organ(s) of an animal, male or female, usually with the goal of irreversibly sterilizing the animal by eliminating sex organs which are essential to its ability to reproduce. In the broadest sense the term may also encompass non-surgical methods of sterilization such as those that employ pharmaceutical drugs, which may or may not be reversible. The male-specific term for neutering is castration and the female-specific term is spaying, though colloquially "neutering" may be used interchangeably with both. An animal that has not been neutered is said to be intact or entire. + +non-program crop +Any agricultural crop or commodity not covered by a federally funded commodity program. Contrast program crop. + +northern vigor +The phenomenon by which certain varieties of plants adapted to high-latitude climates produce hardier, better-tasting, or higher-yield crops when grown in lower-latitude climates. The effect has been observed in many types of produce grown in the northern United States and Canada, including potatoes, strawberries, and garlic. + +no-till farming +Any method of growing crops or maintaining pasture without disturbing the soil through tillage, and typically involving minimal or no seedbed preparation. Proponents assert that in certain contexts no-till or low-till techniques can increase the soil's retention of water and organic matter and reduce soil erosion. + +noxious weed +A weed or other undesirable plant that is not merely a nuisance but actually harmful to cultivated crops or other useful plants (by acting as a parasitic plant, strongly outcompeting other plants, or releasing allelopathic chemicals into the soil) or to humans or domestic animals such as livestock (by poisoning or causing other injury). Many places specify which weeds are noxious and require land users to take steps to control these species. + +NPK + +nurse cow +A cow which is milked in order to supply milk to nursing calves other than her own. + +nurse crop +Any annual crop plant used to assist in the establishment of a perennial crop. Nurse crops may help to reduce the incidence of weeds, prevent soil erosion, and shade the perennial crop's seedlings from excessive sunlight; often the nurse crop itself is harvested for a particular product. + +nursery +1. Any place, often sheltered and irrigated, where plants are cultivated from seed, cuttings, grafts, or some other propagule and young plants are raised until they are mature enough to be transplanted, or to serve as a source of vegetative clones, rootstock, or grafting stock, either for the grower's own use or for commercial sale. +2. A building designed and maintained specifically for raising young animals, especially calves or piglets. + +nutrient pollution +The contamination, particularly of surface water sources, by excessive inputs of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from agricultural fields and pastures (where large quantities of nutrient-rich fertilizers are commonly applied), discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from combustion. + +== O == + +oast +Also oast house or hop kiln. +A building designed for kilning or drying harvested hops for use in the brewing of beer. + +off-farm stocks +Harvested whole grains or oilseeds produced by a particular farm or agricultural operation which have been removed from the farm where they were produced and stored off-site in temporary or permanent storage, e.g. at grain elevators, mills, or other processing facilities, regardless of their ownership or intended use. This includes supplies of grain which have been sold or distributed to consumers or retailers as well as supplies which have not yet been sold but for which there is no available storage space on the farmer's property. Compare on-farm stocks. + +oilseed crop +Any plant crop cultivated specifically for the edible and/or inedible oils that can be extracted from its seeds, which may be used in cooking or in certain non-food products; the non-oil byproducts are also commonly used to produce high-protein animal feed. Examples of oilseed crops include soybeans, peanuts, cottonseed, flaxseed, canola, sunflower seeds, and safflower seeds. + +olericulture +The cultivation of vegetables (i.e. non-woody herbaceous plants) for food, or the science that studies the growing of these plants as edible produce. + +once grown seed +Seed obtained from plants that have been grown from a certified seed intended for use only by the farmer on his own farm, and not for resale. + +once-over tillage +An operation in which a field is tilled and planted simultaneously or in quick succession. + +on-farm stocks +Harvested whole grains or oilseeds which are stored on-site in temporary or permanent storage at or near the same farm where they were grown, regardless of their ownership or intended use. This includes supplies of grain which have already been sold but not yet distributed to consumers or retailers as well as supplies kept for the farmer's own use, and in the broadest sense may also include grain which is still growing in the field and has not yet been harvested. Compare off-farm stocks. + +on-the-hoof +(of livestock) Sold live for slaughter. + +open +(of livestock) Fertile but not yet pregnant; able to be impregnated. + +open range +A type of rangeland on which livestock, particularly cattle, roam freely regardless of land ownership and without being enclosed by fences. Where open range is prescribed by law, the land owner (and not the animal owner) is responsible for erecting exclosure fences to keep animals off of private or public property. + +orchard +Any intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Most orchards are planted with a single variety of fruit- or nut-producing tree, and are often laid out in a regular grid with wide spacing and grazed or mown grass or bare soil between individual trees to make maintenance and harvesting easy. + +orchardry +The cultivation of trees or shrubs in an orchard, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, especially foods. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-24.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e1699e57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-24.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 25/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +organic farming +Also organic agriculture, biological farming, and ecological farming. +An agricultural production system which excludes or eschews the use of synthetic chemical compounds (particularly fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides for plant crops, and growth hormones, antibiotics, and synthetic feed additives for livestock production) and instead emphasizes the use of naturally occurring, organic substances and alternative methods for solving the problems of agriculture, including crop rotation, companion planting and polyculture, permaculture, natural fertilizers such as manure and field residues, beneficial microbes, trap crops, biological pest controls, etc. Organic production usually prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms and sometimes mechanized farm equipment as well. In many places the label "organic" has a specific legal meaning and its use may require certification, whereby certified organic farms must adhere to national organic production standards. Many organic methods are also core elements of sustainable agriculture, though whether or not organic methods actually affect the environment and human health in more positive ways than conventional methods is disputed. + +organic fertilizer +Also natural fertilizer. +Any fertilizer made from non-synthetic, naturally occurring substances, often compost or plant and animal products such as crop residues or manure. This is in contrast to many large-scale commercial fertilizers which contain synthetic chemical compounds. Use of organic fertilizers is widely practiced in organic agriculture. + +orthodox seed +Seeds which can survive long periods of time in storage and still retain their viability to germinate, especially those capable of tolerating the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)). Orthodox seeds can be dried to a very low internal moisture content. Contrast recalcitrant seed. + +outbuilding +Any building that is part of an agricultural or residential complex but is detached or distant from other structures, especially one dedicated to some practical purpose and isolated by necessity or convenience on a remote part of a large property. Common agricultural outbuildings include barns, stables, cellars, silos, granaries, sheds, and housing for farm laborers. + +outfarm +A cluster of outbuildings located near outlying fields or pastures which are distant or isolated from a primary farmstead, providing facilities for agricultural operations in remote areas of a very large farm or ranch. + +out-wintering +The practice of keeping livestock (especially cattle) outdoors on pastureland during the winter, leaving them to fend for themselves for protection from the elements, rather than housing them in an indoor shelter. + +overcropping +The practice of growing too many crops on the same land in the same growing season, which may reduce yield for any of a variety of reasons, usually because soil fertility is insufficient to support multiple cropping or repeated growing cycles without periodic fallowing. + +overgrazing +Excessive or intensive grazing by livestock of the same pasture or food source for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery of vegetation or soils during the intervals between grazing periods. Poor livestock management often results in overgrazing, though it may also be caused by wild animals that are restricted from traveling due to man-made obstacles such as fences. + +ox +Plural oxen; also bullock. +A bovine animal of either sex which is trained and used as a draft animal, especially for plowing, threshing, milling, pulling carts or wagons, or hauling loads. Oxen are most commonly castrated adult male cattle, though cows and intact males may also be employed as oxen. + +== P == + +packinghouse +A building in which harvested agricultural produce (e.g. fruits and vegetables) is packaged for sale prior to distribution to market. Other forms of postharvest processing such as cleaning may also take place in the same facility. + +paddy farming +A form of wet-field agriculture in which semiaquatic plants such as rice and taro are grown in soils inundated in shallow pools of water, generally 10–15 centimetres (3.9–5.9 in) in depth, for most or all of the growing cycle. Most plants cannot survive in these conditions, but rice is specially adapted to supply oxygen to its lower parts even when fully submersed. Paddy fields involve huge quantities of water and so are most common in humid wetlands such as in many parts of East Asia. It remains the dominant method of rice farming in modern times. + +paddy field +Also simply paddy. +A flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops such as rice and taro. + +pannage +The practice of releasing livestock, especially pigs, into a wild forest so that they can feed on fallen mast such as acorns, beechnuts, and chestnuts. + +paraquat +Also methyl viologen. +An organic compound once widely used as a quick-acting, broad-spectrum herbicide for its ability to act as a defoliant by non-selectively killing green leaves and stems. It is rapidly decomposed in soil (and so has little effect on roots) but is highly toxic to mammals, and thus its use is now prohibited or restricted in many countries, where it has largely been replaced by glyphosate. + +pasteurization +The practice of applying moderate heat to milk and other heat-sensitive liquids in order to reduce the native microbial load. Pasteurization uses temperatures which are much lower than in conventional sterilization techniques but still high enough to deactivate or denature the proteins and other molecules used by bacteria and other microorganisms, usually not killing them outright but significantly slowing their growth and reproduction, thereby delaying the inevitable onset of spoilage and extending the product's shelf-life. + +pastoral farming +Also livestock farming or grazing. +A sedentary form of pastoralism in which livestock are raised on the same pastureland for most or all of their lives, rather than continuously being moved as in traditional nomadic pastoralism. Pastoral farmers typically have some form of ownership of the land they use, giving them an economic incentive to improve the land to meet the needs of their animals (e.g. by irrigation). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-25.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-25.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..373878bdc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-25.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 26/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pastoralism +A type of animal husbandry in which herds of domestic animals are released onto large areas of vegetated outdoor land, known as pastures, for grazing, traditionally by fully or partially nomadic peoples who move around with their herds, and generally in places where environmental conditions such as aridity, poor soils, and extreme temperatures make growing crops difficult or impossible. + +pasture +Any land used for grazing, especially enclosed tracts of farmland grazed by domesticated livestock such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. Pasture vegetation mainly consists of grasses and forbs and is typically grazed throughout the summer. Pasture is often distinguished from, but may in the broadest sense include, other agricultural land types such as meadows, rangelands, or other unenclosed pastoral areas. + +pastureland +A type of agricultural land used as pasture for grazing animals. + +patch +A relatively small cultivated area with only one type of crop growing in it, e.g. a pumpkin patch or onion patch. + +pegging +A developmental stage of the peanut plant in which a fertilized flower produces an elongated ovary which enters the soil and develops underground into a pod and eventually a peanut. + +pellet mill +Also pellet press. +A type of mill or machine press used to compress and mold bulk quantities of powdered or fine-grained material into compact, high-density, homogeneous units called pellets, which are often much easier to store, transport, and distribute than in their original form. Many agricultural materials are commonly pelletized, including fertilizers and pesticides. Compound animal feed is usually milled from a feed mixture into small pellets the size of a kernel of corn so as to ensure a uniform ration for each fed animal. + +perishable +Describing an agricultural product, particularly a food, that is vulnerable to natural processes of decomposition and decay within a relatively short time after being harvested or sold to a consumer (usually a few days or weeks), such that the product gradually spoils or rots, irreversibly losing the structure, consistency, flavor, nutritional value, and/or other qualities characteristic of its fresh form. In the absence of specific treatments, virtually all raw foods eventually succumb to these processes via chemical reactions with their environment, both biotic (e.g. decomposition by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi) and abiotic (e.g. dehydration by atmospheric evaporation), though some foods decay faster than others. Many methods of food processing and preservation have been developed to prevent or delay decomposition in order to make foods usable or marketable for longer periods. These range from storage in cold, dry, or oxygen-poor environments (all of which can greatly reduce the rate of microbial growth) to pasteurization or treatment with protective waxes or preservatives. The most perishable foods are generally those for which preservation is difficult or undesirable, especially fresh produce such as fruits and vegetables, but also animal meat. Commercial foods sold in a cooked, canned, or highly processed form may be considered "non-perishable" for the purpose of calculating shelf life or expiration dates. + +perlite +An amorphous glass mineral of volcanic origin with a relatively high water content and the unusual property of expanding to many times its original volume when heated sufficiently. Expanded perlite is commonly used as a soil amendment in horticulture, where its low density and high permeability help to improve drainage and prevent soil compaction. It is also sometimes used alone as a growth medium for starting cuttings or in hydroponics. + +permaculture +An approach to land management that adopts arrangements observed in healthy natural ecosystems, with particular emphasis on utilizing creative design principles derived from whole systems thinking. Permaculture principles are often employed in regenerative agriculture, rewilding, and sustainable agriculture, but the concept has a wide range of applications, including in ecological engineering, water resource management, and architecture. + +permanent crop +Any crop produced from a perennial plant which produces crops repeatedly over multiple seasons, rather than having to be replanted after each harvest. + +permanent wilting point (PWP) +Also simply wilting point (WP). + +pesticide +Any chemical or biological agent used to deter, incapacitate, kill, sterilize, or otherwise discourage the activity or proliferation of one or more target organisms considered pests by humans, which includes herbicides used to control noxious plants, insecticides, miticides, fungicides, nematicides, antimicrobials for bacteria and viruses, and any other substance intended to control a pathogen of any kind. Pesticides are widely used in agriculture to protect crop plants or domestic animals from pathogens which may cause or transmit disease or destroy crop value, though they are also used for a huge variety of other purposes. Some are applied directly to the pest, while others are applied to the crop or animal itself, or to the air or soil around it. Pesticide use may also have drawbacks, including unintended or off-target effects such as toxicity to humans. + +pesticide refuge + +pharming +Also molecular farming, molecular pharming, and biopharming. +The use of genetic engineering technologies to insert one or more genes encoding useful pharmaceuticals into a host plant or animal that would otherwise not express those genes, thereby creating a genetically modified organism. Crops modified in this way are sometimes called pharma crops. + +picking +The harvesting of fruit or vegetable crops by removing, by hand or machine, the fruits or vegetables from the plants, as with apples and berries. + +pig +Also hog. +A domestic swine of either sex, especially a member of the species Sus domesticus, often considered a domesticated subspecies of the wild boar, Sus scrofa. + +piglet +A young domestic pig of either sex. See also farrow. + +pigsty +See sty. + +pineapple pit +A method of cultivating pineapples in temperate climates, consisting of a trench dug into the ground and covered with transparent glass, with two internal walls dividing it into three troughs. Pineapples are grown in the central trough while the outer troughs are filled with fresh manure, which gives off heat as it decomposes, keeping the central trough warm and humid. + +pinery +1. A natural or cultivated pine forest which is harvested for timber. +2. A plantation where pineapples are grown, or another name for a pineapple pit. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-26.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-26.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2ed081944 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-26.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 27/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pioneer crop +A crop grown to improve the general fertility of a parcel of land prior to sowing another, typically more valuable crop on the same land. Farmers often permit livestock to graze the pioneer crop in the hope that their dung will add soil nutrients. + +pisciculture +Also fish farming. +A branch of aquaculture involving the raising of fish in tanks, enclosures, or hatcheries with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food. + +pitchfork +A two-handed agricultural tool with between two and five long, thin tines and a long handle, used to efficiently pitch or toss large clumps of loose material such as hay, straw, leaves, or manure. Pitchforks are used for a wide variety of tasks such as feeding cattle and bucking hay. + +plant breeding +The deliberate and systematic reproduction of plants in agriculture and horticulture, typically involving the artificial selection of which individual plants will breed in order to produce progeny with desirable characteristics. + +plantation +A large-scale estate which specializes in farming cash crops, most commonly cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, opium, fruit trees, rubber trees, and forest trees. + +plashing +See pleaching. + +plastic mulch +An artificial mulch consisting of a thin film of plastic polymers, used in both crop production and landscaping for the same reasons as natural mulches, i.e. to suppress weeds, conserve water, and maintain soil integrity. Crops grow through regularly spaced holes cut in the plastic film. It is most commonly used with row crops, often in conjunction with drip irrigation. + +plasticulture +The use of plastic materials in agricultural applications. Plastics are used for a huge variety of purposes in all types of agriculture, including as irrigation drip tape, row covers, plastic mulch, bale wrap and postharvest packaging, polytunnels, and feed troughs, among numerous others. + +pleaching +Also plashing. +The practice of interweaving the living and dead branches of a hedgerow so that they become tangled, either for the purpose of strengthening the hedge by forming a natural fence or wall which continues to thicken as it grows, or for ornamental reasons. + +plough +Also plow. +Any farm implement used to loosen or overturn soil in preparation for sowing seed or transplanting, a practice known as ploughing. Ploughs typically consist of a series of blades attached to a wooden or metallic frame, often with wheels, which is then pushed or pulled either by humans, by draft animals, or, on modern farms, with a tractor. + +plough pan +Also plow pan. +A hard layer in the subsoil caused by excessive compression due to repeated ploughing at the same depth over multiple consecutive seasons. See also hardpan. + +plough planting +Also plow planting. +A reduced-tillage system in which a planting or seeding apparatus is mounted directly behind a plough such that a field is ploughed and sown simultaneously in a single step, with no intervening secondary tillage. See also once-over tillage. + +plough-to-plate +See farm-to-fork. + +ploughing +Also plowing. +The use of a plough in the cultivation of agricultural land. Ploughing is an ancient and fundamental agricultural technique, the primary purpose of which is to evenly distribute fresh nutrients, moisture, and air through the uppermost layers of the soil while also burying weeds and crop residues to decay. Modern ploughed fields are typically left to dry and then harrowed prior to planting. The use of a plough usually leaves the soil with a rough, unfinished look and parallel trenches called furrows; conventional, intensive ploughing practices may contribute to soil erosion and the formation of hardpan. + +ploughshare +Also plowshare. +The large metal blade that is the leading edge of the mouldboard of a plough, used to cut through large amounts of soil to the bottom of the furrow. Certain ploughs have a coulter immediately preceding the ploughshare. + +plug +In horticulture, a juvenile plant, seedling, or cutting germinated and grown individually in a very small container filled with a small amount of potting soil or other growth medium, with the intention of transplanting it into a larger container or into the ground after it has grown to a certain size (at which point the soil or growth medium is held together by the plant's roots, allowing it to be easily removed from the starting container). Plug plants are often grown by commercial nurseries in large numbers in portable seed starter trays under controlled conditions, which makes it convenient to manage numerous plants during the early stages of growth and to ensure their health and viability before selling to customers, who may find establishing a garden with transplanted plugs to be easier than starting from seed. + +plunge dip +A deep trough or basin designed to immerse and bathe livestock in a liquid pesticide formulation or other treatment. Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, or horses are prodded to walk through a narrow channel containing the liquid, briefly submerging most or all of their bodies, which makes it possible to treat large herds of animals quickly and efficiently. See also drenching. + +poddy +Also poddy calf. +A calf that has been orphaned by the loss of its mother. See also dogie. + +pollarding + +polled +Born without horns, used when describing livestock of a species that is normally horned, e.g. in cattle, goats, and sheep. The term may refer to animals that have been selectively bred to be naturally hornless or, in the broadest sense, to otherwise horned animals that have had their horn buds removed after birth by disbudding. + +pollen drift +Unintentional cross-pollination of wild plants by crop plants or vice versa, or between distinct crop varieties or cultivars, through natural mechanisms of pollen dispersal (e.g. wind or insects). + +polyculture +The practice of growing or raising more than one species, variety, or breed at the same time and place, often in imitation of the biodiversity of natural ecosystems. Contrast monoculture. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-27.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-27.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1cac97ba --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-27.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 28/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +polytunnel +Also polyhouse, hoophouse, grow tunnel, or high tunnel. +A type of greenhouse in the form of a typically semi-circular, elongated tunnel made from a steel frame covered with transparent polyethylene; temperature, humidity, and air circulation can be adjusted by the opening and closing of doors or vents. Polytunnels are used in similar ways to glass greenhouses and row covers, e.g. for season extension or as nurseries. Though primarily designed to provide temperature increases ranging from 5 to 35 °C (9 to 63 °F) above the outdoor air temperature, they can also protect plants (and animals) against extreme weather and the drying effect of wind. + +pomology +Also fruticulture. +The study of fruit and its cultivation. + +ponding +The formation of small ponds or pools of water in agricultural fields due to surface runoff from oversaturated or poorly draining soils, or from heavy precipitation or irrigation. + +pork +The meat of hogs or pigs. + +porker +A pig specifically raised for fresh pork, as opposed to bacon or other processed meats. + +postemergent +Occurring after the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class of herbicides intended to be applied to weeds which are already leafy or established. Post-emergent herbicides such as glyphosate typically work by killing the cells of mature leaves, thereby inhibiting photosynthesis and causing the whole plant to die; they are generally ineffective on very young plants and seeds. Contrast pre-emergent. + +postharvest +1. The stage of commercial crop production immediately following harvesting, which may include any of various processing and handling activities necessary for the harvested crop to become marketable, such as cleaning, drying, cooling, sorting, and packing. Postharvest treatment largely determines a crop's final quality and how and whether it can be sold. +2. Any activities that occur after agricultural products leave or are sold from the farm or ranch where they were produced. + +postharvest losses + +poult +A young turkey, especially one too young for its sex to be determined. + +poultry +Any domesticated birds cultivated by humans for their meat, eggs, or feathers, most commonly various species of fowl, especially chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and pigeons. + +poundage quota +A quantitative limit on the amount of an agricultural commodity (e.g. tobacco or peanuts) that can be produced and/or marketed under the provisions of a governmental price support program. + +power take-off (PTO) +A device, commonly found on tractors but also sometimes on farm trucks or other vehicles, that transmits electrical and/or mechanical energy from a power source (e.g. a running engine) to an attached implement or a separate machine which is either pulled behind on a trailer or mounted on the vehicle itself. Modern tractors almost always have a power take-off, which can be connected to a wide variety of equipment to supply power for virtually any automatable agricultural task, e.g. mowing, ploughing, tilling, compacting, distributing agrochemicals, harvesting, etc. + +precision agriculture (PA) +Also satellite farming and site-specific crop management. +A large-scale agricultural management strategy based on observing, measuring, and responding to inter- and intra-field variability in crops and crop yields with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs while preserving resources. Precision agriculture relies on advanced technologies such as GPS, remote sensing, satellite imagery, multispectral imagery, and agricultural drones to collect data on numerous agricultural variables and to generate datasets and maps of spatial variability which can then be used by variable-rate (and often fully automated) applications to optimally distribute resources. + +precision seeding +A method of seeding that involves placing seed with attention to precise spacing and depth, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed to broadcast seeding. Precision seeding usually requires less seed and avoids overcrowding and the need for thinning, but is best suited for plants with very high germination rates in order to make full use of the seeded area. + +precleaning +Removing unwanted foreign material such as weeds, seeds, dirt, stems, and cobs from harvested grain before it is dried. + +preemergent +Occurring before germination, or before the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class of herbicides intended to be applied to weeds before their leaves have become established. Pre-emergent herbicides such as paraquat work by inhibiting one or more enzymes that are active in cell division only in new seedlings; they do not inhibit germination from seed itself, nor are they effective on established, mature plants. Contrast post-emergent. + +preharvest + +prices paid index +An economic index used to monitor and indicate changes in the prices paid by farmers for goods and services used in crop and livestock production as well as those needed for farm family living. In addition to the prices of common farm inputs such as fertilizer, the index also includes interest on debt, taxes payable on farm real estate, and wage rates paid to hired labor. It is used to calculate the price of many fees and fines required by agricultural law, e.g. fees for grazing livestock on federal land. + +prices received index +An economic index used to monitor and indicate changes in the prices received by farmers for their products at the point of first sale, usually the farm itself or a local market. Together with the prices paid index, it is used to calculate the parity ratio. + +prilled +Pelletized and sold in the form of small, round, solid globules, as is common with many fertilizers, compound animal feeds, and other agrichemicals. + +primary tillage +Any general-purpose tillage that is relatively deep and thorough and which leaves the soil surface with a rough, unfinished texture, such as ploughing, as opposed to subsequent, shallower, and more selective secondary tillage. Primary tillage is usually performed immediately after the last harvest, with the objectives of loosening, softening, and aerating the soil to a particular depth, incorporating crop residues and/or fertilizers, and killing weeds. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-28.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-28.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e4da15d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-28.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 29/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +priming +1. The process of moistening seeds in order to initiate germination prior to sowing in soil or other substrate. +2. The process of removing ripened leaves from tobacco plants by hand. + +prizing +The process of packing harvested tobacco leaves into hogsheads. + +prod +See goad. + +produce +A generalized term used to refer to a variety of farm-produced food crops, usually including fruits and vegetables and sometimes also grains and other products, especially implying that such foods are fresh and generally in the same state as when and where they were harvested. + +profit crop +See cash crop. + +program crop +A crop for which deficiency payments are paid by a government agency to participating producers, e.g. wheat, corn, barley, grain sorghum, oats, upland cotton, and rice. Contrast non-program crop. + +protein crop +Any crop plant whose harvested products naturally contain high concentrations of proteins or amino acids and are therefore important as staple foods or in helping to meet the nutritional requirements of humans or domestic animals. Many oilseeds and grains are considered protein crops. + +provender +See fodder. + +pruning +The selective removal of certain unwanted plant parts or tissues, such as branches, buds, or roots, from crops or landscape plants during cultivation for any of a variety of reasons, including controlling or redirecting growth, improving or sustaining the plant's health or appearance, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing juvenile plants for transplanting, and increasing the yield or quality of harvestable flowers and fruits. See also topping, pollarding, and coppicing. + +pseudocereal +Also pseudograin. +Any domesticated non-grass species that is not a true cereal but is nonetheless cultivated and harvested in much the same way as a cereal, with its "grain" or seed being milled into flour and otherwise used in the same manner as cereal grain. Common examples include amaranth, quinoa, buckwheat, and chia. Compared with true cereals, pseudocereals are similarly rich in many different nutrients but do not contain gluten, making them popular substitutes in gluten-free foods. + +puddling +The practice of tilling rice paddies while flooded, traditionally accomplished by dragging a weighted harrow through the submerged soil of the paddy field but also with mechanized implements. + +pullet +An immature female chicken. + +pulpwood +Any wood used in the manufacture of paper, fiberboard, or other pulp-based products. + +push–pull technology +An agricultural pest control strategy that utilizes the intercropping of repellent "push" plants and attractive "pull" plants to divert pests, typically insects, away from vulnerable cash crops. For example, noxious plants (e.g. catnip and Desmodium) may be planted between rows of a valuable cereal crop to repel or "push" certain herbivorous insects away from the cereal, while a more preferable trap crop (e.g. some Brachiaria grasses) is simultaneously planted around the perimeter of the field to attract or "pull" in the insects and keep them there. + +== Q == + +quern-stone +Also simply quern. +A traditional stone tool for manually grinding various materials, especially for milling grain into flour, consisting of a pair of smooth, heavy stones which are rubbed against each other with the grain in between them. A lower stone, called a saddle quern, is usually stationary, while another stone, called a muller, rubber, or handstone, is placed on top of the lower stone and moved by hand in a back-and-forth or rotary motion; often the upper stone has a central hole through which the unground grain is poured and a handle to help rotate it. + +== R == + +rafter +To plough a field with furrows so that the earth removed from each furrow is turned over onto the adjacent unplowed ground. + +rainfed field +An unirrigated field depending solely on natural precipitation for its water supply, generally surrounded by levees to prevent surface runoff. + +raised-bed gardening +A type of horticulture in which the soil surface is raised above the surrounding ground level and usually enclosed in some way within a structure known as a raised bed. These elevated seedbeds allow gardeners to separate their gardens from the surrounding environment and therefore easily maintain the properties of the soil by optimizing density, nutrient levels, and water infiltration and drainage, and adding a barrier to the movement of pests and pathogens from adjacent natural soils. They may also be desirable because they do not require digging into the ground, which may be difficult or impractical in some places. + +ram +An adult male sheep of breeding age. + +ramification +The natural division of the stems, shoots, or limbs of a plant into successively smaller versions of the same structures as they grow and develop; e.g. the trunks of trees diverge into branches which themselves diverge into smaller branches and so on. Horticulturists artificially stimulate ramification through repeated pruning, coppicing, or pollarding, which in many species, particularly trees and shrubs, induces the divergence of new branches from existing branches. This technique can increase the yield of orchards by inducing the formation of numerous fruit-bearing branches in fruit trees. + +ranch +A tract of land dedicated to ranching, i.e. the raising of grazing livestock such as cattle and sheep. The term is used primarily in North America, where it usually implies a very large, open area of privately owned or leased grassland (i.e. pastureland), though similar livestock operations exist worldwide on all types of land. See also station. + +rancher +Also cattleman or stockgrower. +A person who owns or works on a ranch, or who breeds or raises livestock for sale. The term is used primarily in North America. See also grazier. + +ranching +The practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle, sheep, and horses on an area of land called a ranch. + +rangeland +Also simply range. +Any grassland, shrubland, woodland, wetland, or desert area that is grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals and is generally not suitable for cultivating crops. Rangelands are less intensively managed than pasturelands in that they are dominated primarily by native vegetation rather than by plants established by humans, and typically are not subjected to agricultural practices such as irrigation and the use of fertilizers. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-29.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-29.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..253a47719 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-29.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 30/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ratooning +The practice of harvesting a crop plant (particularly a monocot species) by cutting most of the above-ground portion of the plant but leaving the roots and the shoot apices intact so as to allow the plant to recover and produce a fresh crop in a subsequent growing season. This procedure usually can be sustained only for a few seasons, as yield tends to decline with each season. Ratoon crops include sugarcane, pineapples, and bananas. + +reaping + +recalcitrant seed +Seeds that cannot survive the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)) and which therefore cannot be stored for long periods of time because they tend to rapidly lose viability. Recalcitrant seeds do not acquire desiccation tolerance during development and are often shed from their parent plants with a relatively high moisture content, making them especially vulnerable to moisture loss. Contrast orthodox seed. + +registered livestock + +registered seed + +relay cropping +A type of succession planting in which a new crop is sown or planted in the same field as an existing crop shortly before harvesting the existing crop and clearing it from the field, which then leaves the land available for the newly planted crop to use. This cycle may be repeated throughout the growing season or even year-round with crops intended for various uses, including cash crops and cover crops, as long as the soil remains fertile. + +remainder +See crop residue. + +rendering +The processing of animal products into stable, usable materials, especially the conversion of fatty tissue into lard or tallow, but also the repurposing of bones, cartilage, and other offal left behind after slaughtering, or any other material which for aesthetic or sanitary reasons is not suitable as food. Rendering may be done in various ways but generally involves grinding or finely chopping the material, drying it (often by steam-drying), and separating the fat from bone, protein, and fine solids (usually by pressing or centrifugation). Both edible and inedible commodities can be produced in this way. Many slaughterhouses perform their own rendering, while others sell their offal to independent rendering operations. + +residue +See crop residue. + +residue-to-product ratio +A ratio of the amount of unused crop residue left in a field or polytunnel after harvesting a particular crop to the amount of useful crop products harvested (i.e. the yield), usually expressed in terms of the relative masses of residues and products and particularly useful as a metric for the efficiency of bioenergy operations which convert the residues to biochar. + +rhizosphere +See root zone. + +ribbon farm + +riddle +To grade and sort produce (e.g. potatoes) according to size, using a sieve. + +ridge-till + +ridging +See hilling. + +right-to-farm law +A state law or local ordinance intended to protect agricultural operations from public and private nuisance lawsuits, so long as the operations are in compliance with accepted standards. Such laws typically make it difficult for neighboring property owners or the general public to initiate legal complaints against farmers regarding noise, odor, visual clutter, or dangerous structures associated with their farms. + +ripper +See subsoiler. + +roaching +See hogging. + +roaster +A large chicken raised for its meat and suitable for roasting, generally at least 12 weeks old and weighing at least 4 pounds (1.8 kilograms). Compare broiler. + +roguing +The practice of identifying and removing plants with undesirable characteristics (e.g. plants that are diseased or of an unwanted shape, color, or variety) from agricultural fields, often by hand. The plants, known as rogues, are removed to preserve the quality of the desirable crop plants, often by way of preventing undesirable characteristics from propagating into subsequent generations. + +roller +An agricultural implement, typically tractor-drawn, used for flattening an area of land by breaking up large clumps of soil, pushing stones into the soil, and generally creating a smooth, firm seedbed, especially following ploughing or disc harrowing. + +rooster +An adult male chicken. + +root crop +Also rootcrop. +Any crop plant whose edible or usable portion is harvested from under the ground. Examples include beets, carrots, onions, potatoes, and turnips. These parts may or may not include the plant's actual roots. + +root pruning +The mechanical severing or trimming of plant roots, either intentionally or unintentionally, often by the passage of an agricultural implement through soil. When deliberate, it is often done so as to make a plant easier to transplant or to slow its growth. + +root zone +Also rooting depth or rhizosphere. +The layers of soil or other substrate penetrated by a plant's roots and from which the roots uptake water and nutrients, i.e. the subterranean space that directly influences and is influenced by root growth and activity, encompassing the entire network of vascular roots, rhizomes, tubers, and all other below-ground plant parts extending vertically and laterally beneath the surface, and by some definitions including aerial roots as well. Providing this space with consistent access to water, oxygen, and mineral nutrients is essential for normal plant growth. + +rotation crop +A crop that is rotated with other crops as part of a crop rotation sequence. + +rotational grazing +The practice of periodically moving herds of grazing livestock between enclosed sections of pasture known as paddocks, allowing the animals to graze the new paddock while the unoccupied paddocks recover and regrow vegetation, as opposed to allowing continuous grazing of the same land indefinitely or feeding the animals in a feedlot. See also crop rotation. + +roughage +Any animal feedstuff with high fiber content, such as hay or straw. + +row cover +Any flexible, transparent or semi-transparent material, such as fabric or plastic sheeting, that is used as a protective covering to shield plants from extreme temperatures and wind, as well as from insect damage and large herbivores. Row cover can also provide a limited amount of warming in the same way as greenhouses. + +row crop +Any crop that can be planted in rows wide enough to allow it to be tilled or otherwise cultivated by agricultural machinery specifically designed for that purpose. Such crops are generally sown by drilling rather than by broadcast seeding. + +runholder +See grazier. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5359c667b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 4/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +bin burn +The discoloration and deterioration of harvested grain due to heat during long-term storage in bins. + +biochar +A fine-grained, porous charcoal produced from organic matter via pyrolysis (i.e. in low-temperature, anoxic conditions) rather than standard combustion. It is often used as a soil amendment to increase soil fertility and sequester carbon. + +biodynamic agriculture +A type of alternative agriculture which incorporates holistic ecological approaches and aspects of organic and integrated farming but also emphasizes various esoteric perspectives, including spiritual and mystical beliefs about nature. The efficacy of biodynamic agricultural techniques lacks scientific evidence, and the practice has been labeled a pseudoscience. + +bioeffector +Any viable microorganism or naturally occurring chemical compound which directly or indirectly affects plant growth, development, production, and/or yield quality (e.g. organic fertilizers and biofertilizers) and thus has the potential to reduce or replace use of conventional chemical fertilizers or pesticides. + +biofertilizer +A substance containing living microorganisms such as bacteria and algae which, when applied to seeds, plant parts, or soil, colonize plant tissues or the rhizosphere surrounding the roots and promote the growth and health of the host plant by increasing the supply or bioavailability of useful nutrients. Biofertilizers serve the same purpose as conventional fertilizers, though instead of delivering nutrients directly to plants they work indirectly by stimulating natural processes (e.g. fixing nitrogen and solubilizing phosphorus) which cause essential nutrients or other growth-promoting substances to accumulate in the local microenvironment; nearby plant tissues can then uptake these nutrients for themselves. The presence of symbiotic microorganisms can improve soil fertility and increase soil organic matter, making them a sustainable alternative to the application of synthetic fertilizers and other agrichemicals. + +biofortification +The selective breeding or genetic engineering of edible plant crops with the goal of increasing their nutritional value. Though many foods are chemically fortified or enriched with micronutrient additives such as iron and vitamin D during post-harvest processing, biofortification instead attempts to cultivate plant varieties which naturally produce high concentrations of these nutrients while growing, such that the resulting crops already contain high concentrations at the time of harvest. + +biofuel +Any fuel produced from recently living biomass, as opposed to fuels produced by slow geological processes such as fossil fuels. Biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are commonly produced from agricultural energy crops. + +bioinoculant +See soil inoculant. + +biological farming +See organic farming. + +biosaline agriculture + +biosolarization +A variant of soil solarization in which compost or organic amendments are added to the soil before it is covered with transparent plastic, which can promote increased microbial activity and thereby contribute to small but significant increases in soil temperature, potentially speeding up and improving the efficiency of the solarization process. + +bioturbation +The mixing and turning of soil caused by organisms moving through the soil. + +blood meal +A byproduct made from the fresh blood of slaughtered animals, commonly used as an organic fertilizer for cultivated plants. It is rich in crude protein and amino acids. + +boar +An adult male hog of breeding age. + +board foot (FBM) +Also rendered board-foot and abbreviated as BDFT or BF. +A unit of volume of lumber, defined as the volume of a board or plank of wood that is one foot long, one foot wide, and one inch thick, i.e. 12 in × 12 in × 1 in (305 mm × 305 mm × 25.4 mm), which is equivalent to 1⁄12 of a cubic foot (ft3), 144 in3, or 2,360 cm3. The board foot is used to measure rough lumber (before drying and planing) as well as planed lumber. + +bobby calf +A young bovine calf of either sex which is designated to be slaughtered for its meat. See also vealer. + +boll +The rounded seed pod of cotton or flax plants, inside of which the seeds are embedded within a cushion of valuable natural fibers. + +bolting +The process by which certain crops cultivated for their leaves or roots produce flowers or other reproductive parts prematurely, before the crop is intended to be harvested, in an attempt to reproduce sexually and generate seeds. This necessarily diverts resources away from its edible or usable non-reproductive parts, which can negatively impact their flavor and texture and the quality of the harvest in general. The phenomenon is of particular concern in certain annual or biennial vegetable crops, including lettuce, spinach, cabbage, onions, leeks, carrots, and beetroot. Warm temperatures and changes in day length can both trigger the phytohormonal changes that cause bolting, and it may also occur as part of the plant's natural response to stress. In many species it manifests as the sudden rapid growth of unusually elongated stems which, if not removed, will produce an inflorescence. + +bone meal +A byproduct made from animal bones which have been steamed under high pressure and ground into a powder. A rich source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium, bone meal is commonly used as an organic fertilizer for cultivated plants. + +border irrigation +A type of flood irrigation in which a gently sloping field is divided into narrow strips by a series of low, parallel ridges of soil which align with the direction of the slope. Water is supplied to the upper edge or border of each strip, between the ridges, which act as levees to guide the flow of water as it moves down the length of the field by gravity. This method is useful for efficiently irrigating large areas of closely growing crops as well as certain row crops and orchards where topography and soils are suitable. + +bran +Also miller's bran. +The hard outer layers surrounding the endosperm in a cereal grain, consisting of the combined aleurone and pericarp and, in maize, also the pedicel. Bran is typically removed along with the germ during milling and thus excluded from refined grains, but remains included in whole grains. After removal it is commonly repurposed as animal feed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-30.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-30.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..593d07335 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-30.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 31/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ruralism +The advocacy of rural lifestyles, including care of forests and nature. See also agrarianism. + +== S == + +scalping +A method of wildland range renovation in which existing vegetation is turned over in a series of long strips, effectively clearing the land in order to improve water infiltration, hasten the decay of organic matter, and reduce competition for nutrients in the soil, which can help plant species usable by grazing animals to colonize and spread across the range. + +scarify +1. To stir a soil surface with an implement possessing tines, e.g. a wire rake, but without turning the soil over completely, often to remove shallow-rooted weeds. +2. To use a sharp tool to create a nick or slit in the hard outer coat of a seed in order to aid the penetration of moisture to the endosperm and thereby speed up germination. + +scion +An aerial or above-ground plant structure, e.g. a stem or branchlet, that is grafted onto the rootstock of another plant. + +scythe +A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, used for mowing grass or harvesting crops, especially reaping grain crops prior to threshing. The action of the scythe has largely been automated in modern agricultural machinery such as reapers and combine harvesters. The scythe is similar to a sickle, but has a longer handle intended to be used with two hands instead of one. + +season extension +Any method that allows a crop to be grown and/or harvested beyond its natural outdoor growing season or harvest season. Season extension practices most commonly aim to overcome low temperatures or inadequate sunlight in climates where cold weather and shorter days limit the growing season in the spring and fall, but can also include techniques designed to address other seasonally varying conditions such as precipitation and consumer demand, or simply to keep mature crops alive until immediately before the harvest (as opposed to applying postharvest food preservation technologies to prevent spoilage during storage). + +second +To hoe between rows of rootcrops that have previously been thinned out. + +secondary tillage + +seed cotton +Raw cotton which has been harvested but not yet ginned or processed in any other way, containing seeds, lint, and possibly foreign matter. + +seed crop +A crop grown specifically so that seeds can be harvested from the mature plants, as opposed to crops grown for their edible or usable non-seed parts without regard for the quality or quantity of any seeds they may produce. A secondary seed crop may be maintained alongside a primary cash crop in order to ensure an adequate supply of seeds for future plantings and/or to manage crop phenotypes by the artificial selection of seeds from parents with desirable characteristics. + +seed dressing +The process of coating plant seeds with clay, biofertilizers, pesticides, or inert materials to give them a uniform shape and to increase their size and weight in order to improve visibility, ease of planting, germination rates, or resistance to disease. + +seed drill +A mounted or tractor-drawn machine that automates the action of sowing crop seeds, usually by permitting a specified quantity of seed to pass through a hopper with each rotation of a drive wheel and then through tubes that extend to the soil surface, where the seeds are deposited and covered with soil to a precise depth. The result is a series of evenly spaced rows with seeds distributed uniformly between them. + +seed enhancement +Any treatment applied to seeds in order to improve their viability in storage or their likelihood of germination upon being sown. A huge variety of physical, chemical, and biological methods have been developed for different plant species, generally to protect the seed from extreme temperatures or pathogens and to aid the establishment of young seedlings into mature plants, including priming, steeping, hardening, pelleting, coating, stratification, and pregermination, among others. + +seedbed +Also seedling bed. +The local soil environment in which seeds are sown, often including not only the soil but also a specially built cold frame, hotbed, or raised bed used to germinate the seeds in a controlled environment before transplanting the resulting seedlings into more natural soils in a garden or field. The use of seedbeds can substantially increase germination rates. + +seeding +See sowing. + +seedling +The young plant that germinates from a plant embryo contained within a seed. + +seedlot +A quantity of seeds, cones, or any other plant propagule of the same species, source, or quality, especially a quantity representing a single collection collected on the same date and at the same location, or even from the same individual plant. + +sericulture +The cultivation of silkworms with the goal of producing silk. + +set +In orchardry, the total amount of blossoms or fruits growing on one or more cultivated trees at a particular time, or the total amount produced by or harvested from one or more trees during a growing season or production cycle; an approximate quantification of a tree or orchard's total productivity. + +setting +(of a brooding hen) In the process of incubating eggs. + +shade house +Any structure with a roof or covering that partially obstructs light from reaching the space beneath it (e.g. a mesh fabric or wood slats), providing partial shade to plants or animals living inside. Shade houses are commonly used in horticulture to provide optimal conditions for the growth of shade-loving plants, attenuating direct sunlight and keeping temperatures cool while still permitting air circulation and enough light for photosynthesis to occur. + +share +See ploughshare. + +sharecropping +A type of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to cultivate a portion of his or her land in return for a share of the crops produced on that land. + +sharefarming \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-31.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-31.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b070aff95 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-31.md @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 32/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +shattering +The natural detachment and dispersal of a plant's fruit or seeds upon reaching maturity, i.e. when the fruit is ripe. For agricultural crops where the harvested seed is valuable, such as cereal grains, shattering is usually undesirable because natural dispersal mechanisms often scatter the small seeds haphazardly over the ground, making it difficult or impossible to collect them, while seeds that remain attached to the plant are much easier to harvest. Hence farmers try to time the harvest to occur immediately before their crops begin to shatter. Heavy rain and strong winds may cause premature shattering, which can result in significant yield losses. + +sheaf +A bundle of cut stems from a cereal crop (especially wheat) which have been bound together after reaping, traditionally by sickle or scythe but on some modern farms by machines such as a reaper-binder. Multiple sheaves are then "shocked" or arranged into conical stooks to allow the grain to dry before threshing. + +shearing +The process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep or other wool-bearing mammal is cut or shaved from its body. Adult sheep are typically shorn once each year. + +shearing shed +Also woolshed. +A building or facility which accommodates large-scale shearing of wool-bearing animals such as sheep, and sometimes also related activities such as classing, pressing, and storing the wool. + +shearling +1. A yearling or one-year-old sheep. +2. The skin from a recently shorn sheep or lamb that has been tanned or dressed with the wool left on, having a suede surface on one side and clipped fur on the other. + +sheep dip +A plunge dip designed specifically for sheep, containing a liquid pesticide formulation in which the sheep are briefly bathed or immersed in order to kill or remove ectoparasites living on their skin or in their wool. + +sheep station +See station. + +sheet mulching + +shelterbelt +See windbreak. + +shifting cultivation +A type of agriculture in which specific plots of land are cleared and cultivated temporarily, often by slash-and-burn methods and for just a few growing seasons, then abandoned and allowed to lie fallow, reverting to their natural vegetation over many more seasons, while the cultivator migrates to a new plot. + +shoat +A young domestic pig of either sex, usually from the age of weaning up to five months old and weighing 50 to 160 pounds (23 to 73 kg). + +shock +See stook. + +shrinkage + +sickle +A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, and typically used for reaping grain crops or cutting succulent forage for feeding livestock. The sickle is similar to a scythe, but used with one hand instead of two. + +sickle feather +Either of a pair of long, curved feathers in the tail feathers of a rooster. + +side dressing +The practice of applying fertilizers, manure, pesticides, or other soil amendments to the edge or side of a row of crops rather than from directly above, typically by using a cultivator fitted with a side-distributing attachment or another implement specially designed for this purpose. This method is usually slower but allows more precise and more cost-effective distribution than overhead application. + +silage +A type of animal fodder made from the green foliage of crop plants preserved by a process of fermentation and storage called ensilage, ensiling, or silaging, which typically involves piling and compressing large amounts of cut green vegetation in an oxygen-poor environment, such as a pit or silo or a bale wrapped tightly with plastic film. Silage is usually made from maize, sorghum, or other cereals, using the entire green plant (not just the grain). + +silo +Any structure designed for storing bulk materials. In agriculture, tower silos are commonly used to store fermented grain known as silage. + +silviculture +The practice of managing or directly controlling the establishment, growth, composition, and quality of natural or deliberately planted forests for any of a number of reasons, especially timber production but also for the cultivation of other forest crops. + +sire +The male parent of an animal. The term is used alongside dam, especially for domestic mammals such as cattle and horses. + +site-specific crop management (SSCM) +See precision agriculture. + +skylark plot +A small area of land in a winter cereal field that is intentionally not drilled with seed so as to leave a patch of shorter vegetation that enables easier foraging for ground-nesting birds such as the skylark. + +slash-and-burn + +slash-and-char + +slaughter +The killing, dressing, and butchering of domestic livestock, usually for food but also for other reasons, including harvesting pelts or culling animals that are diseased or otherwise unsuitable for consumption. + +slaughter weight +The total weight of a livestock animal immediately before it is slaughtered. + +slaughterhouse +Also abattoir. +A building or facility where livestock are slaughtered for food. Slaughterhouses produce raw meat, which is then usually processed and preserved in some way before being packaged, distributed, and sold to consumers. + +sled row +Also truck row. +An unplanted skip row left between planted rows in a tobacco field to allow people and machinery to access the plants in the middle of the field. Usually, two sled rows are left for every four rows of tobacco plants. + +slip +A cutting, shoot, or leaf capable of vegetative propagation when rooted. + +slurry +Liquid waste from animals that is stored in tanks or open-air lagoons, treated, and then distributed as a fertilizer, often by a tractor-hauled machine such as a slurry spreader. + +slurry pit +Also slurry tank, slurry lagoon, or slurry store. +A hole, tank, reservoir, or other holding area, often lined with concrete but open to the air, into which liquid animal waste and other unusable organic byproducts of agricultural operations, known as slurry, is dumped and then allowed to decompose naturally over a long period of time into a nutrient-rich solution that can with further treatment be reused as a fertilizer. The decomposition process often releases toxic gases, necessitating the use of personal protective equipment when working near slurry pits. + +smallholding \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-32.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-32.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d963686ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-32.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 33/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +smother crop +A dense, fast-growing plant species capable and often cultivated specifically for the purpose of suppressing the growth of weeds by competing strongly for access to light, water, and nutrients. An ideal smother crop competes with the weeds but not with other crops. Once it has served its purpose, it may be ploughed into the soil as green manure along with any weeds that may have survived. Smother crops are an example of biological pest control. + +smudge pot +Any heat-producing device placed between the trees of an orchard to keep the trees warm and prevent the accumulation of frost on fruits and flowers, which are often highly vulnerable to damage from cold temperatures. Historically, smudge pots burned petroleum to produce an open flame at the top of a long chimney, though colloquially the term now encompasses modern frost control methods, which usually rely on propane or electric space heaters instead. + +soil amendment +Also soil improvement or soil conditioner. +Any substance which is added to soil to improve the soil's quality, especially its fertility and mechanics, either to make poor soils more usable or to maintain soils that are already in good condition. In the broadest sense, the term includes all organic and synthetic soil-borne fertilizers, pesticides, and other agrichemicals, as well as other soil additives such as perlite and vermiculite. + +soil compaction +The degradation of soil structure, generally by an increase in bulk density and/or decrease in porosity, due to externally or internally applied loads. Conventional agricultural methods, especially the repeated use of heavy machinery, often lead to compaction of the subsoil, creating impermeable underground layers such as hardpan which severely restrict water and nutrient cycles and thereby adversely affect crop growth, yield, and quality, not to mention numerous off-site ecological processes. + +soil inoculant +Also microbial inoculant and bioinoculant. +A soil amendment containing living microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi which form symbiotic, mutualistic relationships with plants growing in the soil, benefiting the growth and health of plants in any of a variety of ways, typically by improving plant nutrition (as with biofertilizers), stimulating plant hormone production, or inducing systemic acquired resistance to plant diseases. + +soil science +The scientific study of soil as a natural resource, including its formation, classification, and mapping; the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils; and how these properties relate to the use and management of soils for agricultural purposes. + +soil solarization +A non-chemical pest control method applied to soils before planting, in which the soil is mulched, covered with a transparent plastic sheet, and then exposed to direct sunlight, creating a greenhouse effect which traps solar energy and increases the soil temperature to levels that kill or weaken soil-borne pathogens, including many bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, mites, and weeds, thereby preventing their proliferation when the sheet is removed and the soil is finally cultivated. Solarization is most effective in warm climates, and is usually practiced on a relatively small scale in gardens or on organic farms. + +southwest injury +See sunscald. + +sow +A mature female hog, especially one that has given birth at least once. + +sow stall +See gestation crate. + +sowing +Often used interchangeably with seeding and planting. +The process of distributing the seeds (or any other type of propagule) of crop plants in or upon an area of fertile soil, either by hand or by mechanical methods. Sowing is one of the first steps in any seasonal farming operation. + +spaying +The surgical removal of the ovaries (and sometimes also the oviducts and uterus) of a female animal, which permanently prevents reproduction and eliminates the secretion of ovarian hormones. It is commonly performed on livestock as a method of birth control or behavioral modification, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g. heifers are usually spayed at a young age in order to improve the quality of their meat. The male equivalent is called castration. + +spoilage +The process by which an agricultural product (typically food) becomes unsuitable for use or ingestion by the consumer. Natural decomposition of agricultural crops by bacteria and fungi is the most common cause of food spoilage. Depending on the type of product, shelf life may be significantly increased with proper packaging and storage and by the application of various food preservation techniques. + +sprigging +The planting of small sections of a plant cut from rhizomes or stolons, known as sprigs, including crowns and roots, but without any accompanying soil (i.e. only the bare-root sprig itself is planted). This differs from plugs, which are transplanted from containers along with small amounts of soil, and sod, which consists of sheets of turfgrass and the uppermost layers of the soil substrate. Sprigs may be planted manually or mechanically, and are usually placed at regularly spaced intervals in furrows or holes. + +springer +A pregnant cow, especially a heifer, that is due to give birth soon. + +sprinkler irrigation +The overhead application of water to a crop by any of a wide range of mechanisms and designs, encompassing both stationary and moving sprinklers, which are often fully or partially automated, e.g. wheel lines and center-pivot systems. + +sprout damage +The undesirable germination of wheat kernels that often occurs on wheat crops when wet field conditions persist in the final stage of crop maturation, just prior to and during the harvest. Recently cut wheat that has been left lying in the field prior to threshing is particularly vulnerable; windrowing and drying the cut stalks as quickly as possible is therefore a high priority for wheat farmers. Sprouted kernels contain extremely high concentrations of the enzyme alpha-amylase, which can negatively impact the baking quality of flour made from the wheat; the presence of this enzyme can be determined by the Falling Number test. + +stable +A building divided into separate stalls in which domestic livestock, especially horses, are kept, sheltering them from the elements and giving them a private space where they can reside during illness or pregnancy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-33.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-33.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dc1843430 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-33.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 34/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +stag +A male bovine animal (a bull) that has been castrated relatively late in life, e.g. after reaching maturity, as opposed to the normal practice of castrating males while they are still calves. Compare steer. + +staking +The practice of supporting the growth of a plant by placing a stake or artificial support in the ground next to it. It is widely used to cultivate plants with vine-like habits. + +stalk rot +A generic term for a variety of plant diseases caused by molds and other fungi which grow in the stems and stalks of plant crops and weaken their structural integrity so greatly that they easily fall over in wind, rain, or snow, potentially killing the crop or making it much more difficult to harvest. + +stallion +An adult male horse or donkey that has not been gelded, especially one used for breeding purposes. + +staple fiber +Any textile fiber, natural or synthetic, of discrete and consistent length, as opposed to a filament fiber, for which length varies continuously. Staple fibers are defined by a characteristic length, to which either natural fibers consistently grow (e.g. certain cultivars of cotton tend to produce short, medium, long, or extra-long staple lengths), or to which synthetic fibers or blends are consistently cut after manufacture. + +staple food +Also simply staple. +A food that is eaten routinely and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of the standard diet for a given population or demographic, supplying many or most of the basic nutrients needed for survival or health. Staple foods vary by location and culture but are typically inexpensive or readily available foods that can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling or decaying. Examples include cereals, starchy tubers or root vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products. + +station +Also cattle station, sheep station, or run. +A large landholding dedicated to the raising of grazing livestock, especially cattle or sheep. The term is used primarily in Australia, New Zealand, and other British Commonwealth territories, and has the same meaning as the North American term ranch. An owner or operator of a station is called a grazier, pastoralist, or runholder. + +steer +A male bovine animal (a bull) that has been castrated, usually as a young calf so as to yield better-quality meat later in life. Compare stag. + +stocker +Any cattle being backgrounded prior to finishing, especially a calf or yearling. + +stockgrower +See rancher. + +stockyard +A holding area for livestock, especially at a market where they are being sold. + +stook +Also shock or stack. +An upright conical or tent-like arrangement of sheaves of the cut stalks of a grain crop, placed so as to keep the grain-heads off the ground prior to collection for threshing. Stooked grains typically include wheat, barley, oats, and maize. + +stool +The living roots and stumps of felled trees, especially of trees that have been coppiced and from which new growth eventually sprouts. + +storage clamp +A compact pile, mound, or heap of materials, especially one used for the temporary storage of root crops such as potatoes, turnips, and rutabagas. + +stover +The leaves, stalks, and other field residues of certain crops, especially maize, sorghum, and soybean, that are left in a field after harvesting. It may be used as a mulch or green manure, directly grazed by livestock, or dried and collected as fodder. + +stratification +The process of treating the seeds of certain plant crops with any of various treatments intended to simulate the natural conditions that the seeds typically experience prior to germination. The seeds of many plant species naturally undergo a phase of embryonic dormancy which prevents them from sprouting prematurely in environments with suboptimal growing conditions, where the probability of survival is low. In order to break this dormancy, generally these seeds must be exposed to a precise combination of cold temperatures, moisture, and/or some form of physical damage capable of penetrating the hard outer seed coat, often in a specific order and for specific lengths of time. Only after surpassing this developmental barrier are the internal biochemical reactions triggered that allow the seed to begin growing into a new seedling. + +straw +An agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks of cereal plants after the grain and chaff have been removed. Straw has numerous different uses, including as mulch, biofuel, bedding and fodder for livestock, and construction material. + +strip cropping + +stubble +A field residue consisting of the portion of a plant remaining in the ground after harvesting is complete, usually the roots below the surface and an attached portion of the stem or stalk extending upright above the surface. + +stubble-mulching +The practice of leaving the stubble or crop residue essentially in place on a plot of harvested cropland as a mulch or surface cover during a fallow period. Stubble-mulching can prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture. + +stud + +stumpage +The price paid by a logging business to a landowner for the right to harvest timber from their land, usually determined by a rate applied to the number of trees or the volume (in cubic metres or board-feet) or mass (in tons) of wood harvested. + +sty +Also pigsty, pig pen, pig parlor, or pig-cote. +A small outdoor enclosure in which domestic swine are raised as livestock, generally little more than a fenced-in area of bare dirt or mud. + +subirrigation +Also subsurface irrigation or seepage irrigation. +The practice of delivering irrigation water through ditches or pipelines directly into porous underground spaces within a crop's rooting depth; more broadly, any method of supplying water to plants from underneath the soil surface, including those grown in pots and containers, as opposed to supplying it at the surface or from above. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-34.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-34.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1fc21e94 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-34.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 35/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +subsistence agriculture +Agricultural production that is practiced in order to meet the needs of the farmer or producer, as opposed to that practiced in order to generate profit by selling the agricultural products to consumers. Subsistence agriculture usually refers to farmers growing various food crops strictly for use by themselves and their families, typically on smallholdings, with the output of the farm targeted principally at fulfilling basic survival needs and local requirements, and generally implies small amounts of inputs, use of crude or traditional farming tools, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), low yields, and little or no surplus. It primarily occurs in the developing world, though most modern subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree. + +subsoiler +Also flat lifter. +A tractor-mounted farm implement used for tilling soil at depths much below the levels normally worked by mouldboard ploughs, disc harrows, or rototillers. While most such tools break up and turn over surface soil to a depth of 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in), subsoilers can often extend the action to as deep as 75 centimetres (30 in). They typically consist of three or more heavy, curved shanks fitted with replaceable points and sometimes with horizontal wings, which are used to lift and shatter the hardpan that builds up in deeper layers due to soil compaction. + +succession planting + +suckle +To supply or take milk from the breast or udder of an animal, used especially to describe the nourishment of newborn mammals including swine and cattle. + +suckling +An infant or young animal that suckles milk for most or all of its nourishment; one that has not yet been weaned. + +sugar bush +A natural or cultivated stand of maple trees used for the production of maple syrup. + +summer fallow +The practice of deliberately not producing crops from a particular field or area of cropland (fallowing) during the summer, or during the regular growing season. The term may also refer to the unused land itself. Intensive cultivation depletes soils of moisture and nutrients and disrupts many of the natural ecological processes that would ordinarily restore them, which are typically most active during the summer. Fallowing fields in the summer thus maximizes the opportunity for impoverished soils to recover by allowing these processes to continue instead of interrupting them with another season of cultivation. It is a common technique in dryland farming. + +summer range +Also summer pasture. +Land or pasture reserved for grazing during the warmer months (i.e. spring and summer), when wild or cultivated forage is abundant and can satisfy all or nearly all of an animal's feed requirements, such that the need to supply fodder for sustenance is greatly reduced and thus feed costs are cheaper. More generally, the term may describe the areas occupied or frequented during the warm season by open-range livestock or wild animals which exhibit seasonal migration patterns, moving between higher, cooler elevations in the summer and lower, warmer elevations in the winter. Contrast winter range. + +sun-cured +Also sun-dried. +(of a food) Having been dried by a process in which the freshly harvested produce (e.g. tomatoes) is exposed to direct sunlight in open air, often for multiple days, causing most of the water of the fresh weight to be lost by evaporation. + +sunscald +Also southwest injury. +Permanent damage to the bark covering tree trunks and branches, often in the form of conspicuous cracks and fissures, caused by an abrupt change from relatively high daytime temperatures to freezing conditions at night, usually during the winter in warm temperate or subtropical climates. These conditions may compromise the health of trees growing in orchards, and may damage flowers and fruits as well. + +super seeder + +support price +A legislated minimum price for a particular commodity, maintained through a variety of mechanisms, such as minimum import prices, nonrecourse loans, and purchase programs. + +sustainable agriculture + +swampbusting +The drainage of a natural swamp or wetland in order to make the land arable for the cultivation of agricultural crops, or to render it usable for any other purpose. + +swathe + +swather +Also windrower. +A machine that cuts hay or small grain crops and forms them into windrows, with the goal of decreasing the time required for drying the crop to a moisture content suitable for harvesting and storage. A sickle bar or mower cuts the stems of the crop, and a reel helps the cut stems fall neatly onto a conveyor, which then deposits them into a windrow with all stems oriented in the same direction. The mown strip left behind is called the swathe. + +sweetening +The sowing of additional seed of the same crop into a previously sown field without disrupting the original planting, in order to supplement thinly planted areas which did not or are not expected to germinate at the same density as the rest of the field. Even when the original seed is uniformly sown, it may fail to establish at the expected density due to low viability or adverse weather conditions such as a late frost. + +swill +A mixture of water and discarded kitchen refuse that is fed to livestock (especially swine); or any liquid food for animals. + +swine +Also pig or hog. +Any member of several species of omnivorous mammals of the family Suidae, having cloven hooves, flat snouts, and thick hides covered with sparse, coarse hair; the term may be applied to such animals both collectively and individually. Adult males are called boars and adult females are called sows. Domestic swine are commonly raised for their meat, known as pork, and wild swine are often hunted. + +== T == + +tagging +See crutching. + +tailing +See docking. + +tailrace +A manmade channel or millrace built to carry water away from a mill, water wheel, turbine, or mining operation. Compare headrace. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-35.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-35.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60672dc33 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-35.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 36/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +tailwater +1. In furrow and border irrigation, water that drains from the lower end of the furrows, having run off instead of penetrating the soil. It is sometimes subsequently usable for the irrigation of lower-lying land. +2. The water immediately downstream of a dam, spillway, bridge, culvert, or any other hydraulic structure, or the water that passes through a tailrace. + +tallow +Fat rendered from the tissue of slaughtered cattle, sheep, or other livestock to be used in the manufacture of candles, soap, or any of a variety of other products. + +tame hay +Hay cut from domesticated, cultivated crop plants such as clover, timothy, or alfalfa, as opposed to wild hay, which is cut from wild or native grasses. + +tankage +A highly nutritive animal feed concentrate made of processed meat byproducts. + +tapping +The process by which sap or latex is extracted from the trunks of cultivated trees. + +teart +Plants or soils that contain high concentrations of molybdenum; or the poisoning of livestock that graze on vegetation grown in these soils. + +tedder +Also hay tedder. +A tractor-drawn machine that uses rapidly moving pitchfork-like tines to aerate or "wuffle" freshly cut hay on the ground in a process known as tedding, typically prior to windrowing. Use of a tedder allows the hay to dry more quickly, which can result in improved aroma and color. + +tedding +The spreading of material across an agricultural field, especially manure to serve as a fertilizer, or certain crops (e.g. hay and flax) to help them dry on the ground before collecting them. Traditionally tedding was done manually with tools such as pitchforks, but in modern practice it is often done by a mechanized manure spreader or hay tedder. + +tempering +Also conditioning. +One of several steps in the dry milling and fractionation of certain cereal crops such as wheat and maize, in which moisture is added to the grain in order to aid the removal of bran from the endosperm. + +tenant farmer +A person who operates and resides on farmland owned by a landlord. Tenant farming involves a contract between the landowner and the tenant farmer in which the landowner contributes his land and often a measure of operating capital and management in exchange for the tenant farmer's labor. The tenant farmer may also pay rent to the landowner, though the form and measures of payment and the rights the tenant has to the land vary widely with local custom. + +tensiometer +An instrument used in irrigation management to measure the amount of moisture in cultivated soil and thereby provide an indicator of how much and how frequently to irrigate. + +terrace +A sloped plane such as a hillside that has been landscaped into a series of flat surfaces or platforms resembling steps, i.e. successively receding as one travels uphill, and following the lateral contours of the topography. Graduated terraces are commonly built to create level spaces for agriculture in hilly or mountainous terrain. The shaping of a natural landscape into terraces is known as terracing. + +threshing +The process of loosening and separating the edible part of a grain or other crop from the chaff to which it is attached, without removing the bran. In grain cultivation, threshing immediately follows reaping and precedes winnowing. + +threshing floor +A specially flattened outdoor or indoor surface of earth, stone, or wood, often circular and paved, against which grain was traditionally threshed by trampling or stamping it into the ground with the feet of people or animals, and where it was subsequently winnowed as well. Mechanized threshing machines have since made threshing floors obsolete. + +threshing machine +Also thresher. + +threshing stone + +tillage +1. The preparation of agricultural soil by any of various types of mechanical agitation, whether human-powered, animal-powered, or mechanised, such as digging, hoeing, raking, ploughing, and harrowing. In this sense, it is also referred to as tilling. +2. The land that is tilled. + +tiller +1. A stem or shoot which arises from the base or crown of a grass plant, especially any shoot that emerges after the initial parent shoot germinates from a seed. Many grass species, including cereals such as barley, produce multiple tillers which grow laterally from the same dense tuft in moist soils, a form of vegetative propagation known as tillering. +2. Colloquially, any farm implement used for tilling soil, e.g. a rotary tiller. + +tilth +The physical texture, structure, and general condition of soil with respect to its suitability for planting or growing a crop, as indicated by parameters such as moisture content, aeration, soil aggregate stability, rate of water infiltration, and drainage. Soil with good tilth has large pore spaces allowing air and water movement, yet is also capable of holding water and plant nutrients for substantial periods of time. The primary objective of tillage is to improve tilth by mechanical manipulation of the soil, with the goal of increasing crop yield; fertilization, irrigation, and soil amendments can also positively impact tilth. When applied excessively, however, these practices may have the opposite effect, causing the soil to lose its structure and become compacted. + +timber +See lumber. + +tobacco barn +A barn specially designed for air-curing tobacco plants. + +tom +A young male turkey, usually less than one year old. + +top dressing +Also topdressing. +The practice of applying fertilizers, manure, pesticides, or other soil amendments to the surface of agricultural land (i.e. broadcasting it from above and without subsequently tilling it into the soil), often directly onto a growing crop, and especially implying aerial application from aircraft. This is in contrast to applying amendments on the side or individually to each plant via more precise methods. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-36.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-36.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dcf337695 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-36.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 37/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +topographical tetrazolium test +Also TTC assay or tetrazolium test. +A test of seed viability in which ungerminated seeds are nicked and then soaked in an aqueous solution containing triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC), a chemical indicator which is reduced by the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes in living tissues, changing their color from white to red, but remains unreacted in metabolically inactive or necrotic tissues. A seed embryo that stains red is assumed to be metabolically active and therefore likely to germinate. The TTC assay is used in agriculture for quick estimations of viability without having to wait for actual germination, which can often take days or weeks, but may also yield misleading or unreliable results in certain plant species. + +topping +The removal by mowing or cutting of the aerial parts of a plant, i.e. the uppermost parts of the canopy, including the highest or most distal ends of shoots, stems, stalks, trunks, or branches, for any of a variety of reasons, especially in order to prevent the development of terminal reproductive structures such as flowers and fruits, with the ultimate aim of diverting the plant's resources to the growth of other structures such as roots and leaves, or of preventing unwanted dispersal of seeds. Cover crops are commonly topped to prevent their seeds from contaminating the soil they are covering. Topping is also done for health and aesthetic reasons. See also pruning, coppicing and pollarding. + +topsoil +The uppermost layer of soil, nearest the surface, widely variable in depth but typically less dense and more pliable than layers below it, making it easy to till but also more susceptible to erosion. In many places topsoils will form naturally from a mixture of organic and inorganic material over time, but it may also be added to a ground surface or created by ploughing. + +towbar +See drawbar. + +tractor +A type of heavy engineering vehicle designed specifically to deliver very high tractive effort or torque at slow speeds for the purpose of hauling a trailer or machinery, especially one which provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks. Modern tractors serve a wide variety of different functions, with many types of agricultural implements able to be towed behind or mounted on them, such as ploughs, harrows, and cultivators; tractors may also provide a source of electrical power if the implement is mechanized. + +transhumance +A type of pastoralism involving the seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures. + +transplanter +An agricultural machine designed to automate the process of transplanting small plants or seedlings from starter pots to a field, obviating the time and labor required for manual transplanting. + +transplanting +Also outplanting or replanting. +The process of moving a plant from one location to another, i.e. physically removing the whole plant, including its roots, from the substrate of the original location and then replanting it in the substrate of the new location. Seeds and plugs are often initially planted in starter pots in a nursery and then transplanted to outdoor settings only after the young plants have become sufficiently established, as an alternative to simply sowing seeds outdoors from the beginning. Transplanting may also be done for other reasons, e.g. when moving container-grown plants to larger pots as they grow in size. A machine that automates the action of transplanting is known as a transplanter. Many agricultural crops are relatively tolerant of being transplanted and are quick to re-establish themselves in new locations, while other species are susceptible to transplant shock, such that horticulturists must exercise great caution when moving them. + +trap crop +Any plant that is cultivated in order to attract the attention of agricultural pests, usually insects, and thereby distract them away from nearby crops. In small farms or gardens, this practice can help save the primary crop from decimation by pests without the use of pesticides. + +tree farm +A wild forest that is managed for timber production, or a plantation or nursery where trees are deliberately planted and cultivated for commercial sale, either for timber or as ornamental plants. + +tree wrapping +The practice of completely covering the lower trunk of a tree (commonly a sapling) or any other sensitive plant with straw, crêpe paper, burlap, or plastic, generally in order to protect it from cold temperatures, wind, sunscald, or insects. + +trellis +Also treillage. +A lattice or framework of interwoven or intersecting rods of wood, bamboo, metal, or plastic used to support or display climbing plants, especially trees and shrubs but also garden crops such as tomatoes. + +trench silo +A long, deep trench dug in the ground, often in a hillside, and sometimes lined with wooden or concrete retaining walls to be used as an in-ground silo for storing silage. They are common in arid climates where the ground is well-drained. + +trickle irrigation +See drip irrigation. + +trough +See manger. + +truck farm +A farm that grows vegetables or fruits and then ships the harvested produce, often in boxes hauled by trucks, to one or more markets for sale to consumers (as opposed to selling the produce at the farm itself, as with a farm stand). + +tup +A mature male sheep (a ram), at least 18 months old and capable of siring offspring. + +tupping +Copulation between a ram and a ewe. + +turning out +The release of livestock from a shelter or enclosure into an open space, usually onto pasture after a period of being housed. For example, cattle that have been kept in buildings during the winter are turned out to grass in the spring. + +turnrow +See headland. + +twibill +A type of mattock which pairs a vertical axe blade with a horizontal adze blade, combining chopping and levering functions in a single tool. + +== U == + +U-fork +See broadfork. + +U-Pick +See You-Pick. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-37.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-37.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..551ebd4a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-37.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 38/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +udder +The fleshy, bag-like mammary gland found just in front of the hind legs of many female ungulate mammals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. The udder contains nipples or teats that secrete milk, which is used as a food source for nursing young and collected by humans in the process of milking. + +undergrazing +The practice of neglecting to allow livestock to graze an area of pasture for an excessively long period of time, such that the vegetation covering it reaches maturity or the end of its life cycle well before animals have the opportunity to graze it and thus is not eaten when it is optimally palatable or nutritious. + +urban agriculture +The practice of agriculture in urban environments (as opposed to rural areas, with which agriculture is more commonly associated), especially the cultivation of plants for food production but also inclusive of animal husbandry, aquaponics, beekeeping, or any other type of agriculture which has been adapted to an urban context. Urban areas present unique challenges for agriculture due to space limitations, difficult or inconsistent access to adequate fresh water, fertile soil, and sunlight, and exposure to urban pollutants. Urban agriculture is often practiced in the interest of food security, locavorism, and sustainable urban development, or simply as a hobby or for aesthetic reasons. Examples include community gardens, vertical farming, windowfarming, rooftop gardening, and building-integrated agriculture. + +== V == + +vapor drift +The unintentional diffusion of vapors from an area where pesticides are applied (generally by large-scale fumigation methods) to adjacent areas, which can harm non-target crops or animals, as well as humans. + +Vavilovian mimicry +A form of mimicry in plants in which a weed or unwanted plant species evolves to share one or more characteristics with a domesticated plant species, often an agricultural crop, through many generations of unintentional selection caused by the practice of removing weeds. The deliberate removal of weeds from crop fields artificially selects against traits that distinguish the weed from the crop plant, because weeds that physically or chemically resemble the crop plant, or otherwise follow the same phenology or growth habit, are more likely to escape notice by the farmer, evade chemical or mechanical removal, and thereby survive to reproduce. + +veal +The meat of calves, as opposed to the beef of older cattle. + +vealer +A calf, especially of a dairy breed, that is usually raised on milk only and slaughtered at less than four months old and less than 350 pounds (160 kg), to be sold as veal. + +veganic farming +See animal-free agriculture. + +vermicompost +A type of compost produced as a result of the decomposition processes performed by certain species of earthworms as they feed on decaying organic matter. The final product, typically a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and worm castings, is popular as a fertilizer and soil amendment. + +vermiculite +A hydrated magnesium-aluminum silicate mineral resembling mica which exfoliates upon heating to form a lightweight, incombustible, and highly hygroscopic substance widely used in agriculture and horticulture as a soil amendment, where it helps to aerate soil and retain water and nutrient ions, releasing them slowly over time. These properties make it a useful growth medium for sowing seeds and propagating cuttings, either alone, mixed with compost, or just covering the surface. It is commonly used in combination with perlite. + +vermiculture +The cultivation of worms, usually red wigglers and other types of earthworms, for the purpose of producing vermicompost. + +vermiponics + +vernalization + +vertical farming +The practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers, usually indoors as a type of controlled-environment agriculture and by incorporating soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. + +vineyard +A plantation or plot of land where grapevines are grown for the cultivation of grapes, particularly for winemaking. + +virtual water +The total volume of freshwater used in the production of a food or non-food agricultural product, represented figuratively and in most cases estimated rather than directly measured. Virtual water may include the water physically embodied in the product itself (e.g. inside a fruit) as well as any water used during production which does not ultimately become part of the product (e.g. all water consumed in the process of irrigation, whether actually uptaken by the crop or not). + +viticulture +Also winegrowing. +The practice and study of the cultivation of grapes, especially for use in winemaking. + +volunteer +Any plant, especially a feral crop plant or crop descendant, that grows in an agricultural field or garden unintentionally, rather than by deliberate planting by a farmer or gardener. Volunteers often grow from seeds that have been dispersed by the wind or animals or inadvertently mixed into compost. Unlike weeds, volunteers are not necessarily unwanted, and may even be encouraged to grow, especially if they show desirable characteristics that can be selected to produce new cultivars. + +== W == + +walking tractor +Also two-wheel tractor or single-axle tractor. +A self-propelled, two-wheeled tractor vehicle with a single axle, designed to pull and supply power to any of a variety of agricultural implements which are mounted upon or towed behind it, including ploughs, seeders, cultivators, harvesters, or other trailers, with the operator either walking behind it or riding the implement being towed. These tractors, usually much smaller and cheaper than four-wheeled tractors, are best suited for small fields and relatively light-duty tasks. + +wares +Potatoes grown or marketed for human consumption, as opposed to those grown for seed; or the largest, highest-quality potatoes that are separated from smaller, lower-quality chats during post-harvest sorting. + +warm-up ration +A ration of grain and/or silage fed to free-range cattle to prepare them for placement in a feedlot, where they will be fed on similar rations consisting entirely of processed feed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-38.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-38.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de15861e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-38.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 39/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +water rights +The right of a landowner to make use of the banks, bed, or waters of a water source, e.g. a river, stream, pond, spring, or underground aquifer. The water source need not necessarily be contained within or border on the user's property, as human-made reservoirs, aqueducts, and other water distribution systems have made it possible to allocate water to places outside of the source's natural drainage basin. Water rights are of major significance for managing irrigation, especially in arid regions, though the legal principles regulating access and usage vary widely by jurisdiction. + +water wheel +A mechanical device that converts the kinetic energy of flowing or falling water into mechanical energy, generally a series of blades, paddles, or buckets attached to the outer rim of a wooden or metal wheel which the water in a natural or artificial channel pushes against, causing the wheel to turn and thereby providing a drive mechanism that can be used to perform useful work such as grinding grain into flour in a gristmill, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, and pounding plant fibers for clothmaking, among many other uses. + +waterlogging +The saturation of soil with water, such that water completely fills all available pores and voids in the soil, restricting air circulation in the root zone and creating an anaerobic environment. Waterlogging occurs when water is added to a field faster than it can percolate through the soil or run off from the surface, either because of excessive precipitation or over-irrigation. In some contexts such as flood irrigation, crops are intentionally waterlogged, though total saturation is usually brief. Prolonged waterlogging is usually unintentional, as it deprives plant roots of aerobic respiration and can prevent proper drainage of mineral salts, causing an undesirable increase in soil salinity; with the exception of certain crops like rice grown in paddy fields, most plants are highly intolerant of it. A variety of agricultural practices are designed to facilitate drainage and prevent waterlogging. + +water-meadow +A flat area of grassland that is periodically flooded through the use of controlled irrigation in order to increase agricultural productivity. The technique is practiced primarily in Europe. + +watermill +Also water mill. +A mill powered by the movement of water through a water wheel or turbine, which drives the grinding or crushing mechanism. + +water-wheel irrigation +See center-pivot irrigation. + +weaning +The gradual introduction of an infant mammal to an adult diet while withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk; the infant is considered fully weaned, and may be called a weanling, when it is no longer nursed on any breast milk. More generally the term can also refer to the physical separation of a calf from its mother for any reason, usually by putting them in different herds. + +weanling +Also weaner. +An animal which has recently been weaned, especially a young horse, usually between six months and one year of age. The term is also sometimes used to refer to newly weaned cattle and swine. + +weed +Any plant considered undesirable in a particular context, growing where it conflicts with human preferences, needs, or goals. Plants considered weeds may include those that are hazardous to humans or animals; harbor pests or diseases; are difficult to control in managed environments; are aesthetically unappealing; or are simply a general nuisance, having negative characteristics that outweigh their positive ones. Such plants tend to reproduce quickly and produce large numbers of seeds, and often have biological characteristics that allow them to thrive in disturbed environments or that make them difficult to eradicate. Weed control is of great importance in agriculture and horticulture, since weeds may compete with cultivated crops for soil, sunlight, water, nutrients, and other resources and cause significant losses in crop yields. + +weed control +A form of pest control which attempts to stop or reduce the growth and proliferation of weeds in areas where they are not wanted (such as in agricultural fields or gardens), generally with the aim of reducing their competition with desirable flora or fauna (such as domesticated crop plants or livestock) or, outside of agricultural contexts, of preventing non-native plant species from invading and damaging natural ecosystems by competing with native species. Methods of controlling existing weed populations include manually or mechanically damaging or removing them, smothering them with mulch, deeply tilling or solarizing the soil, burning them, or applying postemergent chemical herbicides. Weed control may also encompass prophylactic measures intended to prevent weeds from invading and germinating in areas where they are not yet growing, such as applying preemergent herbicides or practicing long-term strategies such as periodically rotating crops or fallowing the land. + +weed of cultivation +Any plant considered a weed that is well-adapted to environments in which the land is cultivated for growing some other plant. See also crop weed. + +weeder +Any of a variety of hand-operated, towed, or power-driven agricultural implements used to pull, cut, dig, or otherwise remove undesirable plants from an area intended for cultivation. + +weeding +The destruction or removal of weeds by manual or mechanical means, often with the use of implements such as hoes or cultivators, but also simply by manually pulling them from the ground; or, in the broadest sense, any type of weed control applied to existing populations of weeds, including chemical herbicides. + +wether +A castrated male goat or sheep. + +wet-milling +A milling operation in which plant material containing seeds is steeped in water, with or without sulfur dioxide, in order to soften the seed kernels and separate the material into its various components. The technique is commonly used to convert maize into products that can be used as animal feed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-39.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-39.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..988c9410d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-39.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 40/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +wheat middlings (WM) +Also wheat mill run (WMR), millfeed (MF), and midds. +A byproduct of the milling of wheat consisting of all components of the wheat kernel remaining after the flour portion is separated, generally a mixture of both coarse and fine particles including screenings, bran, germ, shorts, red dog, and offal from other mill streams. Sometimes these components are further sorted into their own separate fractions, though they are also commonly recycled into a single combined fraction representing approximately 25–30 percent of the original grain. Wheat middlings are inexpensive and rich in protein, lipids, digestible fiber, phosphorus, and many vitamins and minerals, making them a popular animal feed. + +wheatings +Also weatings. +A byproduct of the milling of wheat consisting of brans of various sizes and varying amounts of attached endosperm, commonly used as animal feed. See also wheat middlings. + +wigging +The shearing of wool from around the eyes and face of a sheep. + +wild hay +Hay cut from wild or native grasses, as opposed to tame hay, which is cut from cultivated crops. + +wildcrafting +The human practice of foraging for uncultivated plants or fungi from their natural or "wild" habitats, primarily for food or medicine. + +wildling +A crop seedling which has begun growing, unintentionally, outside of managed agricultural lands or the area where it was intended to be cultivated. + +wilting point +See permanent wilting point. + +windbreak +Also shelterbelt. +One or more rows of closely spaced trees or shrubs planted in such a way as to provide shelter from the wind to an adjacent agricultural field, thereby protecting the area from excessive cold and soil erosion. Windbreaks commonly take the form of hedgerows planted around the edges of fields on farms, but may also be made from artificial materials such as large canvas panels. Aside from decreasing wind speeds, they may also be designed to separate farms from motorways or to collect snowdrifts that will provide water to dry farmland when the snow melts in the spring. + +windmill +A mill powered by the wind, using large vanes called sails or blades to catch the movement of the air and convert it into rotational energy which drives a turbine. Traditionally, windmills were used specifically as gristmills to mill grain, but in modern usage the term may encompass many other wind-powered devices which are not used for milling. + +windrow +A row of cut or mown hay or small grain crop that is allowed to dry in a field before being baled, combined, or rolled. Windrows may be built deliberately after cutting, or they may form automatically as a result of the method by which the crop is mown. + +windrower +See swather. + +windsnap +The breaking of the bole or trunk of a tree by very strong winds, a type of blowdown. Compare windthrow. + +windthrow +The uprooting of a tree by very strong winds, a type of blowdown. Compare windsnap. + +winnowing +The process, performed either manually or mechanically, by which the economic fraction of a grain crop (i.e. the grain) is separated from the undesirable chaff. Traditional manual winnowing involves throwing the unseparated mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, while the heavier grains fall back to the ground for recovery. In modern agriculture, winnowing is often entirely mechanized. It is the final of the three major steps of grain harvesting, following reaping and threshing. + +winter range +Land or pasture reserved for grazing during the colder months (i.e. fall and winter), when forage is less abundant and thus fodder must often be supplied to animals to meet their feed requirements. More generally, the term may describe the areas occupied or frequented during the cold season by livestock or wild animals that migrate seasonally between higher, cooler elevations in the summer and lower, warmer elevations in the winter. Contrast summer range. + +winter wheat +Any variety of wheat that is planted in the autumn or early winter in order to be harvested the following summer, as opposed to spring or summer wheat. After planting, winter wheat germinates and develops briefly but then enters a period of dormancy during the winter months in which it only grows vegetatively, before resuming its normal growth and reproductive cycle in the spring. These varieties are naturally tolerant of cold temperatures and make it possible for farmers to produce crops year-round instead of being restricted to the summer growing season. + +wool +The fiber produced by clipping and collecting hair from sheep or other mammals, including goats, rabbits, llamas, and alpacas. Animal wool is one of the major classes of fiber used in the textile industry. + +wool alien +A plant species, especially a non-native plant or weed, which has been unintentionally introduced to a particular place as a result of activities related to the manufacture of wool products. This usually occurs when a seed, bur, or even a whole plant becomes entangled in the wool of a sheep or other wool-bearing animal and then survives shearing, transportation of the shorn wool, and cleaning at a refinery, where impurities in the wool are removed and discarded such that intact plant propagules are able to germinate and establish themselves in new habitats. Wool aliens are commonly found near woollen mills or in fields or orchards where byproducts of the wool cleaning process have been repurposed as soil conditioners. + +woolshed +See shearing shed. + +worming +See deworming. + +== X == + +xeriscaping +The practice of gardening or landscaping so as to reduce or eliminate the need for supplemental water from irrigation. Xeriscaping requires the selection of plants whose natural requirements are appropriate to the local climate, with a particular emphasis on water conservation, and focuses on designing and maintaining the land in such a way as to avoid losing water to evaporation and runoff. See also dryland farming. + +== Y == + +yean +To give birth. The term is used especially of sheep and goats. + +yeanling +A newborn sheep or goat (i.e. a lamb or kid). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4c622c44 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 5/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +branding +A technique for marking and identifying livestock in which a permanent scar, known as a brand, is made in the animal's hide, traditionally by applying an extremely hot or cold branding iron which has been shaped or placed in such a way as to create a unique, specific symbol or series of numbers, usually for the purpose of indicating ownership. Branding may be used in conjunction with other forms of animal identification, including earmarking, ear tagging, and radio-frequency identification (RFID). + +branding iron +A handheld metal tool with one end shaped into a letter, number, or other symbol, intended as a unique identifier, which is heated, chilled, or electrified and then pressed against the skin of an animal in a process known as branding. + +brash +1. The decaying residues of a previous crop, along with any weeds that may be present on or near the soil surface, in an area that has not been ploughed. This debris may impede subsequent cultivation unless it is removed or buried. +2. In forestry, the small branches and foliage removed when trees are felled. Where trees such as hazel are coppiced, brash is often placed over the stool to deter animals from browsing the regrowth. + +brashing +The pruning of the lower branches of trees grown in arboriculture in order to make physical access easier and improve timber quality. See also coppicing. + +breadbasket +A geographic region which, because it has a climate and soils well suited to grain farming, produces a large proportion of the total grain (or, by extension, other food products) consumed by a population or economy. + +break crop +A secondary crop grown in a crop rotation scheme in order to disrupt the repeated cultivation of a primary crop. The break crop species is usually of a different family or genus than the primary crop species, and the most effective break crops not only interfere with the build-up of pathogens but also restore soil fertility. + +broadacre +An expansive parcel of land suitable for farms practicing large-scale crop production. The term is used primarily in Australia. + +broadcast seeding +A method of seeding that involves scattering seed over a relatively large and imprecise area, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed to precision seeding and hydroseeding. Broadcast seeding is easier and faster than seeding in rows but usually requires more seed and may result in overcrowded and uneven distributions of plant cover. It is generally reserved for plants that do not have strict spacing or depth requirements or that are easily thinned after germination. + +broadfork +Also U-fork or grelinette. +A handheld farming tool consisting of a series of long metal tines attached to a horizontal crossbar, operated with two long handles extending from either end, which is used to manually break up densely packed soil such as hardpan without inverting or mixing the soil layers and thereby preserving its structure, often as part of no-till or reduced-till seedbed preparation. + +broiler +Sometimes used interchangeably with fryer. +A chicken of either sex that is bred and raised specifically for meat production. + +brood +1. A mature female animal, often a hen, which is kept for breeding purposes because of her strong mothering and nurturing instincts. +2. In apiculture, a bee brood, the collective name for the eggs, larvae, and/or pupae of a bee colony; or, more generally, the young offspring of any animal. + +brooding +Also incubating. +1. An instinctual behavior whereby female birds sit on a clutch of eggs to incubate them prior to hatching, often for very long periods of time without eating or drinking and generally characterized by the near-total devotion of the mother's time and energy to caring for the eggs. Many poultry species will naturally attempt to brood newly laid eggs if they are not collected first. +2. The practice in poultry farming of raising young chickens or turkeys in environments with warm, carefully controlled temperatures during the first few weeks of life. + +brown manure +Withered or decaying plant material which is used as a mulch or an organic fertilizer simply by leaving it to decompose on the soil surface (rather than tilling it into the soil while still green, as with green manure). Brown manure may consist of uprooted or dehisced crop residues or even whole plants which are specifically grown for this purpose and then sprayed with a selective herbicide to cause them to wilt and die. This practice, known as brown manuring, is often employed as a no-till alternative to other fertilizing techniques. + +browsing +A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds on leaves, soft shoots, or fruits of relatively tall, woody plants such as shrubs and trees, as opposed to grazing, which involves feeding on grasses and other low-lying vegetation. Browsing may also refer to feeding on any non-grasses, including both woody and herbaceous dicots. + +Bt crop + +buck +Also billy goat. +An intact adult male goat. + +bucking +See hay bucking. + +bull +An adult male bovine animal which has not been castrated (as opposed to a steer, which has been). + +bullock +See ox. + +bumper crop +Any crop that yields an unusually large or productive harvest. + +bushel + +== C == + +calf +Plural calves. +A young domestic bovine animal of either sex (i.e. a cow or bull), generally weighing less than 500 pounds. The term is usually applied from birth to weaning (which typically occurs around nine months of age), though it is also sometimes used until the animal is a yearling. Calves may be raised to become adult cattle, but are also commonly slaughtered for their meat, called veal, or their hides. The young of many other species, including bison, water buffalo, camels, and deer, are also called calves. + +calf hutch +An enclosure used to house pre-weaned calves individually. + +calving +The process of giving birth in cattle, by which a pregnant cow gives birth to a calf. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-40.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-40.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e5df0b609 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-40.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 41/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +yearling +A male or female horse, donkey, bovine animal, or any other domestic mammal that is too young to breed, generally between one and two years of age. + +yield +Also agricultural output. + +yield mapping +The preparation of agricultural maps using data obtained from physical sensors (known as yield monitors) attached to agricultural machinery such as combines or tractors, in combination with precise position information from satellite or GIS technologies, in order to visualize and study the spatial variation of variables such as crop yield and moisture content across an agricultural field. These data are often compared with records of the application of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation, allowing farmers to understand how particular combinations of inputs influence the yield harvested from different parts of the same field and to develop strategies for increasing yields in future production cycles. Yield mapping is a major component of precision agriculture. + +You-Pick + +== See also == +Index of agriculture articles +Outline of agriculture +Outline of organic gardening and farming +Outline of sustainable agriculture + +== References == + +== External links == +National Agricultural Library Thesaurus Concept Space – National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture +Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition – CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service +The Agropedia – Agriculture Glossary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60de00300 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 6/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +candling +In the poultry egg industry, the process of examining eggs for quality and defects by holding them in front of a bright light source, illuminating the internal contents of the egg through the translucent shell without having to break it open. + +cane mill +A mill at which sugarcane is ground into raw sugar. + +capon +A male chicken which has been castrated or neutered before reaching maturity, allowing it to grow faster and obtain a larger adult size. + +care farming +The practice of farming (or of agricultural activities in general) for the purpose of providing or promoting mental or physical health or well-being, especially as a form of therapy or to aid convalescence or for social or educational services. + +carryover +The supply of a farm commodity that is not yet used at the end of a marketing season and subsequently stored and made available for sale in the next marketing season. An excessively large carryover may be considered a surplus, and may cause prices to fall. + +carton +1. A container used for fruit or other produce leaving a packinghouse. +2. A unit of mass or volume representing a standardized size of these containers, equal to 425 pounds (193 kilograms) or 4⁄5 US bushel (6.4 US dry gallons), respectively. + +cash crop +Also profit crop. +Any crop that is grown so that it can be marketed and sold for profit, as opposed to a subsistence crop, which is grown for the grower's own use. While historically cash crops have often been only a small part of a farm's total yield, almost all modern crops in developed nations are grown primarily for revenue. + +castration +The surgical removal or chemical impairment of the testes of a male animal, which prevents reproduction (irreversibly in the case of surgery, though potentially reversibly in drug-dependent chemical castration) and also greatly reduces the production of certain hormones, particularly androgens. It is commonly performed on livestock as a method of birth control, to mitigate aggressive or sexual behaviors, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g. steers are usually castrated at a young age in order to prevent age-related hormonal changes that would otherwise make them more difficult to fatten or alter the quality of their meat. The female equivalent is called spaying. See also gelding and neutering. + +catalo +See beefalo. + +catch crop +Any fast-growing crop that is grown between successive plantings of a primary crop on the same land. Its practice, known as catch cropping, is a type of succession planting. + +cattle +A group of large, domesticated, bovid mammals of the genus Bos and especially the species Bos taurus, which are commonly raised as livestock for their meat (known as beef), their milk, their hides, their dung (used as manure or as fuel), or as draft animals or riding animals. Mature female cattle are known as cows, mature male cattle as bulls, and young cattle of either sex as calves, though colloquially "cow" is often used to refer to all bovine animals, irrespective of age or sex. + +cattle cycle +The cyclical fluctuation of supply and prices observed in cattle markets, analogous to the pork cycle. In the United States, the cattle cycle refers to the approximately 10-year period during which the industry-wide population of beef cattle is alternately expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived changes in profitability by beef producers. Low prices occur when cattle numbers or beef supplies are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation; as cattle numbers decline and supplies diminish, prices gradually begin to rise along with renewed demand, causing cattle producers to begin breeding cattle and expanding their herds again. + +cattle drive +See droving. + +cattle prod +See goad. + +cattle station +See station. + +cattleman +See rancher. + +cellular agriculture +The cultivation and production of agricultural products from cell cultures grown in a laboratory, such as cultured meat, by using techniques of molecular biology and biochemistry to directly synthesize the complex mixture of proteins, fats, and other substances which are found naturally in living tissues. Most of the industry is focused on cultivating animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs by growing animal tissues from stem cells in vitro and then simulating the same series of biochemical processes that occurs naturally in actual animal bodies, as opposed to raising and slaughtering farmed livestock as in conventional animal husbandry, which has long been criticized for its negative impacts on the environment, human health, food security, and animal welfare. Cellular agriculture has therefore been championed as a sustainable and ethical alternative, though the necessary procedures and infrastructure are usually highly specific and technical. + +cellulosic fiber +Any fiber of plant origin, composed of ethers or esters of cellulose, hemicellulose, and/or lignin obtained from the bark, wood, or leaves of plants or another plant-based material. This includes natural fibers such as cotton, linen, jute, and hemp, as well as semi-synthetic fibers such as rayon and cellulose acetate. + +census of agriculture +The periodic collection, processing, and dissemination of statistical data regarding agricultural activities within a country, state, county, or other polity. Agricultural censuses attempt to accurately measure and classify metrics such as number and size of farms or other holdings, types of land tenure and land use, crop acreage, livestock numbers, agricultural inputs and expenses, productivity and profits, types and uses of facilities and machinery, demographics of owners and workers, product quality, and sustainability, among others. In the United States and many other places, censuses are conducted at the holding level every five years. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d3303fdf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 7/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +center-pivot irrigation +Also circle irrigation or water-wheel irrigation. +A method of crop irrigation in which a long line of sprinklers mounted upon or dangling from a metal frame with multiple sets of wheels rotates slowly around a pivot at the center of a field, watering a very large circular area centered on this point. Water is usually supplied by a well or an underground pipeline near the pivot, and the wheeled frame is propelled by hydraulic pressure or electric motors. A typical center-pivot line is 400 metres (1,300 feet) long and capable of irrigating a 125-acre (51 ha) circle within a 160-acre (65 ha) square, covering about 78% of the surface area; some systems can also irrigate the corners of the square by means of an end gun at the end of the line or a trailing segment of frame that swings out into the corner areas. Modern center-pivot systems are often fully automated and programmable for specific rates of rotation, variable water distribution patterns, and other precision controls. + +cereal +Any member of the grass family cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (the "cereal grain"). Compare pseudocereal. + +certified seed +Plant seeds that have been approved by a certifying agency or agricultural retailer as meeting established standards of quality and productivity, e.g. of germination, varietal purity, sustainable sourcing, and/or freedom from contamination with disease-causing pathogens, weed seeds, and synthetic chemicals. See also registered seed. + +chaff +The dry, scaly, protective casing around the seeds of cereal grains, or any other similar plant material. Chaff is generally inedible by humans but is often used as fodder for livestock or is ploughed into the soil as a type of green manure. + +chemical fallow +The use of chemical herbicides to prevent the growth of vegetation on fallow land. + +chemigation +Often used interchangeably with fertigation. +The practice of delivering any natural or synthetic chemical compound or mixture of compounds (such as fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendments, etc.) to crop plants via the water supply used for irrigation. + +chevon +The meat of a young goat. + +chisel plough +Also chisel plow. +A type of plough consisting of a long row of multiple shanks which break and loosen soil to depths of 46 centimetres (18 in) without inverting or turning it, leaving accumulated crop residues on the soil surface instead of burying them. Chisel plows are used to plow very deeply (such as to break up hardpan) without disturbing the organic matter present on the surface, in a process sometimes called chiseling, often as part of low-till or no-till practices. + +circle irrigation +See center-pivot irrigation. + +citriculture +The cultivation of citrus fruit trees. + +cloche +A bell-shaped glass or plastic covering placed over an individual plant to protect it from cold temperatures, used especially in gardening. Row cover serves the same function on a larger scale. See also cold frame. + +cock +See rooster. + +cockerel +A young male chicken, generally less than one year old. + +cold frame +An enclosure with a transparent glass or plastic roof, built low to the ground, that is designed to protect juvenile plants and small gardens from cold or wet weather. Cold frames are used to extend the growing season by acting as miniature greenhouses. + +collective farming +Also communal farming. +Any type of agricultural production in which multiple farmers or producers run their holdings as a joint enterprise using shared land, water resources, machinery, equipment, or other agricultural inputs in order to meet common needs and goals. Communal farms may be either voluntary agricultural cooperatives or mandatory state farms owned and operated directly by a central government. + +colostrum +The first milk produced by a cow following calving, generally rich in fat, protein, and immunoglobulins. + +colt +A young male horse or mule, typically under four years of age. + +columbarium +See dovecote. + +combine harvester +Also simply combine. +A large agricultural machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of different grain crops by combining three traditionally separate harvesting operations – reaping, threshing, and winnowing – into a single mechanical process. The harvested grain is stored either in an on-board compartment or offloaded into a separate storage bin, while the remaining straw and other undesirable residue is typically discarded on to the field. + +companion planting +The practice of planting different crops in proximity for any of a number of different reasons, including as a means of controlling pests, aiding pollination, providing habitat for beneficial insects, maximizing the use of space, or otherwise increasing agricultural productivity. It is a type of polyculture. + +complete feed + +compost +Any mixture of decomposing plant and food waste and/or other recycled organic materials that is used to fertilize and improve soils. Such mixtures are rich in plant nutrients and beneficial organisms which can increase soil fertility and aid plant growth by acting as a natural soil conditioner, increasing the humic content of the soil, and suppressing pathogens. Often compost is made simply by allowing gathered green and brown waste to decompose naturally in open-air piles for many months, though it can also be made with more precise measurements and controls. + +compound feed + +condensery +A manufacturing facility where condensed or evaporated milk is produced. + +conservation tillage +Any tillage practice which aims to reduce soil erosion and preserve natural soil conditions, generally by leaving significant amounts of crop residue to cover previously harvested agricultural land; such practices can also enhance biological pest control and reduce fuel consumption and soil compaction. Conservation tillage includes no-till, strip-till, and mulch-till systems. + +container gardening +The practice of cultivating plants by growing them in containers or pots rather than planting them in the ground. The containers are generally small, portable, plastic or ceramic pots or trays which limit the soil space available to the plant's roots but have the advantage of allowing the gardener to easily move the plant to avoid inclement weather or other suboptimal conditions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8a3138e0c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 8/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +continuous harvest +A method of cultivation whereby crops are harvested more or less continuously throughout an extended or indefinite growing season, without any significant pause or interruption such as for replanting. For most conventionally grown plant and animal crops, production is limited to specific times of year by the need for suitable weather or for periods of inactivity during which soils can recover fertility and producers can resupply inputs and otherwise prepare for the start of the next production cycle, meaning the harvested products are only available to consumers for a few weeks or months at the end of each growing season. In some places, however, where the climate is largely consistent throughout the year, or wherever labor and inputs are consistently available, certain crops may be grown, harvested, and sold during unusually long seasons or even year-round. Some seasonal crops can also have their harvest windows extended by growing them in highly controlled environments or by deliberately staggering planting times so that different groups of plants are of different ages and thus one or more groups are ready for harvest at any given time of year. + +contour farming +Also contouring. +The practice of ploughing and/or planting a sloping field by following its natural contour lines, such that the resulting furrows and crop rows curve around the slope perpendicular to the direction of the force of gravity, with each remaining at approximately the same elevation for its entire length. This orientation helps prevent surface runoff and soil erosion by reducing the velocity with which water and soil moves down the slope, minimizing the formation of rills and gullies during heavy precipitation and allowing more time for the water to settle into the soil. Contour farming also reduces the runoff of agrichemicals, power consumption, and wear on machines, thereby increasing production efficiency. + +contract farming +Farming or other agricultural production carried out on the basis of an agreement between the buyer or consumer and the farmer or producer. Contracts typically involve the producer agreeing to supply certain quantities of a crop or other product according to quality standards and delivery requirements specified by the buyer, and the buyer agreeing to buy the product, often at a price established in advance; the buyer often also agrees to support the producer in various ways, e.g. by supplying inputs, assisting with land preparation, providing production advice, and helping to transport the finished product. + +controlled traffic farming (CTF) +A farming practice which attempts to manage and reduce the damage done to cultivated soils by repeated passes of heavy agricultural machinery such as tractors over the same area of land, particularly soil compaction, which often has negative consequences for numerous aspects of crop production. + +controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) +Any agricultural production that occurs in a specialized, enclosed space, typically indoors, where all variables affecting production (e.g. temperature and light intensity) can be carefully managed throughout the production cycle so as to provide an optimal environment that maximizes yield or efficiency or some other production target. Indoor growing spaces such as greenhouses are common examples, and the practice is central to urban agriculture and agricultural research. + +conventional tillage +Traditional, intensive methods of tillage using a mouldboard plough, disc harrow, or other powered implement to mix and completely invert the entirety of the soil surface prior to or during planting. Conventional methods usually involve repeated passes of heavy machinery over the same field and tend to bury crop residues left by previous harvests; subsequent use of other implements is often necessary to smooth the soil surface. These practices contrast with conservation tillage and low-till methods, which aim to minimize soil disturbance. + +coop +A building or shelter designed to house poultry birds such as chickens and to provide hens with a warm, dry place to nest and incubate their eggs. + +co-op +See agricultural cooperative. + +coppicing +A method of forest management by which the trunks and stems of young trees are regularly cut down to near ground level, exploiting the ability of many tree species to regenerate new growth from living stumps, known as stools. After a number of years of growth, the intended products of the coppiced tree are harvested and the cycle begins anew. Pollarding is a similar process carried out at higher levels on the tree; both practices are important techniques in silviculture. + +copse +A forest that has been coppiced. + +corn crib +Also corn house, ambar, or hórreo. +A granary used to dry and store harvested maize. + +corporate farming +The practice of large-scale agriculture on farms owned or greatly influenced by corporations or large private businesses. The concept includes not only corporate ownership of farmland and the means of production, but also the roles such companies play in influencing agricultural education, research, and public policy through lobbying and funding initiatives. + +cotton gin +A machine that automates the process of ginning cotton, separating cotton fibers from their seeds much more quickly and efficiently than traditional manual separation. + +cover crop +Any plant that is planted as soil cover rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cover crops may be used to manage soil erosion, soil fertility, water content, weeds, pests, agricultural diseases, and biodiversity on land that is repeatedly farmed. They are commonly off-season crops planted after harvesting a cash crop in order to help conserve the integrity of the land through a fallow period. + +cow +An adult female bovine animal. Colloquially, the term is often used to refer to all kinds of cattle, irrespective of age or sex. + +cowbell +A bell worn around the neck of free-roaming livestock, including but not limited to cattle, so that ranchers and herders can keep track of the animal's movements via the sound of the bell, which can be useful in hilly landscapes or vast plains when the animal is grazing out of view. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c28de3d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 9/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cow–calf operation +Also single-suckler herd. +A ranch which specializes in producing young beef cattle, maintaining a permanent herd of cows in order to breed and rear their calves and then sell them to other operations while still young, either to other ranches where they are raised into adults or to slaughterhouses for their meat or hides. + +cow-calf separation +Also dam-calf separation. +The widespread but controversial practice, in the beef and dairy industries, of separating calves from their mothers shortly after birth. + +creamery +A dairy operation or facility which processes raw milk and/or cream into finished dairy products, such as consumer-grade milk, butter, cheese, and ice cream, and prepares them for market. + +creep feeding +The practice of supplementing the diet of young livestock which are still nursing, usually beef calves and swine, with prepared feed. This may be done in order to introduce the animals to feed before weaning or to facilitate quicker fattening, but is only cost-effective when the price of animal feed is very low. + +crop +Any plant, animal, or other product of a living organism that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. The term may refer to the organism or species itself, the harvested parts, or the harvest in a more refined state. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture and its sub-disciplines, commonly (but not exclusively) as food for humans or fodder for livestock; other crops are gathered from the wild. + +crop insurance +Insurance purchased by agricultural producers, often subsidized by a government agency, to protect against the loss of potential revenue from crop sales due to extraneous circumstances, such as reductions in crop yield caused by natural disasters (drought, floods, hail, etc.) or declines in the prices of agricultural commodities. + +crop mark + +crop residue +Any organic material left in an agricultural field or orchard after a crop has been harvested, such as stalks and stems, leaves, seed pods, etc., or after a crop is processed for consumer use, such as seeds, husks, roots, bagasse, or other byproducts of processing. Field residues may be maintained as soil cover, burned, or ploughed into the soil as green manure; process residues are often used as animal fodder or soil amendments. + +crop rotation +The practice of cultivating a series of different crops in the same space over the course of multiple growing seasons, often in a specific sequence that repeats in a cycle every few seasons. The alternative to crop rotation, monocropping, may gradually deplete the soil of certain nutrients and select for highly competitive communities of pests and weeds, decreasing productivity in the absence of high volumes of external inputs such as fertilizers and herbicides. Crop rotation can reduce reliance upon these inputs by making use of the natural ecosystem services that accompany diverse sets of crops, usually by improving soil quality and reducing the probability of pests and weeds developing resistances to control measures. + +crop water productivity + +crop weed +Any weed or undesirable plant that grows among crop plants. See also weed of cultivation. + +crop wild relative (CWR) +A wild plant taxon that is closely related to a domesticated plant taxon (e.g. a wild ancestor of the domesticated plant) and which therefore may be indirectly useful to plant breeders by presenting the possibility of introducing genetic material from the wild plant into the domestic relative by crossbreeding. + +cropdusting +Also aerial application or topdressing. +The use of an agricultural aircraft to apply protective chemicals or other amendments, especially pesticides and fertilizers, to crops from above. Such aircraft may include either fixed-wing airplanes or helicopters, but are typically highly specialized and purpose-built to distribute very large amounts of liquid product over very large land areas in a relatively efficient manner. + +crop-lien system +A farm financing scheme whereby money is loaned at the beginning of a growing season to pay for farming operations, with the subsequent harvest used as collateral for the loan. + +cropping + +crutching +Also dagging. +The removal of wool from around the anus, genitals, or udder of wool-bearing animals such as sheep, generally to prevent urine, feces, or dirt from becoming trapped in the wool near these areas and potentially contributing to the spread of disease. + +cryophilous crop +A plant crop that requires a period of exposure to low temperatures in order to break dormancy and produce flowers and seeds. + +cull + +cultipacker +A farm implement consisting of a series of heavy, disc-shaped metal rollers, each bearing regularly spaced protrusions designed to crush dirt clods and push stones and field residues into the soil as they are pulled across a field (usually after it has been tilled and sown), with the goal of preparing a uniformly smooth, flat, firm seedbed devoid of air pockets, where seeds placed at shallow depths can maintain good contact with the surrounding soil. + +cultivar +Also cultigen. +A cultivated variety of a particular plant species, domesticated by humans and artificially selected for desirable traits which distinguish it from other varieties of the same species, and which breeds true and retains those traits when propagated. Plant species grown as agricultural crops may have dozens, hundreds, or thousands of distinct cultivars which have been deliberately bred by farmers and horticulturists by carefully managing their reproduction over many generations, e.g. by planting asexual vegetative propagules or by crossbreeding specific plants to create hybrid offspring. Not all cultivated plants are considered cultivars; by the strictest definition the term may be reserved for officially registered or patented commercial varieties, though in common usage it may be applied more broadly, even to wild plants with distinctive characteristics. + +cultivation +1. The act of improving an area of land for or by agriculture, especially through the deliberate growing of plants (but not necessarily excluding other types of agriculture). Land upon which plants are sown, nurtured, and harvested, or more broadly any land dedicated to agricultural purposes, is said to be cultivated. +2. Another name for tillage, especially the shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..589365942 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of agriculture" +chunk: 10/41 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cultural control +An approach to pest control which emphasizes the modification of the agricultural environment in order to reduce the prevalence and proliferation of unwanted pests, as an alternative to applying chemical pesticides. Examples of cultural control include altering physical properties of the growing environment (e.g. soil pH or fertility, amount of sunlight, temperature, humidity, irrigation, etc.) in order to make it difficult or impossible for pests to live there, adhering to a strict program of fallowing and weeding, and using pest-eating predators such as chickens or ladybugs as a form of biocontrol. Systematic implementation of these practices can reduce the need for curative interventions and thus avoid the detrimental effects of conventional top-down approaches to pest control such as those associated with chronic pesticide use. + +cultured meat +Also cultivated meat or lab-grown meat. +Meat-like animal tissue that is grown in a laboratory by culturing animal cells in vitro, in a process known as cellular agriculture, as opposed to meat obtained from whole animals that are raised on farms and then slaughtered. + +custom harvesting +The contracting of independent operators of farm equipment to harvest crops, especially grains, on a particular farm. Custom harvesters provide their own combines and other machinery and often charge for their work by the acre, with additional charges for high yields. + +== D == + +dagging +See crutching. + +dairy cattle +Cattle bred or raised specifically for milk production, from which any of a variety of dairy products can be made. This is in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as for their meat or so that they can be employed as working animals. + +dam +The female parent of an animal. The term is used alongside sire, especially for domestic mammals such as cattle and horses. + +damping off +A disease of newly germinated seedlings caused by any of a variety of fungi (e.g. Rhizoctonia or Aphanomyces) which spread in warm, damp conditions and parasitize roots and lower stems. Damping off is a common cause of seedling loss in greenhouses. + +dead hedge + +dead stock +All implements, tools, appliances, and machinery used on a particular farm; sometimes inclusive of seed, fertilizer, and feedingstuffs. + +deadheading +The practice of removing dead or spent flowers from a live plant in order to encourage further flowering, to prevent seed development, or to improve the plant's appearance. See also deblossoming. + +deadweight +The weight of an animal carcass after slaughter. Animals raised for their meat may be sold on either a deadweight or liveweight basis. + +deblossoming +Also deflowering. +The practice of removing flowers, spent or unspent, from live plants for any reason, especially to encourage or improve the subsequent growth, reproduction, health, or appearance of the plant's non-flower parts. Deblossoming is often done in order to divert the plant's limited resources away from sexual reproduction and towards vegetative propagation, e.g. by roots and runners; early in a perennial plant's life in order to allow it to establish and grow to maturity before dedicating resources to reproduction; or near the end of the growing season in order to maximize the size and quality of existing fruits, seeds, or other useful crop parts by diverting energy and nutrients away from new buds that will likely not have time to develop into useful crops anyway. + +defoliant +Any herbicidal chemical which causes leaves or other foliage to detach and drop from a plant. Defoliants are sometimes used on very leafy trees and shrubs to make finding and harvesting the non-leaf crop parts easier, or more commonly to control weeds. + +deintensified farming +Any agricultural operation which was formerly intensive but has since become deliberately extensive. + +dent corn +Also grain corn. +A type of field corn named for the characteristic indentation that forms at the crown of each wedge-shaped kernel and known for its high soft starch content, for which it is widely cultivated in order to produce animal feed, oils, waxes, paint, paper, and ethanol fuels. + +dessert crop +Any crop that is (or historically was) grown or used only for special occasions, as an elite or luxury item, or for pleasure rather than sustenance. Crops historically considered dessert crops include coffee, tea, sugar, cocoa, and tobacco. + +detasseling +In maize farming, the process of removing the pollen-producing flowers, known as tassels, from the tops of maize plants in order to prevent self-pollination. It is used as a crossbreeding strategy to ensure that the detasseled plants are receptive to pollen from non-self sources, e.g. from different cultivars when creating hybrid varieties. + +dewatering +The removal of water from a harvested crop by pressing and compacting layers of plant material for long periods of time. Dewatering can be significantly cheaper than other artificial drying techniques. + +dewattling +See dubbing. + +deworming +Also worming. +The process of treating a domestic animal with any treatment intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of endoparasitic worms (i.e. a vermicide), including roundworms, flukes, and tapeworms, usually by applying an antihelminthic drug either orally (via a feed supplement or drenching), topically (by pouring a liquid on the animal's skin), or by injection. + +diatomaceous earth +Also diatomite, celite, or kieselguhr. +A naturally occurring siliceous sedimentary rock consisting of the fossilized shells of microscopic single-celled algae known as diatoms, generally in the form of a crumbly, abrasive powder composed of silica, alumina, and iron oxides. It has many applications in agriculture, including as an anti-caking additive in animal feed and stored grain, as an organic insecticide, and as a soil conditioner or growing medium, where its low density and high porosity allow it to retain water and nutrients, circulate oxygen, and drain quickly. + +dibber +Also dibble or dibbler. +A handheld pointed wooden or plastic stick used to make small holes in soil so that seeds, seedlings, or small bulbs can be planted in them. + +digeponics + +digital agriculture +Also smart farming and e-agriculture. +The use of electronic sensors, computers, and information technology to digitally collect, store, analyze, and share agricultural data. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-0.md index 0155c9344..906333f86 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:14:12.956883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:50.564018+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-1.md index f5568b8ff..1b0ed5afa 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:14:12.956883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:50.564018+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-2.md index 088d54964..9e405726b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:14:12.956883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:50.564018+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9a1884093 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page is a glossary of architecture. + +== A == + +Abacus +A flat slab forming the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column. + +Accolade +A sculptural embellishment of an arch. + +Aisle +The subsidiary space alongside the body of a building, separated from it by columns, piers, or posts. + + Anta +The posts or pillars on either side of a doorway or entrance of a Greek temple – the slightly projecting piers which terminate the side walls (of the naos). + +Ante-choir +The space enclosed in a church between the outer gate or railing of the rood screen and the door of the screen. + +Apron +1. A raised panel below a window or wall monument or tablet. +2. An open portion of a marine terminal immediately adjacent to a vessel berth, used in the direct transfer of cargo between the vessel and the terminal. +3. A concrete slab immediately outside a vehicular door or passageway used to limit the wear on asphalt paving due to repetitive turning movements or heavy loads. + +Apse +A vaulted semicircular or polygonal end of a chancel or chapel. That portion of a church, usually Christian, beyond the "crossing" and opposite the nave. In some churches, the choir is seated in this space. + +Araeostyle +A style of intercolumniation in which the distance between columns is at least four diameters. The large interval between columns necessitates the use of a wooden architrave. + +Araeosystyle +An architectural term applied to a colonnade, in which the intercolumniation is alternately wide and narrow. + +Arcade +A passage or walkway covered over by a succession of arches or vaults supported by columns. Blind arcade or arcading: the same applied to the wall surface. + +Arch +A curved structure capable of spanning a space while supporting significant weight. + +Architrave +A formalized lintel, the lowest member of the classical entablature. Also the moulded frame of a door or window (often borrowing the profile of a classical architrave). + +Area or basement area +In Georgian architecture, the small paved yard giving entry, via "area steps", to the basement floor at the front of a terraced house. + +Arris +A sharp edge created when two surfaces converge; this includes the raised edge between two flutes on a column or pilaster, if that edge is sharp. + +Arris Rail +A type of rail, often wooden, with a cross-section resembling an isosceles triangle. + +Arrowslit +A thin vertical aperture in a fortification through which an archer can launch arrows. + +Articulation +The manner or method of jointing parts such that each part is clear and distinct in relation to the others, even though joined. + +Ashlar +Masonry of large blocks cut with even faces and square edges. + +Astragal +A moulding profile composed of a half-round surface surrounded by two flat planes (fillets). + +Atlas +A support sculpted in the form of a man, which may take the place of a column, a pier or a pilaster. + +Atrium +(plural: atria) The inner court of a Roman house; in a multi-story building, a toplit covered court rising through all stories. + +Attic +A small top story within a roof above the uppermost ceiling. The story above the main entablature of a classical façade. + +== B == + +Balconet +A false balcony, or railing at the outer plane of a window. + +Ball flower +An architectural ornament in the form of a ball inserted in the cup of a flower, which came into use in the latter part of the 13th, and was in great vogue in the early part of the 14th century. + +Baluster +A small moulded shaft, square or circular, in stone or wood, sometimes metal, supporting the coping of a parapet or the handrail of a staircase. A series of balusters supporting a handrail or coping is called a balustrade. + +Bar-stayed girder +A structural member of inadequate capacity for its load or span that is augmented by one or two steel bars anchored to each bearing end at or above the centroid of the girder to assume the tension forces. The bar(s) runs down and below the girder and stand off the girder on one or more struts anchored to the girder at its bottom surface. The struts are sized to accept the compressive forces imposed without bending. The load limit to this member is the crippling capacity (horizontal failure) of the girder. + +Bargeboard +A board fastened to the projecting gables of a roof. + +Barrel vault +An architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance. + +Bartizan +An overhanging, wall-mounted turret projecting from the walls, usually at the corners, of medieval fortifications or churches. + +Basement +Usually the lowest, subordinate storey of building, generally either entirely or partially below ground level; the lowest part of classical elevation, below the piano nobile. + +Basilica +Originally a Roman, large roofed hall erected for transacting business and disposing of legal matters; later the term came to describe an aisled building with a clerestory. Medieval cathedral plans were a development of the basilica plan type. + +Batement Lights +The lights in the upper part of a perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of those below. + +Batter (walls) +An upwardly receding slope of a wall or column. + +Battlement +A parapet (i.e., a defensive low wall between chest-height and head-height), in which rectangular gaps or indentations occur at intervals to allow for the discharge of arrows or other missiles. + +Bays +The internal compartments of a building, each divided from the other by subtle means such as the boundaries implied by divisions marked in the side walls (columns, pilasters, etc.) or the ceiling (beams, etc.). Also, the external divisions of a building by fenestration (windows). + +Bay window +A window of one or more storeys projecting from the face of a building. Canted: with a straight front and angled sides. Bow window: curved. Oriel: rests on corbels or brackets and starts above ground level; also the bay window at the dais end of a medieval great hall. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c9339cb4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Belfry +A chamber or stage in a tower where bells are hung. The term is also used to describe the manner in which bricks are laid in a wall so that they interlock. + +Bench table +A stone seat which runs round the walls of large churches, and sometimes round the piers; it very generally is placed in the porches. + +Bond +Brickwork with overlapping bricks. Types of bond include stretcher, English, header, Flemish, garden wall, herringbone, basket, American, and Chinese. + +Boss +1. A roughly cut stone set in place for later carving. +2. An ornamental projection, a carved keystone of a ribbed vault at the intersection of the ogives. + +Bossage +Uncut stone that is laid in place in a building, projecting outward from the building, to later be carved into decorative mouldings, capitals, arms, etc. Bossages are also rustic work, consisting of stones which seem to advance beyond the surface of the building, by reason of indentures, or channels left in the joinings; used chiefly in the corners of buildings, and called rustic quoins. The cavity or indenture may be round, square, chamfered, beveled, diamond-shaped, or enclosed with a cavetto or listel. + +Boutant +A type of support. An arc-boutant, or flying buttress, serves to sustain a vault, and is self-sustained by some strong wall or massive work. A pillar boutant is a large chain or jamb of stone, made to support a wall, terrace, or vault. The word is French, and comes from the verb bouter, "to butt" or "abut". + +Bracket (see also corbel) +A weight-bearing member made of wood, stone, or metal that overhangs a wall. + +Bressummer +(literally "breast- beam") A large, horizontal beam supporting the wall above, especially in a jettied building. + +Brise soleil +Projecting fins or canopies which shade windows from direct sunlight. + +Broken pediment +A style of pediment in which the center is left open (and often ornamented) by stopping the sloping sides short of the pediment's apex. A variant of this in which the sides are curved to resemble esses is called a swan's neck pediment. + +Bullseye window +Either a small oval window, or an early type of window glass. + +Bulwark +A Barricade of beams and soil used in 15th- and 16th-century fortifications designed to mount artillery. On board ships the term refers to the woodwork running round the ship above the level of the deck. Figuratively it means anything serving as a defence. Dutch loanword; Bolwerk + +Buttress +A vertical member projecting from a wall to stabilize it or to resist the lateral thrust of an arch, roof, or vault. A flying buttress transmits the thrust to a heavy abutment by means of an arch or half-arch. + +== C == + +Cancellus +(plural: Cancelli) Barriers which correspond to the modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing the body of a church from the part occupied by the ministers hence chancel. The Romans employed cancelli to partition off portions of the courts of law. + +Cant +An angled (oblique) line or surface, especially one that cuts off a corner. + +Cantilever +An unsupported overhang acting as a lever, like a flagpole sticking out of the side of a wall. + +Capital +The topmost member of a column (or pilaster). + +Caryatid +A sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. + +Casement window +A window hung vertically, hinged one side, so that it swings inward or outward. + +Cauliculus, or caulicole +Stalks (eight in number) with two leaves from which rise the helices or spiral scrolls of the Corinthian capital to support the abacus. + +Cavetto +A moulding in which the negative space makes a quarter-circle. + +Cella +The inner chamber of a temple in classical architecture. + +Chalcidicum +In Roman architecture, the vestibule or portico of a public building opening on to the forum, as in the basilica of Eumachia at Pompeii, and the basilica of Constantine at Rome, where it was placed at one end. See: Lacunar. + +Chamfer +A transitional edge, often 45 degrees, formed by paring down an arris diagonally. Some buildings may be chamfered such that the base is octagonal. + +Chancel (also Presbytery) +In church architecture, the space around the altar at the east end of a traditional Christian church building, including the choir and sanctuary. + +Chandrashala +The circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many Indian cave temples and shrines. + +Chigi +In Japanese architecture, a V-shaped finial used almost exclusively on Shinto shrines, where they are placed near the ends of the ridgeline(s) of the roof through extension of or attachment to the gable. In most cases, the direction of the cut at the top of a chigi indicates the sex of the kami within. + +Chimera +A fantastic, mythical or grotesque figure used for decorative purposes. + +Chimney +A structure which provides ventilation. + +Chresmographion +A chamber between the pronaos and the cella in Greek temples where oracles were delivered. + +Cincture +A ring, list, or fillet at the top and bottom of a column, which divides the shaft from the capital and base. + +Cinquecento +A style which became prevalent in Italy in the century following 1500, now usually called 16th-century work. It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in architecture. + +Cippus +(plural: cippi) A low, round or rectangular pedestal set up by the Romans for military purposes such as a milestone or a boundary post. The inscriptions on some cippi in the British Museum show that they were occasionally used as funeral memorials. + +Circulation +Describes the flow of people throughout a building. + +Cleithral +A covered Greek temple, in contradistinction to hypaethral, which designates one that is uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it. + +Clerestory +The upper part of the nave of a large church, containing a series of windows. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a7144ca4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Clock gable +A gable or facade with a decorative shape characteristic of traditional Dutch architecture. The top of the gable is shaped like a church bell. + +Coffer +A sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon that serves as a decorative device, usually in a ceiling or vault. Also called caissons, or lacunar. + +Colarin or Hypotrachelium +(also colarino, collarino, or hypotrachelium) The little frieze of the capital of the Tuscan and Doric column placed between the astragal and the annulets. It was called hypotrachelium by Vitruvius. + +Column +A structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. + +Compass +In carpentry, architecture, and shipbuilding, a compass is a curved circular form. + +Compluvium +The Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman house (domus) for lighting it and the rooms round. + +Coping +The capping or covering of a wall. + +Corbel +A structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight. + +Corbiesteps +A series of steps along the slopes of a gable. Also called crow-steps. A gable featuring corbiesteps is known as a corbie gable, crow-step gable, or stepped gable. + +Corinthian order +One of the three orders or organisational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterised by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple with a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a capital decorated with acanthus leaves, that flared from the column to meet an abacus with concave sides at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried. + +Cornice +The upper section of an entablature or a projecting shelf along the top of a wall often supported by brackets or corbels. + +Course +A layer of the same unit running horizontally in a wall. + +Cresting +Ornamentation along the ridge of a roof. + +Cross Springer +A block from which the diagonal ribs of a vault spring or start. The top of the springer is known as the skewback. + +Cross-wing +A wing attached to a main or original house block, its axis at right angles to the original block, and often gabled. + +Crypt +A stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics. + +Cryptoporticus +A concealed or covered passage, generally underground, though lighted and ventilated from the open air. One of the best-known examples is the crypto-porticus under the palaces of the Caesars in Rome. In Hadrian's Villa in Rome they formed the principal private intercommunication between the several buildings. + +Cuneus +A wedge-shaped division of the Roman theatre separated by the scalae or stairways. This shape also occurred in medieval architecture. + +Cupola +A small, most often dome-like, structure on top of a building. + +Cyma +A projecting moulding whose edge forms an S-curve. The two major types of cyma are the cyma recta, in which the upper curve is concave, and the cyma reversa (also known as the ogee), in which the lower curve is concave. + +Cyrto-style +A circular projecting portico with columns. + +== D == + +Denticulation +Finely toothed or notched; having dentils. + +Dentil +One of a series of small rectangular blocks projecting from a moulding or beneath a cornice. A string of dentils is known as dentillation. + +Diastyle +An intercolumniation of three or four diameters. + +Diaulos +Peristyle around the great court of the palaestra, described by Vitruvius, which measured two stadia (1,200 ft.) in length, on the south side this peristyle had two rows of columns, so that in stormy weather the rain might not be driven into the inner part. The word was also used in ancient Greece for a foot race of twice the usual length. + +Diazoma +A horizontal aisle in an ancient Greek theater that separates the lower and upper tiers of semi-circular seating and intersects with the vertical aisles. + +Dikka +An Islamic architectural term for the tribune raised upon columns, from which the Koran is recited and the prayers intoned by the Imam of the mosque. + +Dipteral +Temples which have a double range of columns in the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. + +Distyle in antis +Having two columns. + +A portico having two columns between two anta + +Dodecastyle +A temple where the portico has twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the Temple of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the Peiraeus. + +Doric order +One of the three orders or organisational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterised by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple without a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried. + +Dormer +A structural element of a building that protrudes from the plane of a sloping roof surface. Dormers are used, either in original construction or as later additions, to create usable space in the roof of a building by adding headroom and usually also by enabling addition of windows. + +Dosseret, or impost block +A cubical block of stone above the capitals in a Byzantine church, used to carry the arches and vault, the springing of which had a superficial area greatly in excess of the column which carried them. + +Double-depth plan +A plan for a structure that is two rooms deep but lacking a central corridor. + +Dromos +An entrance passage or avenue leading to a building, tomb or passageway. Those leading to beehive tombs are enclosed between stone walls and sometimes in-filled between successive uses of the tomb. In ancient Egypt the dromos was a straight, paved avenue flanked by sphinxes. + +Dutch gable +A gable whose sides have a shape made up of one or more curves and has a pediment at the top. + +== E == + +Eave return +An element of Classical Revival architecture in American domestic architecture. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..126989a35 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Egg-and-dart +An ornamental moulding in which an ovolo is inscribed with alternating oval and V-shaped motifs. + +Enfilade +A row of rooms with aligned doorways, creating a linear processional route. Enfilades were common in upper-class Baroque architecture and are used in museum layouts to manage flow. + +Engaged column +A column built into and partially projecting from a wall, particularly notable in Roman architecture. + +Engawa +In Japanese architecture, a section of floor outside the shoji that encircles the structure's rooms, similar to a porch or, when itself enclosed by storm doors or sheet glass, a sunroom. + +Entablature +A superstructure of mouldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. + +Entasis +The application of a convex curve to a surface for aesthetic purposes. Its best-known use is in certain orders of Classical columns that curve slightly as their diameter is decreased from the bottom upward. It also may serve an engineering function regarding strength. + +Ephebeum +(ephebion) A large hall in the ancient Palaestra furnished with seats, the length of which should be a third larger than the width. It served for the exercises of youths of from sixteen to eighteen years of age. + +Epinaos +An open vestibule behind the nave. The term is not found in any classic author, but is a modern coinage, originating in Germany, to differentiate the feature from the opisthodomos, which in the Parthenon was an enclosed chamber. + +Estípite +In Churrigueresque Baroque architecture, an elaborate pilaster with a tapered base. + +Estrade +The French term for a raised platform or dais. In the Levant, the estrade of a divan is called a Sopha, from which comes our word 'sofa'. In historical gardening, an estrade plant was pruned and trained with the main stem bare in sections, to achieve an appearance often likened to a "wedding cake". + +Eustyle +Intercolumniation defined by Vitruvius as being of the best proportion, i.e. two and a quarter diameters. + +== F == + +Facade +An exterior side of a building, usually the front. + +Fanlight +A window, semicircular or semi-elliptical in shape, with glazing bars or tracery sets radiating out like an open fan. + +Fan Vault +A conoid architectural element in which a series of equidistant curved ribs projects radially from a central axis, often a vertical wall support such as a column. Fan vaults are particularly connected with the English Gothic style. + +Fascia +1. A board attached to the lower ends of rafters at the eaves. Along with the soffit, the fascia helps enclose the eave. +2. In some Classical orders, one of a series of bands (either fillets or faces) sometimes seen around the architrave. + +Feretory +An enclosure or chapel within which the fereter shrine, or tomb (as in Henry VII's chapel), was placed. + +Fillet +1. A small band, either raised or sunken and usually square, used to separate mouldings. +2. The raised edge between two flutes on a column or pilaster, if that edge is flat. + +Finial +An element marking the top or end of some object — such as a dome, tower, or gable — often formed to be a decorative feature. Small finials may also be used as ornamentation for furniture, poles, and light fixtures. + +Flushwork +The decorative combination on the same flat plane of flint and ashlar stone. It is characteristic of medieval buildings, most of the survivors churches, in several areas of Southern England, but especially East Anglia. If the stone projects from a flat flint wall, the term is proudwork as the stone stands "proud" rather than being "flush" with the wall. + +Flying buttress +A type of buttress that transmits the thrust to a heavy abutment by means of a half-arch. + +Flying rib +An exposed structural beam over the uppermost part of a building which is not otherwise connected to the building at its highest point. A feature of H frame constructed concrete buildings and some modern skyscrapers. + +Foil +An architectural device based on a symmetrical rendering of leaf shapes, defined by overlapping circles of the same diameter that produce a series of cusps to make a lobe. Typically, the number of cusps can be three (trefoil), four (quatrefoil), five (cinquefoil), or a larger number. + +Footprint +The area on a plane directly beneath a structure, that has the same perimeter as the structure. + +Foot-stall +The lower part of a pier. (A literal translation of "pedestal.") + +Formeret +The French term for the wall-rib carrying the web or filling-in of a vault. + +Fractable +A coping, often ornamental, on a gable that hides the slope of the roof and becomes a parapet. + +Fusuma +An opaque partition consisting of a cloth or paper sheet over a wood framework, commonly seen in traditional Japanese architecture. Fusuma are built to be moved (usually by sliding them along tracks) or removed, allowing rooms to be reorganized and reshaped as desired and, in earlier constructions, allowing the interior of a structure to open directly to the outdoors. Some fusuma are painted, though many now feature printed graphics. Shoji are similar to fusuma but are generally translucent. + +== G == + +Gable +A triangular portion of an end wall between the edges of a sloping roof. + +Gablets +Triangular terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English and Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally terminated in pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally plain, and very sharp in pitch. In the Decorated period they are often enriched with paneling and crockets. They are sometimes finished with small crosses, but more often with finials. + +Gadrooning +A carved or curved moulding used in architecture and interior design as a decorative motif, often consisting of flutes which are inverted and curved. Popular during the Italian Renaissance. + +Galletting (also Garretting) +The process in which the gallets or small splinters of stone are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints. They are stuck in while the mortar is wet. + +Gambrel +A symmetrical two-sided roof with two slopes on each side. + +Gargoyle +A carved stone grotesque with a spout designed to convey water from a roof. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5081ea12f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Garret +A habitable attic at the top of a larger building, generally with sloping walls, and with skylights or dormer windows. + +Gauged brickwork (also rubbed brickwork) +Brickwork constructed of soft bricks rubbed to achieve a fine smooth finish with narrow joints between courses. + +Gazebo +A freestanding pavilion structure often found in parks, gardens and public areas. + +Geison +(Greek: γεῖσον — often interchangeable with cornice) The part of the entablature that projects outward from the top of the frieze in the Doric order and from the top of the frieze course of the Ionic and Corinthian orders; it forms the outer edge of the roof on the sides of a structure with a sloped roof. + +Gorgerin +On some capitals, a smooth or ornate part placed above the astragalus of a column. + +Geodesic dome +A structure formed of straight wood or metal members between points (or nodes) on a circular sphere (or part thereof) that are "pinned" at each connection point to two or more other members that transfer loads imposed on the structure to the base of the structure. The geometric areas between individual members may support a "skin" if the structure is to be enclosed. A "regular" geodesic structure have members of equal length but strengths of members may vary depending on location in the geodesic "grid". + +Grotto +An exterior submerged room that is decorated with landscaping or art in which has no exterior exit or entrance. One enters and exits only through the building. + +Gutta +In a Doric entablature, one of a number of small, projecting, drop-like ornaments under the triglyphs between the taenia and the architrave as well as under the mutules. + +== H == + +Hip roof +A type of roof where all sides slope downwards from the ridge to the eaves. + +Hood mould +An external moulded projection from a wall over an opening to throw off rainwater. Also known as a dripstone. + +Hyphen +Possibly from an older term "heifunon", a structural section connecting the main portion of a building with its projecting "dependencies" or wings. + +== I == + +Imperial roof decoration +A row of small figures along the unions of the roofs of Chinese official buildings. + +Intercolumniation +The interval separating one column from another in a colonnade. Intercolumniation regularly occurs in six forms: pycnostyle, systyle, eustyle, diastyle, araeostyle, and araeosystyle. + +Interlaced arches +A scheme of decoration employed in Romanesque and Gothic architecture, where arches are thrown from alternate piers, interlacing or intersecting one another. In the former case, the first arch mould is carried alternately over and under the second, in the latter the mouldings actually intersect and stop one another. + +Ionic order +One of the three orders or organisational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture characterised by columns which stood on the flat pavement of a temple with a base, their vertical shafts fluted with parallel concave grooves topped by a capital with volutes, that flared from the column to meet a rectangular abacus with carved ovolo moulding, at the intersection with the horizontal beam that they carried. + +== J == + +Jagati +A raised surface, platform or terrace upon which an Indian temple is placed. + +Jettying +A building technique used in medieval timber frame buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below. + +== K == + +Kamoi +In Japanese architecture, the upper rail, made from wood, to which shoji or fusuma are attached. + +Katsuogi +In Japanese architecture, a log used as ornamentation atop the roof. Katsuogi are normally round and are placed in parallel lines perpendicular to the ridge. They are currently only used on Shinto shrines, placed behind chigi and sometimes helping to convey, by their parity, the sex of the kami within. + +Keystone +The architectural piece at the crown of a vault or arch and marks its apex, locking the other pieces into position. + +== L == + +Lacunar +The Latin term for a paneled or coffered ceiling, soffit, or vault adorned with a pattern of recessed panels. + +Latticework +An ornamental, lattice framework consisting of small strips in a criss-crossed pattern. + +Lesene +A type of pilaster that lacks a base or capital. + +Light +The opening(s) in a window between mullions and muntins through which light enters an interior space. A 6:6 window is a window that has six lights in the upper sash and six in the lower sash. + +Lightning rod +A conductive bar of copper or zinc coated steel mounted on the ridge or a roof or on the parapet of a building connected to a large capacity conductor, usually copper, routed to a ground rod driven into the earth for the purpose of safely directing electrical charges caused by a lightning strike to the ground to avoid damage or fire to the structure. + +Lintel +A horizontal block that spans the space between two supports usually over an opening such as a window or door. + +Loculus +An architectural niche that houses a body, as in a catacomb, hypogeum, mausoleum or other place of entombment. + +Loggia +A gallery formed by a colonnade open on one or more sides. The space is often located on an upper floor of a building overlooking an open court or garden. + +Lunette +A half-moon shaped space, either masonry or void. + +== M == + +Mandapa +In Indian architecture, a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. + +Maqsurah (maqsura) +In Islamic architecture, the sanctuary or praying-chamber in a mosque, sometimes enclosed with a screen of lattice-work; occasionally, a similar enclosure round a tomb. + +Mansard roof +A curb hip roof in which each face has two slopes, the lower one steeper than the upper; from the French mansarde after the accomplished 17th-century French architect noted for using (not inventing) this style, François Mansart, died 1666. + +Marriage stone +A stone lintel, usually carved, with a marriage date. + +Mascaron +A face, usually human, sometimes frightening or chimeric, used as a decorative element. + +Meander +A decorative border consisting of a repeated linear motif, particularly of intersecting perpendicular lines. Also known as a fret or a key pattern. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3cbf40dc8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Metope +In a Doric entablature, the space between triglyphs along the frieze. These may be ornamented or plain, and may be square or rectangular. + +Mihrab +In Islamic architecture, a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the direction of prayer. + +Minaret +In Islamic architecture, a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown, on or near a mosque, that is used by the imam to give the prayer call. + +Modillion +An enriched block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice and above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It is probably so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances. + +Moulding +A decorative finishing strip. + +Monotriglyph +The interval of the intercolumniation of the Doric column, which is observed by the intervention of one triglyph only between the triglyphs which come over the axes of the columns. This is the usual arrangement, but in the Propylaea at Athens there are two triglyphs over the central intercolumniation, in order to give increased width to the roadway, up which chariots and beasts of sacrifice ascended. + +Mullion +A vertical structural element of stone, wood or metal within a window frame (cp. transom). + +Muntin +A vertical or horizontal piece that divides a pane of glass into two or more panes or lites in a window. + +Muqarnas +A type of decorative corbel used in Islamic architecture that in some circumstances, resembles stalactites. + +Mutule +A rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek Doric temple, which is studded with guttae. It is supposed to represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows the sloping rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian cornice. + +== N == + +Narthex +An enclosed passage between the main entrance and the nave of a church. + +Nave +The main body of a church where the congregants are usually seated. It provides the central approach to the high altar. + +Newel +The central supporting pillar of a spiral staircase. It can also refer to an upright post that supports the handrail of a stair railing and forms the lower, upper or an intermediate terminus of a stair railing usually at a landing. + +Niche +In classical architecture, an exedra or apse that has been reduced in size, retaining the half-dome heading usual for an apse. + +== O == + +Oculus +A circular opening in the center of a dome such as the one in the roof of the Pantheon in Rome or in a wall. + +Oillets +Arrow slits in the walls of medieval fortifications, but more strictly applied to the round hole or circle with which the openings terminate. The same term is applied to the small circles inserted in the tracery-head of the windows of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, sometimes varied with trefoils and quatrefoils. + +Onion dome +A dome whose shape resembles an onion. + +Order +A term for a standard arrangement of architectural features; most often refers to the three traditional classical orders of Western architecture: the Doric order, Ionic order and Corinthian order, though there are others. Can also refer to types of mouldings most often found in Romanesque and Gothic arches. + +Orthostates +(Greek: ὀρθοστάτης, standing upright) The Greek term for the lowest course of masonry of the external walls of the naos or cella, consisting of vertical slabs of stone or marble equal in height to two or three of the horizontal courses which constitute the inner part of the wall. + +Orthostyle +(Greek: ὃρθος, straight, and στῦλος, a column) A range of columns placed in a straight row, as for instance those of the portico or flanks of a classic temple. + +Ovolo +A moulding whose edge forms a convex quarter-circle or quarter-ellipse. + +== P == + +Panelling +A millwork wall covering constructed from rigid or semi-rigid components. These are traditionally interlocking wood, but could be plastic or other materials. + +Panelling was developed in antiquity to make rooms in stone buildings more comfortable. The panels served to insulate the room from the cold stone. In more modern buildings, such panelling is often installed for decorative purposes. Panelling, such as wainscoting and boiserie in particular, may be extremely ornate and is particularly associated with seventeenth and eighteenth century interior design, Victorian architecture in Britain, and its international contemporaries. + +Parapet +A low wall built up above the level of a roof, to hide the roof or to provide protection against falling, and similar structures associated with balconies, bridges etc. + +Parclose screen +A screen or railing used to enclose a chantry chapel, tomb or manorial chapel, in a church, and for the space thus enclosed. + +Parterre +A garden design made from patterns of mostly low elements such as plant beds and small hedges interwoven with gravel or grass paths, historically meant to be open spaces. Modern parterres are often denser and taller. + +Pavilion +A freestanding structure near the main building or an ending structure on building wings. + +Pedestal (also Plinth) +The base or support on which a statue, obelisk, or column is mounted. A plinth is a lower terminus of the face trim on a door that is thicker and often wider than the trim which it augments. + +Pediment +(Gr. ἀετός, Lat. fastigium, Fr. ponton) In classic architecture, the triangular-shaped portion of the wall above the cornice which formed the termination of the roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which surround it enclose the tympanum, which is sometimes decorated with sculpture. + +Pelmet +A framework placed above a window. + +Pendentive +Three-dimensional spandrels supporting the weight of a dome over a square or rectangular base. + +Peripteral +A temple or other structure surrounded on all sides by columns forming a continuous portico at the distance of one or two intercolumniations from the walls of the naos or cella. Almost all the Greek temples were peripteral, whether Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ae8c22c99 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Peristasis +(Greek: Περίστασις) A four-sided porch or hall of columns surrounding the cella in an ancient Greek peripteros temple (see also Peristyle). In ecclesial architecture, it is also used of the area between the baluster of a Catholic church and the high altar (what is usually called the sanctuary or chancel). + +Peristyle +A continuous porch of columns surrounding a courtyard or garden (see also Peristasis). In ecclesial architecture, the term cloister is used. + +Phiale +A building or columned arcade around a fountain. + +Piano nobile +The principal floor of a large house, built in the style of renaissance architecture. + +Pier +An upright support for a superstructure, such as an arch or bridge. + +Pilaster +A flat, slightly projecting element that resembles a pillar or pier and is engaged in the face of a wall. Pilasters usually do not serve a structural purpose. + +Planceer or Planchier +A building element sometimes used in the same sense as a soffit, but more correctly applied to the soffit of the corona in a cornice. + +Plate girder +A steel girder formed from a vertical center web of steel plate with steel angles forming the top and bottom flanges welded, bolted or riveted to the web. Some deep plate girders also may have vertical stiffeners (angles) attached to the web to resist crippling (horizontal failure) of the web. + +Plinth +The base or platform upon which a column, pedestal, statue, monument or structure rests. A plinth is a lower terminus of the face trim on a door that is thicker and often wider than the trim which it augments. + +Poppyheads +Finials or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends, either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads, sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliage or finials, and sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cut out of the thickness of the bench end and chamfered. The term is probably derived from the French poupee doll or puppet used also in this sense, or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape. + +Portcullis +A heavy wooden or metallic grid vertically-sliding down and thus blocking the main gateway of a medieval castle or fortification. + +Porte-cochère +An often ornate porch- or portico-like structure at a main or secondary entrance to a building through which vehicles can pass in order for the occupants to alight under cover, protected from the weather. + +Portico +A series of columns or arches in front of a building, generally as a covered walkway. + +Prick post +An old architectural name given sometimes to the queen posts of a roof, and sometimes to the filling in quarters in framing. + +Prostyle +Freestanding columns that are widely spaced apart in a row. The term is often used as an adjective when referring to a portico which projects from the main structure. + +Pseudodipteral +A temple similar to a dipteral temple, in which the columns surrounding the naos have had walls built between them, so that they become engaged columns, as in the great temple at Agrigentum. In Roman temples, in order to increase the size of the celia, the columns on either side and at the rear became engaged columns, the portico only having isolated columns. + +Pteroma +In Classical architecture, the enclosed space of a portico, peristyle, or stoa, generally behind a screen of columns. + +Pycnostyle +A term given by Vitruvius to the intercolumniation between the columns of a temple, when this was equal to one and a half diameters. + +== Q == + +Quadriporticus +Also known as a quadriportico, a four-sided portico. The closest modern parallel would be a colonnaded quadrangle. + +Quirk +A small recess, often V-shaped, at the edge of a moulding. + +Quoin +The cornerstones of brick or stone walls. Quoins are also common in some brickwork corners that are alternately recessed and expressed. + +== R == + +Rake +The diagonal outside facing edge of a gable, sometimes called a raking cornice or a sloping cornice. Rake is equivalent to slope which is the ratio of the rise to the run of the roof. + +Rear vault +A vault of the internal hood of a doorway or window to which a splay has been given on the reveal, sometimes the vaulting surface is terminated by a small rib known as the scoinson rib, and a further development is given by angle shafts carrying this rib, known as scoinson shafts. + +Ressaut +A projection in an entablature + +Return +The receding edge of a flat face. On a flat signboard, for example, the return is the edge which makes up the board's depth. + +Revolving door +An entrance door for excluding drafts from an interior of a building. A revolving door typically consists of three or four doors that hang on a center shaft and rotate around a vertical axis within a round enclosure. + +Rib vault +The intersection of two or three barrel vaults. + +Ridge board +A structural member that runs the length of the ridge (high point) on a sloped roof to which the upper ends of rafters are attached. + +Roof comb +The structure that tops a pyramid in monumental Mesoamerican architecture (also common as a decorative embellishment on the ridge of metal roofs of some domestic Gothic-style architecture in America in the 19th century). + +Rotunda +A large and high circular hall or room in a building, usually but not always, surmounted by a dome. + +== S == + +Sash +The horizontal and vertical frame that encloses the glazing of a window. A sash may be fixed or operable and may be of several different types depending on operation (i.e. casement, single or double hung, awning, hopper or sliding). + +Screens passage +The passage at one end of the Great hall of an English medieval house or castle, and separated from it by the spere. + +Scroll +An ornamental element featuring a sequence of spiraled, circled or heart-shaped motifs. There are, among others, flower scrolls, foliated scrolls, plants scrolls, vines scrolls. + +Shiki-i +In Japanese architecture, the lower rail, made from wood, to which shoji or fusuma are attached. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71d1bd92d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of architecture" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:21.384382+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Shoji +A translucent partition consisting of a paper sheet over a wood framework, commonly seen in traditional Japanese architecture. Shoji are built to be moved (usually by sliding them along tracks) or removed, allowing rooms to be reorganized and reshaped as desired and, in earlier constructions, allowing the interior of a structure to open directly to the outdoors. Because of their translucence, shoji are notable for diffusing light, air, and sound. Fusuma are similar to shoji but are generally opaque. + +Site-specific architecture +Architecture which is of its time and of its place. It is designed to respond to both its physical context, and the metaphysical context within which it has been conceived and executed + +Skeiling +A straight sloped part of a ceiling, such as on the underside of a pitched roof. + +Soffit +Any architectural element's underside, especially the board connecting the walls of a structure to the fascia or the end of the roof, enclosing the eave. + +Sommer or Summer +A girder or main "summer beam" of a floor: if supported on two storey posts and open below, also called a "bress" or "breast-summer". Often found at the centerline of the house to support one end of a joist, and to bear the weight of the structure above. + +Spandrel +1. In a building facade, the space between the top of the window in one story and the sill of the window in the story above. +2. The space between two arches or between an arch and a rectangular enclosure. + +Spere +The fixed structure between the great hall and the screens passage in an English medieval timber house. + +Spire +A tapering conical or pyramidal structure on the top of a building. + +Splay +A slant created by cutting a wall around an opening such that the inside of the opening is wider or narrower than the outside. + +Springer +The lowest voussoir on each side of an arch. + +Squinch +A piece of construction used for filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a proper base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome. + +Squint +An opening, often arched, through an internal wall of a church providing an oblique view of the altar. + +Stoop +A small staircase ending in a platform and leading to the entrance of an apartment building or other building. + +Sunburst +A design or figure commonly used in architectural ornaments and design patterns, including art nouveau. + +Syrian arch +In American architecture, esp. Richardsonian Romanesque, an archway that begins at the ground, rather than being set upon a supporting pedestal. [Cf. Richardsonian Romanesque: Syrian arch ] + +Systyle +In the classical orders, columns rather thickly set, with an intercolumniation to which two diameters are assigned. + +== T == + +Taenia +In a Doric entablature, a raised fillet separating the architrave from the frieze. + +Throating +A continuous groove underneath a coping or other projecting element, to prevent water from running back onto the wall beneath. + +Timber framing +The method of creating structures using heavy timbers jointed by pegged mortise and tenon joints. + +Trabeated arch +A simple construction method using a lintel, header, or architrave as the horizontal member over a building void supported at its ends by two vertical columns, pillars, or posts. + +Tracery +The stonework elements that support the glass in a Gothic window. + +Transom (architectural) +A window or element, fixed or operable, above a door but within its vertical frame; also horizontal structural element of stone, wood or metal within a window frame (cp. mullion). + +Triglyph +In a Doric entablature, an ornament along the frieze consisting of three vertical recesses. + +Truss +A structural component made of straight wood or metal members, usually in a triangular pattern, with "pinned" connections at the top and bottom chords and which is used to support structural loads, as those on a floor, roof or bridge. + +Turret +A small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle. + +Tympanum +(Greek τύμπανον, from τύπτειν, to strike) The triangular space enclosed between the horizontal cornice of the entablature and the sloping cornice of the pediment. Though sometimes left plain, it is often decorated. + +== U == + +Undercroft +Traditionally, a cellar or storage room. In modern usage, a ground-level area that is relatively open to the sides, but covered by the building above. + +== V == + +Ventilation shaft +A small, vertical space within a tall building which permits ventilation of the building. + +Vierendeel truss +A rectilinear truss usually fabricated of steel or concrete with horizontal top and bottom chords and vertical web members (no diagonals) in which the loads imposed on it are transferred to the supports through bending forces resisted in its connections. + +Volute +A spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order. + +Voussoir +A wedge-shaped or tapered stone between the springer and the keystone used to construct an arch. + +== W == + +Wing +1. A lateral part or projection of a building or structure such as a wing wall. +2. A subordinate part of a building possibly not connected to the main building. +3. The sides of a stage (theatre). + +Widow's walk +A railed rooftop platform often having an inner cupola/turret frequently found on 19th-century North American coastal houses. + +== Z == + +Zaguan +A passageway of a central passage plan house, or the complex as a whole, in Territorial or Territorial Revival architecture in the American Southwest. + +Ziggurat +A temple tower of the ancient Mesopotamian valley, having the form of a terraced pyramid of successively receding stories. + +== See also == + +Outline of architecture +List of classical architecture terms +Classical order +List of architectural vaults +List of structural elements +Glossary of engineering + +== Notes == + +== References == +Ching, Francis D.K. (1995). A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 30. ISBN 0-471-28451-3. +Deurer (2011). "Glossary of Egyptian Mythology". Retrieved 2019-05-17. +Table of contents. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica – via Wikisource. Page has search box. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42247e967 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mathematics is a broad subject that is commonly divided in many areas or branches that may be defined by their objects of study, by the used methods, or by both. For example, analytic number theory is a subarea of number theory devoted to the use of methods of analysis for the study of natural numbers. +This glossary is alphabetically sorted. This hides a large part of the relationships between areas. For the broadest areas of mathematics, see Mathematics § Areas of mathematics. The Mathematics Subject Classification is a hierarchical list of areas and subjects of study that has been elaborated by the community of mathematicians. It is used by most publishers for classifying mathematical articles and books. + +== A == + +Absolute differential calculus + An older name of Ricci calculus +Absolute geometry + Also called neutral geometry, a synthetic geometry similar to Euclidean geometry but without the parallel postulate. +Abstract algebra + The part of algebra devoted to the study of algebraic structures in themselves. Occasionally named modern algebra in course titles. +Abstract analytic number theory + The study of arithmetic semigroups as a means to extend notions from classical analytic number theory. +Abstract differential geometry + A form of differential geometry without the notion of smoothness from calculus. Instead it is built using sheaf theory and sheaf cohomology. +Abstract harmonic analysis + A modern branch of harmonic analysis that extends upon the generalized Fourier transforms that can be defined on locally compact groups. +Abstract homotopy theory + A part of topology that deals with homotopic functions, i.e. functions from one topological space to another which are homotopic (the functions can be deformed into one another). +Actuarial science + The discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in insurance, finance and other industries and professions. More generally, actuaries apply rigorous mathematics to model matters of uncertainty. +Additive combinatorics + The part of arithmetic combinatorics devoted to the operations of addition and subtraction. +Additive number theory + A part of number theory that studies subsets of integers and their behaviour under addition. +Affine geometry + A branch of geometry that deals with properties that are independent from distances and angles, such as alignment and parallelism. +Affine geometry of curves + The study of curve properties that are invariant under affine transformations. +Affine differential geometry + A type of differential geometry dedicated to differential invariants under volume-preserving affine transformations. +Ahlfors theory + A part of complex analysis being the geometric counterpart of Nevanlinna theory. It was invented by Lars Ahlfors. +Algebra + One of the major areas of mathematics. Roughly speaking, it is the art of manipulating and computing with operations acting on symbols called variables that represent indeterminate numbers or other mathematical objects, such as vectors, matrices, or elements of algebraic structures. +Algebraic analysis + motivated by systems of linear partial differential equations, it is a branch of algebraic geometry and algebraic topology that uses methods from sheaf theory and complex analysis, to study the properties and generalizations of functions. It was started by Mikio Sato. +Algebraic combinatorics + an area that employs methods of abstract algebra to problems of combinatorics. It also refers to the application of methods from combinatorics to problems in abstract algebra. +Algebraic computation + An older name of computer algebra. +Algebraic geometry + a branch that combines techniques from abstract algebra with the language and problems of geometry. Fundamentally, it studies algebraic varieties. +Algebraic graph theory + a branch of graph theory in which methods are taken from algebra and employed to problems about graphs. The methods are commonly taken from group theory and linear algebra. + Algebraic K-theory + an important part of homological algebra concerned with defining and applying a certain sequence of functors from rings to abelian groups. + Algebraic number theory + The part of number theory devoted to the use of algebraic methods, mainly those of commutative algebra, for the study of number fields and their rings of integers. +Algebraic statistics + the use of algebra to advance statistics, although the term is sometimes restricted to label the use of algebraic geometry and commutative algebra in statistics. +Algebraic topology +a branch that uses tools from abstract algebra for topology to study topological spaces. +Algorithmic number theory + also known as computational number theory, it is the study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations. +Anabelian geometry + an area of study based on the theory proposed by Alexander Grothendieck in the 1980s that describes the way a geometric object of an algebraic variety (such as an algebraic fundamental group) can be mapped into another object, without it being an abelian group. +Analysis + A wide area of mathematics centered on the study of continuous functions and including such topics as differentiation, integration, limits, and series. +Analytic combinatorics + part of enumerative combinatorics where methods of complex analysis are applied to generating functions. +Analytic geometry +1. Also known as Cartesian geometry, the study of Euclidean geometry using Cartesian coordinates. +2. Analogue to differential geometry, where differentiable functions are replaced with analytic functions. It is a subarea of both complex analysis and algebraic geometry. + Analytic number theory + An area of number theory that applies methods from mathematical analysis to solve problems about integers. + Analytic theory of L-functions +Applied mathematics + a combination of various parts of mathematics that concern a variety of mathematical methods that can be applied to practical and theoretical problems. Typically the methods used are for science, engineering, finance, economics and logistics. +Approximation theory + part of analysis that studies how well functions can be approximated by simpler ones (such as polynomials or trigonometric polynomials) +Arakelov geometry + also known as Arakelov theory + Arakelov theory + an approach to Diophantine geometry used to study Diophantine equations in higher dimensions (using techniques from algebraic geometry). It is named after Suren Arakelov. + Arithmetic +1. Also known as elementary arithmetic, the methods and rules for computing with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers. +2. Also known as higher arithmetic, another name for number theory. + Arithmetic algebraic geometry + See arithmetic geometry. +Arithmetic combinatorics + the study of the estimates from combinatorics that are associated with arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. +Arithmetic dynamics + Arithmetic dynamics is the study of the number-theoretic properties of integer, rational, p-adic, and/or algebraic points under repeated application of a polynomial or rational function. A fundamental goal is to describe arithmetic properties in terms of underlying geometric structures. + Arithmetic geometry + The use of algebraic geometry and more specially scheme theory for solving problems of number theory. + Arithmetic topology + a combination of algebraic number theory and topology studying analogies between prime ideals and knots + Arithmetical algebraic geometry + Another name for arithmetic algebraic geometry + Asymptotic combinatorics + It uses the internal structure of the objects to derive formulas for their generating functions and then complex analysis techniques to get asymptotics. + Asymptotic theory + the study of asymptotic expansions + Auslander–Reiten theory + the study of the representation theory of Artinian rings + Axiomatic geometry + also known as synthetic geometry: it is a branch of geometry that uses axioms and logical arguments to draw conclusions as opposed to analytic and algebraic methods. + Axiomatic set theory + the study of systems of axioms in a context relevant to set theory and mathematical logic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e9b19a821 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,160 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == + + Bifurcation theory + the study of changes in the qualitative or topological structure of a given family. It is a part of dynamical systems theory + Biostatistics + the development and application of statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology. + Birational geometry +a part of algebraic geometry that deals with the geometry (of an algebraic variety) that is dependent only on its function field. + Bolyai–Lobachevskian geometry + see hyperbolic geometry + +== C == + + C*-algebra theory + a complex algebra A of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties-(i) A is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.(ii)A is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators. + Cartesian geometry + see analytic geometry + Calculus + An area of mathematics connected by the fundamental theorem of calculus. + Calculus of infinitesimals +Also called infinitesimal calculus + A foundation of calculus, first developed in the 17th century, that makes use of infinitesimal numbers. + Calculus of moving surfaces + an extension of the theory of tensor calculus to include deforming manifolds. + Calculus of variations + the field dedicated to maximizing or minimizing functionals. It used to be called functional calculus. + Catastrophe theory + a branch of bifurcation theory from dynamical systems theory, and also a special case of the more general singularity theory from geometry. It analyses the germs of the catastrophe geometries. + Categorical logic + a branch of category theory adjacent to the mathematical logic. It is based on type theory for intuitionistic logics. + Category theory + the study of the properties of particular mathematical concepts by formalising them as collections of objects and arrows. + Chaos theory + the study of the behaviour of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to their initial conditions. + Character theory + a branch of group theory that studies the characters of group representations or modular representations. + Class field theory + a branch of algebraic number theory that studies abelian extensions of number fields. + Classical differential geometry + also known as Euclidean differential geometry. see Euclidean differential geometry. + Classical algebraic topology + see algebraic topology + Classical analysis + usually refers to the more traditional topics of analysis such as real analysis and complex analysis. It includes any work that does not use techniques from functional analysis and is sometimes called hard analysis. However it may also refer to mathematical analysis done according to the principles of classical mathematics. + Classical analytic number theory + Classical differential calculus + Classical Diophantine geometry + Classical Euclidean geometry + see Euclidean geometry + Classical geometry + may refer to solid geometry or classical Euclidean geometry. See geometry + Classical invariant theory + the form of invariant theory that deals with describing polynomial functions that are invariant under transformations from a given linear group. + Classical mathematics + the standard approach to mathematics based on classical logic and ZFC set theory. + Classical projective geometry + Classical tensor calculus + Clifford algebra + Clifford analysis +the study of Dirac operators and Dirac type operators from geometry and analysis using clifford algebras. + Clifford theory + is a branch of representation theory spawned from Cliffords theorem. + Cobordism theory + Coding theory + the study of the properties of codes and their respective fitness for specific applications. + Cohomology theory + Combinatorial analysis + Combinatorial commutative algebra + a discipline viewed as the intersection between commutative algebra and combinatorics. It frequently employs methods from one to address problems arising in the other. Polyhedral geometry also plays a significant role. +Combinatorial design theory + a part of combinatorial mathematics that deals with the existence and construction of systems of finite sets whose intersections have certain properties. + Combinatorial game theory + Combinatorial geometry + see discrete geometry +Combinatorial group theory + the theory of free groups and the presentation of a group. It is closely related to geometric group theory and is applied in geometric topology. +Combinatorial mathematics + an area primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and an end in obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. +Combinatorial number theory +Combinatorial optimization +Combinatorial set theory + also known as Infinitary combinatorics. see infinitary combinatorics +Combinatorial theory +Combinatorial topology + an old name for algebraic topology, when topological invariants of spaces were regarded as derived from combinatorial decompositions. +Combinatorics + a branch of discrete mathematics concerned with countable structures. Branches of it include enumerative combinatorics, combinatorial design theory, matroid theory, extremal combinatorics and algebraic combinatorics, as well as many more. +Commutative algebra + a branch of abstract algebra studying commutative rings. +Complex algebraic geometry + the mainstream of algebraic geometry devoted to the study of the complex points of algebraic varieties. +Complex analysis + a part of analysis that deals with functions of a complex variable. +Complex analytic dynamics + a subdivision of complex dynamics being the study of the dynamic systems defined by analytic functions. +Complex analytic geometry + the application of complex numbers to plane geometry. +Complex differential geometry + a branch of differential geometry that studies complex manifolds. +Complex dynamics + the study of dynamical systems defined by iterated functions on complex number spaces. +Complex geometry + the study of complex manifolds and functions of complex variables. It includes complex algebraic geometry and complex analytic geometry. +Complexity theory + the study of complex systems with the inclusion of the theory of complex systems. +Computable analysis + the study of which parts of real analysis and functional analysis can be carried out in a computable manner. It is closely related to constructive analysis. +Computable model theory + a branch of model theory dealing with the relevant questions computability. +Computability theory + a branch of mathematical logic originating in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees, but now includes the study of generalized computability and definability. It overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory. +Computational algebraic geometry +Computational complexity theory + a branch of mathematics and theoretical computer science that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other. +Computational geometry + a branch of computer science devoted to the study of algorithms which can be stated in terms of geometry. +Computational group theory + the study of groups by means of computers. +Computational mathematics + the mathematical research in areas of science where computing plays an essential role. +Computational number theory + also known as algorithmic number theory, it is the study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations. +Computational statistics +Computational synthetic geometry +Computational topology +Computer algebra + see symbolic computation +Conformal geometry + the study of conformal transformations on a space. +Constructive analysis + mathematical analysis done according to the principles of constructive mathematics. This differs from classical analysis. +Constructive function theory + a branch of analysis that is closely related to approximation theory, studying the connection between the smoothness of a function and its degree of approximation +Constructive mathematics + mathematics which tends to use intuitionistic logic. Essentially that is classical logic but without the assumption that the law of the excluded middle is an axiom. +Constructive quantum field theory + a branch of mathematical physics that is devoted to showing that quantum theory is mathematically compatible with special relativity. +Constructive set theory + an approach to mathematical constructivism following the program of axiomatic set theory, using the usual first-order language of classical set theory. +Contact geometry + a branch of differential geometry and topology, closely related to and considered the odd-dimensional counterpart of symplectic geometry. It is the study of a geometric structure called a contact structure on a differentiable manifold. +Convex analysis + the study of properties of convex functions and convex sets. +Convex geometry + part of geometry devoted to the study of convex sets. +Coordinate geometry + see analytic geometry +CR geometry + a branch of differential geometry, being the study of CR manifolds. +Cryptography \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4d9b4585 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == + +Decision analysis +Decision theory +Derived noncommutative algebraic geometry +Descriptive set theory +a part of mathematical logic, more specifically a part of set theory dedicated to the study of Polish spaces. +Differential algebraic geometry +the adaption of methods and concepts from algebraic geometry to systems of algebraic differential equations. +Differential calculus +The branch of calculus contrasted to integral calculus, and concerned with derivatives. +Differential Galois theory +the study of the Galois groups of differential fields. +Differential geometry +a form of geometry that uses techniques from integral and differential calculus as well as linear and multilinear algebra to study problems in geometry. Classically, these were problems of Euclidean geometry, although now it has been expanded. It is generally concerned with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential topology. +Differential geometry of curves +the study of smooth curves in Euclidean space by using techniques from differential geometry +Differential geometry of surfaces +the study of smooth surfaces with various additional structures using the techniques of differential geometry. +Differential topology +a branch of topology that deals with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. +Diffiety theory +Diophantine geometry +in general the study of algebraic varieties over fields that are finitely generated over their prime fields. +Discrepancy theory +Discrete differential geometry +Discrete exterior calculus +Discrete geometry +a branch of geometry that studies combinatorial properties and constructive methods of discrete geometric objects. +Discrete mathematics +the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous. +Discrete Morse theory +a combinatorial adaption of Morse theory. +Distance geometry +Domain theory +a branch that studies special kinds of partially ordered sets (posets) commonly called domains. +Donaldson theory +the study of smooth 4-manifolds using gauge theory. +Dyadic algebra +Dynamical systems theory +an area used to describe the behavior of the complex dynamical systems, usually by employing differential equations or difference equations. + +== E == + +Econometrics +the application of mathematical and statistical methods to economic data. +Effective descriptive set theory +a branch of descriptive set theory dealing with set of real numbers that have lightface definitions. It uses aspects of computability theory. +Elementary algebra +a fundamental form of algebra extending on elementary arithmetic to include the concept of variables. +Elementary arithmetic +the simplified portion of arithmetic considered necessary for primary education. It includes the usage addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of the natural numbers. It also includes the concept of fractions and negative numbers. +Elementary mathematics +parts of mathematics frequently taught at the primary and secondary school levels. This includes elementary arithmetic, geometry, probability and statistics, elementary algebra and trigonometry. (calculus is not usually considered a part) +Elementary group theory +the study of the basics of group theory +Elimination theory +the classical name for algorithmic approaches to eliminating between polynomials of several variables. It is a part of commutative algebra and algebraic geometry. +Elliptic geometry +a type of non-Euclidean geometry (it violates Euclid's parallel postulate) and is based on spherical geometry. It is constructed in elliptic space. +Enumerative combinatorics +an area of combinatorics that deals with the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed. +Enumerative geometry +a branch of algebraic geometry concerned with counting the number of solutions to geometric questions. This is usually done by means of intersection theory. +Epidemiology +Equivariant noncommutative algebraic geometry +Ergodic Ramsey theory +a branch where problems are motivated by additive combinatorics and solved using ergodic theory. +Ergodic theory +the study of dynamical systems with an invariant measure, and related problems. +Euclidean geometry + An area of geometry based on the axiom system and synthetic methods of the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid. +Euclidean differential geometry +also known as classical differential geometry. See differential geometry. +Euler calculus +a methodology from applied algebraic topology and integral geometry that integrates constructible functions and more recently definable functions by integrating with respect to the Euler characteristic as a finitely-additive measure. +Experimental mathematics +an approach to mathematics in which computation is used to investigate mathematical objects and identify properties and patterns. + Exterior algebra + Exterior calculus +Extraordinary cohomology theory +Extremal combinatorics +a branch of combinatorics, it is the study of the possible sizes of a collection of finite objects given certain restrictions. +Extremal graph theory +a branch of mathematics that studies how global properties of a graph influence local substructure. + +== F == + +Field theory + The branch of algebra dedicated to fields, a type of algebraic structure. +Finite geometry +Finite model theory +a restriction of model theory to interpretations on finite structures, which have a finite universe. +Finsler geometry +a branch of differential geometry whose main object of study is Finsler manifolds, a generalisation of a Riemannian manifolds. +First order arithmetic +Fourier analysis +the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of trigonometric functions. +Fractal geometry +Fractional calculus +a branch of analysis that studies the possibility of taking real or complex powers of the differentiation operator. +Fractional dynamics +investigates the behaviour of objects and systems that are described by differentiation and integration of fractional orders using methods of fractional calculus. +Fredholm theory +part of spectral theory studying integral equations. +Function theory +an ambiguous term that generally refers to mathematical analysis. +Functional analysis +a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of function spaces, which are some sort of topological vector spaces. +Functional calculus +historically the term was used synonymously with calculus of variations, but now refers to a branch of functional analysis connected with spectral theory +Fuzzy mathematics +a branch of mathematics based on fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic. +Fuzzy measure theory +Fuzzy set theory +a form of set theory that studies fuzzy sets, that is sets that have degrees of membership. + +== G == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1885974b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Galois cohomology +an application of homological algebra, it is the study of group cohomology of Galois modules. +Galois theory +named after Évariste Galois, it is a branch of abstract algebra providing a connection between field theory and group theory. +Galois geometry +a branch of finite geometry concerned with algebraic and analytic geometry over a Galois field. +Game theory +the study of mathematical models of strategic interaction among rational decision-makers. +Gauge theory +General topology +also known as point-set topology, it is a branch of topology studying the properties of topological spaces and structures defined on them. It differs from other branches of topology as the topological spaces do not have to be similar to manifolds. +Generalized trigonometry +developments of trigonometric methods from the application to real numbers of Euclidean geometry to any geometry or space. This includes spherical trigonometry, hyperbolic trigonometry, gyrotrigonometry, and universal hyperbolic trigonometry. +Geometric algebra +an alternative approach to classical, computational and relativistic geometry. It shows a natural correspondence between geometric entities and elements of algebra. +Geometric analysis +a discipline that uses methods from differential geometry to study partial differential equations as well as the applications to geometry. +Geometric calculus +extends the geometric algebra to include differentiation and integration. +Geometric combinatorics +a branch of combinatorics. It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry. +Geometric function theory +the study of geometric properties of analytic functions. +Geometric invariant theory +a method for constructing quotients by group actions in algebraic geometry, used to construct moduli spaces. +Geometric graph theory +a large and amorphous subfield of graph theory, concerned with graphs defined by geometric means. +Geometric group theory +the study of finitely generated groups via exploring the connections between algebraic properties of such groups and topological and geometric properties of spaces on which these groups act (that is, when the groups in question are realized as geometric symmetries or continuous transformations of some spaces). +Geometric measure theory +the study of geometric properties of sets (typically in Euclidean space) through measure theory. +Geometric number theory +Geometric topology +a branch of topology studying manifolds and mappings between them; in particular the embedding of one manifold into another. +Geometry +a branch of mathematics concerned with shape and the properties of space. Classically it arose as what is now known as solid geometry; this was concerning practical knowledge of length, area and volume. It was then put into an axiomatic form by Euclid, giving rise to what is now known as classical Euclidean geometry. The use of coordinates by René Descartes gave rise to Cartesian geometry enabling a more analytical approach to geometric entities. Since then many other branches have appeared including projective geometry, differential geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, Fractal geometry and algebraic geometry. Geometry also gave rise to the modern discipline of topology. +Geometry of numbers +initiated by Hermann Minkowski, it is a branch of number theory studying convex bodies and integer vectors. +Global analysis +the study of differential equations on manifolds and the relationship between differential equations and topology. +Global arithmetic dynamics +Graph theory +a branch of discrete mathematics devoted to the study of graphs. It has many applications in physical, biological and social systems. +Group-character theory +the part of character theory dedicated to the study of characters of group representations. +Group representation theory +Group theory +the study of algebraic structures known as groups. +Gyrotrigonometry +a form of trigonometry used in gyrovector space for hyperbolic geometry. (An analogy of the vector space in Euclidean geometry.) + +== H == + +Hard analysis +see classical analysis +Harmonic analysis +part of analysis concerned with the representations of functions in terms of waves. It generalizes the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms from the Fourier analysis. +Higher arithmetic +Higher category theory +the part of category theory at a higher order, which means that some equalities are replaced by explicit arrows in order to be able to explicitly study the structure behind those equalities. +Higher-dimensional algebra +the study of categorified structures. +Hodge theory +a method for studying the cohomology groups of a smooth manifold M using partial differential equations. +Hodge–Arakelov theory +Holomorphic functional calculus +a branch of functional calculus starting with holomorphic functions. +Homological algebra +the study of homology in general algebraic settings. +Homology theory +Homotopy theory +Hyperbolic geometry +also known as Lobachevskian geometry or Bolyai-Lobachevskian geometry. It is a non-Euclidean geometry looking at hyperbolic space. +hyperbolic trigonometry +the study of hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry, or hyperbolic functions in Euclidean geometry. Other forms include gyrotrigonometry and universal hyperbolic trigonometry. +Hypercomplex analysis +the extension of real analysis and complex analysis to the study of functions where the argument is a hypercomplex number. +Hyperfunction theory + +== I == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..16858692f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ideal theory +once the precursor name for what is now known as commutative algebra; it is the theory of ideals in commutative rings. +Idempotent analysis +the study of idempotent semirings, such as the tropical semiring. +Incidence geometry +the study of relations of incidence between various geometric objects, like curves and lines. +Inconsistent mathematics +see paraconsistent mathematics. +Infinitary combinatorics +an expansion of ideas in combinatorics to account for infinite sets. +Infinitesimal analysis +once a synonym for infinitesimal calculus +Infinitesimal calculus + See calculus of infinitesimals +Information geometry +an interdisciplinary field that applies the techniques of differential geometry to study probability theory and statistics. It studies statistical manifolds, which are Riemannian manifolds whose points correspond to probability distributions. +Integral calculus +The branch of calculus concerned with integralss, contrasted to differential calculus. +Integral geometry +the theory of measures on a geometrical space invariant under the symmetry group of that space. +Intersection theory +a branch of algebraic geometry and algebraic topology +Intuitionistic type theory +a type theory and an alternative foundation of mathematics. +Invariant theory +studies how group actions on algebraic varieties affect functions. +Inventory theory +Inversive geometry +the study of invariants preserved by a type of transformation known as inversion +Inversive plane geometry +inversive geometry that is limited to two dimensions +Inversive ring geometry +Itô calculus +extends the methods of calculus to stochastic processes such as Brownian motion (see Wiener process). It has important applications in mathematical finance and stochastic differential equations. +Iwasawa theory +the study of objects of arithmetic interest over infinite towers of number fields. +Iwasawa-Tate theory + +== J == + + Job shop scheduling + +== K == + +K-theory +originated as the study of a ring generated by vector bundles over a topological space or scheme. In algebraic topology it is an extraordinary cohomology theory known as topological K-theory. In algebra and algebraic geometry it is referred to as algebraic K-theory. In physics, K-theory has appeared in type II string theory. (In particular twisted K-theory.) +K-homology +a homology theory on the category of locally compact Hausdorff spaces. +Kähler geometry +a branch of differential geometry, more specifically a union of Riemannian geometry, complex differential geometry and symplectic geometry. It is the study of Kähler manifolds. (named after Erich Kähler) +KK-theory +a common generalization both of K-homology and K-theory as an additive bivariant functor on separable C*-algebras. +Klein geometry +More specifically, it is a homogeneous space X together with a transitive action on X by a Lie group G, which acts as the symmetry group of the geometry. +Knot theory +part of topology dealing with knots +Kummer theory +provides a description of certain types of field extensions involving the adjunction of nth roots of elements of the base field + +== L == + +L-theory + the K-theory of quadratic forms. +Large deviations theory + part of probability theory studying events of small probability (tail events). +Large sample theory + also known as asymptotic theory +Lattice theory + the study of lattices, being important in order theory and universal algebra +Lie algebra theory +Lie group theory +Lie sphere geometry +geometrical theory of planar or spatial geometry in which the fundamental concept is the circle or sphere. +Lie theory +Line geometry +Linear algebra +a branch of algebra studying linear spaces and linear maps. It has applications in fields such as abstract algebra and functional analysis; it can be represented in analytic geometry and it is generalized in operator theory and in module theory. Sometimes matrix theory is considered a branch, although linear algebra is restricted to only finite dimensions. Extensions of the methods used belong to multilinear algebra. +Linear functional analysis +Linear programming +a method to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements are represented by linear relationships. +List of graphical methods +Included are diagram techniques, chart techniques, plot techniques, and other forms of visualization. +Local algebra +a term sometimes applied to the theory of local rings. +Local class field theory +the study of abelian extensions of local fields. +Low-dimensional topology +the branch of topology that studies manifolds, or more generally topological spaces, of four or fewer dimensions. + +== M == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f899fd302 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,157 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Malliavin calculus +a set of mathematical techniques and ideas that extend the mathematical field of calculus of variations from deterministic functions to stochastic processes. +Mathematical biology +the mathematical modeling of biological phenomena. +Mathematical chemistry +the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. +Mathematical economics +the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics. +Mathematical finance +a field of applied mathematics, concerned with mathematical modeling of financial markets. +Mathematical logic +a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics. +Mathematical optimization +Mathematical physics + The development of mathematical methods suitable for application to problems in physics. +Mathematical psychology +an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, thought, cognitive and motor processes, and on the establishment of law-like rules that relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable behavior. +Mathematical sciences +refers to academic disciplines that are mathematical in nature, but are not considered proper subfields of mathematics. Examples include statistics, cryptography, game theory and actuarial science. +Mathematical sociology +the area of sociology that uses mathematics to construct social theories. +Mathematical statistics +the application of probability theory, a branch of mathematics, to statistics, as opposed to techniques for collecting statistical data. +Mathematical system theory +Matrix algebra +Matrix calculus +Matrix theory +Matroid theory +Measure theory +Metric geometry +Microlocal analysis +Model theory +the study of classes of mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields, graphs, universes of set theory) from the perspective of mathematical logic. +Modern algebra + Occasionally used for abstract algebra. The term was coined by van der Waerden as the title of his book Moderne Algebra, which was renamed Algebra in the latest editions. +Modern algebraic geometry +the form of algebraic geometry given by Alexander Grothendieck and Jean-Pierre Serre drawing on sheaf theory. +Modern invariant theory +the form of invariant theory that analyses the decomposition of representations into irreducibles. +Modular representation theory +a part of representation theory that studies linear representations of finite groups over a field K of positive characteristic p, necessarily a prime number. +Module theory +Molecular geometry +Morse theory +a part of differential topology, it analyzes the topological space of a manifold by studying differentiable functions on that manifold. +Motivic cohomology +Multilinear algebra +an extension of linear algebra building upon concepts of p-vectors and multivectors with Grassmann algebra. +Multiplicative number theory +a subfield of analytic number theory that deals with prime numbers, factorization and divisors. +Multivariable calculus +the extension of calculus in one variable to calculus with functions of several variables: the differentiation and integration of functions involving several variables, rather than just one. +Multiple-scale analysis + +== N == + +Neutral geometry +See absolute geometry. +Nevanlinna theory +part of complex analysis studying the value distribution of meromorphic functions. It is named after Rolf Nevanlinna +Nielsen theory +an area of mathematical research with its origins in fixed point topology, developed by Jakob Nielsen +Non-abelian class field theory +Non-classical analysis +Non-Euclidean geometry +Non-standard analysis +Non-standard calculus +Nonarchimedean dynamics +also known as p-adic analysis or local arithmetic dynamics +Noncommutative algebra +Noncommutative algebraic geometry +a direction in noncommutative geometry studying the geometric properties of formal duals of non-commutative algebraic objects. +Noncommutative geometry +Noncommutative harmonic analysis +see representation theory +Noncommutative topology +Nonlinear analysis +Nonlinear functional analysis +Number theory +a branch of pure mathematics primarily devoted to the study of the integers. Originally it was known as arithmetic or higher arithmetic. +Numerical analysis +Numerical linear algebra + +== O == + + Operad theory + a type of abstract algebra concerned with prototypical algebras. +Operation research +Operator K-theory +Operator theory +part of functional analysis studying operators. +Optimal control theory +a generalization of the calculus of variations. +Optimal maintenance +Orbifold theory +Order theory +a branch that investigates the intuitive notion of order using binary relations. +Ordered geometry +a form of geometry omitting the notion of measurement but featuring the concept of intermediacy. It is a fundamental geometry forming a common framework for affine geometry, Euclidean geometry, absolute geometry and hyperbolic geometry. +Oscillation theory + +== P == + +p-adic analysis +a branch of number theory that deals with the analysis of functions of p-adic numbers. +p-adic dynamics +an application of p-adic analysis looking at p-adic differential equations. +p-adic Hodge theory +Parabolic geometry +Paraconsistent mathematics +sometimes called inconsistent mathematics, it is an attempt to develop the classical infrastructure of mathematics based on a foundation of paraconsistent logic instead of classical logic. +Partition theory +Perturbation theory +Picard–Vessiot theory +Plane geometry +Point-set topology +see general topology +Pointless topology +Poisson geometry +Polyhedral combinatorics +a branch within combinatorics and discrete geometry that studies the problems of describing convex polytopes. +Possibility theory +Potential theory +Precalculus +Predicative mathematics +Probability theory +Probabilistic combinatorics +Probabilistic graph theory +Probabilistic number theory +Projective geometry +a form of geometry that studies geometric properties that are invariant under a projective transformation. +Projective differential geometry +Proof theory +Pseudo-Riemannian geometry +generalizes Riemannian geometry to the study of pseudo-Riemannian manifolds. +Pure mathematics +the part of mathematics that studies entirely abstract concepts. + +== Q == + +Quantum calculus +a form of calculus without the notion of limits. +Quantum geometry +the generalization of concepts of geometry used to describe the physical phenomena of quantum physics +Quaternionic analysis + +== R == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e43ccbbe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of areas of mathematics" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:22.568786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ramsey theory +the study of the conditions in which order must appear. It is named after Frank P. Ramsey. +Rational geometry +Real algebra +the study of the part of algebra relevant to real algebraic geometry. +Real algebraic geometry +the part of algebraic geometry that studies real points of the algebraic varieties. +Real analysis +a branch of mathematical analysis; in particular hard analysis, that is the study of real numbers and functions of Real values. It provides a rigorous formulation of the calculus of real numbers in terms of continuity and smoothness, whilst the theory is extended to the complex numbers in complex analysis. + Real Clifford algebra +Real K-theory +Recreational mathematics +the area dedicated to mathematical puzzles and mathematical games. +Recursion theory +see computability theory +Representation theory +a subfield of abstract algebra; it studies algebraic structures by representing their elements as linear transformations of vector spaces. It also studies modules over these algebraic structures, providing a way of reducing problems in abstract algebra to problems in linear algebra. +Representation theory of groups +Representation theory of the Galilean group +Representation theory of the Lorentz group +Representation theory of the Poincaré group +Representation theory of the symmetric group +Ribbon theory +a branch of topology studying ribbons. +Ricci calculus + Also called absolute differential calculus. +A foundation of tensor calculus, developed by Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro in 1887–1896, and later developed for its applications to general relativity and differential geometry. +Ring theory +Riemannian geometry +a branch of differential geometry that is more specifically, the study of Riemannian manifolds. It is named after Bernhard Riemann and it features many generalizations of concepts from Euclidean geometry, analysis and calculus. +Rough set theory +the a form of set theory based on rough sets. + +== S == + +Sampling theory +Scheme theory +the study of schemes introduced by Alexander Grothendieck. It allows the use of sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties and is considered the central part of modern algebraic geometry. +Secondary calculus +Semialgebraic geometry +a part of algebraic geometry; more specifically a branch of real algebraic geometry that studies semialgebraic sets. +Set-theoretic topology +Set theory +Sheaf theory + The study of sheaves, which connect local and global properties of geometric objects. +Sheaf cohomology +Sieve theory +Single operator theory +deals with the properties and classifications of single operators. +Singularity theory +a branch, notably of geometry; that studies the failure of manifold structure. +Smooth infinitesimal analysis +a rigorous reformation of infinitesimal calculus employing methods of category theory. As a theory, it is a subset of synthetic differential geometry. +Solid geometry +Spatial geometry +Spectral geometry +a field that concerns the relationships between geometric structures of manifolds and spectra of canonically defined differential operators. +Spectral graph theory +the study of properties of a graph using methods from matrix theory. +Spectral theory +part of operator theory extending the concepts of eigenvalues and eigenvectors from linear algebra and matrix theory. +Spectral theory of ordinary differential equations +part of spectral theory concerned with the spectrum and eigenfunction expansion associated with linear ordinary differential equations. +Spectrum continuation analysis +generalizes the concept of a Fourier series to non-periodic functions. +Spherical geometry +a branch of non-Euclidean geometry, studying the 2-dimensional surface of a sphere. +Spherical trigonometry +a branch of spherical geometry that studies polygons on the surface of a sphere. Usually the polygons are triangles. +Statistical mechanics +Statistical modelling +Statistical theory +Statistics +although the term may refer to the more general study of statistics, the term is used in mathematics to refer to the mathematical study of statistics and related fields. This includes probability theory. +Steganography +Stochastic calculus +Stochastic calculus of variations +Stochastic geometry +the study of random patterns of points +Stochastic process +Stratified Morse theory +Super linear algebra +Surgery theory +a part of geometric topology referring to methods used to produce one manifold from another (in a controlled way.) +Survey sampling +Survey methodology +Symbolic computation +also known as algebraic computation and computer algebra. It refers to the techniques used to manipulate mathematical expressions and equations in symbolic form as opposed to manipulating them by the numerical quantities represented by them. +Symbolic dynamics +Symplectic geometry +a branch of differential geometry and topology whose main object of study is the symplectic manifold. +Symplectic topology +Synthetic differential geometry +a reformulation of differential geometry in the language of topos theory and in the context of an intuitionistic logic. +Synthetic geometry +also known as axiomatic geometry, it is a branch of geometry that uses axioms and logical arguments to draw conclusions as opposed to analytic and algebraic methods. +Systolic geometry +a branch of differential geometry studying systolic invariants of manifolds and polyhedra. +Systolic hyperbolic geometry +the study of systoles in hyperbolic geometry. + +== T == + +Tensor algebra, Tensor analysis, Tensor calculus, Tensor theory +the study and use of tensors, which are generalizations of vectors. A tensor algebra is also an algebraic structure that is used in the formal definition of tensors. +Tessellation +when periodic tiling has a repeating pattern. +Theoretical physics +a branch primarily of the science physics that uses mathematical models and abstraction of physics to rationalize and predict phenomena. +Theory of computation +Time-scale calculus +Topology +Topological combinatorics +the application of methods from algebraic topology to solve problems in combinatorics. +Topological degree theory +Topological graph theory +Topological K-theory +Topos theory +Toric geometry +Transcendental number theory +a branch of number theory that revolves around the transcendental numbers. +Transformation geometry +Trigonometry +the study of triangles and the relationships between the length of their sides, and the angles between them. It is essential to many parts of applied mathematics. +Tropical analysis +see idempotent analysis +Tropical geometry +Twisted K-theory +a variation on K-theory, spanning abstract algebra, algebraic topology and operator theory. +Type theory + +== U == + +Umbral calculus +the study of Sheffer sequences +Uncertainty theory +a new branch of mathematics based on normality, monotonicity, self-duality, countable subadditivity, and product measure axioms. +Universal algebra +a field studying the formalization of algebraic structures itself. +Universal hyperbolic trigonometry +an approach to hyperbolic trigonometry based on rational geometry. + +== V == + +Valuation theory +Variational analysis +Vector algebra +a part of linear algebra concerned with the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication, although it may also refer to vector operations of vector calculus, including the dot and cross product. In this case it can be contrasted with geometric algebra which generalizes into higher dimensions. +Vector analysis +also known as vector calculus, see vector calculus. +Vector calculus +a branch of multivariable calculus concerned with differentiation and integration of vector fields. Primarily it is concerned with 3-dimensional Euclidean space. + +== W == + +Wavelets + +== See also == +Lists of mathematics topics +Outline of mathematics +Category:Glossaries of mathematics + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..46befc81b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 1/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of artificial intelligence is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of artificial intelligence (AI), its subdisciplines, and related fields. Related glossaries include Glossary of computer science, Glossary of robotics, Glossary of machine vision, and Glossary of logic. + +== A == + +A* search +Pronounced "A-star".A graph traversal and pathfinding algorithm which is used in many fields of computer science due to its completeness, optimality, and optimal efficiency. +abductive logic programming (ALP) +A high-level knowledge-representation framework that can be used to solve problems declaratively based on abductive reasoning. It extends normal logic programming by allowing some predicates to be incompletely defined, declared as abducible predicates. + +abductive reasoning +Also abduction.A form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. abductive inference, or retroduction +ablation +The removal of a component of an AI system. An ablation study aims to determine the contribution of a component to an AI system by removing the component, and then analyzing the resultant performance of the system. + +abstract data type +A mathematical model for data types, where a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. + +abstraction +The process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details or attributes in the study of objects or systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest + +accelerating change +A perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history, which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change. + +action language +A language for specifying state transition systems, and is commonly used to create formal models of the effects of actions on the world. Action languages are commonly used in the artificial intelligence and robotics domains, where they describe how actions affect the states of systems over time, and may be used for automated planning. + +action model learning +An area of machine learning concerned with creation and modification of software agent's knowledge about effects and preconditions of the actions that can be executed within its environment. This knowledge is usually represented in logic-based action description language and used as the input for automated planners. + +action selection +A way of characterizing the most basic problem of intelligent systems: what to do next. In artificial intelligence and computational cognitive science, "the action selection problem" is typically associated with intelligent agents and animats—artificial systems that exhibit complex behaviour in an agent environment. + +activation function +In artificial neural networks, the activation function of a node defines the output of that node given an input or set of inputs. + +adaptive algorithm +An algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on a priori defined reward mechanism or criterion. + +adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) +Also adaptive network-based fuzzy inference system.A kind of artificial neural network that is based on Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system. The technique was developed in the early 1990s. Since it integrates both neural networks and fuzzy logic principles, it has potential to capture the benefits of both in a single framework. Its inference system corresponds to a set of fuzzy IF–THEN rules that have learning capability to approximate nonlinear functions. Hence, ANFIS is considered to be a universal estimator. For using the ANFIS in a more efficient and optimal way, one can use the best parameters obtained by genetic algorithm. +admissible heuristic +In computer science, specifically in algorithms related to pathfinding, a heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to reach the goal is not higher than the lowest possible cost from the current point in the path. + +affective computing +Also artificial emotional intelligence or emotion AI.The study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects. Affective computing is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer science, psychology, and cognitive science. +agent architecture +A blueprint for software agents and intelligent control systems, depicting the arrangement of components. The architectures implemented by intelligent agents are referred to as cognitive architectures. + +AI bubble +Theorised stock market bubble growing amidst the AI boom, a period of rapid increase in investment in artificial intelligence (AI) that is affecting the broader economy. + +AI accelerator +A class of microprocessor or computer system designed as hardware acceleration for artificial intelligence applications, especially artificial neural networks, machine vision, and machine learning. + +AI-complete +In the field of artificial intelligence, the most difficult problems are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to that of solving the central artificial intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or strong AI. To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it would not be solved by a simple specific algorithm. + +AI data center +A specialized data center facility designed for the computationally intensive tasks of training and running inference for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning models. Unlike general-purpose data centers, they are optimized for the parallel processing demands of AI workloads, typically utilizing hardware such as AI accelerators (e.g., GPUs, TPUs) and high-speed interconnects. + +algorithm +An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks. Algorithms are fundamental to computer science and are used to solve problems efficiently by defining a sequence of logical steps. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2641da031 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 2/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +algorithmic efficiency +A property of an algorithm which relates to the number of computational resources used by the algorithm. An algorithm must be analyzed to determine its resource usage, and the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured based on usage of different resources. Algorithmic efficiency can be thought of as analogous to engineering productivity for a repeating or continuous process. + +algorithmic probability +In algorithmic information theory, algorithmic probability, also known as Solomonoff probability, is a mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation. It was invented by Ray Solomonoff in the 1960s. + +AlphaGo +A computer program that plays the board game Go. It was developed by Alphabet Inc.'s Google DeepMind in London. AlphaGo has several versions including AlphaGo Zero, AlphaGo Master, AlphaGo Lee, etc. In October 2015, AlphaGo became the first computer Go program to beat a human professional Go player without handicaps on a full-sized 19×19 board. + +ambient intelligence +Electronic environments that are sensitive and responsive to the presence of people. The concept was pioneered by Philips Research in the early 2000s as a vision for a post-PC era in which computing power would be embedded invisibly into everyday objects and spaces. An AmI environment continuously senses its surroundings, recognises the individuals within it, and adapts its behaviour to their needs, habits, and preferences — without requiring explicit interaction. + +Key characteristics of ambient intelligence systems include being embedded (technology woven into the environment rather than foregrounded), context-aware (able to recognise situations and people), personalised (tailored to individual users), adaptive (capable of learning and changing behaviour over time), and anticipatory (proactively responding to needs without conscious instruction). + +AmI draws on and overlaps with related fields including ubiquitous computing, pervasive computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), and affective computing. Practical applications include smart home systems, intelligent transport, assisted-living technologies for elderly or disabled users, and responsive public spaces. + +analysis of algorithms +The determination of the computational complexity of algorithms, that is the amount of time, storage and/or other resources necessary to execute them. Usually, this involves determining a function that relates the length of an algorithm's input to the number of steps it takes (its time complexity) or the number of storage locations it uses (its space complexity). + +analytics +The discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It includes descriptive analytics(what it happen?), diagnostic analytics(Why it happen?), predictive analytics(using the model to predict the result in the future.) and prescriptive analytics(giving suggestions according to the prediction). + +answer set programming (ASP) +A form of declarative programming oriented towards difficult (primarily NP-hard) search problems. It is based on the stable model (answer set) semantics of logic programming. In ASP, search problems are reduced to computing stable models, and answer set solvers—programs for generating stable models—are used to perform search. + +ant colony optimization (ACO) +A probabilistic technique for solving computational problems that can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. + +anytime algorithm +An algorithm that can return a valid solution to a problem even if it is interrupted before it ends. + +application programming interface (API) +A set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software library. APIs are widely used in modern web development to enable applications to exchange data in real time. + +approximate string matching +Also fuzzy string searching.The technique of finding strings that match a pattern approximately (rather than exactly). The problem of approximate string matching is typically divided into two sub-problems: finding approximate substring matches inside a given string and finding dictionary strings that match the pattern approximately. +approximation error +The discrepancy between an exact value and some approximation to it. + +argumentation framework +Also argumentation system.A way to deal with contentious information and draw conclusions from it. In an abstract argumentation framework, entry-level information is a set of abstract arguments that, for instance, represent data or a proposition. Conflicts between arguments are represented by a binary relation on the set of arguments. In concrete terms, you represent an argumentation framework with a directed graph such that the nodes are the arguments, and the arrows represent the attack relation. There exist some extensions of the Dung's framework, like the logic-based argumentation frameworks or the value-based argumentation frameworks. +artificial general intelligence (AGI) +A type of AI that matches or surpasses human cognitive capabilities across a wide range of cognitive tasks. + +artificial immune system (AIS) +A class of computationally intelligent, rule-based machine learning systems inspired by the principles and processes of the vertebrate immune system. The algorithms are typically modeled after the immune system's characteristics of learning and memory for use in problem-solving. + +artificial intelligence (AI) +Also machine intelligence.Any intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. In computer science, AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving". +Artificial intelligence arms race +economic and sometimes military competition between two or more states to develop and deploy advanced AI technologies and lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS). + +Artificial Intelligence Markup Language +An XML dialect for creating natural language software agents. + +Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) +An international, nonprofit, scientific society devoted to promote research in, and responsible use of, artificial intelligence. AAAI also aims to increase public understanding of artificial intelligence (AI), improve the teaching and training of AI practitioners, and provide guidance for research planners and funders concerning the importance and potential of current AI developments and future directions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..130967483 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 11/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +graph database (GDB) +A database that uses graph structures for semantic queries with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store data. A key concept of the system is the graph (or edge or relationship), which directly relates data items in the store a collection of nodes of data and edges representing the relationships between the nodes. The relationships allow data in the store to be linked together directly, and in many cases retrieved with one operation. Graph databases hold the relationships between data as a priority. Querying relationships within a graph database is fast because they are perpetually stored within the database itself. Relationships can be intuitively visualized using graph databases, making it useful for heavily inter-connected data. + +graph theory +The study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. + +graph traversal + +Also graph search. +The process of visiting (checking and/or updating) each vertex in a graph. Such traversals are classified by the order in which the vertices are visited. Tree traversal is a special case of graph traversal. + +== H == + +hallucination +A response generated by AI that contains false or misleading information presented as fact. + +heuristic +A technique designed for solving a problem more quickly when classic methods are too slow, or for finding an approximate solution when classic methods fail to find any exact solution. This is achieved by trading optimality, completeness, accuracy, or precision for speed. In a way, it can be considered a shortcut. A heuristic function, also called simply a heuristic, is a function that ranks alternatives in search algorithms at each branching step based on available information to decide which branch to follow. For example, it may approximate the exact solution. + +hidden layer +A layer of neurons in an artificial neural network that is neither an input layer nor an output layer. + +hyper-heuristic +A heuristic search method that seeks to automate the process of selecting, combining, generating, or adapting several simpler heuristics (or components of such heuristics) to efficiently solve computational search problems, often by the incorporation of machine learning techniques. One of the motivations for studying hyper-heuristics is to build systems which can handle classes of problems rather than solving just one problem. + +hyperparameter +A parameter that can be set in order to define any configurable part of a machine learning model's learning process. + +hyperparameter optimization +The process of choosing a set of optimal hyperparameters for a learning algorithm. + +hyperplane +A decision boundary in machine learning classifiers that partitions the input space into two or more sections, with each section corresponding to a unique class label. + +== I == + +IEEE Computational Intelligence Society +A professional society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) focussing on "the theory, design, application, and development of biologically and linguistically motivated computational paradigms emphasizing neural networks, connectionist systems, genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming, fuzzy systems, and hybrid intelligent systems in which these paradigms are contained". + +incremental learning +A method of machine learning, in which input data is continuously used to extend the existing model's knowledge i.e. to further train the model. It represents a dynamic technique of supervised and unsupervised learning that can be applied when training data becomes available gradually over time or its size is out of system memory limits. Algorithms that can facilitate incremental learning are known as incremental machine learning algorithms. + +inference engine +A component of the system that applies logical rules to the knowledge base to deduce new information. + +information integration (II) +The merging of information from heterogeneous sources with differing conceptual, contextual and typographical representations. It is used in data mining and consolidation of data from unstructured or semi-structured resources. Typically, information integration refers to textual representations of knowledge but is sometimes applied to rich-media content. Information fusion, which is a related term, involves the combination of information into a new set of information towards reducing redundancy and uncertainty. + +Information Processing Language (IPL) +A programming language that includes features intended to help with programs that perform simple problem solving actions such as lists, dynamic memory allocation, data types, recursion, functions as arguments, generators, and cooperative multitasking. IPL invented the concept of list processing, albeit in an assembly-language style. + +intelligence amplification (IA) + +Also cognitive augmentation, machine augmented intelligence, and enhanced intelligence. +The effective use of information technology in augmenting human intelligence. + +intelligence explosion +A possible outcome of humanity building artificial general intelligence (AGI). AGI would be capable of recursive self-improvement leading to rapid emergence of ASI (artificial superintelligence), the limits of which are unknown, at the time of the technological singularity. + +intelligent agent (IA) +An autonomous entity which acts, directing its activity towards achieving goals (i.e. it is an agent), upon an environment using observation through sensors and consequent actuators (i.e. it is intelligent). Intelligent agents may also learn or use knowledge to achieve their goals. They may be very simple or very complex. + +intelligent control +A class of control techniques that use various artificial intelligence computing approaches like neural networks, Bayesian probability, fuzzy logic, machine learning, reinforcement learning, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms. + +intelligent personal assistant + +Also virtual assistant or personal digital assistant. +A software agent that can perform tasks or services for an individual based on verbal commands. Sometimes the term "chatbot" is used to refer to virtual assistants generally or specifically accessed by online chat (or in some cases online chat programs that are exclusively for entertainment purposes). Some virtual assistants are able to interpret human speech and respond via synthesized voices. Users can ask their assistants questions, control home automation devices and media playback via voice, and manage other basic tasks such as email, to-do lists, and calendars with verbal commands. + +interpretation +An assignment of meaning to the symbols of a formal language. Many formal languages used in mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science are defined in solely syntactic terms, and as such do not have any meaning until they are given some interpretation. The general study of interpretations of formal languages is called formal semantics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a0da9a269 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 12/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +intrinsic motivation +An intelligent agent is intrinsically motivated to act if the information content alone, of the experience resulting from the action, is the motivating factor. Information content in this context is measured in the information theory sense as quantifying uncertainty. A typical intrinsic motivation is to search for unusual (surprising) situations, in contrast to a typical extrinsic motivation such as the search for food. Intrinsically motivated artificial agents display behaviours akin to exploration and curiosity. + +issue tree + +Also logic tree. +A graphical breakdown of a question that dissects it into its different components vertically and that progresses into details as it reads to the right. Issue trees are useful in problem solving to identify the root causes of a problem as well as to identify its potential solutions. They also provide a reference point to see how each piece fits into the whole picture of a problem. + +== J == + +junction tree algorithm +Also Clique Tree.A method used in machine learning to extract marginalization in general graphs. In essence, it entails performing belief propagation on a modified graph called a junction tree. The graph is called a tree because it branches into different sections of data; nodes of variables are the branches. + +== K == + +kernel method +In machine learning, kernel methods are a class of algorithms for pattern analysis, whose best known member is the support vector machine (SVM). The general task of pattern analysis is to find and study general types of relations (e.g., cluster analysis, rankings, principal components, correlations, classifications) in datasets. + +KL-ONE +A well-known knowledge representation system in the tradition of semantic networks and frames; that is, it is a frame language. The system is an attempt to overcome semantic indistinctness in semantic network representations and to explicitly represent conceptual information as a structured inheritance network. + +k-nearest neighbors +A non-parametric supervised learning method first developed by Evelyn Fix and Joseph Hodges in 1951, and later expanded by Thomas Cover. It is used for classification and regression. + +knowledge acquisition +The process used to define the rules and ontologies required for a knowledge-based system. The phrase was first used in conjunction with expert systems to describe the initial tasks associated with developing an expert system, namely finding and interviewing domain experts and capturing their knowledge via rules, objects, and frame-based ontologies. + +knowledge-based system (KBS) +A computer program that reasons and uses a knowledge base to solve complex problems. The term is broad and refers to many different kinds of systems. The one common theme that unites all knowledge based systems is an attempt to represent knowledge explicitly and a reasoning system that allows it to derive new knowledge. Thus, a knowledge-based system has two distinguishing features: a knowledge base and an inference engine. + +knowledge distillation +The process of transferring knowledge from a large machine learning model to a smaller one. + +knowledge engineering (KE) +All technical, scientific, and social aspects involved in building, maintaining, and using knowledge-based systems. + +knowledge extraction +The creation of knowledge from structured (relational databases, XML) and unstructured (text, documents, images) sources. The resulting knowledge needs to be in a machine-readable and machine-interpretable format and must represent knowledge in a manner that facilitates inferencing. Although it is methodically similar to information extraction and ETL, the main criterion is that the extraction result goes beyond the creation of structured information or the transformation into a relational schema. It requires either the reuse of existing formal knowledge (reusing identifiers or ontologies) or the generation of a schema based on the source data. + +knowledge Interchange Format (KIF) +A computer language designed to enable systems to share and reuse information from knowledge-based systems. KIF is similar to frame languages such as KL-ONE and LOOM but unlike such language its primary role is not intended as a framework for the expression or use of knowledge but rather for the interchange of knowledge between systems. The designers of KIF likened it to PostScript. PostScript was not designed primarily as a language to store and manipulate documents but rather as an interchange format for systems and devices to share documents. In the same way KIF is meant to facilitate sharing of knowledge across different systems that use different languages, formalisms, platforms, etc. + +knowledge representation and reasoning (KR² or KR&R) +The field of artificial intelligence dedicated to representing information about the world in a form that a computer system can utilize to solve complex tasks such as diagnosing a medical condition or having a dialog in a natural language. Knowledge representation incorporates findings from psychology about how humans solve problems and represent knowledge in order to design formalisms that will make complex systems easier to design and build. Knowledge representation and reasoning also incorporates findings from logic to automate various kinds of reasoning, such as the application of rules or the relations of sets and subsets. Examples of knowledge representation formalisms include semantic nets, systems architecture, frames, rules, and ontologies. Examples of automated reasoning engines include inference engines, theorem provers, and classifiers. + +k-means clustering +A method of vector quantization, originally from signal processing, that aims to partition n observations into k clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean (cluster centers or cluster centroid), serving as a prototype of the cluster. + +== L == + +language model +A probabilistic model that manipulates natural language. + +large language model (LLM) +A language model with a large number of parameters (typically at least a billion) that are adjusted during training. Due to its size, it requires a lot of data and computing capability to train. Large language models are usually based on the transformer architecture. + +lazy learning +In machine learning, lazy learning is a learning method in which generalization of the training data is, in theory, delayed until a query is made to the system, as opposed to in eager learning, where the system tries to generalize the training data before receiving queries. + +Lethal autonomous weapon (LAW) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f7147999a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 13/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +aka lethal autonomous weapon system (LAWS), autonomous weapon system (AWS), robotic weapon, or killer robot +type of military drone or military robot, which is autonomous in that it can independently search for and engage targets based on programmed constraints and descriptions. As of 2025, most military drones and military robots are not truly autonomous. LAWs may engage in drone warfare in the air, on land, on water, underwater, or in space. + +Lisp (programming language) (LISP) +A family of programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized prefix notation. + +logic programming +A type of programming paradigm which is largely based on formal logic. Any program written in a logic programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include Prolog, answer set programming (ASP), and Datalog. + +long short-term memory (LSTM) +An artificial recurrent neural network architecture used in the field of deep learning. Unlike standard feedforward neural networks, LSTM has feedback connections that make it a "general purpose computer" (that is, it can compute anything that a Turing machine can). It can not only process single data points (such as images), but also entire sequences of data (such as speech or video). + +lora +LoRA stands for Low-Rank Adaptation. It is a method used to fine-tune large models by updating only a small, targeted part of the model. This makes it quicker and less resource-intensive to adapt the model to specific tasks or new datasets. + +== M == + +machine vision (MV) +The technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection, process control, and robot guidance, usually in industry. Machine vision is a term encompassing a large number of technologies, software and hardware products, integrated systems, actions, methods and expertise. Machine vision as a systems engineering discipline can be considered distinct from computer vision, a form of computer science. It attempts to integrate existing technologies in new ways and apply them to solve real world problems. The term is the prevalent one for these functions in industrial automation environments but is also used for these functions in other environments such as security and vehicle guidance. + +Markov chain +A stochastic model describing a sequence of possible events in which the probability of each event depends only on the state attained in the previous event. + +Markov decision process (MDP) +A discrete time stochastic control process. It provides a mathematical framework for modeling decision making in situations where outcomes are partly random and partly under the control of a decision maker. MDPs are useful for studying optimization problems solved via dynamic programming and reinforcement learning. + +mathematical optimization + +Also mathematical programming. +In mathematics, computer science, and operations research, the selection of a best element (with regard to some criterion) from some set of available alternatives. + +machine learning (ML) +The scientific study of algorithms and statistical models that computer systems use in order to perform a specific task effectively without using explicit instructions, relying on patterns and inference instead. + +machine listening + +Also computer audition (CA). +A general field of study of algorithms and systems for audio understanding by machine. + +machine perception +The capability of a computer system to interpret data in a manner that is similar to the way humans use their senses to relate to the world around them. + +mechanism design +A field in economics and game theory that takes an engineering approach to designing economic mechanisms or incentives, toward desired objectives, in strategic settings, where players act rationally. Because it starts at the end of the game, then goes backwards, it is also called reverse game theory. It has broad applications, from economics and politics (markets, auctions, voting procedures) to networked-systems (internet interdomain routing, sponsored search auctions). + +mechatronics + +Also mechatronic engineering. +A multidisciplinary branch of engineering that focuses on the engineering of both electrical and mechanical systems, and also includes a combination of robotics, electronics, computer, telecommunications, systems, control, and product engineering. + +metabolic network reconstruction and simulation +Allows for an in-depth insight into the molecular mechanisms of a particular organism. In particular, these models correlate the genome with molecular physiology. + +metaheuristic +In computer science and mathematical optimization, a metaheuristic is a higher-level procedure or heuristic designed to find, generate, or select a heuristic (partial search algorithm) that may provide a sufficiently good solution to an optimization problem, especially with incomplete or imperfect information or limited computation capacity. Metaheuristics sample a set of solutions which is too large to be completely sampled. + +model checking +In computer science, model checking or property checking is, for a given model of a system, exhaustively and automatically checking whether this model meets a given specification. Typically, one has hardware or software systems in mind, whereas the specification contains safety requirements such as the absence of deadlocks and similar critical states that can cause the system to crash. Model checking is a technique for automatically verifying correctness properties of finite-state systems. + +modus ponens +In propositional logic, modus ponens is a rule of inference. It can be summarized as "P implies Q and P is asserted to be true, therefore Q must be true." + +modus tollens +In propositional logic, modus tollens is a valid argument form and a rule of inference. It is an application of the general truth that if a statement is true, then so is its contrapositive. The inference rule modus tollens asserts that the inference from P implies Q to the negation of Q implies the negation of P is valid. + +Monte Carlo tree search +In computer science, Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) is a heuristic search algorithm for some kinds of decision processes. + +multi-agent system (MAS) + +Also self-organized system. +A computerized system composed of multiple interacting intelligent agents. Multi-agent systems can solve problems that are difficult or impossible for an individual agent or a monolithic system to solve. Intelligence may include methodic, functional, procedural approaches, algorithmic search or reinforcement learning. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..53b68242a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 14/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +multilayer perceptron (MLP) +In deep learning, a multilayer perceptron (MLP) is a name for a modern feedforward neural network consisting of fully connected neurons with nonlinear activation functions, organized in layers, notable for being able to distinguish data that is not linearly separable. + +multi-swarm optimization +A variant of particle swarm optimization (PSO) based on the use of multiple sub-swarms instead of one (standard) swarm. The general approach in multi-swarm optimization is that each sub-swarm focuses on a specific region while a specific diversification method decides where and when to launch the sub-swarms. The multi-swarm framework is especially fitted for the optimization on multi-modal problems, where multiple (local) optima exist. + +mutation +A genetic operator used to maintain genetic diversity from one generation of a population of genetic algorithm chromosomes to the next. It is analogous to biological mutation. Mutation alters one or more gene values in a chromosome from its initial state. In mutation, the solution may change entirely from the previous solution. Hence GA can come to a better solution by using mutation. Mutation occurs during evolution according to a user-definable mutation probability. This probability should be set low. If it is set too high, the search will turn into a primitive random search. + +Mycin +An early backward chaining expert system that used artificial intelligence to identify bacteria causing severe infections, such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to recommend antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight – the name derived from the antibiotics themselves, as many antibiotics have the suffix "-mycin". The MYCIN system was also used for the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases. + +== N == + +naive Bayes classifier +In machine learning, naive Bayes classifiers are a family of simple probabilistic classifiers based on applying Bayes' theorem with strong (naive) independence assumptions between the features. + +naive semantics +An approach used in computer science for representing basic knowledge about a specific domain, and has been used in applications such as the representation of the meaning of natural language sentences in artificial intelligence applications. In a general setting the term has been used to refer to the use of a limited store of generally understood knowledge about a specific domain in the world, and has been applied to fields such as the knowledge based design of data schemas. + +name binding +In programming languages, name binding is the association of entities (data and/or code) with identifiers. An identifier bound to an object is said to reference that object. Machine languages have no built-in notion of identifiers, but name-object bindings as a service and notation for the programmer is implemented by programming languages. Binding is intimately connected with scoping, as scope determines which names bind to which objects – at which locations in the program code (lexically) and in which one of the possible execution paths (temporally). Use of an identifier id in a context that establishes a binding for id is called a binding (or defining) occurrence. In all other occurrences (e.g., in expressions, assignments, and subprogram calls), an identifier stands for what it is bound to; such occurrences are called applied occurrences. + +named-entity recognition (NER) + +Also entity identification, entity chunking, and entity extraction. +A subtask of information extraction that seeks to locate and classify named entity mentions in unstructured text into pre-defined categories such as the person names, organizations, locations, medical codes, time expressions, quantities, monetary values, percentages, etc. + +named graph +A key concept of Semantic Web architecture in which a set of Resource Description Framework statements (a graph) are identified using a URI, allowing descriptions to be made of that set of statements such as context, provenance information or other such metadata. Named graphs are a simple extension of the RDF data model through which graphs can be created but the model lacks an effective means of distinguishing between them once published on the Web at large. + +natural language generation (NLG) +A software process that transforms structured data into plain-English content. It can be used to produce long-form content for organizations to automate custom reports, as well as produce custom content for a web or mobile application. It can also be used to generate short blurbs of text in interactive conversations (a chatbot) which might even be read out loud by a text-to-speech system. + +natural language processing (NLP) +A subfield of computer science, information engineering, and artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages, in particular how to program computers to process and analyze large amounts of natural language data. + +natural language programming +An ontology-assisted way of programming in terms of natural-language sentences, e.g. English. + +network motif +All networks, including biological networks, social networks, technological networks (e.g., computer networks and electrical circuits) and more, can be represented as graphs, which include a wide variety of subgraphs. One important local property of networks are so-called network motifs, which are defined as recurrent and statistically significant sub-graphs or patterns. + +neural machine translation (NMT) +An approach to machine translation that uses a large artificial neural network to predict the likelihood of a sequence of words, typically modeling entire sentences in a single integrated model. + +neural network +A neural network can refer to either a neural circuit of biological neurons (sometimes also called a biological neural network), or a network of artificial neurons or nodes in the case of an artificial neural network. Artificial neural networks are used for solving artificial intelligence (AI) problems; they model connections of biological neurons as weights between nodes. A positive weight reflects an excitatory connection, while negative values mean inhibitory connections. All inputs are modified by a weight and summed. This activity is referred to as a linear combination. Finally, an activation function controls the amplitude of the output. For example, an acceptable range of output is usually between 0 and 1, or it could be −1 and 1. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45f45c7f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 15/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +neural Turing machine (NTM) +A recurrent neural network model. NTMs combine the fuzzy pattern matching capabilities of neural networks with the algorithmic power of programmable computers. An NTM has a neural network controller coupled to external memory resources, which it interacts with through attentional mechanisms. The memory interactions are differentiable end-to-end, making it possible to optimize them using gradient descent. An NTM with a long short-term memory (LSTM) network controller can infer simple algorithms such as copying, sorting, and associative recall from examples alone. + +neuro-fuzzy +Combinations of artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic. + +neurocybernetics + +Also brain–computer interface (BCI), neural-control interface (NCI), mind-machine interface (MMI), direct neural interface (DNI), or brain–machine interface (BMI). +A direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired brain and an external device. BCI differs from neuromodulation in that it allows for bidirectional information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. + +neuromorphic engineering + +Also neuromorphic computing. +A concept describing the use of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) systems containing electronic analog circuits to mimic neuro-biological architectures present in the nervous system. In recent times, the term neuromorphic has been used to describe analog, digital, mixed-mode analog/digital VLSI, and software systems that implement models of neural systems (for perception, motor control, or multisensory integration). The implementation of neuromorphic computing on the hardware level can be realized by oxide-based memristors, spintronic memories, threshold switches, and transistors. + +node +A basic unit of a data structure, such as a linked list or tree data structure. Nodes contain data and also may link to other nodes. Links between nodes are often implemented by pointers. + +nondeterministic algorithm +An algorithm that, even for the same input, can exhibit different behaviors on different runs, as opposed to a deterministic algorithm. + +nouvelle AI +Nouvelle AI differs from classical AI by aiming to produce robots with intelligence levels similar to insects. Researchers believe that intelligence can emerge organically from simple behaviors as these intelligences interacted with the "real world", instead of using the constructed worlds which symbolic AIs typically needed to have programmed into them. + +NP +In computational complexity theory, NP (nondeterministic polynomial time) is a complexity class used to classify decision problems. NP is the set of decision problems for which the problem instances, where the answer is "yes", have proofs verifiable in polynomial time. + +NP-completeness +In computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when it can be solved by a restricted class of brute force search algorithms and it can be used to simulate any other problem with a similar algorithm. More precisely, each input to the problem should be associated with a set of solutions of polynomial length, whose validity can be tested quickly (in polynomial time), such that the output for any input is "yes" if the solution set is non-empty and "no" if it is empty. + +NP-hardness + +Also non-deterministic polynomial-time hardness. +In computational complexity theory, the defining property of a class of problems that are, informally, "at least as hard as the hardest problems in NP". A simple example of an NP-hard problem is the subset sum problem. + +== O == + +Occam's razor + +Also Ockham's razor or Ocham's razor. +The problem-solving principle that states that when presented with competing hypotheses that make the same predictions, one should select the solution with the fewest assumptions; the principle is not meant to filter out hypotheses that make different predictions. The idea is attributed to the English Franciscan friar William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347), a scholastic philosopher and theologian. + +offline learning +A machine learning training approach in which a model is trained on a fixed dataset that is not updated during the learning process. It contrasts with online machine learning, where the model is updated incrementally as new data arrives. + +online machine learning +A method of machine learning in which data becomes available in a sequential order and is used to update the best predictor for future data at each step, as opposed to batch learning techniques which generate the best predictor by learning on the entire training data set at once. Online learning is a common technique used in areas of machine learning where it is computationally infeasible to train over the entire dataset, requiring the need of out-of-core algorithms. It is also used in situations where it is necessary for the algorithm to dynamically adapt to new patterns in the data, or when the data itself is generated as a function of time. + +ontology learning + +Also ontology extraction, ontology generation, or ontology acquisition. +The automatic or semi-automatic creation of ontologies, including extracting the corresponding domain's terms and the relationships between the concepts that these terms represent from a corpus of natural language text, and encoding them with an ontology language for easy retrieval. + +OpenAI +The for-profit corporation OpenAI LP, whose parent organization is the non-profit organization OpenAI Inc that conducts research in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) with the stated aim to promote and develop friendly AI in such a way as to benefit humanity as a whole. + +OpenCog +A project that aims to build an open-source artificial intelligence framework. OpenCog Prime is an architecture for robot and virtual embodied cognition that defines a set of interacting components designed to give rise to human-equivalent artificial general intelligence (AGI) as an emergent phenomenon of the whole system. + +Open Mind Common Sense +An artificial intelligence project based at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab whose goal is to build and utilize a large commonsense knowledge base from the contributions of many thousands of people across the Web. + +open-source software (OSS) +A type of computer software in which source code is released under an license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8e42c899 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 16/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +overfitting +"The production of an analysis that corresponds too closely or exactly to a particular set of data, and may therefore fail to fit to additional data or predict future observations reliably". In other words, an overfitted model memorizes training data details but cannot generalize to new data. Conversely, an underfitted model is too simple to capture the complexity of the training data. + +== P == + +partial order reduction +A technique for reducing the size of the state-space to be searched by a model checking or automated planning and scheduling algorithm. It exploits the commutativity of concurrently executed transitions, which result in the same state when executed in different orders. + +partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP) +A generalization of a Markov decision process (MDP). A POMDP models an agent decision process in which it is assumed that the system dynamics are determined by an MDP, but the agent cannot directly observe the underlying state. Instead, it must maintain a probability distribution over the set of possible states, based on a set of observations and observation probabilities, and the underlying MDP. + +particle swarm optimization (PSO) +A computational method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. It solves a problem by having a population of candidate solutions, here dubbed particles, and moving these particles around in the search-space according to simple mathematical formulae over the particle's position and velocity. Each particle's movement is influenced by its local best known position, but is also guided toward the best known positions in the search-space, which are updated as better positions are found by other particles. This is expected to move the swarm toward the best solutions. + +pathfinding +Also pathing.The plotting, by a computer application, of the shortest route between two points. It is a more practical variant on solving mazes. This field of research is based heavily on Dijkstra's algorithm for finding a shortest path on a weighted graph. +pattern recognition +Concerned with the automatic discovery of regularities in data through the use of computer algorithms and with the use of these regularities to take actions such as classifying the data into different categories. + +perceptron +An algorithm for supervised learning of binary classifiers. + +predicate logic +Also first-order logic, predicate logic, and first-order predicate calculus.A collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. First-order logic uses quantified variables over non-logical objects and allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form "there exists x such that x is Socrates and x is a man" and there exists is a quantifier while x is a variable. This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or relations; in this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic. +predictive analytics +A variety of statistical techniques from data mining, predictive modelling, and machine learning, that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future or otherwise unknown events. + +principal component analysis (PCA) +A statistical procedure that uses an orthogonal transformation to convert a set of observations of possibly correlated variables (entities each of which takes on various numerical values) into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables called principal components. This transformation is defined in such a way that the first principal component has the largest possible variance (that is, accounts for as much of the variability in the data as possible), and each succeeding component, in turn, has the highest variance possible under the constraint that it is orthogonal to the preceding components. The resulting vectors (each being a linear combination of the variables and containing n observations) are an uncorrelated orthogonal basis set. PCA is sensitive to the relative scaling of the original variables. + +principle of rationality +Also rationality principle.A principle coined by Karl R. Popper in his Harvard Lecture of 1963, and published in his book Myth of Framework. It is related to what he called the 'logic of the situation' in an Economica article of 1944/1945, published later in his book The Poverty of Historicism. According to Popper's rationality principle, agents act in the most adequate way according to the objective situation. It is an idealized conception of human behavior which he used to drive his model of situational logic. +probabilistic programming (PP) +A programming paradigm in which probabilistic models are specified and inference for these models is performed automatically. It represents an attempt to unify probabilistic modeling and traditional general-purpose programming in order to make the former easier and more widely applicable. It can be used to create systems that help make decisions in the face of uncertainty. Programming languages used for probabilistic programming are referred to as "Probabilistic programming languages" (PPLs). + +production system +A computer program typically used to provide some form of AI, which consists primarily of a set of rules about behavior, but also includes the mechanism necessary to follow those rules as the system responds to states of the world. + +programming language +A formal language, which comprises a set of instructions that produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used in computer programming to implement algorithms. + +Prolog +A logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a declarative programming language: the program logic is expressed in terms of relations, represented as facts and rules. A computation is initiated by running a query over these relations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18dd7c876 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 17/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +propositional calculus +Also propositional logic, statement logic, sentential calculus, sentential logic, and zeroth-order logic.A branch of logic which deals with propositions (which can be true or false) and argument flow. Compound propositions are formed by connecting propositions by logical connectives. The propositions without logical connectives are called atomic propositions. Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers. However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic. +proximal policy optimization (PPO) +A reinforcement learning algorithm for training an intelligent agent's decision function to accomplish difficult tasks. + +Python +An interpreted, high-level, general-purpose programming language created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. Python's design philosophy emphasizes code readability with its notable use of significant whitespace. Its language constructs and object-oriented approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale projects. + +PyTorch +A machine learning library based on the Torch library, used for applications such as computer vision and natural language processing, originally developed by Meta AI and now part of the Linux Foundation umbrella. + +== Q == + +Q-learning +A model-free reinforcement learning algorithm for learning the value of an action in a particular state. + +qualification problem +In philosophy and artificial intelligence (especially knowledge-based systems), the qualification problem is concerned with the impossibility of listing all of the preconditions required for a real-world action to have its intended effect. It might be posed as how to deal with the things that prevent me from achieving my intended result. It is strongly connected to, and opposite the ramification side of, the frame problem. + +quantifier +In logic, quantification specifies the quantity of specimens in the domain of discourse that satisfy an open formula. The two most common quantifiers mean "for all" and "there exists". For example, in arithmetic, quantifiers allow one to say that the natural numbers go on forever, by writing that for all n (where n is a natural number), there is another number (say, the successor of n) which is one bigger than n. + +quantum computing +The use of quantum-mechanical phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically. + +query language +Query languages or data query languages (DQLs) are computer languages used to make queries in databases and information systems. Broadly, query languages can be classified according to whether they are database query languages or information retrieval query languages. The difference is that a database query language attempts to give factual answers to factual questions, while an information retrieval query language attempts to find documents containing information that is relevant to an area of inquiry. + +== R == + +R programming language +A programming language and free software environment for statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing. The R language is widely used among statisticians and data miners for developing statistical software and data analysis. + +radial basis function network +In the field of mathematical modeling, a radial basis function network is an artificial neural network that uses radial basis functions as activation functions. The output of the network is a linear combination of radial basis functions of the inputs and neuron parameters. Radial basis function networks have many uses, including function approximation, time series prediction, classification, and system control. They were first formulated in a 1988 paper by Broomhead and Lowe, both researchers at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment. + +random forest +Also random decision forest.An ensemble learning method for classification, regression, and other tasks that operates by constructing a multitude of decision trees at training time and outputting the class that is the mode of the classes (classification) or mean prediction (regression) of the individual trees. Random decision forests correct for decision trees' habit of overfitting to their training set. +reasoning engine +Another name for semantic reasoner. + +reasoning model +Also known as a reasoning language model (RLM) or large reasoning model (LRM). +A type of large language model (LLM) that has been specifically trained to solve complex tasks requiring multiple steps of logical reasoning. +reasoning system +In information technology a reasoning system is a software system that generates conclusions from available knowledge using logical techniques such as deduction and induction. Reasoning systems play an important role in the implementation of artificial intelligence and knowledge-based systems. + +recurrent neural network (RNN) +A class of artificial neural networks where connections between nodes form a directed graph along a temporal sequence. This allows it to exhibit temporal dynamic behavior. Unlike feedforward neural networks, RNNs can use their internal state (memory) to process sequences of inputs. This makes them applicable to tasks such as unsegmented, connected handwriting recognition or speech recognition. + +Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) +A technique in natural language processing that combines a retrieval system with a generative language model. Rather than relying solely on knowledge encoded during training, a RAG system first retrieves relevant documents or passages from an external knowledge base in response to a query, then passes this retrieved context to the generative model to produce a more accurate and up-to-date response. RAG is commonly used to reduce hallucination in large language models and to enable models to answer questions about information not present in their training data. + +recursive self-improvement +Process in which early artificial general intelligence (AGI) systems rewrite their own computer code, causing an intelligence explosion resulting from enhancing their own capabilities and intellectual capacity, theoretically resulting in superintelligence. + +regression analysis + +A set of statistical processes for estimating the relationships between a dependent variable (often called the outcome or response variable, or label in machine learning) and one or more error-free independent variables (often called regressors, predictors, covariates, explanatory variables, or features). The most common form of regression analysis is linear regression, in which one finds the line (or a more complex linear combination) that most closely fits the data according to a specific mathematical criterion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3583d2899 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 18/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +regularization +A set of techniques such as dropout, early stopping, and L1 and L2 regularization to reduce overfitting and underfitting when training a learning algorithm. + +reinforcement learning (RL) +An area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine learning paradigms, alongside supervised and unsupervised learning. It differs from supervised learning in that labelled input/output pairs need not be presented, and sub-optimal actions need not be explicitly corrected. Instead the focus is finding a balance between exploration (of uncharted territory) and exploitation (of current knowledge). + +reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF) +A technique that involve training a "reward model" to predict how humans rate the quality of generated content, and then training a generative AI model to satisfy this reward model via reinforcement learning. It can be used for example to make the generative AI model more truthful or less harmful. + +representation learning +See feature learning. + +reservoir computing +A framework for computation that may be viewed as an extension of neural networks. Typically an input signal is fed into a fixed (random) dynamical system called a reservoir and the dynamics of the reservoir map the input to a higher dimension. Then a simple readout mechanism is trained to read the state of the reservoir and map it to the desired output. The main benefit is that training is performed only at the readout stage and the reservoir is fixed. Liquid-state machines and echo state networks are two major types of reservoir computing. + +Resource Description Framework (RDF) +A family of World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) specifications originally designed as a metadata data model. It has come to be used as a general method for conceptual description or modeling of information that is implemented in web resources, using a variety of syntax notations and data serialization formats. It is also used in knowledge management applications. + +restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM) +A generative stochastic artificial neural network that can learn a probability distribution over its set of inputs. + +Rete algorithm +A pattern matching algorithm for implementing rule-based systems. The algorithm was developed to efficiently apply many rules or patterns to many objects, or facts, in a knowledge base. It is used to determine which of the system's rules should fire based on its data store, its facts. + +Retrieval augmented generation (RAG) +A technique that enables large language models (LLMs) to retrieve and incorporate new information. + +robotics +An interdisciplinary branch of science and engineering that includes mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, information engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing. + +rule-based system +In computer science, a rule-based system is used to store and manipulate knowledge to interpret information in a useful way. It is often used in artificial intelligence applications and research. Normally, the term rule-based system is applied to systems involving human-crafted or curated rule sets. Rule-based systems constructed using automatic rule inference, such as rule-based machine learning, are normally excluded from this system type. + +== S == + +satisfiability +In mathematical logic, satisfiability and validity are elementary concepts of semantics. A formula is satisfiable if it is possible to find an interpretation (model) that makes the formula true. A formula is valid if all interpretations make the formula true. The opposites of these concepts are unsatisfiability and invalidity, that is, a formula is unsatisfiable if none of the interpretations make the formula true, and invalid if some such interpretation makes the formula false. These four concepts are related to each other in a manner exactly analogous to Aristotle's square of opposition. + +search algorithm +Any algorithm which solves the search problem, namely, to retrieve information stored within some data structure, or calculated in the search space of a problem domain, either with discrete or continuous values. + +selection +The stage of a genetic algorithm in which individual genomes are chosen from a population for later breeding (using the crossover operator). + +self-management +The process by which computer systems manage their own operation without human intervention. + +semantic network +Also frame network.A knowledge base that represents semantic relations between concepts in a network. This is often used as a form of knowledge representation. It is a directed or undirected graph consisting of vertices, which represent concepts, and edges, which represent semantic relations between concepts, mapping or connecting semantic fields. +semantic reasoner +Also reasoning engine, rules engine, or simply reasoner. +A piece of software able to infer logical consequences from a set of asserted facts or axioms. The notion of a semantic reasoner generalizes that of an inference engine, by providing a richer set of mechanisms to work with. The inference rules are commonly specified by means of an ontology language, and often a description logic language. Many reasoners use first-order predicate logic to perform reasoning; inference commonly proceeds by forward chaining and backward chaining. + +semantic query +Allows for queries and analytics of associative and contextual nature. Semantic queries enable the retrieval of both explicitly and implicitly derived information based on syntactic, semantic and structural information contained in data. They are designed to deliver precise results (possibly the distinctive selection of one single piece of information) or to answer more fuzzy and wide-open questions through pattern matching and digital reasoning. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf82334a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 19/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +semantics +In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically valid strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation. + +semi-supervised learning +Also weak supervision.A machine learning training paradigm characterized by using a combination of a small amount of human-labeled data (used exclusively in supervised learning), followed by a large amount of unlabeled data (used exclusively in unsupervised learning). +sensor fusion +The combining of sensory data or data derived from disparate sources such that the resulting information has less uncertainty than would be possible when these sources were used individually. + +separation logic +An extension of Hoare logic, a way of reasoning about programs. The assertion language of separation logic is a special case of the logic of bunched implications (BI). + +similarity learning +An area of supervised learning closely related to classification and regression, but the goal is to learn from a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, in recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification. + +simulated annealing (SA) +A probabilistic technique for approximating the global optimum of a given function. Specifically, it is a metaheuristic to approximate global optimization in a large search space for an optimization problem. + +situated approach +In artificial intelligence research, the situated approach builds agents that are designed to behave effectively successfully in their environment. This requires designing AI "from the bottom-up" by focussing on the basic perceptual and motor skills required to survive. The situated approach gives a much lower priority to abstract reasoning or problem-solving skills. + +situation calculus +A logic formalism designed for representing and reasoning about dynamical domains. + +Selective Linear Definite clause resolution +Also simply SLD resolution.The basic inference rule used in logic programming. It is a refinement of resolution, which is both sound and refutation complete for Horn clauses. +software +A collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. + +software engineering +The application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. + +spatial-temporal reasoning +An area of artificial intelligence which draws from the fields of computer science, cognitive science, and cognitive psychology. The theoretic goal—on the cognitive side—involves representing and reasoning spatial-temporal knowledge in mind. The applied goal—on the computing side—involves developing high-level control systems of automata for navigating and understanding time and space. + +SPARQL +An RDF query language—that is, a semantic query language for databases—able to retrieve and manipulate data stored in Resource Description Framework (RDF) format. + +sparse dictionary learning +Also sparse coding or SDL. +A feature learning method aimed at finding a sparse representation of the input data in the form of a linear combination of basic elements as well as those basic elements themselves. + +speech recognition +An interdisciplinary subfield of computational linguistics that develops methodologies and technologies that enables the recognition and translation of spoken language into text by computers. It is also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), computer speech recognition or speech to text (STT). It incorporates knowledge and research in the linguistics, computer science, and electrical engineering fields. + +spiking neural network (SNN) +An artificial neural network that more closely mimics a natural neural network. In addition to neuronal and synaptic state, SNNs incorporate the concept of time into their Operating Model. + +state +In information technology and computer science, a program is described as stateful if it is designed to remember preceding events or user interactions; the remembered information is called the state of the system. + +statistical classification +In machine learning and statistics, classification is the problem of identifying to which of a set of categories (sub-populations) a new observation belongs, on the basis of a training set of data containing observations (or instances) whose category membership is known. Examples are assigning a given email to the "spam" or "non-spam" class, and assigning a diagnosis to a given patient based on observed characteristics of the patient (sex, blood pressure, presence or absence of certain symptoms, etc.). Classification is an example of pattern recognition. + +state–action–reward–state–action (SARSA) +A reinforcement learning algorithm for learning a Markov decision process policy. + +statistical relational learning (SRL) +A subdiscipline of artificial intelligence and machine learning that is concerned with domain models that exhibit both uncertainty (which can be dealt with using statistical methods) and complex, relational structure. Note that SRL is sometimes called Relational Machine Learning (RML) in the literature. Typically, the knowledge representation formalisms developed in SRL use (a subset of) first-order logic to describe relational properties of a domain in a general manner (universal quantification) and draw upon probabilistic graphical models (such as Bayesian networks or Markov networks) to model the uncertainty; some also build upon the methods of inductive logic programming. + +stochastic optimization (SO) +Any optimization method that generates and uses random variables. For stochastic problems, the random variables appear in the formulation of the optimization problem itself, which involves random objective functions or random constraints. Stochastic optimization methods also include methods with random iterates. Some stochastic optimization methods use random iterates to solve stochastic problems, combining both meanings of stochastic optimization. Stochastic optimization methods generalize deterministic methods for deterministic problems. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a4a95582 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 20/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +stochastic semantic analysis +An approach used in computer science as a semantic component of natural language understanding. Stochastic models generally use the definition of segments of words as basic semantic units for the semantic models, and in some cases involve a two layered approach. + +Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver (STRIPS) +An automated planner developed by Richard Fikes and Nils Nilsson in 1971 at SRI International. + +subject-matter expert (SME) +A person who has accumulated great knowledge in a particular field or topic, demonstrated by the person's degree, licensure, and/or through years of professional experience with the subject. + +superintelligence +A hypothetical agent that possesses intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human minds. Superintelligence may also refer to a property of problem-solving systems (e.g., superintelligent language translators or engineering assistants) whether or not these high-level intellectual competencies are embodied in agents that act within the physical world. A superintelligence may or may not be created by an intelligence explosion and be associated with a technological singularity. + +supervised learning +The machine learning task of learning a function that maps an input to an output based on example input-output pairs. It infers a function from labeled training data consisting of a set of training examples. In supervised learning, each example is a pair consisting of an input object (typically a vector) and a desired output value (also called the supervisory signal). A supervised learning algorithm analyzes the training data and produces an inferred function, which can be used for mapping new examples. An optimal scenario will allow for the algorithm to correctly determine the class labels for unseen instances. This requires the learning algorithm to generalize from the training data to unseen situations in a "reasonable" way (see inductive bias). + +support vector machines +In machine learning, support vector machines (SVMs, also support vector networks) are supervised learning models with associated learning algorithms that analyze data used for classification and regression. + +swarm intelligence (SI) +The collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems, either natural or artificial. The expression was introduced in the context of cellular robotic systems. + +symbolic artificial intelligence +The term for the collection of all methods in artificial intelligence research that are based on high-level "symbolic" (human-readable) representations of problems, logic, and search. + +synthetic intelligence (SI) +An alternative term for artificial intelligence which emphasizes that the intelligence of machines need not be an imitation or in any way artificial; it can be a genuine form of intelligence. + +systems neuroscience +A subdiscipline of neuroscience and systems biology that studies the structure and function of neural circuits and systems. It is an umbrella term, encompassing a number of areas of study concerned with how nerve cells behave when connected together to form neural pathways, neural circuits, and larger brain networks. + +== T == + +technological singularity +Also simply the singularity.A hypothetical point in the future when technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unfathomable changes to human civilization. +temporal difference learning +A class of model-free reinforcement learning methods which learn by bootstrapping from the current estimate of the value function. These methods sample from the environment, like Monte Carlo methods, and perform updates based on current estimates, like dynamic programming methods. + +tensor network theory +A theory of brain function (particularly that of the cerebellum) that provides a mathematical model of the transformation of sensory space-time coordinates into motor coordinates and vice versa by cerebellar neuronal networks. The theory was developed as a geometrization of brain function (especially of the central nervous system) using tensors. + +TensorFlow +A free and open-source software library for dataflow and differentiable programming across a range of tasks. It is a symbolic math library, and is also used for machine learning applications such as neural networks. + +The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence +Non-fiction book by Ray Kurzweil, published in 1999, in which he forecasts the future of AI. + +theoretical computer science (TCS) +A subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing and includes the theory of computation. + +theory of computation +In theoretical computer science and mathematics, the theory of computation is the branch that deals with how efficiently problems can be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithm. The field is divided into three major branches: automata theory and languages, computability theory, and computational complexity theory, which are linked by the question: "What are the fundamental capabilities and limitations of computers?". + +Thompson sampling +A heuristic for choosing actions that addresses the exploration-exploitation dilemma in the multi-armed bandit problem. It consists in choosing the action that maximizes the expected reward with respect to a randomly drawn belief. + +time complexity +The computational complexity that describes the amount of time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to differ by at most a constant factor. + +transfer learning +A machine learning technique in which knowledge learned from a task is reused in order to boost performance on a related task. For example, for image classification, knowledge gained while learning to recognize cars could be applied when trying to recognize trucks. + +transformer +A type of deep learning architecture that exploits a multi-head attention mechanism. Transformers address some of the limitations of long short-term memory, and became widely used in natural language processing, although it can also process other types of data such as images in the case of vision transformers. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ee3e36fb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 3/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +asymptotic computational complexity +In computational complexity theory, asymptotic computational complexity is the usage of asymptotic analysis for the estimation of computational complexity of algorithms and computational problems, commonly associated with the usage of the big O notation. + +attention mechanism +Machine learning-based attention is a mechanism mimicking cognitive attention. It calculates "soft" weights for each word, more precisely for its embedding, in the context window. It can do it either in parallel (such as in transformers) or sequentially (such as in recursive neural networks). "Soft" weights can change during each runtime, in contrast to "hard" weights, which are (pre-)trained and fine-tuned and remain frozen afterwards. Multiple attention heads are used in transformer-based large language models. + +attributional calculus +A logic and representation system defined by Ryszard S. Michalski. It combines elements of predicate logic, propositional calculus, and multi-valued logic. Attributional calculus provides a formal language for natural induction, an inductive learning process whose results are in forms natural to people. + +augmented reality (AR) + +An interactive experience of a real-world environment where the objects that reside in the real-world are "augmented" by computer-generated perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory, haptic, somatosensory, and olfactory. + +autoencoder +A type of artificial neural network used to learn efficient codings of unlabeled data (unsupervised learning). A common implementation is the variational autoencoder (VAE). + +automata theory +The study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science and discrete mathematics (a subject of study in both mathematics and computer science). + +automated machine learning (AutoML) + A field of machine learning (ML) which aims to automatically configure an ML system to maximize its performance (e.g, classification accuracy). + +automated planning and scheduling +Also simply AI planning.A branch of artificial intelligence that concerns the realization of strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by intelligent agents, autonomous robots and unmanned vehicles. Unlike classical control and classification problems, the solutions are complex and must be discovered and optimized in multidimensional space. Planning is also related to decision theory. +automated reasoning +An area of computer science and mathematical logic dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce computer programs that allow computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of artificial intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and even philosophy. + +autonomic computing (AC) +The self-managing characteristics of distributed computing resources, adapting to unpredictable changes while hiding intrinsic complexity to operators and users. Initiated by IBM in 2001, this initiative ultimately aimed to develop computer systems capable of self-management, to overcome the rapidly growing complexity of computing systems management, and to reduce the barrier that complexity poses to further growth. + +autonomous car +Also self-driving car, robot car, and driverless car.A vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and moving with little or no human input. Autonomous cars rely on a combination of sensors, machine learning algorithms, and real-time data processing to navigate environments and make driving decisions without human input. +autonomous robot +A robot that performs behaviors or tasks with a high degree of autonomy. Autonomous robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of artificial intelligence, robotics, and information engineering. + +== B == + +backpropagation +A method used to train artificial neural networksby propagating error gradients backward Backpropagation is shorthand for "the backward propagation of errors", since an error is computed at the output and distributed backwards throughout the network's layers. It is commonly used to train deep neural networks, a term referring to neural networks with more than one hidden layer. + +backpropagation through structure (BPTS) +A gradient-based technique for training recurrent neural networks, proposed in a 1996 paper written by Christoph Goller and Andreas Küchler. + +backpropagation through time (BPTT) +A gradient-based technique for training certain types of recurrent neural networks, such as Elman networks. The algorithm was independently derived by numerous researchers. + +backward chaining +Also backward reasoning.An inference method described colloquially as working backward from the goal. It is used in automated theorem provers, inference engines, proof assistants, and other artificial intelligence applications. +bag-of-words model +A simplifying representation used in natural language processing and information retrieval (IR). In this model, a text (such as a sentence or a document) is represented as the bag (multiset) of its words, disregarding grammar and even word order but keeping multiplicity. The bag-of-words model has also been used for computer vision. The bag-of-words model is commonly used in methods of document classification where the (frequency of) occurrence of each word is used as a feature for training a classifier. + +bag-of-words model in computer vision +In computer vision, the bag-of-words model (BoW model) can be applied to image classification, by treating image features as words. In document classification, a bag of words is a sparse vector of occurrence counts of words; that is, a sparse histogram over the vocabulary. In computer vision, a bag of visual words is a vector of occurrence counts of a vocabulary of local image features. + +batch normalization +A technique for improving the performance and stability of artificial neural networks. It is a technique to provide any layer in a neural network with inputs that are zero mean/unit variance. Batch normalization was introduced in a 2015 paper. It is used to normalize the input layer by adjusting and scaling the activations. + +Bayesian programming +A formalism and a methodology for having a technique to specify probabilistic models and solve problems when less than the necessary information is available. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3b07e2a25 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 21/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +transhumanism +Abbreviated H+ or h+.An international philosophical movement that advocates for the transformation of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies to greatly enhance human intellect and physiology. +transition system +In theoretical computer science, a transition system is a concept used in the study of computation. It is used to describe the potential behavior of discrete systems. It consists of states and transitions between states, which may be labeled with labels chosen from a set; the same label may appear on more than one transition. If the label set is a singleton, the system is essentially unlabeled, and a simpler definition that omits the labels is possible. + +tree traversal +Also tree search.A form of graph traversal and refers to the process of visiting (checking and/or updating) each node in a tree data structure, exactly once. Such traversals are classified by the order in which the nodes are visited. +true quantified Boolean formula +In computational complexity theory, the language TQBF is a formal language consisting of the true quantified Boolean formulas. A (fully) quantified Boolean formula is a formula in quantified propositional logic where every variable is quantified (or bound), using either existential or universal quantifiers, at the beginning of the sentence. Such a formula is equivalent to either true or false (since there are no free variables). If such a formula evaluates to true, then that formula is in the language TQBF. It is also known as QSAT (Quantified SAT). + +TSMC +Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Limited, the world's largest non-U.S. company by market capitalization, which holds a commanding majority in the semiconductor foundry market, accounting for approximately 70% of the global market share. + +Turing machine +A mathematical model of computation describing an abstract machine that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape according to a table of rules. Despite the model's simplicity, it is capable of implementing any algorithm. + +Turing test +A test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to, or indistinguishable from, that of a human, developed by Alan Turing in 1950. Turing proposed that a human evaluator would judge natural language conversations between a human and a machine designed to generate human-like responses. The evaluator would be aware that one of the two partners in conversation is a machine, and all participants would be separated from one another. The conversation would be limited to a text-only channel such as a computer keyboard and screen so the result would not depend on the machine's ability to render words as speech. If the evaluator cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed the test. The test results do not depend on the machine's ability to give correct answers to questions, only how closely its answers resemble those a human would give. + +type system +In programming languages, a set of rules that assigns a property called type to the various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions, or modules. These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean"). The main purpose of a type system is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs by defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then checking that the parts have been connected in a consistent way. This checking can happen statically (at compile time), dynamically (at run time), or as a combination of static and dynamic checking. Type systems have other purposes as well, such as expressing business rules, enabling certain compiler optimizations, allowing for multiple dispatch, providing a form of documentation, etc. + +== U == + +unsupervised learning +A type of self-organized Hebbian learning that helps find previously unknown patterns in data set without pre-existing labels. It is also known as self-organization and allows modeling probability densities of given inputs. It is one of the three basic paradigms of machine learning, alongside supervised and reinforcement learning. Semi-supervised learning has also been described and is a hybridization of supervised and unsupervised techniques. + +== V == + +vision processing unit (VPU) +A type of microprocessor designed to accelerate machine vision tasks. +Value-alignment complete +Analogous to an AI-complete problem, a value-alignment complete problem is a problem where the AI control problem needs to be fully solved to solve it. + +== W == + +Watson +A question-answering computer system capable of answering questions posed in natural language, developed in IBM's DeepQA project by a research team led by principal investigator David Ferrucci. Watson was named after IBM's first CEO, industrialist Thomas J. Watson. + +weak AI +Also narrow AI.Artificial intelligence that is focused on one narrow task. +weak supervision +See semi-supervised learning. + +word embedding +A representation of a word in natural language processing. Typically, the representation is a real-valued vector that encodes the meaning of the word in such a way that words that are closer in the vector space are expected to be similar in meaning. + +world model +A type of neural network that understands the dynamics of the real world, including physics and spatial properties. These models can use input data, including text, image, video, and movement, to generate videos that simulate realistic physical environments. + +== X == + +XGBoost +Short for eXtreme Gradient Boosting, XGBoost is an open-source software library which provides a regularizing gradient boosting framework for multiple programming languages. + +== See also == +Outline of artificial intelligence +Outline of deep learning +Outline of machine learning +List of artificial intelligence algorithms + +== References == + +=== Works cited === + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3dea5ac0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 4/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +bees algorithm +A population-based search algorithm which was developed by Pham, Ghanbarzadeh and et al. in 2005. It mimics the food foraging behaviour of honey bee colonies. In its basic version the algorithm performs a kind of neighborhood search combined with global search, and can be used for both combinatorial optimization and continuous optimization. The only condition for the application of the bees algorithm is that some measure of distance between the solutions is defined. The effectiveness and specific abilities of the bees algorithm have been proven in a number of studies. + +behavior informatics (BI) +The informatics of behaviors so as to obtain behavior intelligence and behavior insights. + +behavior tree (BT) +A mathematical model of plan execution used in computer science, robotics, control systems and video games. They describe switchings between a finite set of tasks in a modular fashion. Their strength comes from their ability to create very complex tasks composed of simple tasks, without worrying how the simple tasks are implemented. BTs present some similarities to hierarchical state machines with the key difference that the main building block of a behavior is a task rather than a state. Its ease of human understanding make BTs less error-prone and very popular in the game developer community. BTs have shown to generalize several other control architectures. + +belief–desire–intention software model (BDI) +A software model developed for programming intelligent agents. Superficially characterized by the implementation of an agent's beliefs, desires and intentions, it actually uses these concepts to solve a particular problem in agent programming. In essence, it provides a mechanism for separating the activity of selecting a plan (from a plan library or an external planner application) from the execution of currently active plans. Consequently, BDI agents are able to balance the time spent on deliberating about plans (choosing what to do) and executing those plans (doing it). A third activity, creating the plans in the first place (planning), is not within the scope of the model, and is left to the system designer and programmer. + +bias–variance tradeoff +In statistics and machine learning, the bias–variance tradeoff is the property of a set of predictive models whereby models with a lower bias in parameter estimation have a higher variance of the parameter estimates across samples, and vice versa. + +big data +A term used to refer to data sets that are too large or complex for traditional data-processing application software to adequately deal with. Data with many cases (rows) offer greater statistical power, while data with higher complexity (more attributes or columns) may lead to a higher false discovery rate. Big data is often characterised by the volume, velocity, and variety of data, requiring specialised tools and technologies for effective storage, processing, and analysis. + +Big O notation +A mathematical notation that describes the limiting behavior of a function when the argument tends towards a particular value or infinity. It is a member of a family of notations invented by Paul Bachmann, Edmund Landau, and others, collectively called Bachmann–Landau notation or asymptotic notation. + +binary tree +A tree data structure in which each node has at most two children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A recursive definition using just set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a tuple (L, S, R), where L and R are binary trees or the empty set and S is a singleton set. Some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well. + +blackboard system +An artificial intelligence approach based on the blackboard architectural model, where a common knowledge base, the "blackboard", is iteratively updated by a diverse group of specialist knowledge sources, starting with a problem specification and ending with a solution. Each knowledge source updates the blackboard with a partial solution when its internal constraints match the blackboard state. In this way, the specialists work together to solve the problem. + +Boltzmann machine +Also stochastic Hopfield network with hidden units.A type of stochastic recurrent neural network and Markov random field. Boltzmann machines can be seen as the stochastic, generative counterpart of Hopfield networks. +Boolean satisfiability problem +Also propositional satisfiability problem; abbreviated SATISFIABILITY or SAT.The problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula. In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula can be consistently replaced by the values TRUE or FALSE in such a way that the formula evaluates to TRUE. If this is the case, the formula is called satisfiable. On the other hand, if no such assignment exists, the function expressed by the formula is FALSE for all possible variable assignments and the formula is unsatisfiable. For example, the formula "a AND NOT b" is satisfiable because one can find the values a = TRUE and b = FALSE, which make (a AND NOT b) = TRUE. In contrast, "a AND NOT a" is unsatisfiable. +boosting +A machine learning ensemble metaheuristic for primarily reducing bias (as opposed to variance), by training models sequentially, each one correcting the errors of its predecessor. + +bootstrap aggregating +Also bagging or bootstrapping.A machine learning ensemble metaheuristic for primarily reducing variance (as opposed to bias), by training multiple models independently and averaging their predictions. +brain technology +Also self-learning know-how system.A technology that employs the latest findings in neuroscience. The term was first introduced by the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in Zurich, Switzerland, in the context of the ROBOY project. Brain Technology can be employed in robots, know-how management systems and any other application with self-learning capabilities. In particular, Brain Technology applications allow the visualization of the underlying learning architecture often coined as "know-how maps". +branching factor +In computing, tree data structures, and game theory, the number of children at each node, the outdegree. If this value is not uniform, an average branching factor can be calculated. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..700affe27 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 5/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +brute-force search +Also exhaustive search or generate and test.A very general problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigm that consists of systematically enumerating all possible candidates for the solution and checking whether each candidate satisfies the problem's statement. Although simple to implement, brute force search is often inefficient for large problem spaces due to its high computational cost. + +== C == + +capsule neural network (CapsNet) +A machine learning system that is a type of artificial neural network (ANN) that can be used to better model hierarchical relationships. The approach is an attempt to more closely mimic biological neural organization. + +case-based reasoning (CBR) +Broadly construed, the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems. + +chatbot + +Also smartbot, talkbot, chatterbot, bot, IM bot, interactive agent, conversational interface, or artificial conversational entity. +A computer program or an artificial intelligence which conducts a conversation via auditory or textual methods. + +cloud robotics +A field of robotics that attempts to invoke cloud technologies such as cloud computing, cloud storage, and other Internet technologies centred on the benefits of converged infrastructure and shared services for robotics. When connected to the cloud, robots can benefit from the powerful computation, storage, and communication resources of modern data center in the cloud, which can process and share information from various robots or agent (other machines, smart objects, humans, etc.). Humans can also delegate tasks to robots remotely through networks. Cloud computing technologies enable robot systems to be endowed with powerful capability whilst reducing costs through cloud technologies. Thus, it is possible to build lightweight, low cost, smarter robots have intelligent "brain" in the cloud. The "brain" consists of data center, knowledge base, task planners, deep learning, information processing, environment models, communication support, etc. + +cluster analysis + +Also clustering. +The task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of exploratory data mining, and a common technique for statistical data analysis, used in many fields, including machine learning, pattern recognition, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, and computer graphics. + +Cobweb +An incremental system for hierarchical conceptual clustering. COBWEB was invented by Professor Douglas H. Fisher, currently at Vanderbilt University. COBWEB incrementally organizes observations into a classification tree. Each node in a classification tree represents a class (concept) and is labeled by a probabilistic concept that summarizes the attribute-value distributions of objects classified under the node. This classification tree can be used to predict missing attributes or the class of a new object. + +cognitive architecture +The Institute of Creative Technologies defines cognitive architecture as: "hypothesis about the fixed structures that provide a mind, whether in natural or artificial systems, and how they work together – in conjunction with knowledge and skills embodied within the architecture – to yield intelligent behavior in a diversity of complex environments." + +cognitive computing +In general, the term cognitive computing has been used to refer to new hardware and/or software that mimics the functioning of the human brain and helps to improve human decision-making. In this sense, CC is a new type of computing with the goal of more accurate models of how the human brain/mind senses, reasons, and responds to stimulus. + +cognitive science +The interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. + +combinatorial optimization +In Operations Research, applied mathematics and theoretical computer science, combinatorial optimization is a topic that consists of finding an optimal object from a finite set of objects. + +committee machine +A type of artificial neural network using a divide and conquer strategy in which the responses of multiple neural networks (experts) are combined into a single response. The combined response of the committee machine is supposed to be superior to those of its constituent experts. Compare ensembles of classifiers. + +commonsense knowledge +In artificial intelligence research, commonsense knowledge consists of facts about the everyday world, such as "Lemons are sour", that all humans are expected to know. The first AI program to address common sense knowledge was Advice Taker in 1959 by John McCarthy. + +commonsense reasoning +A branch of artificial intelligence concerned with simulating the human ability to make presumptions about the type and essence of ordinary situations they encounter every day. + +computational chemistry +A branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. + +computational complexity theory +Focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm. + +computational creativity + +Also artificial creativity, mechanical creativity, creative computing, or creative computation. +A multidisciplinary endeavour that includes the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, philosophy, and the arts. + +computational cybernetics +The integration of cybernetics and computational intelligence techniques. + +computational humor +A branch of computational linguistics and artificial intelligence which uses computers in humor research. + +computational intelligence (CI) +Usually refers to the ability of a computer to learn a specific task from data or experimental observation. + +computational learning theory +In computer science, computational learning theory (or just learning theory) is a subfield of artificial intelligence devoted to studying the design and analysis of machine learning algorithms. + +computational linguistics +An interdisciplinary field concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions. + +computational mathematics +The mathematical research in areas of science where computing plays an essential role. + +computational neuroscience +Also theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience. A branch of neuroscience which employs mathematical models, theoretical analysis and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that govern the development, structure, physiology, and cognitive abilities of the nervous system. +computational number theory + +Also algorithmic number theory. +The study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e2e98a71 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 6/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +computational problem +In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a mathematical object representing a collection of questions that computers might be able to solve. + +computational statistics + +Also statistical computing. +The interface between statistics and computer science. + +computer-automated design (CAutoD) +Design automation usually refers to electronic design automation, or Design Automation which is a Product Configurator. Extending Computer-Aided Design (CAD), automated design and computer-automated design are concerned with a broader range of applications, such as automotive engineering, civil engineering, composite material design, control engineering, dynamic system identification and optimization, financial systems, industrial equipment, mechatronic systems, steel construction, structural optimisation, and the invention of novel systems. More recently, traditional CAD simulation is seen to be transformed to CAutoD by biologically inspired machine learning, including heuristic search techniques such as evolutionary computation, and swarm intelligence algorithms. + +computer audition (CA) +See machine listening. + +computer science +The theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems. + +computer vision +An interdisciplinary scientific field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the human visual system can do. + +concept drift +In predictive analytics and machine learning, the concept drift means that the statistical properties of the target variable, which the model is trying to predict, change over time in unforeseen ways. This causes problems because the predictions become less accurate as time passes. + +connectionism +An approach in the fields of cognitive science, that hopes to explain mental phenomena using artificial neural networks. + +consistent heuristic +In the study of path-finding problems in artificial intelligence, a heuristic function is said to be consistent, or monotone, if its estimate is always less than or equal to the estimated distance from any neighboring vertex to the goal, plus the cost of reaching that neighbor. + +constrained conditional model (CCM) +A machine learning and inference framework that augments the learning of conditional (probabilistic or discriminative) models with declarative constraints. + +constraint logic programming +A form of constraint programming, in which logic programming is extended to include concepts from constraint satisfaction. A constraint logic program is a logic program that contains constraints in the body of clauses. An example of a clause including a constraint is A(X,Y) :- X+Y>0, B(X), C(Y). In this clause, X+Y>0 is a constraint; A(X,Y), B(X), and C(Y) are literals as in regular logic programming. This clause states one condition under which the statement A(X,Y) holds: X+Y is greater than zero and both B(X) and C(Y) are true. + +constraint programming +A programming paradigm wherein relations between variables are stated in the form of constraints. Constraints differ from the common primitives of imperative programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute, but rather the properties of a solution to be found. + +constructed language + +Also conlang. +A language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary are consciously devised, instead of having developed naturally. Constructed languages may also be referred to as artificial, planned, or invented languages. + +control theory +In control systems engineering is a subfield of mathematics that deals with the control of continuously operating dynamical systems in engineered processes and machines. The objective is to develop a control model for controlling such systems using a control action in an optimum manner without delay or overshoot and ensuring control stability. + +convolutional neural network +In deep learning, a convolutional neural network (CNN, or ConvNet) is a class of deep neural network most commonly applied to image analysis. CNNs use a variation of multilayer perceptrons designed to require minimal preprocessing. They are also known as shift invariant or space invariant artificial neural networks (SIANN), based on their shared-weights architecture and translation invariance characteristics. + +crossover + +Also recombination. +In genetic algorithms and evolutionary computation, a genetic operator used to combine the genetic information of two parents to generate new offspring. It is one way to stochastically generate new solutions from an existing population, and analogous to the crossover that happens during sexual reproduction in biological organisms. Solutions can also be generated by cloning an existing solution, which is analogous to asexual reproduction. Newly generated solutions are typically mutated before being added to the population. + +== D == + +Darkforest +A computer go program developed by Facebook, based on deep learning techniques using a convolutional neural network. Its updated version Darkfores2 combines the techniques of its predecessor with Monte Carlo tree search. The MCTS effectively takes tree search methods commonly seen in computer chess programs and randomizes them. With the update, the system is known as Darkfmcts3. + +Dartmouth workshop +The Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence was the name of a 1956 summer workshop now considered by many (though not all) to be the seminal event for artificial intelligence as a field. + +data augmentation +Data augmentation in data analysis are techniques used to increase the amount of data. It helps reduce overfitting when training a learning algorithm. + +data fusion +The process of integrating multiple data sources to produce more consistent, accurate, and useful information than that provided by any individual data source. + +data integration +The process of combining data residing in different sources and providing users with a unified view of them. This process becomes significant in a variety of situations, which include both commercial (such as when two similar companies need to merge their databases) and scientific (combining research results from different bioinformatics repositories, for example) domains. Data integration appears with increasing frequency as the volume (that is, big data) and the need to share existing data explodes. It has become the focus of extensive theoretical work, and numerous open problems remain unsolved. + +data mining +The process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebad08b6c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 7/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +data science +An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms and systems to extract knowledge and insights from data in various forms, both structured and unstructured, similar to data mining. Data science is a "concept to unify statistics, data analysis, machine learning, and their related methods" in order to "understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data. It employs techniques and theories drawn from many fields within the context of mathematics, statistics, information science, and computer science. + +data set + +Also dataset. +A collection of data. Most commonly a data set corresponds to the contents of a single database table, or a single statistical data matrix, where every column of the table represents a particular variable, and each row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question. The data set lists values for each of the variables, such as height and weight of an object, for each member of the data set. Each value is known as a datum. The data set may comprise data for one or more members, corresponding to the number of rows. + +data warehouse (DW or DWH) + +Also enterprise data warehouse (EDW). +A system used for reporting and data analysis. DWs are central repositories of integrated data from one or more disparate sources. They store current and historical data in one single place + +Datalog +A declarative logic programming language that syntactically is a subset of Prolog. It is often used as a query language for deductive databases. In recent years, Datalog has found new application in data integration, information extraction, networking, program analysis, security, and cloud computing. + +decision boundary +In the case of backpropagation-based artificial neural networks or perceptrons, the type of decision boundary that the network can learn is determined by the number of hidden layers in the network. If it has no hidden layers, then it can only learn linear problems. If it has one hidden layer, then it can learn any continuous function on compact subsets of Rn as shown by the Universal approximation theorem, thus it can have an arbitrary decision boundary. + +decision support system (DSS) +An information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and help people make decisions about problems that may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance—i.e. unstructured and semi-structured decision problems. Decision support systems can be either fully computerized or human-powered, or a combination of both. + +decision theory +Also theory of choice. +The study of the reasoning underlying an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which gives advice on how to make the best decisions given a set of uncertain beliefs and a set of values, and descriptive decision theory which analyzes how existing, possibly irrational agents actually make decisions. + +decision tree learning +Uses a decision tree (as a predictive model) to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining and machine learning. + +declarative programming +A programming paradigm—a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs—that expresses the logic of a computation without describing its control flow. + +deductive classifier +A type of artificial intelligence inference engine. It takes as input a set of declarations in a frame language about a domain such as medical research or molecular biology. For example, the names of classes, sub-classes, properties, and restrictions on allowable values. + +Deep Blue +was a chess-playing computer developed by IBM. It is known for being the first computer chess-playing system to win both a chess game and a chess match against a reigning world champion under regular time controls. + +deep learning +A subset of machine learning that focuses on utilizing neural networks to perform tasks such as classification, regression, and representation learning. The field takes inspiration from biological neuroscience and is centered around stacking artificial neurons into layers and "training" them to process data. The adjective "deep" refers to the use of multiple layers (ranging from three to several hundred or thousands) in the network. Methods used can be either supervised, semi-supervised, or unsupervised. + +DeepMind Technologies +A British artificial intelligence company founded in September 2010, currently owned by Alphabet Inc. The company is based in London, with research centres in Canada, France, and the United States. Acquired by Google in 2014, the company has created a neural network that learns how to play video games in a fashion similar to that of humans, as well as a neural Turing machine, or a neural network that may be able to access an external memory like a conventional Turing machine, resulting in a computer that mimics the short-term memory of the human brain. The company made headlines in 2016 after its AlphaGo program beat human professional Go player Lee Sedol, the world champion, in a five-game match, which was the subject of a documentary film. A more general program, AlphaZero, beat the most powerful programs playing Go, chess, and shogi (Japanese chess) after a few days of play against itself using reinforcement learning. + +default logic +A non-monotonic logic proposed by Raymond Reiter to formalize reasoning with default assumptions. + +Density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) +A clustering algorithm proposed by Martin Ester, Hans-Peter Kriegel, Jörg Sander, and Xiaowei Xu in 1996. + +description logic (DL) +A family of formal knowledge representation languages. Many DLs are more expressive than propositional logic but less expressive than first-order logic. In contrast to the latter, the core reasoning problems for DLs are (usually) decidable, and efficient decision procedures have been designed and implemented for these problems. There are general, spatial, temporal, spatiotemporal, and fuzzy descriptions logics, and each description logic features a different balance between DL expressivity and reasoning complexity by supporting different sets of mathematical constructors. + +developmental robotics (DevRob) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..131dce674 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 8/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Also epigenetic robotics. +A scientific field which aims at studying the developmental mechanisms, architectures, and constraints that allow lifelong and open-ended learning of new skills and new knowledge in embodied machines. + +diagnosis +Concerned with the development of algorithms and techniques that are able to determine whether the behaviour of a system is correct. If the system is not functioning correctly, the algorithm should be able to determine, as accurately as possible, which part of the system is failing, and which kind of fault it is facing. The computation is based on observations, which provide information on the current behaviour. + +dialogue system + +Also conversational agent (CA). +A computer system intended to converse with a human with a coherent structure. Dialogue systems have employed text, speech, graphics, haptics, gestures, and other modes for communication on both the input and output channel. + +diffusion model +In machine learning, diffusion models, also known as diffusion probabilistic models or score-based generative models, are a class of latent variable models. They are Markov chains trained using variational inference. The goal of diffusion models is to learn the latent structure of a dataset by modeling the way in which data points diffuse through the latent space. In computer vision, this means that a neural network is trained to denoise images blurred with Gaussian noise by learning to reverse the diffusion process. It mainly consists of three major components: the forward process, the reverse process, and the sampling procedure. Three examples of generic diffusion modeling frameworks used in computer vision are denoising diffusion probabilistic models, noise conditioned score networks, and stochastic differential equations. + +Dijkstra's algorithm +An algorithm for finding the shortest paths between nodes in a weighted graph, which may represent, for example, road networks. + +dimensionality reduction + +Also dimension reduction. +The process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables. It can be divided into feature selection and feature extraction. + +discrete system +Any system with a countable number of states. Discrete systems may be contrasted with continuous systems, which may also be called analog systems. A final discrete system is often modeled with a directed graph and is analyzed for correctness and complexity according to computational theory. Because discrete systems have a countable number of states, they may be described in precise mathematical models. A computer is a finite-state machine that may be viewed as a discrete system. Because computers are often used to model not only other discrete systems but continuous systems as well, methods have been developed to represent real-world continuous systems as discrete systems. One such method involves sampling a continuous signal at discrete time intervals. + +distributed artificial intelligence (DAI) + +Also decentralized artificial intelligence. +A subfield of artificial intelligence research dedicated to the development of distributed solutions for problems. DAI is closely related to and a predecessor of the field of multi-agent systems. + +double descent +A phenomenon in statistics and machine learning where a model with a small number of parameters and a model with an extremely large number of parameters have a small test error, but a model whose number of parameters is about the same as the number of data points used to train the model will have a large error. This phenomenon has been considered surprising, as it contradicts assumptions about overfitting in classical machine learning. + +dropout + +Also dilution. +A regularization technique for reducing overfitting in artificial neural networks by preventing complex co-adaptations on training data. + +dynamic epistemic logic (DEL) +A logical framework dealing with knowledge and information change. Typically, DEL focuses on situations involving multiple agents and studies how their knowledge changes when events occur. + +== E == + +eager learning +A learning method in which the system tries to construct a general, input-independent target function during training of the system, as opposed to lazy learning, where generalization beyond the training data is delayed until a query is made to the system. + +early stopping +A regularization technique often used when training a machine learning model with an iterative method such as gradient descent. + +Ebert test +A test which gauges whether a computer-based synthesized voice can tell a joke with sufficient skill to cause people to laugh. It was proposed by film critic Roger Ebert at the 2011 TED conference as a challenge to software developers to have a computerized voice master the inflections, delivery, timing, and intonations of a speaking human. The test is similar to the Turing test proposed by Alan Turing in 1950 as a way to gauge a computer's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior by generating performance indistinguishable from a human being. + +echo state network (ESN) +A recurrent neural network with a sparsely connected hidden layer (with typically 1% connectivity). The connectivity and weights of hidden neurons are fixed and randomly assigned. The weights of output neurons can be learned so that the network can (re)produce specific temporal patterns. The main interest of this network is that although its behaviour is non-linear, the only weights that are modified during training are for the synapses that connect the hidden neurons to output neurons. Thus, the error function is quadratic with respect to the parameter vector and can be differentiated easily to a linear system. + +embodied agent + +Also interface agent. +An intelligent agent that interacts with the environment through a physical body within that environment. Agents that are represented graphically with a body, for example a human or a cartoon animal, are also called embodied agents, although they have only virtual, not physical, embodiment. + +embodied cognitive science +An interdisciplinary field of research, the aim of which is to explain the mechanisms underlying intelligent behavior. It comprises three main methodologies: 1) the modeling of psychological and biological systems in a holistic manner that considers the mind and body as a single entity, 2) the formation of a common set of general principles of intelligent behavior, and 3) the experimental use of robotic agents in controlled environments. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..06f65368b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 9/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +error-driven learning +A sub-area of machine learning concerned with how an agent ought to take actions in an environment so as to minimize some error feedback. It is a type of reinforcement learning. + +ensemble learning +The use of multiple machine learning algorithms to obtain better predictive performance than could be obtained from any of the constituent learning algorithms alone. + +epoch +In machine learning, particularly in the creation of artificial neural networks, an epoch is training the model for one cycle through the full training dataset. Small models are typically trained for as many epochs as it takes to reach the best performance on the validation dataset. The largest models may train for only one epoch. + +ethics of artificial intelligence +The part of the ethics of technology specific to artificial intelligence. + +evolutionary algorithm (EA) +A subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms inspired by biological evolution, such as reproduction, mutation, recombination, and selection. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the fitness function determines the quality of the solutions (see also loss function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above operators. + +evolutionary computation +A family of algorithms for global optimization inspired by biological evolution, and the subfield of artificial intelligence and soft computing studying these algorithms. In technical terms, they are a family of population-based trial and error problem solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character. + +evolving classification function (ECF) +Evolving classification functions are used for classifying and clustering in the field of machine learning and artificial intelligence, typically employed for data stream mining tasks in dynamic and changing environments. + +existential risk from artificial general intelligence +The hypothesis that substantial progress in artificial general intelligence (AGI) could someday result in human extinction or some other unrecoverable global catastrophe. + +expert system +A computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if–then rules rather than through conventional procedural code. + +== F == + +fast-and-frugal trees +A type of classification tree. Fast-and-frugal trees can be used as decision-making tools which operate as lexicographic classifiers, and, if required, associate an action (decision) to each class or category. + +feature +An individual measurable property or characteristic of a phenomenon. In machine learning, a feature is often an input variable or attribute used by a model to represent an observation for tasks such as prediction, classification, and pattern recognition. In computer vision and image processing, a feature is a piece of information about the content of an image; typically about whether a certain region of the image has certain properties. Features may be specific structures in an image (such as points, edges, or objects), or the result of a general neighborhood operation or feature detection applied to the image. + +feature extraction +In machine learning, pattern recognition, and image processing, feature extraction starts from an initial set of measured data and builds derived values (features) intended to be informative and non-redundant, facilitating the subsequent learning and generalization steps, and in some cases leading to better human interpretations. + +feature learning + +Also representation learning. +In machine learning, feature learning or representation learning is a set of techniques that allows a system to automatically discover the representations needed for feature detection or classification from raw data. This replaces manual feature engineering and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task. + +feature selection +In machine learning and statistics, feature selection, also known as variable selection, attribute selection or variable subset selection, is the process of selecting a subset of relevant features (variables, predictors) for use in model construction. + +federated learning +A machine learning technique that allows for training models on multiple devices with decentralized data, thus helping preserve the privacy of individual users and their data. + +first-order logic + +Also first-order predicate calculus or predicate logic. +A collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. First-order logic uses quantified variables over non-logical objects and allows the use of sentences that contain variables, so that rather than propositions such as Socrates is a man one can have expressions in the form "there exists X such that X is Socrates and X is a man" and there exists is a quantifier while X is a variable. This distinguishes it from propositional logic, which does not use quantifiers or relations. + +fluent +A condition that can change over time. In logical approaches to reasoning about actions, fluents can be represented in first-order logic by predicates having an argument that depends on time. + +formal language +A set of words whose letters are taken from an alphabet and are well-formed according to a specific set of rules. + +forward chaining + +Also forward reasoning. +One of the two main methods of reasoning when using an inference engine and can be described logically as repeated application of modus ponens. Forward chaining is a popular implementation strategy for expert systems, businesses and production rule systems. The opposite of forward chaining is backward chaining. Forward chaining starts with the available data and uses inference rules to extract more data (from an end user, for example) until a goal is reached. An inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference rules until it finds one where the antecedent (If clause) is known to be true. When such a rule is found, the engine can conclude, or infer, the consequent (Then clause), resulting in the addition of new information to its data. + +frame +An artificial intelligence data structure used to divide knowledge into substructures by representing "stereotyped situations". Frames are the primary data structure used in artificial intelligence frame language. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..faadc3534 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of artificial intelligence" +chunk: 10/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:25.401446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +frame language +A technology used for knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. Frames are stored as ontologies of sets and subsets of the frame concepts. They are similar to class hierarchies in object-oriented languages although their fundamental design goals are different. Frames are focused on explicit and intuitive representation of knowledge whereas objects focus on encapsulation and information hiding. Frames originated in AI research and objects primarily in software engineering. However, in practice the techniques and capabilities of frame and object-oriented languages overlap significantly. + +frame problem +The problem of finding adequate collections of axioms for a viable description of a robot environment. + +friendly artificial intelligence + +Also friendly AI or FAI. +A hypothetical artificial general intelligence (AGI) that would have a positive effect on humanity. It is a part of the ethics of artificial intelligence and is closely related to machine ethics. While machine ethics is concerned with how an artificially intelligent agent should behave, friendly artificial intelligence research is focused on how to practically bring about this behaviour and ensuring it is adequately constrained. + +futures studies +The study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them. + +fuzzy control system +A control system based on fuzzy logic—a mathematical system that analyzes analog input values in terms of logical variables that take on continuous values between 0 and 1, in contrast to classical or digital logic, which operates on discrete values of either 1 or 0 (true or false, respectively). + +fuzzy logic +A simple form for the many-valued logic, in which the truth values of variables may have any degree of "Truthfulness" that can be represented by any real number in the range between 0 (as in Completely False) and 1 (as in Completely True) inclusive. Consequently, It is employed to handle the concept of partial truth, where the truth value may range between completely true and completely false. In contrast to Boolean logic, where the truth values of variables may have the integer values 0 or 1 only. + +fuzzy rule +A rule used within fuzzy logic systems to infer an output based on input variables. + +fuzzy set +In classical set theory, the membership of elements in a set is assessed in binary terms according to a bivalent condition — an element either belongs or does not belong to the set. By contrast, fuzzy set theory permits the gradual assessment of the membership of elements in a set; this is described with the aid of a membership function valued in the real unit interval [0, 1]. Fuzzy sets generalize classical sets, since the indicator functions (aka characteristic functions) of classical sets are special cases of the membership functions of fuzzy sets, if the latter only take values 0 or 1. In fuzzy set theory, classical bivalent sets are usually called crisp sets. The fuzzy set theory can be used in a wide range of domains in which information is incomplete or imprecise, such as bioinformatics. + +== G == + +game theory +The study of mathematical models of strategic interaction between rational decision-makers. + +general game playing (GGP) +General game playing is the design of artificial intelligence programs to be able to run and play more than one game successfully. + +generalization +The concept that humans, other animals, and artificial neural networks use past learning in present situations of learning if the conditions in the situations are regarded as similar. + +generalization error +For supervised learning applications in machine learning and statistical learning theory, generalization error (also known as the out-of-sample error or the risk) is a measure of how accurately a learning algorithm is able to predict outcomes for previously unseen data. + +generative adversarial network (GAN) +A class of machine learning systems. Two neural networks contest with each other in a zero-sum game framework. + +generative artificial intelligence +Generative artificial intelligence is artificial intelligence capable of generating text, images, or other media in response to prompts. Generative AI models learn the patterns and structure of their input training data and then generate new data that has similar characteristics, typically using transformer-based deep neural networks. + +generative pretrained transformer (GPT) +A large language model based on the transformer architecture that generates text. It is first pretrained to predict the next token in texts (a token is typically a word, subword, or punctuation). After their pretraining, GPT models can generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the token that they would expect to follow. GPT models are usually also fine-tuned, for example with reinforcement learning from human feedback to reduce hallucination or harmful behaviour, or to format the output in a conversationnal format. + +genetic algorithm (GA) +A metaheuristic inspired by the process of natural selection that belongs to the larger class of evolutionary algorithms (EA). Genetic algorithms are commonly used to generate high-quality solutions to optimization and search problems by relying on bio-inspired operators such as mutation, crossover and selection. + +genetic operator +An operator used in genetic algorithms to guide the algorithm towards a solution to a given problem. There are three main types of operators (mutation, crossover and selection), which must work in conjunction with one another in order for the algorithm to be successful. + +glowworm swarm optimization +A swarm intelligence optimization algorithm based on the behaviour of glowworms (also known as fireflies or lightning bugs). + +gradient boosting +A machine learning technique based on boosting in a functional space, where the target is pseudo-residuals instead of residuals as in traditional boosting. + +graph (abstract data type) +In computer science, a graph is an abstract data type that is meant to implement the undirected graph and directed graph concepts from mathematics; specifically, the field of graph theory. + +graph (discrete mathematics) +In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a graph is a structure amounting to a set of objects in which some pairs of the objects are in some sense "related". The objects correspond to mathematical abstractions called vertices (also called nodes or points) and each of the related pairs of vertices is called an edge (also called an arc or line). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c257d650 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 1/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of astronomy is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to astronomy and cosmology, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. Astronomy is concerned with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth. The field of astronomy features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of sophisticated terminology. + +== A == + +A-type main-sequence star +In the Harvard spectral classification system, a class of main-sequence star having spectra dominated by Balmer absorption lines of hydrogen. Main-sequence stars of spectral class A are typically blue-white or white in color, measure between 1.4 and 2.1 times the mass of the Sun, and have surface temperatures of 7,600–10,000 kelvin. + +absolute magnitude +A measure of a star's absolute brightness. It is defined as the apparent magnitude the star would show if it were located at a distance of 10 parsecs, or 32.6 light-years. + +accretion disk +A roughly circular mass of diffuse material in orbit around a central object, such as a star or black hole. The material is acquired from a source external to the central object, and friction causes it to spiral inward towards the object. + +active galactic nucleus (AGN) +A compact region in the center of a galaxy displaying a much higher than normal luminosity over some part of the electromagnetic spectrum with characteristics indicating that the luminosity is not produced by stars. A galaxy hosting an AGN is called an active galaxy. + +airborne observatory +An airplane with an astronomical telescope, which relies upon altitude to reduce atmospheric absorption and improve seeing conditions. Drawbacks include the instability of the lifting platform and higher costs. + +albedo +A measure of the proportion of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body, such as a planet, that is diffusely reflected away from the body. It is a dimensionless quantity typically measured on a scale from 0 (indicating total absorption of all incident radiation, as by a black body) to 1 (indicating total reflection). The albedo reported for an astronomical body may vary widely by the spectral and angular distribution of the incident radiation, by the "layer" of the body being measured (e.g. upper atmosphere versus surface), and by local variation within these layers (e.g. cloud cover and geological or environmental surface features). + +albedo feature +A large area on the surface of a reflecting object that shows a significant contrast in brightness or darkness (albedo) compared to adjacent areas. + +Alfvén surface +The boundary separating a star's corona from the stellar wind, defined as the point at which the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed equals the large-scale stellar wind speed. + +Am star +A chemically peculiar star belonging to the more general class of A-type stars. The spectrum of the Am stars shows abnormal enhancements and deficiencies of certain metals. They are generally slow rotators, and are often found in binary systems where tidal braking has slowed the rate of spin. See metallicity. + +aphelion +The point at which a body orbiting the Earth's Sun is furthest from the Sun. Contrast perihelion. + +apoapsis +The point at which an orbiting body is furthest from its primary. Contrast periapsis. + +apogee +The point at which a body orbiting the Earth (such as the Moon or an artificial satellite) is furthest from the Earth. Contrast perigee. + +apparent magnitude +Also visual brightness (V). +A measure of the brightness of a celestial body as seen by an observer on Earth, adjusted to the value it would have in the absence of the atmosphere. The brighter the object appears, the lower its magnitude. + +appulse +The closest approach of one celestial object to another, as viewed from a third body. + +apsis +In the orbit of a planetary body, one of the two extreme points of distance between the body and its primary – either the point of minimal distance, called the periapsis, or the point of maximal distance, called the apoapsis. The term may also be used to refer to the value of the distance rather than the point itself. All elliptical orbits have exactly two apsides. + +argument of periapsis +Also argument of perifocus or argument of pericenter. +The angle from an orbiting body's ascending node to its periapsis, measured in the direction of motion. It is one of six canonical orbital elements used to characterize an orbit. + +artificial satellite +An object that has been intentionally placed into orbit by humans, often around the Earth but also around other bodies within the Solar System. Contrast natural satellite. + +ascending node +Also the north node. +The orbital node at which an orbiting object moves north through the plane of reference (in geocentric and heliocentric orbits) or at which the orbiting object moves away from the observer (in orbits outside of the Solar System). The position of the ascending node with respect to a reference direction, called the longitude of the ascending node, is used along with other parameters to describe an orbit. Contrast descending node. + +aspect +The position of a planet or Earth's Moon with respect to the Sun, as viewed from Earth. + +asterism +Any pattern of stars recognizable in Earth's night sky. An asterism may form part of an official constellation or it may be composed of stars from more than one constellation. + +asteroid +A minor planet of the inner Solar System. They are primarily found orbiting the Sun between Jupiter and Mars, but can approach the Earth or occupy trojan orbits with Jupiter. Asteroids are somewhat arbitrarily distinguished from many different types of similar objects: small Solar System bodies primarily composed of dust and ice instead of mineral and rock are known as comets; bodies less than one meter in diameter are known as meteoroids; very large asteroids are sometimes called planetoids or planetesimals; and bodies similar to asteroids in size and composition but which lie beyond Jupiter are known as distant minor planets. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c899b574 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 2/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +asteroid belt +The circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter that is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped small Solar System bodies ranging in size from dust particles to asteroids and minor planets. The asteroid belt is often called the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in other parts of the Solar System. + +astrobiology +Also exobiology. +An interdisciplinary field that studies the origins, evolution, distribution, and future of living systems in the universe, encompassing research on organic compounds in space, abiogenesis and extreme-environment adaptation on Earth, the habitability of extrasolar planets, the possible existence of extraterrestrial life, and how humans might be able to detect extraterrestrial biosignatures, among other topics. + +astrodynamics +See orbital mechanics. + +astrogeology +Also planetary geology. +A field that studies the geology of solidified bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Investigations are centered around the composition, structure, processes, and history of these objects. + +astrometric binary +A type of binary system where evidence for an unseen orbiting companion is revealed by periodic gravitational perturbation of the visible component. See also spectroscopic binary. + +astrometry +The branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. + +astronomical body +Also celestial body. +A type of naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure within the observable universe that is a single, tightly bound, contiguous structure, such as a star, planet, moon, or asteroid. Though the terms astronomical "body" and astronomical "object" are often used interchangeably, there are technical distinctions. + +astronomical catalogue +Also spelled astronomical catalog. +A list of astronomical objects, typically grouped together because they share a common type, morphology, origin, means of detection, or method of discovery. + +astronomical object +Also celestial object. +A type of naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe but is a more complex, less cohesively bound structure than an astronomical body, consisting perhaps of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures, such as a planetary system, star cluster, nebula, or galaxy. Though the terms astronomical "object" and astronomical "body" are often used interchangeably, there are technical distinctions. + +astronomical symbol +Any abstract pictorial symbol used to represent one or more astronomical objects, events, or theoretical constructs, e.g. those of the planets of the Solar System, the phases of the Moon, the zodiacal constellations, and the solstices and equinoxes. Many of these symbols were commonly used historically, though in the modern era they are usually limited to almanacs and astrology, and their appearance in scientific literature has become increasingly infrequent. Exceptions include the symbols for the Sun (☉), the Earth (🜨), and the Moon (☾), which are sometimes used for astronomical constants and in other forms of shorthand. + +astronomical unit (AU) +A unit of length used primarily for measuring distances within the Solar System, or secondarily between the Earth and distant stars. Originally conceived as the semi-major axis of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the astronomical unit is now more rigidly defined as exactly 149,597,870.7 kilometres (92,956,000 miles; 4.8481×10−6 parsecs; 1.5813×10−5 light-years). + +astronomy +The scientific study of celestial objects and phenomena, the origins of those objects and phenomena, and their evolution. + +astrophotography +The photography or imaging of astronomical objects, celestial events, or areas of the night sky. + +astrophysics +The branch of astronomy that employs principles of physics and chemistry to determine the nature of astronomical objects and phenomena, examining properties such as luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition (rather than the positions or motions of objects in space, which is more specifically the emphasis of celestial mechanics). + +atmosphere +An envelope of gases surrounding an astronomical body such as a planet and held in place by its gravity. This shell of gas has no clearly defined exterior boundary, but instead grows increasingly tenuous with altitude. The term can also be applied to a stellar atmosphere, referring to the visible outer layers of a star. + +axial precession +A slow, continuous, gravity-induced change (a precession) in the orientation of an astronomical body's axis of rotation. The term often refers in particular to the gradual shift in the orientation of Earth's rotational axis with respect to its orbital plane over a cycle of approximately 25,771.5 years, which is caused predominantly by the gravitational influence of the Moon and the Sun on the Earth's equatorial bulge. The phenomenon is similar to but much larger in magnitude than other changes in the alignment of Earth's axis such as nutation and polar motion, and is the cause of the apparent precession of the equinoxes in the night sky. + +axial tilt +Also obliquity. +The angle between an object's rotational axis and its orbital axis, or, equivalently, the angle between its equatorial plane and orbital plane. Axial tilt usually does not change considerably during a single orbital period; Earth's axial tilt is the cause of the seasons. Axial tilt is distinct from orbital inclination. + +axis of rotation +The imaginary central line around which a compact body such as a star or planet undergoes circular rotation. On Earth, the points where this axis intersect the surface define the geographical poles. A rotational axis can "wobble" due to precession and nutation. + +azimuth +An angular measurement of an object's orientation along the horizon of the observer, relative to the direction of true north. When combined with the altitude above the horizon, it defines an object's current position in the spherical coordinate system. + +== B == + +B-type main-sequence star +A type of main-sequence star which is typically blue in color, temperatures ranges from 10,700 to 31,400 K and have 2.75 to 18 solar masses. + +Babcock model +A model that attempts to explain magnetic and sunspot patterns observed on the Sun. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9af2df35f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 11/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +micrometeorite +A very small meteorite that has survived its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon, usually ranging in size from 50 μm to 2 mm. Micrometeorites are a major component of cosmic dust. + +micrometeoroid +A very small meteoroid, usually weighing less than one gram. If it survives to reach a planetary surface, it is then termed a micrometeorite. + +microvariable +A stellar object such as a variable star that undergoes very small variations in luminosity, in which the amplitude of the fluctuations amounts to just a few thousandths of a magnitude. Detecting microvariability typically requires a sufficient number of observations to rule out random error as a source. + +Milky Way +1. The barred spiral galaxy that includes the Earth's Solar System. The name describes the galaxy's appearance from the Earth: a hazy band of light visible in the night sky, formed from billions of stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The Milky Way Galaxy has a diameter of 100,000–200,000 light-years and is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars and at least that number of planets. The Solar System is located on the inner edge of one of the Milky Way's spiral arms, about 27,000 light-years from the Galactic Center, which the Sun orbits with a period of 240 million years. +2. The hazy band of light itself, which from Earth appears as a band because the galaxy's disk-shaped structure is viewed side-on from within. + +minor axis +See semi-minor axis. + +minor planet +An object in direct orbit around the Sun that is neither a dominant planet nor originally classified as a comet. A moon is not a minor planet because it orbits another body instead of the Sun. + +minor-planet moon +A natural satellite that orbits a minor planet. See also moonlet and subsatellite. + +molecular cloud +An interstellar cloud in which the prevailing physical conditions allow molecules to form, including molecular hydrogen. + +moment of inertia factor +Also normalized polar moment of inertia. +A dimensionless quantity that characterizes the radial distribution of mass inside a planet or moon. + +moon +See natural satellite. + +Moon +The solid, rocky body that orbits the Earth as its only natural satellite, completing a full orbit every 27.3 days. The Moon's gravitational influence is responsible for tides on Earth; because of tidal locking, only one side of the Moon is ever visible from the Earth. Sunlight reflected from its surface makes the Moon appear very bright in the night sky, though its orbital position with respect to the Earth and the Sun causes its visibility to change in a regular cycle of phases when viewed from the Earth. The adjectival lunar is often used specifically to describe the orbit, gravity, and other properties of the Earth's Moon. + +moonlet +Also minor moon or minor natural satellite. +An especially small natural satellite orbiting a planet, dwarf planet, or other minor planet. See also minor-planet moon and subsatellite. + +moonmoon +See subsatellite. + +Morgan–Keenan stellar classification system +Also MK classification. + +morning width +Also rise width. +The horizontal angular distance between the rise azimuth of a celestial body and the east direction. + +moving cluster +A cluster of closely related stars which share a common motion in space (e.g. the Hyades) such that, from the perspective of a distant observer, their proper motions all appear to be directed toward a single convergent point. If the linear velocity of the cluster is known, then the distance of each star can be estimated from the total proper motion, a technique known as moving cluster parallax. + +moving group +Also stellar association. +A loose grouping of stars which travel together through space. Although the members were formed together in the same molecular cloud, they have since moved too far apart to be gravitationally bound as a cluster. + +multi-messenger astronomy +A type of astronomy based on the acquisition of information about astronomical objects through the coordinated observation and interpretation of four disparate classes of "messenger" signals with extrasolar origins: electromagnetic radiation, gravitational waves, neutrinos, and cosmic rays. Because these four extrasolar messengers are created by different astrophysical processes, their presence or absence during a celestial event can reveal useful information about their sources. + +multiverse + +== N == + +N galaxy +An early classification for active galaxies that had the visual appearance of a galaxy with a particularly bright, star-like nucleus. As a group, they are intermediate between Seyfert galaxies and quasars. Most are giant ellipticals that are radio sources and display prominent emission lines. + +nadir +The point on the celestial sphere that is exactly opposite the zenith. Thus, where the zenith is directly above an observer, the nadir is underfoot. The zenith and nadir form the two poles of the horizon line. + +naked eye +Also bare eye or unaided eye. +The human eye as used without any magnifying or light-collecting optical aid, such as a telescope, nor any eye protection. Many astronomical objects emit or reflect visible light that is sufficiently bright to fall within the limits of normal human visual perception, allowing observers to see them from the Earth's surface without any special equipment. Vision corrected to normal acuity using eyeglasses or contact lenses is still considered unaided. + +natural satellite +Also moon. +Any astronomical body that orbits a planet, minor planet, or sometimes another small Solar System body. + +near-Earth object (NEO) +Any small Solar System body, such as an asteroid or comet, whose orbit brings it into proximity with Earth, generally by being less than 1.3 AU from the Sun at its closest approach. + +nebula +Any astronomical object of indistinct nebulosity. In modern usage, the term typically refers to an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium, and other ionized gases. Historically, it was also used to refer to extended sources of luminosity that could not be resolved into their individual components, such as star clusters and galaxies. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..28cdb4844 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 12/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +neutrino +A type of elementary particle, electrically neutral and with an extremely small rest mass, that interacts with other particles only via the weak interaction and the gravitational interaction. Neutrinos therefore typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. + +neutron star +A type of compact star that is composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are a type of subatomic particle with no electrical charge. Typically, neutron stars have a mass between about 1.35 and 2.0 times the mass of the Sun, but with a radius of only 12 km (7.5 mi), making them among the densest known objects in the universe. + +New General Catalogue (NGC) + +night sky +The appearance of the Earth's sky at nighttime, when the Sun is below the horizon, and more specifically when clear weather and low levels of ambient light permit visibility of celestial objects such as stars, planets, and the Moon. The night sky remains a fundamental setting for both amateur and professional observational astronomy. + +non-inclined orbit +Any orbit that is coplanar with a specified plane of reference, such that the orbital inclination is 0 degrees for prograde orbits and 180 degrees for retrograde ones. + +nova + +nuclear star cluster (NSC) +A compact and dense concentration of stars located at the center of a galaxy. + +number density +The quantity of some specified particle or object class per unit volume. For atoms, molecules, or subatomic particles, the volume is typically expressed in cm3 or m3. With stars, cubic parsecs (pc3) are often used. + +nutation +A continuous, gravity-induced change in the orientation of an astronomical body's axis of rotation which results from the combined effects of small, short-term variations. Nutation is distinguished from precession, which is a similar but longer-term change in axial orientation. + +== O == + +O–C diagram +A diagram of observed minus calculated values over time, showing how observed data differ from theoretical values which have been calculated according to a particular scientific model. It is often used as a diagnostic tool to determine the accuracy of the model. With a variable star, it is typically used to compare phase differences over time. + +O-type main-sequence star +A type of main-sequence star which is typically blue in color, temperatures ranges from above 31,400 K and have more than 16 solar masses, they are also the most rare type of main sequence star. + +OB association +A group of massive stars which are not gravitationally bound to each other, but move together through space in a loose association. The OB in the name is a reference to stars of stellar classifications O and B. + +obliquity +See axial tilt. + +observation arc +Also arc length. +The duration of time between the earliest and latest observations made by astronomers of an object within the Solar System, which defines the length of the path traced by the object between these same observations. The term is primarily used in the discovery and tracking of asteroids and comets, which can be difficult to continuously track because of their size and great distance from Earth. Very short observation arcs, e.g. where the time between the initial observation and the most recent observation is less than 30 days, are of limited descriptive power because they represent only a very small fraction of the total path traced by the object in its orbit around the Sun (or other primary), and therefore result in a high degree of uncertainty when estimating the shape and characteristics of the object's orbit. + +observable universe + +observational astronomy +The practice and study of directly observing astronomical objects with the use of telescopes and other astronomical instruments. It is concerned with recording data about the observable universe, as opposed to theoretical astronomy, which is concerned with calculating the measurable implications of astronomical models. + +occultation +A celestial event that occurs when a distant astronomical body or object is hidden by another, nearer body or object that passes between it and the observer, thereby blocking the first object from view. Solar and lunar eclipses are specific types of occultations. + +Oort cloud +Also the Öpik–Oort cloud. +A vast theoretical cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals hypothesized to surround the Sun at distances ranging from 2,000 to 200,000 AU. It is thought to be divided into two regions: a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud and a spherical outer Oort cloud. The outer limit of the Oort cloud is often considered the cosmographical boundary of the Solar System. + +opacity +A measure of the resistance of a medium to the radiative transmission of energy. Within a star, it is an important factor in determining whether convection occurs. + +open cluster +A gravitationally bound group of up to one thousand stars that formed together in the same molecular cloud. + +opposition +The positioning of two celestial objects on opposite sides of the sky, as seen from the perspective of an observer. This occurs, for example, when a planet makes its closest approach to the Earth, placing it in opposition to the Sun. + +orbit +The gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet moving around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Though the smaller body is often said to orbit the larger body itself, both bodies actually follow approximately elliptical orbits around a common center of mass positioned at a focal point of each ellipse. The word "orbit" can variously refer to the elliptical trajectory itself or the act of following this trajectory, and can refer to a stable, regularly repeating trajectory as well as a non-repeating trajectory. + +orbit plot +Also orbital plot. +A schematic diagram of a complete orbit. For a binary system, it is typically presented from the primary's frame of reference. + +orbital eccentricity +A parameter that determines how much an orbit deviates from a perfect circle. For an elliptical orbit, the eccentricity ranges from greater than zero to less than one. + +orbital elements +The set of parameters that uniquely define an orbit. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27c5d7282 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 13/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +orbital inclination +The tilt of an object's orbit around an astronomical body, expressed as the angle between the orbital plane or axis of direction of the orbiting object and a specified plane of reference. + +orbital mechanics + +orbital node +One of two points at which the plane of an orbit intersects a specified plane of reference to which it is inclined; in some contexts, the two nodes may be distinguished as the ascending node and the descending node. A non-inclined orbit, which is coplanar with the reference plane, has no nodes. + +orbital period +Also revolution period. +The time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object. For objects in the Solar System, the orbital period is often referred to as the sidereal period. + +orbital plane +The imaginary geometric plane defined by the orbit of an astronomical body around its primary. The Earth's orbital plane, which defines the ecliptic, is commonly used as a plane of reference for the orbits of other objects in the Solar System. + +orbital resonance +The situation that occurs when two or more orbiting bodies exert regular, periodic gravitational influences on each other such that one or more of their orbital parameters (e.g. eccentricity, semi-major axis, inclination, etc., or any combination thereof) exist in some definite mathematical relationship with each other. Most commonly, the term refers to mean-motion orbital resonance, in which the bodies' orbital periods are related by a ratio of small integers. For example, the dwarf planet Pluto exists in a stable 2:3 resonance with Neptune, such that Pluto completes two orbits around the Sun in the same time it takes Neptune to complete three. Resonance may act on any time scale, from short-term to secular, and often leads to either long-term stabilization of the orbits or their eventual destabilization. + +orbital speed +The speed at which an astronomical body or object orbits around a barycenter, or its speed relative to the center of mass of the most massive body in the system. The term may be used to refer to either the mean orbital speed, i.e. the average speed over the entire orbital period, or the instantaneous speed at a particular point in the orbit. Maximum instantaneous orbital speed typically occurs at periapsis. + +origin of longitude + +orphan planet +See rogue planet. + +osculating orbit +The hypothetical, idealized Kepler orbit that an orbiting object would follow around its primary if all perturbations were absent, i.e. the orbit that coincides with the instantaneous orbital state vectors at a given moment in time. + +outer space +Also simply space. +The vast, nearly empty expanse that exists beyond the Earth and between all celestial bodies, characterized generally by extremely low densities of particles, extremely low temperatures, and minimal gravity. Most of the volume of the universe is intergalactic space, and even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space. + +== P == + +parallax +1. The angular difference between an object’s apparent direction as seen from two different points of observation. In astronomy, when not otherwise qualified, the term is usually taken to mean the difference in the apparent position of a celestial object (relative to more distant background objects) as seen from opposite sides of the Earth’s orbit, known as the trigonometric parallax. +2. The angular distance between two points as seen from a third point in space, such as the radius of the Earth’s orbit as seen from a star. By extension, the term can also be used to mean a star’s distance, even if measured by some indirect method such as photometry or spectroscopy. + +parsec (pc) +A unit of length defined as the distance at which a star would show a parallax shift of exactly one arcsecond as observed from Earth's orbit. It is equal to 3.2616 light-years or 206,265 astronomical units. The word "parsec" is a portmanteau of the words parallax and second. + +partial solar eclipse + +peak magnitude +The brightest absolute magnitude achieved during the periodic rise in luminosity that characterizes a variable star. This data point can provide useful distance information for a cataclysmic variable and can be determined from a light curve of the stellar variability. + +periapsis +Also pericenter. +The point at which an orbiting body is closest to its primary. Contrast apoapsis. + +perigee +The point at which a body orbiting the Earth (such as the Moon or an artificial satellite) is closest to the Earth. Contrast apogee. + +perihelion +The point at which a body orbiting the Earth's Sun is closest to the Sun. Contrast aphelion. + +perturbation +The complex motion of an astronomical body that is subject to forces other than the gravitational attraction of its primary alone, or any force which complicates the orbital characteristics of the body such that the idealized Kepler orbit of the two-body problem is not an accurate representation of the body's actual orbit. Perturbing forces may include the gravitational forces exerted by any number of additional bodies, the off-center gravitational forces which are consequences of bodies not being perfectly spherical, and/or atmospheric resistance. + +phase angle +The elongation or angle between an orbiting body and the Sun as viewed from a particular perspective, such as from the Earth. It determines the amount of a planet or moon's visible surface that lies in shadow. Inferior planets such as Venus generally have low phase angles as seen from Earth, so they often appear as a slim crescent; superior planets such as Mars and Jupiter usually have high phase angles, so that little of the shadowed side is visible. + +photometric system +A set of well-defined optical filters with a known sensitivity to incident radiation. + +photosphere +The opaque outer shell of a star, from which light is radiated. + +plane of reference +Also reference plane. +An arbitrarily chosen, imaginary plane from which to measure and define orbital elements such as inclination and longitude of the ascending node. The ecliptic plane, invariable plane, and equatorial plane are all commonly used as reference planes in various contexts. + +plane of the ecliptic +See ecliptic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..363811c53 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 14/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +plane of the sky +An imaginary plane that is perpendicular to the line of sight. Typically this is used as a reference plane for determining the inclination of an orbital plane of a distant star system. + +planemo +See planetary-mass object. + +planet +A type of astronomical body orbiting the Sun, which is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity (but not massive enough to achieve thermonuclear fusion) and has cleared its neighbouring region of all planetesimals. The term exoplanet is used in reference to a planet-like object that is not orbiting the Sun. + +planetary +Of or relating to a planet or planets. + +planetary body +Also planetary object. +Any secondary body that is geologically differentiated or in hydrostatic equilibrium and therefore has a planet-like geology, such as a planet, dwarf planet, or other planetary-mass object, but excluding smaller objects such as planetesimals. + +planetary differentiation +The process of separating out different constituents of a planetary body, causing it to develop compositionally distinct layers (such as a metallic core). + +planetary nebula +A type of emission nebula formed from a glowing shell of expanding plasma that has been ejected from a red giant star late in its life. The name derives from their resemblance to a planet. An example is the Ring Nebula. + +planetary science +Also planetology. +The scientific study of planets, moons, and planetary systems, with the aim of understanding their formation, composition, topography, dynamics, and interactions with other bodies. + +planetary system +Any set of gravitationally bound non-stellar objects in or out of orbit around a star or star system. In general, planetary systems include one or more planets, though such systems may also consist of dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, meteoroids, planetesimals, and debris discs, among other objects. + +planetary-mass object (PMO) +Also planemo or planetary body. + +planetesimal +Any solid object (generally larger than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) in diameter) that arises during the formation of a planet whose internal strength is dominated by self-gravity and whose orbital dynamics are not significantly affected by gas drag. The term is most commonly applied to small bodies thought to exist in protoplanetary disks and debris disks during the process of planet formation, but is also sometimes used to refer to various types of small Solar System bodies which are left over from the formation process. There is no precise distinction between a planetesimal and a protoplanet. + +planetoid +Another name for a minor planet or dwarf planet. + +planetology +See planetary science. + +polar orbit +An orbit in which the orbiting object passes directly over or nearly over both poles of the body being orbited during each revolution. It therefore has an inclination equal or nearly equal to 90 degrees to the body's equator. + +positional astronomy +See spherical astronomy. + +precession +Any slow change in the orientation of an object's axis of rotation. For the Earth in particular, this phenomenon is referred to as the precession of the equinoxes. Apsidal precession refers to a steady change in the orientation of an orbit, such as the precession in the orbit of Mercury that was explained by the theory of general relativity. + +precession of the equinoxes + +primary +Also gravitational primary, primary body, or central body. +The main physical body of a gravitationally bound, multi-object system. The primary constitutes most of the system's mass and is generally located near the system's barycenter. + +prograde motion +Also direct motion. +Orbital or rotational motion of an object in the same direction as the rotation of the object's primary. The direction of rotation is determined by an inertial frame of reference such as the fixed stars. Contrast retrograde motion. + +projected separation +The observed physical separation between two astronomical objects, as determined from their angular separation and estimated distance. For planets and double stars, this distance is usually given in astronomical units. The actual separation of the two objects depends on the angle of the line between the two objects to the line-of-sight of the observer. + +proper motion +The rate of angular motion of an object over an interval of time, usually years. For stars, this is typically given in milliarcseconds per year. + +proplyd +See protoplanetary disk. + +protoplanet +A large planetary embryo that originated within a protoplanetary disk and has since undergone internal melting to produce an interior of non-uniform composition. Protoplanets represent an intermediate step in the formation of a full-sized planet; they are thought to form out of smaller planetesimals as they collide with each other and gradually coalesce into larger bodies. + +protoplanetary disk +Also proplyd. + +protostar +A concentration of mass formed by the contraction of a collapsing interstellar cloud. Once sufficient mass has fallen onto this central core, it becomes a pre-main-sequence star. + +pseudo-synchronous rotation +The near-synchronization of revolution and rotation at periastron of a body with an eccentric orbit. + +pulsar +A highly magnetized rotating neutron star or white dwarf that emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation. This beam is observed only when it is pointing toward Earth, making the object appear to pulse. + +== Q == + +quadratic field strength +A method of computing the mean strength of a varying stellar magnetic field. It is determined by calculating the root mean square of a series of longitudinal magnetic field strength measurements taken at different times. + +quadrature +A configuration in which two celestial bodies have apparent ecliptic longitudes that differ by 90 degrees as viewed from a third body, e.g. when a planet's elongation is perpendicular to the direction of the Sun as viewed from the Earth. The term is used especially to describe the position of a superior planet or the Moon at its first and last quarter phases. + +quasar +Also quasi-stellar radio source. +A distant, point-like energy source originating from a powerful active galactic nucleus. Its luminosity is generated by the accretion of gas onto a supermassive black hole. Quasars emit radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to X-rays, and their ultraviolet and optical spectra are characterized by strong, broad emission lines. + +== R == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7101e5566 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 15/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +radial velocity +The velocity of an object along the line of sight to the observer, which in astronomy is usually determined via Doppler spectroscopy. Positive values are used to indicate a receding object. An object such as a star can undergo changes in its radial velocity because of the gravitational perturbation of another body, or because of radial pulsations of its surface. The latter, for example, occurs with a Beta Cephei variable star. + +radio astronomy +The subfield of astronomy that studies astronomical objects at radio frequencies, using large radio antennas known as radio telescopes. + +radio source +Any astronomical object that emits strong radio waves into space. These objects are the basis for radio astronomy. + +red-giant branch +A conspicuous trail of enlarged red stars found on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for a typical globular cluster. It begins at the main-sequence turnoff point and extends toward the higher luminosity and lower temperature range until reaching the red-giant tip. This branch consists of older stars that have evolved away from the main sequence but have not yet initiated helium fusion in their core region. + +redshift +An increase in the wavelength, and a corresponding decrease in the frequency and photon energy, of electromagnetic radiation. + +reference plane +See plane of reference. + +regular moon +A natural satellite following a relatively close and prograde orbit with little or no orbital inclination or orbital eccentricity. Regular moons are thought to form in situ about their primary, as opposed to irregular moons, which are thought to be captured. + +relativistic jet +A beam of ionised matter accelerated close to the speed of light. Most have been observationally associated with central black holes of some active galaxies, radio galaxies or quasars. + +réseau +A grid of fine lines or crosshatches engraved upon a transparent glass plate, which when placed in front of film during a photographic exposure produces a corresponding grid in the resulting photograph by creating permanent shadows on the film negative. These grids are used in some photographic telescopes to produce reference markers in photographs of distant stars, allowing precise and convenient measurement of astrometric positions. + +retrograde motion +Orbital or rotational motion of an object in the direction opposite the rotation of the object's primary. The direction of rotation is determined by an inertial frame of reference such as the fixed stars. Contrast prograde motion. + +revolution period +See orbital period. + +right ascension +In the equatorial coordinate system, the celestial equivalent of terrestrial longitude. It divides the celestial equator into 24 hours, each of 60 minutes. + +ring system +A disk- or ring-shaped accumulation of various solid material such as dust and moonlets that orbits an astronomical body such as a planet. Ring systems are common components of satellite systems around giant planets, as with the Rings of Saturn. See also circumplanetary disk. + +Roche limit +The distance from an astronomical object at which the tidal force matches an orbiting body's gravitational self-attraction. Inside this limit, the tidal forces will cause the orbiting body to disintegrate, usually to disperse and form a ring. Outside this limit, loose material will tend to coalesce. + +rogue planet +Also interstellar planet, nomad planet, orphan planet, and starless planet. +Any planetary-mass object that orbits a galactic center directly rather than a star or substellar object. Such objects have often been ejected from the planetary system in which they formed, or otherwise have never been gravitationally bound to any star system. + +Rosseland optical depth +An extinction coefficient of an atmosphere, which describes the net opacity to radiation at a given depth. See optical depth. + +rotation period +The time that an object takes to complete a single revolution about its own axis of rotation relative to the background stars. It is not necessarily the same as the object's synodic day or sidereal day. + +rotational modulation +A phenomenon which causes the luminosity of a star to vary as rotation carries star spots or other localized activity across the line of sight. Examples include RS CVn and BY Dra variables. + +== S == + +satellite galaxy +A smaller companion galaxy that orbits within the gravitational potential of a more massive and luminous host galaxy; e.g. the Large Magellanic Cloud is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. + +scattered disc +A distant circumstellar disc in the Solar System that is sparsely populated by icy small Solar System bodies, which are a subset of the broader family of trans-Neptunian objects. + +scintillation +Also twinkling. +Rapid variations in the apparent brightness, color, or position of a star (or any other distant luminous object) as viewed through a medium, such as the Earth's atmosphere, caused by the passing of light through layers of turbulence in the medium. Most terrestrial scintillation effects are the result of atmospheric refraction caused by small-scale fluctuations in air density, and are much more pronounced near the horizon, since light rays near the horizon must travel longer paths through the atmosphere before reaching the observer. + +secular +Continuing, or changing in a non-periodic way, over a long period of time. + +secular motion +Any change in movement that happens over a very long time period. Examples include the perihelion precession of Mercury, the tidal acceleration of the Earth–Moon system, and precession of the Earth's axis. + +seeing +The movement or distortion of a telescopic image as a result of turbulence in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is thought to be caused by undulations between separate layers of air, which disturb the path of light. The scale of these undulations is often regarded as producing "cells" of seeing, each typically around 100–150 mm across at sea level, and larger at higher altitudes. A small telescope may look through individual cells, whose movements give rise to a sharp but wandering image, while a larger one may look through several at once, producing multiple images. The "boiling" sometimes visible at the limb of the Moon or the Sun is another manifestation of poor seeing. The Antoniadi scale is widely used by amateur astronomers to evaluate seeing conditions. + +selenocentric +With reference to, or pertaining to, the geometric center of the Earth's Moon. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b3b7d3cf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 16/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +semi-diameter +The angle at the position of an observer subtended by the equatorial radius of the Sun, the Moon, or a planet. + +semi-major axis +Also major semi-axis. +One half of the longest diameter (the major axis) of an ellipse. It is expressed in units of length and often used to give a physical dimension to a two-body elliptical Kepler orbit, such as for a binary star system or star–planet system. When the distance between the orbiting bodies is unknown, the semi-major axis may be given as an angle. + +September equinox +Also southward equinox. +The precise time of year on Earth when the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator, while generally trending southward at each zenith passage. It represents the moment at which the North Pole of the Earth begins to tilt away from the Sun, and typically occurs on or near September 22 each year. It is the autumnal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and the vernal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. Contrast March equinox. + +sidereal day +The rotation period of an object (e.g. the Earth) with respect to the distant fixed stars of its own celestial sphere (rather than to its primary star, e.g. the Sun), measured as the time it takes for the fixed stars, as viewed from a particular point on the object's surface, to return to the same position in the sky on consecutive nights. The Earth's sidereal day is equal to approximately 86,164.09 seconds (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds), about four minutes shorter than the solar day, which instead reckons time based on the Sun's position in the sky. + +sidereal period +The orbital period of an object within the Solar System, e.g. the Earth's orbital period around the Sun. The name "sidereal" implies that the object returns to the same position relative to the fixed stars of the celestial sphere as observed from the Earth. + +sidereal time +The calculation of the passage of time based on the diurnal motion of the fixed stars in the Earth's sky. The fundamental unit of sidereal time is the sidereal day, i.e. the time interval between two successive returns of the fixed stars to the local meridian, as viewed from a given location on the Earth's surface. + +sidereal year +The time that Earth or another planetary body takes to orbit the Sun once with respect to the fixed stars. + +sky +Everything that lies above the surface of the Earth, including the atmosphere and outer space. In the context of astronomy, the term "sky" is also used as another name for the celestial sphere. See also night sky. + +small Solar System body (SSSB) +An object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The SSSBs are: the comets; the classical asteroids, with the exception of the dwarf planet Ceres; the trojans; and the centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects, with the exception of the dwarf planets. + +solar day +A synodic day on Earth, i.e. the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun, measured as the time it takes for the Sun, as viewed from a particular point on the Earth's surface, to return to the same position in the sky (e.g. to cross the same meridian) on consecutive days. Because the Earth's orbit around the Sun affects the angle at which the Sun is seen from the Earth, the Sun appears to take slightly longer to return to the same position than do the fixed stars, which results in the solar day being on average about four minutes longer than the sidereal day. The length of the solar day is also not constant, but rather changes over the course of the year because the Earth's orbit is not perfectly circular and because its rotational axis is not perpendicular to its orbital plane. One mean solar day (averaged over the Earth's orbital period) is currently equal to 86,400 seconds, or exactly 24 hours. + +solar eclipse +An occultation of the Sun by the Earth's Moon, in which a portion of the Earth passes through the shadow cast by the Moon, temporarily blocking sunlight, fully or partially, from reaching that portion of the Earth's surface. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is precisely aligned between the Sun and the Earth. Because all three bodies are continuously moving, the shadow of the Moon traces out a narrow path across the Earth's surface, and from any given location within or very close to this path, the eclipse is visible only for a short duration. Depending on the observer's location and on the apparent sizes of the solar and lunar disks in the sky, an eclipse may appear to be total, partial, or annular. + +solar facula +A bright spot visible in the photosphere of the Sun that forms in the canyons between solar granules. They are produced by concentrations of magnetic field lines. The Sun's faculae are most readily observed near the solar limb. Faculae can also occur on other stars. + +solar flare +An intense, localized emission of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. + +solar granule +A convection cell in the Sun's photosphere. + +solar jet +A transient, collimated flow of plasma in the Sun's atmosphere. + +solar mass (M☉) +A standard unit of mass equal to the mass of the Earth's Sun, or approximately 1.98847×1030 kg. It is commonly used to express the masses of other stars and astronomical objects relative to the Sun. + +solar moss +A feature in the Sun's atmosphere that appears as bright, "sponge-like" patches in extreme ultraviolet light, occurring above the Sun's visible surface at the base of hot coronal loops in active regions. + +solar prominence +A large, bright, transient feature, often in the shape of a loop, consisting of plasma extending outward from the Sun's photosphere into the corona. Prominences may be hundreds of thousands of kilometers long. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4aa83423a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 17/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +solar radius (R☉) +A standard unit of distance equal to the radius of the Earth's Sun (typically measured from the Sun's center to the layer in the photosphere at which the optical depth equals 2/3), or approximately 695,700 kilometres (432,300 mi). It is commonly used to express the radii of other stars and astronomical objects relative to the Sun. + +solar storm +See geomagnetic storm. + +solar spicule +A dynamic jet of plasma in the Sun's chromosphere, about 300 km in diameter. + +Solar System +The gravitationally bound planetary system of the Earth's Sun and all of the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly, including the eight true planets, five dwarf planets, and numerous small Solar System bodies such as asteroids, comets, and natural satellites. + +solar time +The calculation of the passage of time based on the diurnal motion of the Sun in the Earth's sky. The fundamental unit of solar time is the solar day, i.e. the time interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the local meridian, as viewed from a given location on the Earth's surface. Because the duration of this interval changes during the Earth's orbit around the Sun, apparent solar time is distinguished from mean solar time. Solar time and sidereal time were employed by astronomers as time reckoning systems before the introduction of ephemeris time. + +solar wind +A stream of charged particles, primarily protons, electrons, and alpha particles, released from the Sun's corona and flowing outwards at up to 900 kilometres per second (2,000,000 mph) into interplanetary space. Phenomena influenced by the solar wind include aurora, geomagnetic storms, and the plasma tails of comets. + +solstice +Either of the two precise times of year when the Sun reaches its most northerly or most southerly point in the sky as seen from Earth; or, equivalently, when the Sun's apparent geocentric longitude is either 90 degrees or 270 degrees. The solstices occur on or near June 20 and December 21 each year. The June solstice, called the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, is the annual date featuring the longest duration of daylight and the shortest duration of nighttime for any given point in the Northern Hemisphere; the reverse is true in the Southern Hemisphere, where the June date is the winter solstice. + +spectral classification +See stellar classification. + +spectroscopic binary +A type of binary star system where the individual components have not been resolved with a telescope. Instead, the evidence for the binarity comes from shifts observed in the spectrum. This is caused by the Doppler effect as the radial velocity of the components change over the course of each orbit. + +spectroscopy +The measurement and interpretation of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by a radiating source. Many physical properties of a source can be deduced from features and changes in its spectrum. + +speed of light +The rate of travel of electromagnetic radiation through a medium. The speed of light in a vacuum is a universal physical constant, denoted by c. Massless particles and gravitational waves also travel at the speed of light. Light speed forms an upper limit for how fast information and matter can travel through space, while the large-scale expansion of space itself is not restricted. + +spherical astronomy +Also positional astronomy. +A branch of observational astronomy which is used to locate the positions of astronomical objects on the celestial sphere as they would appear from a particular date, time, and location on Earth. It relies on the mathematical methods of spherical geometry and the measurements of astrometry. + +spiral galaxy + +standard gravity (ɡ0 or ɡn) +Also standard acceleration due to gravity. +The nominal gravitational acceleration of an object in a vacuum near the surface of the Earth, as a result of Earth's gravity and, less importantly, the centrifugal force generated by its rotation. It is by definition equal to 9.80665 m/s2 (approximately 32.17405 ft/s2). + +star +A massive, luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity which, for at least a portion of its life, radiates energy into outer space due to the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within its core. Astronomers can determine the mass, age, temperature, chemical composition, and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its luminosity, and its emission spectrum. + +star catalogue +Also spelled star catalog. + +star cluster + +star system +Also stellar system. +Any small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction, such as a binary star system. In the broadest sense, very large groups of stars bound by gravitation such as star clusters and galaxies are also star systems. Star systems are distinct from planetary systems, which include planets and other bodies such as comets. + +starburst galaxy +Any galaxy that has an anomalously high rate of star formation. The criteria for a starburst is a star formation rate that would normally consume the galaxy's available supply of unbound gas within a time period shorter than the age of the galaxy. Most starbursts occur as a result of galactic interactions, such as a merger. + +starfield +Any set of stars visible in an arbitrarily sized field of view of a telescope, usually in the context of some region of interest within the celestial sphere. For example, the starfield surrounding the stars Betelgeuse and Rigel could be defined as encompassing some or all of the Orion constellation. + +stellar +Of or relating to a star or star system. + +stellar atmosphere +Also stellar envelope. +The outermost region of a star, located above the stellar core, radiation zone, and convection zone. Although it constitutes only a small portion of the star's mass, for some evolved stars the stellar envelope can encompass a significant fraction of the radius. + +stellar classification +Also spectral classification. +The categorization of stars based upon their spectra. The modern Morgan–Keenan spectral classification scheme is a two-dimensional classification based on temperature and luminosity. + +stellar designation + +stellar dynamics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e9e16c8b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 18/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +stellar envelope +1. The region within the volume of a star that transports energy from the stellar core to the stellar atmosphere; or another name for the stellar atmosphere itself. +2. The common envelope of gases encompassing a binary star system. + +stellar evolution + +stellar evolution model +Also simply stellar model. +An astrophysical model of a star's stellar evolution over time based upon its mass and chemical composition. + +stellar magnetic field +A magnetic field generated by the convective motion of plasma inside a star, responsible for phenomena such as starspots and coronal loops. Even when a dynamo no longer exists, a fossil magnetic field may persist from an earlier epoch of stellar evolution. + +stellar parallax + +stellar remnant + +submillimetre astronomy +The subfield of astronomy that studies astronomical objects detectable at submillimetre wavelengths (i.e. terahertz radiation). + +subsatellite +Any natural or artificial satellite that orbits another natural satellite, i.e. "a moon of a moon". + +substellar object +Also substar. +An astronomical object whose mass is smaller than the smallest mass at which the fusion of hydrogen nuclei can be sustained (equivalent to approximately 0.08 solar masses), including brown dwarfs and some stellar remnants, as well as certain planetary-mass objects. + +Sun +The star occupying the center of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core. The physical properties of the Sun are used as a standard to describe the mass, radius, and luminosity of other stars. + +supercluster + +superior planet +An archaic term used to refer to the planets of the Solar System that orbit further from the Sun than the Earth; i.e. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus. The name originated from the geocentric cosmology of Ptolemy. Contrast inferior planet. + +supermassive black hole (SMBH) +One of a class of very large black holes which possess masses ranging from hundreds of thousands to many billions of times the mass of the Sun. These are typically found at a galactic core, where they can have a profound effect upon the evolution of the surrounding galaxy. + +supernova +An extremely luminous, transient stellar explosion occurring during a massive star's final evolutionary stages or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. + +surface gravity (g) +The gravitational acceleration experienced at the equatorial surface of an astronomical body or other object, including that produced by the effects of rotation. It is typically expressed in units of acceleration such as meters per second squared (m/s2) or as a multiple of the Earth's standard gravity, which is equal to 9.80665 m/s2. + +synchronous orbit +Any orbit in which an object orbits its primary with an orbital period equal to the average rotational period of the primary and in the same direction as the primary's rotation. + +synodic day +Also synodic rotation period. +The time it takes for an object to rotate once about its own axis (i.e. its rotation period) relative to the primary it is orbiting (rather than to the much more distant fixed stars). The synodic day may be described as the time between two consecutive sunrises (in the case where the primary is a star), which is not necessarily the same as the sidereal day. As it does on Earth, an object's synodic day may change slightly in duration over the course of the orbital period due to eccentricity and axial tilt; Earth's synodic day is often called a solar day. + +synodic period +The time it takes for a body visible from another body (often the Earth) to complete a cycle with respect to the background stars visible in the second body's celestial sphere. Synodic period is most commonly used to indicate the elapsed time between a given body's consecutive appearances in the same location in the night sky as observed from Earth, but can in principle be calculated with respect to the sky as observed from any body. It is related to but distinct from the orbital period, a result of the fact that both the body being studied (e.g. Jupiter) and the body from which it is being observed (e.g. Earth) are independently orbiting a third body (the Sun). + +synodic time +The calculation of the passage of time based on successive conjunctions of an astronomical object, such as a planet (i.e. successive returns of the object to the same aspect in the Earth's sky). + +syzygy +The straight-line configuration of three celestial bodies in a gravitational system. + +== T == + +tangential velocity +The component of the velocity of a star or other astronomical body that is perpendicular to the line of sight of the observer (i.e. in the tangent plane). This component can be computed from the body's observed proper motion and its measured distance from the observer. + +telescope +A device used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. It employs an assembly of components that collect and focus the incoming radiation, providing an enlarged view with higher luminosity and better angular resolution than can be observed with the naked eye alone. + +telluric star +A star with nearly featureless continuum spectra that can be used to correct for the effect of telluric contamination of the Earth's atmosphere on the spectra of other stars. For example, water vapor in the atmosphere creates significant telluric absorption bands at wavelengths above 6800 Å. These features need to be corrected for in order to more accurately measure the spectrum. + +termination shock +The boundary within the heliosphere, approximately 75 to 90 AU from the Sun, beyond which the solar wind slows to subsonic speeds (relative to the Sun) as a result of interactions with the local interstellar medium. + +terminator +The line that divides the illuminated side of a moon or planet from its dark side. The line moves as the object rotates with respect to its parent star. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ab7dce7f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 19/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +theoretical astronomy +A branch of astronomy that uses analytical and computational models based on principles from physics and chemistry to describe, explain, and model the properties of astronomical objects and phenomena, with the ultimate goal of accurately predicting the observable or testable consequences of those models. + +thick disk population +One of the structural components of about 2⁄3 of all disk galaxies, including the Milky Way. + +thin disk population +The layer of the Milky Way galaxy where the spiral arms are found and where most of the star formation takes place. It is about 300–400 parsecs (980–1,300 light-years) deep and centered on the galactic plane. Stars belonging to this population generally follow orbits that lie close to this plane. This is in contrast to members of the thick disk population and halo stars. + +tidal braking +Also tidal acceleration. +The transfer of momentum between an astronomical body and an orbiting satellite as the result of tidal forces. This can cause changes in the rotation periods for both bodies as well as modification of their mutual orbit. A satellite in a prograde orbit will gradually recede from its primary while slowing the rotation rate of both bodies. + +tidal force +Also tide-generating force. +The difference in gravitational attraction between different points in a gravitational field; the residual or differential force of gravity which causes different points in space to be affected by gravity unevenly, such that a body is stretched along the line connecting it to the center of mass of another body due to spatial variations in gravitational potential. + +tidal locking +The net result of continued tidal braking such that, over the course of an orbit, there is no net transfer of angular momentum between an astronomical body and its gravitational partner. When the orbital eccentricity is low, the result is that the satellite orbits with the same face always pointed toward its primary. An example is the Moon, which is tidally locked with the Earth. + +tidal stream +A stream of stars and gases which are stripped from gas clouds and star clusters because of interaction with the gravitational field of a galaxy such as the Milky Way. + +tilt erosion +The gradual reduction of the obliquity of an orbiting satellite due to tidal interactions. + +Tisserand's parameter (T) +Also Tisserand parameter. +A measure of the orbital motion of a relatively small body (e.g. an asteroid or comet) with respect to a larger, perturbing body (e.g. a planet), used for restricted three-body problems in which the three bodies all differ greatly in mass. The parameter is calculated from the orbital elements of each body, including the small body's semimajor axis, eccentricity, and inclination, and is useful in specifically identifying small bodies observed before and after planetary encounters, as its numerical value remains largely constant throughout the body's lifetime. It is also used to distinguish between different kinds of orbits which are characteristic of different classes of bodies. + +topocentric +With reference to, or pertaining to, a point on the surface of the Earth. + +total solar eclipse +A solar eclipse in which the disk of the Earth's Sun is completely obscured by the Earth's Moon. At totality, this formation allows the Sun's corona and prominences to be directly observed. + +trans-Neptunian object (TNO) +Any minor planet in the Solar System that orbits the Sun at a greater average distance than Neptune. + +transit +1. The passage of a particular celestial object across a particular meridian. +2. An astronomical event during which a celestial body or object passes visibly across the face of a much larger body. An example is the transit of Venus across the face of the Sun, which was visible from Earth in 2004 and 2012. Because a transit results in a decrease in the net luminosity from the two objects, the transit method can be used to detect extrasolar planets as they pass in front of their host stars. A transit by an object that appears roughly the same size or larger than the body it is transiting is called an occultation or eclipse. + +trojan +A small celestial body (mostly asteroids) that shares the orbit of a larger body, remaining in a stable orbit approximately 60° ahead of or behind the main body near one of its Lagrangian points. + +tropical year +The time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the sky. + +true anomaly (ν, θ, or f) +The angle between the direction of periapsis and the current position of an orbiting body as it moves along an elliptical orbit, as measured from the nearest focus of the ellipse. The true anomaly is one of three angular parameters that define a position along an orbital path, the other two being the eccentric anomaly and the mean anomaly, and also one of six canonical orbital elements used to characterize an orbit. + +Tully–Fisher relation +An empirical relationship between the mass or intrinsic luminosity of a spiral galaxy and its angular velocity or emission line width. It can be used to estimate the distance of the galaxy, and hence forms a rung on the cosmic distance ladder. + +twilight +The time period immediately before sunrise and after sunset during which, despite the Sun being completely below the horizon, the scattering of sunlight by the Earth's atmosphere supplies significant illumination to the ambient environment. Several definitions of twilight are commonly distinguished, including astronomical, civil, and nautical twilight. + +two-body problem +A problem of classical mechanics to calculate and predict the motion of two massive bodies that are orbiting each other in space. + +== U == + +UBV photometric system +Also the Johnson system or Johnson–Morgan system. +A photometric system usually employed for classifying stars according to their colors. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9acf9b37f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 20/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +universe +1. The entirety of space and time and their contents, including galaxies, stars, planets, all other forms of matter and energy, and the physical laws and constants that describe them. When not otherwise qualified, "the universe" usually refers to the entire universe, whose spatial extent is unknown because it is not directly measurable; this is distinguished from the observable universe, whose size it is possible to measure. +2. One of many hypothetical parallel universes which exist as causally disconnected constituent parts of a larger multiverse, which itself comprises all of space and time and their contents. + +== V == + +variable star +Any star that is observed to vary in brightness. This variation may be periodic, with one or more cycles that last hours, days, months, or even years. Some stars vary in an irregular manner, while others undergo cataclysmic changes in brightness. Other forms of variability are intrinsic changes to the star's radial velocity or its profile of spectral lines. + +velocity dispersion +The statistical dispersion of velocities about the mean velocity for a group of objects, such as stars in a globular cluster or galaxies in a galactic cluster. This value can be used to derive the combined mass of the group by using the virial theorem. + +Virgo Supercluster (Virgo SC) +Also the Local Supercluster (LSC or LC). +A massive association of over 100 galaxy groups and clusters that includes the Local Group, and thus the Milky Way galaxy. At its core is the Virgo Cluster of galaxies, which is centered on the constellation of Virgo. + +== W == + +weak-line star +A reference to the faintness of the spectral lines for a star compared to standard stars with the same stellar classification. Since most absorption lines are caused by elements other than hydrogen and helium—what astronomers refer to as "metals"—these are sometimes called metal weak stars. + +white dwarf +A type of stellar remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf lacks the mass needed to continue the nuclear fusion process with its constituent atoms, so the object's energy output normally comes from radiative cooling. See also nova. + +Wilson–Bappu effect +A correlation between the width of the singly ionized calcium K-line (Ca II K) at 3933 Å and the absolute visual magnitude of the emitting late-type stars. This linear relation makes it useful for determining the distances of G, K, and M-type stars. + +== X == + +XBONG +An acronym of X-ray bright optically normal galaxy. +A seemingly normal galaxy that does not appear to have an active galactic nucleus, yet displays an anomalous level of excess X-ray emission. +X-ray source +A source of X-rays. They are usually produced when a high-mass object, usually a neutron star or black hole and a companion star are in a binary system. + +== Z == + +zenith +The point in the sky that is directly overhead from the perspective of a particular location on the Earth. + +zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) +The sequence of positions along the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram achieved by newly formed, chemically homogeneous stars which have finished contracting and have reached hydrostatic equilibrium, with energy being derived solely from nuclear fusion. + +zodiac +The area of the sky that extends approximately 8 degrees north or south (in celestial latitude) of the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year as observed from Earth. The Sun, Moon, and visible planets appear to travel across a band of twelve Zodiac constellations within this belt as the Earth orbits the Sun. + +zodiacal light +A faint glow in the night sky from sunlight reflected by an interplanetary dust cloud. It is concentrated near the plane of the zodiac, or ecliptic, particularly toward the Sun. The dust is mostly the result of cometary collisions, with a contribution from asteroids. + +Zone of Avoidance +Also Zone of Galactic Obscuration (ZGO). +The region of the sky obscured by the Milky Way’s disk, making it difficult for observers on Earth and telescopes within the Solar System to observe distant objects behind it. + +== See also == + +Outline of astronomy +List of astronomical catalogues +List of astronomy acronyms +List of common astronomy symbols +Modern constellations + +== References == + +== External links == + +"Astronomical Glossary", A Knowledgebase for Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology, NASA/IPAC, January 10, 2006, retrieved 2012-02-19 +Astronomy Terms, Sky & Telescope Media, retrieved 2018-03-09 +"ESO Astronomical Glossary", Public Outreach, European Southern Observatory, retrieved 2018-03-09 +"Glossary", HubbleSite – Reference Desk, Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), retrieved 2018-03-09 +"Glossary of (comet and) astronomical terms", International Comet Quarterly, Harvard University, retrieved 2012-02-20 +"A–Z Glossary of Space Terms, Space Words, and Astronomy Terms", Stargazing 101 - Beginner Stargazing Guides, Tools & Tips to Explore the Night Sky with Confidence, Stargazing101, 30 April 2025, retrieved 2025-05-11 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26dbafecb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 3/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +barycenter +The common center of mass about which any two or more bodies of a gravitationally bound system orbit. The barycenter is one of the foci of the elliptical orbit of each body participating in the system; its location is strongly influenced by the mass of each body and the distances between them. For example, in a planetary system where the mass of the central star is significantly larger than the mass of an orbiting planet, the barycenter may actually be located within the radius of the star, such that the planet appears to orbit the star itself, though both bodies actually orbit the shared barycenter. + +baryogenesis +The process by which the class of subatomic particles known as baryons were generated in the early Universe, including the means by which baryons outnumber antibaryons. + +Big Bang +The prevailing cosmological model for the origin of the observable universe. It depicts a starting condition of extremely high density and temperature, followed by an ongoing expansion that led to the current conditions. + +binary star +A star system consisting of exactly two stars orbiting around their common barycenter. The term is often used interchangeably with double star, though the latter can also refer to an optical double star, a type of optical illusion which is entirely distinct from true binary star systems. + +black hole +A concentration of mass so compact that it creates a region of space from which not even light can escape. The outer boundary of this region is called the event horizon. + +blazar +An active galactic nucleus (AGN) with a relativistic jet directed very nearly towards the observer. + +break-up velocity +Also critical velocity or critical rotation. +The surface velocity at which the centrifugal force generated by a rapidly spinning star matches the force of Newtonian gravity. At higher rotational velocities, the star begins to eject matter from its surface. + +brown dwarf +A substellar object that is too low in mass to sustain the nuclear fusion of hydrogen-1 in its core, with the latter being a characteristic of stars on the main sequence. Brown dwarfs can still generate energy from gravitational contraction and by the fusion of deuterium. + +bulge +A tightly packed group or cluster of stars within a larger star formation. + +== C == + +calibrator star +A fixed star used for calibration of high-powered telescopes. + +celestial equator +The imaginary great circle of a body's celestial sphere that is coplanar with the body's terrestrial equator. On Earth, the plane of the celestial equator is the basis of the equatorial coordinate system. Due to Earth's axial tilt, this plane is currently inclined at an angle of 23.44 degrees with respect to the ecliptic. + +celestial mechanics +The branch of astronomy that studies the motions of all types of astronomical objects, including stars, planets, and natural and artificial satellites, among others. + +celestial meridian +See meridian. + +celestial pole +One of two coordinates in the Earth's sky at which a hypothetical indefinite extension of the Earth's axis of rotation "intersects" the celestial sphere, i.e. the two points in the sky that are directly overhead the terrestrial North and South Poles, around which all fixed stars appear to revolve during the course of a day. The celestial poles form the north and south poles of the equatorial coordinate system. + +celestial sphere +An imaginary sphere that encompasses the Earth's entire sky and is stationary with respect to the background stars. It is the basis for spherical astronomy. + +centaur +A small Solar System body with either a perihelion or a semi-major axis between those of the outer planets, i.e. generally inward of the Kuiper belt but beyond the Jupiter trojans. Centaurs are cis-Neptunian objects that typically exhibit characteristics of both asteroids and comets, and generally also have unstable orbits because they cross the orbits of one or more of the giant planets. + +central massive object (CMO) +Any very large concentration of mass at the center of a galaxy, typically either a supermassive black hole or a compact stellar nucleus, but sometimes both. + +chromosphere +A thin transition region of a star's outer atmosphere, positioned above the cooler photosphere and below the hot corona. For the Sun, the chromosphere is only visible during a total eclipse, when it gives off a red glow due to Balmer Hydrogen-alpha emission. Rising solar spicules occur in this region of magnetic activity. + +chromospheric activity index +A parameter indicating the magnetic activity in a star's chromosphere. One measure of this activity is log R′HK, where R′HK is the ratio of the equivalent width of a star's singly ionized calcium H and K lines, after correction for photospheric light, to the bolometric flux. Schröder et al. (2009) divide solar-type stars into four groups depending on their activity index: very active (log R′HK above −4.2), active (−4.2 to −4.75), inactive (−4.75 to −5.1), and very inactive (below −5.1). + +circumstellar disc +Also circumstellar disk. +A loose disk of material in orbit around a star. It can be composed of gas, dust, and/or various smaller bodies. An example is the asteroid belt. + +cis-Neptunian object (CNO) +Any small Solar System body that orbits the Sun closer than Neptune — that is, with a semi-major axis less than about 30 astronomical units (AU). These include centaurs and Neptunian trojans. + +clearing the neighbourhood +In celestial mechanics, clearing the neighborhood around a celestial body's orbit describes the body becoming gravitationally dominant such that there are no other bodies of comparable size other than its natural satellites or those otherwise under its gravitational influence. + +color index +A numeric value that is used to compare the brightness of a star measured from different frequency bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. Because the energy output of a star varies by frequency as a function of temperature, the color index can be used to indicate the star's temperature. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba4840ba7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 4/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +comet +A relatively small, icy body that displays extended features when it approaches the Sun. The energy from the Sun vaporizes volatiles on a comet's surface, producing a visible coma around the cometary body. Sometimes a comet can produce a long tail radiating away from the Sun. + +commensurability +A property of two objects orbiting the same body whose orbital periods are in a rational proportion. For example, the orbital period of Saturn around the Sun is very nearly 5/2 the orbital period of Jupiter. + +common proper motion +A term used to indicate that two or more stars share the same motion through space, within the margin of observational error. That is, either they have nearly the same proper motion and radial velocity parameters, which may suggest that they are gravitationally bound or share a common origin, or they are known to be gravitationally bound (in which case their proper motions may be rather different but average to be the same over time). + +compact star +Also compact object. +Any astronomical body with a very high mass relative to its radius, compared to most ordinary atomic matter. The term typically refers to very high-density objects such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, or to stellar remnants with very small radii. + +compact stellar nucleus +See nuclear star cluster. + +conjunction +A phenomenon during which two astronomical objects or spacecraft have either the same right ascension or the same ecliptic longitude as observed from a third body (usually the Earth), such that, from the observer's perspective, the objects appear to closely approach each other in the sky. + +constellation +A region on the celestial sphere surrounding a specific and identifiable grouping of stars. The names of constellations are assigned by tradition and often have an associated folklore based in mythology, while the modern demarcation of their borders was established by the International Astronomical Union in 1930. Compare asterism. + +corona +An aura of plasma that surrounds cooler stars such as the Sun. It can be observed during a solar eclipse as a bright glow surrounding the lunar disk. The temperature of the corona is much higher than that of the stellar surface, and the mechanism that creates this heat remains subject to debate among astronomers. + +coronal loop +An arch-like structure in the Sun's atmosphere made up of relatively dense plasma confined and isolated from the surrounding medium by magnetic flux tubes. + +coronal mass ejection (CME) +A significant release of plasma and the accompanying magnetic field from the Sun's corona, often following a solar flare or during a solar prominence eruption. + +cosmic distance ladder + +cosmic dust +Also space dust. +Dust which exists in outer space or has fallen on Earth, generally composed of fine particles of solid matter far smaller than those found in terrestrial dust. + +cosmic microwave background (CMB) +Also cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). + +cosmic ray +A type of radiation consisting of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei which move through space at nearly the speed of light, and which may originate from the Sun or from outside the Solar System. Collisions of cosmic rays with the Earth's atmosphere can produce dramatic effects both in the air and on the surface. + +cosmogony +Any model concerning the origin of either the universe or the cosmos. + +cosmology +The scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the Universe. + +coudé spectrograph +A type of optical spectrometer placed at the Coudé focus of a reflecting telescope. The focus remains stationary as the telescope is re-oriented, which is advantageous for the stable mounting of heavy spectroscopic instruments. + +critical rotation + +critical velocity +Also break-up velocity. +The surface velocity at the equator of a rotating body where the centrifugal force balances the Newtonian gravity. At this rotation rate, mass can be readily lost from the equator, forming a circumstellar disc. See also break-up velocity. + +culmination +Also meridian transit. +The apparent movement of an astronomical object (e.g. the Sun, the Moon, a planet, a star, a constellation, etc.) across the observer's local meridian. During each day, the Earth's rotation causes every astronomical object to appear to move along a circular path on the celestial sphere, creating two points at which it crosses the meridian: an upper culmination, at which the object reaches its highest point above the horizon, and a lower culmination, at which it reaches its lowest point, nearly 12 hours later. When not otherwise qualified, the time of culmination typically refers to the time at which the upper culmination occurs. + +== D == + +debris disk +A ring-shaped circumstellar disc of dust and debris orbiting its host star. It is created by collisions between planetesimals. A debris disk can be discerned from an infrared excess being emitted from the star system, as the orbiting debris re-radiates the star's energy into space as heat. + +declination +In the equatorial coordinate system, the celestial equivalent of terrestrial latitude. Coordinates north of the celestial equator are measured in positive degrees from 0° to 90°, while coordinates to the south are measured in negative degrees. See also right ascension. + +decretion disk +A circumstellar disc formed from gas ejected from a central star that now follows a nearly Keplerian orbit around it. This type of disk can be found around many Be stars. + +deep-sky object (DSO) +Any astronomical object that is not an individual star or an object within the Earth's Solar System. The classification is used mostly in amateur observational astronomy to distinguish faint objects in the night sky such as star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies. + +degenerate star +A star composed of degenerate matter, e.g. a white dwarf or a neutron star. These stars are in an advanced state of evolution and have suffered extreme gravitational collapse, such that normal atoms cannot exist in them. + +descending node +Also the south node. +The orbital node at which an orbiting object moves south through the plane of reference (in geocentric and heliocentric orbits) or at which the orbiting object moves toward the observer (in orbits outside of the Solar System). Contrast ascending node. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f79cf558b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 5/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +detached object +Also distant detached object and extended scattered disc object. +A dynamical class of minor planet in the outer reaches of the Solar System whose point of closest approach to the Sun is so distant that the object is only moderately or weakly affected by the gravitational influence of Neptune and the other known planets, such that it appears to be "detached" from the rest of the Solar System. Detached objects are thus distinct from other populations of trans-Neptunian objects, such as cubewanos and scattered disc objects. + +direct motion +See prograde motion. + +diurnal motion +The apparent motion of an astronomical object (e.g. the Sun, a planet, or a distant star) around the two celestial poles in the Earth's night sky over the course of one day. Diurnal motion is caused by Earth's rotation about its own axis, such that every object appears to follow a circular path called the diurnal circle. + +double star +Any pair of stars which appear near each other on the celestial sphere, either because the two stars coincidentally lie along nearly the same line of sight from the Earth, though they are in fact physically distant from each other, or because the two stars are actually located in physical proximity to each other, by which they may form a co-moving pair or a binary star system. + +dust astronomy + +dwarf planet + +dwarf star +Any star belonging to a category of ordinary main-sequence stars like the Sun, in contrast to evolved giant stars like Betelgeuse and Antares. Confusingly, the term has also come to include stellar remnants known as white dwarfs as well as low-mass substellar objects known as brown dwarfs. + +== E == + +early-type star +A hotter and more massive star, in contrast to late-type stars that are cooler and less massive. The term originated from historical stellar models that assumed stars began their early life at a high temperature then gradually cooled off as they aged. It may be used to refer to the higher-temperature members of any particular population or category of stars, rather than of all stars in general. + +eccentricity +See orbital eccentricity. + +ecliptic +Also ecliptic plane or plane of the ecliptic. +The plane defined by the Earth's orbit around the Sun. Hence, the position of the Sun as viewed from the Earth defines the intersection of this plane with the celestial sphere. The ecliptic is widely used as a reference plane for describing the position of other Solar System bodies within various celestial coordinate systems. It differs from the celestial equator because of the axial tilt of the Earth. + +ecliptic coordinate system +An astronomical coordinate system commonly used to specify the apparent positions, orbits, and axial orientations of objects within the Solar System, with an origin at the geometric center of either the Sun or the Earth, a fundamental plane defined by the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (i.e. the plane of the ecliptic), a primary direction towards the vernal equinox, and a right-handed convention. This system is convenient because most of the planets and many small Solar System bodies orbit the Sun with only slight inclinations to the ecliptic. It may be implemented in either spherical or rectangular coordinates. + +effective temperature +(of a star or planet) The temperature of an ideal black body that would emit the same total energy as electromagnetic radiation. + +elliptical galaxy +A type of galaxy with an approximately ellipsoidal shape and a smooth, nearly featureless appearance. They are one of three main morphological classes of galaxy, along with spiral and lenticular galaxies. + +elliptical orbit +Also elliptic orbit. +A type of Kepler orbit with an orbital eccentricity of less than 1 (often inclusive of circular orbits, which have eccentricity equal to 0), or one with negative energy. Elliptical orbits take the shape of an ellipse, and are very common in two-body astronomical systems. + +elongation +The angular separation between the Sun and an orbiting body, such as a planet, as it appears from Earth. + +ephemeris +A list or table of the expected positions of astronomical objects or artificial satellites in the sky at various dates and times. Modern ephemerides are generally provided by computer software. + +epoch +A moment in time used as a reference point for some time-varying astronomical quantity, such as the celestial coordinates or orbital elements of an astronomical object, because such quantities are subject to perturbations and change over time. The primary use of astronomical quantities specified by epochs is to calculate other relevant parameters of motion in order to predict future positions and velocities. In modern usage, astronomical quantities are often specified as a polynomial function of a particular time interval, with a given epoch as the temporal point of origin. + +equator +The imaginary line on a gravitationally rounded spheroid such as a planet that represents the intersection of the spheroid's surface with a plane perpendicular to its axis of rotation and equidistant from its geographical poles. The plane of the Earth's terrestrial equator is the basis for the celestial equator. + +equatorial coordinate system +An astronomical coordinate system defined by an origin at the geometric center of the Earth, a fundamental plane created by projecting the Earth's terrestrial equator onto the celestial sphere (forming the celestial equator), a primary direction towards the vernal equinox, and a right-handed convention. This system is widely used to specify the positions of celestial objects as viewed from Earth. It may be implemented in either spherical or rectangular coordinates. + +equinoctial +Of, relating to, or occurring at an equinox. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c6e564a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 6/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +equinox +Either of the two precise times of year when the imaginary plane of the Earth's equator, extended indefinitely in all directions, passes through the center of the Sun (i.e. the two points at which this plane intersects the plane of the ecliptic); or, equivalently, when the Sun's apparent geocentric longitude is either 0 degrees or 180 degrees. The two equinoxes, known as the vernal equinox and the autumnal equinox, occur on or near March 20 and September 22 each year. On the day of an equinox, the center of the visible Sun appears to be directly above the equator, and the durations of day and night are approximately equal all over the planet. Compare solstice. + +escape velocity +The minimum speed that must be achieved for a free, non-propelled object to escape from the gravitational influence of a massive body, i.e. to achieve an infinite distance from it; more generally, escape velocity is the speed at which the sum of an object's kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is equal to zero. It is a function of the mass of the body and of the distance between the object and the body's center of mass. An object which has achieved escape velocity is neither on the surface nor in a closed orbit of any radius. + +evolutionary track +A curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram that a solitary star of a particular mass and composition is expected to follow during the course of its evolution. This curve predicts the combination of temperature and luminosity that a star will have during part or all of its lifetime. + +extinction +The absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by matter (dust and gas) between an emitting astronomical object and the observer. Atmospheric extinction varies by the wavelength of the radiation, with the attenuation being greater for blue light than for red. + +extragalactic astronomy +The branch of astronomy that studies objects and phenomena outside of the Milky Way galaxy, i.e. all objects not covered by galactic astronomy. + +extrasolar object +Any astronomical object that exists outside the Solar System. The term is generally not applied to stars or any objects larger than a star or the Solar System itself, such as galaxies. + +extrasolar planet +Also exoplanet. +Any planet outside the Earth's Solar System. + +exobiology +See astrobiology. + +== F == + +F-type main-sequence star +A type of main-sequence star which is typically yellow-white in color, temperatures ranges from 6,000 to 7,200 K and have 1.1 to 1.6 solar masses. + +facula +A bright spot on a star's photosphere formed by concentrations of magnetic field lines. For the Sun in particular, solar faculae are most readily observed near the solar limb. An increase in faculae as a result of a stellar cycle increases the star's total irradiance. + +field galaxy +Any galaxy that does not belong to a larger cluster of galaxies and is gravitationally isolated. + +field star +A randomly situated star that lies along the line of sight to a group of physically associated stars under study, such as a star cluster. These field stars are important to identify in order to prevent them from contaminating the results of a study. + +field of view +The angular extent of the observable world that can be seen from a given place at a given moment. In astronomy, the field of view is the angular area viewed by an instrument such as a telescope, usually expressed in square degrees, or for higher magnification instruments, in square arc-minutes. + +first light +The first use of a newly constructed telescope or other instrument to observe or capture an astronomical image. + +first magnitude star +A term used to classify the brightest stars in the night sky, specifically those having an apparent magnitude lower (i.e. brighter) than 1.50. There are 22 stars that are classified as first magnitude stars. + +First Point of Aries (♈︎) +Also the Cusp of Aries. +The location of the March equinox upon the celestial sphere, used as a reference point in celestial coordinate systems. Located in the constellation Pisces, the First Point of Aries defines the ecliptic coordinate of (0°, 0°) and represents the point at which the Sun meets the celestial equator while traveling from south to north each year. It is directly opposite the First Point of Libra. + +First Point of Libra +The location of the September equinox upon the celestial sphere, used as a reference point in celestial coordinate systems. Located in the constellation Virgo, the First Point of Libra represents the point at which the Sun meets the celestial equator while traveling from north to south each year. It is directly opposite the First Point of Aries. + +fixed stars +Also background stars. +The "background" of astronomical objects in the night sky which are so distant from observers on Earth that they do not appear to move relative to each other, as opposed to the "foreground" of objects within the Solar System which do. The fixed stars are typically taken to include all stars other than the Sun, as well as all other extrasolar and deep-sky objects. + +flare star +A class of variable star that undergoes sudden, dramatic increases in brightness due to magnetic activity on its surface. This change in brightness occurs across the electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to X-rays. Most flare stars are faint red dwarfs. + +Fulton gap +The apparent uncommonness of planets having a size between 1.5 and 2 times that of the Earth. + +== G == + +G-type main-sequence star +A type of main-sequence star which is typically yellow in color, temperatures range from 5,300 and 6,000 K and have 0.9 to 1.1 solar masses, it is also the Sun's spectral type. + +galactic astronomy +The branch of astronomy that studies objects and phenomena within the Milky Way galaxy, as opposed to everything outside of the Milky Way, which is the domain of extragalactic astronomy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f604c3989 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 7/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +galactic anticenter +The direction in space that is directly opposite the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, as viewed from Earth; considered as a point on the celestial sphere, the Milky Way's anticenter is in the constellation Auriga. + +Galactic Center +The rotational center of the Milky Way galaxy, consisting of a supermassive black hole of 4.100 ± 0.034 million solar masses. It is approximately 8,200 parsecs (27,000 ly) away from Earth in the direction of the constellations Sagittarius, Ophiuchus, and Scorpius, where the Milky Way appears brightest. + +galactic coordinate system + +galactic corona + +galactic nucleus +Also galactic core or galactic center. +The region at the center of a galaxy, usually home to a very dense concentration of stars and gas. It almost always includes a supermassive black hole which, when active, can generate a much higher luminosity in a compact region than its surroundings. This excess luminosity is known as an active galactic nucleus, and the brightest such active galaxies are known as quasars. + +galactic period +Also galactic year or cosmic year. +The time a given astronomical object within a galaxy takes to complete one orbit around the galactic center. Estimates of the duration of one revolution of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way range from 225 to 250 million terrestrial years. + +galactic tide +The tidal force experienced by objects subject to the gravitational field of a galaxy such as the Milky Way. + +galactocentric distance +A star or cluster's distance from the gravitational center of a particular galaxy. For example, the Sun is about 27,000 light-years (approximately 8 kiloparsecs) away from the Galactic Center of the Milky Way. Galactocentric distance may also refer to a galaxy's distance from another galaxy. + +galaxy +A large, gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter, each of which orbits a center of mass. Galaxies may contain hundreds of billions of stars and are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Most of the galaxies in the observable universe are between 1,000 and 3,000 parsecs (3,300 and 9,800 ly) in diameter, though some, including the Milky Way, are much larger. + +galaxy cluster +A large-scale structure consisting of hundreds or thousands of galaxies bound together by gravity. Galaxy clusters are distinct from similarly named galactic clusters and other types of star clusters and from smaller aggregates of galaxies known as galaxy groups. Galaxy groups and galaxy clusters can themselves cluster together to form superclusters. + +galaxy group +Also group of galaxies (GrG). +A gravitationally bound aggregation of up to 50 galaxies, each at least as luminous as the Milky Way Galaxy. Larger aggregations may be called galaxy clusters, and galaxy groups and clusters can themselves cluster together to form superclusters. + +Galilean moons +The collective name for the four moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. + +gamma-ray astronomy +The subfield of astronomy that studies astronomical objects detectable at gamma-ray wavelengths. + +gamma-ray burst (GRB) +A cataclysmic event that generates a brief but intense outburst of gamma ray radiation which can be detected from billions of light-years away. The source of most GRBs is theorized to be supernova or hypernova explosions of high-mass stars. Short GRBs may also result from the collision of neutron stars. + +gas giant +A giant planet composed mainly of hydrogen and helium gases rather than heavier elements, e.g. Jupiter and Saturn in the Solar System. + +geocenter +The geometric center of the Earth, i.e. the arithmetic mean position of all points within the oblate spheroid that is the precise shape of the Earth. + +geocentric +With reference to, or pertaining to, the geometric center of the Earth; centered upon the Earth, e.g. a geocentric orbit. + +geocentric zenith +The point projected upon the celestial sphere by a straight line that passes through the geocenter and an observer; i.e. the observer's zenith as defined with respect to the center of the Earth. + +geometric albedo +The ratio of the brightness of an astronomical body at a phase angle of zero to an idealized flat, fully reflecting, diffusively scattering (Lambertian) disk with the same cross-section. It is a measure of how much of the incoming illumination is being scattered back toward an observer and has a value between zero and one. + +geometric position +The position of an object (celestial or otherwise) with respect to the center of the Earth or to the position of an observer, i.e. as defined by a straight line between the center of the Earth (or the observer) and the object at a given time, without any corrections for light-time, aberration, etc. + +geostationary orbit +Also geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO). +A circular geosynchronous orbit, which maintains a constant altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) directly above Earth's equator in the same direction as Earth's rotation such that, to an observer on Earth's surface, the orbiting object appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. Artificial satellites are often placed in geostationary orbit so that antennas on Earth do not have to rotate to track them. + +geosynchronous orbit (GSO) +A synchronous orbit about the Earth, i.e. with an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, such that the orbiting object appears to return to exactly the same position in the sky after a period of one sidereal day. All geosynchronous orbits have a semi-major axis equal to 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi); geostationary orbits are a special case of geosynchronous orbits. + +giant planet +Any very large or massive planet, including gas giants and ice giants. + +globular cluster +A tight, spherical conglomeration of many thousands of stars which are gravitationally bound to each other and which orbit a galactic core as a satellite. They differ from open clusters in having a much higher combined mass, with a typical lifespan extending for billions of years. + +gravitational collapse \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3758d5f9b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 8/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +gravitational lens +Any very large distribution of mass, such as a galactic cluster, which can bend passing light from a distant source by a noticeable degree. The effect, known as gravitational lensing, can make background objects appear to an observer to take on a ring or arc shape. + +gravitational-wave astronomy +A branch of observational astronomy which analyzes minute distortions in the curvature of spacetime known as gravitational waves to collect observational data about astronomical objects and events such as neutron stars, black holes, supernovae, and the Big Bang. + +== H == + +H II region +An ionized nebula powered by young, massive O-type stars. Ultraviolet photons from these hot stars ionize gas in the surrounding environment, and the nebular gas shines brightly in spectral lines of hydrogen and other elements. Because O-type stars have relatively short lifetimes (typically a few million years), the presence of an H II region indicates that massive star formation has taken place recently at that location. H II regions are often found in the arms of spiral galaxies and in star-forming irregular galaxies. + +heliocenter +The precise geometric center of the Earth's Sun, i.e. the arithmetic mean position of all points within the approximate spheroid that is the shape of the Sun. + +heliocentric +With reference to, or pertaining to, the geometric center of the Earth's Sun; centered upon the Sun, e.g. a heliocentric orbit. + +heliopause + +heliosphere +The vast, bubble-like cavity in the interstellar medium which surrounds and is created by the plasma emanating from the Earth's Sun. The heliosphere encompasses the entirety of the Solar System and a vast region of space beyond it. Its outer limit is often considered the boundary between matter originating from the Sun and matter originating from the rest of the galaxy. + +Hertzsprung–Russell diagram +A plot of luminosity versus effective temperature for a population of stars; depending on the usage, the star's absolute magnitude may be substituted for luminosity, and its color index or spectral type for temperature. Single stars of known mass and composition follow predictable tracks across this chart over the course of their evolution. Hence, knowing a star's mass and metallicity allows its age to be estimated. Stars of similar types are also found grouped together in specific regions of the chart, including main-sequence, red giant, and white dwarf stars. + +Hill sphere +Also the Hill radius. +The approximate region around an astronomical object within which its gravitational attraction dominates the motions of satellites. It is computed with respect to the next most gravitationally attractive object, such as the nearest star or the galactic core. Satellites moving outside this radius tend to be perturbed away from the main body. + +horizon +The apparent boundary between the surface of a celestial body and its sky when viewed from the perspective of an observer on or near that body's surface; more specifically, the plane perpendicular to a line from an observer to the zenith that passes through the point of observation. + +hour angle +For a given celestial object, the angular distance on the celestial sphere measured westward along the celestial equator from the observer's local meridian to the hour circle that passes through the celestial object; or, equivalently, the angle between the plane containing Earth's rotational axis and the zenith, and the plane containing Earth's rotational axis and the object of interest. Analogous to right ascension, the hour angle is one of many ways commonly used to specify the longitudinal position of an object upon the celestial sphere. + +hour circle +Any imaginary great circle drawn upon the celestial sphere that passes through both of the celestial poles and is therefore perpendicular to the celestial equator. Similar to a meridian but additionally taking into account the terrain and the depth to the geocenter at a ground observer's particular location, the concept of the hour circle is employed to describe the longitudinal position of a celestial object relative to the observer's local meridian. + +hybrid-chromosphere star +These hybrid stars are G and K giant and supergiant stars that display the spectra of a hot coronae found in more massive giants and the cool stellar winds of M-type giants. They can be a source of X-ray emission. + +hybrid pulsator +A hybrid class of pulsating stars that display pulsation frequencies of two different classes of variables. An example are variables displaying characteristic frequencies of both Delta Scuti and Gamma Doradus variables. On the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, these stars are positioned where the instability strips of both variable classes overlap. + +hydrogen burning limit +A critical mass below which an astronomical object cannot sustain its surface luminosity through nuclear fusion. This mass limit, equal to about 7% of the mass of the Sun, forms the dividing line between brown dwarfs and hydrogen-fusing stars. + +hypergalaxy +A system consisting of a large galaxy accompanied by multiple smaller satellite galaxies (often elliptical) as well as its galactic corona. The Milky Way and Andromeda systems are examples of hypergalaxies. + +== I == + +ice giant +A giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen or helium (such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur), especially chemical volatiles with freezing points above 100 K (−173 °C), e.g. Uranus and Neptune in the Solar System. + +inclination +See orbital inclination. + +inferior planet +An archaic term that is sometimes used to refer to the planets Mercury and Venus. The name originated from the fact that these planets orbit closer to the Sun than the Earth and hence, in the geocentric cosmology of Ptolemy, both appear to travel with the Sun across the sky. This is in contrast to the so-called superior planets, such as Mars, which appear to move independently of the Sun. + +infrared astronomy +The subfield of astronomy that studies astronomical objects detectable at infrared wavelengths. + +International Astronomical Union (IAU) + +interstellar medium (ISM) +The matter that exists in the space between the stars in a galaxy. This medium mainly consists of hydrogen and helium, but is enhanced by traces of other elements contributed by matter expelled from stars. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ea064ba7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 9/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +interstellar reddening +An effect produced by the incremental absorption and scattering of electromagnetic energy from interstellar matter, known as extinction. This effect causes more distant objects such as stars to appear redder and dimmer than expected. It is not to be confused with the separate phenomenon of redshift. + +invariable plane +Also Laplace's invariable plane or the Laplace plane. +The imaginary plane passing through the barycenter of a planetary system and perpendicular to its angular momentum vector, and which may be regarded as the weighted average of all planetary orbital and rotational planes comprising the system. + +ionosphere + +irregular galaxy + +irregular moon +A natural satellite following a distant, inclined, and often eccentric and retrograde orbit about its primary. Irregular moons are thought to be captured from other orbits, as opposed to regular moons, which are thought to form in situ. + +isochrone +A curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram that represents the evolutionary positions of stars having the same age but differing masses. This is in contrast to an evolutionary track, which is a plot of stars having the same mass but differing ages. In fact, multiple evolutionary tracks can be used to build isochrones by putting curves through equal-age points along the tracks. When the mass of a star can be determined, an isochrone can be used to estimate the star's age. + +== J == + +Jeans instability +A physical state in which an interstellar cloud of gas will begin to undergo collapse and form stars. A cloud can become unstable against collapse when it cools sufficiently or has perturbations of density, allowing gravity to overcome the gas pressure. + +Julian year (a) +A unit of time defined as exactly 365.25 days of 86,400 SI seconds each. Because these are units of constant duration, the Julian year is also constant and does not vary with a specific calendar or with any of the other means of determining the length of a year, such as the tropical year. It is therefore widely used as the basis for defining the standard astronomical epoch and the light-year. + +== K == + +K-type main-sequence star +A type of main-sequence star which is typically orange in color, temperatures ranges from 3,900 to 5,270 K and have 0.6 to 0.8 solar masses. + +Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism +A process where the surface of a planet or star undergoes rapid cooling. + +Kepler orbit +Also Keplerian orbit. +The motion of one orbiting body relative to another, as an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, which forms a two-dimensional orbital plane (or sometimes a straight line) in three-dimensional space. Kepler orbits are idealized mathematical constructions which consider only the point-like gravitational attraction of two bodies, neglecting more complex orbital perturbations that may exist in reality. + +Kuiper belt +Also Edgeworth–Kuiper belt. +A circumstellar disc of small Solar System bodies such as asteroids, trojans, and centaurs in the outer Solar System, extending between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt but far larger, and is home to several dwarf planets, including Pluto. + +== L == + +Lagrangian point +Also Lagrange point, libration point, or L-point. +Any of a set of points near two large bodies in orbit at which a smaller object will maintain a constant position relative to the larger bodies. At other locations, a small object would eventually be pulled into its own orbit around one of the large bodies, but at the Lagrangian points the gravitational forces of the large bodies, the centripetal force of orbital motion, and (in certain scenarios) the Coriolis acceleration all align in a way that causes the small object to become "locked" in a stable or nearly stable relative position. For each combination of two orbital bodies, there are five such Lagrangian points, typically identified with the labels L1 to L5. The phenomenon is the basis for the stable orbits of trojan satellites and is commonly exploited by man-made satellites. + +Laniakea Supercluster +Also the Lenakaeia Supercluster, Local Supercluster, or Local SCI. + +late-type star +See early-type star. + +libration +A slight oscillating motion of the Moon as seen from the Earth, a result of the Moon's elliptical orbit. It can allow normally hidden parts of the Moon's far side to be visible along the limbs of the lunar disk. + +light-year (ly) +A unit of length used to express astronomical distances that is equivalent to the distance that an object moving at the speed of light in vacuum would travel in one Julian year: approximately 9.46 trillion kilometres (9.46×1012 km) or 5.88 trillion miles (5.88×1012 mi). Though the light-year is often used to measure galactic-scale distances in non-specialist publications, the unit of length most commonly used in professional astrometry is the parsec. + +limb +The apparent circumferential edge of any celestial body with a detectable disk, e.g. the Sun, the Moon, a planet, or a small Solar System body. + +limb darkening +An optical effect seen in stars (including the Sun), where the center part of the disk appears brighter than its edge or limb. + +line of apsides +The imaginary line connecting the two apsides (the periapsis and the apoapsis) of an elliptical orbit, and which therefore represents the distance of the orbit's longest axis. + +lobster-eye optics +An X-ray optics design with an ultra wide field of view, based on the structure of the eyes of a lobster. It allows X-ray light to enter from multiple angles, thereby capturing more X-rays from a larger area than other X-ray telescopes. + +Local Group + +longitude of the ascending node (☊ or Ω) +The angle between a specified reference direction, called the origin of longitude, and the direction of an orbit's ascending node, as measured on a specified plane of reference. The angle is typically measured eastwards from the reference direction to the ascending node (i.e. counterclockwise as seen from the north). It is one of six canonical orbital elements used to characterize an orbit. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b5319a432 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of astronomy" +chunk: 10/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +luminosity +The total amount of energy emitted per unit time by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical object. In SI units, luminosity is measured in joules per second or watts, and is often given in terms of astronomical magnitude. Luminosity is related to but distinct from visual brightness. + +lunar +Of or relating to the Earth's Moon. + +lunar phase +Also Moon phase. +The shape of the portion of the Moon that is illuminated by direct sunlight as viewed from Earth. This shape is referred to as a phase because it gradually changes in a regular cycle over the course of a synodic month: as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and Earth around the Sun change, the visibility of the side of the Moon that constantly faces Earth alternates between completely illuminated (known as a full moon) and completely darkened by the Moon's own shadow (known as a new moon). There are also intermediate phases, during which the visible side may be only partially sunlit, e.g. when the Moon appears as a crescent. During the part of the lunar cycle in which the illuminated portion is growing larger, the Moon is said to be waxing; when the illuminated portion is becoming smaller, it is said to be waning. The phase of the Moon at any particular time appears the same from every point on Earth. + +== M == + +M-type main-sequence star +A type of main-sequence star which is typically red in color, temperatures ranges from 2,400 to 3,900 K and have 0.08 to 0.6 solar masses, they are also the most common type of main sequence star. + +massive compact halo object (MACHO) +A class of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galactic halos. A MACHO is a body that emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Examples of MACHOs include black holes and neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs and rogue planets. + +magnetic switchback +A sudden reversal in the magnetic field of the solar wind. + +magnetosphere +A mostly convex region formed when a plasma, such as the solar wind, interacts with the magnetic field of a body, such as a planet or star. + +magnitude +A numerical logarithmic scale indicating the brightness of an astronomical object, where the lower the value, the brighter the object. By convention, a first magnitude star is 100 times as bright as a sixth magnitude star. Magnitude 6 is considered the lower limit of objects that can be seen with the naked eye, although this can vary depending on sky conditions and eyesight. + +main sequence +A category of stars which form a continuous and distinctive band on plots of stellar temperature versus luminosity, in particular the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. These stars are characterized by being in hydrostatic equilibrium and undergoing nuclear fusion of hydrogen-1 in their core region. The Sun is a main-sequence star. + +major axis +See semi-major axis. + +March equinox +Also the Northward equinox. +The precise time of year on Earth when the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator, while generally trending northward at each zenith passage. It represents the moment at which the North Pole of the Earth begins to tilt toward the Sun, and typically occurs on or near March 20 each year. It is the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and the autumnal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. Contrast September equinox. + +mean anomaly (M) +The fraction of an elliptical orbit's period that has elapsed since the orbiting body passed periapsis, expressed as the angular distance from the pericenter which a fictitious body would have if it moved in a perfectly circular orbit in the same orbital period as the actual body in its elliptical orbit. Unlike the true anomaly, the mean anomaly does not correspond to a real geometric angle but is instead a contrived parameter used to make calculating the position of the orbiting body in the two-body problem mathematically convenient. + +mean-motion resonance (MMR) +See orbital resonance. + +meridian +An imaginary line running north–south across the sky and passing through the point directly overhead known as the zenith. + +meridian astronomy +The measurement of positions of celestial objects based on observation of the times of their transit across the meridian and of their zenith distance at those times, with the intention of obtaining accurate star positions which are self-consistent over large areas of sky. + +Messier object +One of a set of 110 "nebulous" astronomical objects, 103 of which were catalogued as non-comets by French comet hunter Charles Messier between 1771 and 1781. The Messier catalogue includes most of the deep-sky objects easily visible from the Northern Hemisphere. + +meteor +Also shooting star or falling star. +The visible passage of a glowing meteoroid, micrometeoroid, comet, or asteroid through the Earth's atmosphere, usually as a long streak of light produced when such an object is heated to incandescence by collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere, leaving an ionization trail as a result of its rapid motion and sometimes also shedding material in its wake. + +meteorite +A solid piece of debris from a meteor that originated in outer space and survived its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon. + +meteoroid +A small rock or boulder that has entered a planetary atmosphere. If it survives to reach the surface, it is then termed a meteorite. + +meteor shower +A series of meteors that seemingly radiate from a single area in the night sky. These are produced by debris left over from a larger body, such as a comet, and hence they follow roughly the same orbit. This makes many meteor showers predictable events, as they recur every year. + +metallicity +A measure of the abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium within an astronomical object. Note that this definition includes elements that are not traditionally considered metallic by chemical convention. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ca5f45b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 1/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms. It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Glossary of genetics, Glossary of evolutionary biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science and Glossary of scientific naming, or any of the organism-specific glossaries in Category:Glossaries of biology. + +== A == + +absorption +(physiology) A process in which one substance permeates another. A fluid permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. Skin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin. + +acclimatization +(physiology) Adaptation to a new climate, as with a new temperature or altitude or environment. + +acetyl-CoA +(biochemistry) Acetyl coenzyme A is a molecule participating in many biochemical reactions in carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production. + +acoelomate +(zoology) A type of animal, such as a flatworm, with a body plan that lacks a fluid-filled cavity between the body wall and the digestive tract. Rather, semi-solid mesodermal tissues between the gut and body wall hold the animal's organs in place. Contrast coelomate and pseudocoelomate. + +adaptation +(evolutionary biology, population biology) Term can apply to an individual organism's adaptation to its environment, the adaptation of organisms to an environment through evolutionary processes, or the population dynamics intrisic to the evolutionary process. + +adenine +(biochemistry) A purine-derived organic compound which is one of the four canonical nucleobases used in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Its derivatives are involved in a wide variety of biochemical reactions, including cellular respiration. + +aerobic +Capable of surviving and growing in the presence of oxygen. + +amino acid +(biochemistry) A class of organic compounds containing an amine group and a carboxylic acid group which function as the fundamental building blocks of proteins and play important roles in many other biochemical processes. + +anaerobic +Any organism that does not require molecular oxygen for growth. + +animal +Any member of a clade of multicellular eukaryotic organisms belonging to the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, reproduce sexually, and grow from a blastula during embryonic development. An estimated 7 million distinct animal species currently exist. + +antibiotic +Also called an antibacterial. +A type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. + +Archaea +One of the three recognized domains of organisms, the other two being Bacteria and Eukaryota. + +artificial selection +Also called selective breeding. +The process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively control the development of particular phenotypic traits in organisms by choosing which individual organisms will reproduce and create offspring. While the deliberate exploitation of knowledge about genetics and reproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics is widely practiced in agriculture and experimental biology, artificial selection may also be unintentional and may produce unintended (desirable or undesirable) results. + +asexual reproduction +A type of reproduction involving a single parent that results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. + +astrobiology +The branch of biology concerned with the effects of outer space on living organisms and the search for extraterrestrial life. + +autoimmunity +The system of immune responses of an organism directed against its own healthy cells and tissues. + +autotroph +Sometimes used interchangeably with primary producer. +An organism capable of producing complex organic compounds from simple substances present in its surroundings, generally by using energy from sunlight (as in photosynthesis) or from inorganic chemical reactions (as in chemosynthesis). Autotrophs do not need to consume another living organism in order to obtain energy or organic carbon, as opposed to heterotrophs. + +== B == + +B cell +A type of lymphocyte in the humoral immunity of the adaptive immune system. + +bacteria +An enormous and diverse clade of microscopic, prokaryotic, single-celled organisms which lack a true nucleus. They represent one of the three fundamental biological domains. + +bacteriophage +A virus that infects and multiplies within bacteria. + +Barr body +The inactive X chromosome in a female somatic cell, rendered inactive in a process called lyonization, in those species in which sex is determined by the presence of the Y chromosome (including humans) or W chromosome rather than by the presence of two X chromosomes or two Z chromosomes. + +basal body +An organelle formed from a centriole, and a short cylindrical array of microtubules. Also called a basal granule, a kinetosome, and in older cytological literature, a blepharoplast. + +behavioral ecology +The study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures. + +bile +A dark green to yellowish-brown fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates, which aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. Also called gall. + +binary fission +The process by which one prokaryotic cell divides into two identical daughter cells. + +binomial nomenclature +A formal system of classifying species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. + +biocatalysis +The process of catalysis in biological systems. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as protein enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. + +biochemistry +The branch of biology that studies the chemical properties, compositions, reactions, and processes related to living organisms. + +biodiversity +A contraction of "biological diversity" generally referring to the variety and variability of life on Earth. + +bioengineering +The application of concepts and methods of biology to solve real-world problems related to the life sciences or the application thereof. + +bioenergetics +The study of the transformation of energy within and between living organisms. + +biogeography +The study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area. + +bioinformatics +The application of computer technology to the management of biological information. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..85cfc381a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 2/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +biological organization +The hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems, designed to define life through a reductionist approach. + +biology +The scientific study of life. + +biomass +Organic matter derived from living or recently living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials which are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. + +biomathematics +The theoretical use of mathematical models and abstractions of living systems to understand and predict biological problems. + +biome +Any very large ecological area on the Earth's surface containing fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as climate, topographical relief, geology, soils, and water resources. + +biomechanics +The study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of "mechanics", which is the branch of physics involving analysis of the actions of forces. + +biomedical engineering +The application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). + +biomedical research +The pursuit of answers to medical questions. These investigations lead to discoveries, which in turn lead to the development of new preventions, therapies, and cures for problems in human and veterinary health. Biomedical research generally takes two forms: basic science and applied research. + +biomolecule +Molecules and ions that are present in organisms, essential to some typically biological process such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development. + +biophysics +The application of approaches traditionally employed in physics to study biological systems. + +biosynthesis + +biotechnology +Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity). + +bipedal +A form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs. + +birth + +blastocyst +A mammalian blastula in which some differentiation of cells has occurred. + +blood +A body fluid that circulates in humans and other vertebrate animals and is generally responsible for delivering necessary substances such as oxygen and nutrients between the cells and tissues of the body and transporting metabolic waste products away from those same cells and tissues. + +blood–brain barrier +A semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the cerebrospinal fluid, and constituting a barrier to the passage of cells, particles, and large molecules. + +botany +The branch of biology that studies plants. + +building biology +A science that leads to natural healthy ecological homes, schools, and workplaces that exist in harmony with the environment. + +== C == + +Calvin cycle +Also called the biosynthetic phase, light-independent reactions, dark reactions, or photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle. +A series of chemical reactions which occurs as one of two primary phases of photosynthesis, specifically the phase in which carbon dioxide and other compounds are converted into simple carbohydrates such as glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of the chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. In the Calvin cycle, the products of previous light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) undergo further reactions which do not require the presence of light and which can be broadly divided into three stages: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration. + +carbon fixation +Also called carbon assimilation. +The process by which inorganic carbon, particularly in the form of carbon dioxide, is converted to organic compounds by living organisms. Examples include photosynthesis and chemosynthesis. + +carbonate +Any member of two classes of chemical compounds derived from carbonic acid or carbon dioxide. + +carotenoid +One of a class of organic pigments produced by algae and plants, as well as certain bacteria and fungi. + +catalase +An enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen, including bacteria, plants, and animals. + +cell +The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms, and the smallest functional unit of life. A cell may exist as an independent, self-replicating unit (as in the case of unicellular organisms), or in cooperation with other cells, each of which may be specialized for carrying out particular functions within a larger multicellular organism. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a cell membrane and sometimes a cell wall, and serve the fundamental purpose of separating the controlled environment in which biochemical processes take place from the outside world. Most cells are visible only under a microscope. + +cell biology +Also called cytology. +The branch of biology that studies the structure and function of living cells, including their physiological properties, metabolic processes, chemical composition, life cycle, the organelles they contain, and their interactions with their environment. This is done at both microscopic and molecular levels. + +cell cycle +The ordered series of events which take place in a cell leading to duplication of its genetic material and ultimately the division of the cytoplasm and organelles to produce two or more daughter cells. These events can be broadly divided into phases of growth and division, each of which can vary in duration and complexity depending on the tissue or organism to which the cell belongs. Cell cycles are essential processes in all unicellular and multicellular organisms. + +cell division +Any process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Examples include binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis. + +cell membrane +The semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell. + +cell nucleus +The "control room" for the cell. The nucleus gives out all the orders. + +cell plate +Grown in the cell's center, it fuses with the parental plasma membrane, creating a new cell wall that enables cell division. + +cell theory +The theory that all living things are made up of cells. + +cell wall +A tough, often rigid structural barrier surrounding certain types of cells (such as in fungi, plants, and most prokaryotes) that is immediately external to the cell membrane. + +cellular +Of or relating to a cell. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca24da373 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 11/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +steroid +A biologically active organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration. + +strain +A genetic variant, subtype, or culture identified as a distinct taxonomic subdivision within a species. The term is most commonly used to identify particular types of bacteria and viruses. + +structural biology +The branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function. + +symbiogenesis +See endosymbiotic theory. + +symbiont +Any organism involved in any type of symbiosis with another organism, either of the same or a different species. + +symbiosis +Any close and long-term interaction between two different biological organisms, regardless of the nature or degree of the effect on either organism. Examples include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. + +synthetic biology +An interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering combining various disciplines from within these domains, including biotechnology, evolutionary biology, molecular biology, systems biology, biophysics, computer engineering, and genetic engineering. + +systematics +The scientific study of biodiversity. It is concerned with the discovering and naming of new species of organisms (nomenclature) and arranging these taxa into classification schemes (taxonomy). A large part of modern systematics is concerned with understanding the evolutionary relationships between various taxa (phylogenetics) using methods of comparative biology (e.g. physiology, behavior, biochemistry, morphology, genetics) and statistical analysis. + +systems biology +A branch of biology concerned with the computational and mathematical analysis of complex biological systems. It is an interdisciplinary field which combines elements of systems theory and applied mathematics with theoretical biology, with a primary aim to discover and model the emergent properties of interacting biological entities. + +== T == + +T cell +A type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. + +taxon +(pl.) taxa +A group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms used by taxonomists to classify organisms into discrete, convenient, and identifiable units. + +taxonomy + +telophase + +testosterone +The primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. + +thymine +One of the four nucleobases used in the nucleic acid DNA (but not in RNA). It is represented in DNA sequences by the letter T. + +tissue + +trait + +transcription +The first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use complementary base pairs of nucleotides as a common language. + +translation +The process by which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins following the transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus. + +trophic level +The position an organism occupies in a food chain. + +tumor +Also called a neoplasm. + +== U == + +uncoating +The decomposition of a viral capsid. An informal and simplified description of the way a virus infectious material enters the cell, usually appearing in light science material for the general public. + +unicellular +Having or consisting of only one cell, as opposed to being multicellular. + +uracil +One of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of RNA that are represented by the letters A, G, C and U. + +urea +An organic compound with chemical formula CO(NH2)2. + +urine +A liquid byproduct of metabolism in humans and in many animals. + +uterus +A major female hormone-responsive secondary sex organ of the reproductive system in humans and most other mammals. + +== V == + +vacuole +A membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal, and bacterial cells. + +vasodilation +The widening of blood vessels. + +vector + +vegetative reproduction +Any type of asexual reproduction performed by an organism which is nonetheless capable of sexual reproduction. The term is used primarily for plants. + +vertebrate + +vesicle +A small structure within or sometimes external to a cell, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. + +vestigiality +The retention during the process of evolution of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function in a given species. + +virology +The branch of biology that studies viruses. + +virus +A submicroscopic, infectious, parasitic particle of genetic material contained in a protein coat and which replicates only inside the living cell of a host organism. + +== W == + +white blood cell +See leukocyte. + +whole genome sequencing +The process of determining the complete DNA sequence of a particular organism's entire genome at a single time. + +wood +The inner layer of the stems of woody plants such as trees and shrubs, composed of xylem. + +== X == + +xanthophyll +A yellow-colored photosynthetic pigment. + +xylem +A type of plant tissue responsible for the transport of water from roots to aerial parts of the plant. + +== Y == + +yolk +The nutrient-bearing portion of the egg whose primary function is to supply food for the development of the embryo. + +== Z == + +zoology +The branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and geographical distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. + +zooplankton +A type of heterotrophic (sometimes detritivorous) plankton, as opposed to phytoplankton, which instead obtain energy from photosynthesis. Individual zooplankton are usually microscopic, but some (such as jellyfish) are larger and visible to the naked eye. + +zygospore +A diploid reproductive stage in the life cycle of many fungi and protists. + +zygote +A eukaryotic cell formed by a fertilization event between two gametes. + +== Related to this search == +Index of biology articles +Outline of biology +Glossaries of sub-disciplines and related fields: +Glossary of botany +Glossary of ecology +Glossary of entomology +Glossary of environmental science +Glossary of genetics +Glossary of ichthyology +Glossary of ornithology +Glossary of scientific naming +Glossary of speciation +Glossary of virology + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f9efffc51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 3/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +central dogma of molecular biology +A framework for understanding the movement of genetic information between information-carrying biopolymers within biological systems. Popularly (though simplistically) stated as "DNA makes RNA and RNA makes protein", the principle attempts to capture the notion that the transfer of genetic information only naturally occurs between certain classes of molecules and in certain directions. + +centriole +A cylindrical cell structure found in most eukaryotic cells, composed mainly of a protein called tubulin. + +centrosome +An organelle that is the primary site at which microtubules are organized. They occur only in plant and animal cells and help to regulate cell division. + +chemical compound +A chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemically bonded elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. The ratio of each element is usually expressed by a chemical formula. + +chemical equilibrium +The state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time in a chemical reaction. + +chemical reaction +A process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. + +chemistry +A branch of the physical sciences that studies the composition, structure, properties, and change of matter. Chemical interactions underlie all biological processes. + +chemosynthesis + +chlorophyll +Any of several photosynthetic pigments found in cyanobacteria, algae, or plants. + +chloroplast +A type of highly specialized organelle in the cells of plants and algae, the main role of which is to conduct photosynthesis, by which the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight and converts and stores it in the molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water. + +cholesterol +A type of lipid molecule that is biosynthesized by all animal cells because it is an essential structural component of animal cell membranes, essential for maintaining both membrane structural integrity and fluidity. + +chromosome +A threadlike strand of DNA in the cell nucleus that carries the genes in a linear order. + +cilia + +circadian rhythm + +citric acid cycle +Also called the Krebs cycle and tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). +A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form of guanosine triphosphate (GTP). In addition, the cycle provides the chemical precursors for certain amino acids as well as the reducing agent NADH that is used in numerous other biochemical reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest established components of cellular metabolism and may have originated abiogenically. + +clade + +class + +clonal selection +A scientific theory in immunology that explains the functions of cells (lymphocytes) of the immune system in response to specific antigens invading the body. The theory has become the widely accepted model for how the immune system responds to infection and how certain types of B and T lymphocytes are selected for destruction of specific antigens. + +cloning +The process of producing individual organisms or molecules with identical or virtually identical DNA, either naturally or artificially. Many organisms, such as bacteria, insects, and plants, are capable of naturally producing clones through asexual reproduction. In biotechnology, cloning refers to the artificial creation of copies of cells, DNA fragments, or other biomolecules by various laboratory techniques. + +coat, coating +In the context of virus capsid, may refer colloquially to the defined geometric structure of a capsid, or the membrane of an endosome containing an intact virion. The coat of a virus is used in descriptions for the general public. Related slang: uncoating. + +colony + +comparative biology +The use of comparative methods to study the similarities and differences between two or more biological organisms (e.g. two organisms from the same time period but different taxa, or two organisms from the same taxon but different times in evolutionary history). The side-by-side comparison of morphological or molecular characteristics of different organisms is the basis from which biologists infer the organisms' genetic relatedness and their natural histories. It is a fundamental tool in many biological disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, paleontology, and phylogenetics. + +conservation biology +The scientific study of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. + +convergent evolution +An evolutionary process by which species of different lineages independently develop similar characteristics, often to the point that the species appear to be more closely related than they actually are. + +countercurrent exchange +The crossover of some property, usually heat or some component, between two fluids flowing in opposite directions to each other. The phenomenon occurs naturally but is also frequently mimicked in industry and engineering. + +crista +A fold in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. + +cryobiology +The branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in laboratory experiments. + +cytology +See cell biology. + +cytoplasm +All of the material within a cell and enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the nucleus. The cytoplasm consists mainly of water, the gel-like cytosol, various organelles, and free-floating granules of nutrients and other biomolecules. + +cytosine +One of the four main nitrogenous bases found in both DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, thymine, and uracil (in RNA); it is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2). + +cytoskeleton +A complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments that extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and which is present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including bacteria and archaea. The cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. In eukaryotes, the cytoskeletal matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements. + +== D == + +Darwinian fitness +The genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation's gene pool relative to the average for the population, usually measured by the number of offspring or close kin that survive to reproductive age. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e2bee74c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 4/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +deciduous +Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and it is typically used in botany in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruits when ripe. + +decomposition +The process by which the organic compounds of deceased organisms are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars, and mineral salts. These reactions occur naturally by both biotic means (biodegradation, such as that practiced by many bacteria and fungi) and abiotic means (basic physical and chemical processes, such as hydrolysis). Decomposition recycles matter present in the biosphere, making it an essential part of the nutrient cycle. Organisms that facilitate decomposition are known as decomposers; the scientific study of decomposition is known as taphonomy. + +decomposer +Any organism that facilitates the breakdown of dead or decaying organisms by carrying out the decomposition of complex biomolecules into simpler substances. Decomposers are heterotrophs which obtain energy and nutrition for their own growth and reproduction by recycling the chemical compounds contained in organic substrates. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi are the biosphere's chief decomposers, but invertebrates such as earthworms are also sometimes considered decomposers. + +dehydration reaction +A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from the reacting molecule. + +denaturation +A process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary, tertiary, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, when exposed to some external stress or chemical compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, or an organic solvent. + +dendrite +A short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body. + +denitrification +The microbially facilitated process of nitrate reduction that ultimately produces molecular nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products. It is performed by a large group of heterotrophic facultative anaerobic bacteria and is a fundamental component of the nitrogen cycle. + +deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) +A nucleic acid polymer that serves as the fundamental hereditary material in all living organisms. Each DNA molecule is composed of long sequences of nucleotides, each of which includes one of four nitrogenous bases – adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) – attached to a sugar-phosphate complex which acts as a "backbone" for the long-chain polymer. DNA most commonly occurs in "double-stranded" form, i.e. as a pair of nucleotide polymers bound together by complementary base pairing. + +depolarization +The process of reversing the charge across a cell membrane (such as that of a neuron), thereby causing an action potential. In depolarization, the inside of the membrane, which is normally negatively charged, becomes positive and the outside becomes negative. This is brought about by positively charged sodium ions rapidly passing into the axon. + +desmosome +Also called the macula adhaerens. +A cell structure specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion. + +developmental biology +The branch of biology that studies the processes by which living organisms grow and develop over time. The field may also encompass the study of reproduction, regeneration, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in mature tissues. + +disease +Any particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of a living organism and that is not the result of any immediate external injury. Diseases are medical conditions that are often identifiable by specific signs and symptoms. They may be caused by external factors such as infectious pathogens or by internal dysfunctions such as immune deficiency or senescence. + +DNA +See deoxyribonucleic acid. + +DNA replication +The chemical duplication or copying of a DNA molecule; the process of producing two identical copies from one original DNA molecule, in which the double helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template for the next strand. Complementary nucleotide bases are matched to synthesize the new partner strands. + +DNA sequencing +The process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule. + +drug +Any substance that causes a change in an organism's physiology or psychology when consumed. Drugs may be naturally occurring or artificially produced, and consumption may occur in a number of different ways. Drugs are typically distinguished from substances that provide nutritional support such as food. + +dimorphism +The existence of a morphological distinction between organisms of the same species, such that individuals of that species occur in one of two distinct forms which differ in one or more characteristics, such as colour, size, shape, or any other phenotypic trait. Dimorphism based on sex – e.g. male vs. female – is common in sexually reproducing organisms such as plants and animals. + +dynein +A motor protein in cells which converts the chemical energy contained in ATP into the mechanical energy of movement. + +== E == + +ecological efficiency +The efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem. + +ecological pyramid +Also called a trophic pyramid, eltonian pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid. +A graphical representation of the biomass or bio-productivity generated at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. + +ecological succession +The more or less predictable and orderly set of changes that occurs in the composition or structure of an ecological community over time. + +ecology +The scientific analysis and study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines concepts from biology, geography, and Earth science. + +ecophysiology +A biological discipline that studies the adaptation of an organism's physiology to environmental conditions. + +ecosystem +A community of living organisms in conjunction with the non-living components of their physical environment, interacting as a system. + +ecotype +Sometimes called an ecospecies. +In evolutionary ecology, a genetically distinct geographic variety, population, or race within a species which is adapted to specific environmental conditions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..94becb218 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 5/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ectoderm +The outermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo in early development, or the parts derived from this, which include the epidermis, nerve tissue, and nephridia. + +ectotherm +An organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature compared to ambient sources of heat. Ectotherms generally experience changes in body temperature that closely match changes in the temperature of their environment; colloquially, these organisms are often referred to as "cold-blooded". Contrast endotherm. + +effector +A small molecule that selectively binds to a protein and regulates its biological activity. In this manner, effector molecules act as ligands that can increase or decrease enzyme activity, gene expression, or cell signaling. + +efferent +Conducted or conducting outwards or away from something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied). Contrast afferent. + +egg +The organic vessel containing the zygote in which an animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the developing organism emerges from the egg in a process known as hatching. + +electrochemical gradient +A gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts: the electrical potential and the difference in chemical concentration across the membrane. + +electron acceptor +Any chemical entity that accepts electrons transferred to it from another chemical entity. It is an oxidizing agent that, by virtue of its accepting electrons, is itself reduced in the process. Contrast electron donor. + +electron carrier +Any of various molecules that are capable of accepting one or two electrons from one molecule and donating them to another in the process of electron transport. As the electrons are transferred from one electron carrier to another, their energy level decreases, and energy is released. + +electron donor +A chemical entity that donates electrons to another chemical entity. It is a reducing agent that, by virtue of its giving up its electrons, is itself oxidized in the process. Contrast electron acceptor. + +electron microscope +A type of microscope that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of a sample or specimen. Electron microscopes are capable of much higher magnifications and have greater resolving power than conventional light microscopes, allowing them to see much smaller objects in finer detail. + +electron transport chain +The process of oxidative phosphorylation, by which the NADH and succinate generated by the citric acid cycle are oxidized and electrons are transferred sequentially down a long series of proteins, ultimately to the enzyme ATP synthase, which uses the electrical energy to catalyze the synthesis of ATP by the addition of a phosphate group to ADP. The process takes place in the cell's mitochondria and is the primary means of energy generation in most eukaryotic organisms. + +embryo +A developing stage of a multicellular organism. + +embryology +The branch of biology that studies the development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology involves the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth. + +endangered species +Any species which is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular area. Such species may be threatened by factors such as habitat loss, hunting, disease, and climate change, and most have a declining population or a very limited range. + +endemism +The ecological state of an organism or species being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country, habitat type, or other defined zone. Organisms are said to be endemic to a place if they are indigenous to it and found nowhere else. + +endergonic reaction +Also called a nonspontaneous reaction or unfavorable reaction. +A type of chemical reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed. + +endocrine gland +A gland of the animalian endocrine system that secretes hormones directly into the blood rather than through a duct. In humans, the major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands. + +endocrine system +The collection of glands that produce hormones which regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and a wide variety of other biological processes. + +endocytosis +A form of active transport in which a cell transports molecules such as proteins into the cell's interior by engulfing them in an energy-consuming process. + +endoderm +One of the three primary germ layers in the very early human embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm (outside layer) and mesoderm (middle layer), with the endoderm being the innermost layer. + +endogenous +(of a substance or process) Originating from within a system (such as an organism, tissue, or cell), as with endogenous cannabinoids and circadian rhythms. Contrast exogenous. + +endoplasmic reticulum +A type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known as cisternae. + +endosperm +The tissue produced inside the seeds of most of the flowering plants following fertilization. + +endosymbiotic theory +Also called symbiogenesis. +An evolutionary theory regarding the origin of eukaryotic cells from a hypothetical internal symbiosis between prokaryotic organisms, first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967. + +endotherm +An organism that is capable of maintaining a consistent, metabolically favorable body temperature, largely by the recycling of heat released by its internal physiological functions, instead of by relying on ambient sources of heat. Endotherms are generally able to maintain a stable body temperature despite changes in the temperature of their environment; colloquially, these organisms are often referred to as "warm-blooded". Contrast ectotherm. + +entomology +The scientific study of insects. + +environmental biology +The branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms and their environments. + +enzyme +A protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze their individual steps, and almost all metabolic processes require enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87be617eb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 6/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +epidemiology +The study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. + +epigenetics +A sub-field of genetics that studies cellular and physiological phenotypic trait variations caused by external or environmental factors which affect how cells express genes, as opposed to those caused by changes in the DNA sequence. + +epiphyte +An organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, marine environments, or from debris accumulating around it. + +essential nutrient +A nutrient required for normal physiological function which cannot be synthesized by a particular organism, either at all or in sufficient quantities, and which therefore must be obtained from external sources such as food. In humans, a set of nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins, and fifteen minerals are considered essential nutrients. + +estrogen +The primary female sex hormone. + +ethology +The scientific study of non-human animal behaviour (i.e. excluding human behaviour) and usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. + +eukaryote +A type of organism consisting of cells which have a nucleus enclosed within a distinct nuclear membrane, unlike prokaryotes. Eukaryotes include all organisms except the bacteria and archaea (i.e. all plants, animals, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes). + +evolution +The change in the heritable characteristics of populations of biological organisms over successive generations, which may occur by mutation, gene flow, natural selection, or random chance. + +evolutionary biology +The subfield of biology that studies evolution and the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth from a hypothesized single common ancestor. These processes include the descent of species and the origin of new species. + +exocytosis +A form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the cell by expelling them through an energy-dependent process. + +exogenous +(of a substance or process) Originating outside of or external to a system (such as an organism, tissue, or cell), as with drugs and many pathogens. Contrast endogenous. + +exponential growth +It is exhibited when the rate of change of the value of a mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value, resulting in its value at any time being an exponential function of time. + +external fertilization +A type of fertilization in which a sperm unites with an egg external to the body or bodies of the parent organisms. Contrast internal fertilization. + +extinction +The termination of the existence of a particular kind of organism or a particular taxon, often a species, as a result of the death of the last individual of the taxon (though the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point, rendering the taxon functionally extinct). + +extracellular +Of or occurring in the space outside the plasma membrane of a cell. Contrast intracellular. + +extranuclear inheritance +A transmission of genes that takes place outside the nucleus. + +== F == + +facultative anaerobe +An organism which is capable of producing energy through aerobic respiration and then switching to anaerobic respiration depending on the amounts of oxygen and fermentable material in the environment. + +family + +fermentation +A metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen. + +fitness + +fitness landscape + +fertilization + +fetus +Also spelled foetus. +An animal embryo after eight weeks of development. + +flagellum +(pl.) flagella +A lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body of certain bacterial and eukaryotic cells. + +flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) +A redox cofactor, more specifically a prosthetic group of a protein, involved in different important enzymatic reactions in metabolism. + +food chain +The chain of eating and getting nutrition which starts from a small herbivores animal and ends up at a big carnivorous organism. + +foramen +(pl.) foramimina +An open hole that is present in extant or extinct amniotes. Foramina inside the body of animals typically allow muscles, nerves, arteries, veins, or other structures to connect one part of the body with another. + +founder effect +A loss of genetic variation that takes places when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. + +fungi + +== G == + +G protein +A family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are implicated in transmitting signals from a diversity of stimuli outside a cell to its interior. + +gamete + +gene +Any segment of DNA that contains the information necessary to produce a functional RNA and/or protein product in a controlled manner. Genes are often considered the fundamental molecular units of heredity. The transmission of genes from a parent cell or organism to its offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. + +gene pool +A set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species. + +generation + +genetic code +A set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) into proteins. + +genetic drift +An alteration in the frequency of an existing gene variant in a population due to random sampling of organisms. + +genetic variation +Variations of genomes between members of species, or between groups of species thriving in different parts of the world as a result of genetic mutation. Genetic diversity in a population or species is a result of new gene combinations (e.g. crossing over of chromosomes), genetic mutations, genetic drift, etc. + +genetics +The study of heredity. + +genome +The entire set of genetic material contained within the chromosomes of an organism, organelle, or virus. + +genotype +Part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of an organism or individual, which determines one of its characteristics (phenotype). + +genus + +gizzard +An organ found in the digestive tract of some animals, including archosaurs (pterosaurs, crocodiles, alligators, and dinosaurs, including birds), earthworms, some gastropods, some fish, and some crustaceans. + +guanine +One of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..635aa299b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,134 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 7/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == + +habitat +A place for animals, people, and plants and non-living things. + +habituation +A form of learning in which an organism decreases or desists its responses to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged presentations. + +heredity +The passing on of phenotypic traits from parents to their offspring, either through sexual or asexual reproduction. Offspring cells and organisms are said to inherit the genetic information of their parents. + +hermaphrodite +A sexually reproducing organism with both male and female reproductive organs. + +herpetology +The branch of zoology that studies reptiles and amphibians. + +heterosis +The improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. + +heterotroph + +histology +The study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. + +Hodgkin–Huxley model +A mathematical model that describes how action potentials in neurons are initiated and propagated. + +hormone +Any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. + +host +Any living organism that harbors another living organism (known as a "guest" or symbiont), whether the guest is parasitic, mutualistic, or commensalist in its interactions with the host. The guest typically receives shelter and nourishment from the host. + +hybrid + +hydrocarbon +An organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups called hydrocarbyls. + +== I == + +ichthyology +The branch of biology devoted to the study of fish, including bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). + +immune response +The immune response is how your body recognizes and defends itself against bacteria, viruses, and substances that appear foreign and harmful. + +immunity + +immunoglobulin +Any of a class of glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells (white blood cells) which act as a critical part of the immune response by specifically recognizing and binding to particular antigens, such as bacteria or viruses, and aiding in their destruction. They are a major component of the group of immune defense molecules collectively called antibodies. + +infection +The invasion of an organism's cells or tissues by a disease-causing pathogen, its growth and/or multiplication, and the reaction of the host organism to the infectious agent and the toxins it produces. The variety of biological pathogens capable of causing infections includes certain bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists, parasitic worms, and arthropods. + +insulin +An anabolic peptide hormone produced in the pancreas which helps to regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells. Abnormal insulin activity is the cause of diabetes mellitus. + +integrative biology +The various forms of cross-disciplinary and multitaxon research. + +interferon +A group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their antiviral defenses. + +internal fertilization +A type of fertilization which takes place inside the egg-producing individual. + +International System of Units +(French: Système international d'unités; abbreviated SI) The modern standardized form of the metric system of units and measurements, and the system of measurement formally adopted for use in the physical and natural sciences. + +interphase + +intracellular +Also called endocellular. +Of or occurring inside or within the enclosed interior of a cell. Contrast extracellular. + +introduced species +Also called an exotic species, foreign species, alien species, non-native species, or non-indigenous species. +Any species living outside its native geographic range, and which has arrived there either by accidental or deliberate human activity. Such human-caused introduction of species to foreign environments is distinguished from biological colonization, by which species spread to new areas through "natural" means (i.e. without the involvement of humans). + +invertebrate +A group of animals that have no backbone, unlike animals such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds, and mammals, which all have a backbone. Among the many extant invertebrate phyla are the Cnidaria, Mollusca, Annelida, Nematoda, and Arthropoda. + +ion +An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. + +ionic bond +A type of chemical bond involving the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between two atoms. Such bonds typically occur between elements characterized as metals and nonmetals, and generate two oppositely charged ions: the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, and the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion. + +isomer +A molecule with the same chemical formula as another molecule, but with a different chemical structure. That is, isomers contain the same number of atoms of each element, but have different arrangements of their atoms. + +isotonic solution +Refers to two solutions having the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable membrane. This state allows for the free movement of water across the membrane without changing the concentration of solutes on either side. + +== J == + +jejunum + like gher vertebrates like mammals, birds, and reptiles. It is present between the duodenum and the ileum. + +== K == + +kinase +An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to specific substrates. + +kingdom + +Krebs cycle +See citric acid cycle. + +== L == + +larva +(pl.) larvae +A distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development, such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians, typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. + +Law of Independent Assortment +The principle, originally formulated by Gregor Mendel, stating that when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together. + +leukocyte +Also called a white blood cell. +A colourless cell of the immune system which circulates in the blood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances and disease. There are several types of leukocytes, all amoeboid cells with a nucleus, including lymphocytes, granulocytes, and monocytes. + +lichen \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3355baf93 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 8/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +life +The characteristic or collection of characteristics that distinguishes physical entities that undergo biological processes (e.g. living organisms) from that those do not (e.g. non-living, inanimate matter), either because such processes have ceased or because they were not present in the first place. What constitutes "life" is notoriously difficult to define, and there is currently no consensus definition, though some popular criteria are that living things are composed of cells, have a life cycle, undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, adapt to environments, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and evolve. Biology is the scientific study of life and of living organisms. + +life cycle + +ligament +The fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones and is also known as articular ligament, articular larua, fibrous ligament, or true ligament. + +light-independent reactions +See Calvin cycle. + +linked genes +Any set of one or more genes which are sufficiently close together on the same chromosome that they are very unlikely to assort independently and therefore are usually inherited together. + +lipid +A substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells. Cholesterol and triglycerides are lipids. + +lipoprotein +A biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids, bound to the proteins, which allow fats to move through the water inside and outside cells. The proteins serve to emulsify the lipid molecules. + +== M == + +M phase +Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle – the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. + +macroevolution +Evolution on a scale of separated gene pools. Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species, in contrast with microevolution, which refers to smaller evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population. + +macromolecule +A very large molecule, such as a protein, commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers). They are typically composed of thousands or more atoms. + +macronutrient +Nutrients needed in large amounts which provide calories or energy. Nutrients are substances needed for growth, metabolism, and for other body functions. There are three basic types of macronutrients: fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. + +macrophage +A kind of swallowing cell, which means it functions by literally swallowing up other particles or smaller cells. Macrophages engulf and digest debris (such as dead cells) and foreign particles through the process of phagocytosis, so macrophages act like scavengers. + +mammalogy +The branch of biology that studies mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. + +marine biology +The study of organisms in the ocean or other marine bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. + +mast cell +A cell filled with basophil granules, found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions. + +mating + +medulla +The continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centres for the heart and lungs. + +meiosis +A specialized type of cell division in which a dividing parent cell proceeds through two consecutive divisions, ultimately producing four genetically unique daughter cells in each of which the chromosome number is half of that in the original parent cell. This process is exclusive to cells of the sex organs in sexually reproducing eukaryotes, where it serves the purpose of generating gametes such as eggs, sperm, or spores. + +membrane potential +When a nerve or muscle cell is at "rest", its membrane potential is called the resting membrane potential. In a typical neuron, this is about –70 millivolts (mV). The minus sign indicates that the inside of the cell is negative with respect to the surrounding extracellular fluid. + +messenger RNA +A large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome. + +metabolism + +metamorphosis + +metaphase +The third phase of mitosis, in which duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell is separated into two identical daughter cells. During metaphase, the cell's chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell through a type of cellular "tug of war". + +microbiology +The study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and protozoa. This discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents. + +microevolution +The alteration in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. + +mitochondria +(sing.) mitochondrion + +mitosis +In eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell cycle during which the division of the nucleus takes place and duplicated chromosomes are separated into two distinct nuclei. Mitosis is generally preceded by the "S" stage of interphase, when the cell's DNA is replicated, and followed by cytokinesis, when the cytoplasm and cell membrane are divided into two new daughter cells. It is similar to but distinct from binary fission and meiosis. + +molecule +The smallest particle in a chemical element or compound that has the chemical properties of that element or compound. Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. These bonds form as a result of the sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms. + +molecular biology +The branch of biology concerning biological activity at the molecular level. The field of molecular biology overlaps with biology and chemistry and in particular with genetics and biochemistry. + +molecular switch + A molecule that can be reversibly changed between two or more stable states. + +monomer +A molecule that "can undergo polymerization thereby contributing constitutional units to the essential structure of a macromolecule". + +morphology + +motile \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c313c9127 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 9/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +motor neuron +A neuron whose cell body is situated in the motor cortex, brain stem, or the spinal cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands. + +mucous membrane +A membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs. + +multicellular +Having or consisting of more than one cell, as opposed to being unicellular. + +mycology +The branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. + +myofibril +A basic rod-like unit of a muscle cell. + +myosin +A superfamily of motor proteins best known for their roles in muscle contraction and in a wide range of other motility processes in eukaryotes. + +== N == + +natural selection + A process in nature in which organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to succeeding generations. + +neurobiology +Also called neuroscience. +The scientific study of the nervous system. + +neuron +An electrically excitable cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. + +neurotransmitter +An endogenous compound that enable neurotransmission. + +niche +The role and position an organism or taxon fills within its environment; how it meets its needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces. A species' niche includes all of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment. + +nitrogen fixation +The chemical process by which molecular nitrogen (N2) in the air is converted into ammonia (NH3) or related nitrogenous compounds, typically by specialized microorganisms in soil and aquatic ecosystems but also by certain non-biological processes. Despite comprising nearly 80% of the gas in the Earth's atmosphere, diatomic nitrogen is metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms, known as diazotrophs. Nitrogen fixation is essential to all life on Earth because fixed inorganic nitrogenous compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing organic compounds, including amino acids and nucleic acids. + +nucleic acid +The biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life . + +nucleic acid sequence +A succession of letters that indicate the order of nucleotides forming alleles within a DNA or RNA molecule. + +nucleobase +The nitrogen-containing biological compounds that form nucleosides, which in turn are components of nucleotides, with all of these monomers constituting the basic building blocks of nucleic acids. + +nucleoid +An irregularly shaped region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic material, called the genophore. + +nucleolus +The largest structure within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. + +nucleotide +An organic compound which serves as the fundamental monomer used in the construction of nucleic acid polymers, such as DNA and RNA, both of which are essential biomolecules within all living organisms. + +== O == + +offspring + +order + +organ +A collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. + +organism +A contiguous living system. + +ornithology +The branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. + +osmosis +The spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. + +== P == + +paleontology +The study of the history of life on Earth as reflected in the fossil record. Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms that lived in the geological past and have been preserved in the Earth's crust. + +parallel evolution +The development of a similar trait in related, but distinct, species descending from the same ancestor, but from different clades. + +parasite + +parasitology +The study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question, but by their way of life. + +pathobiology +The study or practice of pathology with greater emphasis on the biological than on the medical aspects. + +pathogen +In the broadest sense, anything that can produce disease, though the term is most commonly used to refer specifically to an infectious microscopic organism such as a virus, bacterium, protozoan, or another microbial agent which causes disease for a host organism by invading the host's tissues. + +pathology +A medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology, and molecular pathology. + +pH +A numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of an aqueous solution. It is roughly the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions. + +pharmacology +The science of drug action on biological systems. In its entirety, it embraces knowledge of the sources, chemical properties, biological effects, and therapeutic uses of drugs. + +phenotype +The composite of an organism's observable features or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior. + +pheromone +A secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are analogous to hormones acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of receiving individuals. + +phloem +The conducting tissue in plants responsible for the conduction of food particles. + +photosynthesis +The process by which nearly all plants and some algae and bacteria convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy, which is used to synthesize carbohydrates such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water; these carbohydrates are stored as food, and the energy within them is later released to fuel metabolic activities. Organisms that perform photosynthesis are therefore autotrophs. Photosynthesis supplies the majority of the energy necessary for life on Earth. + +phylogeny \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c72d9e8ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of biology" +chunk: 10/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:34.867189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +phylum +A taxonomic rank or level of classification below kingdom and above class; in botany, the term division is commonly used in place of phylum. + +physiology +The branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes. + +phytochemistry +The study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. + +phytopathology +The science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases. + +piliferous +Bearing hair + +placebo +A substance or treatment of no intended therapeutic value. + +plant + +plasmolysis +The process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. + +pollination +The transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a female part of a plant, enabling later fertilisation and the production of seeds. Pollen is most commonly transported by animals or by wind. + +polymer +A large macromolecule composed of many repeated subunits. + +polymerase chain reaction (PCR) +A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. + +polyploidy +Having or containing more than two complete sets of chromosomes. + +population +All the organisms of the same group or species that live in a particular geographical area and are capable of interbreeding. + +population biology +The study of populations of organisms, especially the regulation of population size, life history traits such as clutch size, and extinction. + +population ecology +Also called autoecology. +A subfield of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment. It is the study of how the population sizes of species change over time and space. + +predation +A biological interaction in which a predator kills and eats its prey. + +predator + +prey + +primer +A short strand of RNA or DNA that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. + +progeny +Any genetic descendant or offspring. + +progesterone +An endogenous steroid and progestogen sex hormone which plays a critical role in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis in humans and other animal species. + +prokaryote +A type of organism which does not have a true nucleus. + +protein +A polypeptide chain of amino acids. It is a body-building nutrient. + +protist + +psychobiology +Also called behavioral neuroscience, biological psychology, and biopsychology. +The application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals. + +== R == + +regeneration +The process of renewal, restoration, and growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage. For example, many organisms are capable of regenerating tissues and even entire body parts if they are lost or destroyed. + +reproduction +Also called procreation or breeding. +The biological process by which one or more new individual organisms (known as offspring) is produced from an existing parent organism. Reproduction is a defining characteristic of all life, and every individual organism exists as the result of a reproductive event. There are two general methods by which reproduction takes place: sexual or asexual. + +reproductive biology +The branch of biology that studies the various types and mechanisms of reproduction used by living organisms, typically with special emphasis on cell division, fertility, endocrinology, and/or the tissues, organs, and systems involved in reproduction. + +ribonucleic acid (RNA) +A nucleic acid polymer composed of a series of ribonucleotides which incorporate a set of four nucleobases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U). Closely related to DNA, RNA molecules serve in a wide variety of essential biological roles, including coding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes, as well as functioning as signaling molecules. + +ribosome +A complex molecular machine, found within all living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis. + +RNA +See ribonucleic acid. + +RNA polymerase +A member of a family of enzymes that are essential to life: they are found in all organisms and many viruses. + +== S == + +sclerenchyma +A type of tissue in which cells have thick lignified secondary walls and often die when mature. + +seed +The embryo, enclosed in a protective outer covering, of certain types of plants. + +selective breeding +See artificial selection. + +sessile +1. Generally, lacking motility or means of self-locomotion; immobile or incapable of movement. Sessile organisms may move via external forces such as wind or water currents but are more often permanently fixed to a solid object such as a rock, soil, or another organism. +2. In botany, the property of a plant or plant part that is attached directly by its base to an object or another plant part, i.e. without an intervening stem, stalk, or petiole. + +sex + +sexual reproduction +A type of reproduction in which cells from two parents unite to form the first cell of a new organism. + +sociality +The degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups and form cooperative societies. + +sociobiology +A branch of biology that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and which attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. + +soil biology +The study of microbial and faunal activity and ecology in soil. + +species +The basic unit of biological classification and the narrowest of the canonical taxonomic ranks, as well as a unit of biodiversity. Species are traditionally distinguished on the basis of reproductive compatibility, though achieving a satisfactory definition that is universally applicable to all life has proven difficult, since many organisms classified as distinct "species" are capable of interbreeding with different (albeit closely related) species, generating hybrids. + +speciation +The evolutionary process by which populations of organisms evolve to become distinct species, typically via reproductive isolation. + +sperm + +spore + +stem cell +A type of undifferentiated or partially undifferentiated cell that is capable of differentiating into other types of specialized cells and also capable of dividing to produce more of the same type of stem cell. Stem cells are the earliest type of cell in a cell lineage. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9732b989a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemical formulae" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:36.342506+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of common chemical compounds with chemical formulae and CAS numbers, indexed by formula. This complements alternative listing at list of inorganic compounds. + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== Ca–Cu == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +== Z == + + +== External links == +Webelements +Landolt Börnstein Organic Index 2004 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad8543f12 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 1/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of chemistry terms is a list of terms and definitions relevant to chemistry, including chemical laws, diagrams and formulae, laboratory tools, glassware, and equipment. Chemistry is a physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions; it features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of jargon. +Note: All periodic table references refer to the IUPAC Style of the Periodic Table. + +== A == + +absolute zero +A theoretical condition concerning a system at the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, or zero kelvins, at which the system does not emit or absorb energy (i.e. all atoms are at rest). By extrapolating the ideal gas law, the internationally agreed-upon value for absolute zero has been determined as −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F; 0.00 K). + +absorbance + +absorption +1. The physical or chemical process by which a substance in one state becomes incorporated into and retained by another substance of a different state. Absorption differs from adsorption in that the first substance permeates the entire bulk of the second substance, rather than just adhering to the surface. +2. The process by which matter (typically electrons bound in atoms) takes up the energy of electromagnetic radiation and transforms it into any of various types of internal energy, such as thermal energy. This type of absorption is the principle on which spectrophotometry is based. + +abundance + +accuracy +How close a measured value is to the actual or true value. Compare precision. + +acetyl + +achiral +(of a molecule) Having the geometric symmetry of being indistinguishable from its own mirror image; lacking chirality. + +acid +1. (Brønsted–Lowry acid) Any chemical species or molecular entity that acts as a proton donor when reacting with another species, because it loses at least one proton (H+) which is then transferred or 'donated' to the other species, which by definition is a Brønsted–Lowry base. When dissolved in an aqueous solution, a proton donor which increases the concentration of hydronium ion (H3O+) by transferring protons to water molecules may also be called an Arrhenius acid. The term "acid", when not otherwise qualified, often refers implicitly to a Brønsted–Lowry acid. +2. (Lewis acid) Any chemical species or molecular entity that acts as an electron pair acceptor when reacting with another species, forming a covalent bond by accepting a lone pair of electrons donated by the other species, which is known as a Lewis base. This definition was intended as a generalization of the Brønsted–Lowry definition by proposing that acid-base reactions are best viewed as reorganizations of electrons rather than transfers of protons, with the acid being a species that accepts electron pairs from another species either directly or by releasing protons (H+) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs from the other species. The Lewis definition is inclusive of many Brønsted–Lowry acids, though not all: most Lewis acids are not Brønsted–Lowry acids, and most Brønsted–Lowry acids are not Lewis acids. +3. Colloquially, any compound which, when dissolved in water, yields a pH of less than 7.0. The term "acid" is commonly used to refer to the entire aqueous solution, whereas stricter definitions refer only to the acidic solute. + +acid anhydride +Any chemical compound derived by the removal of water molecules from an acid. Contrast base anhydride. + +acid dissociation constant (Ka) +Also acid ionization constant or acidity constant. +A quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution expressed as an equilibrium constant for a chemical dissociation reaction in the context of acid-base reactions. It is often given as its base-10 cologarithm, pKa. + +acid–base extraction +A chemical reaction in which chemical species are separated from other acids and bases. + +acid–base reaction + +acidic + +actinides +Also actinoids. +The periodic series of metallic elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103, from actinium through lawrencium. + +activated complex +A structure that forms because of a collision between molecules while new bonds are formed. + +activation energy +The minimum energy which must be available to a chemical system with potential reactants in order to result in a particular chemical reaction. + +activity series +See reactivity series. + +actual yield + +acyclic +Containing only linear structures of atoms (particularly in hydrocarbons). + +addition reaction +In organic chemistry, a type of chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to make a larger one. + +adduct +A distinct chemical species that is the sole product of an addition reaction between two other distinct reactant species, in which all of the atoms comprising the reactants are retained in the single product. Changes in connectivity may occur, but there is no loss of any of the original atoms and no gain of atoms that are not present in the reactant molecules. Stoichiometries other than 1:1 are also possible, e.g. a bis-adduct (2:1). + +adhesion +The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another as a result of intermolecular forces. Contrast cohesion. + +adsorption +The chemical adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules of one substance (either a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid) to the surface of another substance, resulting in a film of the first substance being weakly bonded to the interface between the two substances. Adsorption differs from absorption in that it is exclusively a surface phenomenon, while absorption involves entire volumes of materials. + +aeration +The mixing of air into a liquid or a solid. + +alcohol +Any organic compound consisting of at least one hydroxyl group attached to a saturated carbon atom. Alcohols have the general formula R–OH. + +aldehyde +A functional group and a class of organic compounds consisting of a carbonyl group attached to a hydrogen atom and any other R-group. Aldehydes have the general formula R–C(H)=O. + +aliphatic + +alkali metal +Any of the metallic elements belonging to Group 1 of the periodic table: lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). + +alkaline + +alkaline earth metal +Any of the metallic elements belonging to Group 2 of the periodic table: beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..985651379 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 2/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +alkane +Also paraffin. +Any fully saturated acyclic hydrocarbon,An acyclic saturated hydrocarbon containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms with only single carbon–carbon bonds; alkanes generally have the formula CnH2n+2. i.e. one in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds. + +alkene +Also olefin. +Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon double bond. + +alkoxy +A functional group of the form R–O–, derived from an alcohol by removal of the hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group. + +alkyl +The substituent form of an alkane, i.e. any alkane missing a hydrogen atom. The term may be used to broadly describe many different functional groups, e.g. a methyl, ethyl, or propyl group. + +alkyne +Also acetylene. +Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon triple bond. + +allomer +A substance that differs in chemical composition but has the same crystalline structure as another substance. + +allotrope +Any of a variety of different structural forms of the same element, as with carbon, whose allotropes include diamonds, graphite, and fullerene. + +alloy +A mixture of metals or of a metal and another element which in combination exhibit a metallic bonding character. Common examples include bronze, brass, and pewter. + +amalgam +Any alloy of mercury with another metal. + +ambident +A molecule or functional group that has two alternative and interacting reaction sites, to either of which a bond may be made during a reaction. + +amide + +ammoniacal +Describing a solution in which the solvent is aqueous ammonia. + +amorphous solid + +amount of substance +Also enplethy, chemical amount, or simply amount. +The number of discrete particles (such as molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, or any other atomic-scale entity) in a given sample of matter, divided by the Avogadro constant. The SI unit for amount of substance is the mole (mol). + +amphipathic +(of a molecule) Composed of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups; e.g. wetting agents and membrane lipids. + +amphoteric +Also amphiprotic. +(of a chemical species) Tending to behave both as an acid and as a base, depending upon the medium in which the species is situated; e.g. sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a strong acid in water but behaves more like a base in superacids. + +amyl +A common non-systematic name for a pentyl group. + +analyte +The specific substance or chemical constituent that is of interest in a chemical analysis. + +analytical chemistry +The branch of chemistry which studies and makes use of instruments and methods to separate, quantify, and identify chemical substances, both by classical wet chemistry techniques such as precipitation, extraction, distillation, and observational analysis, and by modern instrumental techniques such as chromatography, spectroscopy, and electrochemistry. + +ångström (Å) +A non-SI, metric unit of length equal to 10−10 metre, i.e. 1⁄10000000000 of a metre or 0.1 nanometre. The angstrom is commonly used in the natural sciences to express microscopic or atomic-scale distances, including the sizes of atomic nuclei, wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, and lengths of chemical bonds (e.g. the covalent radius of a chlorine atom averages about 1 angstrom). + +anhydrous +Having or containing no water molecules, referring especially to water of hydration. Because many processes in chemistry are impeded in the presence of water, it is often of critical importance that water-free reagents and techniques are used. Anhydrous compounds tend to gradually absorb water from the atmosphere. Contrast hydrous. + +anion +A negatively charged ion; i.e. an atom or molecule with a net negative electric charge caused by an excess of electrons compared to protons. + +annulation +The formation of a cyclic compound or ring structure from one or several acyclic precursors; or a reaction involving the addition of a ring structure to another molecule via two new bonds. + +anode +1. An electrode through which the conventional electric current (the flow of positive charges) enters into a polarized electrical circuit. +2. The wire or plate of an electrochemical cell having an excess positive charge. Negatively charged anions always move toward the anode. Contrast cathode. + +anomer +Either of a pair of cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal saccharides that are epimers of each other, differing at only one carbon stereocenter, specifically the carbon that bears the aldehyde or ketone functional group in the compound's acyclic, open-chain configuration, known as the anomeric carbon. + +aprotic +(of a chemical species) Not protic; i.e. not capable of acting as a proton donor or readily yielding of protons (H+) in solution. + +aqua regia +A liquid mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), optimally in a molar ratio of 1:3, so named by historical alchemists because it is capable of dissolving the noble metals gold and platinum. + +aquation +The process by which water molecules solvate or form coordination complexes with ions. + +aqueous solution +A solution in which the solvent is water. It is denoted in chemical equations by appending (aq) to a chemical formula. + +aromatic + +aromaticity +A chemical property of conjugated rings of atoms, such as benzene, which results in unusually high stability. Such rings are said to be aromatic. + +Arrhenius acid +Any substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of H+ ions, or, more correctly, of hydronium ions (H3O+), in the resulting aqueous solution. The definition is similar to that of a Brønsted–Lowry acid. Contrast Arrhenius base. + +Arrhenius base +Any substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of OH− ions, or, alternatively, decreases the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+), in the resulting aqueous solution. The definition is similar to that of a Brønsted–Lowry base. Contrast Arrhenius acid. + +arrow pushing + +aryl +Any functional group or substituent derived from an aromatic ring, such as phenyl or naphthyl. The symbol Ar is often used as a placeholder for a generic aryl group in structural diagrams. + +atmolysis +The separation of a mixture of gases by exploiting their different rates of diffusion, usually by allowing the gases to diffuse through the walls of a porous partition or membrane. + +atom +A chemical element in its smallest form, made up of protons and neutrons within the nucleus and electrons circling the nucleus. + +atomic mass +The mass of an atom, typically expressed in daltons and nearly equivalent to the mass number multiplied by one dalton. + +atomic mass unit +See dalton. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ffaf95039 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,150 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 11/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +hydron (H+) +Informally synonymous with proton. +The cationic form of atomic hydrogen; i.e. a positively charged hydrogen nucleus of any isotopic composition. Thus the term can refer to a proton (11H+), deuteron (21H+), or triton (31H+). + +hydrous +Having or containing water molecules, referring especially to water of hydration. Contrast anhydrous. + +hydroxide +A diatomic anion consisting of a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an oxygen atom, having an overall negative charge, with the chemical formula OH−; or any member of a class of organic and inorganic compounds containing a hydroxy group, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH). + +hydroxy + +hygroscopy + +== I == + +ideal gas +A hypothetical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that do not participate in any interparticle interactions, thereby making it mathematically convenient to describe and predict their behavior as state variables change. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law and can be analyzed within the framework of statistical mechanics. + +ideal gas constant +Also universal gas constant. +The proportionality constant in the ideal gas law, defined as 0.08206 L·atm/(K·mol). + +ideal gas law +Also general gas equation. +The equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas, which states that the volume of such a gas is proportional to the amount of gas and its Kelvin temperature, and inversely proportional to its pressure. The ideal gas law combines Boyle's law, Charles's law, Gay-Lussac's law, and Avogadro's law into a single equation, conventionally formulated as + + + + P + V + = + n + R + T + + + {\displaystyle PV=nRT} + +, where + + + + R + + + {\displaystyle R} + + is the ideal gas constant. The relationships between the state variables described in this equation are a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under a wide range of conditions, though there are some limitations. + +ideal solution +A solution for which the gas phase exhibits thermodynamic properties analogous to those of a mixture of ideal gases. + +indicator +A special compound added to a solution that changes color depending on the acidity of the solution. Different indicators have different colors and are effective within different pH ranges. + +induced radioactivity +Radioactivity caused by bombarding a stable isotope with elementary particles, forming an unstable, radioactive isotope. + +inert +(of a chemical species) Stable and chemically unreactive; or thermodynamically non-labile, decomposing at a slow or negligible rate. Examples of inert species include the noble gases, which are stable in their naturally occurring forms because their outermost electron shells are filled with as many electrons as possible, making them broadly resistant to the loss or gain of electrons. + +inorganic compound +Any chemical compound that does not contain carbon, though there are exceptions. Contrast organic compound. + +inorganic chemistry +The branch of chemistry concerning the chemical properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. Contrast organic chemistry. + +insolubility +The inability of a substance (the solute) to form a solution by being dissolved in another substance (the solvent); the opposite of solubility. + +inspissation +The process of thickening a liquid by any method of dehydration, especially evaporation. + +insulator +Any material that resists the flow of an electric current. Contrast conductor. + +intensive property +A physical quantity whose value does not depend on the size of the system or the quantity of matter for which it is measured. Examples include density, temperature, and pressure. Contrast extensive property. + +interface +The boundary between two spatial regions occupied by different matter, especially by matter in different phases or physical states. See also surface and phase boundary. + +intermediate +See reactive intermediate. + +intermetallic +A type of alloy that forms an ordered solid-state compound between two or more metallic elements. Intermetallics are generally hard and brittle, and have useful mechanical properties at high temperatures. + +intermolecular force +Any force that mediates interaction between molecules, e.g. electromagnetic forces of attraction or repulsion, hydrogen bonding, and the van der Waals force, all of which act between the atoms of one molecule and the atoms or ions of nearby molecules. Intermolecular forces are weak compared to intramolecular forces such as covalent bonds, which hold individual molecules together. + +International System of Units (SI) + +International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) +An international federation of chemists that is recognized as the world authority in developing standards for chemical nomenclature and other methodologies in chemistry. + +interstitial compound +A compound composed of a transition metal bonded to either hydrogen, boron, carbon, or nitrogen, whose crystal structure consists of closely packed metal ions with the non-metal atoms located in the interstices. + +intramolecular force + +intrinsic property + +ion +A molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons from its neutral state and therefore possesses a negative or positive electric charge. + +ionic bond +An electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. + +ionic strength +A measure of the concentration of ions in a solution, usually expressed in terms of molarity (mol/L solution) or molality (mol/kg solvent). + +ionization +The breaking up of a chemical compound into separate ions. + +isoelectronicity +The phenomenon of two or more chemical species (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) being composed of different elements but having the same number of valence electrons and the same structural arrangement (i.e. the same number of atoms with the same connectivity). Isoelectronic species typically show useful consistency and predictability in their chemical properties. + +isomerization + +isomers +Ions or molecules with identical chemical formulas but distinct structures or spatial arrangements. Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties. The two main types of isomers are structural isomers and stereoisomers. + +isotope +A variant of a particular chemical element which differs in the number of neutrons present in the nucleus. All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons in each atom. + +== J == + +joule (J) +The SI unit of energy (symbol: J). One joule is defined as one newton-metre. + +== K == + +kelvin (K) +The SI unit of temperature (symbol: K). The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale that uses absolute zero as its null point. + +keto acid +Also ketoacid. +Any organic compound that can be classified as both a ketone and a carboxylic acid, by virtue of containing a keto group and a carboxyl group. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f8895da3a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,171 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 12/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ketone +A class of organic compounds and a functional group composed of a carbonyl group between two carbon atoms. Ketones have the general formula R2C=O, where R can be any carbon-containing substituent. + +kindling point +See autoignition temperature. + +kinetics +A subfield of chemistry specializing in the study of reaction rates. + +kinetic energy +The energy of an object due to its motion. + +== L == + +lability + +lanthanides +Also lanthanoids. +The periodic series of metallic elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium. + +lattice +The unique geometric arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. + +lattice energy +The energy released upon the formation of one mole of a crystalline ionic compound from its constituent ions, which are assumed to exist initially in the gaseous state. Lattice energy can be viewed as a measure of the cohesive forces that bind ionic solids; it is therefore directly related to many other physical properties of the solid, including solubility, hardness, and volatility. + +law of conservation of energy + +law of conservation of mass + +law of multiple proportions + +laws of thermodynamics + +leveling effect +The effect of a solvent on the chemical properties of acids or bases which are dissolved in the solvent. The strength of a strong acid is limited or "leveled" by the basicity of the solvent, and likewise the strength of a strong base is limited by the acidity of the solvent, such that the effective pH of the solution is higher or lower than might be suggested by the acid's or base's dissociation constant. + +Lewis acid + +Lewis base + +Lewis structure + +ligand +An ion, functional group, or other molecule that binds to a central metal atom to form a coordination complex. Such bonding can range from covalent to ionic, but generally involves formal donation of one or more of the ligand's electron pairs to the metal. + +light +Also referred to as visible light. +The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which is visible to the unaided human eye. + +liquefaction +Any process that generates a liquid from a solid or a gas, or that generates a non-liquid phase that behaves as a fluid. + +liquefaction point +See melting point. + +liquid +One of the four fundamental states of matter, characterized by nearly incompressible fluid particles that retain a definite volume but no fixed shape. + +liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) + +locant + +London dispersion forces +A type of weak intermolecular force. + +== M == + +macromolecule +A very large molecule comprising many atoms and bonds, or any molecule with a high relative molecular mass, especially one whose structure is formed by the multiple repetition of discrete subunits derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules with low relative molecular mass (e.g. monomers, substituents, and functional groups). The term is often used interchangeably with polymer. + +magnetic quantum number + +malleability +See ductility. + +manometer +An instrument used to measure pressure invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. + +marine biochemistry +study of the chemical processes and interactions within and between marine organisms and their marine environment. + +masking agent +A reagent used in a chemical analysis which reacts with one or more other chemical species that may interfere in the analysis. + +mass +A property of physical matter that is a measure of its resistance to acceleration when a net force is applied. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). + +mass concentration + +mass fraction + +mass number (A) +Also atomic mass number or nucleon number. +The total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) within the nucleus of an atom. It determines the atomic mass of the atom. Mass number varies between different isotopes of the same chemical element, and is often included either after the element's name (as in carbon-12) or as a superscript to the left of the element's symbol (as in 12C) to identify a specific isotope. + +mass spectrometry (MS) +An analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions in a chemical sample by bombarding the sample with electrons to the point of ionization and then separating the charged fragments by subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field, typically in order to determine the elemental or isotopic signatures of an unknown substance, the masses of its constituent particles, and/or the identities or structures of the molecules within it. The results are presented as a mass spectrum, a plot of the intensity of ion signals as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. + +matter +Any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. + +metal +Any chemical element which is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and which readily forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. + +melting +The phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid. + +melting point +Also liquefaction point. +The temperature at which a substance changes state from a solid to a liquid. It depends on pressure and is usually specified for a given substance under standard conditions. The melting point of a substance is identical to its freezing point. + +mercaptan +See thiol. + +mercapto +See thiol. + +metalloid +A chemical element or substance possessing properties of both metals and non-metals. + +metamer +See isomer. + +metathesis +A class of chemical reaction involving the exchange of elements or functional groups between two or more compounds, as described by the general equation + + + + + + A + X + + + + + B + Y + + + → + + + A + Y + + + + + B + X + + + + + {\textstyle \mathrm {{AX}+{BY}} \rightarrow \mathrm {{AY}+{BX}} } + +. Examples include alkane metathesis, alkyne metathesis, olefin metathesis, and salt metathesis reaction. See also double displacement. + +methyl +Also carbinyl. +The alkyl functional group derived from methane, consisting of one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms, with the chemical formula CH3. It is the simplest hydrocarbon and occurs as a substituent in numerous organic compounds, though it may also exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of a methyl substituent is indicated with the prefix methyl in the name of the compound, or with the abbreviation Me in chemical formulae; e.g. methyl alcohol (methanol) is often written with the formula CH3OH or MeOH. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..62fae459b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 13/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +methylene blue +A heterocyclic aromatic compound with the molecular formula C16H18N3SCl. + +microcentrifuge tube +A small plastic, sealable container that is used to store small volumes of liquid, generally less than 2 milliliters. + +mineral +A solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form. + +miscibility +The tendency or capability of two or more substances to blend uniformly when combined (most commonly liquids, though the concept is also applicable to solids and gases), i.e. to dissolve in each other, forming a homogeneous mixture that exists in a single phase, without separation of phases, regardless of the proportions of each substance. Substances that do not mix uniformly in all proportions are said to be immiscible. + +mixture +A material made up of two or more different substances which are mixed physically but are not combined chemically (i.e. a chemical reaction has not taken place which has changed the molecules of either substance into new substances). + +moiety +Any named characteristic group, branch, or other part of a large molecule that may be identified within other kinds of molecules as well. Functional groups are typically smaller and more generic than moieties, whereas substituents and side chains may often be classified as moieties and vice versa. + +molal concentration +Also molality. +A measure of the concentration of a solute in a solution in terms of the amount of solute per unit mass of solvent. Molality is typically expressed in units of moles per kilogram (mol/kg); a solution with a concentration of exactly 1 mol/kg is sometimes said to be 1 molal. Contrast molarity. + +molar attenuation coefficient + +molar concentration +Also molarity, amount concentration, or substance concentration. +A measure of the concentration of a chemical species, especially of a solute in a solution, in terms of the amount of the species per unit volume of solution. Molarity is typically expressed in units of moles per litre (mol/L); a solution with a concentration of exactly 1 mol/L is commonly said to be 1 molar, abbreviated 1 M. Contrast molality. + +molar fraction +Also mole fraction. + +molar mass +Sometimes used interchangeably with molecular weight and formula weight. +For a given chemical compound, the mass of a sample of that compound divided by the amount of compound in the sample, usually expressed in grams per mole (g/mol). As a bulk property, molar mass is an average of the masses of many instances of the compound, each of which may vary slightly due to the presence of isotopes of the compound's constituent atoms; it is commonly derived from the compound's molecular weight, which itself is a sum of the standard atomic weights of the constituent atoms, and is therefore a function of the relative abundance of the isotopes as they occur naturally on Earth. Molar mass allows easy conversion between mass and number of moles when considering bulk quantities of a substance. + +molarity +See molar concentration. + +mole (mol) +A unit (symbol: mol) used to measure the amount of a substance in terms of the absolute number of particles or entities composing the substance. By definition, one mole of any substance contains exactly the Avogadro number (i.e. 6.022×1023) of particles or entities. + +molecular formula + +molecular orbital (MO) +Any region in which one or more electrons may be found in a molecule (as opposed to that within an individual atom). + +molecular orbital diagram + +molecular weight (MW) + +molecule +A number of atoms that are chemically bonded together and collectively electrically neutral. + +monatomic +Having only one atom, as opposed to a molecule composed of more than one. Virtually all elements are monatomic in the gas phase at sufficiently high temperatures. Contrast diatomic and polyatomic. + +== N == + +natural abundance + +neat +Conditions with a liquid reagent or gas performed with no added solvent or cosolvent. + +neutron +A type of subatomic particle that is electrically neutral, having no net charge. + +nitrogen + +noble gas +Also inert gas. +Any of the six non-metallic elements of Group 18 of the periodic table: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). All of the noble gases have outer electron shells that are completely filled with valence electrons in their naturally occurring states, giving them very low or negligible chemical reactivity. + +non-metal +Any chemical element which is not a metal. + +nonpolar compound +A compound consisting of covalent molecules with no permanent dipole moment. Contrast polar compound. + +normality + +nuclear +Of or pertaining to the atomic nucleus. + +nuclear chemistry +The branch of chemistry that studies the various processes and properties relevant to atomic nuclei, including radioactivity. + +nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy +A technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei, useful for identifying unknown compounds. Nuclear magnetic resonance is often abbreviated NMR. + +nuclear transmutation + +nucleon +Either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a component of an atomic nucleus. + +nucleophile +Any atom or molecule which can donate an electron pair to another atom or molecule. All molecules or ions with a free pair of electrons or at least one pi bond can act as nucleophiles, by which they are attracted to electron-deficient regions of other species; a chemical reaction involving a nucleophile donating an electron pair to an electrophile may be referred to as nucleophilic attack. Because they donate electrons, nucleophiles are Lewis bases by definition. + +nucleus +The centre of an atom, made up of neutrons and protons and possessing a net positive electric charge. + +nuclide +A species of atom characterized by its mass number, atomic number, and nuclear energy state, provided that the mean life in that state is long enough to be observable. + +number density +A measure of the concentration of countable objects (atoms, molecules, etc.) in space, expressed as the number per unit volume. + +== O == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b2801a73 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,134 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 14/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +octet rule +Also Lewis octet rule. +A classical rule for describing the electron configuration of atoms in certain molecules: the maximum number of electron pairs that can be accommodated in the valence shell of an element in the first row of the periodic table is four (or eight total electrons). For elements in the second and subsequent rows, there are many exceptions to this rule. + +olefin +A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any alkene. + +optical activity + +orbital +Any region of an atom or molecule in which one or more electrons can be found. The term may refer to either an atomic orbital or a molecular orbital. + +orbital hybridisation +Also orbital hybridization. + +order of reaction + +organic acid +Any organic compound with acidic properties. Contrast organic base. + +organic base +Any organic compound with basic properties. Contrast organic acid. + +organic chemistry +The branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical properties and reactions of organic compounds. Contrast inorganic chemistry. + +organic compound +Any chemical compound that contains one or more carbon atoms. Contrast inorganic compound. + +organic redox reaction + +organosulfur compound +Any chemical compound which contains both carbon and sulfur atoms. + +osmole + +osmosis +The spontaneous net movement or diffusion of molecules of a solvent (e.g. water) through a selectively permeable membrane separating two solutions with different concentrations of dissolved solutes, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides, i.e. from the more dilute solution to the more concentrated solution, or, equivalently, from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential. Because the solute is unable to cross the membrane, the tendency towards equilibration compels the solvent to cross the membrane instead. This continues until an equilibrium is reached, where neither side of the membrane is more or less concentrated than the other. + +osmotic concentration +Also osmolarity. + +osmotic pressure + +other metal +Any of the metallic elements in the p-block, which are characterized by having a combination of relatively low melting points (all less than 950 K) and relatively high electronegativity values (all more than 1.6, revised Pauling). + +oxidation +The increase in the oxidation state of a chemical species in a redox reaction, generally by losing electrons. Contrast reduction. + +oxidation state +Also oxidation number. +1. The degree of oxidation of an individual atom in a chemical compound, measured as the decrease in the number of electrons relative to the atom's naturally occurring elemental state. +2. The hypothetical electric charge (positive, negative, or zero) that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different elements were 100% ionic, with no covalent component. + +oxidizing agent +Also oxidant, oxidizer, or electron acceptor. +1. A chemical species that gains or accepts one or more electrons from another species, called the reducing agent, in a redox reaction, thereby causing the oxidation of the other species and in turn being itself reduced. The oxidizing agent's oxidation state decreases, while the reducing agent's increases. +2. A chemical species that transfers strongly electronegative atoms, usually oxygen, to a substrate. + +oxoacid +Also oxyacid or oxacid. +1. Any acid having oxygen in the acidic group. +2. Any compound which contains oxygen, at least one other element, and at least one hydrogen atom bound to oxygen, and which produces a conjugate base by the loss of positively charged hydrogen protons. + +oxygen + +== P == + +p-block + +paired electron +One of two electrons that together form a valence bond between two atoms. Contrast unpaired electron. + +paraffin +1. A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any alkane. +2. Another name for kerosene. + +partial pressure + +partition coefficient + +pascal (Pa) + +passivation +The process of coating a substance with a thin layer of a protective material, often a metal oxide, to create a shield against corrosion or other chemical reactions with the environment, thereby rendering the coated substance "passive" or less susceptible to undesirable reactions. + +passivity +A state of chemical inactivity, especially of a metal that is relatively resistant to corrosion due to natural or induced loss of chemical reactivity (as with passivation). See also inert. + +pendant group +An offshoot or side chain of the backbone of a polymeric molecule, especially one which is itself neither oligomeric or polymeric. + +pentabasic +(of a chemical compound) Having five hydrogen atoms which may be replaced by metals or bases. + +pentoxide +Any binary compound containing five atoms of oxygen, e.g. iodine pentoxide (I2O5). + +pentyl +Also amyl. +An alkyl functional group containing five carbon atoms, with the generic chemical formula –C5H11. It is the substituent form of the alkane pentane. + +per- +A prefix in IUPAC chemical nomenclature meaning complete, exhaustive, or extreme, as in a completely substituted hydrocarbon; or indicating the presence of a peroxy group. + +peracid +An acid containing an acidic peroxy group (–O–O–); e.g. periodic acid. + +period +A horizontal row of the periodic table of the elements and the elements that share it. Contrast group. + +periodic table of the elements +Also simply the periodic table. +A tabular arrangement of the chemical elements organized by their atomic number, electron configuration, and other chemical properties, whose adopted structure shows periodic trends and is used by chemists to derive relationships between various elements as well as predict the properties and behaviors of undiscovered or newly synthesized elements. The first periodic table of the elements was published by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. + +peroxide +1. A class of compounds which contain a peroxy group, having the generic structural formula R–O–O–R, where R is any element or functional group; e.g. hydrogen peroxide (empirically H2O2, structurally H–O–O–H). +2. Another name for the peroxy group itself. +3. A salt of the anion O2−2. + +peroxy +Also peroxide and sometimes peroxo. +A functional group consisting of two oxygen atoms directly connected to each other by a single bond and each also connected to one other atom. Peroxides have the general structural formula –O–O–. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a4dd0e1c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 15/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pH +A logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. The pH scale approximates the negative of the base-10 logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. At room temperature, pure water is neutral (pH = 7); solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and those with a pH greater than 7 are basic. + +phase +A region of space throughout which all physical properties of a substance are essentially uniform, or a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and often mechanically separable. The term phase may have several different uses in chemistry contexts; colloquially, it is often used interchangeably with state of matter, but many distinct phases may exist within a single state of matter. + +phase diagram +A graphical representation of the equilibrium relationships between thermodynamically distinct phases of a chemical compound, mixture, or solution, indicating the physical conditions (e.g. temperature and pressure) under which various phases (e.g. solid, liquid, and vapor) occur or coexist. + +phase transition +1. A transformation of a chemical substance between solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter and, in rare cases, plasma. +2. The measurable values of the external conditions at which such a transformation occurs. + +phenyl +A functional group consisting of a cyclic ring of six carbon atoms with the chemical formula –C6H5. It is the substituent form of the cycloalkane benzene. + +phi bond + +photon +A carrier of electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths (such as gamma rays and radio waves). + +physical chemistry +The branch of chemistry that studies chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics, such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, chemical equilibrium, and statistical mechanics, among others. In contrast to chemical physics, physical chemistry is predominantly (though not entirely) a macroscopic science that studies the physical and chemical interactions of bulk quantities of matter. + +pi bond + +pipette +Also spelled pipet. +A laboratory tool commonly used in chemistry, biology, and medicine to transfer and dispense a precisely measured volume of liquid. + +plasma +One of the four fundamental states of matter, in which very high-energy particles are partially or fully ionized to the point that they display unique properties and behaviors unlike those of the other three states. Plasma does not exist freely on the Earth's surface under natural conditions. + +pnictogen +Any of the chemical elements belonging to Group (V) of the periodic table: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), and moscovium (Ms). These elements are united by their common pentavalency; i.e. in their non-ionized states, atoms of these elements all have exactly five valence electrons in their outermost electron shell, three short of a complete octet. + +polarity + +polyatomic +Composed of two or more atoms, of the same or different elements. Contrast monatomic and diatomic. + +polyatomic ion +A molecule composed of two or more covalently bonded atoms which collectively bear a net electric charge and therefore act as an ion. + +polymerization +The chemical bonding of two or more individual monomer molecules to form a polymer chain or network; or any reaction that produces such a bonding. + +potential energy +The stored energy in a body or in a system due to its position in a force field or due to its configuration. + +precipitant +A chemical compound or reagent that causes a chemical reaction resulting in the formation of a solid precipitate when added to a solution. + +precipitate +1. (n.) A solid substance that separates from a liquid solution or diffuses out of a solid alloy during the process of precipitation. +2. (v.) To separate from another substance by forming a distinct, condensed solid phase. + +precipitation +The process of producing a separable solid phase within a liquid medium, e.g. by transforming the dissolved solute of a supersaturated solution into an insoluble solid; or the diffusion of a distinct solid phase out of a solid alloy. A reagent that causes such a reaction is called the precipitant, and the separable solid itself is the precipitate. More generally, the term may refer to the formation of any new condensed phase by changing the physical properties of a system (e.g. water vapor condensing into liquid water droplets). + +precision +How close the results of multiple experimental trials or observations are to each other. Compare accuracy. + +pressure +The force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), though many other units of pressure are also commonly used in chemistry. + +primary +The simplest, most commonly known, or canonical form of a chemical compound with multiple similar or isomeric forms. For example, in a primary alcohol, the carbon is bonded to a single substituent group (R1CH2OH), whereas a secondary alcohol is doubly substituted (R1R2CHOH) and a tertiary alcohol is triply substituted (R1R2R3COH). + +propyl +The alkyl functional group derived from either of the two isomers of propane, with the generic chemical formula –C3H7. It may occur as a substituent in organic compounds or exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of a propyl substituent is indicated with the prefix propyl in the name of the compound, or with the abbreviation Pr in chemical formulae; e.g. propyl alcohol (propanol) may occur in either of two isomeric forms, either the linear 1-propanol or n-propanol, written CH3CH2CH2OH, or the branched 2-propanol or isopropyl alcohol, written (CH3)2CHOH, and both forms may be written with the generic formula PrOH. A third, non-isomeric, cyclic form known as cyclopropyl is also sometimes considered a propyl group. + +protective group + +protic +Also protogenic. +(of a chemical species) Capable of acting as a proton donor; readily generating or yielding free protons (H+) in solution. Protic species may therefore be considered strongly or weakly acidic in the sense of a Brønsted–Lowry acid. + +proton +A subatomic particle with a positive electric charge that is found in the nucleus of an atom. Often denoted with the symbol H+. + +protonation +The addition of a proton (H+) to an atom, molecule, or ion. + +pure substance +See chemical substance. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd4262873 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,115 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 16/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pyrochemistry +The study of chemical reactions that occur at high temperatures. + +pyrolysis +The thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere such as a vacuum gas. + +== Q == + +quantum +(pl.) quanta + +quantum mechanics +The study of how atoms, molecules, subatomic particles, etc. behave and are structured. + +quark +An elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. + +== R == + +racemate +An equimolar mixture of a pair of enantiomers which does not exhibit optical activity. The chemical name or formula of a racemate is distinguished from those of the enantiomers by the prefix (±)- or by the symbols RS and SR. + +radiation +Energy released in the form of waves or subatomic particles when there is a change from high-energy to low-energy states. + +radical +Also free radical. +Any atom, molecule, or ion that has at least one unpaired valence electron. With few exceptions, such unpaired electrons make radicals highly chemically reactive, and therefore organic radicals are usually short-lived. + +radioactive decay +The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses excess nuclear energy by emitting radiation in any of several forms, including as gamma radiation, as alpha or beta particles, or by ejecting electrons from its atomic orbitals. + +radiochemistry +The branch of chemistry involving the study of radioactive substances and radioactivity, including the use of radioactive isotopes to study non-radioactive isotopes and ordinary chemical reactions. + +radionuclide +Also radioisotope. +A radioactive nuclide of a specified element, especially a particular isotope of that element which characteristically undergoes spontaneous decay into one or more stable nuclides by emitting excess energy from the nucleus. + +Raoult's law +A law of thermodynamics which states that the partial pressure of each gaseous component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its molar fraction in the mixture. + +rare-earth element +Also called rare-earth metals or used interchangeably with lanthanides. +Any of the 17 nearly indistinguishable, silvery-white, soft, heavy metallic elements belonging to a set including the lanthanide series (atomic numbers 57 through 71) as well as scandium and yttrium. + +rate equation +Also rate law. + +rate-determining step +Also rate-limiting step. +The slowest step in a chemical reaction that involves more than one step. The rate of this step determines the overall reaction rate. + +reactant +Sometimes used interchangeably with reagent. +Any substance that is consumed in the course of a chemical reaction. + +reaction +See chemical reaction. + +reaction barrier +The energy deficit that must be overcome in order for a particular chemical reaction to proceed. In transition state theory, the reaction barrier is interpreted as the difference between the zero-point energy of the activated complex formed in the reaction and that of the initial reactants. See also activation energy. + +reaction mechanism +The step-by-step sequence of elementary reactions by which a larger chemical reaction or overall change occurs. A complete mechanism must describe and explain which bonds are broken and which are formed (and in what order), as well as all reactants, products, and catalysts involved; the amounts of each; all intermediates, activated complexes, and transition states; and the stereochemistry of each chemical species. Because the detailed processes of a complex reaction are not observable in most cases, a reaction mechanism is often a theoretical conjecture based on thermodynamic feasibility and what little support can be gained from experiment. + +reaction rate +The speed at which reactants are converted into products in a chemical reaction. + +reaction rate constant + +reactive bond +A chemical bond between atoms which, in a particular context, is relatively unstable and therefore easily broken or invaded by other chemical species or radicals; e.g. the double bond in ethylene (CH2=CH2) is highly reactive in the presence of other ethylene molecules, leading to a polymerization reaction that forms polyethylene. + +reactive intermediate +Also simply intermediate. +Any short-lived, unstable, highly reactive chemical species which is generated briefly in a chemical reaction but rapidly undergoes further reactions that transform it into a more stable species. It is thus a transient intermediary between the stable reactants and products of the overall reaction. The existence of intermediates, when detectable, is critical to an accurate understanding of a reaction mechanism. + +reactivity +The tendency of a particular chemical substance to undergo a chemical reaction, either by itself or with other substances, generally referring to either or both of two distinct observations: whether or not a substance reacts under a specific set of circumstances, and how quickly it reacts (i.e. the reaction rate). Thermodynamically, a chemical reaction occurs because the products (taken as a group) exist at a lower free energy than the reactants, and hence are more energetically "stable", but the concept of reactivity may also embody kinetic factors, depending on the usage. Chemical stability and chemical compatibility are related but distinct concepts. + +reactivity series +Also activity series. +An empirical, calculated, and structurally analytical progression of a series of metals, arranged by their general reactivity from highest to lowest and used to summarize information about their reactions with acids and water and the methods used to extract them from ores. + +reagent +1. Another name for a reactant. +2. A test substance that is added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction, or to see whether a reaction occurs. + +redox + +reducing agent +Also reductant, reducer, or electron donor. +A chemical species that loses or donates one or more electrons to another species, called the oxidizing agent, in a redox reaction, thereby causing the reduction of the other species and in turn being itself oxidized. The reducing agent's oxidation state increases, while the oxidizing agent's decreases. + +reduction +The decrease in the oxidation state of a chemical species in a redox reaction, generally by gaining electrons. Contrast oxidation. + +reduction potential + +refractory +1. Having a high melting point. +2. A material that is resistant to decomposition by heat, pressure, or chemical attack, and retains its strength and form at high temperatures, making it suitable for applications in environments exposed to such conditions. Refractories are usually polycrystalline, polyphase, inorganic, non-metallic, porous, and heterogeneous compounds. + +resonance \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..570b9a73e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,330 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 17/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +retort +A laboratory apparatus used for the distillation or dry distillation of chemical substances, traditionally consisting of a spherical vessel with a long, downward-pointing neck that conducts the condensed vapors produced by distillation into a separate collection vessel. + +reversible reaction +A chemical reaction that can proceed in either direction depending on the reaction conditions, i.e. from reactants to products or from products to reactants, especially implying one in which both conversions occur simultaneously. Contrast irreversible reaction. + +rotamer + +round-bottom flask + +rust + +== S == + +s-block +The collective name for the elements in Groups 1 and 2 of the periodic table (the alkali and alkaline metals), as well as hydrogen and helium. + +saline solution +A common term for a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in water (H2O). + +salt +Any ionic compound composed of one or more anions and one or more cations. + +salt bridge +A device used to connect reduction with oxidation half-cells in an electrochemical cell. + +saturation + +Schrödinger equation +A quantum state equation which represents the behaviour of an electron around an atom. + +scintillation +A burst of luminescence of short duration produced by an individual energetically excited particle as it releases energy. + +second-order reaction + +semiconductor +An electrically conductive solid whose degree of conductivity lies somewhere between that of a conductor and that of an insulator. + +serial dilution + +side chain +A chemical substituent group that is attached to the core part or "backbone" of a larger molecule, especially an oligomeric or polymeric hydrocarbon chain that branches off of the longer primary chain of a macromolecule. The term is most commonly encountered in biochemistry and organic chemistry. + +single bond +A bond that involves the sharing of one pair of electrons. + +skeletal formula + +sol +A suspension of solid particles in a liquid. Artificial examples include sol-gels. + +solid +One of the four fundamental states of matter, characterized by relatively low-energy particles packed closely together in rigid structures with definite shape and volume. See Young's modulus. + +solid-phase extraction (SPE) + +solubility +The property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent. It is typically expressed as the proportion of solute dissolved in the solvent in a fully saturated solution. + +solubility product ( + + + + + K + + + s + + + + + + {\textstyle K_{{\ce {s}}}} + + or + + + + + K + + + sp + + + + + + {\textstyle K_{{\ce {sp}}}} + +) +A measure of the solubility of an ionic solute, expressed as the arithmetic product of the concentrations of its ions in a fully saturated solution, with respect to the solute's particular dissociation equilibria and the particular ions present. For a dissociation equilibrium + + + + + + + A + + x + + + + + + + B + + y + + + + + ( + s + ) + + + + ⇋ + + x + + A + + ( + a + q + ) + + + + + + + + + + + y + + B + + ( + a + q + ) + + + − + + + + + + {\textstyle \mathrm {{A_{x}}{B_{y}}_{(s)}} \leftrightharpoons \mathrm {xA_{(aq)}^{+}} +\mathrm {yB_{(aq)}^{-}} } + +, the solubility product of the ionic solute + + + + + + A + + x + + + + + + B + + y + + + + + + {\textstyle \mathrm {A_{x}} \mathrm {B_{y}} } + + is given by + + + + + K + + + s + + + + = + [ + + + A + + + + + + + + ] + + x + + + [ + + + B + + − + + + + + ] + + y + + + + + {\textstyle K_{{\ce {s}}}=[{\ce {A+}}]^{x}[{\ce {B-}}]^{y}} + +, where + + + + [ + + + A + + + + + + + ] + + + {\textstyle [{\ce {A+}}]} + + and + + + + [ + + + B + + − + + + + ] + + + {\textstyle [{\ce {B-}}]} + + are the concentrations of the solute's ionic constituents in a saturated solution. The solubility product is derived from and functions like the equilibrium constant of dissociation, though unlike an equilibrium constant it is not dimensionless. If the product of ionic concentrations in a solution exceeds the solubility product, then precipitation occurs. + +solute +The part of a solution that is dissolved into the solvent. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is the solute in a solution of saline water. + +solution +A homogeneous mixture made up of multiple substances generally referred to as solutes and solvents. + +solvated electron + +solvation +Any stabilizing interaction of a solute with a solvent, or a similar interaction between a solvent and groups of an insoluble material (e.g. the ionic groups of an ion-exchange resin). Such interactions generally involve electrostatic forces and van der Waals forces, as well as compound-specific effects such as hydrogen bonding. See also dissolution. + +solvation shell + +solvent +The part of a solution that dissolves the solute. For example, water (H2O) is the solvent in a solution of saline water. + +sonication +Also ultrasonication. +The process of irradiating a substance with sound energy, usually at ultrasound (>20 kHz) frequencies, in order to agitate the particles in a sample for various purposes, such as increasing the rate of a chemical reaction or preparing vesicles in mixtures of surfactants and water. + +spatial isomer +See stereoisomer. + +specific heat capacity (cp) +Also massic heat capacity. +The heat capacity of a sample of a substance divided by the mass of the sample. Informally, it is the amount of heat that must be added to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an increase of one unit in temperature. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kelvin per kilogram (J/K/kg). Specific heat capacity often varies with temperature and with each state of matter. + +spectrochemistry + +spectrometry +See mass spectrometry. + +spectroscopy +The study of radiation and matter, such as X-ray absorption and emission spectroscopy. + +standard solution + +standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP) +A standardisation of ambient temperature and pressure used in order to easily compare experimental results. Standard temperature is 25 degrees Celsius (°C) and standard pressure is 100.000 kilopascals (kPa). Standard conditions are often denoted with the abbreviation STP or SATP. + +state of matter +The condition of matter existing in a distinct, homogeneous, macroscopic form. Solid, liquid, gas, and plasma are the four traditional states of matter and the most well-known. See also phase. + +stepwise reaction + +stereochemistry + +stereogenic center +Also stereocenter. + +stereoisomer +Also spatial isomer. +An isomer which possesses an identical chemical composition but which differs in the spatial arrangement of its atoms. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1609b3c31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,186 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 18/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +stoichiometry +The calculation of quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. Stoichiometry is based on the law of conservation of mass and the observation that quantities of reactants and products typically exist in ratios of positive integers, implying that if the amounts of the separate reactants are known, then the amounts of the products can be calculated, and vice versa. + +strong acid +An acid that completely dissociates in solution according to the reaction + + + + + HA + + + S + + + + + + + ↽ + + + + + − + + + + + + + + + − + + + + + ⇀ + + + + + + + + SH + + + + + + + + + A + + − + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {HA + S <=> SH+ + A-}}} + +, or to such an extent that the concentration of the undissociated species + + + + + HA + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {HA}}} + + is too low to be measured. Any acid with a pKa of less than approximately -2 is generally considered a strong acid; an example is hydrochloric acid (HCl). Contrast weak acid. + +strong base + +structural formula +A graphical representation of the molecular structure and geometry of a particular chemical compound, showing how the atoms are arranged in real, three-dimensional space. Chemical bonding within the molecule is also shown, either implicitly or explicitly. When known with certainty, structural formulas are very useful because they allow chemists to visualize the molecules and the structural changes that occur in them during chemical reactions. + +structural isomer +Also constitutional isomer. + +subatomic particle +Any particle that is smaller than an atom. Examples include protons, neutrons, and electrons. + +sublimation +The phase transition of a substance from a solid to a limewater fuel or gas without an apparent intervening transition to a liquid in the process. + +substance +See chemical substance. + +substituent +An atom or a group of atoms which substitutes or replaces another atom or group of atoms within a larger molecule as the product of a chemical reaction, thereby becoming a moiety of the newly formed compound, generally without causing any significant change to other parts of the same molecule. For example, a hydroxyl group may be substituted for any of the hydrogen atoms in benzene to form phenol. See also side chain and functional group. + +substitution reaction +A type of chemical reaction in which one functional group or substituent within a larger compound replaces or is substituted for another functional group or substituent. + +superheavy elements +See transactinides. + +surface science + +surface tension + +surfactant +A substance which lowers the surface tension of the medium in which it is dissolved, and/or the interfacial tension with other phases, and, accordingly, is positively adsorbed at the liquid–vapor and/or other interfaces. + +suspension +A heterogeneous mixture that contains solid particles which are sufficiently large for sedimentation to occur, by which such particles separate from and settle out of the fluid over time if left undisturbed. In a suspension, the solute does not dissolve but remains dispersed or suspended throughout the fluid solvent only transiently and with mechanical agitation. Contrast colloid and solution. + +== T == + +tarnish +A thin layer of corrosion that forms on the surface of copper, brass, aluminum, magnesium, and other soft metals or alloys as their outermost layer undergoes a chemical reaction with the surrounding air, often but not necessarily involving atmospheric oxygen. Tarnish usually appears as a dull grey, black, or sometimes iridescent film or coating on the metal. It is a self-limiting surface phenomenon, as the tarnished top layers of the metal protect underlying layers from reacting. + +temperature +A proportional measure of the average kinetic energy of the random motions of the constituent microscopic particles of a system. The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin. + +ternary compound +A chemical compound containing three different elements. + +terpene +A class of naturally occurring unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon skeletons derived from one or more units of isoprene (C5H8). Terpenes are often subclassified according to the total number of carbon atoms they contain, e.g. the C5 hemiterpenes, C10 monoterpenes, C20 diterpenes, etc. + +theoretical yield +See yield. + +thermal conductivity +The property of a material that allows it to conduct thermal energy or heat (a quantity often denoted by + + + + k + + + {\displaystyle k} + +). + +thermochemistry +The study of the absorption or release of heat during a chemical reaction. + +thermodynamic stability +The condition of a system being in its lowest energy state with its environment (equilibrium). + +thermodynamics +The study of the effects of changing temperature, volume, or pressure (or work, heat, and energy) on a macroscopic scale. + +thermometer +An instrument used to measure temperature. + +thiol +1. Any of a class of organosulfur compounds consisting of a sulfur atom attached to a hydrogen atom and any other organic substituent, with the general formula R–SH. Thiols are the sulfur analogues of alcohols. Also thiol derivative and mercaptan. +2. The –SH functional group itself. Also sulfhydryl, sulfanyl, and mercapto. + +titration +Also titrimetry or volumetric analysis. +A laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the concentration of an identified analyte. The procedure involves preparing a particular reagent as a standard solution of known concentration and volume (called the titrant or titrator) and allowing it to react with a solution of the analyte (called the titrand) to determine the latter's concentration. + +torr +A unit for measuring pressure, equivalent to 133.322 Pa or 1.3158 × 10−3 atm. + +trace element +An element in a sample which has an average concentration of less than 100 parts per million atoms or less than 100 micrograms per gram. + +transactinides +Also superheavy elements. +In the periodic table, the set of chemical elements with an atomic number greater than 103, i.e. those heavier than the actinides. The transactinides are a subset of the transuranic elements. + +transition metal +An element whose atoms naturally occur with incompletely filled "d" sub-shells. These elements are grouped as the so-called d-block elements in the periodic table. + +transuranic elements +Also transuranium elements. +The set of chemical elements with an atomic number greater than 92, i.e. occurring after uranium in the periodic table. None of the transuranic elements are stable in naturally occurring conditions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9913a2525 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,210 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 19/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +triple bond +A bond that involves the covalent sharing of three pairs of electrons (for example, the diatomic nitrogen molecule, N2, is composed of two nitrogen atoms linked by a triple bond). + +triple point +The place where temperature and pressure of three phases are the same. Water has a special phase diagram. + +Tyndall effect +The effect of light scattering by colloidal or suspended particles. + +== U == + +UN number +A four-digit code used to note hazardous and flammable substances. + +uncertainty +The notion that any measurement that involves estimation of any amount cannot be exactly reproducible. + +uncertainty principle +Knowing the location of a particle makes the momentum uncertain, while knowing the momentum of a particle makes the location uncertain. + +unit cell +The smallest repeating unit of a crystalline lattice. + +unit factor +Statements used in converting between units. + +unpaired electron + +== V == + +vacuum flask +Also Dewar flask or thermos. +A storage vessel consisting of two flasks or other containers, placed one within the other and joined at the neck, and a space in between that is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum that significantly reduces the transfer of heat between the vessel's interior and its ambient environment. Vacuum flasks can greatly lengthen the time over which their contents remain warmer or cooler than the ambient environment. + +valence electron +Any of the outermost electrons of an atom, which are located in electron shells. + +valence bond theory +A theory explaining the chemical bonding within molecules by discussing valencies, the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom. + +valency +The combining capacity of an element. + +van der Waals force +One of the forces (attraction/repulsion) between molecules. + +van 't Hoff factor +The ratio of moles of particles in solution to moles of solute dissolved. + +vapor +When a substance is below the critical temperature while in the gas phase. + +vapor pressure +Also equilibrium vapor pressure. +The pressure exerted by a vapor which is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. It is commonly described as the tendency of particles to spontaneously escape from the liquid or solid state into the gaseous state and is used as an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. + +vaporization +Also boiling. +The phase transition of a substance from a liquid to a gas. + +vaporization point +See boiling point. + +viscosity +A measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow. + +volatility +A material quality which describes how readily a substance vaporizes. At a given temperature and pressure, a substance with high volatility is more likely to exist as a gas, while a substance with low volatility is more likely to exist as a liquid or solid; equivalently, less volatile substances will more readily condense from a gaseous state than highly volatile ones. + +volt (V) +A derived unit of electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force, defined as one joule of work per coulomb. + +voltmeter +An instrument that measures electrical cell potential. + +volume +The quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by a closed surface, or the space that a substance (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) or shape occupies or contains. The SI unit for volume is the cubic metre (m3). + +volumetric analysis +See titration. + +volumetric flask + +== W == + +watch glass +A circular, concave piece of glass commonly used in chemistry laboratories as a working surface for various purposes, such as evaporating liquids, holding solids while they are being weighed, heating small amounts of a substance, or as a cover for a beaker. + +water +A polar inorganic compound with the chemical formula H2O that is a tasteless, odorless, and generally colorless liquid at standard temperature and pressure, though it also occurs naturally as a solid and a gas at the Earth's surface. It is the most abundant substance on Earth and therefore an integral component of virtually all chemical and biological systems. Water is often described as the "universal solvent" for its inherent ability to dissolve many substances. + +water of crystallization +Also water of hydration. +Water molecules that are present inside crystals. Upon crystallization from water or aqueous solutions, many compounds incorporate water in the interstices of their crystalline frameworks; the water molecules are typically present in a stoichiometric ratio and may interact to varying degrees with the atoms of the crystal. + +wave function +A mathematical function describing the position of an electron within a three-dimensional space. + +weak acid +An acid that only partially dissociates when dissolved in a solvent because, according to the reaction + + + + + HA + + + + + + + ↽ + + + + + − + + + + + + + + + − + + + + + ⇀ + + + + + + + + H + + + + + + + + + A + + − + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {HA <=> H+ + A-}}} + +, equilibrium is reached while the concentration of the undissociated species + + + + + HA + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {HA}}} + + is still significant; an example is acetic acid (CH3COOH). Contrast strong acid. + +weak base + +wet chemistry +Also bench chemistry or classical chemistry. +A form of analytical chemistry which uses classical laboratory methods such as simple observation and elementary chemical tests to study chemicals and chemical reactions, i.e. without the use of sophisticated instruments or automated or computerized analysis. It is often used in schools to teach the principles of chemistry to students. + +wetting agent + +work + +work-up +The series of manipulations required to isolate and purify the desired product or products of a chemical reaction. + +== X == + +X-ray +A form of ionizing, electromagnetic radiation between gamma and ultraviolet rays in the electromagnetic spectrum. + +X-ray diffraction +A laboratory method for establishing the structure of a crystalline solid by directing single wavelength X-rays at the solid and analyzing the resulting diffraction pattern. + +X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy +A spectroscopic technique used to measure the chemical composition of a material. + +== Y == + +yield +The quantifiable amount of product produced during a chemical reaction. + +== Z == + +zero-point energy (ZPE) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f23bca6f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 20/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +zone melting +Any of several methods of purifying crystalline solids which involve applying heat to a small region of a larger solid (particularly a metal ingot) until localized melting occurs, creating a molten zone which is then slowly moved along the surface to other parts of the solid by moving the target of the heating element. As it moves, the forward edge of the molten zone continuously melts new areas of impure solid, while leaving a path of purer solid behind it as previously melted areas are cooled and resolidified; because the molten liquid phase can hold a higher concentration of impurities than the solid phase, the impurities of melted areas tend to concentrate in the molten zone and be carried along as it moves, leaving behind regions with fewer impurities. The process is commonly used in the refinement of high-purity metalloids for use in semiconductors. + +zinc +A metallic chemical element with atomic number 30 and symbol Zn. + +zwitterion +Also inner salt and dipolar ion. +Any molecule that contains an internal polarity by virtue of having an equal number of positively charged and negatively charged functional groups. + +== See also == +Outline of chemistry +Index of chemistry articles +List of chemical elements +Glossary of areas of mathematics +Glossary of biology +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of physics + +== References == + +== External links == +IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54a192e39 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,178 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 3/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +atomic number (Z) +Also proton number. +The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of a given chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus and is used in the periodic table to uniquely identify each chemical element. + +atomic orbital +Any region in which one or more electrons may be found in an individual atom (as opposed to that within a molecule). + +atomic radius + +atomic weight +See relative atomic mass. + +atomicity +The total number of atoms present in a single molecule of a given substance; e.g. ozone (O3) has an atomicity of 3, while benzene (C6H6) has an atomicity of 12. + +autoignition temperature +Also kindling point. +The lowest temperature at which a given substance will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition such as a flame or spark, i.e. when the ambient temperature is sufficiently high to provide the activation energy needed for combustion. Substances which spontaneously ignite at naturally occurring temperatures are termed pyrophoric. Compare ignition temperature. + +Avogadro constant (NA) +The ratio of the number of discrete constituent particles (such as molecules, atoms, or ions) to the amount of a substance, defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. + +Avogadro number +The number of discrete constituent particles in one mole of a substance, defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023. This dimensionless number differs from the Avogadro constant in that it has no unit. + +Avogadro's law + + +azeotrope +A mixture of liquids whose chemical composition is unchanged by distillation. + +== B == + +balance + +backbone +Also main chain. +The primary or most structurally significant portion of a molecule with respect to its other parts, functional groups, moieties, or substituents; or, in the case of a polymer, that linear chain of atoms to which all other chains, long or short or both, may be regarded as being pendant or as side chains. Where two or more chains might equally be considered the backbone, the one which permits the simplest representation of the molecule in chemical formulae and nomenclature is considered the backbone. + +barometer +A device used to measure atmospheric pressure. + +base +A substance that accepts a proton and has a pH above 7.0. A common example is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). + +base anhydride +An oxide of a group I or II metal element. + +basic + +basicity + +battery + +beaker +A cylindrical vessel or container with a flat bottom, most commonly a type of glassware, widely used in laboratories for a variety of purposes, such as preparing, holding, containing, collecting, or volumetrically measuring chemicals, samples, or solutions, or as a chamber in which a chemical reaction occurs. Beakers are distinguished from flasks by having straight rather than sloping sides; most beakers also have a small spout in the rim to aid pouring. + +Beer–Lambert law +Also Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law or simply Beer's law. +A chemical law stating that the amount of light absorbed by a solution is proportional to the solution's concentration; or more specifically that the absorbance ( + + + + A + + + {\displaystyle A} + +) of a beam of radiation by a homogeneous isotropic medium is directly proportional to the absorption path length ( + + + + l + + + {\displaystyle l} + +) and to the concentration ( + + + + c + + + {\displaystyle c} + +) or the pressure ( + + + + p + + + {\displaystyle p} + +) of the absorbing species. This is usually expressed with the equation + + + + A + = + ϵ + c + l + + + {\displaystyle A=\epsilon cl} + +, in which + + + + ϵ + + + {\displaystyle \epsilon } + + is a proportionality constant called the molar absorption coefficient. + +biochemistry +The study of the chemistry of biological systems and organisms. + +Bohr model +Also Rutherford–Bohr model. +A model of the general structure of the atom proposed by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913, featuring a small, dense nucleus of positively charged particles surrounded by orbiting electrons, which are attracted to the nucleus by electrostatic forces. This interpretation replaced several earlier hypotheses and quickly became the prevailing standard model for depicting atomic structure. + +boiling +Also ebullition. +A more rapid, highly energetic form of vaporization, in which a substance undergoes a phase transition from liquid to gas, as contrasted with the much slower process of vaporization. Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, above which the liquid's internal vapor pressure exceeds the pressure exerted upon it by the surrounding atmosphere, causing the gaseous phase to rapidly and often violently separate from the liquid phase. + +boiling flask +Also Florence flask. +A type of flask, usually made of glass, with a large round body, long neck, and flat bottom, designed especially for heating, boiling, and distilling liquids and to make swirling easy. See also round-bottom flask. + +boiling point +Also vaporization point. +The temperature at which a substance changes state from a liquid to a gas (or vapor). It depends on pressure and is usually specified for a given substance under standard conditions. + +boiling-point elevation +The process by which a substance's boiling point is elevated by adding another substance. + +bond +Any persistent attraction between atoms, ions, or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. Bonds are created as a result of a wide variety of electrochemical forces, whose strengths can vary considerably; they are broken when these forces are overcome by other forces. The types, strengths, and quantities of bonds holding together chemical substances dictate the structure and bulk properties of matter. + +bond angle + +Boyle's law +For a given mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume varies inversely with the pressure. + +Bragg's law + +bridge +A chemical bond between valence electrons, or an atom or unbranched chain of atoms connecting two different parts of the same molecule; i.e. an intramolecular bond linking different moieties or functional groups. + +bridgehead +Either of the two tertiary atoms which by bonding to each other form an intramolecular bridge. + +Brønsted–Lowry acid +Any chemical species that readily donates a proton. + +Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction + +Brønsted–Lowry base +Any chemical species that readily accepts a proton. + +Brownian motion + +Büchner flask \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5bad7ee96 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,175 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 4/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +buffered solution +Also simply called a buffer. +An aqueous solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid that resists changes in pH when strong acids or bases are added. + +bumping +A phenomenon in which a homogeneous liquid raised to its boiling point becomes superheated and, upon nucleation, rapidly boils to the gas phase, resulting in a violent expulsion of the liquid from the container; in extreme cases, the container itself may shatter. Frequent stirring, the use of an appropriate container, and the use of boiling chips can help prevent bumping. + +bung +Also stopper or cork. +A cylindrical or conical plug or closure used to seal a container such as a bottle, tube, flask, or barrel. + +burette +Also spelled buret. +Glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision is necessary (e.g. during titrations and resource-dependent reactions). + +butyl +The alkyl functional group derived from either of the two isomers of butane, with the generic chemical formula –C4H9. It may occur as a substituent in organic compounds or exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of a butyl substituent is indicated with the prefix butyl in the name of the compound, or with the abbreviation Bu in chemical formulae; e.g. butyl alcohol (butanol), which may occur in any of five different isomeric forms depending on the arrangement of the four carbon atoms, is often written with the generic formula CH4CH9OH or BuOH. + +== C == + +calorific value +A measure of the heat per unit mass produced by complete combustion of a given substance, usually expressed in megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) or in kilojoules per gram (kJ/g). + +calorimeter +Any of various devices used to measure thermal properties (i.e. heat), such as calorific values or heats of chemical reactions. + +calx +A metal oxide formed by heating an ore in air. + +carbanion +Any organic ion with a negative charge on a carbon atom, i.e. an ion of the general formula R3C−. Carbanions are frequently intermediate species in certain organic reactions. Contrast carbocation. + +carbide +A class of interstitial compounds composed of carbon bonded to a particular metal (usually a large-radius transition metal) in a densely packed crystal lattice, where the carbon atoms occupy interstices between the metal atoms; e.g. tungsten carbide (WC). + +carbocation + +carbon + +carbonic acid + +carbonization +1. The conversion of organic compounds, such as those found in biological organisms, into other forms of carbon or carbonic residues by heating or burning, or during fossilization. +2. The process of coating a substance with carbon residues such as charcoal, or of causing a substance to become scorched, blackened, or charred. + +carbonyl +1. A functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom, with the formula + + + + + C + + = + + O + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {C=O}}} + +. Carbonyl groups are common to many classes of organic compounds and are also a part of many larger functional groups. +2. An inorganic or organometallic coordination complex with carbon monoxide as a ligand (e.g. a metal carbonyl). + +carboxyl + +carboxylic acid +A class of organic acids and a functional group consisting of a carboxyl group attached to a substituent group. Carboxylic acids have the general formula + + + + + R + + − + + COOH + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {R-COOH}}} + + (also written as + + + + + R + + − + + + CO + + 2 + + + + + + H + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {R-CO2H}}} + +), where + + + + + R + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {R}}} + + can be an alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, or any other carbon-containing substituent. + +CAS Registry Number (CAS RN) +Also simply CAS Number. +A unique numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) to every chemical substance described in the open scientific literature, including more than 182 million organic and inorganic compounds, minerals, isotopes, alloys, polymers, and mixtures, as well as so-called "UVCBs" (substances of unknown or variable composition, complex reaction products, or biological origin). CAS numbers are an internationally recognized standard used by scientists, industries, and regulatory bodies. + +catalyst +Any element or compound that facilitates an increase in the rate of a chemical reaction but which is not consumed or destroyed during the reaction. It is considered both a reactant and a product of the reaction. + +cathode +An electrode from which the conventional electric current (the flow of positive charges) exits a polarized electrical circuit. Positively charged cations always move toward the cathode, though the cathode's polarity can be positive or negative depending on the type of electrical device and how it is being operated. Contrast anode. + +cation +A positively charged ion. + +cell potential +The force in a galvanic cell that pulls electrons through a reducing agent to an oxidizing agent. + +centrifugation +A laboratory technique which involves the application of centrifugal force to separate particles from a solution according to their size, shape, and density. Larger and/or denser substances migrate away from the axis of a centrifuge, while smaller and/or less dense substances migrate towards the axis. + +centrifuge +A device used to separate substances based on size, shape, and density by centrifugation, or the rotation of vessels containing the substances around a centred axis at extremely high velocities. + +chain reaction + +charge number +A quantized value of electric charge calculated as the electric charge in coulombs divided by the elementary-charge constant, or z = q/e. Charge numbers for ions are denoted in superscript (e.g. Na+ indicates a sodium ion with a charge number of positive one). Atomic numbers are charge numbers of atomic nuclei. + +Charles's law +A classical gas law which states that when the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature is directly proportional to its volume. + +chelating agent + +chelation +A type of bonding involving the formation of two separate coordinate covalent bonds between a polydentate ligand and a single central metal ion. The ligand is usually an organic compound called a chelant or chelating agent. + +chemical +See chemical species and chemical compound. + +chemical bond +See bond. + +chemical composition +The identity and relative number of the elements that make up a chemical compound, which can often be expressed with a chemical formula. + +chemical compound +See compound. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b87fb4d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 5/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +chemical decomposition +The breakdown of a single particle or entity (such as a molecule or reactive intermediate) into two or more fragments, or a chemical reaction in which two or more products are formed from a single reactant. Contrast chemical synthesis. + +chemical element +See element. + +chemical formula +Any of various means of concisely displaying information about the chemical composition of a compound or molecule using letters, numbers, and/or typographical symbols. Chemical formulas, such as empirical and molecular formulas, can only indicate the identities and numerical proportions of the atoms in a compound and are therefore more limited in descriptive power than chemical names and structural formulas. + +chemical law +A law of nature relevant to chemistry, such as the law of conservation of mass. + +chemical nomenclature + +chemical physics + +chemical process +1. Any method or means of changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds in any way, either naturally or artificially, spontaneously or by the actions of external forces. +2. In chemical engineering, any method used on an industrial scale (especially in manufacturing) to change the composition of one or more chemicals or materials. + +chemical reaction +The change of one or more substances into one or more different substances. + +chemical species +Also simply called a chemical. +A chemical substance or ensemble of substances composed of chemically identical molecular entities which can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a characteristic or delineated time scale. + +chemical substance +Also pure substance or simply substance. +A form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties and which cannot be separated into simpler components by purely physical methods (i.e. without breaking chemical bonds). It is often called a pure substance to distinguish it from a mixture. + +chemical synthesis +The artificial execution of one or more chemical reactions in order to obtain one or more products. In modern laboratory contexts, specific chemical syntheses are both reliable and reproducible. + +chemistry +The scientific discipline that studies chemical substances, compounds, and molecules composed of atoms of various chemical elements, as well as their compositions, structures, properties, behaviors, and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances. + +chirality +A property of asymmetry in which a molecule or ion is distinguishable from its mirror image such that it cannot be superposed upon it by any combination of geometric rotations, translations, or some conformational changes. Such a molecule or ion is said to be chiral, and exists in two forms, known as enantiomers, which are stereoisomers of each other; these forms are distinguished as either "right-handed" or "left-handed" by their absolute configuration or some other criterion. Several different types of asymmetry can give rise to chirality, most commonly when molecules possess stereogenic elements such as one or more stereocenters (central chirality), a stereogenic axis (axial chirality), or a stereogenic plane (planar chirality); additionally, the inherent curvature of a molecule can cause it to possess inherent chirality. + +chromatography +Any of a variety of laboratory methods designed to separate a heterogeneous mixture into its component chemical species by first dissolving the mixture in a gas or liquid solvent called the mobile phase and then passing it through a system such as a chromatography column or a capillary tube upon which a material called the stationary phase is fixed. The different species present in the mixture have different affinities for and retention times upon the stationary phase, causing them to separate from the rest of the species in the moving fluid at characteristic rates. This phenomenon is exploited both to detect or measure the relative proportions of analytes present in a mixture, and to purify specific compounds. + +chromometer +See colorimeter. + +cis–trans isomerism + +closed system + +cluster + +cohesion +The tendency of similar particles or surfaces to cling to one another as a result of intermolecular forces. Contrast adhesion. + +colligative property +Any property of a solution that depends upon the ratio of the number of solute particles to the number of solvent particles in the solution, and not on the nature of the chemical species present. Examples include osmotic pressure, freezing-point depression, and boiling-point elevation. + +colloid +A mixture in which microscopic insoluble particles are suspended within and evenly dispersed throughout another substance, usually a liquid but sometimes inclusive of aerosols and gels. Thus a colloid contains a dispersed phase and a continuous phase. Many milks are colloids. + +color standard +A liquid solution of known chemical composition and concentration, and hence of known and standardized color, used as a reference in the optical analysis of samples of unknown strength. + +color test +The quantitative analysis of a substance by comparing the intensity of the color produced when the substance is exposed to a reagent with a standard color produced similarly in a solution of known strength. + +colorimeter +Also chromometer. +Any instrument used for color measurement based on optical comparison with standard colors, particularly a device used in colorimetry that measures the absorbance of specific wavelengths of light by a given solution in order to determine the concentration of a known solute in the solution, by application of the principle that solute concentration is directly proportional to absorbance. + +combustion +An exothermic reaction between an oxidant and a fuel that produces large amounts of heat and often light. + +Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW) + +complex +A molecular entity formed by loose association between two or more component molecular entities (ionic or uncharged), or the corresponding chemical species. The bonding between the components is normally weaker than in a covalent bond. See also coordination complex. + +compound +A substance that is made up of two or more chemically bonded elements. + +Compton rule +An empirical law of physical chemistry which states that the heat of fusion of a given element multiplied by its atomic weight and then divided by its melting point in kelvin is always equal to approximately 2. + +concatemer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b39f5c183 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 6/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +concentration +The quantity or abundance of a constituent of a mixture per unit quantity of that mixture; e.g. the amount, in moles, of a dissolved solute per unit volume of a solution, a measure known as molar concentration or molarity. Several different definitions of concentration are widely used in chemistry, including molar concentration, mass concentration, and volume concentration. + +condensation +The phase transition of a substance from a gas to a liquid. + +condosity +A comparative measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution defined as the molar concentration of a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution that has the same specific electrical conductance as the solution under test. It is typically expressed in units of moles per litre (or per some other unit of volume). + +conduction + +conductivity +See electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. + +conductor +Any object or material that allows the flow of an electric current in one or more directions. Contrast insulator. + +conformation +The spatial arrangement of atoms affording distinction between stereoisomers which can be interconverted by rotations about formally single bonds. + +conjugate acid + +conjugate base + +conjugated system +A molecule that contains double or triple bonds separated by one single bond; e.g. the compound buta-1,3-diene, with the chemical structure H2C=CH−CH=CH2, has conjugated double bonds. In such molecules, there is some delocalization of electrons in the pi orbitals between the carbon atoms linked by the single bond. + +constitutional isomer +See structural isomer. + +constitutional unit +An atom or group of atoms (including pendant atoms or groups, if any) comprising part of the structure of a macromolecule, oligomer, polymer, block, or chain. + +convection + +cooling curve +A line graph representing the change between different phases of matter, typically from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid, as a function of time and temperature; e.g. showing how the temperature of a liquid substance changes over time as it condenses below its freezing point. + +coordinate chemistry + +coordinate covalent bond +See dipolar bond. + +coordination complex +A chemical compound consisting of a central atom or ion, usually metallic and known as the coordination center, bonded to a surrounding array of other groups of atoms, e.g. molecules or ions, which are known as ligands or complexing agents. Many metal-containing compounds, especially those of the transition metals, are coordination complexes. See also complex. + +corrosion +An irreversible interfacial chemical reaction of a material, especially a metal, with its environment, which results in consumption of the material or dissolution into the material of an external component of the environment. + +coulomb (C) +The SI unit of electric charge, defined as the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second. + +counterion +The ion that is the counterpart to an oppositely charged ion in a dissociated ionic species; the cation that pairs with a given anion, or vice versa. For example, Na+ is the counterion to Cl−, and vice versa, in solutions of sodium chloride (NaCl). + +covalent bond +Also molecular bond. +A bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces that occurs between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding. + +critical point +The end point of a phase equilibrium curve or pressure-temperature curve at which conditions are such that phase boundaries vanish and a substance's different phases, such as liquid and vapor, can coexist. The critical point is defined by the intersection of a critical temperature, Tc, and a critical pressure, pc; above this temperature and pressure, all distinction between phases disappears and the substance becomes a supercritical fluid. + +crucible +A ceramic or metal dish or other vessel in which substances can be melted or otherwise subjected to very high temperatures. + +crystal +A solid whose constituent particles (such as atoms, ions, or molecules) are arranged in an orderly periodic microscopic structure, forming a lattice with definite geometry that extends in all directions. Such materials are often described as crystalline. + +crystallization + +crystallization point +See freezing point. + +crystallography +The branch of chemistry concerned with the study of crystalline solids, including determining their structure and properties. + +cuvette +A type of small container used in spectroscopy experiments, usually made of plastic, glass, or quartz and designed to hold a sample (typically a liquid) for measurement inside a spectrometer. Cuvettes should be as clean and transparent as possible to minimize interference with the beams of light on which spectroscopic techniques rely. + +cyclic + +== D == + +dalton (Da) +Also unified atomic mass unit (u). +A unit of mass defined as 1⁄12 of the mass of a free unexcited atom of carbon-12 at rest. It is approximately equal to the mass of one nucleon. + +Dalton's law of partial pressures +An empirical law which states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted by all of the gases combined is equal to the sum of the partial pressures exerted by each gas individually. + +d-block + +dative bond +See dipolar bond. + +debye (D) +A non-SI unit of measurement of electric dipole moment, defined as 10−18 statcoulomb-centimetres. See also electric dipole moment. + +deionization +The removal of ions from a solution by any method. In the case of water, this typically refers to mineral ions such as sodium, iron, and calcium. + +deliquescence +A substance's affinity for water, often characterized as its tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere to form aqueous solutions. Most strongly deliquescent substances are salts, such as calcium chloride and potassium carbonate. + +delocalized electron +Any electron in a molecule, ion, or solid metal that is not associated with an individual atom or covalent bond. The term may refer to electrons involved in resonance in conjugated systems or aromatic compounds; to free electrons which facilitate electrical conductivity; or to electrons within delocalized molecular orbitals encompassing several adjacent atoms. + +density +An intensive property of a substance defined as mass per unit volume and expressed by the equation d = m/V. + +denticity +The number of donor groups in a single ligand that bind to a central atom in a coordination complex. + +deposition +The settling of particles within a solution or mixture. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4783299a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,131 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 7/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +depression of freezing point +See freezing-point depression. + +desiccant +Also drying agent. +A hygroscopic substance used to induce or sustain a state of dryness or desiccation (i.e. the absence of moisture) in its vicinity by abstracting water molecules from other substances. Desiccants come in many different forms and work by many different principles, ranging from simple absorption to the chemical bonding of water molecules. + +desiccation + +deuterium +Also hydrogen-2 or heavy hydrogen, and symbolized 2H or D. +One of two stable isotopes of a hydrogen atom, the nucleus of which contains one proton and one neutron. Deuterium is both heavier and much less abundant in nature than the other stable isotope, known as protium (1H). + +deuteron +The nucleus of a deuterium atom (an isotope of hydrogen), containing one proton and one neutron. + +Dewar flask +See vacuum flask. + +dianion +A compound or molecular entity bearing exactly two negative charges, which may be located on a single atom or on different atoms, or may be delocalized. + +diastereomer + +diatomic +Composed of two atoms, of the same or different elements. Contrast monatomic and polyatomic. + +diatomic molecule +Any molecule composed of only two atoms, of the same or different elements. + +diffusion +The net movement of atoms or molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in chemical potential of the diffusing species and depends on the random walk of particles; hence it results in mixing or mass transport without required directed bulk motion. + +dilatant +A substance with the ability to increase in volume when its shape is changed. + +dilution + +dimer +An oligomer consisting of two monomers joined by chemical bonds that may variably be strong or weak, covalent or intermolecular. A homodimer consists of two identical molecules; a heterodimer consists of two different molecules. + +dipolar bond +Also coordinate covalent bond, coordinate bond, dative bond, and semipolar bond. +A type of covalent bond formed by the coordination of two or more electrically neutral moieties, the combination of which results in a charge-separated molecule or coordination complex, in which two electrons deriving from the same atom are shared between the donor atom and an acceptor atom, creating an internal two-center molecular dipole moment. + +dipole +The electric or magnetic separation of electric charge into a pair of charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, one positively charged and one negatively charged, separated by some typically small distance. + +dipole moment +See electric dipole moment, magnetic dipole moment, molecular dipole moment, bond dipole moment, electron electric dipole moment, electron magnetic dipole moment, and nuclear magnetic moment. + +dispersion +A system in which particles of one material are distributed within a continuous phase of another material; the two phases may be in the same or different states of matter. Dispersions of particles sufficiently large for sedimentation are called suspensions, while those of smaller particles are called colloids or solutions. + +dissociation +Any process by which a polyatomic molecule or molecular entity (e.g. an ionic compound or coordination complex), or an aggregate of molecular entities, separates or splits into two or more molecules, atoms, ions, radicals, or other constituents, usually in a reversible manner. Examples include unimolecular heterolysis and homolysis, the dissolution of salts, and acid dissociation. Contrast association. + +dissolution +Also solvation. +The interaction of a solvent with the molecules or ions of a solute, involving bond formation, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. + +distillation +The process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture by exploiting differences in the relative volatility of the mixture's components through selective boiling and subsequent condensation. The apparatus used to distill a substance is called a still, and the re-condensed substance yielded by the process is called the distillate. + +double bond +A bond involving the covalent sharing of two pairs of electrons. + +double decomposition + +double displacement + +double salt +1. A salt composed of more than one different cation or anion, or which upon hydrolysis forms two different cations and anions. +2. A salt that is a molecular combination of two other salts. + +double-replacement reaction + +dropping point +The temperature at which a grease changes from a semi-solid to a liquid state under standardized conditions, i.e. the upper limit at which the grease retains its structure, though not necessarily the maximum temperature at which it can be used. + +dry box +A chamber or container in which the interior is maintained at very low humidity, often by filling it with argon or with air lacking carbon dioxide, in order to provide an inert atmosphere in which manipulation of very reactive chemicals or moisture-sensitive procedures can be carried out in the laboratory. + +drying agent +See desiccant. + +ductility +Also malleability. +A measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupturing, typically expressed as percent elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test and popularly characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. + +dystectic mixture +A mixture of two or more substances which has the highest melting point of all possible mixtures of these substances. Contrast eutectic mixture. + +== E == + +earth metal +See alkaline earth metal. + +ebullition +See boiling. + +effective molecular diameter +The physical extent of the electron cloud surrounding a molecule of a particular gas, as calculated in any of several ways and usually expressed in nanometres or ångströms. + +effervescence +The escape of gas from an aqueous solution without the application of heat, and the bubbling, foaming, or fizzing that results; e.g. the release of carbon dioxide from carbonated water. + +electric charge +A measured property (coulombs) that determines electromagnetic interaction. + +electric dipole moment +A measure of the separation of positive and negative electric charges within an electrical system, i.e. a measure of the system's overall electrical polarity. The SI unit for measuring electric dipole moment is the coulomb-metre (C⋅m), but the debye (D), a non-SI unit, is also widely used in chemistry and atomic physics. + +electrical conductivity + +electrical resistivity + +electricity + +electride +An ionic compound for which the anion is an electron. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abcd594b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 8/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +electrochemical cell +A device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions, in which case it is known as a galvanic or voltaic cell, or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions, in which case it is known as an electrolytic cell. For example, a battery contains one or more galvanic cells, each of which consists of two electrodes arranged such that an oxidation–reduction reaction produces an electromotive force. + +electrochemistry +A branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference and identifiable chemical change, as understood through either the chemical reactions accompanying the passage of an electric current or the potential difference that results from a particular chemical reaction. + +electrolyte +A solution that conducts a certain amount of electric current and can be split categorically into weak and strong electrolytes. + +electromagnetic radiation +A type of wave that can go through vacuums as well as material and is classified as a self-propagating wave. + +electromagnetic spectrum + +electromagnetism +Fields with an electric charge and electrical properties that change the way that particles move and interact. + +electromotive force (emf) + +electron +A type of subatomic particle with a net charge that is negative. Contrast positron. + +electron acceptor + +electron capture +A type of nuclear transformation by which the proton-rich nucleus of an electrically neutral atom absorbs or 'captures' an electron from one of its own inner shells, often those closest to the nucleus, which provokes a reaction that results in a nuclear proton changing into a neutron accompanied by the simultaneous emission of an electron neutrino. + +electron configuration +The distribution of the electrons of an atom or molecule within atomic or molecular orbitals. An extensive system of notation is used to concisely and uniquely display information about the electron configuration of each atomic species. Knowledge of the specific arrangements of electrons in different atoms is useful for understanding chemical bonds and the organization of the periodic table of the elements. + +electron deficiency + +electron donor + +electron electric dipole moment (de) +An intrinsic property of an electron such that its potential energy is linearly related to the strength of its electric field; a measure of the distribution of an electron's negative charge within the electric field it creates. See also electric dipole moment. + +electron magnetic dipole moment +Also electron magnetic moment. +The magnetic moment of an electron, caused by the intrinsic properties of its spin and electric charge, equal to approximately −9.284764×10−24 joules per tesla. + +electron neutrino + +electron pair +Two electrons which occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. Electron pairs form chemical bonds or occur as lone pairs of valence electrons; it is also possible for electrons to occur individually as unpaired electrons. + +electron shell +An orbital around the nucleus of an atom which contains a fixed number of electrons (usually two or eight). + +electronegativity (χ) +A chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density) towards itself. An atom's electronegativity is affected both by its nuclear charge (which is proportional to the number of protons in its nucleus) and the number and location of the electrons present in its atomic shells (which influences the distance of the nucleus from the valence electrons). The higher an atom or substituent's electronegativity, the more it attracts electrons towards itself. As it is usually calculated, electronegativity is not a property of an atom alone but rather of an atom within a molecule; it therefore varies with an element's chemical environment, though it is generally considered a transferable property. + +electron-volt (eV) + +electrophile +Any atom or molecule which can accept an electron pair. Most electrophiles carry a net positive charge, include an atom carrying a partial positive charge, or include a neutral atom that does not have a complete octet of electrons, and therefore they attract electron-rich regions of other species; an electrophile with vacant orbitals can accept an electron pair donated by a nucleophile, creating a chemical bond between the two species. Because they accept electrons, electrophiles are Lewis acids by definition. + +electrosynthesis + +element +A species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei and hence the same atomic number. Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter in the universe; 118 elements have been identified and are organized by their various chemical properties in the periodic table of the elements. + +elementary reaction +Any chemical reaction in which one or more chemical species react directly to form products in a single reaction step and with a single transition state, i.e. without any intermediates. Contrast stepwise reaction. + +elution +The process of extracting one material from another by washing with a solvent. Elution works by running a solution containing an analyte past an adsorbent matrix designed to selectively bind the analyte molecules, and subsequently washing the adsorbent/analyte complex with a solvent, known as an eluent. The solvent molecules displace the analyte by binding to the adsorbent in its place, allowing the analyte, now part of the eluate, to be carried out of the complex and into a collector for analysis. + +empirical formula +The simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms of each element present in a chemical compound. + +emulsion +A type of colloid in which small particles of one liquid are dispersed in another liquid; e.g. a dispersion of water in an oil, or of an oil in water. Emulsions are often stabilized by the addition of a substance, known as an emulsifier, that has both lyophilic and lyophobic parts in its molecules. + +enantiomer + +enantiomorph + +end-group +A constitutional unit that occupies a terminal position within or is at an extremity of a macromolecule or polymer, and thus by definition is connected to only one other constitutional unit of the molecule. + +endothermic process + +energy +A system's ability to do work. + +enplethy +See amount of substance. + +enthalpy +A measure of the total internal energy of a thermodynamic system, usually symbolized by H. + +enthalpy of fusion + +entropy +The amount of energy that is not available for work in a closed thermodynamic system, usually symbolized by S. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..94af73dca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,146 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 9/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +environmental chemistry + +enzyme +A biological protein catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction. + +epimer + +Eppendorf tube +A generalized and trademarked name used to refer to a microcentrifuge tube. + +equation of state + +equilibrium +The condition of a system in which all competing influences are balanced. Chemical equilibrium is the state in which the concentrations of the reactants and products in a reacting system have stopped changing in time. + +equimolar +Having an equal number of moles, or solutions of equal molar concentration. + +Erlenmeyer flask + +ester +A class of organic and inorganic compounds derived from the reaction of an acid with an alcohol, in which at least one hydroxyl group (–OH) is replaced by an alkoxy group (–O–). Esters have the general formula RCO2R′, where R and R' represent any alkyl or aryl group. + +ether +A class of organic compounds and a functional group containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, which may be the same or different. Ethers have the general formula R–O–R′, where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. + +ethyl +The alkyl functional group derived from ethane, consisting of two carbon atoms covalently bonded to each other and fully saturated with bonds to hydrogen atoms, with the chemical formula –CH2CH3. It is a common substituent in numerous organic compounds, though it may also exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of an ethyl substituent may be indicated with the prefix ethyl in the name of the compound, or with the abbreviation Et in chemical formulae; e.g. ethyl alcohol (ethanol), which is often written with the formula CH3CH2OH or EtOH. + +eutectic mixture +A solid solution consisting of two or more substances which collectively have the lowest melting point of any possible mixture of these components. + +evaporation + +exothermic process + +extensive property +A physical quantity whose value is proportional to the size of the system it describes or to the quantity of matter in the system. Examples include mass, volume, enthalpy, and entropy. Contrast intensive property. + +extraction +1. A separation process in which a component is separated from its mixture by selective solubility. See also partition. +2. The separation of a component analyte from a matrix. + +extrinsic property + +== F == + +family +See group. + +Faraday constant (F) +A unit of electric charge widely used in electrochemistry equal to the negative of the molar charge (electric charge per mole) of electrons. It is equal to approximately 96,500 coulombs per mole (F = 96485.33212... C/mol). + +Faraday's laws of electrolysis +A set of two laws pertaining to electrolysis which hold that: a) the mass of a substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode; and b) the mass of an elemental material altered at an electrode is directly proportional to the element's equivalent weight. + +f-block + +Fick's laws of diffusion + +filtration +Any physical, biological, or chemical operation that separates large particles (often solid matter) from smaller particles (often a fluid) by passing the mixture through a complex lattice structure through which only particles of a sufficiently small size can pass, called a filter. The fluid and small particles which successfully pass through the filter are called the filtrate. + +fire point +The lowest temperature at which the vapors above a volatile material will continue to burn for at least five seconds after ignition by an open flame of standard dimension. The fire point should not be confused with the flash point, a slightly lower temperature at which a substance will ignite briefly but at which vapor is not produced at a rate sufficient for sustained combustion. + +first-order reaction + +flash point +The lowest temperature at which the vapors above a volatile material will ignite if given an ignition source. At the flash point, the application of an open flame causes only a momentary "flash" rather than sustained combustion, for which the ambient temperature is still too low. The flash point should not be confused with the fire point, which occurs at a slightly higher temperature, nor with the kindling point, which is higher still. + +flask +A vessel or container, most commonly a type of glassware, widely used in laboratories for a variety of purposes, such as preparing, holding, containing, collecting, and volumetrically measuring chemicals, samples, or solutions, or as a chamber in which a chemical reaction occurs. Flasks come in a number of shapes and sizes but are typically characterized by a relatively wide lower body which tapers into one or more narrower tubular sections with an opening at the top. + +flocculation +The process by which the dispersed particles in a colloid come out of suspension to aggregate into larger clumps known as floc or flake, either spontaneously or due to the addition of a clarifying agent. The term is often used to refer to a reversible aggregation in which the forces holding the particles together are weak and the colloid can be re-dispersed by agitation. + +Florence flask +See boiling flask. + +formal charge (FC) +The electric charge assigned to an atom in a molecule, assuming that all electrons in all bonds are shared equally between atoms, regardless of each atom's relative electronegativity. The formal charge of any atom that is part of a molecule can be calculated by the equation + + + + F + C + = + V + − + N + − + + + B + 2 + + + + + + {\displaystyle FC=V-N-{\frac {B}{2}}\ } + +, where + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + + is the number of valence electrons of the neutral atom in its ground state; + + + + N + + + {\displaystyle N} + + is the number of valence electrons of the atom which are not participating in bonds in the molecule; and + + + + B + + + {\displaystyle B} + + is the number of electrons shared in bonds with other atoms in the molecule. + +formula weight (FW) +A synonym for molar mass and molecular weight, frequently used for non-molecular compounds such as ionic salts. + +fraction \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c08e44e14 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,135 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of chemistry terms" +chunk: 10/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:37.679603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +fractional distillation +The fractionation of a mixture of liquids into its component parts, or fractions, by the process of distillation, typically by using a long vertical column attached to the distillation vessel and filled with glass beads. The mixture is heated to a temperature at which one or more of the component compounds will vaporize; the vapor rises up the column until it condenses and runs back into the vessel, creating a temperature and volatility gradient and permitting various fractions to be drawn off at different points along the length of the column. Common in industrial chemistry, the technique is sensitive enough to separate compounds which have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C (45 °F) from each other at standard pressure. + +fractionation +A separation process in which a particular quantity of a mixture is divided during a phase transition into a number of smaller quantities, known as fractions, for which the chemical composition varies according to a gradient. Fractionation exploits subtle differences in some specific property (e.g. mass, boiling point, solubility, etc.) between the mixture's component compounds, making it possible to isolate more than two components of a mixture at the same time. There are many varieties of fractionation employed in many branches of science and technology. + +free radical +See radical. + +freeze-drying +See lyophilization. + +freezing +The phase transition of a substance from a liquid to a solid. + +freezing point +Also crystallization point. +The temperature at which a substance changes state from a liquid to a solid. Because freezing is the reverse of melting, the freezing point of a substance is identical to its melting point, but by convention only the melting point is referred to as a characteristic property of a substance. + +freezing-point depression +Also depression of freezing point. + +frequency +A measurement of the number of cycles of a given process per unit of time. The SI unit for measuring frequency is the hertz (Hz), with 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second. + +functional group + +== G == + +galvanic cell +A type of battery made up of electrochemicals with two different metals connected by a salt bridge. + +gas +One of the four fundamental states of matter, characterized by high-energy particles which fill their container but have no definite shape or volume. + +gas chromatography +A type of chromatography commonly used in analytical chemistry to isolate and analyze chemical compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. Gas chromatography is often used to test the purity of substances, to identify unknown substances, and to measure the relative amounts of the different components of mixtures. + +gauche +In alkane stereochemistry, a structural conformation involving a torsion angle of ±60°, or a synclinal alignment of functional groups attached to adjacent atoms. + +Gay-Lussac's law +A chemical law used for each of the two relationships derived by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and which concern the properties of gases, though the name is more usually applied to his law of combining volumes. + +geochemistry +The study of the chemistry and chemical composition of the Earth and geological processes. + +Gibbs energy +A value that indicates the spontaneity of a reaction. Usually symbolized as G. + +glass + +glycol +Any of a class of aliphatic dihydric alcohols in which the two hydroxy groups are bonded to two different carbon atoms, which are usually but not necessarily adjacent to each other; e.g. ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH). + +gram (g) + +gram-atom +A former term for a mole. + +Grignard reaction + +ground glass joint +An apparatus designed to quickly and easily fit two pieces of leak-tight glassware together, featuring ground glass surfaces and typically a custom-made conical taper. + +ground state + +The lowest possible energy state for a given quantum mechanical system, at which the Gibbs energy is actually or theoretically minimized. Whatever energy remains in the system in its ground state is called the zero-point energy. Contrast excited state. + +group +Also family. +A vertical column of the periodic table of the elements and the elements that share it. Contrast period. + +== H == + +hadron +A subatomic particle of a type including the baryons and mesons that can take part in the strong interaction. + +halogen +Any of the five non-metallic elements of Group 17 of the periodic table: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). + +hard acid +A Lewis acid with an electron-accepting centre that is only weakly polarizable. Hard acid species also tend to have high charge states and relatively small atomic nuclei, in contrast to soft acids. + +hard water +Water that has very high mineral content, generally formed when water percolates through deposits rich in calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations. + +heat +Energy transferred from one system to another by thermal interaction. + +heat of fusion +See enthalpy of fusion. + +heat of vaporization +See enthalpy of vaporization. + +heavy water + +Henry's law + +Hess' law of constant heat summation +Also simply called Hess' law. +A law of physical chemistry which states that the total enthalpy change during the course of a chemical reaction is the same whether the reaction is completed in one step or in multiple steps. + +Hund's rules + +hydrate +Any substance that contains water or its constituent elements, or any compound formed by the addition of water or its elements to another molecule. + +hydration reaction + +hydride + +hydrocarbon + +hydrogen + +hydrogen bond +A form of electrostatic interaction between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bound to a second electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonding is unique because the small size of the hydrogen atoms permits proximity of the interacting electrical charges, and may occur as an intermolecular or intramolecular force. + +hydrogenation +Any chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another chemical species, typically resulting in the reduction or saturation of the other species by the addition of one or more pairs of hydrogen atoms to a compound or element. The presence of a catalyst is usually required for hydrogenation reactions to occur; non-catalytic hydrogenation takes place only at extreme temperatures. + +hydrolysis +The cleavage of a chemical bond by the addition of water. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..378302de9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of civil engineering" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:38.982469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of civil engineering terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts pertaining specifically to civil engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. For a more general overview of concepts within engineering as a whole, see Glossary of engineering. + +== A == + +Abney level +An instrument used in surveying which consists of a fixed sighting tube, a movable spirit level that is connected to a pointing arm, and a protractor scale. An internal mirror allows the user to see the bubble in the level while sighting a distant target. It can be used as a hand-held instrument or mounted on a Jacob's staff for more precise measurement. +Abrams' law +Also Abrams' water-cement ratio law. +A law which states that the strength of a concrete mix is inversely related to the mass ratio of water to cement. As the water content increases, the strength of the concrete decreases. +abrasion +The process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away a substance or substrate. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive. Abrasion may also be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements. +abrasion resistance + +absolute electrode potential +In electrochemistry, according to an IUPAC definition, is the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface). +absolute pressure +The pressure of a system that is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so that it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. +absolute zero +The theoretical lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum values, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition. +absorbance +Also decadic absorbance. +In chemistry, the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted radiant power through a material. Spectral absorbance or spectral decadic absorbance is the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted spectral radiant power through a material. Absorbance is a dimensionless quantity, and in particular is not a length, though it is a monotonically increasing function of path length, and approaches zero as the path length approaches zero. +abutment +The substructure at either end of a bridge span or dam whereon the structure's superstructure rests or contacts. +AC power +A type of electric power in alternating current circuits, wherein energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. Contrast DC power. +acceleration +In physics, the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's second law. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m s−2). Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law. As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and its acceleration. +acid +A molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid). +acid-base reaction +A chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base, which can be used to determine pH. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory. +acid strength +The tendency of an acid, symbolised by the chemical formula HA, to dissociate into a proton, H+, and an anion, A−. +acoustic board +A special kind of board made of sound-absorbing materials, designed to provide sound insulation. Between two outer walls sound-absorbing material is inserted and the wall is porous. Thus, when sound passes through an acoustic board, the intensity of the sound is decreased. The loss of sound energy is typically balanced by the production of heat energy. +acoustics +The branch of physics that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. +activated sludge +A type of wastewater treatment process for treating sewage or industrial wastewaters using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa. +activated sludge model +A generic name for a group of mathematical methods to model activated sludge systems. The research in this area is coordinated by a task group of the International Water Association (IWA). Activated sludge models are used in scientific research to study biological processes in hypothetical systems. They can also be applied on full scale wastewater treatment plants for optimisation, when carefully calibrated with reference data for sludge production and nutrients in the effluent. +active transport +In cellular biology, the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport that uses ATP, and secondary active transport that uses an electrochemical gradient. +actuator +A mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input. +acute angle +An angle that is smaller than a right angle, i.e. less than 90 degrees. See also obtuse angle. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..92be693c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of civil engineering" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:38.982469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +adhesion +The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent mechanical effects. +adiabatic process +In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred to the surroundings only as work. The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics. +aerobic digestion +A process in sewage treatment designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge and make it suitable for subsequent use. More recently, technology has been developed that allows the treatment and reduction of other organic waste, such as food, cardboard and horticultural waste. +aerodynamics +The study of the motion of air, particularly its interactions with solid objects such as airplane wings. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields. +afocal system +In optics, an optical system without focus, i.e. one that produces no net convergence or divergence of a beam of light, and which therefore has an infinite effective focal length. +agricultural engineering +The engineering discipline that studies agricultural production and processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according to technological principles. A key goal of this discipline is to improve the efficacy and sustainability of agricultural practices. +albedo +A measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). +algebra +A broad area of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. It includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra; the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians. +algorithm +An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks. +alkane +Also paraffin. +In organic chemistry, an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the general chemical formula CnH2n+2. +alkene +In organic chemistry, an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond. +alkyne +In organic chemistry, an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. +alloy +A combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character. +alternating current (AC) +A type of electric current which periodically reverses direction, in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when they plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket. A common source of DC power is a battery cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or voltage. +ammeter +A measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. +amino acid +A class of organic compound containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. +amorphous solid +Also non-crystalline solid. +In condensed matter physics and materials science, a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. +ampere +often shortened to "amp", is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics. +amphoterism +In chemistry, an amphoteric compound is a molecule or ion that can react both as an acid and as a base. Many metals (such as copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminium, and beryllium) form amphoteric oxides or hydroxides. Amphoterism depends on the oxidation states of the oxide. Al2O3 is an example of an amphoteric oxide. +amplifier +An electronic device that can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one. +amplitude + +anaerobic digestion \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4b88b6990 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of civil engineering" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:38.982469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +angular acceleration +The rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α). +Anion +is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged). +annealing + +anode + +ANSI + +Archimedes' principle +states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid. Archimedes' principle is a law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse. +architecture +The process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or any other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. +architectural engineering +Also building engineering or architecture engineering. +The application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction. +Arrhenius equation + +atom + +austenitization + +automation +The technology by which a process or procedure is performed with minimal human assistance. Automation or automatic control is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications and vehicles with minimal or reduced human intervention. +automaton +Any self-operating machine, or a machine or control mechanism designed to automatically follow a predetermined sequence of operations, or respond to predetermined instructions. +autonomous vehicle + +== B == + +balance sheet +Also statement of financial position. +In financial accounting, a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company or other organization such as a government or not-for-profit entity. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company's financial condition". Of the four basic financial statements, the balance sheet is the only statement which applies to a single point in time of a business' calendar year. +barometer +A scientific instrument used to measure air pressure. +battery +A device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell. +base + +beam +A structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to its axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, which in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and material. +Beer–Lambert law + +belt + +belt friction + +bending + +benefit–cost analysis + +bending momentThe reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. +Bernoulli differential equation + +Bernoulli's equation + +Bernoulli's principle +In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected. +beta particle + +block and tackle + +boiling point + +boiling-point elevation + +Boltzmann constant + +boson + +Boyle's law + +Bravais lattice + +Brayton cycle + +break-even analysis + +Brewster's angle + +brittleness +A physical property of a material such that, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. +Brownian motion + +bulk modulus +A measure of how resistant to compression a substance is, defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease in volume. It is one of three standard moduli used to describe a material's response to stress, along with the shear modulus and Young's modulus. +buoyancy + +== C == + +calculus +The mathematical study of continuous change. +capacitance +The ratio of the change in an electric charge in a system to the corresponding change in its electric potential. +capillary action +Also sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking. +The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. +casting + +center of gravity + +center of mass + +center of pressure + +central force motion + +centripetal force + +chain reaction + +Charles's law + +circular motion + +civil engineering +The professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, railways, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and infrastructure for civic utilities. +Clausius–Clapeyron relation + +Clausius inequality + +Clausius theorem + +coastal engineering + +coefficient of performance + +coefficient of variation + +coherence + +cohesion + +compensation + +compressive strength + +computational fluid dynamics + +computer-aided design (CAD) + +computer-aided engineering + +computer-aided manufacturing + +construction engineering + +construction surveying + +control engineering + +control systems engineering + +corrosion + +crystallization + +crystallography + +curvilinear motion + +== D == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..300cf2f86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,613 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of civil engineering" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:38.982469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Dalton's law +Also called Dalton's law of partial pressures. +In chemistry and physics, a law which states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases. This empirical law was first observed by John Dalton in 1801 and published in 1802, and is closely related to the ideal gas laws. +damped vibration + +Darcy–Weisbach equation + +DC motor + +decibel + +definite integral + +deflection + +deformation (engineering) + +deformation (mechanics) + +degrees of freedom + +delta robot + +delta-wye transformer + +density + +derivative + +design engineer +An engineer whose profession focuses on the engineering design process in any of the various disciplines of engineering, e.g. civil engineering. Design engineers tend to work on products and systems that involve adapting and using complex scientific and mathematical techniques in order to develop solutions for human society. +differential pulley + +dispersion + +displacement (fluid) + +displacement (vector) + +Doppler effect + +drag + +ductility + +dynamics + +dyne + +== E == + +earthquake engineering + +elastic modulus + +elasticity + +electric charge + +electric circuit + +electric current + +electric displacement field + +electric generator + +electric field + +electric field gradient + +electric motor + +electric potential + +electrical potential energy + +electric power + +electrical and electronics engineering + +electrical conductor + +electrical insulator + +electrical network +Any interconnection of electrical components (e.g. batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, etc.), or a model of such an interconnection consisting of electrical elements (e.g. voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, and capacitances). +electrical resistance + +electrodynamics + +electromagnet + +electromagnetic field + +electromechanics + +electronegativity + +electronics + +endothermic + +engine + +engineering + +engineering economics + +engineering ethics + +environmental engineering + +engineering physics +Also called engineering science. +The study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in engineering. +estimator + +Euler–Bernoulli beam equation + +exothermic + +== F == + +falling bodies + +farad + +faraday + +Faraday constant + +Fermat's principle + +finite element method + +fission + +fluid + +fluid mechanics + +fluid physics + +fluid statics + +flywheel +A mechanical device which uses the conservation of angular momentum to store rotational energy. Flywheels are therefore a type of accumulator, analogous to electrical inductors, in that they store energy for later use. They are commonly used to smooth deviations in the power output of an energy source, to deliver stored energy at rates that exceed the ability of the energy source, and to control the orientation of mechanical systems. +focus + +foot-pound + +fracture toughness + +free fall + +frequency modulation + +freezing point + +friction + +function + +fundamental frequency + +fundamental interaction + +fundamental theorem of calculus + +fusion + +== G == + +galvanic cell + +gas + +Geiger counter + +general relativity + +geometric mean + +geophysics + +geotechnical engineering + +gluon + +Graham's law of diffusion + +gravitation + +gravitational constant + +gravitational energy + +gravitational potential + +gravity + +ground state + +== H == + +half-life + +haptic + +hardness + +harmonic mean + +heat + +heat transfer + +height above ground level + +Helmholtz free energy + +Henderson–Hasselbalch equation + +Henry's law + +Hertz + +hoist + +horsepower + +housewrap +Also house wrap. +A synthetic material used to insulate and protect buildings. Housewrap functions as a weather-resistant barrier, preventing rain from getting into the wall assembly while allowing water vapor to pass to the exterior. If moisture from either direction is allowed to build up within stud or cavity walls, mold and rot can set in and fiberglass or cellulose insulation will lose its R-value due to heat-conducting moisture. House wrap may also serve as an air barrier if it is sealed carefully at seams. +Huygens–Fresnel principle + +hydraulic engineering + +hydraulics + +== I == + +ice point + +ideal gas + +ideal gas constant + +ideal gas law + +inclinometer + +indefinite integral + +inertia + +infrasound + +integral + +integral transform + +International System of Units + +interval estimation + +ion + +ionic bond + +ionization + +impedance + +inclined plane + +industrial engineering + +inorganic chemistry + +invert level + +isotope + +== J == + +joule (J) +The derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the energy transferred to (or work done on) an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre (1 newton metre or N⋅m). It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889). + +== K == + +Kalman filter + +kelvin + +kinematics + +Kirchhoff's circuit laws + +Kirchhoff's equations + +== L == + +laminar flow + +Laplace transform + +LC circuit + +lever + +L'Hôpital's rule + +linear actuator + +linear elasticity + +== M == + +Mach number + +machine + +machine element + +Maclaurin series + +magnetic field + +magnetism + +manufacturing engineering + +mass balance + +mass density + +mass moment of inertia + +material properties + +materials science + +mathematical optimization + +mathematical physics + +matrix + +Maxwell's equations + +measures of central tendency + +mechanical advantage + +mechanical engineering + +mechanical filter + +mechanical wave + +mechanics + +mechanism + +metal alloy + +mid-range + +midhinge + +mining engineering + +Miller indices + +mobile robot + +modulus of elasticity + +molding + +molecular physics + +moment of inertia + +multibody system + +multidisciplinary design optimization + +== N == + +nanoengineering + +nanotechnology + +Navier–Stokes equations + +Newtonian fluid + +nth root + +nuclear engineering + +nuclear power + +== O == + +obvert + +ohm + +Ohm's law + +optics + +== P == + +parallel circuit + +parity (mathematics) + +parity (physics) + +paraffin + +Pascal's Law + +pendulum + +petroleum engineering + +pH + +phase (matter) + +phase + +phase equilibrium + +physical chemistry + +physical quantity + +physics + +plasma physics + +plasticity + +pneumatics + +point estimation + +polyphase system + +power (electric) + +power (physics) + +power factor + +pressure + +probability + +probability distribution + +probability theory + +pulley + +== R == + +raised floor + +regelation + +relative density + +relative velocity + +reliability engineering + +Reynolds number + +rheology + +rigid body + +robotics + +root-mean-square + +root-mean-square speed + +rotational energy + +rotational speed + +== S == + +sanitary engineering + +saturated compound + +scalar (mathematics) + +scalar (physics) + +scalar multiplication + +screw + +series circuit + +servo + +servomechanism + +shadow matter + +shear strength + +shear stress + +shortwave radiation + +SI units + +signal processing + +simple machine + +siphon + +solid mechanics + +solid-state physics + +solid solution strengthening + +solubility + +sound + +special relativity + +specific heat + +specific gravity + +specific volume + +specific weight + +spontaneous combustion + +state of matter + +statics + +statistics + +Stefan–Boltzmann law + +Stewart platform + +stiffness + +stoichiometry + +strain + +strain hardening + +strength of materials + +stress + +stress–strain analysis + +stress–strain curve + +structural analysis + +structural engineering + +structural load + +sublimation + +subsumption architecture + +surface tension + +superconductor + +superhard material + +surveying + +== T == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2bcd4c2d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of civil engineering" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:38.982469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +technical standard +An established norm or requirement for a repeatable technical task, especially when written in a formal document that establishes uniform criteria, methods, processes, and practices. A technical standard may be developed privately or unilaterally by edict, or by groups such as trade associations, industry standards organizations, or governments, often according to the formal consensus of experts in the discipline. +temperature + +tensile force + +tensile modulus + +tensile strength + +tensile testing + +tension member + +thermal conduction + +thermal equilibrium + +thermal radiation + +thermodynamics + +Thévenin's theorem + +three-phase + +torque + +torsional vibration + +toughness + +trajectory + +transducer + +transportation engineering + +trimean + +triple point + +Trouton's rule + +truncated mean + +truss +An assembly of two-force structural members such as beams, connected at nodes, where the members are organized such that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single, rigid object. + +turbine + +turbomachinery + +turbulence + +== U == + +ultimate tensile strength (UTS) +Also ultimate strength or simply tensile strength (TS). +The maximum stress that a material under tension can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. Ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress–strain curve is the ultimate tensile strength. Tensile strengths are often important in the design of brittle members. Contrast compressive strength. +uncertainty principle + +Unicode + +unit vector + +unsaturated compound + +urban engineering + +utility frequency +The nominal frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in a wide area synchronous grid transmitted from a power station to an end-user. In much of the world the utility frequency is standardized at 50 Hz, although in the Americas and parts of Asia it is typically 60 Hz. + +== V == + +vacuum + +valve + +van der Waals equation + +van der Waals force + +van 't Hoff equation + +van 't Hoff factor + +Venturi effect + +vibration + +viscoelasticity + +viscosity + +volt-ampere + +volt-ampere reactive + +Volta potential + +voltage + +volumetric flow rate + +von Mises yield criterion + +== W == + +wastewater engineering + +watt (W) + +wave + +wavelength + +wedge + +weighted mean + +wet-bulb temperature + +wheel and axle + +winsorized mean + +== X == + +X-coordinate + +== Y == + +Y-coordinate + +yield + +Young's modulus + +== Z == + +Zero Defects (ZD) +A management-led program to eliminate defects in industrial production that enjoyed brief popularity in American industry from 1964 to the early 1970s. Quality expert Philip Crosby later incorporated it into his "Absolutes of Quality Management" and it enjoyed a renaissance in the American automobile industry—as a performance goal more than as a program—in the 1990s. Although applicable to any type of enterprise, it has been primarily adopted within supply chains wherever large volumes of components are being purchased (common items such as nuts and bolts are good examples). +zeroth law of thermodynamics +States that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Accordingly, thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation. Two systems are said to be in the relation of thermal equilibrium if they are linked by a wall permeable only to heat and they do not change over time. As a convenience of language, systems are sometimes also said to be in a relation of thermal equilibrium if they are not linked so as to be able to transfer heat to each other, but would still not do so (even) if they were connected by a wall permeable only to heat. + +== See also == +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of mechanical engineering +Glossary of structural engineering +Glossary of prestressed concrete terms +Glossary of architecture +Glossary of physics +National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying +Fundamentals of Engineering Examination +Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination +Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a638edd91 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of climate change" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of climate change is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to climate change, global warming, and related topics. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy. + +== 0–9 == + +100,000-year problem +The apparent discrepancy between the climate response and the forcing from the amount of incoming solar radiation. + +== A == + +adaptation +Any adjustment in natural or human systems in response to a changing or changed climate. +additionality +In the context of a project funded by carbon offsets, the additionality is the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that is in addition to what would have resulted in the absence of the carbon offset funding. +albedo +An index of the "reflectiveness" of a surface; a way of quantifying how much radiation is reflected back, as opposed to absorbed. Objects or surfaces with low albedo (closer to 0) absorb most of the radiation directed toward them, and those with high albedo (closer to 1) reflect most of it. +anoxic event +A period when the Earth's oceans have no oxygen below the surface layer. +Antarctic bottom water (ABW) – Cold, dense, water mass originating in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica +Antarctic oscillation (AAO) +A low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the Southern Hemisphere. +anthropogenic climate change +Climate change created, caused, or strongly influenced by humans or human activities. +anthropogenic global warming (AGW) +Global warming with the presumption of human influence. +anti-greenhouse effect +The cooling effect an atmosphere has on the ambient temperature of a planet or moon, such as Titan. +Arctic amplification +See Polar amplification. A positive feedback loop triggered by the melting of sea ice, which results in the replacement of high-albedo ice with low-albedo sea capable of absorbing more radiation from the Sun, which traps more heat near the Earth's surface and contributes to the melting of more ice. +Arctic dipole anomaly +A pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America and low pressure on those of Eurasia. +Arctic oscillation (AO) +The dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure (SLP) variations north of 20 degrees N, and it is characterized by SLP anomalies of one sign in the Arctic and anomalies of opposite sign centered about 37–45 degrees N. See also North Atlantic oscillation. +Arctic shrinkage +The observed decrease in sea ice in the Arctic Ocean and melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet in recent years. +Argo +An international programme for researching the ocean +Assigned amount unit +tonne of carbon under the Kyoto Protocol +Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) +A hypothesised mode of natural variability occurring in the North Atlantic Ocean and which has its principle expression in the sea surface temperature (SST) field. +atmospheric window +The parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that are, with the Earth's atmosphere in its natural state, not absorbed at all. +attribution of recent climate change +The study of the causes of climate change. + +== B == + +Biofuels + +Biomass + is a term used in several contexts: in ecology, it means living organisms, and in bioenergy, it means matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms. However, Biomass is defined as all plants and plant-derived materials including feedstock such as vegetable oils, forestry residues, wastes from pulp and paper mills, urban wood wastes, animal manure, plants, grains, and animal-based oils. +Blytt–Sernander system + +Bond event + +Bunker fuels +fuels consumed for international marine transport, e.g shipping fleets. + +== C == + +Callendar effect + +cap and trade +See emissions trading. +Capacity building +In the context of climate change, capacity building is the process of developing the technical skills and institutional capability in developing countries and economies in transition to enable them to address effectively the causes and results of climate change. +carbon cycle +The biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. +carbon dioxide +CO2 the main greenhouse gas +carbon footprint +The total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an organization, event or product. +carbon offset +A mechanism for individuals and businesses to neutralize rather than actually reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, by purchasing the right to claim someone else's reductions as their own. +carbon sequestration +Proposals for removing CO2 from the atmosphere, or for preventing CO2 from fossil fuel combustion from reaching the atmosphere. +carbon sink +An artificial or natural reservoir, such as rocks or peat bogs, that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. +carbon tax +A tax on energy sources or agricultural or industrial processes which emit carbon dioxide. +clathrate gun hypothesis +The hypothesis that melting methane clathrates could trigger runaway or very severe global warming. +climate +The average and variations of weather in a region over long periods of time, which can be related to surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. +climate change +Includes both global warming and its effects, such as changes to precipitation, rising sea levels, and impacts that differ by region. +climate change denial +Also called global warming denial. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..138dec77f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,135 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of climate change" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +climate change feedback +A natural phenomenon that may increase or decrease the warming that eventually results from a change in radiative forcing. +climate change mitigation +approaches to limit global warming, primarily by the substitution of fossil fuels with low-carbon sources of energy +climate commitment +How much future warming is "committed", even if greenhouse gas levels do not rise, due to thermal inertia, mainly of the oceans. +Climate crisis +Term used to show a sense of emergency and urgency about climate change. +climate cycle +See climate oscillation. +climate ethics +An area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change. +climate forcing +Also called radiative forcing - an energy imbalance imposed on the climate system either externally or by human activities. +climate inertia +The tendency of a climate system to resist changes. +climate justice +A term used for viewing climate change as an ethical issue, and considering how its causes and effects relate to social and political concepts of justice. +climate legislation +Legislation dealing with regulation of greenhouse gas emissions. +climate model +An imperfect representation of a climate system that is constructed, validated, studied, and often improved upon in order to gain a knowingly limited amount of useful information. +climate movement + +climate oscillation + +climate resilience +The capacity for a socio-ecological system to: (1) absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change and (2) adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts, while still being able to benefit from it now. +climate sensitivity +How responsive the temperature of the climate system is to a change in radiative forcing; also, the temperature change in °C associated with a doubling of the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere (as the single most important factor of radiative forcing). +climate stabilization wedge + +climate system + +climate variability +Climate change with no presumption of cause. +climatology +Also called climate science. +The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. +cool tropics paradox + +CDM +Clean Development Mechanism is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (called Annex 1 countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. +CDR +Carbon dioxide removal +CER +Certified Emission Reduction +CFC +Chlorofluorocarbon +CF4 +Carbon tetrafluoride +CH4 +Methane +COP +Conference of the Parties - the United Nations Climate Change Conference +CO2 +Carbon dioxide +C2F6 +Hexafluoroethane + +== D == + +Deforestation +Conversion of forest to non-forest. +dendroclimatology + +desertification +The degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas, resulting primarily from natural activities and influenced by climatic variations. +detection and attribution +See attribution of recent climate change. +DER +Distributed Energy Resources is a small-scale unit of power generation that operates locally and is connected to a larger power grid at the distribution level. DERs include solar panels, small natural gas-fueled generators, electric vehicles and controllable loads, such as HVAC systems and electric water heaters. An important distinction of a DER is that the energy it produces is often consumed close to the source. + +== E == + +eco-efficiency +Creating more goods and services while using fewer resources and creating less waste and pollution. +Earth's atmosphere +The layer of gases surrounding the Earth and retained by the Earth's gravity. +Earth's energy imbalance +Difference between energy absorbed by Earth and energy radiated by Earth to space. A useful gauge of significant change when monitored over multiple decades. +Earthshine +Sunlight reflected from Earth and illuminating the dark side of the Moon, which help determining Earth's albedo. +ecotax +A fiscal policy that introduces taxes intended to promote ecologically sustainable activities via economic incentives. +ecosystem services +Benefits humans get from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by natural ecosystems. +El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) +A set of specific interacting parts of a single global system of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations that come about as a consequence of oceanic and atmospheric circulations. +emission intensity +The average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to GDP. +emission inventory + +emission standards +Requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment. +emissions trading + +enteric fermentation +Fermentation that takes place in the digestive systems of ruminant animals; one of the causes of methane emissions. +environmental crime +Crime against environmental legislation that is liable for prosecution. + +== F == + +feedback +Either an amplification (positive feedback) or a reduction (negative feedback) of the rate of global warming caused by its own effects. +forest dieback + +fossil fuel +Fossil source fuels, that is, hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth's crust. +Freon +The trade name for a group of proprietary odorless, colorless, nonflammable, and noncorrosive chlorofluorocarbon and hydrochlorofluorocarbon refrigerants which are used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems. + +== G == + +glacial earthquake +A large-scale temblor that occurs in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year. +glacial motion + +global cooling +A conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth's surface and atmosphere along with a posited commencement of glaciation. +global climate model (GCM) +Also general circulation model. +A computer model of the world's climate system, including the atmosphere and oceans. +global climate regime \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab9a9efdf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,183 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of climate change" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +global dimming +The observed decrease in surface insolation, that may have recently reversed. +global warming (GW) +Usually: the warming trend over the past century or so; also: any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases; also the theory of such changes. +global warming controversy +Socio-political issues surrounding the theory of global warming. +global warming denial +See climate change denial. +global warming period +Any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases. +global warming potential +A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. +greenhouse debt + +greenhouse effect + +greenhouse gas +Any gas that causes or contributes to greenhouse effect. +greenhouse gas inventory +A type of emission inventory that includes greenhouse gas emissions from source categories as well as removal by carbon sinks. +Gulf Stream +A powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. +GCM +General circulation model or global climate model +GFDL +Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory +GHG +Greenhouse gas +GWP +Global warming potential + +== H == + +historical temperature record +See global temperature record. +hockey stick graph +Reconstructions of Northern Hemisphere or global mean temperature changes during the past 600 to 11,300 years, a name coined for the Mann, Bradley and Hughes 1999 (MBH99) reconstruction. +Holocene +A geological period, which began approximately 11,550 calendar years BP (about 9600 BC) and continued to the Anthropocene. +Holocene Climatic Optimum +A warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP. +homogenization +The removal of non-climatic jump and changes in raw climate records, for example due to relocations or changes in instrumentation. +HCFC +Hydrochlorofluorocarbon +HFC +Hydrofluorocarbon +H2O +Water vapor + +== I == + +IAS emissions +This is an acronym used in UK carbon budgets meaning greenhouse gas emissions from "international and shipping". +ice age +A period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth's climate, resulting in expansions of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets, and alpine glaciers. +ice core +A core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice over many years that have re-crystallized and have trapped air bubbles from previous time periods. +insolation +The amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth. +IMO +In climate change context, It is an acronym for International Maritime Organization. +invasive species +Any non-native, introduced species that adversely affects the habitats and bioregions it invades economically, environmentally, and/or ecologically. +iris hypothesis + +irradiance +The amount of electromagnetic radiation reaching a surface, measured in watts per square meter. +instrumental temperature record +Shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans as measured by temperature sensors. The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850. +Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) +A cycle of 15 to 30 years between warm or cool waters in the north and south Pacific Ocean. +Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) + +IUCN +International Union for Conservation of Nature. +JUSSCANNZ +This is an acronym representing non-EU industrialized countries that occasionally meet to discuss various issues related to climate change. Members include Japan, the United States, Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway, and New Zealand. Iceland, Mexico, and the Republic of Korea may also attend JUSSCANZ meetings. +IOD +Indian Ocean Dipole +IPO +Interdecadal Pacific oscillation +IPCC +Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change + +== K == + +Keeling Curve +A graph showing the variation in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide since 1958. +Kyoto Protocol +A modification to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. See also post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions. + +== L == + +Little Ice Age +A historical period of cooling which followed a warmer period known as the Medieval Climate Optimum. + +LT-LEDS +A long term climate strategy for a country submitted to the UNFCCC. + +== M == + +magnetosphere +The region around an astronomical object in which phenomena are dominated or organized by its magnetic field. +Maunder Minimum +A historical period roughly from 1645 to 1715, when sunspots became exceedingly rare, as noted by solar observers of the time. +Mauna Loa +Home to the longest instrumental CO2 record. +MSL +Mean Sea Level +Medieval Warm Period +A historical warm period from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. +meteorology +The interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere and weather processes, with a particular focus on weather forecasting. +methane +A greenhouse gas released by enteric fermentation in livestock, rice production, and fossil fuel extraction. +Milankovitch cycles + +mitigation of global warming +Any procedure which involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the degree of global warming. (same as climate change mitigation) +mode of variability +A pattern of climate change, usually oscillatory, with specific regional effects. + +== N == + +nitrous oxide +N2O is a potent greenhouse gas produced primarily in agriculture, particularly by the livestock sector. +nonradiative forcing +A type of climate forcing which creates an energy imbalance that does not immediately involve radiation. +North Atlantic Deep Water +One of the water masses of the ocean. +North Atlantic oscillation +An atmospheric climate mode. +NCDS +Nationally Determined Contributions (aka Paris Accord/Agreement) +NAPA +National Adaptation Programme of Action. +NCAR +National Center for Atmospheric Research +NF3 +Nitrogen trifluoride +N20 +Nitrous oxide + +== O == + +ocean heat content +Thermal energy stored in the global ocean. A basic indicator of climate change. +ocean planet +The opposite concept of Snowball Earth. +orbital forcing + +ozone + +ozone depletion + +ozone layer + +OHC +Ocean heat content +O3 +(Tropospheric) Ozone + +== P == + +Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) +A 23-year pattern of warm or cool water in the north Pacific Ocean. +Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) +A historical warming event which suddenly and fundamentally altered geological and biological aspects of the planet. +paleoclimatology +The study of climate change taken on the scale of the entire history of the Earth. +policies and measures (PaMs) +phenology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..25e06a41b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of climate change" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:40.286049+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +polar amplification +Greater temperature increases in the Arctic than in the earth as a whole is a result of the collective effect of positive feedback loops and other processes. Despite its name, polar amplification only applies to the Arctic, and not to the Antarctic, because the Southern Ocean acts as a heat sink. +polar city +A proposed human refuge located in northern regions of the Earth, and in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica, where people might have to live in order to survive major global warming "events" in the far distant future. Also dubbed "Lovelock Retreats". +proxy +A variable that can be related to one of interest (e.g. tree rings can be proxies for temperature variations). + +== R == + +radiative forcing +A quantifiable driver of change to Earth's energy balance. +regime shift + +removal unit +A tradable carbon credit or "Kyoto unit" representing an allowance to emit one tonne of greenhouse gases absorbed by a removal or carbon sink activity in an Annex I country. +runaway greenhouse effect +A somewhat ill-defined term associated with the idea of large irreversible temperature rises. +RCP +Representative Concentration Pathway +REDD +Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation mechanisms use market/financial incentives to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. + +== S == + +sea level rise +A basic indicator of global warming and climate change. +season creep + +slash and burn +A form of deforestation used to clear fields for agricultural use. +Snowball Earth + +solar variation +Changes in the amount of radiant energy emitted by the Sun. +solar wind +The stream of charged particles ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. +stranded asset +Assets that have suffered from unanticipated or premature write-downs, devaluations, or conversion to liabilities. They can be caused by a variety of environment-related risks. +Stratospheric aerosol injection + +sunspot +A region on the surface of the Sun (the photosphere) that is marked by a lower temperature than its surroundings and has intense magnetic activity, which inhibits convection, forming areas of low surface temperature. +SSP +Shared Socioeconomic Pathways +SST +Sea surface temperature +SF6 +Sulfur hexafluoride + +== T == + +thermohaline circulation +The global density-driven circulation of the oceans. +TEX-86 +A paleothermometer based on the composition of membrane lipids of the marine picoplankton Thermoproteota (formerly called Crenarchaeota). +thermocline +Also metalimnion. +A layer within a body of water or air where the temperature changes rapidly with depth. +tipping points in the climate system +Thresholds in the climate system that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system that are often irreversible. +TEWI +Total equivalent warming impact + +== U == + +urban heat island +Any metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surroundings. + +== V == + +volcanism +Phenomenon of eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a solid-surface planet or moon, where lava, pyroclastics, and volcanic gases erupt through a break in the surface called a vent. + +== W == + +water vapor +Water in its gaseous state. Water vapor is considered a greenhouse gas because its presence in the Earth's atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect. +with additional measures (WAM) +with measures (WEM) +without measures (WOM) +weather + +World Climate Report + +WMO +World Meteorological Organization + +== Y == + +Younger Dryas +A period of rapid and severe climate changes which occurred circa 12,900 to 11,700 years before present. + +== See also == + +Index of climate change articles +Glossary of environmental science +Glossary of meteorology +Scientific consensus on climate change +Timeline of environmental history + +== References == + +== External links == +The Climate Dictionary: An everyday guide to climate change by United Nations Development Programme +Office for Climate Education glossary +"The Words You Need To Know To Talk About Climate Change Today", dictionary.com (archive) +IPCC,2021: AR6 WGI AnnexVII: Glossary +Smith-Spark, Laura (5 November 2022). "Here are the climate change terms you should know". CNN. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. +Environmental Terminology Discovery Service — EEA (multilingual environmental glossary in 28 languages: ar, bg, cs, da, de, el, en, es, et, eu, fi, fr, hu, is, it, lt, lv, mt, nl, no, pl, pt, ro, ru, sk, sl, sv, tr) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fee9f5513 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 1/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A glossary of terms used in clinical research. + +== A == +Activities of daily living + +The tasks of everyday life. These activities include eating, dressing, getting into or out of a bed or chair, taking a bath or shower, and using the toilet. Instrumental activities of daily living are activities related to independent living and include preparing meals, managing money, shopping, doing housework, and using a telephone. Also called ADL. (NCI) +Adverse drug reaction + +In the preapproval clinical experience with a new medicinal product or its new usages, particularly as the therapeutic dose(s) may not be established, all noxious and unintended responses to a medicinal product related to any dose should be considered adverse drug reactions. The phrase "responses to a medicinal product" means that a causal relationship between a medicinal product and an adverse event is at least a reasonable possibility, i.e., the relationship cannot be ruled out. Regarding marketed medicinal products: A response to a drug that is noxious and unintended and that occurs at doses normally used in man for prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy of diseases or for modification of physiological function. (ICH E6) +Adverse effect + +An unwanted side effect of treatment. (NCI) +Adverse event + +An unexpected medical problem that happens during treatment with a drug or other therapy. Adverse events do not have to be caused by the drug or therapy, and they may be mild, moderate, or severe. (NCI) +An AE is any untoward medical occurrence in a patient or clinical investigation subject administered a pharmaceutical product and that does not necessarily have a causal relationship with this treatment. An AE can therefore be any unfavorable and unintended sign (including an abnormal laboratory finding), symptom, or disease temporally associated with the use of a medicinal (investigational) product, whether or not related to the medicinal (investigational) product (see the ICH guidance for Clinical Safety Data Management: Definitions and Standards for Expedited Reporting). (ICH E6) +Adverse reaction + +An unwanted effect caused by the administration of drugs. Onset may be sudden or develop over time (NLM) +Advocacy and support groups + +Organizations and groups that actively support participants and their families with valuable resources, including self-empowerment and survival tools. (NLM) +Animal model + +An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. (NCI) +Animal study + +A laboratory experiment using animals to study the development and progression of diseases. Animal studies also test how safe and effective new treatments are before they are tested in people. (NCI) +Applicable regulatory requirement + +Any law(s) and regulation(s) addressing the conduct of clinical trials of investigational products of the jurisdiction where trial is conducted. (ICH E6) +Approval (in relation to institutional review boards (IRBs)) + +The affirmative decision of the IRB that the clinical trial has been reviewed and may be conducted at the institution site within the constraints set forth by the IRB, the institution, good clinical practice (GCP), and the applicable regulatory requirements. (ICH E6) +Approved drugs + +In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) must approve a substance as a drug before it can be marketed. The approval process involves several steps including pre-clinical laboratory and animal studies, clinical trials for safety and efficacy, filing of a New Drug Application by the manufacturer of the drug, FDA review of the application, and FDA approval/rejection of application (NLM) +Arm + +Any of the treatment groups in a randomized trial. Most randomized trials have two "arms," but some have three "arms," or even more (NLM) +Audit + +A systematic and independent examination of trial-related activities and documents to determine whether the evaluated trial-related activities were conducted, and the data were recorded, analyzed, and accurately reported according to the protocol, sponsor's standard operating procedures (SOPs), good clinical practice (GCP), and the applicable regulatory requirement(s). (ICH E6) +Audit certificate + +A declaration of confirmation by the auditor that an audit has taken place. (ICH E6) +Audit report + +A written evaluation by the sponsor's auditor of the results of the audit. (ICH E6) +Audit trail + +Documentation that allows reconstruction of the course of events. (ICH E6) + +== B == +Baseline + +1. Information gathered at the beginning of a study from which variations found in the study are measured. 2. A known value or quantity with which an unknown is compared when measured or assessed. 3. The initial time point in a clinical trial, just before a participant starts to receive the experimental treatment which is being tested. At this reference point, measurable values such as CD4 count are recorded. Safety and efficacy of a drug are often determined by monitoring changes from the baseline values. (NLM) +An initial measurement that is taken at an early time point to represent a beginning condition, and is used for comparison over time to look for changes. For example, the size of a tumor will be measured before treatment (baseline) and then afterwards to see if the treatment had an effect. (NCI) +Bayesian approaches + +Approaches to data analysis that provide a posterior probability distribution for some parameter (e.g. treatment effect), derived from the observed data and a prior probability distribution for the parameter. The posterior distribution is then used as the basis for statistical inference. (ICH E9) +Best practice + +In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used. Health care providers are obligated to provide patients with the best practice. Also called standard therapy or standard of care. (NCI) +Bias \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8a3f4c276 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 2/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In a scientific research study or clinical trial, a flaw in the study design or the method of collecting or interpreting information. Biases can lead to incorrect conclusions about what the study or clinical trial showed. (NCI) +When a point of view prevents impartial judgment on issues relating to the subject of that point of view. In clinical studies, bias is controlled by blinding and randomization (NLM) +The systematic tendency of any factors associated with the design, conduct, analysis and evaluation of the results of a clinical trial to make the estimate of a treatment effect deviate from its true value. Bias introduced through deviations in conduct is referred to as 'operational' bias. The other sources of bias listed above are referred to as 'statistical'. (ICH E9) +Bioavailable + +The ability of a drug or other substance to be absorbed and used by the body. Orally bioavailable means that a drug or other substance that is taken by mouth can be absorbed and used by the body. (NCI) +Bioinformatics + +The science of using computers, databases, and math to organize and analyze large amounts of biological, medical, and health information. Information may come from many sources, including patient statistics, tissue specimens, genetics research, and clinical trials. (NCI) +Biological drug + +A substance that is made from a living organism or its products and is used in the prevention, diagnosis, or treatment diseases. Biological drugs include antibodies, interleukins, and vaccines. Also called biologic agent or biological agent. (NCI) +Biometrics + +The science of collecting and analyzing biologic or health data using statistical methods. Biometrics may be used to help learn the possible causes of a disease in a certain group of people. Also called biostatistics and biometry. (NCI) +Biometry + +The science of collecting and analyzing biologic or health data using statistical methods. Biometry may be used to help learn the possible causes of a disease in a certain group of people. Also called biostatistics and biometrics. (NCI) +Biostatistics + +The science of collecting and analyzing biologic or health data using statistical methods. Biostatistics may be used to help learn the possible causes of a disease in a certain group of people. Also called biometry and biometrics. (NCI) +Blind + +A randomized trial is "Blind" if the participant is not told which arm of the trial he is on. A clinical trial is "Blind" if participants are unaware on whether they are in the experimental or control arm of the study; also called masked. (NLM) +A procedure in which one or more parties to the trial are kept unaware of the treatment assignment(s). Single blinding usually refers to the subject(s) being unaware, and double blinding usually refers to the subject(s), investigator(s), monitor, and, in some cases, data analyst(s) being unaware of the treatment assignment(s). (ICH E6) +Blind review + +The checking and assessment of data during the period of time between trial completion (the last observation on the last subject) and the breaking of the blind, for the purpose of finalising the planned analysis. (ICH E9) +Blinded study + +A type of study in which the patients (single-blinded) or the patients and their doctors (double-blinded) do not know which drug or treatment is being given. The opposite of a blinded study is an open label study. (NCI) + +== C == +Candidate + +A descriptor which is applied to any substance or process which is being investigated for clinical use but either has not commenced, or has not completed, clinical trials. Examples: candidate vaccine, candidate formulation. +Case report + +A detailed report of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports also contain some demographic information about the patient (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin). (NCI) +Case report form + +A printed, optical, or electronic document designed to record all of the protocol-required information to be reported to the sponsor on each trial subject. (ICH E6) +Case series + +A group or series of case reports involving patients who were given similar treatment. Reports of case series usually contain detailed information about the individual patients. This includes demographic information (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin) and information on diagnosis, treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up after treatment. (NCI) +Case-control study + +A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls). Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn what factors may be associated with the disease or condition. For example, one group may have been exposed to a particular substance that the other was not. Also called a retrospective study. (NCI) +Clinical + +Pertaining to or founded on observation and treatment of participants, as distinguished from theoretical or basic science. (NLM) +Clinical investigation + +Any experiment that involves a test article and one or more human subjects (21CFR50.3) +Clinical investigator + +A medical researcher in charge of carrying out a clinical trial's protocol. (NLM) +Clinical practice guidelines + +Guidelines developed to help health care professionals and patients make decisions about screening, prevention, or treatment of a specific health condition. (NCI) +Clinical researcher + +A health professional who works directly with patients, or uses data from patients, to do research on health and disease and to develop new treatments. Clinical researchers may also do research on how health care practices affect health and disease. (NCI) +Clinical series + +A case series in which the patients receive treatment in a clinic or other medical facility. (NCI) +Clinical study or Clinical trial \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c6d7d053c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 11/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls). Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn what factors may be associated with the disease or condition. For example, one group may have been exposed to a particular substance that the other was not. Also called a case-control study. (NCI) +Risk-benefit ratio + +The risk to individual participants versus the potential benefits. The risk/benefit ratio may differ depending on the condition being treated. (NLM) + +== S == +Safety & tolerability + +The safety of a medical product concerns the medical risk to the subject, usually assessed in a clinical trial by laboratory tests (including clinical chemistry and haematology), vital signs, clinical adverse events (diseases, signs and symptoms), and other special safety tests (e.g. ECGs, ophthalmology). The tolerability of the medical product represents the degree to which overt adverse effects can be tolerated by the subject. (ICH E9) +Screening trials + +Refers to trials which test the best way to detect certain diseases or health conditions. (NLM) +Selection bias + +An error in choosing the individuals or groups to take part in a study. Ideally, the subjects in a study should be very similar to one another and to the larger population from which they are drawn (for example, all individuals with the same disease or condition). If there are important differences, the results of the study may not be valid. (NCI) +Serious Adverse Event + +Any untoward medical occurrence that at any dose: results in death, is life-threatening, requires inpatient hospitalization or prolongation of existing hospitalization, results in persistent or significant disability/incapacity, or is a congenital anomaly/birth defect. (ICH E6) +Sham therapy + +An inactive treatment or procedure that is intended to mimic as closely as possible a therapy in a clinical trial. Also called placebo therapy. (NCI) +Side effect + +A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. (NCI) +Any undesired actions or effects of a drug or treatment. Negative or adverse effects may include headache, nausea, hair loss, skin irritation, or other physical problems. Experimental drugs must be evaluated for both immediate and long-term side effects (NLM) +Significant + +In statistics, describes a mathematical measure of difference between groups. The difference is said to be significant if it is greater than what might be expected to happen by chance alone. Also called statistically significant. (NCI) +Single blind study + +A type of clinical trial in which only the doctor knows whether a patient is taking the standard treatment or the new treatment being tested. This helps prevent bias in treatment studies. (NCI) +A study in which one party, either the investigator or participant, is unaware of what medication the participant is taking; also called single-masked study. (NLM) +Source Data + +All information in original records and certified copies of original records of clinical findings, observations, or other activities in a clinical trial necessary for the reconstruction and evaluation of the trial. Source data are contained in source documents (original records or certified copies). (ICH E6) +Source Documents + +Original documents, data, and records (e.g., hospital records, clinical and office charts, laboratory notes, memoranda, subjects' diaries or evaluation checklists, pharmacy dispensing records, recorded data from automated instruments, copies or transcriptions certified after verification as being accurate and complete, microfiches, photographic negatives, microfilm or magnetic media, x-rays, subject files, and records kept at the pharmacy, at the laboratories, and at medico-technical departments involved in the clinical trial). (ICH E6) +Sponsor + +An individual, company, institution, or organization that takes responsibility for the initiation, management, and/or financing of a clinical trial. (ICH E6) +A person who initiates a clinical investigation, but who does not actually conduct the investigation, i.e., the test article is administered or dispensed to or used involving, a subject under the immediate direction of another individual. A person other than an individual (e.g., corporation or agency) that uses one or more of its own employees to conduct a clinical investigation it has initiated is considered to be a sponsor (not a sponsor-investigator), and the employees are considered to be investigators. (21CFR50.3) +Sponsor-Investigator + +An individual who both initiates and conducts, alone or with others, a clinical trial, and under whose immediate direction the investigational product is administered to, dispensed to, or used by a subject. The term does not include any person other than an individual (e.g., it does not include a corporation or an agency). The obligations of a sponsor-investigator include both those of a sponsor and those of an investigator. (ICH E6) +An individual who both initiates and actually conducts, alone or with others, a clinical investigation, i.e., under whose immediate direction the test article is administered or dispensed to, or used involving, a subject. The term does not include any person other than an individual, e.g., corporation or agency. (21CFR50.3) +Standard treatment + +A treatment currently in wide use and approved by the FDA, considered to be effective in the treatment of a specific disease or condition. (NLM) +Standards of care + +Treatment regimen or medical management based on state of the art participant care. (NLM) +Standard Operating Procedures + +Detailed, written instructions to achieve uniformity of the performance of a specific function. (ICH E6) +Statistical analysis plan + +A statistical analysis plan is a document that contains a more technical and detailed elaboration of the principal features of the analysis described in the protocol, and includes detailed procedures for executing the statistical analysis of the primary and secondary variables and other data. (ICH E9) +Statistical significance + +The probability that an event or difference occurred by chance alone. In clinical trials, the level of statistical significance depends on the number of participants studied and the observations made, as well as the magnitude of differences observed. (NLM) +Study endpoint + +A primary or secondary outcome used to judge the effectiveness of a treatment. (NLM) +Study type \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e747099f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 12/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The primary investigative techniques used in an observational protocol; types are Purpose, Duration, Selection, and Timing. (NLM) +Subinvestigator + +Any individual member of the clinical trial team designated and supervised by the investigator at a trial site to perform critical trial-related procedures and/or to make important trial-related decisions (e.g., associates, residents, research fellows). (ICH E6) +Subject Identification Code + +A unique identifier assigned by the investigator to each trial subject to protect the subject's identity and used in lieu of the subject's name when the investigator reports adverse events and/or other trial-related data. (ICH E6) +Subject/Trial Subject + +An individual who participates in a clinical trial, either as a recipient of the investigational product(s) or as a control. (ICH E6) +Superiority trial + +A trial with the primary objective of showing that the response to the investigational product is superior to a comparative agent (active or placebo control). (ICH E9) +Surrogate variable + +A variable that provides an indirect measurement of effect in situations where direct measurement of clinical effect is not feasible or practical. (ICH E9) + +== T == +Test article + +Any drug (including a biological product for human use), medical device for human use, human food additive, color additive, electronic product, or any other article subject to regulation under the FD&C Act (21CFR50.3) +Toxicity + +An adverse effect produced by a drug that is detrimental to the participant's health. The level of toxicity associated with a drug will vary depending on the condition which the drug is used to treat. (NLM) +Treatment effect + +An effect attributed to a treatment in a clinical trial. In most clinical trials the treatment effect of interest is a comparison (or contrast) of two or more treatments. (ICH E9) +Treatment emergent + +An event that emerges during treatment having been absent pre-treatment, or worsens relative to the pre-treatment state. (ICH E9) +Treatment IND + +IND stands for Investigational New Drug application, which is part of the process to get approval from the FDA for marketing a new prescription drug in the U.S. It makes promising new drugs available to desperately ill participants as early in the drug development process as possible. Treatment INDs are made available to participants before general marketing begins, typically during Phase III studies. To be considered for a treatment IND a participant cannot be eligible to be in the definitive clinical trial. (NLM) +Treatment trials + +Refers to trials which test new treatments, new combinations of drugs, or new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy. (NLM) +Trial Site + +The location(s) where trial-related activities are actually conducted. (ICH E6) +Trial statistician + +A statistician who has a combination of education/training and experience sufficient to implement the principles in this guidance and who is responsible for the statistical aspects of the trial. (ICH E9) +t-test + +A statistical test that is used to find out if there is a real difference between the means (averages) of two different groups. It is sometimes used to see if there is a significant difference in response to treatment between groups in a clinical trial. (NCI) + +== U == +Uncontrolled study + +A clinical study that lacks a comparison (i.e., a control) group. (NCI) +Unexpected Adverse Drug Reaction + +An adverse reaction, the nature or severity of which is not consistent with the applicable product information (e.g., Investigator's Brochure for an unapproved investigational product or package insert/summary of product characteristics for an approved product). (ICH E6) + +== V == +Vulnerable Subjects + +Individuals whose willingness to volunteer in a clinical trial may be unduly influenced by the expectation, whether justified or not, of benefits associated with participation, or of a retaliatory response from senior members of a hierarchy in case of refusal to participate. Examples are members of a group with a hierarchical structure, such as medical, pharmacy, dental, and nursing students, subordinate hospital and laboratory personnel, employees of the pharmaceutical industry, members of the armed forces, and persons kept in detention. Other vulnerable subjects include patients with incurable diseases, persons in nursing homes, unemployed or impoverished persons, patients in emergency situations, ethnic minority groups, homeless persons, nomads, refugees, minors, and those incapable of giving consent. (ICH E6) + +== W == +Well-being of the trial subjects + +The physical and mental integrity of the subjects participating in a clinical trial. (ICH E6) + +== References == + This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. + +21CFR50.3: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21--Food and Drugs, Chapter I--Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Part 50--Protection of Human Subjects, Subpart A--General Provisions, Sec. 50.3 Definitions +21CFR312.3: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21--Food and Drugs, Chapter I--Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Part 312--Investigational New Drug Application, Subpart A--General Provisions, Sec. 312.3 Definitions and Interpretations, archived from the original on June 26, 2003 +ICH E6: Guidance for Industry - E6 Good Clinical Practice: Consolidated Guidance (PDF), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, April 1996, archived from the original (PDF) on July 9, 2009 +ICH E9: Guidance for Industry - E9 Statistical Principles for Clinical Trials (PDF), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, September 1998, archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2009 +NCI: Dictionary of Cancer Terms, National Cancer Institute, archived from the original on 2008-10-25, retrieved 2008-10-05 +NLM: Glossary of Clinical Trials Terms, U.S. National Library of Medicine, archived from the original on 2011-09-02, retrieved 2008-10-05 + +== See also == +Outline of clinical research + +== External links == +CenterWatch Clinical Trials Listing Service - Glossary, archived from the original on December 31, 2008 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01e1e8eaf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 3/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called a clinical trial. (NCI) +A clinical trial is a research study to answer specific questions about vaccines or new therapies or new ways of using known treatments. Clinical trials (also called medical research and research studies) are used to determine whether new drugs or treatments are both safe and effective. Carefully conducted clinical trials are the fastest and safest way to find treatments that work in people. Trials are in four phases: Phase I tests a new drug or treatment in a small group; Phase II expands the study to a larger group of people; Phase III expands the study to an even larger group of people; and Phase IV takes place after the drug or treatment has been licensed and marketed. (NLM) +Any investigation in human subjects intended to discover or verify the clinical, pharmacological, and/or other pharmacodynamic effects of an investigational product(s), and/or to identify any adverse reactions to an investigational product(s), and/or to study absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of an investigational product(s) with the object of ascertaining its safety and/or efficacy. The terms clinical trial and clinical study are synonymous. (ICH E6) +Clinical Trial/Study Report + +A written description of a trial/study of any therapeutic, prophylactic, or diagnostic agent conducted in human subjects, in which the clinical and statistical description, presentations, and analyses are fully integrated into a single report. (ICH E6) +Clinician + +A health professional who takes care of patients. (NCI) +Cohort (statistics) + +A group of individuals who share a common trait, such as birth year. In medicine, a cohort is a group that is part of a clinical trial or study and is observed over a period of time. (NCI) +In epidemiology, a group of individuals with some characteristics in common. (NLM) +Cohort study + +A research study that compares a particular outcome in groups of individuals who are alike in many ways but differ by a certain characteristic (for example, female nurses who smoke compared with those who do not smoke). (NCI) +Community-based clinical trial (CBCT) + +A clinical trial conducted primarily through primary-care physicians rather than academic research facilities. (NLM) +Comparator + +An investigational or marketed product (i.e., active control), or placebo, used as a reference in a clinical trial. (ICH E6) +Compassionate use + +A method of providing experimental therapeutics prior to final FDA approval for use in humans. This procedure is used with very sick individuals who have no other treatment options. Often, case-by-case approval must be obtained from the FDA for "compassionate use" of a drug or therapy. (NLM) +Compassionate use trial + +A way to provide an investigational therapy to a patient who is not eligible to receive that therapy in a clinical trial, but who has a serious or life-threatening illness for which other treatments are not available. Compassionate use trials allow patients to receive promising but not yet fully studied or approved therapies when no other treatment option exists. Also called expanded access trial. (NCI) +Complementary and alternative therapy + +Broad range of healing philosophies, approaches, and therapies that Western (conventional) medicine does not commonly use to promote well-being or treat health conditions. Examples include acupuncture, herbs, etc. Internet Address: http://www.nccih.nih.gov. (NLM) +Compliance + +Adherence to all the trial-related requirements, good clinical practice (GCP) requirements, and the applicable regulatory requirements. (ICH E6) +Confidentiality regarding trial participants + +Refers to maintaining the confidentiality of trial participants including their personal identity and all personal medical information. The trial participants' consent to the use of records for data verification purposes should be obtained prior to the trial and assurance must be given that confidentiality will be maintained. (NLM) +Prevention of disclosure, to other than authorized individuals, of a sponsor's proprietary information or of a subject's identity. (ICH E6) +Consecutive case series + +A clinical study that includes all eligible patients identified by the researchers during the study registration period. The patients are treated in the order in which they are identified. This type of study usually does not have a control group. (NCI) +Content validity + +The extent to which a variable (e.g. a rating scale) measures what it is supposed to measure. (ICH E9) +Contract + +A written, dated, and signed agreement between two or more involved parties that sets out any arrangements on delegation and distribution of tasks and obligations and, if appropriate, on financial matters. The protocol may serve as the basis of a contract. (ICH E6) +Contract Research Organization + +A person or an organization (commercial, academic, or other) contracted by the sponsor to perform one or more of a sponsor's trial-related duties and functions. (ICH E6) +Contraindication + +A specific circumstance when the use of certain treatments could be harmful. (NLM) +Control + +A control is the nature of the intervention control. (NLM) +Control animal + +An animal in a study that does not receive the treatment being tested. Comparing the health of control animals with the health of treated animals allows researchers to evaluate the effects of a treatment more accurately. (NCI) +Control group + +In a clinical trial, the group that does not receive the new treatment being studied. This group is compared to the group that receives the new treatment, to see if the new treatment works. (NCI) +The standard by which experimental observations are evaluated. In many clinical trials, one group of patients will be given an experimental drug or treatment, while the control group is given either a standard treatment for the illness or a placebo (NLM) +Controlled clinical trial + +A clinical study that includes a comparison (control) group. The comparison group receives a placebo, another treatment, or no treatment at all. (NCI) +An experiment or clinical trial that includes a comparison (control) group. (NCI) +Controlled trials \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a44f1f593 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 4/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Control is a standard against which experimental observations may be evaluated. In clinical trials, one group of participants is given an experimental drug, while another group (i.e., the control group) is given either a standard treatment for the disease or a placebo. (NLM) +Coordinating Committee + +A committee that a sponsor may organize to coordinate the conduct of a multicenter trial. (ICH E6) +Coordinating Investigator + +An investigator assigned the responsibility for the coordination of investigators at different centers participating in a multicenter trial. (ICH E6) + +== D == +Data and Safety Monitoring Board or Independent Data Monitoring Committee + +DSMB. An impartial group that oversees a clinical trial and reviews the results to see if they are acceptable. This group determines if the trial should be changed or closed. Also called DSMB. (NCI) +An independent committee, composed of community representatives and clinical research experts, that reviews data while a clinical trial is in progress to ensure that participants are not exposed to undue risk. A DSMB may recommend that a trial be stopped if there are safety concerns or if the trial objectives have been achieved. (NLM) +An independent data monitoring committee that may be established by the sponsor to assess at intervals the progress of a clinical trial, the safety data, and the critical efficacy endpoints, and to recommend to the sponsor whether to continue, modify, or stop a trial. (ICH E6 and ICH E9) +Diagnostic trials + +Refers to trials that are conducted to find better tests or procedures for diagnosing a particular disease or condition. Diagnostic trials usually include people who have signs or symptoms of the disease or condition being studied. (NLM) +Direct Access + +Permission to examine, analyze, verify, and reproduce any records and reports that are important to evaluation of a clinical trial. Any party (e.g., domestic and foreign regulatory authorities, sponsors, monitors, and auditors) with direct access should take all reasonable precautions within the constraints of the applicable regulatory requirement(s) to maintain the confidentiality of subjects' identities and sponsor's proprietary information. (ICH E6) +Documentation + +All records, in any form (including, but not limited to, written, electronic, magnetic, and optical records; and scans, x-rays, and electrocardiograms) that describe or record the methods, conduct, and/or results of a trial, the factors affecting a trial, and the actions taken. (ICH E6) +Dose + +The amount of medicine taken, or radiation given, at one time. (NCI) +Dose-dependent + +Refers to the effects of treatment with a drug. If the effects change when the dose of the drug is changed, the effects are said to be dose-dependent. (NCI) +Dose-limiting + +Describes side effects of a drug or other treatment that are serious enough to prevent an increase in dose or level of that treatment. (NCI) +Dose-ranging study + +A clinical trial in which two or more doses of an agent (such as a drug) are tested against each other to determine which dose works best and is least harmful. (NLM) +Dose-rate + +The strength of a treatment given over a period of time. (NCI) +Double-blind study + +A clinical trial design in which neither the participating individuals nor the study staff knows which participants are receiving the experimental drug and which are receiving a placebo (or another therapy). Double-blind trials are thought to produce objective results, since the expectations of the doctor and the participant about the experimental drug do not affect the outcome; also called double-masked study. (NLM) +A clinical trial in which neither the medical staff nor the person knows which of several possible therapies the person is receiving. (NCI) +Double-dummy + +A technique for retaining the blind when administering supplies in a clinical trial, when the two treatments cannot be made identical. Supplies are prepared for Treatment A (active and indistinguishable placebo) and for Treatment B (active and indistinguishable placebo). Subjects then take two sets of treatment; either A (active) and B (placebo), or A (placebo) and B (active). (ICH E9) +Dropout + +A subject in a clinical trial who for any reason fails to continue in the trial until the last visit required of him/her by the study protocol. (ICH E9) +Drug + +Any substance, other than food, that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. Also refers to a substance that alters mood or body function, or that can be habit-forming or addictive, especially a narcotic. (NCI) +Drug–drug interaction + +A modification of the effect of a drug when administered with another drug. The effect may be an increase or a decrease in the action of either substance, or it may be an adverse effect that is not normally associated with either drug. (NLM) + +== E == +Efficacy + +The maximum ability of a drug or treatment to produce a result regardless of dosage. A drug passes efficacy trials if it is effective at the dose tested and against the illness for which it is prescribed. In the procedure mandated by the FDA, Phase II clinical trials gauge efficacy, and Phase III trials confirm it (NLM) +Effectiveness. In medicine, the ability of an intervention (for example, a drug or surgery) to produce the desired beneficial effect. (NCI) +Eligibility criteria + +In clinical trials, requirements that must be met for an individual to be included in a study. These requirements help make sure that patients in a trial are similar to each other in terms of specific factors such as age, general health, and previous treatment. When all participants meet the same eligibility criteria, it gives researchers greater confidence that results of the study are caused by the intervention being tested and not by other factors. (NCI) +Summary criteria for participant selection; includes Inclusion and Exclusion criteria. (NLM) +Empirical + +Based on experimental data, not on a theory. (NLM) +Endpoint \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d51183a2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 5/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In clinical trials, an event or outcome that can be measured objectively to determine whether the intervention being studied is beneficial. The endpoints of a clinical trial are usually included in the study objectives. Some examples of endpoints are survival, improvements in quality of life, relief of symptoms, and disappearance of the tumor. (NCI) +Overall outcome that the protocol is designed to evaluate. Common endpoints are severe toxicity, disease progression, or death. (NLM) +Enrolling + +The act of signing up participants into a study. Generally this process involves evaluating a participant with respect to the eligibility criteria of the study and going through the informed consent process. (NLM) +Epidemiology + +The branch of medical science that deals with the study of incidence and distribution and control of a disease in a population. (NLM) +The study of the patterns, causes, and control of disease in groups of people. (NCI) +Equivalence trial + +A trial with the primary objective of showing that the response to two or more treatments differs by an amount which is clinically unimportant. This is usually demonstrated by showing that the true treatment difference is likely to lie between a lower and an upper equivalence margin of clinically acceptable differences. (ICH E9) +Essential Documents + +Documents that individually and collectively permit evaluation of the conduct of a study and the quality of the data produced. (ICH E6) +Evaluable disease + +Disease that cannot be measured directly by the size of the tumor but can be evaluated by other methods specific to a particular clinical trial. (NCI) +Evaluable patients + +Patients whose response to a treatment can be measured because enough information has been collected. (NCI) +Expanded access + +Refers to any of the FDA procedures, such as compassionate use, parallel track, and treatment IND that distribute experimental drugs to participants who are failing on currently available treatments for their condition and also are unable to participate in ongoing clinical trials. (NLM) +Expanded access trial + +A way to provide an investigational therapy to a patient who is not eligible to receive that therapy in a clinical trial, but who has a serious or life-threatening illness for which other treatments are not available. Expanded access allows a patient to receive promising but not yet fully studied or approved therapies when no other treatment option exists. Also called compassionate use trial. (NCI) +Experimental + +In clinical trials, refers to a drug (including a new drug, dose, combination, or route of administration) or procedure that has undergone basic laboratory testing and received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be tested in human subjects. A drug or procedure may be approved by the FDA for use in one disease or condition, but be considered experimental in other diseases or conditions. Also called investigational. (NCI) +Experimental drug + +A drug that is not FDA licensed for use in humans, or as a treatment for a particular condition (NLM) +A substance that has been tested in a laboratory and has gotten approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be tested in people. A drug may be approved by the FDA for use in one disease or condition but be considered experimental or investigational in other diseases or conditions. Also called investigational drug. (NCI) + +== F == +Follow-up + +Monitoring a person's health over time after treatment. This includes keeping track of the health of people who participate in a clinical study or clinical trial for a period of time, both during the study and after the study ends. (NCI) +Food and Drug Administration (FDA) + +The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services agency responsible for ensuring the safety and effectiveness of all drugs, biologics, vaccines, and medical devices, including those used in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of HIV infection, AIDS, and AIDS-related opportunistic infections. The FDA also works with the blood banking industry to safeguard the nation's blood supply. Internet address: https://www.fda.gov/. (NLM) +Frequentist methods + +Statistical methods, such as significance tests and confidence intervals, which can be interpreted in terms of the frequency of certain outcomes occurring in hypothetical repeated realisations of the same experimental situation. (ICH E9) +Full analysis set + +The set of subjects that is as close as possible to the ideal implied by the intention-to- treat principle. It is derived from the set of all randomised subjects by minimal and justified elimination of subjects. (ICH E9) + +== G == +Generalisability, Generalisation + +The extent to which the findings of a clinical trial can be reliably extrapolated from the subjects who participated in the trial to a broader patient population and a broader range of clinical settings. (ICH E9) +Global assessment variable + +A single variable, usually a scale of ordered categorical ratings, which integrates objective variables and the investigator's overall impression about the state or change in state of a subject. (ICH E9) +Good clinical practice + +A standard for the design, conduct, performance, monitoring, auditing, recording, analyses, and reporting of clinical trials that provides assurance that the data and reported results are credible and accurate, and that the rights, integrity, and confidentiality of trial subjects are protected. (ICH E6) + +== H == +Healthy control + +In a clinical study, a person who does not have the disorder or disease being studied. Results from healthy controls are compared to results from the group being studied. (NCI) +Historic cohort study + +A research study in which the medical records of groups of individuals who are alike in many ways but differ by a certain characteristic (for example, female nurses who smoke and those who do not smoke) are compared for a particular outcome. Also called a retrospective cohort study. (NCI) +Historical control subject + +An individual treated in the past and used in a comparison group when researchers analyze the results of a clinical study that had no control group. The use of a control, or comparison, group helps researchers determine the effects of a new treatment more accurately. (NCI) +Human subject \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f6198613 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 6/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An individual who is or becomes a participant in research, either as a recipient of the test article or as a control. A subject may be either a healthy human or a patient. (21CFR50.3) +Hypothesis + +A supposition or assumption advanced as a basis for reasoning or argument, or as a guide to experimental investigation. (NLM) + +== I == +Impartial Witness + +A person, who is independent of the trial, who cannot be unfairly influenced by people involved with the trial, who attends the informed consent process if the subject or the subject's legally acceptable representative cannot read, and who reads the informed consent form and any other written information supplied to the subject. (ICH E6) +In vitro + +In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). (NCI) +In vivo + +In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). (NCI) +Incidence + +The number of new cases of a disease diagnosed each year. (NCI) +Inclusion/exclusion criteria + +The medical or social standards determining whether a person may or may not be allowed to enter a clinical trial. These criteria are based on such factors as age, gender, the type and stage of a disease, previous treatment history, and other medical conditions. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are not used to reject people personally, but rather to identify appropriate participants and keep them safe. (NLM) +Independent Ethics Committee + +An independent body (a review board or a committee, institutional, regional, national, or supranational), constituted of medical/scientific professionals and nonmedical/nonscientific members, whose responsibility it is to ensure the protection of the rights, safety, and well-being of human subjects involved in a trial and to provide public assurance of that protection, by, among other things, reviewing and approving/providing favorable opinion on the trial protocol, the suitability of the investigator(s), facilities, and the methods and material to be used in obtaining and documenting informed consent of the trial subjects. The legal status, composition, function, operations, and regulatory requirements pertaining to Independent Ethics Committees may differ among countries, but should allow the Independent Ethics Committee to act in agreement with GCP as described in this guidance. (ICH E6) +Indication + +In medicine, a sign, symptom, or medical condition that leads to the recommendation of a treatment, test, or procedure. (NCI) +Informed consent + +A process in which a person is given important facts about a medical procedure or treatment, a clinical trial, or genetic testing before deciding whether or not to participate. It also includes informing the patient when there is new information that may affect his or her decision to continue. Informed consent includes information about the possible risks, benefits, and limits of the procedure, treatment, trial, or genetic testing. (NCI) +The process of learning the key facts about a clinical trial before deciding whether or not to participate. It is also a continuing process throughout the study to provide information for participants. To help someone decide whether or not to participate, the doctors and nurses involved in the trial explain the details of the study. (NLM) +A process by which a subject voluntarily confirms his or her willingness to participate in a particular trial, after having been informed of all aspects of the trial that are relevant to the subject's decision to participate. Informed consent is documented by means of a written, signed, and dated informed consent form. (ICH E6) +Informed consent document + +A document that describes the rights of the study participants, and includes details about the study, such as its purpose, duration, required procedures, and key contacts. Risks and potential benefits are explained in the informed consent document. The participant then decides whether or not to sign the document. Informed consent is not a contract, and the participant may withdraw from the trial at any time. (NLM) +Inspection + +The act by a regulatory authority(ies) of conducting an official review of documents, facilities, records, and any other resources that are deemed by the authority(ies) to be related to the clinical trial and that may be located at the site of the trial, at the sponsor's and/or contract research organization's (CROs) facilities, or at other establishments deemed appropriate by the regulatory authority(ies). (ICH E6) +Institution + +Any public or private entity or agency or medical or dental facility where clinical trials are conducted. (ICH E6) +Any public or private entity or agency (including Federal, State, and other agencies). (21CFR50.3) +Institutional Review Board (IRB) + +1. A committee of physicians, statisticians, researchers, community advocates, and others that ensures that a clinical trial is ethical and that the rights of study participants are protected. All clinical trials in the U.S. must be approved by an IRB before they begin. 2. Every institution that conducts or supports biomedical or behavioral research involving human participants must, by federal regulation, have an IRB that initially approves and periodically reviews the research in order to protect the rights of human participants. (NLM) +A group of scientists, doctors, clergy, and consumers that reviews and approves the action plan for every clinical trial. There is an Institutional Review Board at every health care facility that does clinical research. Institutional Review Boards are designed to protect the people who take part in a clinical trial. Institutional Review Boards check to see that the trial is well designed, legal, ethical, does not involve unnecessary risks, and includes safeguards for patients. Also called IRB. (NCI) +An independent body constituted of medical, scientific, and nonscientific members, whose responsibility it is to ensure the protection of the rights, safety, and well-being of human subjects involved in a trial by, among other things, reviewing, approving, and providing continuing review of trials, of protocols and amendments, and of the methods and material to be used in obtaining and documenting informed consent of the trial subjects. (ICH E6) +Any board, committee, or other group formally designated by an institution to review biomedical research involving humans as subjects, to approve the initiation of and conduct periodic review of such research. (21CFR50.3) +Intent to treat \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8a87eef5a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 7/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Analysis of clinical trial results that includes all data from participants in the groups to which they were randomized even if they never received the treatment. (NLM) +The principle that asserts that the effect of a treatment policy can be best assessed by evaluating on the basis of the intention to treat a subject (i.e. the planned treatment regimen) rather than the actual treatment given. It has the consequence that subjects allocated to a treatment group should be followed up, assessed and analysed as members of that group irrespective of their compliance to the planned course of treatment. (ICH E9) +Interaction (Qualitative & Quantitative) + +The situation in which a treatment contrast (e.g. difference between investigational product and control) is dependent on another factor (e.g. centre). A quantitative interaction refers to the case where the magnitude of the contrast differs at the different levels of the factor, whereas for a qualitative interaction the direction of the contrast differs for at least one level of the factor. (ICH E9) +Inter-rater reliability + +The property of yielding equivalent results when used by different raters on different occasions. (ICH E9) +Interim analysis + +Any analysis intended to compare treatment arms with respect to efficacy or safety at any time prior to the formal completion of a trial. (ICH E9) +Interim Clinical Trial/Study Report + +A report of intermediate results and their evaluation based on analyses performed during the course of a trial. (ICH E6) +Intervention + +In medicine, a treatment or action taken to prevent or treat disease, or improve health in other ways. (NCI) +Primary interventions being studied: types of interventions are Drug, Gene Transfer, Vaccine, Behavior, Device, or Procedure. (NLM) +Intervention group + +The group receiving the study agent that is being tested in a clinical trial or clinical study. (NCI) +Intervention name + +The generic name of the precise intervention being studied. (NLM) +Intra-rater reliability + +The property of yielding equivalent results when used by the same rater on different occasions. (ICH E9) +Investigational + +In clinical trials, refers to a drug (including a new drug, dose, combination, or route of administration) or procedure that has undergone basic laboratory testing and received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be tested in human subjects. A drug or procedure may be approved by the FDA for use in one disease or condition, but be considered investigational in other diseases or conditions. Also called experimental. (NCI) +Investigational drug + +A substance that has been tested in a laboratory and has gotten approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be tested in people. A drug may be approved by the FDA for use in one disease or condition but be considered investigational in other diseases or conditions. Also called experimental drug. (NCI) +A pharmaceutical form of an active ingredient or placebo being tested or used as a reference in a clinical trial, including a product with a marketing authorization when used or assembled (formulated or packaged) in a way different from the approved form, or when used for an unapproved indication, or when used to gain further information about an approved use. (ICH E6) +Investigational New Drug + +A new drug, antibiotic drug, or biological drug that is used in a clinical investigation. It also includes a biological product used in vitro for diagnostic purposes. (NLM) +Investigator + +A researcher in a clinical trial or clinical study. (NCI) +A person responsible for the conduct of the clinical trial at a trial site. If a trial is conducted by a team of individuals at a trial site, the investigator is the responsible leader of the team and may be called the principal investigator. (ICH E6) +An individual who actually conducts a clinical investigation, i.e., under whose immediate direction the test article is administered or dispensed to, or used involving, a subject, or, in the event of an investigation conducted by a team of individuals, is the responsible leader of that team. (21CFR50.3) +Investigator's Brochure + +A compilation of the clinical and nonclinical data on the investigational product(s) that is relevant to the study of the investigational product(s) in human subjects. (ICH E6) + +== L == +Legally Acceptable Representative + +An individual or juridical or other body authorized under applicable law to consent, on behalf of a prospective subject, to the subject's participation in the clinical trial. (ICH E6) +Levels of evidence + +A ranking system used to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study. The design of the study (such as a case report for an individual patient or a randomized double-blinded controlled clinical trial) and the endpoints measured (such as survival or quality of life) affect the strength of the evidence. (NCI) + +== M == +Masked + +The knowledge of intervention assignment. (NLM) +Maximum tolerated dose + +The highest dose of a drug or treatment that does not cause unacceptable side effects. The maximum tolerated dose is determined in clinical trials by testing increasing doses on different groups of people until the highest dose with acceptable side effects is found. Also called MTD. (NCI) +Medication + +A legal drug that is used to prevent, treat, or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. (NCI) +Medicine + +Refers to the practices and procedures used for the prevention, treatment, or relief of symptoms of a diseases or abnormal conditions. This term may also refer to a legal drug used for the same purpose. (NCI) +Meta-analysis + +The formal evaluation of the quantitative evidence from two or more trials bearing on the same question. This most commonly involves the statistical combination of summary statistics from the various trials, but the term is sometimes also used to refer to the combination of the raw data. (ICH E9) +Monitoring Report + +A written report from the monitor to the sponsor after each site visit and/or other trial-related communication according to the sponsor's SOPs. (ICH E6) +Monitoring \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a602879f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 8/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The act of overseeing the progress of a clinical trial, and of ensuring that it is conducted, recorded, and reported in accordance with the protocol, standard operating procedures (SOPs), GCP, and the applicable regulatory requirement(s). (ICH E6) +Multicenter study + +A clinical trial that is carried out at more than one medical institution. (NCI) +A clinical trial conducted according to a single protocol but at more than one site, and, therefore, carried out by more than one investigator. (ICH E6 and ICH E9) +Multidisciplinary opinion + +A treatment planning approach in which a number of doctors who are experts in different specialties (disciplines) review and discuss the medical condition and treatment options of a patient. (NCI) +Multiplicity + +A large number or variety. (NCI) + +== N == +National Institutes of Health + +NIH. A federal agency in the U.S. that conducts biomedical research in its own laboratories; supports the research of non-Federal scientists in universities, medical schools, hospitals, and research institutions throughout the country and abroad; helps in the training of research investigators; and fosters communication of medical information. Access the National Institutes of Health Web site at http://www.nih.gov. Also called NIH. (NCI) +Natural history study + +A study that follows a group of people over time who have, or are at risk of developing, a specific medical condition or disease. A natural history study collects health information in order to understand how the medical condition or disease develops and how to treat it. (NCI) +Study of the natural development of something (such as an organism or a disease) over a period of time. (NLM) +New Drug Application (NDA) + +An application submitted by the manufacturer of a drug to the FDA - after clinical trials have been completed - for a license to market the drug for a specified indication. (NLM) +Nonblinded + +Describes a clinical trial or other experiment in which the researchers know what treatments are being given to each study subject or experimental group. If human subjects are involved, they know what treatments they are receiving. (NCI) +Nonclinical Study + +Biomedical studies not performed on human subjects. (ICH E6) +Nonconsecutive case series + +A clinical study that includes some, but not all, of the eligible patients identified by the researchers during the study registration period. This type of study does not usually have a control group. (NCI) +Non-inferiority trial + +A trial with the primary objective of showing that the response to the investigational product is not clinically inferior to a comparative agent (active or placebo control). (ICH E9) +Nonrandomized clinical trial + +A clinical trial in which the participants are not assigned by chance to different treatment groups. Participants may choose which group they want to be in, or they may be assigned to the groups by the researchers. (NCI) + +== O == +Objective improvement + +An improvement that can be measured by the health care provider (NCI) +Objective response + +A measurable response. (NCI) +Observation + +Closely monitoring a patient's condition but withholding treatment until symptoms appear or change. Also called watchful waiting, active surveillance, and expectant management. (NCI) +Observational study + +A type of study in which individuals are observed or certain outcomes are measured. No attempt is made to affect the outcome (for example, no treatment is given). (NCI) +Off-label + +Describes the legal use of a prescription drug to treat a disease or condition for which the drug has not been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (NCI) +A drug prescribed for conditions other than those approved by the FDA. (NLM) +Open label study + +A type of study in which both the health providers and the patients are aware of the drug or treatment being given. (NCI) +A clinical trial in which doctors and participants know which drug or vaccine is being administered. (NLM) +Orphan drugs + +An FDA category that refers to medications used to treat diseases and conditions that occur rarely. There is little financial incentive for the pharmaceutical industry to develop medications for these diseases or conditions. Orphan drug status, however, gives a manufacturer specific financial incentives to develop and provide such medications. (NLM) +Outcome + +A specific result or effect that can be measured. Examples of outcomes include decreased pain, reduced tumor size, and improvement of disease. (NCI) +Outpatient + +A patient who visits a health care facility for diagnosis or treatment without spending the night. Sometimes called a day patient. (NCI) +Over-the-counter drug + +A medicine that can be bought without a prescription (doctor's order). Examples include analgesics (pain relievers) such as aspirin and acetaminophen. Also called nonprescription and OTC. (NCI) + +== P == +Patient advocate + +A person who helps a patient work with others who have an effect on the patient's health, including doctors, insurance companies, employers, case managers, and lawyers. A patient advocate helps resolve issues about health care, medical bills, and job discrimination related to a patient's medical condition. (NCI) +Peer review + +Review of a clinical trial by experts chosen by the study sponsor. These experts review the trials for scientific merit, participant safety, and ethical considerations. (NLM) +Per protocol set (Valid Cases, Efficacy Sample, Evaluable Subjects Sample) + +The set of data generated by the subset of subjects who complied with the protocol sufficiently to ensure that these data would be likely to exhibit the effects of treatment, according to the underlying scientific model. Compliance covers such considerations as exposure to treatment, availability of measurements and absence of major protocol violations. (ICH E9) +Pharmacokinetics + +The processes (in a living organism) of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of a drug or vaccine. (NLM) +Phase I clinical trials \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d20db41af --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 9/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The first step in testing a new treatment in humans. These studies test the best way to give a new treatment (for example, by mouth, intravenous infusion, or injection) and the best dose. The dose is usually increased a little at a time in order to find the highest dose that does not cause harmful side effects. Because little is known about the possible risks and benefits of the treatments being tested, phase I trials usually include only a small number of patients who have not been helped by other treatments. (NCI) +Initial studies to determine the metabolism and pharmacologic actions of drugs in humans, the side effects associated with increasing doses, and to gain early evidence of effectiveness; may include healthy participants and/or patients. (NLM) +Phase 1 includes the initial introduction of an investigational new drug into humans. Phase 1 studies are typically closely monitored and may be conducted in patients or normal volunteer subjects. These studies are designed to determine the metabolism and pharmacologic actions of the drug in humans, the side effects associated with increasing doses, and, if possible, to gain early evidence on effectiveness. During Phase 1, sufficient information about the drug's pharmacokinetics and pharmacological effects should be obtained to permit the design of well-controlled, scientifically valid, Phase 2 studies. The total number of subjects and patients included in Phase 1 studies varies with the drug, but is generally in the range of 20 to 80. Phase 1 studies also include studies of drug metabolism, structure-activity relationships, and mechanism of action in humans, as well as studies in which investigational drugs are used as research tools to explore biological phenomena or disease processes. (21CFR312) +Phase I/II trial + +A trial to study the safety, dosage levels, and response to a new treatment. (NCI) +Phase II clinical trials + +A study to test whether a new treatment has an effect (NCI) +Controlled clinical studies conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug for a particular indication or indications in patients with the disease or condition under study and to determine the common short-term side effects and risks. (NLM) +Phase 2 includes the controlled clinical studies conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug for a particular indication or indications in patients with the disease or condition under study and to determine the common short-term side effects and risks associated with the drug. Phase 2 studies are typically well controlled, closely monitored, and conducted in a relatively small number of patients, usually involving no more than several hundred subjects. (21CFR312) +Phase II/III trial + +A trial to study response to a new treatment and the effectiveness of the treatment compared with the standard treatment regimen. (NCI) +Phase III clinical trials + +A study to compare the results of people taking a new treatment with the results of people taking the standard treatment (for example, which group has better survival rates or fewer side effects). In most cases, studies move into phase III only after a treatment seems to work in phases I and II. Phase III trials may include hundreds of people. (NCI) +Expanded controlled and uncontrolled trials after preliminary evidence suggesting effectiveness of the drug has been obtained, and are intended to gather additional information to evaluate the overall benefit-risk relationship of the drug and provide and adequate basis for physician labeling. (NLM) +Phase 3 studies are expanded controlled and uncontrolled trials. They are performed after preliminary evidence suggesting effectiveness of the drug has been obtained, and are intended to gather the additional information about effectiveness and safety that is needed to evaluate the overall benefit-risk relationship of the drug and to provide an adequate basis for physician labeling. Phase 3 studies usually include from several hundred to several thousand subjects. (21CFR312) +Phase IV clinical trial + +After a treatment has been approved and is being marketed, it is studied in a phase IV trial to evaluate side effects that were not apparent in the phase III trial. Thousands of people are involved in a phase IV trial. (NCI) +Post-marketing studies to delineate additional information including the drug's risks, benefits, and optimal use. (NLM) +Pilot study + +The initial study examining a new method or treatment. (NCI) +Placebo + +A placebo is an inactive pill, liquid, or powder that has no treatment value. In clinical trials, experimental treatments are often compared with placebos to assess the treatment's effectiveness. (NLM) +An inactive substance or treatment that looks the same as, and is given the same way as, an active drug or treatment being tested. The effects of the active drug or treatment are compared to the effects of the placebo. (NCI) +Placebo controlled study + +A method of investigation of drugs in which an inactive substance (the placebo) is given to one group of participants, while the drug being tested is given to another group. The results obtained in the two groups are then compared to see if the investigational treatment is more effective in treating the condition. (NLM) +Refers to a clinical study in which the control patients receive a placebo. (NCI) +Placebo effect + +A physical or emotional change, occurring after a substance is taken or administered, that is not the result of any special property of the substance. The change may be beneficial, reflecting the expectations of the participant and, often, the expectations of the person giving the substance. (NLM) +Placebo therapy + +An inactive treatment or procedure that is intended to mimic as closely as possible a therapy in a clinical trial. Also called sham therapy. (NCI) The term also refers to psychotherapy that obtains its positive effect through the use of principles of social influence. +Population study + +A study of a group of individuals taken from the general population who share a common characteristic, such as age, sex, or health condition. This group may be studied for different reasons, such as their response to a drug or risk of getting a disease. (NCI) +Preclinical \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..944814ef8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of clinical research" +chunk: 10/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:41.803753+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Refers to the testing of experimental drugs in the test tube or in animals - the testing that occurs before trials in humans may be carried out. (NLM) +Research using animals to find out if a drug, procedure, or treatment is likely to be useful. Preclinical studies take place before any testing in humans is done. (NCI) +Predictive factor + +A situation or condition that may increase a person's risk of developing a certain disease or disorder. (NCI) +Prevention + +In medicine, action taken to decrease the chance of getting a disease or condition. (NCI) +Prevention trials + +Refers to trials to find better ways to prevent disease in people who have never had the disease or to prevent a disease from returning. These approaches may include medicines, vaccines, vitamins, minerals, or lifestyle changes. (NLM) +Preventive + +Used to prevent disease. (NCI) +Primary endpoint + +The main result that is measured at the end of a study to see if a given treatment worked (e.g., the number of deaths or the difference in survival between the treatment group and the control group). What the primary endpoint will be is decided before the study begins. (NCI) +Prospective + +In medicine, a study or clinical trial in which participants are identified and then followed forward in time. (NCI) +Prospective cohort study + +A research study that follows over time groups of individuals who are alike in many ways but differ by a certain characteristic (for example, female nurses who smoke and those who do not smoke) and compares them for a particular outcome. (NCI) +Clinical trial protocol + +A study plan on which all clinical trials are based. The plan is carefully designed to safeguard the health of the participants as well as answer specific research questions. A protocol describes what types of people may participate in the trial; the schedule of tests, procedures, medications, and dosages; and the length of the study. While in a clinical trial, participants following a protocol are seen regularly by the research staff to monitor their health and to determine the safety and effectiveness of their treatment (NLM) +An action plan for a clinical trial. The plan states what the study will do, how, and why. It explains how many people will be in it, who is eligible to participate, what study agents or other interventions they will be given, what tests they will receive and how often, and what information will be gathered. (NCI) +A document that describes the objective(s), design, methodology, statistical considerations, and organization of a trial. The protocol usually also gives the background and rationale for the trial, but these could be provided in other protocol referenced documents. Throughout the ICH GCP Guidance, the term protocol refers to protocol and protocol amendments. (ICH E6) +Protocol Amendment + +A written description of a change(s) to or formal clarification of a protocol. (ICH E6) + +== Q == +Quality Assurance + +All those planned and systematic actions that are established to ensure that the trial is performed and the data are generated, documented (recorded), and reported in compliance with GCP and the applicable regulatory requirement(s). (ICH E6) +Quality Control + +The operational techniques and activities undertaken within the quality assurance system to verify that the requirements for quality of the trial related activities have been fulfilled. (ICH E6) +Quality of life trials (or supportive care trials) + +Refers to trials that explore ways to improve comfort and quality of life for individuals with a chronic illness. (NLM) + +== R == +Randomization + +A method based on chance by which study participants are assigned to a treatment group. Randomization minimizes the differences among groups by equally distributing people with particular characteristics among all the trial arms. The researchers do not know which treatment is better. From what is known at the time, any one of the treatments chosen could be of benefit to the participant (NLM) +When referring to an experiment or clinical trial, the process by which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments or other interventions. Randomization gives each participant an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups. (NCI) +The process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce bias. (ICH E6) +Randomized clinical trial + +A study in which the participants are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments; neither the researchers nor the participants can choose which group. Using chance to assign people to groups means that the groups will be similar and that the treatments they receive can be compared objectively. At the time of the trial, it is not known which treatment is best. It is the patient's choice to be in a randomized trial. (NCI) +A study in which participants are randomly (i.e., by chance) assigned to one of two or more treatment arms of a clinical trial. Occasionally placebos are utilized. (NLM) +Recruiting + +The period during which a trial is attempting to identify and enroll participants. Recruitment activities can include advertising and other ways of soliciting interest from possible participants (NLM) +Recruitment status + +Indicates the current stage of a trial, whether it is planned, ongoing, or completed. (NLM) +Regimen + +A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. (NCI) +Regulatory Authorities + +Bodies having the power to regulate. In the ICH GCP guidance, the expression "Regulatory Authorities" includes the authorities that review submitted clinical data and those that conduct inspections. These bodies are sometimes referred to as competent authorities. (ICH E6) +Retrospective + +Looking back at events that have already taken place. (NCI) +Retrospective cohort study + +A research study in which the medical records of groups of individuals who are alike in many ways but differ by a certain characteristic (for example, female nurses who smoke and those who do not smoke) are compared for a particular outcome. Also called a historic cohort study. (NCI) +Retrospective study \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1d9b3c07 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 1/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of computer science is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in computer science, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including terms relevant to software, data science, and computer programming. + +== A == + +abstract data type (ADT) +A mathematical model for data types in which a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data from the point of view of an implementer rather than a user. + +abstract method +One with only a signature and no implementation body. It is often used to specify that a subclass must provide an implementation of the method. Abstract methods are used to specify interfaces in some computer languages. + +abstraction +1. In software engineering and computer science, the process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details or attributes in the study of objects or systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest; it is also very similar in nature to the process of generalization. +2. The result of this process: an abstract concept-object created by keeping common features or attributes to various concrete objects or systems of study. + +agent architecture +A blueprint for software agents and intelligent control systems depicting the arrangement of components. The architectures implemented by intelligent agents are referred to as cognitive architectures. + +agent-based model (ABM) +A class of computational models for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the system as a whole. It combines elements of game theory, complex systems, emergence, computational sociology, multi-agent systems, and evolutionary programming. Monte Carlo methods are used to introduce randomness. + +aggregate function +In database management, a function in which the values of multiple rows are grouped together to form a single value of more significant meaning or measurement, such as a sum, count, or max. + +agile software development +An approach to software development under which requirements and solutions evolve through the collaborative effort of self-organizing and cross-functional teams and their customer(s)/end user(s). It advocates adaptive planning, evolutionary development, early delivery, and continual improvement, and it encourages rapid and flexible response to change. + +algorithm +An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks. They are ubiquitous in computing technologies. + +algorithm design +A method or mathematical process for problem-solving and for engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories of operation research, such as dynamic programming and divide-and-conquer. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns, such as the template method pattern and decorator pattern. + +algorithmic efficiency +A property of an algorithm which relates to the number of computational resources used by the algorithm. An algorithm must be analyzed to determine its resource usage, and the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured based on usage of different resources. Algorithmic efficiency can be thought of as analogous to engineering productivity for a repeating or continuous process. + +American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) +A character encoding standard for electronic communications. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. + +application programming interface (API) +A set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. + +application software +Also simply application or app. +Computer software designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or activities for the benefit of the user. Common examples of applications include word processors, spreadsheets, accounting applications, web browsers, media players, aeronautical flight simulators, console games, and photo editors. This contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with managing the computer's most basic running operations, often without direct input from the user. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively. + +array data structure +Also simply array. +A data structure consisting of a collection of elements (values or variables), each identified by at least one array index or key. An array is stored such that the position of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula. The simplest type of data structure is a linear array, also called a one-dimensional array. + +artifact +One of many kinds of tangible by-products produced during the development of software. Some artifacts (e.g. use cases, class diagrams, and other Unified Modeling Language (UML) models, requirements, and design documents) help describe the function, architecture, and design of software. Other artifacts are concerned with the process of development itself—such as project plans, business cases, and risk assessments. + +artificial intelligence (AI) +Also machine intelligence. +Intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. In computer science, AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": devices capable of perceiving their environment and taking actions that maximize the chance of successfully achieving their goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving". + +ASCII +See American Standard Code for Information Interchange. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a4f1588a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 2/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +assertion +In computer programming, a statement that a predicate (Boolean-valued function, i.e. a true–false expression) is always true at that point in code execution. It can help a programmer read the code, help a compiler compile it, or help the program detect its own defects. For the latter, some programs check assertions by actually evaluating the predicate as they run and if it is not in fact true – an assertion failure – the program considers itself to be broken and typically deliberately crashes or throws an assertion failure exception. + +associative array +An associative array, map, symbol table, or dictionary is an abstract data type composed of a collection of (key, value) pairs, such that each possible key appears at most once in the collection. + +Operations associated with this data type allow: + +the addition of a pair to the collection +the removal of a pair from the collection +the modification of an existing pair +the lookup of a value associated with a particular key + +automata theory +The study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science and discrete mathematics (a subject of study in both mathematics and computer science). + +automated reasoning +An area of computer science and mathematical logic dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce computer programs that allow computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of artificial intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and even philosophy. + +== B == + +bandwidth +The maximum rate of data transfer across a given path. Bandwidth may be characterized as network bandwidth, data bandwidth, or digital bandwidth. + +Bayesian programming +A formalism and a methodology for having a technique to specify probabilistic models and solve problems when less than the necessary information is available. + +benchmark +The act of running a computer program, a set of programs, or other operations, in order to assess the relative performance of an object, normally by running a number of standard tests and trials against it. The term benchmark is also commonly utilized for the purposes of elaborately designed benchmarking programs themselves. + +best, worst and average case +Expressions of what the resource usage is at least, at most, and on average, respectively, for a given algorithm. Usually the resource being considered is running time, i.e. time complexity, but it could also be memory or some other resource. Best case is the function which performs the minimum number of steps on input data of n elements; worst case is the function which performs the maximum number of steps on input data of size n; average case is the function which performs an average number of steps on input data of n elements. + +big data +A term used to refer to data sets that are too large or complex for traditional data-processing application software to adequately deal with. Data with many cases (rows) offer greater statistical power, while data with higher complexity (more attributes or columns) may lead to a higher false discovery rate. + +big O notation +A mathematical notation that describes the limiting behavior of a function when the argument tends towards a particular value or infinity. It is a member of a family of notations invented by Paul Bachmann, Edmund Landau, and others, collectively called Bachmann–Landau notation or asymptotic notation. + +binary number +In mathematics and digital electronics, a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system or binary numeral system, which uses only two symbols: typically 0 (zero) and 1 (one). + +binary search algorithm +Also simply binary search, half-interval search, logarithmic search, or binary chop. +A search algorithm that finds the position of a target value within a sorted array. + +binary tree +A tree data structure in which each node has at most two children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A recursive definition using just set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a tuple (L, S, R), where L and R are binary trees or the empty set and S is a singleton set. Some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well. + +bioinformatics +An interdisciplinary field that combines biology, computer science, information engineering, mathematics, and statistics to develop methods and software tools for analyzing and interpreting biological data. Bioinformatics is widely used for in silico analyses of biological queries using mathematical and statistical techniques. + +bit +A basic unit of information used in computing and digital communications; a portmanteau of binary digit. A binary digit can have one of two possible values, and may be physically represented with a two-state device. These state values are most commonly represented as either a 0or1. + +bit rate (R) + +Also bitrate. +In telecommunications and computing, the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time. + +blacklist +Also block list. +In computing, a basic access control mechanism that allows through all elements (email addresses, users, passwords, URLs, IP addresses, domain names, file hashes, etc.), except those explicitly mentioned in a list of prohibited elements. Those items on the list are denied access. The opposite is a whitelist, which means only items on the list are allowed through whatever gate is being used while all other elements are blocked. A greylist contains items that are temporarily blocked (or temporarily allowed) until an additional step is performed. + +BMP file format +Also bitmap image file, device independent bitmap (DIB) file format, or simply bitmap. +A raster graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital images independently of the display device (such as a graphics adapter), used especially on Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..64c82ad86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 11/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +linker + or link editor, is a computer utility program that takes one or more object files generated by a compiler or an assembler and combines them into a single executable file, library file, or another 'object' file. A simpler version that writes its output directly to memory is called the loader, though loading is typically considered a separate process. + +list +An abstract data type that represents a countable number of ordered values, where the same value may occur more than once. An instance of a list is a computer representation of the mathematical concept of a finite sequence; the (potentially) infinite analog of a list is a stream. Lists are a basic example of containers, as they contain other values. If the same value occurs multiple times, each occurrence is considered a distinct item. + +loader +The part of an operating system that is responsible for loading programs and libraries. It is one of the essential stages in the process of starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Loading a program involves reading the contents of the executable file containing the program instructions into memory, and then carrying out other required preparatory tasks to prepare the executable for running. Once loading is complete, the operating system starts the program by passing control to the loaded program code. + +logic error +In computer programming, a bug in a program that causes it to operate incorrectly, but not to terminate abnormally (or crash). A logic error produces unintended or undesired output or other behaviour, although it may not immediately be recognized as such. + +logic programming +A type of programming paradigm which is largely based on formal logic. Any program written in a logic programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include Prolog, answer set programming (ASP), and Datalog. + +== M == + +machine learning (ML) +The scientific study of algorithms and statistical models that computer systems use to perform a specific task without using explicit instructions, relying on patterns and inference instead. It is seen as a subset of artificial intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a mathematical model based on sample data, known as "training data", in order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to perform the task. + +machine vision (MV) +The technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection, process control, and robot guidance, usually in industry. Machine vision refers to many technologies, software and hardware products, integrated systems, actions, methods and expertise. Machine vision as a systems engineering discipline can be considered distinct from computer vision, a form of computer science. It attempts to integrate existing technologies in new ways and apply them to solve real world problems. The term is the prevalent one for these functions in industrial automation environments but is also used for these functions in other environments such as security and vehicle guidance. + +mathematical logic +A subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics. It bears close connections to metamathematics, the foundations of mathematics, and theoretical computer science. The unifying themes in mathematical logic include the study of the expressive power of formal systems and the deductive power of formal proof systems. + +matrix +In mathematics, a matrix, (plural matrices), is a rectangular array (see irregular matrix) of numbers, symbols, or expressions, arranged in rows and columns. + +memory +Computer data storage, often called storage, is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media that are used to retain digital data. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers. + +merge sort +Also mergesort. +An efficient, general-purpose, comparison-based sorting algorithm. Most implementations produce a stable sort, which means that the order of equal elements is the same in the input and output. Merge sort is a divide and conquer algorithm that was invented by John von Neumann in 1945. A detailed description and analysis of bottom-up mergesort appeared in a report by Goldstine and von Neumann as early as 1948. + +method +In object-oriented programming (OOP), a procedure associated with a message and an object. An object consists of data and behavior. The data and behavior comprise an interface, which specifies how the object may be utilized by any of various consumers of the object. + +methodology +In software engineering, a software development process is the process of dividing software development work into distinct phases to improve design, product management, and project management. It is also known as a software development life cycle (SDLC). The methodology may include the pre-definition of specific deliverables and artifacts that are created and completed by a project team to develop or maintain an application. + +modem +Portmanteau of modulator-demodulator. +A hardware device that converts data into a format suitable for a transmission medium so that it can be transmitted from one computer to another (historically along telephone wires). A modem modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded reliably to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used with almost any means of transmitting analog signals from light-emitting diodes to radio. A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer into modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data. + +== N == + +natural language processing (NLP) +A subfield of linguistics, computer science, information engineering, and artificial intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human (natural) languages, in particular how to program computers to process and analyze large amounts of natural language data. Challenges in natural language processing frequently involve speech recognition, natural language understanding, and natural language generation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4e4de163 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 12/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +node +Is a basic unit of a data structure, such as a linked list or tree data structure. Nodes contain data and also may link to other nodes. Links between nodes are often implemented by pointers. + +number theory +A branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and integer-valued functions. + +numerical analysis +The study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). + +numerical method +In numerical analysis, a numerical method is a mathematical tool designed to solve numerical problems. The implementation of a numerical method with an appropriate convergence check in a programming language is called a numerical algorithm. + +== O == + +object +An object can be a variable, a data structure, a function, or a method, and as such, is a value in memory referenced by an identifier. In the class-based object-oriented programming paradigm, object refers to a particular instance of a class, where the object can be a combination of variables, functions, and data structures. In relational database management, an object can be a table or column, or an association between data and a database entity (such as relating a person's age to a specific person). + +object code +Also object module. +The product of a compiler. In a general sense object code is a sequence of statements or instructions in a computer language, usually a machine code language (i.e., binary) or an intermediate language such as register transfer language (RTL). The term indicates that the code is the goal or result of the compiling process, with some early sources referring to source code as a "subject program." + +object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) +A technical approach for analyzing and designing an application, system, or business by applying object-oriented programming, as well as using visual modeling throughout the software development process to guide stakeholder communication and product quality. + +object-oriented programming (OOP) +A programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which can contain data, in the form of fields (often known as attributes or properties), and code, in the form of procedures (often known as methods). A feature of objects is an object's procedures that can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated (objects have a notion of "this" or "self"). In OOP, computer programs are designed by making them out of objects that interact with one another. OOP languages are diverse, but the most popular ones are class-based, meaning that objects are instances of classes, which also determine their types. + +open-source software (OSS) +A type of computer software in which source code is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration. + +operating system (OS) +System software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides common services for computer programs. + +optical fiber +A flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than electrical cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires suffer. + +== P == + +pair programming +An agile software development technique in which two programmers work together at one workstation. One, the driver, writes code while the other, the observer or navigator, reviews each line of code as it is typed in. The two programmers switch roles frequently. + +parallel computing +A type of computation in which many calculations or the execution of processes are carried out simultaneously. Large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved at the same time. There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction-level, data, and task parallelism. + +parameter +Also formal argument. +In computer programming, a special kind of variable, used in a subroutine to refer to one of the pieces of data provided as input to the subroutine. These pieces of data are the values of the arguments (often called actual arguments or actual parameters) with which the subroutine is going to be called/invoked. An ordered list of parameters is usually included in the definition of a subroutine, so that, each time the subroutine is called, its arguments for that call are evaluated, and the resulting values can be assigned to the corresponding parameters. + +peripheral +Any auxiliary or ancillary device connected to or integrated within a computer system and used to send information to or retrieve information from the computer. An input device sends data or instructions to the computer; an output device provides output from the computer to the user; and an input/output device performs both functions. + +pointer +Is an object in many programming languages that stores a memory address. This can be that of another value located in computer memory, or in some cases, that of memory-mapped computer hardware. A pointer references a location in memory, and obtaining the value stored at that location is known as dereferencing the pointer. As an analogy, a page number in a book's index could be considered a pointer to the corresponding page; dereferencing such a pointer would be done by flipping to the page with the given page number and reading the text found on that page. The actual format and content of a pointer variable is dependent on the underlying computer architecture. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb6b2e377 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 13/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +postcondition +In computer programming, a condition or predicate that must always be true just after the execution of some section of code or after an operation in a formal specification. Postconditions are sometimes tested using assertions within the code itself. Often, postconditions are simply included in the documentation of the affected section of code. + +precondition +In computer programming, a condition or predicate that must always be true just prior to the execution of some section of code or before an operation in a formal specification. If a precondition is violated, the effect of the section of code becomes undefined and thus may or may not carry out its intended work. Security problems can arise due to incorrect preconditions. + +primary storage +(Also known as main memory, internal memory or prime memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. + +primitive data type + +priority queue +An abstract data type which is like a regular queue or stack data structure, but where additionally each element has a "priority" associated with it. In a priority queue, an element with high priority is served before an element with low priority. In some implementations, if two elements have the same priority, they are served according to the order in which they were enqueued, while in other implementations, ordering of elements with the same priority is undefined. + +procedural programming + +Procedural generation + +procedure +In computer programming, a subroutine is a sequence of program instructions that performs a specific task, packaged as a unit. This unit can then be used in programs wherever that particular task should be performed. Subroutines may be defined within programs, or separately in libraries that can be used by many programs. In different programming languages, a subroutine may be called a routine, subprogram, function, method, or procedure. Technically, these terms all have different definitions. The generic, umbrella term callable unit is sometimes used. + +program lifecycle phase +Program lifecycle phases are the stages a computer program undergoes, from initial creation to deployment and execution. The phases are edit time, compile time, link time, distribution time, installation time, load time, and run time. + +programming language +A formal language, which comprises a set of instructions that produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used in computer programming to implement algorithms. + +programming language implementation +Is a system for executing computer programs. There are two general approaches to programming language implementation: interpretation and compilation. + +programming language theory +(PLT) is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and of their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering, linguistics and even cognitive science. It has become a well-recognized branch of computer science, and an active research area, with results published in numerous journals dedicated to PLT, as well as in general computer science and engineering publications. + +Prolog +Is a logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Prolog has its roots in first-order logic, a formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a declarative programming language: the program logic is expressed in terms of relations, represented as facts and rules. A computation is initiated by running a query over these relations. + +Python +Is an interpreted, high-level and general-purpose programming language. Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python's design philosophy emphasizes code readability with its notable use of significant whitespace. Its language constructs and object-oriented approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale projects. + +== Q == + +quantum computing +The use of quantum-mechanical phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically. + +queue +A collection in which the entities in the collection are kept in order and the principal (or only) operations on the collection are the addition of entities to the rear terminal position, known as enqueue, and removal of entities from the front terminal position, known as dequeue. + +quicksort +Also partition-exchange sort. +An efficient sorting algorithm which serves as a systematic method for placing the elements of a random access file or an array in order. + +== R == + +R programming language +R is a programming language and free software environment for statistical computing and graphics supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing. The R language is widely used among statisticians and data miners for developing statistical software and data analysis. + +radix +Also base. +In digital numeral systems, the number of unique digits, including the digit zero, used to represent numbers in a positional numeral system. For example, in the decimal/denary system (the most common system in use today) the radix (base number) is ten, because it uses the ten digits from 0 through 9, and all other numbers are uniquely specified by positional combinations of these ten base digits; in the binary system that is the standard in computing, the radix is two, because it uses only two digits, 0 and 1, to uniquely specify each number. + +record +A record (also called a structure, struct, or compound data) is a basic data structure. Records in a database or spreadsheet are usually called "rows". + +recursion +Occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic. The most common application of recursion is in mathematics and computer science, where a function being defined is applied within its own definition. While this apparently defines an infinite number of instances (function values), it is often done in such a way that no infinite loop or infinite chain of references can occur. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca4935a28 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 14/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +reference +Is a value that enables a program to indirectly access a particular datum, such as a variable's value or a record, in the computer's memory or in some other storage device. The reference is said to refer to the datum, and accessing the datum is called dereferencing the reference. + +reference counting +A programming technique of storing the number of references, pointers, or handles to a resource, such as an object, a block of memory, disk space, and others. In garbage collection algorithms, reference counts may be used to deallocate objects which are no longer needed. + +regression testing +(rarely non-regression testing) is re-running functional and non-functional tests to ensure that previously developed and tested software still performs after a change. If not, that would be called a regression. Changes that may require regression testing include bug fixes, software enhancements, configuration changes, and even substitution of electronic components. As regression test suites tend to grow with each found defect, test automation is frequently involved. Sometimes a change impact analysis is performed to determine an appropriate subset of tests (non-regression analysis). + +relational database +Is a digital database based on the relational model of data, as proposed by E. F. Codd in 1970. +A software system used to maintain relational databases is a relational database management system (RDBMS). Many relational database systems have an option of using the SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying and maintaining the database. + +reliability engineering +A sub-discipline of systems engineering that emphasizes dependability in the lifecycle management of a product. Reliability describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reliability is closely related to availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time. + +requirements analysis +In systems engineering and software engineering, requirements analysis focuses on the tasks that determine the needs or conditions to meet the new or altered product or project, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, analyzing, documenting, validating and managing software or system requirements. + +robotics +An interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, information engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as computer systems for their perception, control, sensory feedback, and information processing. The goal of robotics is to design intelligent machines that can help and assist humans in their day-to-day lives and keep everyone safe. + +round-off error +Also rounding error. +The difference between the result produced by a given algorithm using exact arithmetic and the result produced by the same algorithm using finite-precision, rounded arithmetic. Rounding errors are due to inexactness in the representation of real numbers and the arithmetic operations done with them. This is a form of quantization error. When using approximation equations or algorithms, especially when using finitely many digits to represent real numbers (which in theory have infinitely many digits), one of the goals of numerical analysis is to estimate computation errors. Computation errors, also called numerical errors, include both truncation errors and roundoff errors. + +router +A networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet, such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets. A packet is typically forwarded from one router to another router through the networks that constitute an internetwork (e.g. the Internet) until it reaches its destination node. + +routing table +In computer networking a routing table, or routing information base (RIB), is a data table stored in a router or a network host that lists the routes to particular network destinations, and in some cases, metrics (distances) associated with those routes. The routing table contains information about the topology of the network immediately around it. + +run time +Runtime, run time, or execution time is the final phase of a computer program's life cycle, in which the code is being executed on the computer's central processing unit (CPU) as machine code. In other words, "runtime" is the running phase of a program. + +run time error +A runtime error is detected after or during the execution (running state) of a program, whereas a compile-time error is detected by the compiler before the program is ever executed. Type checking, register allocation, code generation, and code optimization are typically done at compile time, but may be done at runtime depending on the particular language and compiler. Many other runtime errors exist and are handled differently by different programming languages, such as division by zero errors, domain errors, array subscript out of bounds errors, arithmetic underflow errors, several types of underflow and overflow errors, and many other runtime errors generally considered as software bugs which may or may not be caught and handled by any particular computer language. + +== S == + +search algorithm +Any algorithm which solves the search problem, namely, to retrieve information stored within some data structure, or calculated in the search space of a problem domain, either with discrete or continuous values. + +secondary storage +Also known as external memory or auxiliary storage, differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfer the desired data to primary storage. Secondary storage is non-volatile (retaining data when power is shut off). Modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage because secondary storage is less expensive. + +selection sort +Is an in-place comparison sorting algorithm. It has an O(n2) time complexity, which makes it inefficient on large lists, and generally performs worse than the similar insertion sort. Selection sort is noted for its simplicity and has performance advantages over more complicated algorithms in certain situations, particularly where auxiliary memory is limited. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ac91a1dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 15/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +semantics +In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically valid strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation. + +sequence +In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order does matter. Like a set, it contains members (also called elements, or terms). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is called the length of the sequence. Unlike a set, the same elements can appear multiple times at different positions in a sequence, and order does matter. Formally, a sequence can be defined as a function whose domain is either the set of the natural numbers (for infinite sequences) or the set of the first n natural numbers (for a sequence of finite length n). + +The position of an element in a sequence is its rank or index; it is the natural number for which the element is the image. The first element has index 0 or 1, depending on the context or a specific convention. When a symbol is used to denote a sequence, the nth element of the sequence is denoted by this symbol with n as subscript; for example, the nth element of the Fibonacci sequence F is generally denoted Fn. + +For example, (M, A, R, Y) is a sequence of letters with the letter 'M' first and 'Y' last. This sequence differs from (A, R, M, Y). Also, the sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8), which contains the number 1 at two different positions, is a valid sequence. Sequences can be finite, as in these examples, or infinite, such as the sequence of all even positive integers (2, 4, 6, ...). In computing and computer science, finite sequences are sometimes called strings, words or lists, the different names commonly corresponding to different ways to represent them in computer memory; infinite sequences are called streams. The empty sequence ( ) is included in most notions of sequence, but may be excluded depending on the context. + +serializability +In concurrency control of databases, transaction processing (transaction management), and various transactional applications (e.g., transactional memory and software transactional memory), both centralized and distributed, a transaction schedule is serializable if its outcome (e.g., the resulting database state) is equal to the outcome of its transactions executed serially, i.e. without overlapping in time. Transactions are normally executed concurrently (they overlap), since this is the most efficient way. Serializability is the major correctness criterion for concurrent transactions' executions. It is considered the highest level of isolation between transactions, and plays an essential role in concurrency control. As such it is supported in all general purpose database systems. Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) is a popular serializability mechanism utilized in most of the database systems (in various variants) since their early days in the 1970s. + +serialization +Is the process of translating data structures or object state into a format that can be stored (for example, in a file or memory buffer) or transmitted (for example, across a network connection link) and reconstructed later (possibly in a different computer environment). When the resulting series of bits is reread according to the serialization format, it can be used to create a semantically identical clone of the original object. For many complex objects, such as those that make extensive use of references, this process is not straightforward. Serialization of object-oriented objects does not include any of their associated methods with which they were previously linked. + +This process of serializing an object is also called marshalling an object in some situations. The opposite operation, extracting a data structure from a series of bytes, is deserialization, (also called unserialization or unmarshalling). + +server +A computer that provides information to other computers called "clients" on a computer network. This architecture is called the client–server model. + +service level agreement +(SLA), is a commitment between a service provider and a client. Particular aspects of the service – quality, availability, responsibilities – are agreed between the service provider and the service user. The most common component of an SLA is that the services should be provided to the customer as agreed upon in the contract. As an example, Internet service providers and telcos will commonly include service level agreements within the terms of their contracts with customers to define the level(s) of service being sold in plain language terms. In this case the SLA will typically have a technical definition in mean time between failures (MTBF), mean time to repair or mean time to recovery (MTTR); identifying which party is responsible for reporting faults or paying fees; responsibility for various data rates; throughput; jitter; or similar measurable details. + +set +Is an abstract data type that can store unique values, without any particular order. It is a computer implementation of the mathematical concept of a finite set. Unlike most other collection types, rather than retrieving a specific element from a set, one typically tests a value for membership in a set. + +singleton +Pertains to an element that appears exactly once. In object-oriented programming, a singleton class has exactly one instance. In mathematics, a singleton is a set having exactly one element. In linguistics, a hapax legomenon is a term that appears exactly once in some corpus. In programming, a singleton variable, occurring only once, might be a dummy argument or a mistake that can be detected by a linter. Contrast unique. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f872d2973 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 16/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +software +Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. + +software agent +Is a computer program that acts for a user or other program in a relationship of agency, which derives from the Latin agere (to do): an agreement to act on one's behalf. Such "action on behalf of" implies the authority to decide which, if any, action is appropriate. Agents are colloquially known as bots, from robot. They may be embodied, as when execution is paired with a robot body, or as software such as a chatbot +executing on a phone (e.g. Siri) or other computing device. Software agents may be autonomous or work together with other agents or people. Software agents interacting with people (e.g. chatbots, human-robot interaction environments) may possess human-like qualities such as natural language understanding and speech, personality or embody humanoid form (see Asimo). + +software construction +Is a software engineering discipline. It is the detailed creation of working meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. It is linked to all the other software engineering disciplines, most strongly to software design and software testing. + +software deployment +Is all of the activities that make a software system available for use. + +software design +Is the process by which an agent creates a specification of a software artifact, intended to accomplish goals, using a set of primitive components and subject to constraints. Software design may refer to either "all the activity involved in conceptualizing, framing, implementing, commissioning, and ultimately modifying complex systems" or "the activity following requirements specification and before programming, as ... [in] a stylized software engineering process." + +software development +Is the process of conceiving, specifying, designing, programming, documenting, testing, and bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining applications, frameworks, or other software components. Software development is a process of writing and maintaining the source code, but in a broader sense, it includes all that is involved between the conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, sometimes in a planned and structured process. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products. + +software development process +In software engineering, a software development process is the process of dividing software development work into distinct phases to improve design, product management, and project management. It is also known as a software development life cycle (SDLC). The methodology may include the pre-definition of specific deliverables and artifacts that are created and completed by a project team to develop or maintain an application. Most modern development processes can be vaguely described as agile. Other methodologies include waterfall, prototyping, iterative and incremental development, spiral development, rapid application development, and extreme programming. + +software engineering +Is the systematic application of engineering approaches to the development of software. Software engineering is a computing discipline. + +software maintenance +In software engineering is the modification of a software product after delivery to correct faults, to improve performance or other attributes. + +software prototyping +Is the activity of creating prototypes of software applications, i.e., incomplete versions of the software program being developed. It is an activity that can occur in software development and is comparable to prototyping as known from other fields, such as mechanical engineering or manufacturing. A prototype typically simulates only a few aspects of, and may be completely different from, the final product. + +software requirements specification +(SRS), is a description of a software system to be developed. The software requirements specification lays out functional and non-functional requirements, and it may include a set of use cases that describe user interactions that the software must provide to the user for perfect interaction. + +software testing +Is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the software product or service under test. Software testing can also provide an objective, independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. Test techniques include the process of executing a program or application with the intent of finding software bugs (errors or other defects), and verifying that the software product is fit for use. + +sorting algorithm +Is an algorithm that puts elements of a list in a certain order. The most frequently used orders are numerical order and lexicographical order. Efficient sorting is important for optimizing the efficiency of other algorithms (such as search and merge algorithms) that require input data to be in sorted lists. Sorting is also often useful for canonicalizing data and for producing human-readable output. More formally, the output of any sorting algorithm must satisfy two conditions: + +The output is in nondecreasing order (each element is no smaller than the previous element according to the desired total order); +The output is a permutation (a reordering, yet retaining all of the original elements) of the input. + +Further, the input data is often stored in an array, which allows random access, rather than a list, which only allows sequential access; though many algorithms can be applied to either type of data after suitable modification. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b07bca394 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 17/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +source code +In computing, source code is any collection of code, with or without comments, written using a human-readable programming language, usually as plain text. The source code of a program is specially designed to facilitate the work of computer programmers, who specify the actions to be performed by a computer mostly by writing source code. The source code is often transformed by an assembler or compiler into binary machine code that can be executed by the computer. The machine code might then be stored for execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be interpreted and thus immediately executed. + +spiral model +Is a risk-driven software development process model. Based on the unique risk patterns of a given project, the spiral model guides a team to adopt elements of one or more process models, such as incremental, waterfall, or evolutionary prototyping. + +stack +Is an abstract data type that serves as a collection of elements, with two main principal operations: +push, which adds an element to the collection, and +pop, which removes the most recently added element that was not yet removed. +The order in which elements come off a stack gives rise to its alternative name, LIFO (last in, first out). Additionally, a peek operation may give access to the top without modifying the stack. The name "stack" for this type of structure comes from the analogy to a set of physical items stacked on top of each other. This structure makes it easy to take an item off the top of the stack, while getting to an item deeper in the stack may require taking off multiple other items first. + +state +In information technology and computer science, a system is described as stateful if it is designed to remember preceding events or user interactions; the remembered information is called the state of the system. + +statement +In computer programming, a statement is a syntactic unit of an imperative programming language that expresses some action to be carried out. A program written in such a language is formed by a sequence of one or more statements. A statement may have internal components (e.g., expressions). + +storage +Computer data storage is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media that are used to retain digital data. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers. + +stream +Is a sequence of data elements made available over time. A stream can be thought of as items on a conveyor belt being processed one at a time rather than in large batches. + +string +In computer programming, a string is traditionally a sequence of characters, either as a literal constant or as some kind of variable. The latter may allow its elements to be mutated and the length changed, or it may be fixed (after creation). A string is generally considered as a data type and is often implemented as an array data structure of bytes (or words) that stores a sequence of elements, typically characters, using some character encoding. String may also denote more general arrays or other sequence (or list) data types and structures. + +structured storage +A NoSQL (originally referring to "non-SQL" or "non-relational") database provides a mechanism for storage and retrieval of data that is modeled in means other than the tabular relations used in relational databases. Such databases have existed since the late 1960s, but the name "NoSQL" was only coined in the early 21st century, triggered by the needs of Web 2.0 companies. NoSQL databases are increasingly used in big data and real-time web applications. NoSQL systems are also sometimes called "Not only SQL" to emphasize that they may support SQL-like query languages or sit alongside SQL databases in polyglot-persistent architectures. + +subroutine +In computer programming, a subroutine is a sequence of program instructions that performs a specific task, packaged as a unit. This unit can then be used in programs wherever that particular task should be performed. Subroutines may be defined within programs, or separately in libraries that can be used by many programs. In different programming languages, a subroutine may be called a routine, subprogram, function, method, or procedure. Technically, these terms all have different definitions. The generic, umbrella term callable unit is sometimes used. + +symbolic computation +In mathematics and computer science, computer algebra, also called symbolic computation or algebraic computation, is a scientific area that refers to the study and development of algorithms and software for manipulating mathematical expressions and other mathematical objects. Although computer algebra could be considered a subfield of scientific computing, they are generally considered as distinct fields because scientific computing is usually based on numerical computation with approximate floating-point numbers, while symbolic computation emphasizes exact computation with expressions containing variables that have no given value and are manipulated as symbols. + +syntax +The syntax of a computer language is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols that are considered to be correctly structured statements or expressions in that language. This applies both to programming languages, where the document represents source code, and to markup languages, where the document represents data. + +syntax error +Is an error in the syntax of a sequence of characters or tokens that is intended to be written in compile-time. A program will not compile until all syntax errors are corrected. For interpreted languages, however, a syntax error may be detected during program execution, and an interpreter's error messages might not differentiate syntax errors from errors of other kinds. There is some disagreement as to just what errors are "syntax errors". For example, some would say that the use of an uninitialized variable's value in Java code is a syntax error, but many others would disagree and would classify this as a (static) semantic error. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ac5436f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 18/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +system console +The system console, computer console, root console, operator's console, or simply console is the text entry and display device for system administration messages, particularly those from the BIOS or boot loader, the kernel, from the init system and from the system logger. It is a physical device consisting of a keyboard and a screen, and traditionally is a text terminal, but may also be a graphical terminal. System consoles are generalized to computer terminals, which are abstracted respectively by virtual consoles and terminal emulators. Today communication with system consoles is generally done abstractly, via the standard streams (stdin, stdout, and stderr), but there may be system-specific interfaces, for example those used by the system kernel. + +== T == + +technical documentation +In engineering, any type of documentation that describes handling, functionality, and architecture of a technical product or a product under development or use. The intended recipient for product technical documentation is both the (proficient) end user as well as the administrator/service or maintenance technician. In contrast to a mere "cookbook" manual, technical documentation aims at providing enough information for a user to understand inner and outer dependencies of the product at hand. + +third-generation programming language +A third-generation programming language (3GL) is a high-level computer programming language that tends to be more machine-independent and programmer-friendly than the machine code of the first-generation and assembly languages of the second-generation, while having a less specific focus to the fourth and fifth generations. Examples of common and historical third-generation programming languages are ALGOL, BASIC, C, COBOL, Fortran, Java, and Pascal. + +top-down and bottom-up design + +tree +A widely used abstract data type (ADT) that simulates a hierarchical tree structure, with a root value and subtrees of children with a parent node, represented as a set of linked nodes. + +type theory +In mathematics, logic, and computer science, a type theory is any of a class of formal systems, some of which can serve as alternatives to set theory as a foundation for all mathematics. In type theory, every "term" has a "type" and operations are restricted to terms of a certain type. + +== U == + +upload +In computer networks, to send data to a remote system such as a server or another client so that the remote system can store a copy. Contrast download. + +Uniform Resource Locator (URL) +Colloquially web address. +A reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications. + +unique +An element that is different from other elements. Database records are kept separate using unique keys. A set guarantees that all its elements are unique. The existence of a unique element is modeled using uniqueness quantification. Finding unique elements in a sequence or list requires data deduplication. Contrast singleton. + +user +Is a person who utilizes a computer or network service. Users of computer systems and software products generally lack the technical expertise required to fully understand how they work. Power users use advanced features of programs, though they are not necessarily capable of computer programming and system administration. + +user agent +Software (a software agent) that acts on behalf of a user, such as a web browser that "retrieves, renders and facilitates end user interaction with Web content". An email reader is a mail user agent. + +user interface (UI) +The space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine from the human end, whilst the machine simultaneously feeds back information that aids the operators' decision-making process. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls, and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. + +user interface design +Also user interface engineering. +The design of user interfaces for machines and software, such as computers, home appliances, mobile devices, and other electronic devices, with the focus on maximizing usability and the user experience. The goal of user interface design is to make the user's interaction as simple and efficient as possible, in terms of accomplishing user goals (user-centered design). + +== V == + +variable +In computer programming, a variable, or scalar, is a storage location (identified by a memory address) paired with an associated symbolic name (an identifier), which contains some known or unknown quantity of information referred to as a value. The variable name is the usual way to reference the stored value, in addition to referring to the variable itself, depending on the context. This separation of name and content allows the name to be used independently of the exact information it represents. The identifier in computer source code can be bound to a value during run time, and the value of the variable may therefore change during the course of program execution. + +virtual machine (VM) +An emulation of a computer system. Virtual machines are based on computer architectures and attempt to provide the same functionality as a physical computer. Their implementations may involve specialized hardware, software, or a combination of both. + +V-Model +A software development process that may be considered an extension of the waterfall model, and is an example of the more general V-model. Instead of moving down in a linear way, the process steps are bent upwards after the coding phase, to form the typical V shape. The V-Model demonstrates the relationships between each phase of the development life cycle and its associated phase of testing. The horizontal and vertical axes represent time or project completeness (left-to-right) and level of abstraction (coarsest-grain abstraction uppermost), respectively. + +== W == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..989a0378c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 19/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +waterfall model +A breakdown of project activities into linear sequential phases, where each phase depends on the deliverables of the previous one and corresponds to a specialisation of tasks. The approach is typical for certain areas of engineering design. In software development, it tends to be among the less iterative and flexible approaches, as progress flows in largely one direction ("downwards" like a waterfall) through the phases of conception, initiation, analysis, design, construction, testing, deployment and maintenance. + +Waveform Audio File Format +Also WAVE or WAV due to its filename extension. +An audio file format standard, developed by Microsoft and IBM, for storing an audio bitstream on PCs. It is an application of the Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF) bitstream format method for storing data in "chunks", and thus is also close to the 8SVX and the AIFF format used on Amiga and Macintosh computers, respectively. It is the main format used on Microsoft Windows systems for raw and typically uncompressed audio. The usual bitstream encoding is the linear pulse-code modulation (LPCM) format. + +web crawler +Also spider, spiderbot, or simply crawler. +An Internet bot that systematically browses the World Wide Web, typically for the purpose of Web indexing (web spidering). + +Wi-Fi +A family of wireless networking technologies, based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for local area networking of devices and Internet access. Wi‑Fi is a trademark of the non-profit Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. + +== X == + +XHTML +Abbreviaton of eXtensible HyperText Markup Language. +Part of the family of XML markup languages. It mirrors or extends versions of the widely used HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the language in which web pages are formulated. + +== See also == +Outline of computer science + +== References == + +=== Works cited === + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd0453744 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 3/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Boolean data type +A data type that has one of two possible values (usually denoted true and false), intended to represent the two truth values of logic and Boolean algebra. It is named after George Boole, who first defined an algebraic system of logic in the mid-19th century. The Boolean data type is primarily associated with conditional statements, which allow different actions by changing control flow depending on whether a programmer-specified Boolean condition evaluates to true or false. It is a special case of a more general logical data type (see propositional logic)—i.e. logic need not always be Boolean. + +Boolean expression +An expression used in a programming language that returns a Boolean value when evaluated, that is one of true or false. A Boolean expression may be composed of a combination of the Boolean constants true or false, Boolean-typed variables, Boolean-valued operators, and Boolean-valued functions. + +Boolean algebra +In mathematics and mathematical logic, the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0, respectively. Contrary to elementary algebra, where the values of the variables are numbers and the prime operations are addition and multiplication, the main operations of Boolean algebra are the conjunction and (denoted as ∧), the disjunction or (denoted as ∨), and the negation not (denoted as ¬). It is thus a formalism for describing logical relations in the same way that elementary algebra describes numeric relations. + +byte +A unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits, representing a binary number. Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer and for this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many computer architectures. + +booting +The procedures implemented in starting up a computer or computer appliance until it can be used. It can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by a software command. After the power is switched on, the computer is relatively dumb and can read only part of its storage called read-only memory. There, a small program is stored called firmware. It does power-on self-tests and, most importantly, allows access to other types of memory like a hard disk and main memory. The firmware loads bigger programs into the computer's main memory and runs it. + +== C == + +callback +Any executable code that is passed as an argument to other code that is expected to "call back" (execute) the argument at a given time. This execution may be immediate, as in a synchronous callback, or it might happen at a later time, as in an asynchronous callback. + +central processing unit (CPU) +The electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term "central processing unit" at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term "CPU" refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry. + +character +A unit of information that roughly corresponds to a grapheme, grapheme-like unit, or symbol, such as in an alphabet or syllabary in the written form of a natural language. + +CI/CD + See: continuous integration (CI) / continuous delivery (CD). + +cipher +Also cypher. +In cryptography, an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. + +class +In object-oriented programming, an extensible program-code-template for creating objects, providing initial values for state (member variables) and implementations of behavior (member functions or methods). In many languages, the class name is used as the name for the class (the template itself), the name for the default constructor of the class (a subroutine that creates objects), and as the type of objects generated by instantiating the class; these distinct concepts are easily conflated. + +class-based programming +Also class-orientation. +A style of object-oriented programming (OOP) in which inheritance occurs via defining "classes" of objects, instead of via the objects alone (compare prototype-based programming). + +client +A piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a service made available by a server. The server is often (but not always) on another computer system, in which case the client accesses the service by way of a network. The term applies to the role that programs or devices play in the client–server model. + +cleanroom software engineering +A software development process intended to produce software with a certifiable level of reliability. The cleanroom process was originally developed by Harlan Mills and several of his colleagues including Alan Hevner at IBM. The focus of the cleanroom process is on defect prevention, rather than defect removal. + +closure +Also lexical closure or function closure. +A technique for implementing lexically scoped name binding in a language with first-class functions. Operationally, a closure is a record storing a function together with an environment. + +cloud computing +Shared pools of configurable computer system resources and higher-level services that can be rapidly provisioned with minimal management effort, often over the Internet. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economies of scale, similar to a public utility. + +code library +A collection of non-volatile resources used by computer programs, often for software development. These may include configuration data, documentation, help data, message templates, pre-written code and subroutines, classes, values or type specifications. In IBM's OS/360 and its successors they are referred to as partitioned data sets. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b0320078b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 4/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +coding +Computer programming is the process of designing and building an executable computer program for accomplishing a specific computing task. Programming involves tasks such as analysis, generating algorithms, profiling algorithms' accuracy and resource consumption, and the implementation of algorithms in a chosen programming language (commonly referred to as coding). The source code of a program is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate the performance of a task for solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms, and formal logic. + +coding theory +The study of the properties of codes and their respective fitness for specific applications. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, data transmission and data storage. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines—such as information theory, electrical engineering, mathematics, linguistics, and computer science—for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction or detection of errors in the transmitted data. + +cognitive science +The interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense). Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology. + +collection +A collection or container is a grouping of some variable number of data items (possibly zero) that have some shared significance to the problem being solved and need to be operated upon together in some controlled fashion. Generally, the data items will be of the same type or, in languages supporting inheritance, derived from some common ancestor type. A collection is a concept applicable to abstract data types, and does not prescribe a specific implementation as a concrete data structure, though often there is a conventional choice (see Container for type theory discussion). + +comma-separated values (CSV) +A delimited text file that uses a comma to separate values. A CSV file stores tabular data (numbers and text) in plain text. Each line of the file is a data record. Each record consists of one or more fields, separated by commas. The use of the comma as a field separator is the source of the name for this file format. + +compiler +A computer program that transforms computer code written in one programming language (the source language) into another programming language (the target language). Compilers are a type of translator that support digital devices, primarily computers. The name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower-level language (e.g. assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program. + +computability theory +also known as recursion theory, is a branch of mathematical logic, of computer science, and of the theory of computation that originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees. The field has since expanded to include the study of generalized computability and definability. In these areas, recursion theory overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory. + +computation +Any type of calculation that includes both arithmetical and non-arithmetical steps and follows a well-defined model, e.g. an algorithm. The study of computation is paramount to the discipline of computer science. + +computational biology +Involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modelling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, ecological, behavioural, and social systems. The field is broadly defined and includes foundations in biology, applied mathematics, statistics, biochemistry, chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, genetics, genomics, computer science, and evolution. Computational biology is different from biological computing, which is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering using bioengineering and biology to build computers. + +computational chemistry +A branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses methods of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into efficient computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids. + +computational complexity theory +A subfield of computational science which focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm. + +computational model +A mathematical model in computational science that requires extensive computational resources to study the behavior of a complex system by computer simulation. + +computational neuroscience +Also theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience. +A branch of neuroscience which employs mathematical models, theoretical analysis, and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that govern the development, structure, physiology, and cognitive abilities of the nervous system. + +computational physics +Is the study and implementation of numerical analysis to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. Historically, computational physics was the first application of modern computers in science, and is now a subset of computational science. + +computational science +Also scientific computing and scientific computation (SC). +An interdisciplinary field that uses advanced computing capabilities to understand and solve complex problems. It is an area of science which spans many disciplines, but at its core it involves the development of computer models and simulations to understand complex natural systems. + +computational steering +Is the practice of manually intervening with an otherwise autonomous computational process, to change its outcome. + +computer +A device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f86559f9a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 5/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +computer architecture +A set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. In other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation. + +computer data storage +Also simply storage or memory. +A technology consisting of computer components and recording media that are used to retain digital data. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of all modern computer systems. + +computer ethics +A part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. + +computer graphics +Pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with the help of specialized graphical hardware and software. It is a vast and recently developed area of computer science. + +computer network +Also data network. +A digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each other using connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are established over cable media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi. + +computer program +Is a collection of instructions that can be executed by a computer to perform a specific task. + +computer programming +The process of designing and building an executable computer program for accomplishing a specific computing task. Programming involves tasks such as analysis, generating algorithms, profiling algorithms' accuracy and resource consumption, and the implementation of algorithms in a chosen programming language (commonly referred to as coding). The source code of a program is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate the performance of a task for solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms, and formal logic. + +computer science +The theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems. + +computer scientist +A person who has acquired the knowledge of computer science, the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their application. + +computer security +Also cybersecurity or information technology security (IT security). +The protection of computer systems from theft or damage to their hardware, software, or electronic data, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. + +computer vision +An interdisciplinary scientific field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the human visual system can do. + +computing +Is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes study of algorithmic processes and development of both hardware and software. It has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects. Major computing fields include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology and software engineering. + +concatenation +Literally, "a chaining together" or the process of joining together things. In formal language theory and computer programming, string concatenation is the operation of joining character strings end-to-end. For example, the concatenation of "snow" and "ball" is "snowball". In certain formalisations of concatenation theory, also called string theory, string concatenation is a primitive notion. + +Concurrency +The ability of different parts or units of a program, algorithm, or problem to be executed out-of-order or in partial order, without affecting the final outcome. This allows for parallel execution of the concurrent units, which can significantly improve overall speed of the execution in multi-processor and multi-core systems. In more technical terms, concurrency refers to the decomposability property of a program, algorithm, or problem into order-independent or partially-ordered components or units. + +conditional +Also conditional statement, conditional expression, and conditional construct. +A feature of a programming language which performs different computations or actions depending on whether a programmer-specified Boolean condition evaluates to true or false. Apart from the case of branch predication, this is always achieved by selectively altering the control flow based on some condition. + +container +Is a class, a data structure, or an abstract data type (ADT) whose instances are collections of other objects. In other words, they store objects in an organized way that follows specific access rules. The size of the container depends on the number of objects (elements) it contains. Underlying (inherited) implementations of various container types may vary in size and complexity, and provide flexibility in choosing the right implementation for any given scenario. + +continuous delivery (CD) + Producing software in short cycles with high speed and frequency so that reliable software can be released at any time, with a simple and repeatable deployment process when deciding to deploy. + +continuous deployment (CD) + Automatic rollout of new software functionality. + +continuous integration (CI) + The practice of integrating source code changes frequently and ensuring that an integrated codebase is in a workable state. + +continuation-passing style (CPS) +A style of functional programming in which control is passed explicitly in the form of a continuation. This is contrasted with direct style, which is the usual style of programming. Gerald Jay Sussman and Guy L. Steele, Jr. coined the phrase in AI Memo 349 (1975), which sets out the first version of the Scheme programming language. + +control flow +Also flow of control. +The order in which individual statements, instructions or function calls of an imperative program are executed or evaluated. The emphasis on explicit control flow distinguishes an imperative programming language from a declarative programming language. + +Creative Commons (CC) +An American non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright-licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4224f87a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 6/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cryptography +Or cryptology, is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages; various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, electrical engineering, communication science, and physics. Applications of cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital currencies, computer passwords, and military communications. + +CSV +See comma-separated values. + +cyberbullying +Also cyberharassment or online bullying. +A form of bullying or harassment using electronic means. + +cyberspace +Widespread, interconnected digital technology. + +== D == + +daemon +In multitasking computer operating systems, a daemon ( or ) is a computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Traditionally, the process names of a daemon end with the letter d, for clarification that the process is in fact a daemon, and for differentiation between a daemon and a normal computer program. For example, syslogd is a daemon that implements system logging facility, and sshd is a daemon that serves incoming SSH connections. + +Data + +data center +Also data centre. +A dedicated space used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and data storage systems. It generally includes redundant or backup components and infrastructure for power supply, data communications connections, environmental controls (e.g. air conditioning and fire suppression) and various security devices. + +database +An organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed electronically from a computer system. Where databases are more complex, they are often developed using formal design and modeling techniques. + +data mining +Is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems. Data mining is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and statistics with an overall goal to extract information (with intelligent methods) from a data set and transform the information into a comprehensible structure for further use. Data mining is the analysis step of the "knowledge discovery in databases" process, or KDD. Aside from the raw analysis step, it also involves database and data management aspects, data pre-processing, model and inference considerations, interestingness metrics, complexity considerations, post-processing of discovered structures, visualization, and online updating. + +data science +An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms, and systems to extract knowledge and insights from data in various forms, both structured and unstructured, similar to data mining. Data science is a "concept to unify statistics, data analysis, machine learning and their related methods" in order to "understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data. It employs techniques and theories drawn from many fields within the context of mathematics, statistics, information science, and computer science. + +data structure +A data organization, management, and storage format that enables efficient access and modification. More precisely, a data structure is a collection of data values, the relationships among them, and the functions or operations that can be applied to the data. + +data type +Also simply type. +An attribute of data which tells the compiler or interpreter how the programmer intends to use the data. Most programming languages support common data types of real, integer, and Boolean. A data type constrains the values that an expression, such as a variable or a function, might take. This data type defines the operations that can be done on the data, the meaning of the data, and the way values of that type can be stored. A type of value from which an expression may take its value. + +debugging +The process of finding and resolving defects or problems within a computer program that prevent correct operation of computer software or the system as a whole. Debugging tactics can involve interactive debugging, control flow analysis, unit testing, integration testing, log file analysis, monitoring at the application or system level, memory dumps, and profiling. + +declaration +In computer programming, a language construct that specifies properties of an identifier: it declares what a word (identifier) "means". Declarations are most commonly used for functions, variables, constants, and classes, but can also be used for other entities such as enumerations and type definitions. Beyond the name (the identifier itself) and the kind of entity (function, variable, etc.), declarations typically specify the data type (for variables and constants), or the type signature (for functions); types may also include dimensions, such as for arrays. A declaration is used to announce the existence of the entity to the compiler; this is important in those strongly typed languages that require functions, variables, and constants, and their types, to be specified with a declaration before use, and is used in forward declaration. The term "declaration" is frequently contrasted with the term "definition", but meaning and usage varies significantly between languages. + +digital data +In information theory and information systems, the discrete, discontinuous representation of information or works. Numbers and letters are commonly used representations. + +digital signal processing (DSP) +The use of digital processing, such as by computers or more specialized digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations. The signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency. + +discrete event simulation (DES) +A model of the operation of a system as a discrete sequence of events in time. Each event occurs at a particular instant in time and marks a change of state in the system. Between consecutive events, no change in the system is assumed to occur; thus the simulation can directly jump in time from one event to the next. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f67dc9df9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 7/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +disk storage +(Also sometimes called drive storage) is a general category of storage mechanisms where data is recorded by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to a surface layer of one or more rotating disks. A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism. Notable types are the hard disk drive (HDD) containing a non-removable disk, the floppy disk drive (FDD) and its removable floppy disk, and various optical disc drives (ODD) and associated optical disc media. + +distributed computing +A field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another. The components interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications. + +divide and conquer algorithm +An algorithm design paradigm based on multi-branched recursion. A divide-and-conquer algorithm works by recursively breaking down a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same or related type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem. + +DNS +See Domain Name System. + +documentation +Written text or illustration that accompanies computer software or is embedded in the source code. It either explains how it operates or how to use it, and may mean different things to people in different roles. + +domain +Is the targeted subject area of a computer program. It is a term used in software engineering. Formally it represents the target subject of a specific programming project, whether narrowly or broadly defined. + +Domain Name System (DNS) +A hierarchical and decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or to a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. Most prominently, it translates more readily memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols. By providing a worldwide, distributed directory service, the Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985. + +double-precision floating-point format +A computer number format. It represents a wide dynamic range of numerical values by using a floating radix point. + +download +In computer networks, to receive data from a remote system, typically a server such as a web server, an FTP server, an email server, or other similar systems. This contrasts with uploading, where data is sent to a remote server. A download is a file offered for downloading or that has been downloaded, or the process of receiving such a file. + +== E == + +edge device +A device which provides an entry point into enterprise or service provider core networks. Examples include routers, routing switches, integrated access devices (IADs), multiplexers, and a variety of metropolitan area network (MAN) and wide area network (WAN) access devices. Edge devices also provide connections into carrier and service provider networks. An edge device that connects a local area network to a high speed switch or backbone (such as an ATM switch) may be called an edge concentrator. + +emulator +Hardware or software that enables one computer system (called the host) to behave like another computer system. + +encryption +In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information. Encryption does not itself prevent interference but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users. Historically, various forms of encryption have been used to aid in cryptography. Early encryption techniques were often utilized in military messaging. Since then, new techniques have emerged and become commonplace in all areas of modern computing. Modern encryption schemes utilize the concepts of public-key and symmetric-key. Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption. + +event +An action or occurrence recognized by software, often originating asynchronously from the external environment, that may be handled by the software. Because an event is an entity which encapsulates the action and the contextual variables triggering the action, the acrostic mnemonic "Execution Variable Encapsulating Named Trigger" is often used to clarify the concept. + +event-driven programming +A programming paradigm in which the flow of the program is determined by events such as user actions (mouse clicks, key presses), sensor outputs, or messages from other programs or threads. Event-driven programming is the dominant paradigm used in graphical user interfaces and other applications (e.g. JavaScript web applications) that are centered on performing certain actions in response to user input. This is also true of programming for device drivers (e.g. P in USB device driver stacks). + +evolutionary computing +A family of algorithms for global optimization inspired by biological evolution, and the subfield of artificial intelligence and soft computing studying these algorithms. In technical terms, they are a family of population-based trial-and-error problem-solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..398d4b78e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,155 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 8/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +executable +Also executable code, executable file, executable program, or simply executable. +Causes a computer "to perform indicated tasks according to encoded instructions," as opposed to a data file that must be parsed by a program to be meaningful. The exact interpretation depends upon the use - while "instructions" is traditionally taken to mean machine code instructions for a physical CPU, in some contexts a file containing bytecode or scripting language instructions may also be considered executable. + +execution +In computer and software engineering is the process by which a computer or virtual machine executes the instructions of a computer program. Each instruction of a program is a description of a particular +action which to be carried out in order for a specific problem to be solved; as instructions of a program and therefore the actions they describe are being carried out by an executing machine, specific effects are produced in accordance to the semantics of the instructions being executed. + +exception handling +The process of responding to the occurrence, during computation, of exceptions – anomalous or exceptional conditions requiring special processing – often disrupting the normal flow of program execution. It is provided by specialized programming language constructs, computer hardware mechanisms like interrupts, or operating system IPC facilities like signals. + +Existence detection +An existence check before reading a file can catch and/or prevent a fatal error. + +expression +In a programming language, a combination of one or more constants, variables, operators, and functions that the programming language interprets (according to its particular rules of precedence and of association) and computes to produce ("to return", in a stateful environment) another value. This process, as for mathematical expressions, is called evaluation. + +== F == + +fault-tolerant computer system +A system designed around the concept of fault tolerance. In essence, they must be able to continue working to a level of satisfaction in the presence of errors or breakdowns. + +feasibility study +An investigation which aims to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture, opportunities and threats present in the natural environment, the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for success. In its simplest terms, the two criteria to judge feasibility are cost required and value to be attained. + +field +Data that has several parts, known as a record, can be divided into fields. Relational databases arrange data as sets of database records, so called rows. Each record consists of several fields; the fields of all records form the columns. +Examples of fields: name, gender, hair colour. + +filename extension +An identifier specified as a suffix to the name of a computer file. The extension indicates a characteristic of the file contents or its intended use. + +filter (software) +A computer program or subroutine to process a stream, producing another stream. While a single filter can be used individually, they are frequently strung together to form a pipeline. + +floating-point arithmetic +In computing, floating-point arithmetic (FP) is arithmetic using formulaic representation of real numbers as an approximation to support a trade-off between range and precision. For this reason, floating-point computation is often found in systems which include very small and very large real numbers, which require fast processing times. A number is, in general, represented approximately to a fixed number of significant digits (the significand) and scaled using an exponent in some fixed base; the base for the scaling is normally two, ten, or sixteen. A number that can be represented exactly is of the following form: + + + + + + significand + + × + + + base + + + exponent + + + , + + + {\displaystyle {\text{significand}}\times {\text{base}}^{\text{exponent}},} + + +where significand is an integer, base is an integer greater than or equal to two, and exponent is also an integer. +For example: + + + + + 1.2345 + = + + + + 12345 + ⏟ + + + + significand + + + × + + + + 10 + ⏟ + + + + base + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + 4 + + ⏞ + + + + exponent + + + + + . + + + {\displaystyle 1.2345=\underbrace {12345} _{\text{significand}}\times \underbrace {10} _{\text{base}}\!\!\!\!\!\!^{\overbrace {-4} ^{\text{exponent}}}.} + + +for loop +Also for-loop. +A control flow statement for specifying iteration, which allows code to be executed repeatedly. Various keywords are used to specify this statement: descendants of ALGOL use "for", while descendants of Fortran use "do". There are also other possibilities, e.g. COBOL uses "PERFORM VARYING". + +formal methods +A set of mathematically based techniques for the specification, development, and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. + +formal verification +The act of proving or disproving the correctness of intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods of mathematics. + +functional programming +A programming paradigm—a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs–that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids changing-state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm in that programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements. + +== G == + +game theory +The study of mathematical models of strategic interaction between rational decision-makers. It has applications in all fields of social science, as well as in logic and computer science. Originally, it addressed zero-sum games, in which each participant's gains or losses are exactly balanced by those of the other participants. Today, game theory applies to a wide range of behavioral relations, and is now an umbrella term for the science of logical decision making in humans, animals, and computers. + +garbage in, garbage out (GIGO) +A term used to describe the concept that flawed or nonsense input data produces nonsense output or "garbage". It can also refer to the unforgiving nature of programming, in which a poorly written program might produce nonsensical behavior. + +Graphics Interchange Format + +gigabyte +A multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units (SI). Therefore, one gigabyte is 1000000000bytes. The unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a3cb4163 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 9/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +global variable +In computer programming, a variable with global scope, meaning that it is visible (hence accessible) throughout the program, unless shadowed. The set of all global variables is known as the global environment or global state. In compiled languages, global variables are generally static variables, whose extent (lifetime) is the entire runtime of the program, though in interpreted languages (including command-line interpreters), global variables are generally dynamically allocated when declared, since they are not known ahead of time. + +graph theory +In mathematics, the study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of vertices (also called nodes or points) which are connected by edges (also called links or lines). A distinction is made between undirected graphs, where edges link two vertices symmetrically, and directed graphs, where edges link two vertices asymmetrically. + +== H == + +handle +In computer programming, a handle is an abstract reference to a resource that is used when application software references blocks of memory or objects that are managed by another system like a database or an operating system. + +hard problem +Computational complexity theory focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating these classes to each other. A computational problem is a task solved by a computer. A computation problem is solvable by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm. + +hash function +Any function that can be used to map data of arbitrary size to data of a fixed size. The values returned by a hash function are called hash values, hash codes, digests, or simply hashes. Hash functions are often used in combination with a hash table, a common data structure used in computer software for rapid data lookup. Hash functions accelerate table or database lookup by detecting duplicated records in a large file. + +hash table +In computing, a hash table (hash map) is a data structure that implements an associative array abstract data type, a structure that can map keys to values. A hash table uses a hash function to compute an index into an array of buckets or slots, from which the desired value can be found. + +heap +A specialized tree-based data structure which is essentially an almost complete tree that satisfies the heap property: if P is a parent node of C, then the key (the value) of P is either greater than or equal to (in a max heap) or less than or equal to (in a min heap) the key of C. The node at the "top" of the heap (with no parents) is called the root node. + +heapsort +A comparison-based sorting algorithm. Heapsort can be thought of as an improved selection sort: like that algorithm, it divides its input into a sorted and an unsorted region, and it iteratively shrinks the unsorted region by extracting the largest element and moving that to the sorted region. The improvement consists of the use of a heap data structure rather than a linear-time search to find the maximum. + +human-computer interaction (HCI) +Researches the design and use of computer technology, focused on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. Researchers in the field of HCI both observe the ways in which humans interact with computers and design technologies that let humans interact with computers in novel ways. As a field of research, human–computer interaction is situated at the intersection of computer science, behavioral sciences, design, media studies, and several other fields of study. + +== I == + +identifier +In computer languages, identifiers are tokens (also called symbols) which name language entities. Some of the kinds of entities an identifier might denote include variables, types, labels, subroutines, and packages. + +IDE +Integrated development environment. + +image processing + +imperative programming +A programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state. In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates. + +incremental build model +A method of software development where the product is designed, implemented and tested incrementally (a little more is added each time) until the product is finished. It involves both development and maintenance. The product is defined as finished when it satisfies all of its requirements. This model combines the elements of the waterfall model with the iterative philosophy of prototyping. + +information space analysis +A deterministic method, enhanced by machine intelligence, for locating and assessing resources for team-centric efforts. + +information visualization + +inheritance +In object-oriented programming, the mechanism of basing an object or class upon another object (prototype-based inheritance) or class (class-based inheritance), retaining similar implementation. Also defined as deriving new classes (sub classes) from existing ones (super class or base class) and forming them into a hierarchy of classes. + +input/output (I/O) +Also informally io or IO. +The communication between an information processing system, such as a computer, and the outside world, possibly a human or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. + +insertion sort +A simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array (or list) one item at a time. + +instruction cycle +Also fetch–decode–execute cycle or simply fetch-execute cycle. +The cycle which the central processing unit (CPU) follows from boot-up until the computer has shut down in order to process instructions. It is composed of three main stages: the fetch stage, the decode stage, and the execute stage. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9275d19e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of computer science" +chunk: 10/19 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +integer +A datum of integral data type, a data type that represents some range of mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits (bits). The size of the grouping varies so the set of integer sizes available varies between different types of computers. Computer hardware, including virtual machines, nearly always provide a way to represent a processor register or memory address as an integer. + +integrated development environment (IDE) +A software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of at least a source code editor, build automation tools, and a debugger. + +integration testing +(sometimes called integration and testing, abbreviated I&T) is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. Integration testing is conducted to evaluate the compliance of a system or component with specified functional requirements. It occurs after unit testing and before validation testing. Integration testing takes as its input modules that have been unit tested, groups them in larger aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration test plan to those aggregates, and delivers as its output the integrated system ready for system testing. + +intellectual property (IP) +A category of legal property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The most well-known types are copyrights, patents, trademarks, and trade secrets. + +intelligent agent +In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent (IA) refers to an autonomous entity which acts, directing its activity towards achieving goals (i.e. it is an agent), upon an environment using observation through sensors and consequent actuators (i.e. it is intelligent). Intelligent agents may also learn or use knowledge to achieve their goals. They may be very simple or very complex. A reflex machine, such as a thermostat, is considered an example of an intelligent agent. + +interface +A shared boundary across which two or more separate components of a computer system exchange information. The exchange can be between software, computer hardware, peripheral devices, humans, and combinations of these. Some computer hardware devices, such as a touchscreen, can both send and receive data through the interface, while others such as a mouse or microphone may only provide an interface to send data to a given system. + +internal documentation +Computer software is said to have Internal Documentation if the notes on how and why various parts of code operate is included within the source code as comments. It is often combined with meaningful variable names with the intention of providing potential future programmers a means of understanding the workings of the code. This contrasts with external documentation, where programmers keep their notes and explanations in a separate document. + +internet +The global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. + +internet bot +Also web robot, robot, or simply bot. +A software application that runs automated tasks (scripts) over the Internet. Typically, bots perform tasks that are both simple and structurally repetitive, at a much higher rate than would be possible for a human alone. The largest use of bots is in web spidering (web crawler), in which an automated script fetches, analyzes and files information from web servers at many times the speed of a human. + +interpreter +A computer program that directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language, without requiring them to have been previously compiled into a machine language program. + +invariant +One can encounter invariants that can be relied upon to be true during the execution of a program, or during some portion of it. It is a logical assertion that is always held to be true during a certain phase of execution. For example, a loop invariant is a condition that is true at the beginning and the end of every execution of a loop. + +iteration +Is the repetition of a process in order to generate an outcome. The sequence will approach some end point or end value. Each repetition of the process is a single iteration, and the outcome of each iteration is then the starting point of the next iteration. In mathematics and computer science, iteration (along with the related technique of recursion) is a standard element of algorithms. + +== J == + +Java +A general-purpose programming language that is class-based, object-oriented(although not a pure OO language), and designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is intended to let application developers "write once, run anywhere" (WORA), meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need for recompilation. + +== K == + +kernel +The first section of an operating system to load into memory. As the center of the operating system, the kernel needs to be small, efficient, and loaded into a protected area in the memory so that it cannot be overwritten. It may be responsible for such essential tasks as disk drive management, file management, memory management, process management, etc. + +== L == + +library (computing) +A collection of non-volatile resources used by computer programs, often for software development. These may include configuration data, documentation, help data, message templates, pre-written code and subroutines, classes, values, or type specifications. + +linear search +Also sequential search. +A method for finding an element within a list. It sequentially checks each element of the list until a match is found or the whole list has been searched. + +linked list +A linear collection of data elements, whose order is not given by their physical placement in memory. Instead, each element points to the next. It is a data structure consisting of a collection of nodes which together represent a sequence. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..128208d0b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 1/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of economics is a list of definitions containing terms and concepts used in economics, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. + +== A == + +absolute advantage +Also called resource cost advantage. +The ability of a party (whether an individual, firm, or country) to produce a greater quantity of a good, product, or service than competitors using the same amount of resources. + +absorption +The total demand for all final marketed goods and services by all economic agents resident in an economy, regardless of the origin of the goods and services themselves + +abandonment of the gold standard +The decision by a government to abandon a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. + +accelerator effect +A positive effect on private fixed investment because of the growth of the market economy. Rising GDP usually implies that profit expectations and business confidence rise, encouraging businesses to build more factories and other buildings and to install more machinery. + +adaptive expectations +A hypothetical process by which people form expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. + +AD–AS model +A macroeconomic model that explains price level and output through the relationship of downward-sloping aggregate demand (AD) and upward-sloping aggregate supply (AS). + +AD–IA model +A macroeconomic model that explains inflation and output through the relationship of downward-sloping aggregate demand (AD) and horizontal inflation adjustment (IA). The monetary policy rule (MPR) is assumed, which is that the central bank increases interest rates in response to increase in inflation and vice versa. + +adverse selection +A market situation where buyers and sellers have different information, and participants with key information participate selectively in trades at the expense of other parties. + +advertising elasticity of demand (AED) +Also called advertising elasticity. +Measures the sensitivity of a good's demand to a change in advertising. + +agflation +Also called agrarian inflation. +An increase in the price of food and industrial agricultural crops when compared to the general rise in prices. + +aggregate demand (AD) +Also called domestic final demand (DFD) or effective demand. +The total demand for goods and services in an economy. It specifies the amounts of goods and services that will be purchased at all possible price levels. Aggregate demand can also be interpreted as the demand for the gross domestic product of a country. It is often called effective demand, though this term also has a distinct meaning. + +aggregate supply (AS) +Also called domestic final supply (DFS). +The total supply of goods and services in an economy. + +aggregation problem +The difficult problem of finding a valid way to treat an empirical or theoretical aggregate as if it reacted like a less-aggregated measure, say, about behavior of an individual agent as described in general microeconomic theory. + +agent +An actor or, more specifically, a decision maker in a model of some aspect of the economy. + +agricultural economics +An applied field of economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food. + +AK model +A macroeconomic model that explains output through the relationship of total factor productivity and capital. It assumes that there is no diminishing return of capital. + +Alchian–Allen effect +Also called the shipping the good apples out theorem, or the third law of demand. +When the prices of two substitute goods, such as high and low grades of the same product, are both increased by a fixed per-unit amount, consumption will shift toward the higher-grade product. This is because the added per-unit amount decreases the relative price of the higher-grade product. + +Allais paradox +A choice problem showing an inconsistency of actual observed choices with the independence axiom of expected utility theory. + +allocative efficiency +A state of the economy in which production represents consumer preferences; in particular, every good or service is produced up to the point where the last unit provides a marginal benefit to consumers equal to the marginal cost of producing. In the single-price model, at the point of allocative efficiency, price is equal to marginal cost. + +alternative minimum tax (AMT) +A tax imposed by the U.S. federal government in addition to the regular income tax for certain individuals, estates, and trusts. High-income taxpayers must calculate and pay the greater of the AMT or regular tax. + +ambiguity aversion +Also called uncertainty aversion. +Any preference for known risks over unknown risks. + +American school +Also called the national system. +A school of thought based around industry protection, government investment in infrastructure, and a national bank. + +Amoroso–Robinson relation +An equation that describes the relation between price, marginal revenue, and price elasticity of demand. + +ancient economic thought +The economic ideas proposed by ancient thinkers, in the history of economic thought. + +Anglo-Saxon model +A school of thought based around low levels of regulation and taxation, minimal public services, strong private property rights, contract enforcement, overall ease of doing business, and low barriers to free trade. + +annual effective discount rate (AER) +The amount of interest paid or earned as a percentage of the balance at the end of the annual period. + +anti-rival good +The opposite of a rival good. The more people share an anti-rival good, the more utility each person receives. + +antitrust law +Also called a competition law or anti-monopoly law. +Any law that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct by companies. Competition law is implemented through public and private enforcement. It is also known as "antitrust law" in the United States for historical reasons and as "anti-monopoly law" in China and Russia. + +applied economics +The application of economic theory and econometrics in specific settings. As one of the two sets of fields of economics (the other being the core), it is typically characterized by the application of the core, i.e. economic theory and econometrics, to address practical issues in a range of fields. + +appropriate technology +A movement (and its manifestations) encompassing technological choice and application that is small-scale, decentralized, labor-intensive, energy-efficient, environmentally sound, and locally autonomous. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd64c8e8c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 2/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +arbitrage +The practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets by striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, with the profit being the difference between the market prices. + +Arrow–Debreu model +Also called the Arrow–Debreu–McKenzie model or ADM model. +A model that suggests there must be a set of prices such that aggregate supplies will equal aggregate demands for every commodity in the economy, given certain assumptions. It can be used to prove the existence of general equilibrium (or Walrasian equilibrium) of an economy. + +Arrow-Debreu security +Also called a state-price security, pure security, or primitive security. +A contract that agrees to pay one unit of a numeraire (a currency or a commodity) if a particular state occurs at a particular time in the future and pays zero numeraire in all the other states. + +Arrow information paradox (AIP) +Also called Arrow's disclosure paradox. +A problem faced by companies when considering the transfer of intellectual property. A company may wish to sell some information, but it cannot fully describe the capabilities of the information without effectively transferring the information for free. + +Arrow's impossibility theorem +Also called the general possibility theorem or Arrow's paradox. +When voters have three or more distinct options, no ranked voting electoral system can convert the ranked preferences of individuals into a community-wide (complete and transitive) ranking while also meeting the specified set of criteria: unrestricted domain, non-dictatorship, Pareto efficiency, and independence of irrelevant alternatives. + +Associate's Degree +An academic program taken at the undergraduate level and after secondary school, which is considered a two-year degree and can be obtained from a community college, junior college, or some four-year universities. + +Atkinson–Stiglitz theorem +Where the utility function is separable between labor and all commodities, no indirect taxes need be employed. + +Aumann's agreement theorem +If the probabilistic beliefs of agents who share a common prior and update their probabilistic beliefs by Bayes' rule, regarding a fixed event, are common knowledge then these probabilities must coincide. Thus, agents cannot have common knowledge of a disagreement over the posterior probability of a given event. + +austerity +A set of political-economic policies that aim to reduce government budget deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both. + +Austrian School +A heterodox school of economic thought that is based on methodological individualism—the concept that social phenomena result from the motivations and actions of individuals. + +autarky +The characteristic of being self-sufficient; the term is usually applied to political states or their economic systems. Autarky is possible when an entity can survive or continue its activities without external assistance or international trade. If a self-sufficient economy also deliberately refuses all trade with the outside world, then it is called a closed economy. + +automatic stabilizer +A feature of the structure of modern government budgets, particularly income taxes and welfare spending, that acts to damp out fluctuations in real GDP. + +autonomous consumption +Also called exogenous consumption. +The consumption expenditure that occurs when income levels are zero. Such consumption is considered autonomous of income only when expenditure on these consumables does not vary with changes in income; generally, it may be required to fund necessities and debt obligations. If income levels are actually zero, this consumption counts as dissaving, because it is financed by borrowing or using up savings. + +average cost +Also called unit cost. +A quantity equal to the total cost divided by the number of goods produced (the output quantity, Q). It is also equal to the sum of variable costs (total variable costs divided by Q) plus average fixed costs (total fixed costs divided by Q). + +average fixed cost +The fixed costs (FC) of production divided by the quantity (Q) of output produced. Fixed costs are those costs that must be incurred in fixed quantity regardless of the level of output produced. + +average variable cost +A firm's variable costs (labour, electricity, etc.) divided by the quantity of output produced. Variable costs are those costs which vary with the output. + +average tax rate +The ratio of the total amount of taxes paid to the total tax base (taxable income or spending), expressed as a percentage. + +== B == + +Backus–Kehoe–Kydland puzzle +Also called the Backus–Kehoe–Kydland consumption correlation puzzle or BKK puzzle. +The observation that consumption is much less correlated across countries than output. According to theory we should observe that consumption is much more correlated across countries than output in an Arrow–Debreu economy. + +Backus–Smith puzzle +Also called the Backus-Smith consumption-real exchange rate puzzle or consumption – real-exchange-rate anomaly. +The observation that the correlations between consumption and real exchange rates are zero or negative. This is contrary to economic theory which predicts that with full risk sharing, relative consumption should be perfectly correlated with the real exchange rate. + +backward advantage +Also called the advantage of backwardness or the latecomer's advantage. +The advantage that a still-developing country has because it can take advantage of the technology/industry gap with a developed country by implementing a new technology or venturing into an industry that is new to its economy but mature in the developed country. + +backward disadvantage +Also called the latecomer's disadvantage. +The fact that it is easier for late-development countries to imitate technologies, but more difficult to imitate the system, because the reform will offend vested interests. + +backward induction +The process of reasoning backward in time, from the end of a problem or situation, to determine a sequence of optimal actions. It proceeds by first considering the last time a decision might be made and choosing what to do in any situation at that time. Using this information, one can then determine what to do at the second-to-last time of decision. This process continues backward until one has determined the best action for every possible situation (i.e. for every possible information set) at every point in time. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c8eb906a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 11/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +discretionary income +Money available after one pays taxes and all other necessary expenses like housing and transportation. + +disequilibrium macroeconomics +Also called non-Walrasian theory, equilibrium with rationing, the non-market clearing approach, and non-tâtonnement theory. +A tradition of research centered on the role of disequilibrium in economics. + +disinflation +A decrease in the rate of inflation; a slowdown in the rate of increase of the general price level of goods and services in an economy's gross domestic product over time. It is the opposite of reflation. Disinflation is also distinct from deflation, which occurs when the inflation rate is negative. + +dispersed knowledge +The notion that no single agent has information as to all of the factors which influence prices and production throughout the system. + +disposable income +Money available after one pays taxes; income available for personal consumption and saving. + +disposition effect +The tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an asset that has declined in value. + +dissaving +Negative saving, which occurs when spending is greater than disposable income. This spending may be financed by already accumulated savings, such as money in a savings account, or it can be borrowed. + +distribution +The way total economic output, income, or wealth is distributed among individuals or among the factors of production (such as labor, land, and capital). In general theory and the national income and product accounts, each unit of output corresponds to a unit of income. + +dividends +Payments by a corporation of all or part of its profit to its stockholders (the corporate owners). + +dividend imputation +A corporate tax system in which some or all of the tax paid by a company may be attributed, or imputed, to the shareholders by way of a tax credit to reduce the income tax payable on a distribution. + +divorce +The dissolution of a marriage, which in many countries, is considered a contract of property which is shared among the spouses. + +Dixit–Stiglitz model +A model of monopolistic competition which formalises consumers' preferences for product variety by using a CES function. In the model, variety preference is inherent within the assumption of monotonic preferences because a consumer with such preferences prefers to have an average of any two bundles of goods as opposed to extremes. + +dollar auction +A non-zero sum sequential game that illustrates a paradox brought about by traditional rational choice theory in which players are compelled to make an ultimately irrational decision based completely on a sequence of apparently rational choices made throughout the game. + +Domar serfdom model +A mid-to-late 20th century model that develops a hypothesis concerning the causes of agricultural slavery or serfdom in historical societies. + +Dorfman-Steiner theorem +Also called Dorfman–Steiner condition. +A theorem which specifies the optimal level of advertising that a firm should undertake. + +double marginalization +A vertical externality that occurs when two firms with market power (i.e., not in a situation of perfect competition), at different vertical levels in the same supply chain, apply a mark-up to their prices. This is caused by the prospect of facing a steep demand curve slope, prompting the firm to mark-up the price beyond its marginal costs. + +doughnut economics +A visual framework for sustainable development – shaped like a doughnut or lifebelt – combining the concept of planetary boundaries with the complementary concept of social boundaries. The name derives from the shape of the diagram, i.e. a disc with a hole in the middle. + +Downs–Thomson paradox +Also called the Pigou–Knight–Downs paradox. +A paradox that states that the equilibrium speed of car traffic on a road network is determined by the average door-to-door speed of equivalent journeys taken by public transport or the next best alternative. Although consistent with economic theory, it is a paradox in that it contradicts the common expectation that improvements in the road network will reduce traffic congestion. + +dual-sector model +Also called the Lewis model. +A model in developmental economics that explains the growth of a developing economy in terms of a labour transition between two sectors, the subsistence or traditional agricultural sector and the capitalist or modern industrial sector. + +Duggan–Schwartz theorem +A result about voting systems designed to choose a nonempty set of winners from the preferences of certain individuals, where each individual ranks all candidates in order of preference. + +duopoly +A situation in which there are exactly two suppliers for a particular good or service. + +dynamic discrete choice +Also called DDC models ordiscrete choice models of dynamic programming. +Models that simulate an agent's choices over discrete options that have future implications. Rather than assuming observed choices are the result of static utility maximization, observed choices in DDC models are assumed to result from an agent's maximization of the present value of utility, generalizing the utility theory upon which discrete choice models are based. + +dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) +Also abbreviated DGE and SDGE. +A method in macroeconomics that attempts to explain economic phenomena, such as economic growth and business cycles, and the effects of economic policy, through econometric models based on applied general equilibrium theory and microeconomic principles. + +== E == + +Easterlin paradox +A finding in happiness economics which states that at a point in time happiness varies directly with income both among and within nations, but over time happiness does not trend upward as income continues to grow: while people on higher incomes are typically happier than their lower-income counterparts at a given point in time, higher incomes don't produce greater happiness over time. + +ecological model of competition +A reassessment of the nature of competition in the economy which models the economy on biology (growth, change, death, evolution, survival of the fittest, complex inter-relationships, non-linear relationships) rather than physics. + +econometrics +The application of statistical methods to economic data to give empirical content to economic relationships. More precisely, it is "the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation, related by appropriate methods of inference". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3e86450f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 12/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +economic base analysis +A theory that posits that activities in an area divide into two categories: basic and nonbasic. Basic industries are those exporting from the region and bringing wealth from outside, while nonbasic (or service) industries support basic industries. + +economic calculation problem (ECP) +A criticism of using economic planning as a substitute for market-based allocation of the factors of production. It is argued that economy planning necessarily leads to an irrational and inefficient allocation of resources. + +economic cost +The combination of losses of any goods that have a value attached to them by any one individual. Economic cost is used as means to compare the prudence of one course of action with that of another. + +economic democracy +Also called a democratic economy. +A socioeconomic philosophy that proposes to shift ownership and decision-making power from corporate shareholders and corporate managers (such as a board of directors) to a larger group of public stakeholders that includes workers, consumers, suppliers, communities and the broader public. + +economic development +Broad improvement in the economic well-being or quality of life of a nation, region, or community, often but not necessarily as a consequence of economic growth. + +economic efficiency +A variety of concepts which denote some situation where desired outputs (such as utility) are maximized given available inputs. This can include allocative efficiency, distributive efficiency, dynamic efficiency, financial market efficiency, Kaldor–Hicks efficiency, operational efficiency, Pareto efficiency, and productive efficiency. + +economic equilibrium +A situation in which economic forces such as supply and demand are balanced and in which, in the absence of external influences, the values of economic variables do not change. For example, in the standard textbook model of perfect competition, equilibrium occurs at the point at which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal. Market equilibrium in this case is a condition in which a market price is established through competition such that the amount of goods or services sought by buyers is equal to the amount of goods or services produced by sellers. This price is often called the competitive price or market clearing price and will tend not to change unless demand or supply changes, and the quantity is called the "competitive quantity" or market clearing quantity. However, the concept of equilibrium in economics also applies to imperfectly competitive markets, where it takes the form of a Nash equilibrium. + +economic growth +An increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product, or real GDP. + +economic indicator +Any measurable unit of the economy which helps economists assess the past or make predictions about the future, such as unemployment rate and gross domestic product. + +economic interdependence +The existence of necessary relationships between different sectors of the economy and how the decisions and actions of one will impact the others. + +economic methodology +The study of methods, especially the scientific method, in relation to economics, including principles underlying economic reasoning. + +economic model +A theoretical construct representing an economic process by a set of variables and a set of logical and/or quantitative relationships between them. Economic models are usually simplified, often mathematical, frameworks designed to illustrate complex processes. Frequently, economic models posit structural parameters. A model may have various exogenous variables, and those variables may change to create various responses by economic variables. Methodological uses of models include investigation, theorizing, and fitting theories to the world. + +economic rent +Also called economic profits. +Any monies collected by a firm above and beyond what is required to keep an entrepreneur owner interested in continuing in business. + +economic sector +A category of economic activity. + +economic security +Also called financial security. +The condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future. It includes probable continued solvency, predictability of the future cash flow of a person or other Economic Entity, such as a country, and employment security or job security. + +economic shortage +Also called excess demand. +A situation in which the demand for a particular good or service exceeds its supply within a particular market. A shortage is the opposite of a surplus. + +economic surplus +Also called excess supply. +A situation in which the supply of a good or service exceeds its demand within a particular market, often as a result of the current price being below the economic equilibrium. + +economic system +Also called an economic order. +A system of production, resource allocation, and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area. It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making processes, and patterns of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community. As such, an economic system is a type of social system. The mode of production is a related concept. All economic systems have three basic questions to ask: what to produce, how to produce it, and in what quantities and who receives the output of production. + +economics +The social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within economies. + +economies of agglomeration +Also called agglomeration effects. +The major subfield of urban economics which explains how urban agglomeration occurs in locations where cost savings can naturally arise. This term is most often discussed in terms of economic firm productivity. However, agglomeration effects also explain some social phenomenon, such as large proportions of the population being clustered in cities and major urban centres. + +economies of scale +The cost advantages that enterprises obtain as a result of the increased efficiency offered by a certain scale of operation (typically measured by amount of output produced), with cost per unit of output decreasing with increasing scale. At the basis of economies of scale there may be technical, statistical, organizational, or related factors to the degree of market control. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ec7ac10f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 13/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +economies of scope +The cost advantages that enterprises obtain as a result of the increased efficiency offered by variety rather than by volume, with cost per unit of output decreasing with increasing variety. In economics, "scope" is synonymous with broadening production through diversified products. For example, a gas station that sells gasoline can also sell soda, milk, baked goods, etc. through their customer service representatives, which may make the sale of gasoline more efficient. + +economist +A practitioner in the discipline of economics. + +economy +An area of the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents. In its broadest sense, an economy may be defined as "a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the production, use, and management of resources". + +Edgeworth box +Also called an Edgeworth-Bowley box. +A graphical representation of a market with just two commodities, X and Y, and two consumers. The dimensions of the box are the total quantities Ωx and Ωy of the two goods. + +Edgeworth paradox +A situation in which two players cannot reach a state of equilibrium with pure strategies, i.e. each charging a stable price. It was proposed to solve the Bertrand paradox. + +Edgeworth's limit theorem +A theorem stating that the core of an economy shrinks to the set of Walrasian equilibria as the number of agents increases to infinity. That is, among all possible outcomes which may result from free market exchange or barter between groups of people, while the precise location of the final settlement (the ultimate division of goods) between the parties is not uniquely determined, as the number of traders increases, the set of all possible final settlements converges to the set of Walrasian equilibria. + +effective demand (ED) +The demand for a product or service which occurs when purchasers are constrained in a different market. + +efficiency dividend +An annual reduction in resources available to an organization. It is usually applied as a percentage of operational (running) costs. + +efficiency wage +Also called efficiency earnings. +Originally referred to the wage per efficiency unit of labor. Marshallian efficiency wages are those calculated with efficiency or ability exerted being the unit of measure rather than time. Today, efficiency wage refers to the idea that higher wages may increase the efficiency of the workers by various channels, making it worthwhile for the employers to offer wages that exceed a market-clearing level. + +efficient envy-free division +Also called a PEEF division. +A division of resources among agents that is both Pareto efficient (PE) and envy-free (EF). + +efficient market hypothesis (EMH) +Also called efficient market theory (EMT). +A hypothesis that states that asset prices reflect all available information. A direct implication is that it is impossible to "beat the market" consistently on a risk-adjusted basis since market prices should only react to new information. + +elastic demand +Demand that is sensitive to changes in price, such that changes in price have a relatively large effect on the quantity of the good demanded. Contrast inelastic demand. + +elasticity +The measurement of the proportional change of an economic variable in response to a change in another. Colloquially, elasticity is often interpreted as how easy it is for a supplier or consumer to change their behavior and substitute another good, the strength of an incentive over choices per the relative opportunity cost. + +elasticity of complementarity +Measures the sensitivity of relative factor prices to a change in relative inputs. + +elasticity of intertemporal substitution (EIS) +Also called intertemporal elasticity of substitution (IES). +Measures the sensitivity of the growth rate of consumption to the real interest rate. + +elasticity of substitution +Measures the sensitivity of the relative use of two goods to a change in their relative prices. + +electronic funds transfer (EFT) +The digital transfer of money from one bank account to another, usually through computer-based systems, without the involvement of bank staff. + +Elliott wave principle +Also called Elliott wave theory. +A form of technical analysis that financial traders use to analyze financial market cycles and forecast market trends by identifying extremes in investor psychology and price levels, such as highs and lows, by looking for patterns in prices. + +Ellsberg paradox +Also called Ellsberg's paradox. +A paradox in which people's decisions are inconsistent with subjective expected utility theory. It is generally taken to be evidence of ambiguity aversion, in which a person tends to prefer choices with quantifiable risks over those with unknown, incalculable risks. + +employee benefits +Any forms of compensation to an employee in addition to wages or salary for example, parental leave and vacation pay. + +endogenous growth theory +A theory that economic growth is primarily the result of endogenous and not external forces. Endogenous growth theory holds that investment in human capital, innovation, and knowledge are significant contributors to economic growth. The theory also focuses on positive externalities and spillover effects of a knowledge-based economy which will lead to economic development. + +endogenous variable +A variable whose measure is determined by the model. + +energy modeling +The process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them. + +Engel curve +Describes how household expenditure on a particular good or service varies with household income. + +engineering economics +Previously known as engineering economy, is a subset of economics concerned with the use and "...application of economic principles" in the analysis of engineering decisions. + +entrepreneurship +The efforts by a person, known as an entrepreneur, in organizing resources for the creation of something new or taking risks to create new innovations and production. + +envelope theorem +A major result about the differentiability properties of the value function of a parameterized optimization problem. As we change parameters of the objective, the envelope theorem shows that, in a certain sense, changes in the decision variable(s) of the objective do not contribute to the change in the objective function. + +environmental economics +A sub-field of economics concerned particularly with environmental issues. + +equal opportunity +A state of fairness in which job applicants are treated similarly, unhampered by artificial barriers or prejudices or preferences, except when particular distinctions can be explicitly justified. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f20b6cc8c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 14/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +equilibrium +The point at which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal and both consumer and producer are satisfied. + +equilibrium price +The market price at which both the supplier and consumer will trade and both are satisfied. + +equity +Also called economic equality. +The concept or idea of fairness in economics, particularly in regard to taxation or welfare economics. More specifically, it may refer to equal life chances regardless of identity, to provide all citizens with a basic and equal minimum of income, goods, and services or to increase funds and commitment for redistribution. + +equity home bias puzzle +The fact that individuals and institutions in most countries hold only modest amounts of foreign equity, and tend to strongly favor company stock from their home nation. This finding is regarded as puzzling, since ample evidence shows equity portfolios obtain substantial benefits from diversification into global stocks. + +equity premium puzzle +The inability of an important class of economic models to explain the average equity risk premium provided by a diversified portfolio of equities over that of government bonds, which has been observed for more than 100 years. + +ergodicity economics +A research programme aimed at reworking the theoretical foundations of economics around the concept of ergodicity. The programme's main goal is to understand how traditional economic theory, framed in terms of the expectation values, changes when replacing expectation value with time averages. + +Eurosclerosis +A pattern of high unemployment and slow job creation in Europe during the 1970s and 1980s that may have resulted from government over-regulation and overly generous social benefits policies. + +excess burden of taxation +The economic loss that society suffers as a result of the distortions caused by taxes or subsidies. + +excess supply +Also called economic surplus. +A situation in which the quantity of a good or service supplied is more than the quantity demanded, and the price is above the equilibrium level determined by supply and demand; that is, the quantity of the product that producers wish to sell exceeds the quantity that potential buyers are willing to buy at the prevailing price. It is the opposite of an economic shortage. + +exchange rate +The rate at which one currency is exchanged for another. It is also commonly regarded as the value of one country's currency relative to another currency. + +exchange rate regime +Any method a monetary authority of a country or currency union may use to manage the currency in relation to other currencies and the foreign exchange market. + +exchange-traded fund +A group of securities that are traded in an exchange market. + +excludability +The degree to which a good, service, or resource can be limited to only paying customers, or conversely, the degree to which a supplier, producer, or other managing body (e.g. a government) can prevent consumption of a good. + +exogenous growth model +See Solow-Swan model. + +exogenous variable +A variable whose measure is determined outside the model and is imposed on the model. + +expected utility hypothesis +A foundational assumption in mathematical economics concerning decision making under uncertainty. It postulates that rational agents maximize utility, meaning the subjective desirability of their actions, choosing between risky prospects by comparing expected utility values (i.e. the weighted sum of adding the respective utility values of payoffs multiplied by their probabilities). + +expeditionary economics +An emerging field of economic enquiry that focuses on the rebuilding and reconstructing of economies in post-conflict nations and providing support to disaster-struck nations. It focuses on the need for good economic planning on the part of developed nations to help prevent the creation of failed states. It also emphasizes the need for the structuring on new firms to rebuild national economies. + +expenditure function +Any function which gives the minimum amount of money an individual needs to spend to achieve some level of utility, given a utility function and the prices of the available goods. + +experimental economics +The application of experimental methods to study economic questions. + +externality +A cost or benefit that falls not on the person(s) directly involved in an activity, but on others. Externalities can be positive or negative. + +extreme poverty +Also called deep poverty, abject poverty, absolute poverty, destitution, or penury. +The most severe type of poverty, defined by the United Nations as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education, and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services". + +== F == + +factors of production +Inputs (resources) used to create goods and services, including land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. + +factor price +The unit cost of using a given factor of production such as labor or capital. + +factor price equalization + +factor income +The flow of income that is derived from one or more factors of production. For example, rent is the factor income derived from tenants using land, and the wages paid to an individual are a type of factor income generated from the individual's labor. + +fair trade + +fair trade debate + +fascism + +Faustmann's formula + +federal funds rate target + +Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) +The twelve-member committee of the United States Federal Reserve that meets several times a year to decide the course of action that should be taken to control the money supply of the United States. + +Federal Reserve System +Often simply the Federal Reserve or the Fed. +The central bank of the United States, created by Congress in 1913 and charged with the duty of regulating the money supply and monitoring its member banks. + +Fed model + +Fei–Ranis model of economic growth + +Feldman–Mahalanobis model + +Feldstein–Horioka puzzle + +feudalism + +fiat money + +final good \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9efc4fc5d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,230 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 15/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +finance +The study of money and how it is used. Specifically, it deals with the questions of how an individual, company, or government acquires the money needed—called capital in the company context—and how they then spend or invest that money. + Finance is often split into three areas: personal finance, corporate finance, and public finance. At the same time, finance is about the overall "system", i.e. the financial markets that allow the flow of money, via investments and other financial instruments, between and within these areas; this "flow" is facilitated by the financial services sector. A major focus within finance is thus investment management—called money management for individuals, and asset management for institutions—and finance then includes the associated activities of securities trading, investment banking, financial engineering, and risk management. + +financial deepening + +financial economics + +financial institution +Any firm, such as a bank, that is in the business of holding money for those who save and lending money to those who need loans. + +financial markets +Markets where people trade the property rights to assets (like real estate or stocks) or where savers lend money to borrowers. + +financial planning +A series of steps used by a person or a firm to achieve a financial goal. + +financial risk +The risk assumed by a saver or investor on future outcomes that involve financial losses and gains. + +financial transaction +An agreement or communication carried out between a buyer and a seller to exchange an asset for payment. + +financial transaction tax + +fiscal conservatism + +fiscal multiplier +The ratio of change in national income arising from a change in government spending. + +fiscal policy +A government's policy on taxes and spending. + +fiscal theory of the price level + +Fisher equation + +Fisher separation theorem + +fixed costs +Costs that have to be paid even if a firm is not producing anything. + +foreign exchange market +Also called the currency market or abbreviated Forex or FX. +A global decentralized or over-the-counter market for the trading of currencies. This market determines the foreign exchange rate. It includes all aspects of buying, selling and exchanging currencies at current or determined prices. In terms of trading volume, it is by far the largest market in the world, followed by the credit market. + +fractional-reserve banking + +framing effect + +free good + +free market (enterprise) +An economic system in which the prices for goods and services are self-regulated by the open market and by consumers. In a free market, the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government or other authority and from all forms of economic privilege, monopolies, and artificial scarcities. Proponents of the concept of the free market contrast it with a regulated market in which a government intervenes in supply and demand through various methods such as tariffs used to restrict trade and to protect the local economy. In an idealized free-market economy, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy. + +free-rider problem + +free trade +Trade between countries that occurs with few or no trade barriers. + +Freiburg school + +freshwater economics + +frictional unemployment +Unemployment that is a result of workers moving from one job to another, as opposed to structural unemployment. + +Friedman rule + +Friedman's k-percent rule + +Frisch–Waugh–Lovell theorem + +full employment + +full employment output (Y*) +How much output is produced in the economy when full employment exists in the labor market. + +full-reserve banking + +functions of money +The four classic functions or uses of money as summarized by William Stanley Jevons in 1875: a medium of exchange, a common measure of value (or unit of account), a standard of value (or standard of deferred payment), and a store of value. This analysis later became a fundamental concept of macroeconomics. Most modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value, not considering a standard of deferred payment as a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others. + +fundamental theorems of asset pricing + +fundamental theorems of welfare economics + +future value + +== G == + +gains from trade + +Gale–Shapley algorithm + +Galor–Zeira model + +Gandhian economics + +GDP deflator + +general equilibrium theory + +Georgism + +Gerschenkron effect + +Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem + +Gibbard's theorem + +Gibrat's law + +Gibson's paradox + +Giffen good + +gift economy + +Gini coefficient + +global labor arbitrage + +gold standard + +good + +Goodhart's law + +Goodwin model + +Gorman polar form + +Gossen's 1st law + +Gossen's 2nd law + +Gossen's 3rd law + +government revenue +The total revenue received by all three levels of government (federal, state, and local) in the form of taxes and tariffs. + +government spending +The total expenditure made by all three levels of government (federal, state, and local) for public services. + +grand supercycle + +great moderation + +Green economy + +Green paradox + +Greenwood–Hercowitz–Huffman preferences + +Gresham's law + +Grinold and Kroner Model + +Grosch's law + +gross domestic product (GDP) +The value of all goods and services produced in the economy in a given period of time, usually a quarter or a year. + +gross income +All sources of total income before any deductions or taxes are withdrawn. + +gross national income (GNI) + +gross private domestic investment + +Grossman model of health demand + +growth recession +A situation in which economic growth is slow but not low enough to be a recession, yet unemployment still increases. + +guns versus butter model + +== H == + +Happiness economics +Theoretical, qualitative and quantitative study of happiness and quality of life, including positive and negative affects, well-being, life satisfaction and related concepts. + +Harrington paradox + +Harris–Todaro model + +Harrod–Domar model + +Hauser's law + +health economics + +health insurance +A contracted program where the person insured receives payment for health services when needed in return for a monthly premium payment. Firms may offer some payment of premiums to their employees as part of a benefits package. + +Heckscher–Ohlin model + +Heckscher–Ohlin theorem + +hedonic index + +hedonic regression + +Henry George theorem + +Herfindahl–Hirschman index + +heterodox economics +Any economic school of thought or theory that contrasts with mainstream economics. + +Hicksian demand function + +hiding hand principle + +Hindu rate of growth + +Hirschman cycle + +historical school \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45e582432 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,301 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 16/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +history of economic thought +The study of the history of the philosophies of the different thinkers and theories in the subject known today as economics, from ancient economic thought to contemporary economic thought. + +Hodrick–Prescott filter + +Holmström's theorem + +home bias in trade puzzle + +home bias puzzle + +homo economicus + +Hotelling's law + +Hotelling's lemma + +hourglass economy + +household +The sector of the economy which purchases goods from the product market and sells labor, land, and entrepreneurship ability to the factor market in the circular flow market. + +housing starts +The number of new houses being built during a period of time. + +Huff model + +human capital +The knowledge and skills that people use to help them produce output. + +human capital flight + +humanistic economics + +hyperinflation +Inflation which occurs at an extremely high rate, usually in excess of 20 or 30 per cent per month. + +== I == + +Icarus paradox + +immiserizing growth + +implicit cost + +import + +import substitution industrialization + +import quota + +impossible trinity + +imputation + +Inada conditions + +incentive + +income + +income distribution + +income effect +The change in consumption resulting from a change in income. + +income elasticity of demand (YED) +Measures the sensitivity of a good's demand to income. + +Income tax +A tax levied on income, weather being on an individual or a business. + +increasing returns +A situation where each additional amount of a resource used in a production process brings forth successively larger amounts of output. + +indifference curve + +Indigo Era + +indirect inference + +Individual Retirement Account (IRA) +A retirement (savings) instrument that allows a person to save money through time while deferring taxes on that income until retirement. + +induced consumption + +induced demand + +industrial organization + +industry +A sector of the economy in which different firms produce similar or identical goods or services. + +inelastic demand +Demand that is not very sensitive to changes in price, such that changes in price have a relatively small effect on the quantity of the good demanded. Contrast elastic demand. + +inferior good + +inflation +When the overall level of prices in the economy is rising. + +inflationism + +inflation rate +A measure of how the overall level of prices in the economy changes over time. If the inflation rate is positive, prices are rising; if the inflation rate is negative, prices are falling. + +inflation targeting + +information asymmetry + +information economics + +input–output model + +installment credit +A loan that offers a borrower a fixed, amount of money over a specified period of time. This way, the borrower knows upfront the number of monthly payments, or "installments," they will need to make and how much each monthly payment will be for the life of the loan. + +institutional complementarity + +institutional economics +An approach to economics which focuses on the roles of sociocultural evolution and institutions in shaping economic behavior. + +insurance +A contracted agreement for an exchange of money for a guarantee of compensation at the time of a loss, damage, illness, or death. + +insurance co-pay +A fixed amount paid by an insured individual for a healthcare service. + +insurance deductible +The amount paid by the insured individual before any payment is made by the insurer. + +insurance policy limit +The maximum or total amount an insurer will pay for losses or damages to assets or health services to people. + +intensity of preference + +interest + +interest rate +The price you have to pay to borrow money. + +interest rate parity + +intermediate consumption + +international economics + +international futures + +international trade + +intertemporal choice + +intertemporal equilibrium + +intra-industry trade + +inventory bounce + +investment +Any increase in the economy's stock of capital. + +investment fund + +invisible hand +Adam Smith's famous idea that when constrained by competition, each firm's greed causes it to act in a socially optimal way, as if guided to do the right thing by an invisible hand. + +IS–LM model + +IS/MP model + +isoquant + +== J == + +Jaimovich–Rebelo preferences + +JEL classification codes + +Jevons paradox + +Joan Robinson's growth model + +job demands-resources model + +job hunting + +joint product pricing + +Jones model + +Juglar cycle + +just price +A theory of ethics which attempts to set standards of fairness for economic transactions. + +== K == + +Kaldor–Hicks efficiency + +Kaldor's facts + +Kaldor's growth laws + +Kaldor's growth model + +Keynes effect + +Keynesian beauty contest + +Keynesian cross + +Keynesian economics +Also called Keynesianism. +A diverse set of macroeconomic theories about how in the short run (and especially during recessions) economic output can be strongly influenced by the total amount of spending that occurs within an economy, known as aggregate demand. Keynesian economists generally argue that because aggregate demand is often unstable and behaves erratically, it does not necessarily or predictably equal the aggregate supply, which can cause market economies to experience inefficient macroeconomic outcomes in the form of recessions (when demand is low) and inflation (when demand is high), and that these outcomes can be mitigated by monetary policy actions by a central bank and fiscal policy actions by a government authority, which can help stabilize output over the business cycle. + +Keynes–Ramsey rule + +Keynes's theory of wages and prices + +Khazzoom–Brookes postulate + +King–Plosser–Rebelo preferences + +Kitchin cycle + +Kiyotaki–Moore model + +Knightian uncertainty +A lack of any quantifiable knowledge about some possible occurrence, as opposed to the presence of quantifiable risk (e.g., that in statistical noise or a parameter's confidence interval). The concept acknowledges some fundamental degree of ignorance, a limit to knowledge, and an essential unpredictability of future events. + +knowledge spillover + +Kondratiev wave + +Kraków school + +Kuhn's theorem + +Kuznets curve + +Kuznets swing + +== L == + +labor +People's physical and mental talents and efforts that are used to help produce goods and services. Wage earners usually get paid a set amount of money per hour. + +labor economics + +labor rights + +labor theory of value + +Laffer curve + +laissez-faire + +Lange model + +Lausanne school + +law of demand +An economic rule stating that quantity demanded and price move in opposite directions, i.e. as demand increases, price decreases, and vice versa. + +law of diminishing marginal utility +An economic rule stating that the additional satisfaction a consumer gets from purchasing one more unit of a product will decrease with each additional unit purchased. + +law of increasing costs + +law of supply + +leakage + +leakage effect + +leapfrogging + +lease + +Lehman wave + +lemon market + +lending + +Leontief paradox + +Leontief production function + +Leontief utilities \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dadcaef17 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,243 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 17/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +leprechaun economics +Distortion of national accounts data by corporate tax schemes. + +Lerman ratio + +Lerner index +An index ranging from 0 to 1 that measures a firm's market power given the price it sets and its marginal cost. + +Lerner paradox + +Lerner symmetry theorem + +Lewis–Mogridge position + +liability +Financial responsibility for something. + +liberal paradox + +limit price + +loan + +local multiplier effect +Also called the local premium +The additional economic benefit accrued to a geographic area from money being spent in the local economy. + +local tax +Any tax paid to a city or county, e.g. sales taxes, school taxes, or property taxes. + +location model + +long run + +long-run shutdown condition +A situation where a firm's total revenues exceed its variable costs but are less than its total costs. The firm continues to operate until its fixed cost contracts expire. + +long-term financing + +LoopCo + +loose money policy +A monetary policy that makes credit inexpensive and abundant, possibly leading to inflation. + +Lorenz curve + +loss aversion + +Lucas critique + +Lucas paradox + +Lundberg lag + +luxury good + +== M == + +macroeconomic model + +macroeconomic policy instruments + +macroeconomic populism + +macroeconomic regulation and control + +macroeconomics +The study of the economy as a whole, concentrating on +economy-wide factors such as interest rates, inflation, and unemployment. Macroeconomics also encompasses the study of economic growth and how governments use monetary and fiscal policy to try to moderate the harm caused by recessions. + +mainstream economics +Also called orthodox economics. +The body of knowledge, theories, and models of economics, as taught by universities worldwide, that are generally accepted by economists as a basis for discussion. Contrast heterodox economics. + +major trading partner +In international trading, a country or group of countries with which one country trades more than with others. + +Malthusian growth model + +Malthusianism + +managerial economics + +Mandeville's paradox + +manorialism + +Marchetti's constant + +marginal cost +The additional increase in total cost when one more unit of output is produced. + +marginal efficiency of capital + +marginalism + +marginal product of capital + +marginal product of labor + +marginal propensity to consume + +marginal propensity to import + +marginal propensity to save + +marginal rate of substitution + +marginal rate of technical substitution + +marginal revenue +The additional income earned from selling one more unit of a good; sometimes equal to price. + +marginal utility +The change in total utility that results from consuming the next unit of a good or service. Marginal utility can be positive or negative. + +marginal value + +market + +market basket +A bundle of goods and services selected to measure inflation. Economists define a market basket, such as the Consumer Price Index, and then track how much money it takes to buy this basket from one period to the next. + +market economy +An economy in which almost all economic activity happens in markets, with little or no interference by the government; often referred to as a laissez-faire ("leave alone") economic system. + +market failures +Situations where markets deliver socially non-optimal outcomes. Two common causes of market failure are asymmetric information and public goods. + +market structure +The structure of a market as a whole, taking into consideration two main factors: the number of firms in the market and whether goods offered are identical, similar, or differentiated. + +market production +Term that economists use to capture what happens when one individual offers to make or sell something to another individual at a price agreeable to both. + +market system + +markets +Places where buyers and sellers come together to trade money for a good or service. + +Marshallian demand function + +Marxian economics + +Master's Degree +A postgraduate academic degree completed after a bachelor's degree in which the student studies a specific topic of their choice. It is usually awarded by a research university after the completion of its program requirements, normally two more years. + +Matthew effect + +Mayfield's paradox + +Meade Conflict + +medium of exchange + +mental accounting + +menu cost + +mercantilism + +merger simulation + +Metcalfe's law + +Methodenstreit +German for "method dispute." +A controversy in economic methodology between economists of the Austrian School and those of the Historical School that commenced in the 1880s and persisted for more than a decade. + +Metzler paradox + +microeconomics +A branch of economics that studies individual people and individual businesses. For people, microeconomics studies how they behave when faced with decisions about where to spend their money or how to invest their savings. For businesses, it studies how profit-maximising firms behave individually, as well as when competing against each other in markets. + +Mincer earnings function + +minimum wage + +Minsky moment + +missing market + +mixed economy +An economic system blending elements of a market economy with elements of a planned economy, free markets with state interventionism, or private enterprise with public enterprise. + +mobile payment +Mobile payments are payments made via the use of a mobile device, such as a smartphone or tablet, to pay for goods, services, or bills. Mobile payments can be made remotely or near, meaning the customer's device is in the same location as the merchant's point of sale (POS). + +modern monetary theory + +modern portfolio theory + +modified gross national income + +Modigliani–Miller theorem + +monetarism +A school of thought in monetary economics which emphasizes the role of governments in controlling the amount of money in circulation (the money supply). Monetarists assert that variations in the money supply have major influences on national output in the short run and on price levels over longer periods, and that the objectives of monetary policy are best met by targeting the growth rate of the money supply rather than by engaging in discretionary policy. + +monetary circuit theory + +monetary-disequilibrium theory + + +monetary economics + +monetary/fiscal debate + +monetary policy +Using changes in the money supply to change interest rates to stimulate or slow down economic activity. + +monetary reform + +monetary system + +money +Anything customarily used as a medium of exchange, a unit of accounting, and a store of value. + +money illusion + +money market account (MMA) +A savings account that earns interest and that has some checking account features. + +money multiplier + +money supply + +MONIAC + +monopolistic competition +A situation in which many firms with slightly +different products compete. Production costs are above what may be achieved by perfectly competitive firms, but society benefits from the product +differentiation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a2255099 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,272 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 18/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +monopoly +A firm with no competitors in its industry. A monopoly firm produces less output, has higher costs, and sells its output for a higher price than it would if constrained by competition. + +monopsony + +moral hazard + +mortgage + +motivation + +moving equilibrium theorem + +multiplier + +multiplier uncertainty +Any lack of perfect knowledge of the multiplier effect of a particular policy action, such as a monetary or fiscal policy change, upon the intended target of the policy. + +Mundell–Fleming model + +mutual fund + +mutual fund separation theorem + +mutualism + +== N == + +Nakamura number + +Nash equilibrium + +national average salary + +national income and product accounts + +national income policy agreement + +national tax +Any tax paid to a national or federal government, e.g. income tax, tariffs, and social security taxes. + +national wealth +The total value of capital and private property that is owned within a country. + +natural monopoly +An industry in which one large producer can produce output at a lower cost than many small producers. It undersells its rivals and ends up as the only firm surviving in its industry. + +natural resource economics + +need +Any good or service that is fundamentally necessary for survival, such as food, clothing, and shelter. + +Neoclassical economics + +Neoclassical synthesis + +Neoliberalism + +Neo-Ricardianism + +Neo-Schumpeterian economics + +net income +The income amount that is left over after all deductions and income taxes are withdrawn. + +net national income + +net national product + +net premium valuation +An actuarial calculation, used to place a value on the liabilities of a life insurer. + +network effect + +New Keynesian economics + +new trade theory (NTT) + +nominal interest rates +Interest rates that measure the returns to a loan +in terms of money borrowed and money returned (as opposed to real interest rates). + +nominal prices +Money prices, which can change over time due to inflation. (See also real prices.) + +nominal wages +Wages measured in money. (See also real wages.) + +non-convexity + +non-price determinant of demand +Any reason other than price that changes the will to buy a good or service, for example, fads, income, taste, future expectation, and population. + +non-price determinant of supply +Any reason other than price that changes the will to produce a good or service, for example, changes in taxes and input costs, price of substitutes, future expectations, and changes in technology. + +non-rivalry + +normal good + +normative economics +The part of economics that deals with normative statements, i.e., statements expressing a value judgment about the desirability of a situation. As opposed to positive economics. + +North–South model + +Norwegian paradox + +no-trade theorem + +== O == + +occupational choice model + +occupational licensing + +Okun's law + +Okishio's theorem + +oligopoly +An industry with only a few firms. If these firms collude, they form a cartel, which may reduce output and drive up profits in the same way a monopoly does. + +oligopsony + +one-commodity country +A country that mostly produces and exports only one commodity. + +Open Energy Modelling Initiative + +open energy system models + +open-market operations +The buying and selling of government bonds by a central bank; that is, transactions that take place in the public, or open, bond market. + +open music model + +opportunity cost +The value of the next best alternative thing that could have been done. It measures what is given up to do the most preferred thing. + +ordinary good + +organizational economics + +Ostrom's law + +overheating + +overlapping generations model + +overshooting model + +overtaking criterion + +== P == + +Paasche price index +A price index method which measures the amount of money at current-year prices that an individual requires to purchase a current-year bundle of goods and services divided by the cost of purchasing that same bundle in a base year. + +Pacman conjecture + +parable of the broken window + +paradox of competition + +paradox of flexibility + +paradox of prosperity + +paradox of thrift + +paradox of toil + +paradox of value + +parallel economic model + +parental dividend + +Pareto efficiency +Also called Pareto optimality. +In welfare economics, a situation if all possible Pareto improvements have already been made; in other words, there are no longer any ways left to make one person better-off, without making some other person worse-off. + +Pareto principle + +participation + +participatory economics + +partnership +A business that two or more individuals own and operate together. + +pay check stub (statement) +An itemization of income, taxes withheld, benefits payments (if any), and other information that are presented to an employee of a firm every time they are paid. + +pay-day lending +A relatively small amount of money lent at a high rate of interest on the agreement that it will be repaid when the borrower receives their next paycheck. + +Peltzman effect + +penetration pricing + +per capita +A unit of account per person, usually placed at the end of an economic indicator. + +perfect competition +A situation where numerous small firms producing +identical products compete against each other in a given industry. Perfect competition leads to firms producing the socially optimal output level at the minimum possible cost per unit. + +personal property +Possessions such as jewelry, furniture, and real estate that people can amass through time. + +Phillips curve + + +physical capital +All human-made goods that are used to produce other goods and services, such as tools, machines, and buildings. + +physiocracy + +Pigou effect + +Pigouvian tax + +Polak model + +policy mix + +policy-ineffectiveness proposition + +polytomous choice + +population economics +See demographic economics. + +Pork cycle + +positive economics +The part of economics that deals with positive statements, i.e., statements concerning what "is," "was," or "will be," excluding statements of what is, was, or will be moral. As opposed to normative economics. + +post-Keynesian economics + +PPP puzzle + +Prebisch–Singer hypothesis + +predatory lending +Predatory lending is a practice that involves deception, fraud, or aggressive sales tactics to lead a borrower into a loan that is not what they expected. The goal is to make it difficult for the borrower to repay debt, often resulting in the borrower paying too much in fees and/or interest. + +preference + +premium of insurance +The dollar price for acquiring an insurance policy. + +price +The amount of money it takes to buy a product or produce a product. + +price ceiling +A market intervention in which the government ensures that the price of a good or service stays below the free market price. + +price controls + +price discrimination \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f821872c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,216 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 19/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +price elasticity of demand (PED) +Measures the sensitivity of a good's demand to its price. + +price elasticity of supply (PES) +Measures the sensitivity of a good's supply to its price. + +price floor +A market intervention in which the government keeps the price of a good or service above its free-market price. + +price index +A normalized average of price relatives for a given class of goods or services in a given region and during a given period of time. It is a statistic designed to help to compare how these price relatives, taken as a whole, differ between geographical locations or time periods. Notable price indices include consumer price index, producer price index, and GDP deflator. + +price level + +price point + +price–specie flow mechanism + +price war + +pricing + +pricing science +The application of social and business science methods to the problem of setting prices. + +primary economic activity +An economic activity which is focused on the extraction of natural resources of the earth. + +prime rate +Also called the prime lending rate. +The interest rate at which a bank will agree to lend to customers with good credit. Floating interest rates are often expressed as a percentage above or below the prime rate. + +principal–agent problem + +principle of effective demand + +private good +Also called private property ownership. +An item that yields positive benefits to people that is excludable, i.e. its owners can prevent others from using the good or consuming its benefits. A private good, as an economic resource is scarce, which can cause competition for it. + +producer +An entity, either a person or firm, which supplies goods or services. + +producer price index + +producer surplus +The gain that producers receive when they can sell their output at a price higher than the minimum amount for which they are willing to make it. + +product differentiation + +product market +In the circular flow model, the sector which facilitates goods and output from firms to households in return for revenue and profit. + +production + +production possibilities curve +A graph showing the maximal combinations of goods and services that can be produced from a fixed amount of resources in a given period of time. + +productive efficiency +A term describing firms that produce goods and services at the lowest possible cost. + +productivism + +productivity paradox + +production set + +Proebsting's paradox + +profit + +profit motive + +progressive tax +A tax schedule that states that the more income one earns, the higher the tax rate will be. + +property tax +A tax levied on a property which is usually based on its value or a transfer of ownership. + +proportional tax +Also called a flat tax. +A tax schedule that states that regardless of income, the same tax rate will be applied to all income earners. + +prospect theory + +proxemics + +public bad + +public choice + +public economics +Or economics of the public sector, is the study of government policy through the lens of economic efficiency and equity. Public economics builds on the theory of welfare economics and is ultimately used as a tool to improve social welfare. + +public good +Goods or services that cannot be profitably produced by private firms because they are impossible to provide to just one person; if you provide them to one person, you have to provide them to everybody. Public goods non-excludable (you can't prevent anyone from consuming them) and non-rival (it costs no extra to supply one extra person). + +pure competition + +purchasing power +The value of the sum of money and the ability of buying products with that money. + +purchasing power parity (PPP) + +== Q == + +quantitative easing (QE) + +quantity demanded +The amount of a good or service that a consumer is able and willing to purchase at a given price based on their income and preferences. + +quantity supplied +The amount of a good or service that a supplier is able and willing to produce at a given market price. + +quantity theory of money +The theory that the overall level of prices in the economy is proportional to the quantity of money circulating in the economy. + +quaternary economic activity +Economic activity that is focused on management, information processing, or research. + +quota +A limited quantity of a product that can be produced, imported, or exported. + +== R == + +Rabin fairness + +Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory + +Rahn curve + +Ramsey problem + +Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model + +rate of profit + +rate of return pricing + +rational choice +The idea of making choices by using logic and that people will choose the most beneficial of the options afforded. + +rational choice institutionalism + +rational choice theory + +rational expectations +The theory that people optimally change their behaviour in response to policy changes. Depending on the situation, their behavioural changes can greatly limit the effectiveness of policy changes. + +rational pricing + +rationing + +Reaganomics + +real business-cycle theory + +real income effect +The change in consumption resulting from a change in income, adjusted for inflation. + +real interest rates +Interest rates that compensate for inflation by measuring the returns to a loan in terms of units of stuff lent and units of stuff returned (as opposed to nominal interest rates). + +real GDP +Gross domestic product that has been adjusted for inflation by applying the price deflator. + +real prices +How much of one kind of thing (such as hours worked) you have to give up to get a good or service, no matter what happens to nominal prices. + +real wages +Wages measured not in terms of money itself (as nominal wages are) but rather in terms of how much output that money can buy. + +rebound effect + +recessions +Part of the business cycle during which an economy's total output falls. + +recoveries +Part of the business cycle during which an economy's total output expands. + +reflation + +regenerative economic theory + +regional science + +regressive tax +A tax schedule that states that the more income one earns, the lower the tax burden. + +regulation +Government restrictions on a business firm. + +relative price + +rent +The price for borrowing real estate. This can be residential or commercial for example, an apartment or office building. + +repugnancy costs + +repugnant market + +resource + +resource curse + +resource depletion \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0df5a0b2c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,252 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 20/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +resource market +(Also known as a factor market.) In the circular flow model, the sector which facilitates resources from household to firms in return for income payment. + +retail sales +Purchases of finished goods and services by households and firms. + +returns to scale + +revealed comparative advantage + +revealed preference + +revenue +Total income from sales of output. + +Revolving Credit +Revolving credit is a line of credit that remains available over time, even if the balance is paid in full. Borrowers can access credit up to a certain amount and then have ongoing access to that amount. + +Ricardian economics + +Ricardian equivalence + +Ricardian socialism + +rights + +right to work law +A state law forbidding labor unions from forcing workers to join and pay union dues. + +risk aversion + +risk premium + +risk-return relationship +The direct relationship between the risk of an investment and its expected return or profit; the higher the risk, the higher the opportunity for gain or loss and vice versa. + +rivalry + +Robin Hood effect + +Robinson Crusoe economy + +Robustness +The ability of a financial trading system to remain effective. + +Rostovian take-off model + +Rostow's stages of growth + +Roth 401k +A Roth 401(k) is an employer-sponsored retirement savings account that is funded using after-tax dollars. This means that income tax is paid immediately on the earnings that the employee deducts from each paycheck and deposits into the account. Withdrawals from the account are tax-free upon retirement. + +Roy model + +Roy's identity + +Rybczynski theorem + +== S == + +Salamanca school + +salary +An income amount paid to an employee of a firm; it is usually a set amount per year. + +saltwater economics + +saving + +saving identity + +Say's law + +scarcity +Any situation in which people do not have enough resources to satisfy all of their wants. The phenomenon of scarcity is what creates the need for economics. + +Schelling's model of segregation + +school of economic thought +A group of economists who share or shared a mutual perspective on the way economies function. + +Scitovsky paradox + +secondary economic activity +Economic activity focused on the production of manufactured goods made from natural resources. + +sector +A portion or component of the larger economy, such as households, firms, or the government. + +sectoral balances + +seigniorage + +service + +service economy + +service recovery paradox + +Shephard's lemma + +shift work + +shock therapy + +short run + +shortage + +short-run shutdown condition +A situation in which a firm's total revenues are less than its variable costs, and the firm is better off shutting down immediately and losing only its fixed costs. + +shrinkflation + +sick leave +A benefit given to employees of a firm as a condition of employment where an employee can take days off in case they do not feel well. + +Sisyphism + +Smihula waves + +snob effect +A situation where the demand for a certain good by individuals of a higher income level is inversely related to its demand by those of a lower income level. + +social behavior + +social choice theory + +social dividend + +social mobility + +socialist economics (socialism) +An economic system in which the government owns some of the factors of production including entire industries, for example, the healthcare system of the country. + +sociality + +social multiplier effect +Any situation when an individual's marginal utility of an action increases because his peers also participate in this action. For example, researchers have shown that people are more likely to exercise when their peers exercise. + +socially optimal output level +The output level that maximises the benefits that society can get from its limited supply of resources. + +social welfare function + +social welfare model + +socioeconomics +Also called social economics. + +sole proprietorship +A business owned and operated by one person. + +solidarity economy + +Solow residual + +Solow–Swan model + +Sonnenschein–Mantel–Debreu theorem + +sovereign wealth fund + +stabilization policy + +stagflation +A simultaneous economic phenomenon during which inflation and unemployment are both rising. + +standard of deferred payment + + +standard of living + +state tax +Any tax paid to a state government, e.g. sales taxes, state income tax, and license plate fees. + +steady-state economy + +sticky prices +Prices that are slow to adjust to shocks. Price stickiness can cause recessions to linger. + +stochastic frontier analysis + +stock market +A secondary market where securities, stocks for example, are bought and sold. + +stock-flow consistent model + +Stockholm School + +stocks (corporate stocks) +Shares of ownership of a corporation that entitles the owner to a portion of the profits or dividends. + +Stolper–Samuelson theorem + +store of value + +St. Petersburg paradox + +strategic complements + +Strauss–Howe generational theory + +structural unemployment +Unemployment created due to a decrease in demand for the skills of a worker. + +subgame perfect equilibrium + +subjective theory of value + +subsistence agriculture (subsistence farming) +The growing of just enough food by a family to provide for its own needs. No part of the crop is used to export or to feed an industrial workforce. + +substitute good +A product that can satisfy the utility of another. + +substitution effect +When consumers react to an increase in a good's price by consuming less of that good and more of other goods. + +sunk costs + +sunspot + +sunspot equilibrium + +supply +The total amount of a certain type of good that has been produced and is available. + +supply and demand +An economic model of markets that separates buyers from sellers and then summarises each group's behaviour with a single line on a graph. The buyers’ behaviour is captured by the demand curve, whereas the sellers’ behaviour is captured by the supply curve. By putting these two curves on the same graph, economists can show how buyers and sellers interact in markets to determine how much of any particular item is going to be sold, as well as the price at which it is likely to be sold. + +supply chain + +supply curve +A line on a graph that represents how much of a good or service sellers are going to produce at various prices. + +supply schedule +A chart that lists how much of a good a supplier will offer at different prices. + +supply shock +A sudden shortage of a good. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a058fe0c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 3/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +balance of payments +Also called balance of international payments and abbreviated B.O.P. or BoP. +A record or summary of all economic transactions between the residents of a country and the rest of the world in a particular period of time (e.g. over a quarter of a year or, more commonly, over a year). These transactions are made by individuals, firms and government bodies. Thus the balance of payments includes all external visible and non-visible transactions of a country. + +balance of trade +Also called commercial balance or net exports (NX). +The difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports over a certain period. Sometimes a distinction is made between a balance of trade for goods versus one for services. "Balance of trade" can be a misleading term because trade measures a flow of exports and imports over a given period of time, rather than a balance of exports and imports at a given point in time. Also, balance of trade does not necessarily imply that exports and imports are "in balance" with each other or anything else. + +balanced budget +A budget in which revenues equal expenditures. Thus, neither a budget deficit nor a budget surplus exists (the accounts "balance"). The term may also refer more generally to a budget that has no budget deficit but could possibly have a budget surplus. A cyclically balanced budget is a budget that is not necessarily balanced year-to-year, but is balanced over the economic cycle, running a surplus in boom years and running a deficit in lean years, with these offsetting over time. + +bank +A financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates credit. Lending activities can be performed either directly or indirectly through capital markets. Due to their importance in the financial stability of a country, banks are highly regulated in most countries. Most nations have institutionalized a system known as fractional reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, known as the Basel Accords. + +bank rate +Also called the discount rate in American English. +The rate of interest which a central bank charges on its loans and advances to a commercial bank. + +bankruptcy +The inability to pay debt due to loss of income, increased spending, or an unforeseen financial crisis. + +bargaining model of war +A method of representing the potential gains and losses and ultimate outcome of war between two actors as a bargaining interaction. + +barriers to entry +In theories of competition in economics, a cost that must be incurred by a new entrant into a market that incumbents do not have or have not had to incur. Because barriers to entry protect incumbent firms and restrict competition in a market, they can contribute to distortionary prices and are therefore most important when discussing antitrust policy. Barriers to entry often cause or aid the existence of monopolies or give companies market power. + +barter +also called direct exchange. +In trade, a system of exchange in which participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Economists distinguish barter from gift economies in many ways; barter, for example, features immediate reciprocal exchange that is not delayed in time. Barter usually takes place on a bilateral basis, but may be multilateral (i.e. mediated through a trade exchange). In most developed countries, barter usually only exists parallel to monetary systems to a very limited extent. Market actors use barter as a replacement for money as the method of exchange in times of monetary crisis, such as when currency becomes unstable (e.g. by hyperinflation or a deflationary spiral) or simply unavailable for conducting commerce. + +base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) +Corporate tax planning strategies used by multinationals to "shift" profits from higher-tax jurisdictions to lower-tax jurisdictions or no-tax locations. + +Baxter-Stockman neutrality of exchange rate regime puzzle +Also called the exchange rate disconnect puzzle. +The unexpectedly weak relationship between the exchange rate and any other macroeconomic variable. + +Beckstrom's law +"The value of a network equals the net value added to each user’s transactions conducted through that network, summed over all users." + +behavioral economics +The branch of economics that studies the effects of psychological, cognitive, emotional, cultural and social factors on the economic decisions of individuals and institutions and how those decisions vary from those implied by classical theory. + +Bellman equation +The dynamic programming equation associated with discrete-time optimization problems. It writes the "value" of a decision problem at a certain point in time in terms of the payoff from some initial choices and the "value" of the remaining decision problem that results from those initial choices. + +bequest motive +Seeks to provide an economic justification for the phenomenon of intergenerational transfers of wealth; in other words, to explain why people leave money behind when they die. + +Bertrand competition +A model of competition that describes interactions among producers that set prices and their consumers that choose quantities at the prices set. + +Bertrand–Edgeworth model +A microeconomic model of price-setting oligopoly which studies what happens when there is a homogeneous product (i.e. consumers want to buy from the cheapest seller) where there is a limit to the output of firms which they are willing and able to sell at a particular price. This differs from the Bertrand competition model where it is assumed that firms are willing and able to meet all demand. The limit to output can be considered a physical capacity constraint which is the same at all prices (as in Edgeworth’s work) or to vary with price under other assumptions. + +Bertrand paradox +A situation in which two players (firms) reach a state of Nash equilibrium where both firms charge a price equal to marginal cost. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..893e9eafd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,213 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 21/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +supply-side economics +A theory in macroeconomics which postulates that lowering tax rates, decreasing government regulation, and allowing free trade is the most effective way to foster economic growth because greater supplies of goods and services at lower prices cause employment to increase and consumers to spend more. Contrast demand-side economics. + +surplus +A situation in which supply is greater than demand, usually as the result of high prices. + +== T == + +tableau économique + +tatonnement + +tariff +Also called duty. +A tax imposed by the government of a country, or by a supranational union of countries or institutions, on imports or exports of goods. Import duties may serve as a source of revenue for the government as well as a form of regulation of foreign trade by taxing foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industries that produce the same or similar products. Along with import and export quotas, tariffs are among the most commonly used instruments of protectionism. + +tax + +tax-benefit model + +tax benefits of debt + +tax credit + +tax deduction + +tax rate + +taxable income +The amount of income that is subject to being taxed. This amount may or may not be the total gross income of a person or firm. + +Taylor rule + +technological theory of social production + +terms of trade +The rules that countries impose on each other to trade with each other. + +tertiary economic activity +Economic activity that is focused on the delivery of services such as healthcare, banking, or tourism. + +Thatcherism + +theory of the firm + +theory of the second best +Also called the general theory of second best or the second best theorem. +A theory that concerns the situation when one or more optimality conditions cannot be satisfied. It shows that if one optimality condition in an economic model cannot be satisfied, it is possible that the next-best solution involves changing other variables away from the values that would otherwise be optimal. + +thermoeconomics + +Thirlwall's Law + +throw away paradox + +tight money policy +Federal Reserve System actions that contract the growth of the nation's money supply for the purpose of reducing or eliminating inflation. + +time preference + +time preference theory of interest + +time value of money + +Topkis's theorem + +Törnqvist index +Also called Törnqvist-Theil index. +A price or quantity index that measures the weighted geometric mean of the relatives using arithmetic averages of the value shares in two or more periods as weights. + +total cost + +total surplus +The sum of producer surplus and consumer surplus. + +trade +Also called exchange. +The transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another. + +traditional economy +An economy in which production and distribution are handled along the lines of long-standing cultural traditions. + +tragedy of the anticommons + +tragedy of the commons + +transaction cost +A cost in making any economic trade when participating in a market. + +transfer payment +Any redistribution of income and wealth by means of the government making a payment, without goods or services being received in return. + +transfer payments multiplier +Also called transfer payment multiplier +The multiplier by which aggregate demand will increase when there is an increase in transfer payments (e.g., welfare spending, unemployment payments). + +transfer pricing + +transformation problem + +transport economics + +triangle model + +Triffin dilemma + +trough + +Tullock paradox + +turnpike model of money + +turnpike theory + +== U == + +ultimatum game +An asymmetrical, two player game that has become a popular instrument of economic experiments. + +underemployment +Working at a job for which one is overqualified, or working part-time when full-time work is desired. + +unemployment +Under-use of any factor of production, most commonly referring to labor. + +unit of account + +U.S. Dollar +The official currency of the United States, usually abbreviated as USD. + +unitary elastic + +universal bank + +universal basic income + +unplanned spending +Spending that takes place without prior consideration or budgeting. + +unsecured credit +A loan that does not require collateral from the borrower. Instead, lenders approve unsecured loans based on the borrower's creditworthiness. + +unskilled labor +Labor that requires no specialized skills, education, or training to perform. + +urban economics + +utilitarianism + +utility +The usefulness of a good or service in satisfying a need or a want. + +utility maximization problem + +utility representation theorem + +Uzawa condition + +Uzawa–Lucas model + +Uzawa's theorem + +== V == + +vacation pay +A benefit to employees by a firm where employees can take time off for leisure. This benefit is usually given in amounts of weeks. + +value +A measure of the benefit provided by a good or service to an economic agent. + +value-added tax (VAT) + +variable costs +Any cost that changes in proportion to the amount of goods or services that a firm produces. Variable costs are also the sum of marginal costs over all units produced. + +Veblen good + + +velocity of money +Also called the velocity of circulation of money. +Refers to how fast money passes from one holder to the next. It can refer to the income velocity of money, which is the frequency with which the average same unit of currency is used to purchase newly domestically produced goods and services within a given time period. In other words, it is the number of times one unit of money is spent to buy goods and services per unit time. + +Verdoorn's law + +Virginia school + +Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem + +== W == + +wage +The monetary compensation (or remuneration, personnel expenses, labor) paid by an employer to an employee in exchange for work done. Payment is typically calculated as a fixed amount for each task completed (a task wage or piece rate), or at an hourly or daily rate (wage labour), or based on some other easily measured quantity of work done. + +wage labour + +wage slavery + +Wagner's law + +Walras's law + +want +Wants are often distinguished from needs. A need is something that is necessary for survival (such as food and shelter), whereas a want is simply something that a person would like to have. Some economists have rejected this distinction and maintain that all of these are simply wants, with varying levels of importance. By this viewpoint, wants and needs can be understood as examples of the overall concept of demand. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f53b6d60e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-21.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 22/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +wealth +The abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating old English word weal, which is from an Indo-European word stem. The modern concept of wealth is of significance in all areas of economics, especially for growth economics and development economics, yet the meaning of wealth is context-dependent. Individuals or companies possessing a substantial net worth are often referred to as wealthy. Net worth is defined as the current value of one's assets less liabilities (excluding the principal in trust accounts). + +wealth effect +The change in spending that accompanies a change in perceived wealth. Usually the wealth effect is positive: spending changes in the same direction as perceived wealth. + +welfare +A type of government support for the citizens of that society. Welfare may be provided to people of any income level, as with social security (and is then often called a social safety net), but it is usually intended to ensure that people can meet their basic human needs such as food and shelter. Welfare attempts to provide a minimal level of well-being, usually either a free- or a subsidized-supply of certain goods and social services, such as healthcare, education, and vocational training. + +welfare cost of business cycles + +welfare cost of inflation + +welfare economics +A branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to evaluate well-being (welfare) at the aggregate (economy-wide) level. + +welfare trap + +Weller's theorem + +willingness to accept (WTA) +The minimum amount of money that а person is willing to accept to abandon a good or to put up with something negative, such as pollution. It is equivalent to the minimum monetary amount required for sale of a good or acquisition of something undesirable to be accepted by an individual. + +willingness to pay (WTP) +The maximum price at or below which a consumer will definitely buy one unit of a product. This corresponds to the standard economic view of a consumer reservation price. Some researchers, however, conceptualize WTP as a range. + +Wonderland model + +workforce productivity + +World3 + +World3 nonrenewable resource sector + +Wright's Law + +== X == + +x-efficiency + +x-inefficiency + +== Y == + +yield +In finance, the yield on a security is the amount of cash (in percentage terms) that returns to the owners of the security, in the form of interest or dividends received from it. Normally, it does not include the price variations, distinguishing it from the total return. Yield applies to various stated rates of return on stocks (common and preferred, and convertible), fixed income instruments (bonds, notes, bills, strips, zero coupon), and some other investment type insurance products (e.g. annuities). + +== Z == + +Zelder paradox + +zero-sum game +In game theory and economic theory, a zero-sum game is a mathematical representation of a situation in which each participant's gain or loss of utility is exactly balanced by the losses or gains of the utility of the other participants. If the total gains of the participants are added up and the total losses are subtracted, they will sum to zero. Thus, cutting a cake, where taking a larger piece reduces the amount of cake available for others as much as it increases the amount available for that taker, is a zero-sum game if all participants value each unit of cake equally (see marginal utility). + +== See also == +Outline of economics +Index of economics articles + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d1e51089 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 4/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +biflation +Also called mixflation. +A state of the economy in which the processes of inflation and deflation occur simultaneously in different parts of the economy. + +big push model +A concept in development economics or welfare economics that emphasizes that a firm's decision whether to industrialize or not depends on its expectation of what other firms will do. It assumes economies of scale and oligopolistic market structure and explains when industrialization would happen. + +Birmingham school +A school of thought based around opposing the gold standard, advocating for expansionary monetary policy, and belief in underconsumption. + +Bishop–Cannings theorem +A theorem in evolutionary game theory that states that (i) all members of a mixed evolutionarily stable strategy have the same payoff, and (ii) that none of these can also be a pure ESS. + +Black–Scholes model +Also called the Black–Scholes–Merton model. +A mathematical model for the dynamics of a financial market containing derivative investment instruments. From the partial differential equation in the model, known as the Black–Scholes equation, one can deduce the Black–Scholes formula, which gives a theoretical estimate of the price of European-style options and shows that the option has a unique price regardless of the risk of the security and its expected return (instead replacing the security's expected return with the risk-neutral rate). The formula led to a boom in options trading and provided mathematical legitimacy to the activities of the Chicago Board Options Exchange and other options markets around the world. It is widely used, although often with adjustments and corrections, by options market participants. + +board of governors +The main governing body that directs the operations of the United States Federal Reserve System. Its seven members supervise the 12 Federal Reserve Districts. + +bond +In finance, an instrument of indebtedness of the bond issuer to the holders. The most common types of bonds include municipal bonds and corporate bonds. The bond is a debt security, under which the issuer owes the holders a debt and (depending on the terms of the bond) is obliged to pay them interest (the coupon) or to repay the principal at a later date, termed the maturity date. Interest is usually payable at fixed intervals (semiannual, annual, or sometimes monthly). Very often the bond is negotiable, that is, the ownership of the instrument can be transferred in the secondary market. This means that once the transfer agents at the bank medallion stamp the bond, it is highly liquid on the secondary market. + +Bondareva–Shapley theorem +Describes a necessary and sufficient condition for the non-emptiness of the core of a cooperative game in characteristic function form. + +boots theory +Also called the Sam Vimes theory of socioeconomic unfairness. +Purchasing cheap, low-quality goods may become more expensive in the long run because they must be replaced more frequently. For example, purchasing expensive, high-quality boots may be cheaper over a long time because cheaper boots would quickly wear out and require replacement. + +borrower +See debtor. + +bounded rationality +The idea that rationality is limited when individuals make decisions, and under these limitations, rational individuals will select a decision that is satisfactory rather than optimal. + +Braess's paradox +The observation that adding one or more roads to a road network can slow down overall traffic flow through it. + +Brander–Spencer model +An economic model in international trade that illustrates a situation where a government can subsidize domestic firms to help them in their competition against foreign producers and in doing so enhances national welfare. + +break-even +Also called the break-even point (BEP). +The point at which total cost and total revenue are equal, i.e. "even". There is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even", though opportunity costs have been paid and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return. In short, all costs that must be paid are paid, and there is neither profit nor loss. + +Bretton Woods system +A monetary system which established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan after the 1944 Bretton Woods Agreement. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent states. The chief features were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained its external exchange rates within 1 percent by tying its currency to gold and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments; there was also a need to address the lack of cooperation among other countries and to prevent competitive devaluation of the currencies. + +budget +The itemization of an individual's or firm's total income and total expenses for a set period of time, usually a month or a year. + +budget deficit +Also simply called spending. +The amount by which spending exceeds revenue over a particular period of time; it is the opposite of budget surplus. The term may be applied to the budget of a government, private company, or individual. + +budget set +Also called an opportunity set. +The set of all possible consumption bundles that an individual can afford, given the prices of goods and the individual's income level. The budget set is bounded above by the budget line. Graphically speaking, all the consumption bundles that lie inside and on the budget constraint form the budget set. By most definitions, budget sets must be compact and convex. + +budget share Engel curve +Describes how the proportion of household income spent on a good or service varies with income. + +budget surplus +A budget's revenues in excess of its expenditures. + +buffer stock scheme +Also called intervention storage or the ever-normal granary. +An attempt to use commodity storage for the purposes of stabilising prices in an entire economy or an individual (commodity) market. Specifically, commodities are bought when a surplus exists in the economy, stored, and are then sold from these stores when economic shortages in the economy occur. + +bullionism +An economic theory that defines wealth by the amount of precious metals owned. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e47bb073c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 5/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +business cycle +Also called the economic cycle or trade cycle. +The downward and upward movement of gross domestic product (GDP) around its long-term growth trend. The length of a business cycle is the period of time containing a single boom and contraction in sequence. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (expansions or booms) and periods of relative stagnation or decline (contractions or recessions). + +business economics +A branch of applied economics which uses economic theory and quantitative methods to analyze business enterprises and the factors contributing to the diversity of organizational structures and the relationships of firms with labour, capital and product markets. + +business sector +Also called the corporate sector or sometimes simply business. +The part of the economy made up by companies. It is generally considered a subset of the domestic economy, excluding the economic activities of general government, of private households, and of non-profit organizations serving individuals. + +== C == + +Cambridge capital controversy +Also called the capital controversy or the two Cambridges debate. +A dispute between proponents of two differing theoretical and mathematical positions in economics concerning the nature and role of capital goods and a critique of the neoclassical vision of aggregate production and distribution. + +Cambridge equation +Relates money demand, price level, and real national income in the Cambridge quantity theory of money. + +cameralism +A German science of public administration in the 18th and early 19th centuries that aimed at strong management of a centralized economy for the benefit mainly of the state. + +cap and trade (CAT) +A market-based approach to limiting negative externalities (for example, pollution) by providing economic incentives for reducing the production of said negative externalities. A central authority or governmental body allocates or sells a limited number (a "cap") of permits that allow the creation of a specific negative externality over a set time period. Permit owners are then allowed to sell these permits to others. + +capacity utilization +The extent to which an enterprise or a nation uses its installed productive capacity. It is the relationship between output that is produced with the installed equipment and the potential output which could be produced with it if capacity was fully used. + +capital +Any asset that can enhance one's power to perform economically useful work. Capital goods, real capital, or capital assets are already-produced, durable goods or any non-financial asset that is used in production of goods or services. Capital is distinct from land (or non-renewable resources) in that capital can be increased by human labor. At any given moment in time, total physical capital may be referred to as the capital stock (which is not to be confused with the capital stock of a business entity). + +capital account +Also called the capital and financial account +Reflects net change in ownership of national assets. A surplus in the capital account means money is flowing into the country, and the inbound flows effectively represent borrowings or sales of assets. A deficit in the capital account means money is flowing out of the country, and it suggests the nation is increasing its ownership of foreign assets. + +capital accumulation +Any net addition to existing wealth and/or a redistribution of wealth. Capital accumulation is the dynamic that motivates the pursuit of profit, involving the investment of money or any financial asset with the goal of increasing the initial monetary value of said asset as a financial return. + +capital cost +A fixed, one-time expense incurred on the purchase of land, buildings, construction, and equipment used in the production of goods or in the rendering of services. In other words, it is the total cost needed to bring a project to a commercially operable status. Whether a particular cost is capital or not depends on many factors, such as accounting, tax laws, and materiality. + +capital flight +Occurs when money or assets rapidly flow out of a country due to an event of economic consequence. Such events may include an increase in taxes on capital or capital holders or the government of the country defaulting on its debt that disturbs investors and causes them to lower their valuation of the assets in that country or otherwise to lose confidence in its economic strength. + +capital formation +Any method for increasing the amount of capital owned or under one's control, or any method in using or mobilizing capital resources for investment purposes. Capital formation also sometimes refers to a specific statistical concept, also known as net investment, which measures the net additions to the (physical) capital stock of a country (or an economic sector) in an accounting interval. Capital formation is also sometimes a modern general term for capital accumulation, referring to the total "stock of capital" that has been formed, or to the growth of this total capital stock. + +capital gain +The profit earned on the sale of an asset which has increased in value over the holding period. An asset may include tangible property, a car, a business, or intangible property such as shares. + +capital good +A durable good that is used in the production of goods or services. Capital goods are one of the three types of producer goods, the other two being land and labour, which are also known collectively as primary factors of production. This classification originated with classical economics and has remained the dominant method for classification. + +capital intensity +The amount of fixed or real capital present in relation to other factors of production, especially labor. At the level of either a production process or the aggregate economy, it may be estimated by the capital to labor ratio, such as from the points along a capital/labor isoquant. + +capitalism +An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price systems, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. + +cartel +Any group of firms that colludes and acts as a single coordinated whole to restrict output and drive up prices. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bf0f92b29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 6/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cash +Money in the physical form of currency, such as banknotes and coins. + +cash crop +A cash crop, also called profit crop, is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. + +central bank +Also called a reserve bank or monetary authority. +An institution that manages the currency, money supply, and interest rates of an entire state or nation. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries. In contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on increasing the monetary base in the state, and usually also prints the national currency, which usually serves as the state's legal tender. Central banks also act as a "lender of last resort" to the banking sector during times of financial crisis. Most central banks usually also have supervisory and regulatory powers to ensure the solvency of member institutions, prevent bank runs, and prevent reckless or fraudulent behavior by member banks. + +Certificate of Deposit (CD or COD) +A savings instrument that usually earns more interest than a savings account but is bound by limits set within a contract. + +ceteris paribus +A phrase or clause often loosely translated as "holding all else constant." It does not imply that no other things will in fact change; rather, it isolates the effect of one particular change. + +charitable giving +A gift of cash or property made to a nonprofit organization to help it accomplish its goals, for which the donor receives nothing of value in return. In the U.S. however, some charitable giving is tax deductible. + +chartalism +A heterodox theory of money that argues that money originated historically with states' attempts to direct economic activity rather than as a spontaneous solution to the problems with barter or as a means with which to tokenize debt, and that fiat currency has value in exchange because of sovereign power to levy taxes on economic activity payable in the currency they issue. + +check (money) +A check is a written, dated, and signed draft that directs a bank to pay a specific sum of money to the bearer. The person or entity writing the check is known as the payor or drawer, while the person to whom the check is written is the payee. + +Chicago school +A neoclassical school of thought once based around rational expectations, monetarism, and free market supremacy. + +Choice (CD or COD) +Making a decision when facing multiple possible options. + +choice modelling +A method of modelling the decision process of an individual or segment via revealed or stated preferences. + +circular flow of income +Also called circular flow model. +A model of the economy in which the major exchanges are represented as flows of money, goods and services, etc. between economic agents. The flows of money and goods exchanged in a closed circuit correspond in value, but run in the opposite direction. The circular flow analysis is the basis of national accounts and hence of macroeconomics. + +circulation +The continuous movement of goods, services, and money within an economy. + +citizen's dividend +A proposed set of regular payments to all citizens from revenue raised by leasing or taxing the monopoly of valuable land and other natural resources. It is based on the Georgist principle that the natural world is the common property of all people. + +classical economics +Also called classical political economy. +A school of thought in economics that flourished, primarily in Britain, in the late 18th and early-to-mid 19th century. Its main thinkers are held to be Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus, and John Stuart Mill. These economists produced a theory of market economies as largely self-regulating systems, governed by natural laws of production and exchange (famously captured by Adam Smith's metaphor of the invisible hand). + +classical general equilibrium model +A model that aims to describe the economy by aggregating the behavior of individuals and firms. Note that the classical general equilibrium model is unrelated to classical economics, and was instead developed within neoclassical economics beginning in the late 19th century. + +club good +Also called artificially scarce goods, toll goods, collective goods or quasi-public goods. +A good that is excludable but non-rivalrous, at least until reaching a point where congestion occurs. + +Coase conjecture +A model in which a monopolist must sell its product at a low price because it is effectively in competition with itself over multiple periods. It is assumed that the monopolist sells a durable good to a market where resale is impossible, faces an infinite time horizon, faces consumers who have different valuations, and does not know individuals' valuations. + +Coase theorem +States that if the provision of a good or service results in an externality and trade in that good or service is possible, then bargaining will lead to a Pareto efficient outcome regardless of the initial allocation of property. This requires sufficiently low transaction costs in the bargaining and exchange process. + +cobweb model +Also called cobweb theory. +A model which describes cyclical supply and demand in a market where the amount produced must be chosen before prices are observed. Producers' expectations about prices are assumed to be based on observations of previous prices. It explains why prices may be subjected to periodic fluctuations in certain types of markets. + +collateral loan +Also known as a secured loan, it is a loan where the borrower pledges an asset to a financial institution to access funds. The asset, called collateral, protects the lender from possible defaulting as they would take ownership in case of default. + +collective action +Any action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. + +collective action problem +Also called social dilemma +A situation in which all individuals would be better off cooperating but fail to do so because of conflicting interests between individuals that discourage joint action. + +collusion +A deceitful agreement or secret cooperation between two or more parties to limit open competition by deceiving, misleading or defrauding others of their legal right. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f7777c9fc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 7/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +command economy +An economy in which the government directs all economic activity. + +commerce +Relates to "the exchange of goods and services, especially on a large scale". It includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that operate in a country or in international trade. + +commercial agriculture +It is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. + +commodity +An economic good or service that has full or substantial fungibility: that is, the market treats instances of the good as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. + +communism +An ideology centered around common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange that allocates products to everyone in the society based on need. +comparative advantage +Also called opportunity cost advantage. +The ability to produce most efficiently given all of the other products that could be produced. + +compensating differential +Also called compensating wage differential or equalizing difference. +The additional amount of income that a given worker must be offered to motivate them to accept a given undesirable job, relative to other jobs that worker could perform. + +Competition (CD or COD) +The presence in a market of independent buyers and sellers competing with one another and the freedom of buyers and sellers to enter and leave the market. + +competition law +Also called an antitrust law or anti-monopoly law. +Any law that promotes or seeks to maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct by companies. + +competitive market +A market in which many sellers compete against each +other to attract customers. Each seller has an incentive to sell at the lowest +price possible to attract customers, so prices tend to be driven so low that +the sellers can just barely make a profit. + +complementary goods +Goods that are bought and used together. + +complex multiplier +The multiplier by which a change in autonomous expenditure changes the equilibrium income in an economy. + +compound interest +The addition of interest to the principal sum of a loan or deposit; it is often interpreted as "interest on interest". Compound interest is the result of reinvesting interest, rather than paying it out, so that interest in the next period is then earned on the principal sum plus any previously accumulated interest. Contrast simple interest. + +computable general equilibrium (CGE) +Also called applied general equilibrium (AGE). +A class of economic models that use actual economic data to estimate how an economy might react to changes in policy, technology, or other external factors. + +computational economics +A research discipline at the interface of economics, computer science, and management science which encompasses computational modeling of economic systems, whether agent-based, general-equilibrium, macroeconomic, or rational-expectations, computational econometrics and statistics, computational finance, computational tools for the design of automated internet markets, programming tools specifically designed for computational economics, and pedagogical tools for the teaching of computational economics. + +concentration ratio +The sum of the percentage market shares of (a pre-specified number of) the largest firms in an industry, which is used to quantify market concentration in an industry. + +conspicuous consumption +The consumer practice of buying and using goods of a higher quality, price, or in greater quantity than practical. + +conspicuous compassion +The ostentatious use of charity meant to enhance the reputation and social prestige of the donor. + +consumer +A member of a household that spends on goods and services. + +consumer choice +A theory of microeconomics that relates preferences to consumption expenditures and to consumer demand curves. It analyzes how consumers maximize the desirability of their consumption as measured by their preferences subject to limitations on their expenditures, by maximizing utility subject to a consumer budget constraint. + +consumer confidence +An economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers feel about the overall state of the economy and their personal financial situation. + +consumer credit +A loan afforded to a consumer for the payment of goods and services which they will have to repay to the lender over time usually plus interest. + +consumer price index (CPI) +Measures changes in the price level of market basket of consumer goods and services purchased by households. +The CPI is a statistical estimate constructed using the prices of a sample of representative items whose prices are collected periodically. Sub-indices and sub-sub-indices are computed for different categories and sub-categories of goods and services, being combined to produce the overall index with weights reflecting their shares in the total of the consumer expenditures covered by the index. It is one of several price indices calculated by most national statistical agencies. The annual percentage change in a CPI is used as a measure of inflation. A CPI can be used to index (i.e. adjust for the effect of inflation) the real value of wages, salaries, and pensions; to regulate prices; and to deflate monetary magnitudes to show changes in real values. In most countries, the CPI, along with the population census, is one of the most closely watched national economic statistics. + +consumer surplus +the difference between the maximum price a consumer is willing to pay and the actual price they do pay. If a consumer is willing to pay more for a unit of a good than the current asking price, they are getting more benefit from the purchased product than they would if the price was their maximum willingness to pay. They are receiving the same benefit, the obtainment of the good, with a smaller cost as they are spending less than they would if they were charged their maximum willingness to pay. + +consumerism +Economic policies which emphasize consumption. + +consumption +According to mainstream economists, only the final purchase of goods and services by individuals constitutes consumption, while other types of expenditure—in particular, fixed investment, intermediate consumption, and government spending—are placed in separate categories (see consumer choice). Other economists define consumption much more broadly, as the aggregate of all economic activity that does not entail the design, production and marketing of goods and services (e.g. the selection, adoption, use, disposal and recycling of goods and services). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f31123bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 8/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +consumption function +A mathematical function which describes a relationship between consumption and disposable income. The concept is believed to have been introduced into macroeconomics by John Maynard Keynes in 1936, who used it to develop the notion of a government spending multiplier. + +contract curve +In microeconomics, the contract curve is the set of points representing final allocations of two goods between two people that could occur as a result of mutually beneficial trading between those people given their initial allocations of the goods. All the points on this locus are Pareto efficient allocations, meaning that from any one of these points there is no reallocation that could make one of the people more satisfied with his or her allocation without making the other person less satisfied. The contract curve is the subset of the Pareto efficient points that could be reached by trading from the people's initial holdings of the two goods. + +contract theory +The study of how economic actors can and do construct contractual arrangements, generally in the presence of asymmetric information. Because of its connections with both agency and incentives, contract theory is often categorized within a field known as law and economics. + +convergence +Also called the catch-up effect. +The hypothesis that poorer economies' per capita incomes will tend to grow at faster rates than richer economies. + +convexity +In the Arrow–Debreu model of general economic equilibrium, agents have convex budget sets and convex preferences: at equilibrium prices, the budget hyperplane supports the best attainable indifference curve. The profit function is the convex conjugate of the cost function. Convex analysis is the standard tool for analyzing textbook economics. Non‑convex phenomena in economics have been studied with nonsmooth analysis, which generalizes convex analysis. + +coordination good +A good created by the coordination of people within civil society. Coordination goods are non-rivalrous, but may be partially excludable through the means of withholding cooperation from a non-cooperative state. + +corporate tax +Also called corporation tax or company tax. +A type of direct tax levied on the income or capital of corporations and other similar legal entities. + +corporation +A type of business organization owned by many people but treated by law as though it were an individual person; it can own property, pay taxes, make contracts, and contribute to political causes. + +cost +1. The value of money that is used up to produce a good or deliver a service, and hence is no longer available for further use. In business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in which case the amount of money expended to acquire a good or service is counted as the cost; in this case, money is the input that is gone to acquire the thing. This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of production as incurred by the original producer and of further costs of transaction as incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer. Usually, the price designated by the producer also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production. +2. More generally, a performance metric that is totaling up as a result of a process or as a differential for the result of a decision. Hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes. Costs (pl.) are often further described based on their timing or their applicability. + +cost curve +A graph of the costs of production as a function of total quantity produced. In a free market economy, productively efficient firms optimize their production process by minimizing cost consistent with each possible level of production, and the result is a cost curve; and profit maximizing firms use cost curves to decide output quantities. There are various types of cost curves, all related to each other, including total and average cost curves; marginal ("for each additional unit") cost curves, which are equal to the differential of the total cost curves; and variable cost curves. Some are applicable to the short run, others to the long run. + +cost of living +The cost of maintaining a certain standard of living. Changes in the cost of living over time are often operationalized in a cost-of-living index. Cost of living calculations are also used to compare the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living in different geographic areas. Differences in cost of living between locations can also be measured in terms of purchasing power parity rates. + +cost overrun +Also called cost increase or budget overrun. +A situation involving unexpected incurred costs. A cost overrun occurs when an underestimation of the actual cost during budgeting results in costs that are in excess of budgeted amounts. + +cost the limit of price +A maxim indicating a (prescriptive) version of the labor theory of value. It suggests that the price of a good should be equal to its cost, implying that profit, rent, and interest could be considered unjust economic arrangements. + +Cournot competition +A model used to describe an industry structure in which companies compete on the amount of output they will produce, which they decide on independently of each other and at the same time. + +cost-benefit analysis (CBA) +Sometimes called benefit costs analysis (BCA). +A systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternative options (for example in transactions, activities, or functional business requirements). It is often used to determine the option or options that provide the best approach to achieve benefits while preserving savings. Cost-benefit analysis may be used to compare potential (or completed) courses of actions, or estimate (or evaluate) the value against costs of a single decision, project, or policy. Common areas of application include commercial transactions, functional business decisions, policy decisions (especially government policy), and project investments. + +cost-of-production theory of value +The theory that the price of an object or condition is determined by the sum of the cost of the resources that went into producing it. The cost can comprise any of the factors of production (including labor, capital, or land) as well as taxation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10a504b49 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 9/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cost-push inflation +A purported type of inflation caused by increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available. As businesses face higher prices for underlying inputs, they are forced to increase prices of their outputs. + +credit bureau +An agency that tracks the credit, employment, and housing history of consumers and assigns them a credit score. + +credit card +A payment card issued to users (cardholders) to enable the cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services based on the cardholder's promise to the card issuer to pay them at a later time for the cost of the good or service plus other agreed-upon fees and charges. The card issuer (usually a bank) creates a revolving account and grants a line of credit to the cardholder, from which the cardholder can borrow money for payment to a merchant or as a cash advance. + +credit score +A numerical value assigned to a person's potential ability to repay debt. A good credit score in the United States is approximately 700. + +credit rating +An evaluation of the credit risk of a prospective debtor (an individual, business, company, or government), predicting their ability to pay back the debt, and an implicit forecast of the likelihood of the debtor defaulting on the debt. Credit rating represents an evaluation of a credit rating agency of the qualitative and quantitative information for the prospective debtor, including information provided by the prospective debtor and other non-public information obtained by the credit rating agency's analysts. A subset of credit rating called credit reporting or credit score is a numeric evaluation of an individual's credit worthiness, which is conducted by a credit bureau or consumer credit reporting agency. + +credit union +A financial institution that is usually local and owned by its members. + +creditor +A person or a firm that lends money to a borrower. + +crisis theory +A set of theories concerning the causes and consequences of the tendency for the rate of profit to fall in a capitalist system. + +criticism of capitalism +A critique of political economy that involves the rejection of, or dissatisfaction with the economic system of capitalism and its outcomes. + +critique of work + +cross elasticity of demand (XED) +Measures the sensitivity of a good's demand to the price of a different good. + +crowding out +A phenomenon that occurs when increased government involvement in a sector of a market economy substantially affects the remainder of the market, either on the supply or demand side of the market. + +crowding-in effect +An increase in private investment that results from government spending. It occurs because public investment makes the private sector more productive, as well as because government spending may have a stimulative effect on the economy. + +cultural economics +The branch of economics that studies the relationship between culture and economic outcomes. Here, "culture" is defined by shared beliefs and preferences of respective groups. Programmatic issues include whether and how much culture matters to economic outcomes and what its relation is to institutions. As a growing field in behavioral economics, the role of culture in economic behavior is increasingly being demonstrated to cause significant differentials in decision-making and the management and valuation of assets. + +currency +Money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a "system" of money (monetary units) in common use, especially within a particular nation. + +current account +A country's current account is one of the two components of its balance of payments, the other being the capital account (also known as the financial account). The current account consists of the balance of trade, net primary income or factor income (earnings on foreign investments minus payments made to foreign investors) and net cash transfers, that have taken place over a given period of time. The current account balance is one of two major measures of a country's foreign trade (the other being the net capital outflow). A current account surplus indicates that the value of a country's net foreign assets (i.e. assets less liabilities) grew over the period in question, and a current account deficit indicates that it shrank. Both government and private payments are included in the calculation. It is called the current account because goods and services are generally consumed in the current period. + +cyclical unemployment +Unemployment resulting from the business cycle. It is unpredictable. + +== D == + +DAD–SAS model +A macroeconomic model based on the AD-AS model, but examining the relationship between inflation and income, rather than price level and income. DAD is short for Dynamic Aggregate Demand, and SAS is short for Surprise Aggregate Supply. + +dead cat bounce +Also called sucker rally. +A small, brief recovery in the price of a declining asset. + +deadweight loss +Also called excess burden or allocative inefficiency. +A loss of economic efficiency that occurs when the free-market equilibrium for a good or service is not achieved. Deadweight loss can be caused by monopoly pricing in the case of artificial scarcity, an externality, a tax or subsidy, or a compulsory price ceiling or price floor such as a minimum wage. + +Debreu's representation theorems +A set of preference representation theorems proved by Gerard Debreu. They specify some conditions on the preference relation that guarantee the existence of a representing utility function. + +debt +Total money owed. + +debit card +A debit card is a payment card that allows you to make purchases and withdraw cash from your bank account. Debit cards are also known as "check cards." They look and work similarly to credit cards, but they use money that's already in your checking account instead of money you borrow. + +debtor +An entity that owes a debt to another entity. The entity may be an individual, a firm, a government, a company, or another legal person. The counterparty to which the debt is owed is called a creditor. When the counterparty of the arrangement is a bank, the debtor is more often referred to as a borrower. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f521869b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of economics" +chunk: 10/22 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +deficit spending +Also called budget deficit or simply deficit. +The amount by which spending exceeds revenue over a particular period of time; it is the opposite of budget surplus. The term may be applied to the budget of a government, private company, or individual. + +deflation +A decrease in the general price level of goods and services. Deflation occurs when the inflation rate falls below 0% (a negative inflation rate); though inflation reduces the value of currency over time, deflation increases it. This allows more goods and services to be bought than before with the same amount of currency. Deflation is distinct from disinflation, which occurs when the inflation rate decreases but is still positive. + +deflator +A value that allows data to be measured over time in terms of some base period, usually through a price index, to distinguish between changes in the money value of a gross national product (GNP) that come from a change in prices, and changes from a change in physical output. It is the measure of the price level for some quantity. A deflator serves as a price index in which the effects of inflation are nulled. It is the difference between real and nominal GDP. + +deleveraging +A reduction in debt. At the micro-economic level, it is measured as the reduction of the leverage ratio, or the percentage of debt in the balance sheet of a single economic entity, such as a household or a firm. At the macro-economic level, it is usually measured as a decline of the total debt to GDP ratio in the national accounts. + +demand +The whole range of quantities that a person or group with a given income and preferences demands at various prices. + +demand curve +A line on a graph that represents how much of a good or service buyers are going to consume at various prices. + +demand deposit +Demand deposits, bank money or scriptural money are funds held in demand deposit accounts in commercial banks. These account balances are usually considered money and form the greater part of the narrowly defined money supply of a country. + +demand shock +A sudden event that increases or decreases demand for goods or services temporarily. + +demand-pull inflation +A purported type of inflation caused by an increase in aggregate demand greater than the increase in aggregate supply. As real gross domestic product rises and unemployment falls, the economy moves along the Phillips curve and prices increase. + +demographic economics +Also called population economics. +The application of economic analysis to demography, the study of human populations, including size, growth, density, distribution, and vital statistics. + +dependent care plan +A pre-tax account used to pay for either child or adult care while a married couple works, looks for work, or studies. + +depreciation +The gradual decrease in the economic value of the capital stock of a firm, nation, or other entity, either through physical depreciation, obsolescence, or changes in the demand for the services of the capital in question. If the capital stock is + + + + + K + + t + + + + + {\displaystyle K_{t}} + + in one period + + + + t + + + {\displaystyle t} + +, gross (total) investment spending on newly produced capital is + + + + + I + + t + + + + + {\displaystyle I_{t}} + + and depreciation is + + + + + D + + t + + + + + {\displaystyle D_{t}} + +, the capital stock in the next period, + + + + + K + + t + + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle K_{t+1}} + +, is + + + + + K + + t + + + + + + I + + t + + + − + + D + + t + + + + + {\displaystyle K_{t}+I_{t}-D_{t}} + +. The net increment to the capital stock is the difference between gross investment and depreciation, and is called net investment. + +depression +A sustained, long-term decrease in economic activity in one or more economies. It is a more severe economic downturn than a recession, which is a slowdown in economic activity over the course of a normal business cycle. + +deregulation +The process of removing or reducing economic regulations, or the total repeal of governmental regulation of the economy. It became common in advanced industrial economies in the 1970s and 1980s, as a result of new trends in economic thinking about the inefficiencies of government regulation, and the risk that regulatory agencies would be controlled by the regulated industry to its benefit, and thereby hurt consumers and the wider economy. + +Diamond–Dybvig model +A model of bank runs and related financial crises. The model shows how banks' mix of illiquid assets (such as business or mortgage loans) and liquid liabilities (deposits which may be withdrawn at any time) may give rise to self-fulfilling panics among depositors. + +differentiated Bertrand competition +A variation of Bertrand competition where each firm produces a somewhat differentiated product, and consequently faces a demand curve that is downward-sloping for all levels of the firm's price. This provides a solution to the Bertrand paradox (economics). + +diminishing marginal utility +A situation where each additional, or marginal, unit of a good or service that is consumed brings less utility than the previous unit. + +diminishing returns +The decrease in the marginal (incremental) output of a production process as the amount of a single factor of production is incrementally increased, while the amounts of all other factors of production stay constant. The law of diminishing returns states that in all productive processes, adding more of one factor of production while holding all others constant ("ceteris paribus"), will at some point yield lower incremental per-unit returns. It does not imply that adding more of a factor will decrease the total production, a condition known as negative returns, though in practice this is common. + +discounting +A mechanism in which a debtor obtains the right to delay payments to a creditor, for a defined period of time, in exchange for a charge or fee. Essentially, the party that owes money in the present purchases the right to delay the payment until some future date. + +discrete choice +Also called qualitative choice. +A set of models that describe, explain, and predict choices between two or more discrete alternatives, such as entering or not entering the labor market, or choosing between modes of transport. These models examine situations in which the potential outcomes are discrete, such that the optimum is not characterized by standard first-order conditions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d9a092791 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,186 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 1/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of electrical and electronics engineering is a list of definitions of terms and concepts related specifically to electrical engineering and electronics engineering. For terms related to engineering in general, see Glossary of engineering. + +== A == + +AC adapter +An external power supply for portable devices that allows them to operate from wall-socket electricity. + +AC power plugs and sockets +Electrical connectors used with alternating current. + +AC power +Electric power where the current reverses direction periodically. + +AC-to-DC conversion (rectifier) +Rectification of AC current, so that current flows in only one direction. + +AC-to-AC converter +A power converter where the input and output are both in the form of alternating current (AC), but may differ in frequency or other characteristics. + +AC/DC receiver design +A radio receiver that can operate from either alternating current or direct current wall socket power. + +active rectification +A circuit where rectifier devices are externally controlled to change AC to current flowing in one direction. + +actuator +An end device of a control system that manipulates a physical variable such as a valve opening or the position of a machine part. + +adaptive control +A control strategy where parameters are adjusted as the controlled process changes. + +additive white Gaussian noise +A noise model that is used in telecommunications to model the effects of various random processes. + +adjustable-speed drive +Control for a motor that allows more than one speed to be selected. + +advanced z-transform +A mathematical technique used to model and analyze digital systems. + +affinity laws +Mathematical formulas that relate the speed, flow, and diameter of pumps, fans, blowers, and turbines, useful for predicting output under varying conditions. + +agbioeletric +A brand name of a kind of vegetable oil for use in transformers. + +AIEE +American Institute of Electrical Engineers, predecessor organization to IEEE. + +alpha–beta transformation +A mathematical technique useful in analysis of three-phase circuits. + +alternating current (AC) +Electric current that periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude continuously with time, in contrast to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. + +alternator +An electrical machine that converts mechanical power into AC electric power. + +alternator synchronization +The process of synchronizing an alternator to a grid or to another alternator. + +aluminium smelting +The reduction of aluminium ore to metal, by use of large amounts of electric power. + +ammeter +An instrument that measures electric current. + +amorphous metal transformer +A power transformer where the metallic core is made of metals cooled so quickly that they do not form a crystal structure; such transformers can reduce some kinds of energy loss. + +ampacity +The current-carrying capacity of a conductor, in the context of electric power wiring. + +ampere (A) +Also amp. +The SI unit of electric current, equal to one coulomb (C) passing a given point in an electrical circuit per second. + +Ampère's circuital law +Also simply Ampère's law or Oersted's law. +The mathematical relation between the integral of the magnetic field over some closed curve to the current passing through the region bound by the curve. + +Ampère's force law +The mathematical relation between the force between two current-carrying conductors and the current flowing in them. + +Ampère's law +See Ampère's circuital law. + +amplidyne +An electric machine that allows a small current to control a much larger current. + +amplifier +A system that produces an output that replicates an input signal but with a larger magnitude. + +amplitude modulation +Transmission of information by changing the magnitude of a carrier signal, for example sending sound by radio. + +analog circuit +A circuit where currents and voltages vary continually within some practical range, in proportion to some signal. + +analog filter +An analog circuit that alters some frequency-related property of a signal. + +analog signal processing +Generally, techniques used to alter signals that rely on voltages or currents that vary continually over a practical range. + +analog signal +A signal whose properties (current, voltage) vary proportionally to the information transmitted. + +analog-to-digital converter +A circuit that produces a number proportional to the magnitude of a voltage or current. + +anode +The terminal of an electrochemical or electronic device through which conventional current flows inward. + +antenna +A structure which converts between electromagnetic waves in space and currents in a conductor. + +apparent power +In an alternating current power circuit, the product of the magnitude of RMS voltage and current. + +Apple Inc. (formerly known as Apple Computer) +A company that makes mobile telephones and computers. + +arbitrary waveform generator +A type of signal generator that can generate almost any waveform. + +arc converter +A device once used to generate radio waves. + +arc furnace +A furnace that melts materials with the intense heat produced by an electric arc. + +arc lamp +An electric lamp that generates visible light from an electric arc. + +arc welder +A device used to join metals by melting them with the intense heat produced by an electric arc. + +armature +That part of an electrical machine that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy (or vice versa). + +artificial intelligence (AI) +A computer system that replicates some feature of human intelligence. + +artificial neural network +A network of individual logic elements in multiple layers that mimics the functions of a biological nervous system; a technique in artificial intelligence. + +asymptotic stability +A condition of a control system where the output eventually reaches a steady-state value in response to any input. + +asynchronous circuit +A digital circuit where states propagate through a circuit without a synchronizing clock impulse. + +audio and video connector +An electrical fitting used to connect cables carrying audio or video signals. + +audio equipment +Equipment used to handle signals at frequencies within the human range of hearing. + +audio filter +A circuit intended to alter some frequency-related property of a signal carrying sound information. + +audio frequency +A signal whose frequency is within the range of human hearing. + +audio noise reduction +Reduction of interfering signals in an audio signal. + +audio signal processing +Alteration of any properties of a signal carrying sound information (dynamic range, frequency response, or others). + +audion tube +An early three-electrode vacuum tube that had amplifying properties. + +Austin transformer +A kind of isolation transformer. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5cd61559c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,202 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 2/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +automatic gain control +A circuit that automatically adjusts the magnitude of a signal to prevent it from becoming too small or too large. + +automatic transfer switch +An electrical switch used to automatically select a standby source of electrical power when the principal source is lost. + +automation +Automatic control of a process. + +autorecloser +A circuit protection device for overhead power distribution lines which briefly interrupts a circuit when a fault is detected, then restores the circuit in the expectation the fault has cleared. + +autotransformer +A transformer where the primary and secondary circuits share some of the transformer windings. + +availability factor +The fraction of time that a power plant is available to produce power. + +avalanche diode +A diode intended for regular operation in the reverse, avalanche breakdown, mode. Used as a voltage reference, noise source, and in certain classes of microwave oscillator device. + +average rectified value +The average value of an alternating current waveform, taking the absolute value of the waveform. The average value is generally different from the root-mean-square value. + +== B == + +backward wave oscillator +A type of micowave oscillator vacuum tube. + +balanced line +A transmission line with two conductors, with equal impedances to earth ground. + +ball bearing motor +A conceptual motor that does not use electromagnetism. + +balun +A device that connects a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced line. + +band-pass filter +A filter that lets through signals within a range of frequencies. + +band-stop filter +A filter that blocks signals with a particular range of frequencies. + +bandwidth +The range of frequencies over which a system generates or uses significant signal power. + +bang-bang control +A controller that switches a final element on or off instead of providing a proportional response. + +Barlow's wheel +A demonstration of electromagnetic principles. + +Bartlett's bisection theorem +A mathematical theorem used in network analysis. + +base load power plant +An electric power plant that furnishes the part of the load that does not vary during a day. + +battery +An electrochemical device that produces electric power from chemical reactions. + +battery eliminator +An AC adapter, which allows battery operated equipment to run on wall-socket AC power. + +Bayer filter +An optical filter used in color digital cameras. + +beam tetrode +A type of vacuum tube with four active elements plus a pair of beam forming plates. + +beat frequency +A frequency produced by non-linear mixing of signals at two other frequencies. + +Bell Telephone Laboratories +Formerly, the research and development laboratory of the American Telephone and Telegraph Corporation. + +biasing +The practice of setting the quiescent operating conditions of an amplifying device to obtain desired response. + +BIBO stability +A control system that produces finite outputs for any finite input. + +bilinear transform +A mathematical technique to obtain the parameters for a digital filter to duplicate the response of some analog filter transfer function. + +bimetallic strip +A temperature-sensing element made of two metals that have different coefficients of expansion which have been intimately bonded together. + +Biot–Savart law +The mathematical relationship between a magnetic field and the current producing that field. + +bipolar junction transistor +A type of transistor with two kinds of charge carriers. + +blocked rotor test +A test of an electric machine where the machine is energized but the shaft is prevented from turning. + +Blu-ray +A type of optical disc written and read using a blue/violet laser. + +Bode plot +A plot of the amplitude and phase frequency response of a system, where the actual response is approximated by straight-line segments. + +Boolean algebra +A type of algebra that deals with values that can only hold values "true" and "false", of great use in design and analysis of digital systems. + +boost converter +Any power converter circuit that can produce an output voltage larger than its input voltage. + +booster +A device used to increase voltage on an electric power distribution system, such as a motor-generator set on a DC system. + +bound charge +Electric charge in a material that is not free to move through the material. + +braking chopper +A device used to absorb energy from a motor to slow it down. + +branch circuit +In building wiring, any circuit from the main panelboard to utilization equipment or receptacles. + +breakdown voltage +The maximum voltage a device can withstand without damage. + +bridge rectifier +A set of rectifier diodes used to convert alternating current to direct current. + +broadcasting +Transmission of a signal to many receivers. + +brush +A sliding electrical contact between a moving part and a stationary part. + +brushed DC electric motor +An electric motor with brushes. + +brushless DC electric motor +An electric motor without brushes. + +Buchholz relay +A gas pressure sensing device for protection of oil-filled transformers. + +Buck converter +Any power converter circuit that produces an output voltage less than its input voltage. + +Buck–boost converter +Any power converter circuit that can provide a voltage greater or less than its input voltage. + +Buck–boost transformer +A transformer that can be used to adjust voltage. + +busbar +A set of conductors used to distribute current to many branches. + +bushing +An electrical fitting used to connect external conductors to the interior of apparatus. + +Butterworth filter +A type of filter with the flattest possible pass band. + +buzzer +An electromechanical or electronic device that produces a sound when energized. + +== C == + +Canadian Electrical Code +The technical standard for building wiring in Canada. + +Canadian Standards Association +Non-profit organization that develops electrical and other technical standards. + +capacitance +The ability of a body to hold an electrical charge. + +capacitor +An electrical component that stores energy in an electric field. + +capacitor-input filter +A power supply network where a capacitor is the first element following the rectifier. + +capacitor voltage transformer +In electrical power systems, an instrument transformer for measuring voltage that uses a capacitive voltage divider. + +capacity factor +The ratio of energy produced by a power plant over some period, over its maximum possible energy production in that time. + +carrier current +A system for communications where a carrier signal is impressed on power line wiring. + +carrier wave +A radio wave that can be modulated (changed systematically) to carry information to a receiver. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e9db08ceb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 11/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +maximum prospective short-circuit current +The calculated value of current that could flow if a short circuit occurred; a parameter for selection of circuit protection devices. + +Maxwell's equations +The fundamental relations between electric and magnetic fields, expressed in concise mathematical form. + +mechanical rectifier +An electromechanical device for converting alternating current to direct current, using sets of contacts which operate in synchronism with the AC. + +mechatronics +Combinations of mechanical systems with electronics for sensing and control. + +memristor +A hypothetical non-linear passive two-terminal electrical component relating electric charge and magnetic flux linkage. + +mercury-arc rectifier +A mercury-arc valve; a vacuum tube device that converts alternating current to direct current by an arc in mercury vapor; displaced by solid-state devices, but formerly much used especially in high-voltage direct current transmission. + +mercury vapor lamp +A lamp that generates light from a discharge struck in mercury vapor; formerly widely used in outdoor lighting, now replaced by lamps with better efficacy. + +mesh analysis +A strategy for solution of the voltage distribution in some types of electrical networks. + +mesh networking +A topology where infrastructure nodes connect to other nodes such as to convey information. + +Metadyne +A DC electric machine with crossed fields and two sets of brushes, used as an amplifier or rotary DC transformer. + +metal rectifier +A rectifier made from copper oxide or selenium; formerly widely used before development of silicon rectifiers. + +micro combined heat and power +Equipment that generates process or space heat and electric power, of a size useful for a single building. + +microcontroller +A microprocessor integrated with memory and input/output circuits, useful for embedded control. + +microelectromechanical systems +An electromechanical system of microscopic size; they may be sensors or actuators. + +microelectronics +That part of the field of electronics dealing with integrated circuits. + +microgeneration +Small-scale electric power production, to provide the needs of a small building or individual consumer. + +microphone +A transducer that changes sound into electrical signals. + +microprocessor +A computer with its logical, arithmetic and control functions implemented on one or a few integrated circuits. + +microstrip +A planar transmission line that is fabricated by printed circuit board technology and is used for microwave-frequency signals. + +microstrip antenna +A planar antenna that is fabricated by printed circuit board technology. + +microwave oven +A heating appliance that uses microwave energy. + +microwave radio +The subset of radio technique using wavelengths that are in the range of 3 GHz or higher. + +microwave +Part of the radio spectrum with wavelengths shorter than 10 centimetres. + +Millman's theorem +A theorem stating the relation between branch currents and voltages for multiple sources in parallel. + +mineral-insulated copper-clad cable +Cable with an outer metal cover and insulated by powdered inorganic material, suitable for high temperature; one kind of fire-resistant cable. + +mobile phone +A handset that connects to the public switched telephone network by radio. + +Modbus +A brand name for a serial protocol for industrial control equipment communication. + +model predictive control +A control strategy for process systems based on a mathematical model of the process and its disturbances. + +modem +Modulator-Demodulator, an interface between a computer system and a telephone network. + +modulation transformer +Part of a radio transmitter used to impress modulation on one amplifying stage. + +modulation +The impression of information on a carrier wave for transmission. + +monolithic microwave integrated circuit +An integrated circuit that operates in microwave frequencies and that can be fabricated by printed circuit board technology. + +monoscope +A raster scan video device that generates a single fixed image for test or identification purposes. + +Moore's law +The observation that the number of transistors possible in an integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. + +Morse code +A method of transmitting text by long and short impulses and varying delays between them. + +MOSFET +Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor, a class of transistor using a single type of charge carrier and with a very thin insulating layer between current channel and control gate. If you count those built into integrated circuits, nearly all transistors are MOSFETs. + +motion control +That part of automation that deals with accurately controlling the movements of machines. + +motor controller +Electrical apparatus that regulates and protects an electric motor, which may be as simple as an on-off switch or a servo system for precision machine tools. + +motor soft starter +A device that reduces the inrush current when an electric motor is first connected to the power supply. + +MP3 +A standard for encoding audio in digital form. + +MRI +Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a technique for examining the interiors of, for example, medical patients, using sensitive measurements of the magnetic fields of atomic nuclei. + +multics +An influential early time-sharing computer operating system, first released in 1969. + +multimeter +A test instrument that can measure current, voltage, or resistance (though not concurrently). + +Multisim +A brand of computer software for electronic circuit simulation. + +== N == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..187676330 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 12/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +nameplate capacityThe design power output of a generator, at specified temperature rise. +nanoinverterGrid tied inverters rated less than 100 watts, useful for connection of single solar PV panels to a building AC power system. +nanotechnologyTechnology that uses devices whose principal dimensions are of the order of a few nanometres. +National Electrical CodeThe United States national technical standard for building wiring installation. +National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)A US trade association for electrical manufacturers that also develops technical standards. +negative feedbackFeedback from a control system output that tends to oppose the input. +negative resistanceA voltage/current characteristic where increasing current leads to decreased voltage drop across the device. +negawatt powerIn power grid demand management, that portion of load that can be met by conservation efforts or improved energy efficiency. +neon signStrictly, a sign that glows orange because of a discharge through neon gas; less pedantically, any gas discharge tube formed into a sign. +neon-sign transformerA high-voltage transformer with features intended to support operation of a neon sign. +net meteringA metering plan that allows grid customers with their own generation to be billed only for their net import of energy from the grid. +network analyzerAn analog computer system for modelling power grids; displaced now by digital computers. +network cableCables intended for use in data interconnections, with defined performance parameters. +network protectorA type of circuit breaker used to isolate a fault from a multi-transformer supply network. +neural networkAn artificial neural network, or one of the biological neural networks that the artificial networks are inspired by. +nodal analysisA technique for analysis of currents in an electrical network. +nodeA defined point in an electrical network, with some potential relative to a reference node and where currents can be summed. +noise cancellingA type of microphone that preferentially picks up a nearby sound source and rejects ambient noise. +noise reductionThe techniques used to reduce the perception of noise in a communications path. +noisy-channel coding theoremA theorem that establishes the limits of the error-free data transmission in a noisy communication channel +nominal impedanceThe rated impedance of an element of a circuit. +nonlinear controlThe class of control problems relating to the control of systems that are nonlinear. +nonodeAny electron device (although practically, only vacuum tubes) with nine internal active electrodes controlling electron flow. +Norton's theoremA theorem which states that any network of current sources, voltage sources, and resistors can be simplified to an equivalent network with only a current source and shunt admittance; the dual of Thevenin's theorem. +notch filterA filter with a narrow reject band, used to block, for example, a pilot tone out of a communications network. +NTSCThe US National Television Systems Committee, that developed the analog monochrome and color television standards used for more than 60 years for broadcasting. +nuclear powerProduction of electric power (or propulsion power) by nuclear fission or fusion. +numerical controlDigital automatic control, especially of machine tools. +NuvistorA type of miniature vacuum tube, developed around the same time transistors became common in consumer electronics. +Nyquist frequencyThe maximum frequency that a sampling system can represent accurately. +Nyquist stability criterionA graphical technique for evaluating stability of a feedback system. +Nyquist–Shannon sampling theoremA theorem that establishes the necessary rate to accurately sample a band-limited signal. + +== O == + +observability +In control theory, a measure of how well the internal state of a system corresponds to its measurable outputs. + +Oersted +The CGS unit of magnetic field H. + +ohm +The SI unit of electrical resistance. + +ohmmeter +An instrument that measures electrical resistance. + +Ohm's law +The mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance. + +one-line diagram +A simplified schematic diagram of a power system. +on-premises wiring +Telecommunications wiring owned by the customer. +open-circuit test +A test, of a transformer or other device, with no load connected. +open-circuit voltage +The voltage developed at the terminals of a device with no load connected. +open-circuit time constant method +A method for approximately evaluating the transfer function of an electrical network. +operational amplifier +A type of amplifier with differential inputs, widely used in circuits where feedback determines the circuit properties. +optical fiber +A glass or plastic fiber used to convey signals transmitted by visible light or infrared radiation. +optimal control +The branch of control theory studying optimization of a control system to fit some optimization criterion. +oscillation +A periodic cyclical motion or disturbance. +oscilloscope +An instrument for graphically displaying a waveform as a function of time. +Oudin coil +An early form of high-voltage induction coil identical in principle to a Tesla coil except for being constructed essentially as an auto-transformer. +out of phase +The condition when AC generation sources are not synchronized. +overhead line +Outside plant run on poles or other structures; power transmission or telecommunication wires. +oversampling +Sampling a signal at a rate higher than required by the Nyquist criterion. +overshoot +A transient excursion of a signal beyond its stead state value. +overvoltage +Application of more than rated voltage to a device. +oxygen-free copper +A grade of copper preferred for electrical applications for its low electrical resistance. + +== P == + +padmount transformerA kind of metal enclosed distribution transformer suitable for mounting on grade. +pantographA linkage that supports the current collector of an electric locomotive. +paraformerA device similar to a transformer that couples energy between two circuits by varying magnetic parameters. +parameter estimationIn estimation theory, the practice of assigning values to a process model so it accurately predicts the process's behavior. + +Park transform +A mathematical technique useful in the analysis of three-phase systems. + +partial dischargeBreakdown of insulating gas or solid material by an electric field, but without formation of an arc. +passivityIncapable of adding energy to a signal or process. +patch cablesShort cables with connectors, used to make connections between outlets of a patch panel or for temporary connections to a system under test. +peak demandThe maximum rate at which energy is consumed from an electrical grid; may be either an instantaneous measure or the maximum energy transferred in some interval such as 15 minutes. + +Peltier–Seebeck effect +The thermoelectric effect, movement of heat due to electric current flow. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..116c0bca7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 13/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pentagrid converter +A type of self-oscillating vacuum tube used a frequency mixer in superheterodyne receivers. + +pentodeAny five-electrode electron device, but usually a kind of vacuum tube. +permanent magnet synchronous generatorAn AC generator that uses a permanent field magnet instead of an electromagnet. +permanent magnetA magnet that retains its polarization after an external field is removed. +permeabilityThe amount of magnetisation in a material resulting from an applied magnetic field. +phase converter +Any electrical apparatus that converts power from one system of phases to another system, e.g. the conversion of single-phase power to three-phase. + +phase-fired controllers +An AC power controller that adjusts the effective value of output by switching on at a variable time phase in the AC cycle. + +phase locked loop +An oscillator circuit that produces an output signal that is in a fixed timing relation to a reference input. + +phase modulationImpressing information on a carrier wave by advancing or delaying the waveform slightly; related to frequency modulation. +phasorA vector representing a signal of a given frequency in phase space. +phasor measurement unitA system that measures the timing and amplitude of voltages and currents on an electrical grid, synchronized over a wide geographic area; the resulting measurements can be used to manage power flow on the grid. + +phonograph +A record player, a device that converts the mechanical movements of a stylus in a disk or cylinder recording groove into sound. + +photocell +A light sensor that produces or alters a voltage when light is present. + +photodetector +Any device that detects visible light. + +photodiode +A two-terminal device whose terminal voltage or current changes in response to light. + +photometer +An instrument that measures light. + +photonics +The technology of conveying information through light or infrared radiation. + +photoresistor +A resistor whose resistance varies when light strikes it. + +phototransistorA transistor sensitive to light. +PID controllerA process control system that has proportional, integral and derivative terms in its response to errors between measured value and setpoint. +piezoelectric effectProduction of a voltage in response to mechanical pressure or mechanical deformation. +piezoelectric motorA type of motor that uses piezoelectric elements to generate force. +PIN diodeA multilayer semiconductor diode with a thin region of intrinsic material between its p-doped and n-doped regions. +planar graphIn network theory, a set of nodes and interconnecting lines that can be given in one plane without crossing lines. + +plasma +A state of matter where electric charges are free to move. + +plenum cableA fire-resistant data communications cable that is permitted to be installed in the air handling spaces of a modern building. +plug-in hybridA hybrid electric vehicle that can be recharged from grid power as well as its own engine/generator. +P-N junctionThe boundary between two differently doped regions of a semiconductor. +polarization densityA measure of the increase of the intensity of an electric field over that in free space, owing to the separation of atomic-scale electric dipoles. +polyphase coilA coil intended for connection to a polyphase power supply. +polyphase systemAn alternating current power transmission system using three or more wires, each of which carries a current that is displaced in time with respect to the others. +Pontryagin's minimum principleA mathematical principle used in the theory of optimal control. +portAny place at which energy can be observed to enter or leave a system. + +positive feedback +Feedback from the output of a system that tends to increase the effect of any input; if overdone, leads to instability. + +potential differenceA voltage difference, the amount of work required to bring a test charge from one point to another divided by charge magnitude. +potentiometerA three-terminal variable resistor, which can be configured as an adjustable voltage divider. +power BJTA bipolar junction transistor that can be used in circuits handling a watt or more of power. + +power cable +A flexible, insulated electrical conduit used to conduct and transmit electric power. + +power conditionerAny system intended to alter some property of the bulk power supply to improve it for some application; such as filters, surge suppressors, voltage regulators, uninterruptible power supplies, and many others. +power consumptionThe rate at which a device consumes energy. + +power converterAny apparatus intended to convert electric power from one form to another, e.g. by converting between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) with an inverter or rectifier, or by changing frequency or phase number. + +power electronics +The class of electronic devices handling power greater than one watt. + +power engineeringThat part of electrical engineering that deals with the generation, distribution and consumption of electrical power. + +power-factor correctionApparatus intended to bring the power factor of some load closer to 1. + +power factorThe ratio of apparent power flowing to a load divided by the real power. + +power-flow studyA load flow study; mathematical prediction of the magnitudes and direction of power flow in an existing or planned power grid; an essential part of grid management. +power generationThe practice of converting other energy sources to electric power. +power gridAn interconnected network of generators, transmission lines, and apparatus for reliable and economic transmission and utilization of electric power. + +power inverter +See inverter. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6b113e0e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 14/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +power-line communicationThe impression of carrier waves on a power line circuit for signalling purposes. +power MOSFETA metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor suitable for use in circuits handling more than a watt of power. +power plantA facility that converts other energy forms into electric power. +power ratingThe nominal power that an apparatus or machine can handle, with specified or customary temperature rise and life expectancy. +power qualityConformance of an electrical power supply with its specifications. +power storageA facility that changes electric power into some form that can be stored and usefully reconverted back to electric power, for example, pumped storage or battery systems. +power supplyA subsystem of a computer or other electronic device that turns electric power from a wall plug or batteries into a form suitable for use by the system. +power-system automationThe implementation of power-operated switching and control that allows automatic operation of power system elements, instead of manual operation. +power-system protectionThe technology of limiting the spread of failures of a power system to a minimum, and of preventing permanent damage to apparatus or conductors by such faults. +printed circuit boardAn etched wiring assembly for interconnection of electronic components. +printerA device that makes permanent human readable images and text from computer data. +process controlThe field of study of automatic control of processes. +programmable logic controllerA computer system designed to be rugged enough for industrial use and with a programming environment highly tuned to the domain of industrial control problems. +programming languageA formalism for human-readable instructions to a computer. +protective relayAn electromechanical or electronic device that detects faults on a power system and can signal circuit breakers to operate. +proximity effectThe increase in circuit resistance when the magnetic fields of multiple AC currents interact. +pulse transformerA transformer designed to create or transmit pulses. +pulse-width modulationTransmission of information by varying the duration of pulses, or, varying the average output voltage of a power converter by varying the duration of pulses. +pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)Transmission of information by varying the magnitude of a stream of pulses of fixed frequency. +pulse-code modulationAny system for conveying analog information by altering some property of a stream of pulses. +pumped-storage hydroelectricityA grid energy storage system that pumps water uphill for later use by a hydroelectric generator plant. +push switchA device that closes or opens an electrical circuit when pushed. +push–pull converterA converter with two sets of primary switching elements so that the transformer primary voltage can be reversed on each cycle. + +== Q == + +quadrature booster +A phase shifting transformer that can inject voltages that are time delayed with respect to the input voltage. +quality factor +In a resonant circuit, the ratio of stored energy to energy dissipated on each cycle of oscillation. +quantization +Analog to digital conversion, changing a continuously varying analog signal to discrete digital numbers. + +== R == + +radar cross sectionThe effective reflecting area of a radar target, which varies with frequency, geometry, and surface composition. +radarRadio Detection and Ranging, the techniques for observing the speed and position of objects by reflected radio waves. +radio frequencyElectromagnetic waves with frequencies less than that of infrared radiation; commercially important radio frequencies range from tens of kilohertz up to around a terahertz. +radio transmitterApparatus designed to generate radio frequency electric current, which, connected to an antenna, can radiate energy through space. +radioThe technology of radio frequency devices. +railway electrification systemA set of standardized methods for applying electric power in railway traction. +Rankine cycleA thermodynamic cycle, an idealized version of the operation cycle of a steam turbine. +reactive powerThat component of apparent power flow due to the return to the source of energy stored in a load's electric or magnetic fields, that does no useful work at the load. +real-time operating systemA computer operating system that ensures responses with a bounded time to events such as in a controlled process. +receiverThe apparatus that takes radio-frequency currents induced in an antenna and turns them into useful signals. +rechargeable batteryA secondary battery; a battery that can have a useful portion of its capacity restored by connection to a supply of electric current. +reciprocity (electrical networks)A theorem that states that the current injected into one point in a network will produce a voltage at a second point that is identical to the voltage produced at the first point by injection of the same current at the first point +reciprocity (electromagnetism)An observation that electric currents and electric fields can be analyzed from either point of view as regards the source of the energy in the system; for example, in radio, a good transmitting antenna is generally also a good receiving antenna. +record playerA phonograph; a device that turns the variations in a disk or cylinder recording groove into sound. +rectifierA device that converts alternating current (which periodically reverses) to direct current that flows in only one direction; may be a solid-state, vacuum tube or electromechanical device. + +rectiformer +A combination of a transformer and a rectifier, used in electrochemical processes or supply of electrostatic precipitators. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd1439e89 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 15/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +recursive least squares filterAn algorithm for a digital filter system. +Reed switchAn electrical switch made of two thin strips of ferromagnetic metal, which touch when subject to a magnetic field. +regenerative brakingA braking scheme that returns energy to the source. +regenerative circuitA circuit that employs positive feedback; can be an amplifier or an oscillator. +relaxation oscillatorAn oscillator that relies on an active device periodically changing state; such oscillators usually produce a square-wave or sawtooth waveform, different from the approximately sinusoidal waveshape of a harmonic oscillator. +relayAn electrically operated switch. +reluctance motorA type of electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic poles on the ferromagnetic rotor, relying on varying magnetic reluctance; the rotor carries no windings. +remanenceThat portion of the applied magnetic field that the material retains when the external field is removed. +remote racking systemA system for inserting circuit breakers into switchgear that allows the operator to stay at a safe distance from any possible arc hazard. +remote sensingAcquisition of measurements of an object without contact, for example, measuring soil moisture by radar from an aircraft. +renewable electricityElectric power derived from primary energy sources that replenish on a rapid scale or that are not appreciably diminished by human exploitation. +renewable energy paymentsAny incentive program to improve the economic return of a renewable energy project. +renewable energy policyGovernment plans to displace fossil fuels with renewable sources. + +repeating coil +An old name for a transformer, especially one used in telephone circuits. + +repoweringRefurbishing the equipment of a power plant, with a view to improved efficiency or life span. +repulsion motorA wound rotor induction motor using a pair of short-circuited brushes on a commutator. +resettable fuseA circuit protective device that opens on excess current, and then, on cooling off, restores the circuit automatically. + +residual-current device (RCD) +Also residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) or ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). +A type of Earth-leakage circuit breaker designed to interrupt an electrical circuit when the currents passing through line and neutral conductors are not equal, which indicates that some amount of current is leaking to ground or to another unintended path that is not part of the circuit. By detecting this imbalance of phase currents and automatically interrupting the circuit, these devices function as protective systems to reduce the severity of injury caused by an electric shock. + +resistive circuitA circuit containing resistive elements only, no capacitors or inductors. + +resistivity +The property of a material that impedes current flow. + +resistorA circuit component that primarily has resistance. +resolverA transformer-like rotary transducer that measures rotation as an analog value. +resonant cavityAn opening that when excited by an electron stream or other means, oscillates at a particular frequency. +resonant inductive couplingA form of energy transfer between two physically close tuned circuits. +return lossA measure of the power loss due to a signal reflection by a discontinuity in a transmission line or an optical fiber. +RF connectorAn electrical fitting used to connect cables carrying radio frequency currents. +RF engineeringThe profession that deals with application of radio frequency energy to useful ends. +rheoscopeObsolete name for an ammeter; now an instrument for measuring fluid viscosity. +rheostatObsolete name for a two terminal variable resistor, usually with a rotating shaft to allow manual or motor driven adjustment. +right-hand ruleA mnemonic device for remembering the definitions of the directions of current and magnetic field in generators. + +ripple +A periodic variation in the amplitude of a DC signal, such as can be found in a power supply with partly effective filtering. + +RLC circuitA circuit that has only resistors, inductors, and capacitors in it. +roboticsThe field of automation that deals with manipulators, especially those that mimic human appendages. +robust controlA static control algorithm that can produce acceptable performance over an anticipated useful range of process disturbances. +Rogowski coilA current sensing coil that produces a voltage proportional to the rate of change of current; by integration, this can be turned into a measure of current. +root locusA graphical method for analyzing the properties of a transfer function as some parameter is varied. +root mean squareThe root mean square value of a waveform is the DC value that corresponds to equivalent heating value. +rotary converterAn electric machine that converts electric power between two forms, say, AC and DC or single-phase and three phase, or between two different frequencies of AC (the latter two can be performed by the same machine). +rotary encoderA transducer that converts rotation of a shaft to a measurement. +rotary switchA switch operated manually or electrically with a rotary motion of the contacts. +rotary transformerA transformer used to couple electric signals or power between rotating parts. +rotary variable differential transformerA transformer-like transducer that measures rotation as an analog value. +rotorThat part of an electrical machine that rotates. Not necessarily the armature. +Routh–Hurwitz stability criterionA criterion for predicting the stability of a system with a given transfer function. + +== S == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a9a3ea46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 16/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sallen–Key filterA family of active filters with a second-order characteristic, first described in 1955. sample and holdA circuit that takes a sample of a changing analog value and holds onto it until the value can be processed by some other stage. samplingThe process of taking a continually varying signal and turning it into a stream of numbers taken at regular intervals. sampling frequencyThe rate at which an analog value is sampled. satelliteA natural or artificial object that circles another, bound only by gravity. satellite radioA radio broadcasting service using signals from an Earth satellite to customer receivers. saturationThat point in the magnetization of a substance where most magnetic domains are aligned with the external field; further increase of the magnetizing force (H) gives only small increase in the magnetization (B). SCADASupervisory Control and Data Acquisition, management of geographically distributed automation systems such as for an electrical grid. scattering parametersA matrix that describes the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks, most prominently the distributed microwave systems. Schmitt triggerA circuit that behaves like a snap-action switch, suddenly changing state as an analog signal increases; displays hysteresis. Schottky diodeA diode that relies on the junction between a semiconductor and a metal. Scott-T transformerA transformer connection for balanced interconnection of a two-phase system and a three-phase system. s-domainA Laplace transform converts a function from the time domain to the "complex frequency" s-domain; making certain mathematical operations much simpler to evaluate. SDTV"Standard definition television" – what descriptions of HDTV call any system with 625 scan lines or less. segmentationA step in digital image processing that groups picture elements of an image that notionally represent some physically significant property of the imaged objects. selenium rectifiersOne type of metal rectifier, though selenium is considered a "metalloid" – formerly much used but now replaced by silicon semiconductors. semiconductorA substance with electrical conductivity between that of insulators and conductors; displays a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, and is also sensitive to light. The conductivity of semiconductors can readily be altered by trace amounts of other substances, leading to devices that are the foundation of nearly all modern electronics. semiconductor deviceA device that relies on substances with electrical conductivity between that of insulators and conductors; the controllable conductivity of these materials makes most of modern electronics possible. semiconductor fabricationThe process of turning the raw source of silicon into transistors and integrated circuits. sensorA device or system that converts some physical event into an electronic signal, for further use in measurement or control. serial communicationTransmission of data as a single series of bits over a communication path. series and parallel circuitsElectrical circuits where current passes through multiple elements either one after the other, or side by side, like the rungs of a ladder, or both. shaded-pole motorAn alternating current single-phase motor that produces a rotating magnetic field by a turn of wire around part of a field pole. shaft voltage +An objectionable stray voltage that appears on the rotating part of an electrical machine; very deleterious to supporting bearings. shielded twisted pair +Two wires, wrapped around each other and covered with a flexible shield conductor; intended to reject external interference. short-circuit testA test of machines or apparatus where the load terminals are directly connected; usually done at reduced power to prevent damage, but destructive short circuit testing may be carried out on circuit protective devices. short circuitA path in a circuit that has negligible resistance; often un-intended, a fault. shuntA small value resistor connected around a metering element to carry most of the current; only a small part passes through the meter. siemensA reciprocal ohm, the SI unit of conductance. The former Siemens mercury unit was a unit of resistance. signalSome intentional modification of a physical communication path that is intended to convey information from one place to another. signal processingThe technology to extract information from signals. signal strengthA measure of the usable power of a physical signal. signal-flow graphA formal mathematical treatment of the representation of signal flow through a system, such as an analog computer or a radio receiver. signal-to-noise ratioA measure of the power contained in the useful part of the signal, to the power contained in noise. Often measured in decibels; for example, in sound reproduction a 40 or 50 decibel signal to noise ratio would be broadcast quality, whereas a 10 decibel ratio would represent very difficult operating conditions for a voice radio system. silicon controlled rectifierA four layer semiconductor switching device that can stand off an applied voltage until triggered by an electrical pulse on a control lead. Silicon ValleyInitially, a region of California known for a large number of electronics technology firms. sine waveThe waveform of the mathematical sine function; a fundamental wave shape, free of harmonics. single-phase electric powerAn alternating current power system using only two wires, where peak voltages in each wire occur at the same time. single-sideband modulationA radio carrier modulation system where redundant frequencies of one duplicate side band are filtered out along with the carrier, to save transmitter power. skin effectThe tendency of alternating current to flow at the periphery of a conductor; significant for large conductors at power frequencies, and increasingly significant as the frequency increases. sliding mode controlA control strategy for a nonlinear system that uses discontinuous control signals. slip ringA sliding continuous electrical contact between a machine's rotating parts and the fixed external circuit. small-signal modelAn analytical tool for systems that show significant non-linearity for large signal excursions. smart gridThe application of information technology to improve performance of the electrical grid. Smith chartA graphical tool for display of the impedance of devices at varying frequencies, and for solution of problems of impedance matching in radio frequency design. software engineeringThe profession of designing software systems to meet specified performance requirements. softwareThe set of instructions and data that direct a computer system. solar cellA photovoltaic cell, used to produce power from sunlight. solar energyUseful energy extracted by some means from sunlight. solar micro-inverterAn inverter suitable for use with a single solar panel. solderingThe process of joining metals using a low melting point filler metal; a critical process in the assembly of most electronic devices. solenoidA coil of wire used to create a magnetic field; often a device with a ferromagnetic plunger that moves when the coil is energized. solid stateElectronics that relies on current flow through crystalline lattices. solid state physicsThat branch of physics that studies arrangements of atoms in fixed arrays. sound recordingThe technology of recording sound for later reproduction. space vector modulationA control strategy for variable frequency motor drives. spark spreadThe difference between the revenue from selling a unit of electricity and the cost of the fuel used to make it. spark-gap transmitterA former type of radio transmitter that generated radio frequency current by exciting resonance of a tuned system with an electric spark, used almost entirely for transmission of Morse code. spectrum analyzerAn instrument that graphically displays the amplitude of signals in a narrow bandwidth across a frequency band. speech processingThe techniques for improving the intelligibility of human speech in a communications system. SPICEA set of computer programs for modelling the behavior of electronic circuits. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..04f36be17 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 17/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +split phase distributionA type of distribution system that uses a center tapped transformer to provide two voltages to a building wiring system. split phase motorA type of single phase motor that uses a resistor, inductor, or capacitor and two windings to obtain a rotating magnetic field. square waveA waveform that spends equal times at the positive and negative peak values with rapid transitions between them. stability theoryThe systematic study of control systems that deals with their response to disturbances. stable polynomialThat class of polynomials representing the transfer functions of stable control systems. stacking factorA measure of the efficiency of filling the space of a machine core or winding; the proportion of active material in any given unit cross section. standing wave ratioA measure of impedance mismatch for transmission lines in microwave engineering; the ratio of peak amplitude of a standing wave to its minimum. star-mesh transformA mathematical technique used in circuit analysis. state observerIn control theory, that which discovers and reports the internal state of a controlled system. state space representationA mathematical technique to represent the internal state of a controlled system as a vector in a Euclidean space. static VAR compensatorA system that adjusts reactive power flow without moving parts, such as an electronically controlled capacitor bank. statorThat part of a rotating electrical machine that remains stationary. steady-stateThe condition of a control system where changes due to some disturbance are no longer occurring at a significant rate. steam turbineA rotating machine that converts the energy of expanding steam to mechanical power through its interactions with sets of moving and stationary blades. step responseThe behavior of a control system in response to an abrupt change of input. stepper motorAn electric motor that moves its shafts in discrete steps as different poles are energized. stereophonic soundSound reproduction systems intended to reproduce sound emanating from more than one direction. Stokes' theoremA theorem about integration of three-dimensional functions, much used in analysis of electric fields. storage tubeA type of cathode ray tube, used for storing images or data. stray capacitanceA property of every conductor, when considered as a non-ideality. structured cablingA system for design of the telephone and data communications cable systems of a building. submarine communications cableA telephone or telegraph cable that is substantially under water. sulfur hexafluoride circuit breakerA kind of automatic circuit protection switch that breaks current in an atmosphere of pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas to extinguish the arc. super gridA wide area power transmission network that allows interchange over continental distances. supercomputerA computer with a substantially higher level of performance than a general-purpose machine; especially adapted for high intensity calculation on large data sets. superconducting electric machineAn experimental type of generator or motor that has part of its electric circuits in the superconducting state. superconductivityThe loss of all electrical resistance at inconveniently low temperatures. superheterodyne receiverA radio receiver that changes incoming frequencies to a fixed intermediate frequency for processing. superposition theoremThe useful property of a system where the response to the sum is the sum of the responses. surge arresterA device intended to absorb brief transient overvoltages to protect machines or apparatus. surge protectionThe measures taken to protect machines and apparatus from transient overvoltages. switchAn electrical device that opens and closes a circuit; it may be manually operated, automatically operated by some other electrical circuit, or operated by the change in some physical condition such as flow, level, or temperature. switched reluctance motorA motor that relies on induced magnetism in salient poles, instead of a rotor winding. switched-mode power supplyA power converter that regulates voltage by adjusting the time duration of a switching device; this gives reduced heat dissipation compared to an equivalent linear regulator device. switchgearAn array of switches, circuit breakers and related apparatus for power distribution. symbolic circuit analysisAnalytical circuit analysis in terms of expressions with variables, instead of numerical solutions for a particular case of values. symmetrical componentsA technique to simplify analysis of unbalanced polyphase systems. synchroA synchromotor, a class of electrical motors that follows the rotation of a source. synchronizationAligning the timing of two or more sources, such as synchronizing a generator before connecting it to a grid. synchronous circuitA logic circuit where internal state changes only propagate in step with a master clock signal. synchronous motorA motor that rotates at a speed exactly related to the supply frequency. synchronous rectificationA converter from alternating to direct current, where switching devices actively are operated in step with the positive and negative excursions of the supply. synchroscopeAn instrument used to bring an alternating current generator into synchronization with a grid, that uses a moving pointer or set of lamps. system identificationThe technique of development of a mathematical model of a controlled system; model identification. system on a chipAn integrated circuit that combines multiple significant subsystems of a product on one die, for example, analog signal processing and digital controls. system on moduleA packaging of significant functions of a complete product in a form that can be used in more than one product. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b52169052 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 18/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== T == + +tachometerAn instrument that measures rotational speed (or angular velocity). +tapA connection to a winding at some point between the ends, used to adjust voltage. +tap changerA switch that selects which transformer tap is connected to an external circuit; may be manually operated, or power operated; some types can be operated under load for voltage regulation purposes. +technical drawingDrawings intended to convey information for construction, operation or maintenance of a system or equipment. +telecommunicationThe field that deals with transmission of information over distances longer than can be covered by an unaided human. +Telecommunications Industry AssociationA US based trade association that develops technical standards. +telegraphA system for transmitting text messages, by wire or other means. +telegrapher's equationsCoupled linear partial differential equations that relate the voltage and current on a transmission line. +telephone balance unitA balun, a transformer used to convert between balanced and unbalanced lines, as used in telephone circuits. +telephone lineOutside plant that connects a central office to subscriber equipment. +telephoneTransmission of voice by electrical means. +televisionTransmission of moving images by electrical means. +Tellegen's theoremA theorem relating to branch currents in an electrical network. +teslaThe SI unit of magnetic flux density. +Tesla coilA kind of resonant transformer capable of very high voltages; almost identical to an Oudin coil except that it has separately wound primary and secondary. +tetrodeAn electron device, nearly always a vacuum tube, with four internal active electrodes. +thermionic emissionEmission of electrons from a hot surface; the Edison Effect was an early instance of description of this phenomenon. +thermistorA temperature sensitive resistor with a large, somewhat variable, temperature coefficient of resistance. +thermocoupleA junction of two dissimilar metals that generates voltage when at a temperature above absolute zero. +thermoelectric effectThe conversion between heat flow and current flow, and the reverse. +thermostatA temperature sensing switch. +Thévenin theoremA theorem which states that any network of current sources, voltage sources and resistors can be simplified to an equivalent network with only a voltage source and series impedance; the dual of Norton's Theorem. +third railAn energized conductor in the track bed, using a sliding contact to transfer power to an electric train. +three-phase AC railway electrificationApplication of three-phase power to railways. +three-phase electric powerElectric power transmission using three conductors carrying currents which peak at separate evenly spaced times in each cycle; widely used for motors. +thyristorA four layer semiconductor device that stands off applied voltage until triggered. +thyristor driveA variable speed drive, usually with direct current motors, using thyristors as the switching elements. +tidal powerExtraction of useful energy, usually as electric power, from the tidal rise and fall of water. +time sharingA system whereby multiple human users of a computer can proceed as if they had sole use, while the computer processes each user's software in round-robin fashion. +time-invariant systemA systems whose characteristics don't vary significantly with time. +topologyThe shape of an electrical network, independent of its size or values. +toroidal inductors and transformersMagnetic coils wound around a ring of ferromagnetic material. +total harmonic distortion (THD)A measure of the magnitude of harmonically-related frequency components a signal processing stage adds. +traction batteryA battery used to store energy for propelling a wheeled electric vehicle. +traction currentPower supply for wheeled electric vehicles. +traction motorAn electric motor for a wheeled vehicle. +traction substationA substation that supplies current to a railway, subway or similar electric wheeled transit. +transatlantic communications cableA cable for voice or data running under the Atlantic Ocean. +transceiverApparatus that combines a receiver and transmitter. +transconductance +transducerAn instrument that converts a physical quantity into another electrical or physical quantity. +transfer functionThe mathematical relation between input and output, usually expressed in terms of frequency or complex frequency (s-domain). +transformer oil testingExamination of transformer oil for its insulating strength, dissolved moisture and other properties, to ensure it is still suitable for use. +transformer oilA hydrocarbon liquid that cools and insulates transformers and other types of electrical apparatus. +transformerA static arrangement of conductors and possibly magnetic materials, that transfers energy by electromagnetic induction. +transformerboardA kind of insulating paperboard used for internal structures of large oil filled power transformers. +transient responseThe short-time response of a system to a disturbance. +TransilA brand of transient voltage suppression diode. +transistorA three terminal solid state device used as an amplifier or switch. +transmissionThe process of getting a signal from one point to another. +transmission lineAn arrangement of conductors for movement of electric power; used from DC to upper radio frequencies. +transmission system operatorA corporation that runs the transmission system between sources of power and distribution substations. +transmission towerA structure for support of overhead transmission wires. +transmitterApparatus that prepares a signal for emission into some medium, such as a radio transmitter or a sonar transmitter. +traveling-wave tubeA type of microwave amplifier vacuum tube. +trembler coilA kind of high-voltage coil that includes an interrupting mechanism, formerly used in automobile ignition systems. +TRIACA variation of the thyristor that can pass bidirectional (ac) current. +triangle waveA waveform composed of straight-line segments that extend from minus peak to plus peak. +trigger transformerA transformer that generates a pulse to initiate some other device, such as a thyristor or a flash tube. +triodeAn electron device, nearly always a vacuum tube, that has three active electrodes. +trolley poleA support for a current collector on a vehicle. +trolleybusStrictly, a passenger vehicle that collects motive electric power from a pair of overhead conductors. +tuned circuitA circuit that displays a peak response at some frequency. +twisted pairTwo wires twisted around each other, possibly covered with an overall sheath; this configuration rejects some kinds of interference. +two-phase electric powerAn electric power system using two sets of alternating currents, displaced in time by a quarter period. +two-port networkA network that has two places to exchange energy with its surroundings. +two-sided Laplace transformA variant of the Laplace transform that simplifies certain operations. + +== U == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5802d0a19 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 19/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ubiquitous computing +A scenario where computer science is made to appear everywhere. +ultrasonic motor +A motor that relies on a component oscillating at an ultrasonic frequency. +ultrasonics +Term for the field of study pertaining to pressure oscillations in air or other media that are above the range of human hearing. +ultrasound +Sound having a frequency above the range of normal human hearing. A portmanteau of the former description of 'ultrasonic sound' +undersampling +Sampling a signal at less than the Nyquist rate; can produce alias frequencies or other artifacts. +unijunction transistor +A three terminal semiconductor device with a definite switching characteristic and only one PN junction. +unshielded twisted pair +Two wires wrapped around each other, but without a conductive cover. +upsampling +Sampling at greater than the Nyquist rate, which makes filter design easier. +utility frequency +60 or 50 cycles per second, used for electric power. +utility pole +A columnar structure that carries wires for electrical power distribution, cable television, telephone or similar services. + +== V == + +vacuum capacitor +A capacitor using vacuum as its dielectric; useful at high voltages or radio frequency. +vacuum tube +An electron device that relies on flow of electrons through a vacuum or low-pressure gas; a valve. The first electronic devices that could amplify. +valve +A switching element (mercury arc, thyristor, or other device) in a high-voltage direct current converter; each phase contains two or more valves, which may be series-connected for higher voltages. Or, a vacuum tube. +variable capacitor +A capacitor whose value can be changed, by rotating a shaft, squeezing a plate or by an electrical signal; for example, as used to tune a radio. +variable-frequency drive +A power converter that varies the speed of an AC motor by changing its frequency; usually, today, a solid-state device. +Variac +One brand of adjustable transformer, that can essentially continuously vary the ratio between primary and secondary. +varicap +Variable capacitor – usually a diode whose reverse-biased junction capacitance can be varied by applied voltage. +varistor +Variable resistor – a protective device that has a high resistance at low voltage but momentarily switches to lower resistance on exposure to a high voltage. +vector control +A strategy for control of variable-speed motor drives. +vector group +The classification of the connections of a polyphase transformer. +vehicle-to-grid +A concept to use electric vehicle batteries as a form of grid energy storage. +vehicular automation +Automatic systems to assist, or replace, the driver of a vehicle. +Versorium +An antique version of an electroscope. +vibrator +An electromechanical interrupter, part of a DC-to-AC converter in a battery-operated vacuum tube radio, or similar application. Some had additional contacts to act as a synchronous rectifier. +video camera tube +A family of vacuum tube devices used to pick up images and transmit them electronically. +video processing +The techniques used to enhance video images. +virtual instrumentation +A software-intensive measuring system that can be programmed to emulate any of a number of conventional measuring instruments, or some combination of measuring functions. +virtual power plant +A strategy for managing a collection of disparate power sources, interconnected with a communications network, as if they were a single centralized power plant. +VLSI +Very Large Scale Integration, the ability to put hundreds of thousands of interconnected transistors onto one chip. +volt +The SI unit of electrical potential difference; moving a charge of one coulomb through a potential of one volt transfers one joule of energy. +voltage +The electric potential difference between two points. +voltage compensation +Generally, adjustment of a voltage source to compensate for voltage drop; techniques differ widely between a computer power supply and a long-distance power line. +voltage-controlled amplifier +An amplifier that has its gain controlled by a voltage signal. +voltage controller +A device that adjusts the (effective) voltage to a load. +voltage converter +Any device that changes electric power at one voltage to power at a second; a transformer is a common example of an AC voltage converter. +voltage division +A circuit that produces an output voltage that is some, perhaps adjustable, fraction of the input voltage. +voltage doubler +A rectifier circuit that can product an output DC voltage of nearly twice the input AC voltage. +voltage regulation +A measure of how a source maintains its output voltage for varying load. +voltage regulator +A system that automatically stabilizes the voltage at which power is supplied to a downstream system. +voltage source +In circuit theory, a hypothetical element that maintains a specified voltage between its terminals independent of the current through it. +voltage spike +A transient electrical voltage higher than normal appearing on an electrical supply. +voltage-to-current converter +A circuit that produces an output current proportional to an input voltage. +volt-ampere +The unit of apparent power in an AC circuit. +voltmeter +An instrument for measuring potential difference. + +== W == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..142fbf3cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 20/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +war of the currents +The late 19th century commercial dispute on whether AC or DC was the best system for power distribution. +Ward Leonard control +A speed control system for DC machines using an interconnected generator and motor. +watt +The SI unit of power, work done per unit time. +wattmeter +An instrument that measures electrical power. +waveguide +A tubular structure that guides electromagnetic waves, much used at microwave frequencies; an optical fiber is a kind of optical waveguide. +weber +The SI unit of magnetic flux. +wet transformer +In telephone systems, a matching transformer that can operate while carrying a substantial DC "wetting" current. +Wien bridge oscillator +A type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves and is based on a bridge circuit. +Wiener filter +A class of filters used in signal processing, used to fit an estimate to noisy signal data. +Williams tube +A cathode ray vacuum tube used as an early form of computer memory. +wind farm +An array of two or more wind turbines, usually sharing a substation. +wind power +Generation of electricity (sometimes mechanical power) from wind. +wind turbine +A rotating machine that extracts energy from wind. +wire +A strand of metal much, much, longer than it is wide; a conductor, often coated with insulation. +wireless network +Data network relying on radio for the connection to end device; may span a building or a larger area. +wireless telegraphy +Transmission of text by radio; usually implies Morse or radio-teletype. + +== X == + +X-ray +Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than ten nanometres. Strictly: radiation that is produced in the electron shell of atoms. +X-ray lithography +A developing technique for production of very high density structures in integrated circuits. + +== Y == + +Yagi antenna +A type of radio antenna using a feeder element, one or more parasitic reflector elements, and one or more director parasitic elements to provide a directional characteristic; the classic home TV rooftop antenna was usually a Yagi antenna. +Y-delta transform +A mathematical technique in circuit analysis to simplify a circuit. + +== Z == + +Zener diode +Nickname for "voltage regulator diodes" which may rely either on the Zener effect or avalanche breakdown to maintain a roughly constant voltage; the two effects have opposite temperature coefficients of voltage. +Ziegler-Nichols tuning method +It is a heuristic method of tuning a PID controller. +zigzag transformer +A multiwinding three phase transformer, sometimes used for grounding. +Z-transform +A mathematical operation that converts a set of evenly spaced measurements of an analog signal into a series of frequency components. +HVDC Technology: High Voltage Direct Current. It plays a crucial role in modern renewable energy integration and grid decarbonization. + +== See also == +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of civil engineering +Glossary of mechanical engineering +Glossary of structural engineering + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c9e86a61b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,165 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 3/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Category 3 cable +A performance standard for unshielded twisted pair cables for analog voice and low speed data circuits within a building. + +Category 5e cable +A performance standard for unshielded twisted pair cables for telephone and data within a building. + +Category 6 cable +A performance standard for unshielded twisted pair cables for telephone and high speed data within a building. + +catenary +A geometric form of curve, the shape of a uniform cable hanging between two supports. + +cathode ray oscilloscope +An electronic instrument that displays the wave shape of electrical signals on a cathode ray tube. + +cathode ray tube +A vacuum tube that relies on an electron beam – usually used to render images on a fluorescent screen such as in television sets. + +cathode +The terminal of an electrochemical or electronic device from which conventional current exits the device. + +cat's-whisker detector +A radio detector that uses a manually-set "whisker" contact to a crystal of galena or other material, to form a rectifying junction. + +CATV +Cable television, distribution of television programming over a wire instead of by radio broadcast. + +cavity magnetron +A vacuum tube that is a high power microwave oscillator, using a resonant cavity and electrons traveling through a magnetic field. + +CD +A "Compact Disc" used to store digital data or digitally recorded sound using an infrared laser. + +center tap +A connection on a transformer which has equal voltage to either end of the transformer winding. + +ceramic resonator +A piezoelectric element used to stabilize the frequency of an oscillator. + +channel +Any communication path between a signal transmitter and a signal receiver, or, a pre-selected operating frequency for a radio system. + +channel capacity +An upper bound on the rate at which information can be reliably transmitted over a communication channel. + +charactron +A kind of text display vacuum tube that used an internal element to shape an electron beam to represent the shape of letters and other symbols. + +charge pump +A DC to DC converter circuit that uses capacitors to store energy between stages. + +charge transfer switch +A kind of charge pump circuit. + +charge-coupled device +An imaging sensor or data storage device that represents a signal, or pixel, by the charge stored in a capacitor and is able to move that charge from one capacitor to the next. + +Chebyshev filter +A form of filter that has a steep frequency selective characteristic. + +choke +An induction coil used to block alternating current and pass direct current, or to block high frequencies and pass lower frequencies. + +chopper +A circuit that switches on and off at a high rate, used either for power conversion or to convert a DC signal to a more easily processed AC signal. + +circle diagram +A representation of the voltage and current characteristics of an electrical machine; the plot traces out a circle or part of a circle. + +circuit breaker panel +A distribution board for electric power that uses circuit breakers as protective elements. + +circuit breaker +An automatically operated electrical switch that opens to interrupt a short circuit or other fault. + +circuit theory +The mathematical theory of electrical circuits. + +Circuit Total Limitation (CTL) +A US National Electrical Code rule for the number of circuits in a panel board. + +clamp meter +An ammeter that measures current with a split core that can be clamped on a wire. + +Clapp oscillator +An electronic oscillator circuit that uses three capacitors and an inductor. + +class of accuracy in electrical measurements +A measure of the error produced by an electrical measuring instrument. + +closed-loop controller +Any controller that manipulates some process variable to minimize the difference between the current state of the variable and the desired set point, such as temperature, flow, or others. + +CMOS +Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor, a fabrication process for MOSFETs and integrated circuits + +coaxial cable +A cable with an inner conductor centered inside a flexible tubular conductor, used for radio frequency transmission lines. + +Cockcroft–Walton generator +A kind of circuit for generating very high DC voltage. + +cogeneration +Production of electricity along with some other desired product, such as process steam or desalinated water. + +cold cathode +An element of a vacuum tube that emits electrons without a heating circuit. + +Colossus +A British code breaking system used during World War II. + +combined cycle +A thermal power plant that improves efficiency with two different kinds of energy extraction from the combustion products gas stream, such as a gas turbine followed by a steam boiler. + +communication system +A system intended to convey information from one place to another with an expected degree of performance. + +communications satellite +A satellite in Earth orbit designed for international telephone, television, or data transmission. + +commutation cell +The elementary switching device in a power converter circuit; it could be a transistor, a thyristor, a mercury-arc valve, or others. + +commutator +A component of a DC electric machine that connects the rotating coils with an external circuit through brushes. + +compact fluorescent lamp +A fluorescent lamp with a folded or spiral tube, designed to fit in the same space as an incandescent lamp of similar light output. + +Compactron +A brand of vacuum tube, used in some radio and television sets, that combined multiple independent functions in one envelope. + +compensation winding +A winding on a motor or generator to improve commutation at heavy load. + +computed tomography +Production of images of a cross-section through an object by multiple X-ray measurements processed in a computer. + +computer engineering +The profession of designing computers. + +computer hardware +That part of a computer system with physical existence. + +computer programming +The practice of producing instructions for a computer to achieve some desired effect. + +computer-aided design (CAD) +A design discipline where a computer is used to produce a graphical representation of a real-world object in order to design its structure or to assist in calculating performance parameters. + +conduction band +In a conductor, the energy levels of charge carriers that are free to move through the material. + +constant k filter +A method formerly used for designing filters for a required characteristic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4477d5ecc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,204 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 4/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +consumer electronics +Electronic devices intended to be owned by consumers directly; a mobile cell phone is "consumer electronics" but the cell site it communicates with is not. + +contactor +An automatically controlled electrical switch (relay), used to operate motors or other high-current loads. + +continuous Fourier transform +A mathematical operation that expresses a signal in time as the sum of its frequency components. + +continuous signal +A signal that can take any value within its range. + +control engineering +The application of control theory to practical problems. + +control system +The equipment used to adjust some parameter of an ongoing process to regulate its behavior to a desired goal, such as positioning a disk drive head or regulating temperature of a furnace. + +control theory +The mathematical study of behavior of control systems. + +controllability +In control theory, the degree to which a system can be put into any desired state given manipulation of one variable. + +controller +A system that adjusts some variable to control a process. + +copper cable certification +The process of testing a computer network cable installation to verify that it meets standards. + +copper loss +That portion of an electric machine or transformer's loss attributed to the resistance of conductors (which are not necessarily made of copper). + +corona ring +A component of a high-voltage system intended to smooth out the electric field distribution around energized parts. + +coulomb +The SI unit of electric charge. + +Coulomb's law +The mathematical relation between force, electric charge and distance. + +CPU +Central Processing Unit, the element of a computer that carries out arithmetic and logic operations. + +crest factor +The ratio of peak to effective (RMS) value of a waveform. + +crossed-field amplifier +A type of microwave amplifier vacuum tube. + +crosstalk +Objectionable presence of a signal from one circuit in another circuit sharing the same transmission path, such as a cable. + +crystal oscillator +An electronic oscillator whose frequency is stabilized by a piezoelectric crystal resonator element. + +Ćuk converter +One kind of buck-boost voltage converter that uses a capacitor as an energy storage element. + +current +The movement of electric charge. + +current density +The current flowing per unit area of a conductor. + +current source inverter +A type of power inverter where an inductor tends to keep a constant current flowing in the inverter stage. + +current source +In circuit theory, an element that produces a defined current independent of the connected circuit properties. + +current transformer +An instrument transformer used for measuring current in AC power systems. + +current-to-voltage converter +A transducer that produces an output voltage in response to an input current. + +cybernetics +The science of automatic control systems. + +cycloconverter +A type of variable-frequency power converter that does not first convert AC to DC. + +== D == + +damping ratio +A parameter that indicates how rapidly oscillations in a system die out, if ever. + +Darlington transistor +An interconnection of two transistors to provide a gain that is the product of the individual gains. + +data compression +Any technique that allows information to be transmitted more compactly than originally expressed, for example, codes. + +data networks +A network for interconnection of computers and peripherals. + +DC injection braking +A method of slowing an AC electric motor by passing direct current through its windings. + +DC-to-DC converter +A circuit that converts a DC voltage into a different level of DC voltage. + +degaussing +The process of reducing the residual magnetic field in a metallic object, such as a ship. + +delay line +A circuit component that introduces a delay in a signal. + +delta-wye transformer +One type of connection of a three-phase transformer. + +demand factor +The fraction of actual use of some quantity, related to the maximum that could be used in a specified time. + +demand response +The ability of a generating station or grid to follow changes in load while maintaining voltage and frequency within acceptable limits. + +demodulation +The process of recovery of information (sound, video, data) from a modulated carrier. + +describing function +A method for analyzing non-linear control systems. + +detector +A circuit that demodulates a radio signal to recover information. + +DIAC +A four-layer semiconductor diode that has a predictable breakdown characteristic. + +dielectric +A material that does not allow free flow of electric current. + +digital audio broadcasting +Transmission of sound by digital signals over radio. + +digital circuit +A circuit where all points on the signal path have only one of two states. + +digital computers +A computer made of digital circuits. + +digital control +A control system that processes signals in digital form. + +digital filter +A filter implemented as a digital circuit. + +digital image processing +Manipulation of an image by a digital computer. + +digital micromirror device +An element of a kind of digital projector system. + +digital protective relay +A power system protection device that processes signals in digital form. + +digital signal controller +A type of microprocessor that combines a digital signal processor element with a more general purpose microcontroller. + +digital signal processing +The technique of modifying the properties of a signal that has been converted to digital form. + +digital television +Transmission of images using digital techniques. + +digital-to-analog converter +A device that produces a voltage or current that is proportional to a digital value sent to it. + +diode bridge +An interconnection of diodes to rectify alternating current to direct current. + +diode +A two-terminal passive circuit element, with a preferred direction of current flow. + +dipole antenna +A simple form of antenna that consists of two conductors oriented end-to-end with a feed in between them. + +direct current (DC) +Also galvanic current. +Electric current that flows in one direction only, in contrast to alternating current (AC), where the flow of current periodically changes direction and magnitude. + +direct on line starter +A kind of motor starter that does not reduce the voltage at the motor terminals. + +direct torque control +A method of estimating motor torque as part of a variable speed motor drive. + +discrete cosine transform +A mathematical technique for representing a sampled signal as a sum of cosine waves of different frequencies. + +discrete Fourier transform +A mathematical technique for representing a sampled signal as a sum of sine and cosine waves of different frequencies. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61e7e6e52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 5/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +discrete-time signal +A signal represented as a time series of samples taken at regular intervals. + +displacement current +The effect of a time-varying electric field, which induces a magnetic field just as the motion of electrical charges does. + +display device +Any device that displays data from an information system, such as a watch readout or an automatic scoreboard. + +dissipation +The loss of energy in a system, such as dielectric loss in a capacitor. + +dissolved gas analysis +A technique for fault detection in oil-filled transformers. + +distributed control system +A control system in which significant parts of the control process are decentralized. + +distributed-element model +An analysis of an electric circuit where capacitance, inductance, and resistance are distributed along the circuit, as in a transmission line, not concentrated in lumped components. + +distributed generation +An electrical grid where multiple small sources contribute energy, instead of relatively few large central generating stations. + +distribution board +A piece of electrical switchgear which distributes electric power to multiple branch circuits. + +distribution transformer +A power transformer, usually used to change the utility distribution voltage to a lower voltage for use on the customer premises. + +Dolby +A trademark for a noise reduction technique for analog sound recordings. + +dot convention +A system for marking terminals on instrument transformers to maintain correct polarity. + +doubly fed electric machine +An electric machine where both moving and stationary elements have external connections handling significant power. + +downsampling +A technique for reducing the number of signal samples processed by a digital system; decimation. + +Dqo transformation +A technique used to simplify mathematical analysis of polyphase electric circuits. + +droop speed control +A method of regulating generators so that multiple units share the load proportional to their ratings. + +dual control theory +A branch of control theory that deals with systems whose characteristics are initially unknown. + +dual loop +A method of supervising contacts and wiring in a security system, so as to detect some faults or tampering. + +DVD +Digital Versatile Disc, a type of optical disc for distributing video recordings and data using an orange/red laser. + +dynamic braking +A braking system that extracts energy from a moving system to bring it to rest; a dynamic braking system generally is not used to hold a position of a stationary object. + +dynamic demand +A technique for load management on an electrical grid based on frequency measurement. + +dynamic programming +A technique for optimization of the solution of a problem by combining solutions to smaller sub-problems. + +dynamic random-access memory +A type of semiconductor memory where data is stored as electric charges on capacitors; the charges must be refreshed periodically or else they will leak away, losing the stored data. + +dynamo +A direct-current generator, whose exciting field is provided by an electromagnet. + +== E == + +earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) +A protective device consisting of a current- or voltage-sensing mechanism that opens or "breaks" a circuit when stray current or voltage is detected, which might otherwise present the possibility of electric shock. + +eddy current +An electric current induced inside a conductor exposed to a changing magnetic field. + +edge detection +An image processing technique used to identify boundaries of objects. + +Edison effect +Also thermionic emission. +The emission of an electric current from a hot electrode, the thermal energy of which gives some small charged particles such as electrons and ions enough kinetic energy to escape the material's surface. Thermionic emission is the fundamental mechanism underlying the vacuum tube. + +electret +A dielectric material that quasi-permanently retains an impressed electrical polarization; the dual to a magnet. + +electric arc +The discharge of electric current through an open space between conductors, either intentionally to produce a source of intense light and heat, or as the result of an electrical fault. + +electric charge +The physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. + +electric circuit +A closed path through which an electric current can flow. + +electric current +The motion of electric charges. + +electric displacement field +In Maxwell's equations, a vector field due to electric charges. + +electric distribution systems +That portion of an electrical grid that connects customers to substations or the bulk transmission system. + +electric field gradient (EFG) +The rate of change of an electric field with respect to distance. + +electric field +A vector field that exerts a force on electric charges. + +electric generator +A machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy by moving conductors through magnetic fields. + +electric motor +A machine that produces mechanical energy from electrical energy, by moving conductors through magnetic fields. + +electric multiple unit +The use of more than one electric locomotive on a train. + +electric potential +A measure of the work required to move a unit electric charge in an electric field. + +electric power conversion +Generally, changing the form of electric power. + +electric power distribution +In an electric grid, the network that brings power from a substation or bulk supply to individual customers. + +Electric Power Research Institute +A non-profit organization that carries out research on behalf of the US electric power industry. + +electric power transmission +The bulk movement of electric power for many customers from a generating plant to a local distribution network, usually at high voltage. + +electric power +The rate of transfer of electrical energy past a given point. + +electric shock +An injury caused to people or animals by electric current. + +electrical cable +A flexible conducting wire to carry electrical power or signals, usually covered with an insulating material. + +electrical code +A set of regulations for the use of electricity; they may vary from municipal to international in scope. + +electrical conductivity +A measure of a substance's ability to pass an electric current. + +electrical conductor +An object that carries an electric current, with little loss. + +electrical contact +A separable part of an electric device that carries current when touching another contact. + +electrical discharge machining (EDM) +Shaping of a workplace by small sparks. + +electrical element +In circuit theory, a node at which some electrical property is concentrated (resistance, etc.). + +electrical engineering +The profession of applying electricity to practical problems. + +electrical equipment +Any apparatus for generation, transmission or utilization of electric power. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87e5a0693 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,199 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 6/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +electrical grid +A geographically distributed system to connect sources and users of electric power. + +electrical impedance +That property of a circuit that resists the passage of electric current, usually in the context of alternating current. + +electrical insulation paper +A grade of paper used for insulation of transformers, electrical machines, capacitors, and some cables. + +electrical insulation +A material that resists electrical current flow. + +electrical load +A consumer of electrical energy, turning it into light, heat, mechanical power, data, or chemical changes. + +electrical machine +Any apparatus that converts between electrical power and mechanical power, such as a motor or generator. + +electrical measurements +That branch of metrology concerned with electrical quantities. + +electrical network +A network of electrical components and conductors. + +electrical polarity +Identification of electrical terminals where current is flowing in the same direction relative to the device. + +electrical steel +Any of several types of steel used for manufacturing the magnetic field components of machines and transformers. + +electrical substation +A facility connecting a distribution network to a transmission network, usually with one or more transformers. + +electrical technologist +A specialist in applying electrical theory and technique to practical problems. + +electrical wiring regulations +The legal framework for electrical installations in buildings. + +electrical wiring +The installation of conductors, fixtures and protection devices for a structure or vehicle. + +electricity meter +An instrument to measure the electrical energy used by a customer for revenue purposes. + +electricity pylon +A structure, generally of wood or metal, to support wires. + +electricity +The set of physical phenomena associated with electric charges. + +electrification +Applying electric power to a process that was previously done by other means, or, development of an electric power system in a region that previously had none. + +electroactive polymers +A polymer that significantly changes size or shape when exposed to an electric field. + +electrocardiograph +A record of the electrical activity of the heart. + +electrochemical engineering +The profession of application of electrochemistry to practical problems. + +electrode +An electrical contact that connects some medium to an electric circuit, such as in an electrochemical cell or a vacuum tube. + +electro-diesel locomotive +A railway locomotive with a diesel engine, generator, and electric driving motors that can be powered by the diesel engine or the track electrical supply. + +electrodynamics +The branch of physics that studies electrical charges and electrical currents. + +electrolyte +A liquid or solid medium that carries electric current in the form of ions. + +electromagnet +A magnet that generates a magnetic field from an electric current. + +electromagnetic compatibility +The control of unwanted electromagnetic interference. + +electromagnetic field +The field produced by moving electric charges and magnetic fields. + +electromagnetic induction +The production of current in a circuit by the change of magnetic field intersecting the circuit. + +electromagnetic radiation +Radio waves, light and other radiation that travels through space at the speed of light. + +electromagnetic spectrum +The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. + +electromagnetic wave equation +A second-order partial differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves through a medium or in a vacuum. + +electromagnetism +The science of electric fields, magnetic fields, currents, charges, and forces. + +electromechanical +A system that has both an electrical component and a mechanical component, such as a motor or a relay. + +electromote +An 1882 demonstration of a prototype electric trolley bus. + +electromotive force +A difference in electrical potential between two points, such as produced by a battery or a generator. + +electron microscope +An instrument that provides highly magnified images by use of an electron beam. + +electronic amplifier +A device that increases the power of an electrical signal by electronic means. + +electronic circuit +A circuit using one or more electronic devices. + +electronic component +An active or passive element of an electronic circuit. + +electronic control unit +In an automobile, an embedded electronic system that controls some aspect of a vehicle (ignition, transmission, and so on). + +electronic design automation +A system in which a computer provides assistance to the designer of a device or system. + +electronic engineering +The profession of applying electronics to practical problems. + +electronic filter +A filter that alters some frequency-related characteristic of a signal. + +electronics +The study of the flow of electrons through a vacuum, gases, or semiconductors. + +electronic speed control +A device for regulating the speed of a motor. + +electrophorus +An instrument used to produce electrostatic charge through electrostatic induction. + +electrostatic motor +A motor that relies on the forces generated by electric fields, instead of magnetic fields. + +electrostatics +The study of stationary electric charges and resulting forces. + +embedded operating system +The common operating environment that supports embedded software; it may be a highly tailored version of a general-purpose operating system, or written solely for the purpose of embedded system operations. + +embedded software +A firmware component of a microprocessor-controlled system. + +embedded system +A computer system that controls a device or system, with no or a minimal user interface; for example, the ignition system in a car may have a microprocessor to control it. + +enameled wire +Wire insulated with a thin flexible layer of enamel, used for electrical windings. + +energy demand management +A system to adjust energy demand to reduce costs. + +energy economics +A branch of economics concerned with energy supply and demand. + +energy efficient transformer +A power transformer designed to have lower than average energy loss. + +energy returned on energy invested +A measure of how long an energy producing system takes to replace the energy it took to make it. + +energy subsidies +Payments to a consumer or producer of electric energy that are used as incentives for production or consumption. + +engine-generator +A combination of an internal combustion engine and a generator, often used as a standby power plant. + +ENIAC +The first general purpose electronic digital computer. + +Epstein frame +An apparatus used for testing of magnetic materials. + +equalization +1. (audio) The adjustment of the frequency response of an audio system to improve its utility. +2. (communications) The adjustment of the frequency spectrum of a communications signal to cancel out the effect of the frequency response of a communication path. + +equivalent circuit +In circuit theory, a simple combination of elements that behaves at its terminals like a more complex combination. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e21737a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 7/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +equivalent impedance transforms +A mathematical method to determine values of an equivalent circuit. + +error correction and detection +Techniques used to improve reliability of computer memory or communications channels by including extra information along with the desired data. + +exponential stability +A system that settles to a steady state after a disturbance, at a rate proportional to exponential time. + +extended Kalman filter +A strategy for estimating an unknown value in a non-linear system by combining multiple measurements. + +== F == + +farad +The SI unit of capacitance. + +Faraday shield +A solid conductive shield around a volume, which blocks electromagnetic fields. + +Faraday–Lenz law +One of Maxwell's equations, describing the relation between a changing magnetic field and production of an electromotive force. + +Faraday's law of induction +The relation between a changing magnetic field and the resulting voltage produced in a closed path. + +fast Fourier transform +A digital algorithm to analyze a time series of sampled data into a set of sine and cosine frequency components. + +fault +A short circuit, open circuit, or other disruption of a power system. + +fax +Also facsimile. +The transmission of paper images by radio or by wire. + +feed forward +A control system that adjusts the controlled variable based on a model of the process and measurements of disturbances, instead of feedback from measurement of the process. + +feedback amplifier +An amplifier that feeds back a small sample of its output to its input, to improve linearity. + +feedback +A system that samples part of its output and adds that to its input; feedback may be either positive or negative, aiding or opposing the initial input signal. + +feed-in tariff +A premium rate paid to distributed generators to encourage alternative energy sources. + +ferrite core +A magnetic core for an inductor made from a metal oxide compound. + +ferroelectricity +The property of materials that spontaneously maintain an electrical polarization, as a ferromagnetic material maintains magnetic polarization. + +fiber-optic cable +A transmission medium that uses infrared energy or light to transmit information down a long thin transparent filament such as glass. + +field effect transistor +A transistor that relies on modulation of conductivity of a channel instead of injection of minority carriers as does a bipolar transistor. + +field-oriented control +A control strategy for variable frequency drives that models the magnetic field of the motor to control its torque. + +filter +A circuit that selectively alters a signal based on its frequency components. + +filter capacitor +In a power supply, a capacitor that smooths the DC voltage produced by a rectifier stage. + +finite impulse response +A class of digital filters whose response to an impulse returns to zero in finite time. + +firmware +Software of a computer that is never or rarely altered during its working life, for example, the control computer program for an automotive ignition system. + +Fleming valve +The first important vacuum tube device, used as a radio detector. + +Fleming's left-hand rule for motors +A mnemonic to recall the relative orientation of current, magnetic field and resulting force for electric motors. + +Fleming's right-hand rule for generators +A mnemonic to recall the relative orientation of current, magnetic field and resulting force for electric generators. + +fluorescent lamp +A type of electric lamp that relies on a phosphor coating to produce visible light from the ultraviolet light generated by a mercury discharge. + +flux linkage +In a magnetic system, that part of the magnetic flux that passes through a given closed path, which may be a winding. + +flyback converter +A type of voltage converter that stores energy in an inductor. + +flyback transformer +A type of transformer that recovers energy stored in its own core. Historically used in the deflection circuits of CRT display systems. + +forward converter +A type of voltage converter that relies on transformer action to couple energy to its output circuit. + +fossil-fuel phase-out +A plan to replace coal, oil, or natural gas fuel with other sources to produce electrical energy. + +fossil-fuel power station +A power plant using coal, oil, or natural gas fuel. + +Fourier series +A set of coefficients of sine and cosine waves; this can represent a time function as a function of frequency. + +Fourier transform +An algorithm for converting a continuous waveform in the time domain into an equivalent set of spectral components in the frequency domain. + +free-space optical communication +Transfer of information from point to point by a beam of light or infrared energy, instead of a wired connection or radio waves. + +frequency changer +An electric machine used to transfer power between two networks with different frequencies, or, an electronic device (more usually called a frequency mixer) that changes the frequency of an input signal to some other frequency. + +frequency modulation +A method of impressing information on a carrier wave by changing its frequency. + +frequency response +The measure of the output of a system in response to an input of varying frequency. + +full load current +The current drawn by a motor or other electrical machine at its full rated power and standard voltage. + +full-wave rectifier +A rectifier circuit that converts both positive and negative parts of the input alternating current waveform into a unidirectional, direct current. + +fuse +A circuit protective device that interrupts excessive current by melting a metal strip. + +fuzzy control +A control system that relies on fuzzy logic instead of binary true/false conditions. + +== G == + +gain scheduling +A technique for control of non-linear systems that use different control parameters based on some measurement of the process controlled. + +galvanic corrosion +Electrochemical corrosion of one metal in contact with another. + +galvanometer +An instrument for detecting small electric currents. + +gamma ray +Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than ten nanometres; strictly speaking, radiation that is produced in the nucleus of atoms. + +gas-filled tube +An electron tube device that relies on the presence of gas for operation, usually at less than atmospheric pressure. + +gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) +A four-layer power semiconductor device that can be turned on and off by signals at a control (gate) terminal. + +Gauss's law +A mathematical relation between the electric flux passing through a surface and the charge contained within that surface. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..596bb7671 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,172 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 8/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +generator +In circuit theory, an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source, whose properties are independent of the connected circuit. + +governor +A speed regulator for a machine such as a steam engine; an early important feedback control cybernetic system. + +grid energy storage +Any system tied to an electrical grid that stores electrical energy at low demand times and releases it to meet peak loads; it might be a centralized station like a pumped-storage hydroelectric plant, or might be distributed over many customer sites such as by the use of electric vehicle batteries. + +grid-tie inverter +A power inverter that allows synchronization with the electrical grid for export of energy surplus to the facility's needs. + +ground +A reference point for electrical potential; often connected to the Earth. + +ground and neutral +Protective and circuit return conductors in a wiring system. + +ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) +See residual-current device. + +ground-level power supply +A system for providing powers for electric trams without overhead wires and without a permanently energized third rail. + +growler +A test instrument that is used to diagnose some faults with AC motors. + +GSM +The second generation of cellular mobile phone technology, deployed since 1991 in Europe. + +Gunn diode +A two-terminal solid-state device that is used in microwave oscillators. + +gyrotron +A high-power vacuum tube oscillator that can produce microwave frequencies up to hundreds of gigahertz at power levels up to megawatts. + +== H == + +H infinity +An optimization strategy for certain classes of control problems. + +Hall effect sensor +A device that detects and measures magnetic field by the Hall effect voltage induced in a current-carrying semiconductor. + +harmonic distortion +An effect of a non-linear signal path that introduces frequencies that are integer multiples of an input frequency. + +harmonic oscillator +An oscillator which produces sinusoidal output, such as a simple RLC oscillator. + +harmonic +A waveform that has a frequency which is an integer multiple of another frequency. + +harmonics +Distortion of the power line voltage due to non-linear loads such as rectifiers. + +H-bridge +An array of four controlled switches that converts direct current to alternating current, with peak value equal to the supply voltage. + +HDTV +High Definition Television, any television system with more than 625 scan lines. + +headphone +An audio transducer or pair of transducers designed to be worn on or in the ear. + +heat transfer +The study of the flow of heat energy; heat transfer concerns dictate major design features of most electrical and electronic systems. + +heatsink +A structure intended to dissipate heat from an active device into the ambient environment. + +Heaviside step function +A mathematical unit step function useful in the solution of certain differential equations by the methods of operational calculus. + +Helmholtz coil +An arrangement of coils useful for producing a uniform magnetic field within a certain volume. + +henry +The SI unit of inductance. + +hertz (Hz) +The SI unit of frequency, equivalent to one cycle per second (1/s or s−1). + +heterodyne +A signal frequency created by combining or mixing signals of different frequencies in a nonlinear signal-processing device such as a vacuum tube, transistor, or diode in order to produce a new frequency. The process of creating such a frequency is called heterodyning; it is used to shift signals from one frequency to another and also as part of the processes of modulation and demodulation. + +heterostructure +A semiconductor device built of two or more dissimilar materials. + +Hi-Fi +High Fidelity, the set of techniques for reproduction of sounds that appear natural in source. + +high-voltage cable +A flexible insulated electrical conductor designed to withstand a significant voltage; "high" voltage may be hundreds or hundreds of thousands of volts, depending on the context. + +high voltage +Any voltage at which safety concerns apply. In some contexts, anything over 100 volts may be considered high voltage; in electric power transmission, high voltage usually refers to voltages greater than 66,000 volts. + +high-pass filter +An electrical network that tends to pass higher frequencies and block lower ones. + +high-voltage direct current +A system for power transmission that uses high DC voltages for reasons of economy or stability. + +high-voltage switchgear +Electrical apparatus designed for control of high-voltage circuits. + +Hilbert transform +A mathematical operation used in signal processing. + +holography +The technique of recording and reconstructing the wavefront of an electromagnetic field. It is commonly used to generate three-dimensional images known as holographs by recording the interference patterns of light waves as they collide with a physical object or scene, but also has applications in data storage, microscopy, and interferometry. + +home appliance +Any electrical appliance intended for use in a home. + +homopolar generator +A generator in which current and magnetic field direction are constant as the machine rotor revolves. + +homopolar motor +A motor that produces torque from a current and magnetic field that does not change direction. + +horsepower (hp) +A unit of power equivalent to approximately 746 watts. + +hot wire barretter +A current dependent resistor formed of a fine wire in an envelope, useful for regulating current. + +humidistat +A switch that operates automatically on detecting a change in moisture content of the air. + +HVAC +High Voltage Alternating Current; depending on context, this could be hundreds or hundreds of thousands of volts. + +HVDC converter station +An element of a high-voltage direct current power transmission system in which each end of the transmission line has a converter station connected to the local AC grid. + +HVDC +High Voltage Direct Current. + +hybrid coil +A kind of transformer used for bidirectional transmission of signals over one pair of wires, for example, as in an analog telephone set. + +hydroelectricity +The generation of electric power from the kinetic energy of falling or moving water. + +hydropower +Any power (usually electric) generated by the force of moving water. + +hysteresis +A characteristic of a system where its state is history-dependent. + +== I == + +IGBT +Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, a power semiconductor device that combines some of the advantages of field-effect and bipolar transistors. + +image impedance +A parameter used in the design of electrical networks such as filters. + +image noise reduction +Any technique used to reduce interfering effects in processing of an image. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21678e0b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 9/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +image processing +Electronic recording, storage, alteration, and reproduction of pictures. + +impulse response +The response of a network to a sudden narrow pulse input. + +incandescent light bulb +A device that uses a fine wire filament heated by an electric current to produce visible light (with heat usually produced as a byproduct). + +induction coil +An early name for a transformer; or a type of transformer intended for high-voltage uses. + +induction cooker +A cooking appliance that heats pots with magnetic fields by electromagnetic induction. + +induction generator +A type of generator where the rotating field winding is excited by induction from the stationary armature winding. + +induction motor +A type of motor where the rotating field winding is excited by induction from the stationary armature winding. + +induction regulator +A type of variable transformer that provides stepless control of the output by changing the coupling between two coils. + +inductive coupling +The transfer of energy between two circuits through a shared magnetic field passing through both. + +inductive output tube +A high-power, high-frequency amplifier tube, in some forms capable of megawatt pulses at hundreds of megahertz. + +inductor +Also coil, choke, or reactor. +A passive two-terminal circuit component with a concentrated inductance, usually an insulated wire wound into a coil, which stores energy in a magnetic field when an electric current flows through it. + +industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets +Electrical fittings used to connect cables to three-phase power circuits. + +industrial automation +The general practice of automatic control applied to industrial operations. + +infinite impulse response +A filter which, mathematically, never gets to a zero effect of an impulse at its input, though practically the response may become negligible after a definite time. + +information appliance +Conceptually, an embedded computer system with a specialized user interface designed to simplify one task, such as e-mail or photos; a modern smartphone approaches this concept. + +information theory +The mathematical study of information. + +information +In one sense, the answers to uncertainties. + +input/output (I/O)That part of a computer system devoted to exporting and importing data, for example, in human-readable form. + +inrush current +The transient current that flows when first connecting a device to a power source. + +Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) +The American-based society for electrotechnology. + +Institution of Engineering and Technology +The British society of electrical and electronics engineers. + +instrumentation engineering +The profession dealing with development of measuring systems. + +instrumentation +A device that turns some physical property into a measurement. + +insulation monitoring device +A supervisory device to detect failure of electrical insulation. + +insulator +A substance that does not permit easy flow of electric current; a fitting intended to support a conductor. + +integrated circuit +An interconnected array of electronic devices, factory assembled on a single substrate. + +intelligent control +The application of artificial intelligence techniques to process control. + +intelligent transportation systemThe application of information technology to manage some aspects of a transportation system. + +intermittent energy source +An energy source whose availability is transient and not under human control. It may be sporadically available or available on some natural schedule not coincident with human demands. The term refers particularly to energy sources that are not dispatchable. + +International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) +An international standards organization devoted to electrical standards; most countries are members. + +International Organization for Standardization +An international organization coordinating the efforts of national technical standards organizations. + +interrupter +Any of a series of automatically operated electromechanical switches that periodically open and close a circuit. + +inverter +Also invertor or power inverter. +Any electronic device or circuitry that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) without the use of rotating machines, instead using electron devices such as mercury arc valves or thyristors. An inverter is the opposite of a rectifier. + +iron loss +That portion of the wasted power of a machine or transformer attributed to hysteresis and eddy currents in the iron core. + +isolated-phase bus (IPB) +Also phase-isolated bus (PIB). +A bus where each phase is in its own grounded metal enclosure to prevent faults from spreading from phase to phase. This design is often used for circuits carrying very large currents such as hydroelectric power plants. + +isolation transformer +A transformer especially intended to prevent leakage current from passing from its primary circuit to the secondary circuit. + +iterative learning control +A technique for improving the accuracy of control systems that carry out the same sequence repeatedly. + +== J == + +j operator +Electrical engineering uses "j" to represent the imaginary unit "i", to prevent confusion with the symbol for current. + + + + j + × + j + = + − + 1 + + + {\displaystyle j\times j=-1} + +. + +Jedlik's dynamo +An early form of electric generator using electromagnets. + +JFET +A field effect transistor with a reverse-biased PN junction between gate and channel. + +jitter +Deviation from the true periodicity of a periodic signal. + +Joule heating +Heating in a conductor due to passage of current. + +joule (J) +A derived unit of energy in the International System of Units, equal to the energy transferred to (or work done on) an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of the force's motion through a distance of one metre (1 newton-metre or N⋅m). It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. + +== K == + +Kalman filter +An algorithm for estimating an unknown value from a series of approximate measurements. + +Kelvin–Stokes theorem +A theorem in calculus, useful in analytic solutions of problems in electromagnetism. + +Kilovolt-ampere +A unit of apparent power. + +Kirchhoff's circuit laws +The observation that the sum of the currents at any node of a circuit must be zero, and the sum of the voltage differences around any loop must be zero; often abbreviated "KCL" and "KVL" in lecture notes. + +klystron +A type of microwave oscillator vacuum tube. + +== L == + +ladder network +A string of many, often equally dimensioned, impedances connected between two reference voltages. + +LAN +Local Area Network, an interconnection of computers over a building or small campus. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3490f6161 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering" +chunk: 10/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Laplace transform +A mathematical operation for solution of differential equations by transforming them to the s domain from the time domain. + +laser diode +A semiconductor device that produces coherent laser radiation when properly energized. + +leakage inductance +The inductance of a transformer that results from magnetic flux not linked by both primary and secondary windings. + +light-emitting diode (LED) +A semiconductor device that produces visible, infrared, or ultraviolet light radiation when properly energized. + +linear alternator +An electrical machine that generates electric power from the relative straight-line motion of its parts. + +linear motor +An electrical machine that generates electric force in a straight line by the interaction of its moving parts and magnetic fields. + +linear variable differential transformer +A transducer that produces an electrical signal proportional to the movement between its parts. + +lineman +A specialist technician who installs outdoor plant wiring such as overhead circuits and power transmission lines. + +Litz wire +A kind of stranded wire used to minimize losses in coils. + +load flow study +A mathematical prediction of the flow of electric power in a network, based on a model of the actual or proposed system; necessary for planning of electrical grids. + +load following power plant +A power plant that can economically be operated over a significant range of output, so as to meet varying electric power demand. + +load-loss factor +A factor for estimating energy lost in a distribution network due to load current. + +load management +Any strategy for altering the operation of customer loads so as to reduce peak demand on an electrical grid. + +load profile +The daily, weekly, or annual plot of electrical load against time. + +local positioning system +A navigation system that does not cover the whole Earth but rather a particular subregion or locality, which may range in size from an entire continent to a single building. + +LORAN +A radio navigation system developed from a World War II military system (GEE) and used for civilian purposes until the 1980s. + +Lorentz force law +The mathematical relation between currents in conductors and the resulting magnetic forces between them. + +lossless data compression +Any data compression method where the source can be reconstructed exactly; where approximations are tolerable, lossy data compression can be used. + +lossy data compression +Any data compression method which allows only a close approximation of the source to be reconstructed; useful for images or music, where the human perceptual system compensates for errors or missing information. + +loudspeaker +An electroacoustic transducer that converts electrical current into sound with amplification that makes it perceptible to more than one listener. + +low-noise amplifier +In a satellite radio receiving system, an amplifier placed near the antenna. + +low-noise block downconverter +In a satellite radio receiving system, a device that amplifies and converts signals to a lower frequency band that will have lower losses in interconnecting cables. + +low-pass filter +An electric filter network that passes lower frequencies and blocks higher ones. + +LTI system theory +The theory of systems that, over a useful range, respond proportionally to inputs and don't change characteristics while responding. + +lumen +The SI unit of luminous flux, the energy of visible light. + +lumped parameters +A set of parameters which describe an electrical network where the circuit elements are small compared to the wavelengths of the signals passing through it. + +Lyapunov stability +A criterion for stability of a dynamical system. If disturbances from a stable point decrease and the system returns to that stable point, it can be said to be Lyapunov-stable. + +== M == + +machine learning +The set of artificial intelligence techniques for systems that can follow examples to solve new problems. + +magnet wire +The class of wire manufactured for winding electromagnetic coils such as in motors or transformers. + +magnetic blowout +A component of a switching device that uses a magnetic field to assist in extinguishing the arc, using a permanent magnet or a coil. + +magnetic circuit +A path through which magnetic flux passes. + +magnetic constant +The constant that relates the strength of magnetic flux to magnetic induction in free space. + +magnetic core memory +A type of computer memory that stores data as magnetization in tiny rings of ferrite material. + +magnetic field +A field that causes magnets and currents to experience forces. + +magnetic flux density +The amount of magnetic field per unit area; in SI units, measured in webers per square metre. + +magnetic flux +The magnetic field; a conductor that encloses a changing magnetic flux will have a voltage induced in it. + +magnetic moment +The proportionality constant that relates the twisting torque produced on an object to the magnetic field. + +magnetism +The class of natural phenomena related to magnets and magnetic fields. + +magnetization +A property of a material that measures its response to a magnetic field. + +magnetization current +In a transformer, that portion of the current used to support magnetic flux. + +magnetostatics +The study of stationary magnetic fields. + +magnetostriction +A property of some materials that change shape when subject to a magnetic field. + +magnifying transmitter +A concept for a signal transmitter that used a resonant transformer to provide a high voltage. + +main distribution frame +In a telephone central office, the equipment that connects to subscriber circuits. + +mainframe computer +A large centralized computer system, used for large volumes of data or supporting multiple interactive terminals, with large input/output capacity, generally expected to provide critical services to a business or institution with a predictable degree of reliability. + +mains electricity +Commercial electric power, purchased from an off-site source shared by many consumers. Regional supplies vary in voltage, frequency, and technical standards. + +mains hum +Interference on an audio or visual signal related to the power line frequency. + +marginal stability +Said of a system that neither returns to its initial state when disturbed nor diverges to some unstable condition. + +marine energy +Any technique for extracting useful energy from tides, waves, or salinity or temperature gradients of the ocean. + +Marx generator +A kind of circuit for generating very high DC voltage pulses. + +Maser +A device that produces microwave energy in a similar manner to a LASER. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..79f2136c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,614 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:18.157092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a glossary for the terminology often encountered in undergraduate quantum mechanics courses. +Cautions: + +Different authors may have different definitions for the same term. +The discussions are restricted to Schrödinger picture and non-relativistic quantum mechanics. +Notation: + + + + + + | + + x + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |x\rangle } + + - position eigenstate + + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + , + + | + + β + ⟩ + , + + | + + γ + ⟩ + . + . + . + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle ,|\beta \rangle ,|\gamma \rangle ...} + + - wave function of the state of the system + + + + + Ψ + + + {\displaystyle \Psi } + + - total wave function of a system + + + + + ψ + + + {\displaystyle \psi } + + - wave function of a system (maybe a particle) + + + + + + ψ + + α + + + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + {\displaystyle \psi _{\alpha }(x,t)} + + - wave function of a particle in position representation, equal to + + + + ⟨ + x + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \langle x|\alpha \rangle } + + +== Formalism == + +=== Kinematical postulates === +a complete set of wave functions +A basis of the Hilbert space of wave functions with respect to a system. +bra +The Hermitian conjugate of a ket is called a bra. + + + + ⟨ + α + + | + + = + ( + + | + + α + ⟩ + + ) + + † + + + + + {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |=(|\alpha \rangle )^{\dagger }} + +. See "bra–ket notation". +Bra–ket notation +The bra–ket notation is a way to represent the states and operators of a system by angle brackets and vertical bars, for example, + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle } + + and + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + ⟨ + β + + | + + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle \langle \beta |} + +. +Density matrix +Physically, the density matrix is a way to represent pure states and mixed states. The density matrix of pure state whose ket is + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle } + + is + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + ⟨ + α + + | + + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle \langle \alpha |} + +. +Mathematically, a density matrix has to satisfy the following conditions: + + + + + Tr + ⁡ + ( + ρ + ) + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle \operatorname {Tr} (\rho )=1} + + + + + + + ρ + + † + + + = + ρ + + + {\displaystyle \rho ^{\dagger }=\rho } + + +Density operator +Synonymous to "density matrix". +Dirac notation +Synonymous to "bra–ket notation". +Hilbert space +Given a system, the possible pure state can be represented as a vector in a Hilbert space. Each ray (vectors differ by phase and magnitude only) in the corresponding Hilbert space represent a state. +Ket +A wave function expressed in the form + + + + + | + + a + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |a\rangle } + + is called a ket. See "bra–ket notation". +Mixed state +A mixed state is a statistical ensemble of pure state. +criterion: +Normalizable wave function +A wave function + + + + + | + + + α + ′ + + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha '\rangle } + + is said to be normalizable if + + + + ⟨ + + α + ′ + + + | + + + α + ′ + + ⟩ + < + ∞ + + + {\displaystyle \langle \alpha '|\alpha '\rangle <\infty } + +. A normalizable wave function can be made to be normalized by + + + + + | + + + a + ′ + + ⟩ + → + α + = + + + + + | + + + α + ′ + + ⟩ + + + ⟨ + + α + ′ + + + | + + + α + ′ + + ⟩ + + + + + + {\displaystyle |a'\rangle \to \alpha ={\frac {|\alpha '\rangle }{\sqrt {\langle \alpha '|\alpha '\rangle }}}} + +. +Normalized wave function +A wave function + + + + + | + + a + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |a\rangle } + + is said to be normalized if + + + + ⟨ + a + + | + + a + ⟩ + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle \langle a|a\rangle =1} + +. +Pure state +A state which can be represented as a wave function / ket in Hilbert space / solution of Schrödinger equation is called pure state. See "mixed state". +Quantum numbers +a way of representing a state by several numbers, which corresponds to a complete set of commuting observables. +A common example of quantum numbers is the possible state of an electron in a central potential: + + + + ( + n + , + ℓ + , + m + , + s + ) + + + {\displaystyle (n,\ell ,m,s)} + +, which corresponds to the eigenstate of observables + + + + H + + + {\displaystyle H} + + (in terms of + + + + r + + + {\displaystyle r} + +), + + + + L + + + {\displaystyle L} + + (magnitude of angular momentum), + + + + + L + + z + + + + + {\displaystyle L_{z}} + + (angular momentum in + + + + z + + + {\displaystyle z} + +-direction), and + + + + + S + + z + + + + + {\displaystyle S_{z}} + +. +Spin wave function +Part of a wave function of particle(s). See "total wave function of a particle". +Spinor +Synonymous to "spin wave function". +Spatial wave function +Part of a wave function of particle(s). See "total wave function of a particle". +State +A state is a complete description of the observable properties of a physical system. +Sometimes the word is used as a synonym of "wave function" or "pure state". +State vector +synonymous to "wave function". +Statistical ensemble +A large number of copies of a system. +System +A sufficiently isolated part in the universe for investigation. +Tensor product of Hilbert space +When we are considering the total system as a composite system of two subsystems A and B, the wave functions of the composite system are in a Hilbert space + + + + + H + + A + + + ⊗ + + H + + B + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{A}\otimes H_{B}} + +, if the Hilbert space of the wave functions for A and B are + + + + + H + + A + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{A}} + + and + + + + + H + + B + + + + + {\displaystyle H_{B}} + + respectively. +Total wave function of a particle +For single-particle system, the total wave function + + + + Ψ + + + {\displaystyle \Psi } + + of a particle can be expressed as a product of spatial wave function and the spinor. The total wave functions are in the tensor product space of the Hilbert space of the spatial part (which is spanned by the position eigenstates) and the Hilbert space for the spin. +Wave function +The word "wave function" could mean one of following: +A vector in Hilbert space which can represent a state; synonymous to "ket" or "state vector". +The state vector in a specific basis. It can be seen as a covariant vector in this case. +The state vector in position representation, e.g. + + + + + ψ + + α + + + ( + + x + + 0 + + + ) + = + ⟨ + + x + + 0 + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \psi _{\alpha }(x_{0})=\langle x_{0}|\alpha \rangle } + +, where + + + + + | + + + x + + 0 + + + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |x_{0}\rangle } + + is the position eigenstate. + +=== Dynamics === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e199c3f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,681 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:18.157092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Degeneracy +See "degenerate energy level". +Degenerate energy level +If the energy of different state (wave functions which are not scalar multiple of each other) is the same, the energy level is called degenerate. +There is no degeneracy in a 1D system. +Energy spectrum +The energy spectrum refers to the possible energy of a system. +For bound system (bound states), the energy spectrum is discrete; for unbound system (scattering states), the energy spectrum is continuous. +related mathematical topics: Sturm–Liouville equation +Hamiltonian + + + + + + + H + ^ + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}} + + +The operator represents the total energy of the system. +Schrödinger equation +The Schrödinger equation relates the Hamiltonian operator acting on a wave function to its time evolution (Equation 1): + + + + i + ℏ + + + ∂ + + ∂ + t + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + = + + + + H + ^ + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle } + + Equation (1) is sometimes called "Time-Dependent Schrödinger equation" (TDSE). +Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation (TISE) +A modification of the Time-Dependent Schrödinger equation as an eigenvalue problem. The solutions are energy eigenstates of the system (Equation 2): + + + + E + + | + + α + ⟩ + = + + + + H + ^ + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle E|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle } + + +==== Dynamics related to single particle in a potential / other spatial properties ==== +In this situation, the SE is given by the form + + + + i + ℏ + + + ∂ + + ∂ + t + + + + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + + r + + , + + t + ) + = + + + + H + ^ + + + + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + + r + + , + + t + ) + = + + ( + + − + + + + ℏ + + 2 + + + + 2 + m + + + + + ∇ + + 2 + + + + + V + ( + + r + + ) + + ) + + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + + r + + , + + t + ) + = + − + + + + ℏ + + 2 + + + + 2 + m + + + + + ∇ + + 2 + + + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + + r + + , + + t + ) + + + V + ( + + r + + ) + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + + r + + , + + t + ) + + + {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)={\hat {H}}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)=\left(-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V(\mathbf {r} )\right)\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)+V(\mathbf {r} )\Psi _{\alpha }(\mathbf {r} ,\,t)} + + It can be derived from (1) by considering + + + + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + x + , + t + ) + := + ⟨ + x + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \Psi _{\alpha }(x,t):=\langle x|\alpha \rangle } + + and + + + + + + + H + ^ + + + + := + − + + + + ℏ + + 2 + + + + 2 + m + + + + + ∇ + + 2 + + + + + + + + V + ^ + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}:=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+{\hat {V}}} + + +Bound state +A state is called bound state if its position probability density at infinite tends to zero for all the time. Roughly speaking, we can expect to find the particle(s) in a finite size region with certain probability. More precisely, + + + + + | + + ψ + ( + + r + + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + → + 0 + + + {\displaystyle |\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)|^{2}\to 0} + + when + + + + + | + + + r + + + | + + → + + + ∞ + + + {\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} |\to +\infty } + +, for all + + + + t + > + 0 + + + {\displaystyle t>0} + +. +There is a criterion in terms of energy: +Let + + + + E + + + {\displaystyle E} + + be the expectation energy of the state. It is a bound state if and only if + + + + E + < + min + ⁡ + { + V + ( + r + → + − + ∞ + ) + , + V + ( + r + → + + + ∞ + ) + } + + + {\displaystyle E<\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}} + +. +Position representation and momentum representation + +Position representation of a wave function + + + + + + Ψ + + α + + + ( + x + , + t + ) + := + ⟨ + x + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \Psi _{\alpha }(x,t):=\langle x|\alpha \rangle } + +, +momentum representation of a wave function + + + + + + + + + Ψ + ~ + + + + + α + + + ( + p + , + t + ) + := + ⟨ + p + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle {\tilde {\Psi }}_{\alpha }(p,t):=\langle p|\alpha \rangle } + + ; +where + + + + + | + + x + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |x\rangle } + + is the position eigenstate and + + + + + | + + p + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |p\rangle } + + the momentum eigenstate respectively. +The two representations are linked by Fourier transform. +Probability amplitude +A probability amplitude is of the form + + + + ⟨ + α + + | + + ψ + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |\psi \rangle } + +. +Probability current +Having the metaphor of probability density as mass density, then probability current + + + + J + + + {\displaystyle J} + + is the current: + + + + J + ( + x + , + t + ) + = + + + + i + ℏ + + + 2 + m + + + + + ( + + ψ + + + + ∂ + + ψ + + ∗ + + + + + ∂ + x + + + + − + + + + ∂ + ψ + + + ∂ + x + + + + ψ + + ) + + + + {\displaystyle J(x,t)={\frac {i\hbar }{2m}}\left(\psi {\frac {\partial \psi ^{*}}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial \psi }{\partial x}}\psi \right)} + + The probability current and probability density together satisfy the continuity equation: + + + + + + ∂ + + ∂ + t + + + + + | + + ψ + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + + + ∇ + ⋅ + + J + + ( + x + , + t + ) + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\psi (x,t)|^{2}+\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} (x,t)=0} + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f82649fcb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,798 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:18.157092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Probability density +Given the wave function of a particle, + + + + + | + + ψ + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle |\psi (x,t)|^{2}} + + is the probability density at position + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + and time + + + + t + + + {\displaystyle t} + +. + + + + + | + + ψ + ( + + x + + 0 + + + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + + d + x + + + {\displaystyle |\psi (x_{0},t)|^{2}\,dx} + + means the probability of finding the particle near + + + + + x + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle x_{0}} + +. +Scattering state +The wave function of scattering state can be understood as a propagating wave. See also "bound state". +There is a criterion in terms of energy: +Let + + + + E + + + {\displaystyle E} + + be the expectation energy of the state. It is a scattering state if and only if + + + + E + > + min + ⁡ + { + V + ( + r + → + − + ∞ + ) + , + V + ( + r + → + + + ∞ + ) + } + + + {\displaystyle E>\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}} + +. +Square-integrable +Square-integrable is a necessary condition for a function being the position/momentum representation of a wave function of a bound state of the system. +Given the position representation + + + + Ψ + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + {\displaystyle \Psi (x,t)} + + of a state vector of a wave function, square-integrable means: +1D case: + + + + + ∫ + + − + ∞ + + + + + ∞ + + + + | + + Ψ + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + + d + x + < + + + ∞ + + + {\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}\,dx<+\infty } + +. +3D case: + + + + + ∫ + + V + + + + | + + Ψ + ( + + r + + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + + d + V + < + + + ∞ + + + {\displaystyle \int _{V}|\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)|^{2}\,dV<+\infty } + +. +Stationary state +A stationary state of a bound system is an eigenstate of Hamiltonian operator. Classically, it corresponds to standing wave. It is equivalent to the following things: +an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian operator +an eigenfunction of Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation +a state of definite energy +a state which "every expectation value is constant in time" +a state whose probability density ( + + + + + | + + ψ + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle |\psi (x,t)|^{2}} + +) does not change with respect to time, i.e. + + + + + + d + + d + t + + + + + | + + Ψ + ( + x + , + t + ) + + + | + + + 2 + + + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}=0} + + +=== Measurement postulates === + +Born's rule +The probability of the state + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle } + + collapse to an eigenstate + + + + + | + + k + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |k\rangle } + + of an observable is given by + + + + + | + + ⟨ + k + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + | + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle |\langle k|\alpha \rangle |^{2}} + +. +Collapse +"Collapse" means the sudden process which the state of the system will "suddenly" change to an eigenstate of the observable during measurement. +Eigenstates +An eigenstate of an operator + + + + A + + + {\displaystyle A} + + is a vector satisfied the eigenvalue equation: + + + + A + + | + + α + ⟩ + = + c + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle A|\alpha \rangle =c|\alpha \rangle } + +, where + + + + c + + + {\displaystyle c} + + is a scalar. +Usually, in bra–ket notation, the eigenstate will be represented by its corresponding eigenvalue if the corresponding observable is understood. +Expectation value +The expectation value + + + + ⟨ + M + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle } + + of the observable M with respect to a state + + + + + | + + α + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha } + + is the average outcome of measuring + + + + M + + + {\displaystyle M} + + with respect to an ensemble of state + + + + + | + + α + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha } + +. + + + + + ⟨ + M + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle } + + can be calculated by: + + + + ⟨ + M + ⟩ + = + ⟨ + α + + | + + M + + | + + α + ⟩ + . + + + {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle =\langle \alpha |M|\alpha \rangle .} + + +If the state is given by a density matrix + + + + ρ + + + {\displaystyle \rho } + +, + + + + ⟨ + M + ⟩ + = + Tr + ⁡ + ( + M + ρ + ) + + + {\displaystyle \langle M\rangle =\operatorname {Tr} (M\rho )} + +. +Hermitian operator +An operator satisfying + + + + A + = + + A + + † + + + + + {\displaystyle A=A^{\dagger }} + +. +Equivalently, + + + + ⟨ + α + + | + + A + + | + + α + ⟩ + = + ⟨ + α + + | + + + A + + † + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |A|\alpha \rangle =\langle \alpha |A^{\dagger }|\alpha \rangle } + + for all allowable wave function + + + + + | + + α + ⟩ + + + {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle } + +. +Observable +Mathematically, it is represented by a Hermitian operator. + +=== Indistinguishable particles === +Exchange +Intrinsically identical particles +If the intrinsic properties (properties that can be measured but are independent of the quantum state, e.g. charge, total spin, mass) of two particles are the same, they are said to be (intrinsically) identical. +Indistinguishable particles +If a system shows measurable differences when one of its particles is replaced by another particle, these two particles are called distinguishable. +Bosons +Bosons are particles with integer spin (s = 0, 1, 2, ... ). They can either be elementary (like photons) or composite (such as mesons, nuclei or even atoms). There are five known elementary bosons: the four force carrying gauge bosons γ (photon), g (gluon), Z (Z boson) and W (W boson), as well as the Higgs boson. +Fermions +Fermions are particles with half-integer spin (s = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, ... ). Like bosons, they can be elementary or composite particles. There are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are the main constituents of ordinary matter. +Anti-symmetrization of wave functions +Symmetrization of wave functions +Pauli exclusion principle + +=== Quantum statistical mechanics === +Bose–Einstein distribution +Bose–Einstein condensation +Bose–Einstein condensation state (BEC state) +Fermi energy +Fermi–Dirac distribution +Slater determinant + +== Nonlocality == +Entanglement +Bell's inequality +Entangled state +separable state +no-cloning theorem + +== Rotation: spin/angular momentum == +Spin +angular momentum +Clebsch–Gordan coefficients +singlet state and triplet state + +== Approximation methods == +adiabatic approximation +Born–Oppenheimer approximation +WKB approximation +time-dependent perturbation theory +time-independent perturbation theory + +== Historical Terms / semi-classical treatment == +Ehrenfest theorem +A theorem connecting the classical mechanics and result derived from Schrödinger equation. +first quantization + + + + + x + → + + + + x + ^ + + + + , + + p + → + i + ℏ + + + ∂ + + ∂ + x + + + + + + {\displaystyle x\to {\hat {x}},\,p\to i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}} + + +wave–particle duality + +== Uncategorized terms == +uncertainty principle +Canonical commutation relations +The canonical commutation relations are the commutators between canonically conjugate variables. For example, position + + + + + + + x + ^ + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\hat {x}}} + + and momentum + + + + + + + p + ^ + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\hat {p}}} + +: + + + + [ + + + + x + ^ + + + + , + + + + p + ^ + + + + ] + = + + + + x + ^ + + + + + + + p + ^ + + + + − + + + + p + ^ + + + + + + + x + ^ + + + + = + i + ℏ + + + {\displaystyle [{\hat {x}},{\hat {p}}]={\hat {x}}{\hat {p}}-{\hat {p}}{\hat {x}}=i\hbar } + + +Path integral +wavenumber + +== See also == +Mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics +List of mathematical topics in quantum theory +List of quantum-mechanical potentials +Introduction to quantum mechanics + +== Notes == + +== References == + +Elementary textbooks +Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X. +Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8714-5. +Shankar, R. (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics. Springer. ISBN 0-306-44790-8. +Claude Cohen-Tannoudji; Bernard Diu; Frank Laloë (2006). Quantum Mechanics. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-56952-7. +Graduate textbook +Sakurai, J. J. (1994). Modern Quantum Mechanics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-53929-2. +Other +Greenberger, Daniel; Hentschel, Klaus; Weinert, Friedel, eds. (2009). Compendium of Quantum Physics - Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-70622-9. +d'Espagnat, Bernard (2003). Veiled Reality: An Analysis of Quantum Mechanical Concepts (1st ed.). US: Westview Press. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1a62511c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 1/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a glossary of environmental science. +Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. + +== 0-9 == +1-in-100 flood – a flood with 1 in 100 chance of occurring in any given year (used as a safety requirement for the construction industry.) +20/30/10 standard - 20 mg/L Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), 30 mg/L Suspended Solids (SS), 10 units of E. coli: the water quality standard for greywater use in toilets, laundry and surface irrigation. +5Rs - (sustainability) reduce, remanufacture, reuse, recycle, recover. + +== A == +abiotic component - Any non-living chemical or physical part of the environment that affects living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems, such as the atmosphere and water resources. (see also biotic). +absorption pit (soakaway) – a hole dug in permeable ground and filled with broken stones or granular material and usually covered with earth allowing collected water to soak into the ground. +absorption - one substance taking in another, either physically or chemically. +acclimation - the process of an organism adjusting to chronic change in its environment. +acid mine drainage - the outflow of acidic water from metal mines or coal mines. +acid rain - rain or other forms of precipitation that is unusually acidic. +adaptation - a characteristic of an organism that has been favoured by natural selection. +adaptive radiation - closely related species that look very different, as a result of having adapted to widely different ecological niches. +additionality - (of biodiversity offsets) where the conservation outcomes delivered by a biodiversity offset are demonstrably new and would not have resulted without the offset. +adsorption - one substance taking up another at its surface. +aerobic - requiring air or oxygen; used in reference to decomposition processes that occur in the presence of oxygen. +aerosols - solid or liquid particles suspended within the atmosphere. +affluenza - as defined in the book of the same name 1. the bloated, sluggish and unfulfilled feeling that results from efforts to keep up with the Joneses. 2. an epidemic of stress, overwork, waste and indebtedness caused by dogged pursuit of the Australian dream. 3. an unsustainable addiction to economic growth. The traditional Western environmentally unfriendly high consumption life-style: a play on the words affluence and influenza cf. froogle, freegan. +afforestation - planting new forests on lands that have not been recently forested. +agroforestry - (sustainability) an ecologically based farming system, that, through the integration of trees in farms, increases social, environmental and economic benefits to land users. +air pollution - the modification of the natural characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent. +albedo - reflectance; the ratio of light from the Sun that is reflected by the Earth's surface, to the light received by it. Unreflected light is converted to infrared radiation (heat), which causes atmospheric warming (see "radiative forcing"). Thus, surfaces with a high albedo, like snow and ice, generally contribute to cooling, whereas surfaces with a low albedo, like forests, generally contribute to warming. Changes in land use that significantly alter the characteristics of land surfaces can alter the albedo. +algal bloom - the rapid and excessive growth of algae; generally caused by high nutrient levels combined with other favourable conditions. Blooms can deoxygenate the water leading to the loss of wildlife. +alien species - see introduced species. +alloy - composite blend of materials made under special conditions. Metal alloys like brass and bronze are well known but there are also many plastic alloys. +alternative fuels - fuels like ethanol and compressed natural gas that produce fewer emissions than the traditional fossil fuels. +anaerobic digestion - the biological degradation of organic materials in the absence of oxygen to yield methane gas (that may be combusted to produce energy) and stabilised organic residues (that may be used as a soil additive). +anaerobic - not requiring air or oxygen; used in reference to decomposition processes that occur in the absence of oxygen. +ancient forest - see old growth forest. +anoxic - with abnormally low levels of oxygen. +anthropogenic - man-made, not natural. +anthroposophy - spiritual philosophy based on the teachings of Rudolf Steiner (25 February 1861 – 30 March 1925) which postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible spiritual world accessible to direct experience through inner development - more specifically through cultivating conscientiously a form of thinking independent of sensory experience. Steiner was the initiator of biodynamic gardening. +application efficiency - (sustainability) the efficiency of watering after losses due to runoff, leaching, evaporation, wind etc. +appropriated carrying capacity - another name for the Ecological Footprint, but often used in referring to the imported ecological capacity of goods from overseas. +aquaculture - the cultivation of aquatic organisms under controlled conditions. +aquifer – a bed or layer yielding water for wells and springs etc.; an underground geological formation capable of receiving, storing and transmitting large quantities of water. Aquifer types include: confined (sealed and possibly containing “fossil” water); unconfined (capable of receiving inflow); and Artesian (an aquifer in which the hydraulic pressure will cause the water to rise above the upper confining layer). +arable land - land that can be used for growing crops. +atmosphere – general name for the layer of gases around a material body; the Earth's atmosphere consists, from the ground up, of the troposphere (which includes the planetary boundary layer or peplosphere, the lowest layer), stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere (or thermosphere), exosphere and magnetosphere. +autotroph - an organism that produces complex organic compounds from simple inorganic molecules using energy from light or inorganic chemical reactions. +available water capacity – that proportion of soil water that can be readily absorbed by plant roots. +avoidance – (sustainability) the first step in the waste hierarchy where waste generation is prevented (avoided). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ec6677e8b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 2/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +backflow - movement of water back to source e.g. contaminated water in a plumbing system. +baffle - (landscape design) an obstruction to trap debris in drainage water. +bagasse - the fibrous residue of sugar cane milling used as a fuel to produce steam in sugar mills. +baseload - the steady and reliable supply of energy through the grid. This is punctuated by bursts of higher demand known as “peak-load”. Supply companies must be able to respond instantly to extreme variation in demand and supply, especially during extreme conditions. Gas generators can react quickly while coal is slow but provides the steady "baseload". Renewable energies are generally not available on demand in this way. +batters - (landscape design) the slope of earthworks such as drainage channels. +best practice - a process, or innovative use of technology, equipment or resources or other measurable factors that have a proven record of success. +bioaccumulation - the accumulation of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of a living organism. +biocapacity - a measure of the biological productivity of an area. This may depend on natural conditions or human inputs like farming and forestry practices; the area needed to support the consumption of a defined population. +biocoenosis (alternatively, biocoenose or biocenose ) – all the interacting organisms living together in a specific habitat (or biotope). +biodegradable - capable of being decomposed through the action of organisms, especially bacteria. +biodiversity - the variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations; includes ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. +biodiversity banking - a market system for biodiversity offsetting that turns offsets into assets that can be traded. +biodiversity credit - a certificate that represents a measured and evidence-based unit of positive biodiversity outcome that is durable and additional to what would otherwise have occurred. +biodiversity offset - measurable conservation outcomes that result from actions designed to compensate for significant residual impacts on biodiversity, arising from a project and persisting after appropriate avoidance, minimization and restoration measures have been taken. The goal of biodiversity offsets is to achieve "no net loss" while adhering to a "like- for-like" principle, where offsets conserve the same biodiversity values that a project impacts. +bioelement - an element required by a living organism. +bioenergy - used in different senses: in its most narrow sense it is a synonym for biofuel, fuel derived from biological sources. In its broader sense it encompasses also biomass, the biological material used as a biofuel, as well as the social, economic, scientific and technical fields associated with using biological sources for energy. +biofuel - the fuel produced by the chemical and/or biological processing of biomass. Biofuel will either be a solid (e.g. charcoal), liquid (e.g. ethanol) or gas (e.g. methane). +biogas - landfill gas and sewage gas, also called biomass gas. +biogeochemical cycle - a circuit or pathway by which a chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic ("bio-") and abiotic ("geo-") parts of an ecosystem. +biogeochemical cycles - the movement of chemical elements between organisms and non-living components of the atmosphere, aquatic systems and soils. +biological oxygen demand (BOD) - a chemical procedure for determining how fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a body of water. +biological pest control - a method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. +biological productivity - (bioproductivity) the capacity of a given area to produce biomass; different ecosystems (i.e. pasture, forest, etc.) will have different levels of bioproductivity. Biological productivity is determined by dividing the total biological production (how much is grown and living) by the total area available. +biologically productive land - is land that is fertile enough to support forests, agriculture and / or animal life. All of the biologically productive land of a country comprises its biological capacity. Arable land is typically the most productive area. +biomass - the materials derived from photosynthesis (fossilised materials may or may not be included) such as forest, agricultural crops, wood and wood wastes, animal wastes, livestock operation residues, aquatic plants, and municipal and industrial wastes; the quantity of organic material present in unit area at a particular time mostly expressed as tons of dry matter per unit area; organic matter that can be used as fuel. +biome - a climatic and geographically defined area of ecologically similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often referred to as ecosystems. +biophysical - the living and non-living components and processes of the ecosphere. Biophysical measurements of nature quantify the ecosphere in physical units such as cubic metres, kilograms or joules. +bioregion - (ecoregion) an area comprising a natural ecological community and bounded by natural borders. +bioremediation - a process using organisms to remove or neutralise contaminants (e.g. petrol), mostly in soil or water. +biosolids - nutrient-rich organic materials derived from wastewater solids (sewage sludge) that have been stabilised through processing. +biosphere - the part of the Earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. +biosphere - the zone of air, land and water at the surface of the earth that is occupied by living organisms; the combination of all ecosystems on Earth and maintained by the energy of the Sun; the interface between the hydrosphere, geosphere and atmosphere. +biotic potential - the maximum reproductive capacity of a population under optimum environmental conditions. +biotic - relating to, produced by, or caused by living organisms. (see also abiotic). +birth rate - number of people born as a percentage of the total population in any given period of time; number of live births per 1000 people. +blackwater - household wastewater that contains solid waste i.e. toilet discharge. +bluewater - collectible water from rainfall; the water that falls on roofs and hard surfaces usually flowing into rivers and the sea and recharging the ground water. In nature the global average proportion of total rainfall that is blue water is about 40%. Blue water productivity in the garden can be increased by improving irrigation techniques, soil water storage, moderating the climate, using garden design and water-conserving plantings; also safe use of grey water. +boreal - northern; cold temperate Northern Hemisphere forests that grow where there is a mean annual temperature < 0 °C. +broad-acre farm - commercial farm covering a large area; usually a mixed farm in dryland conditions. +brownfield - a term often used to describe land previously used for industrial or commercial purposes with known or suspected pollution including soil contamination due to hazardous waste. +Brundtland Commission Report - a UN report, Our Common Future, published in 1987 and dealing with sustainable development and the policies required to achieve it, which the report characterizes as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb132588a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 11/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == +habitat - an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species. +hard waste - household garbage which is not normally accepted into rubbish bins by local councils, e.g. old stoves, mattresses. +heat– energy derived from the motion of molecules; a form of energy into which all other forms of energy may be degraded. +herbicide – a chemical the kills or inhibits growth of a plant. +herbivory - predation in which an organism known as an herbivore, consumes principally autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. +heterotroph (chemoorganotrophy) - an organism that requires organic substrates to obtain its carbon for growth and development. +hierarchy – an organisation of parts in which control from the top (generally with few parts), proceeds through a series of levels (ranks) to the bottom (generally of many parts) cf. heterarchy. +high-density polyethylene (HDPE) - A member of the polyethylene family of plastics and is used to make products such as milk bottles, pipes and shopping bags. HDPE may be coloured or opaque. +homoclime – a region with the same climate as the one under investigation. +horsepower (hp) = 745.7 watts. +homeostasis - the property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, that regulates its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition. +Horton overland flow - the tendency of water to flow horizontally across land surfaces when rainfall has exceeded infiltration capacity and depression storage capacity. +house energy rating - an assessment of the energy efficiency of residential house or unit designs using a 5 star scale. +household metabolism - the passage of food, energy, water, goods, and waste through the household unit in a similar way to the metabolic activity of an organism cf. industrial metabolism. +humus - organic material in soil lending it a bark brown or black colouration. +human equivalent (He) - the approximate human daily energy requirement of 12,500 kJ or its approximate energy generating capacity at basal metabolic rate which is equivalent to about 80 watts (3.47222kWh/day). A 100 watt light bulb therefore runs at 1.25 He. +humus – semi-persistent organic matter in the soil that can no longer be recognised as tissue. +hydrocarbons - chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen that are found in raw materials such as petroleum, coal and natural gas, and derived products such as plastics. +hydroelectric power - the electrical power generated using the power of falling water. +hydrological cycle (water cycle) - the natural cycle of water from evaporation, transpiration in the atmosphere, condensation (rain and snow), and flows back to the ocean (e.g. rivers). +hydrosphere - all the Earth's water; this would include water found in the sea, streams, lakes and other waterbodies, the soil, groundwater, and in the air. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4cb2e7185 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 12/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +incineration - combustion (by chemical oxidation) of waste material to treat or dispose of that waste material. +indicator species - any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. +industrial agriculture - a form of modern farming that involves industrialized production of livestock, poultry, fish, and crops. +Industrial Revolution - a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation had a profound effect on socioeconomic and cultural conditions. +infiltration – movement of water below topsoil to the plant roots and below. +infiltration - the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. +indicators– quantitative markers for monitoring progress towards desired goals. +industrial ecology (term int. Harry Zvi Evan 1973) - the observation that nature produces no waste and therefore provides an example of sustainable waste management. Natural Capitalism espouses industrial ecology as one of its four pillars together with energy conservation, material conservation, and redefinition of commodity markets and product stewardship in terms of a service economy. Publications: +insecticide - a pesticide used to control insects in all developmental forms. +Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods: natural predators and parasites, pest-resistant varieties, cultural practices, biological controls, various physical techniques, and the strategic use of pesticides. +intercropping - the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time. +in-stream - the use of freshwater where it occurs, usually within a river or stream: it includes hydroelectricity, recreation, tourism, scientific and cultural uses, ecosystem maintenance, and dilution of waste. +integrated pest management (IPM) – pest management that attempts to minimise chemical use by using several pest control options in combination. The goal of IPM is not to eliminate all pests but to reduce pest populations to acceptable levels; an ecologically based pest control strategy that relies heavily on natural mortality factors and seeks out control tactics that disrupt these factors as little as possible. +integrated product life-cycle management - management of all phases of goods and services to be environmentally friendly and sustainable. +inter-generational equity – the intention to leave the world in the best possible condition for future generations. +Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - the IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the UN Environment Programme to provide the scientific and technical foundation for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), primarily through the publication of periodic assessment reports. +internal water footprint – the water embodied in goods produced within a country (although these may be subsequently exported) cf. external water footprint. +intrinsic value – the value of something that is independent of its utility. +irrigation index – an efficiency indicator showing degree of match between applied and used water. Ideal rating = 1, an Ii of 1.5 means an oversupply of water by 50%. +irrigation scheduling – watering plants according to their needs. +irrigation – important component for agriculture developed across cultures. +ISO 14001- The international standard for companies seeking to certify their environmental management system. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001 standard was first published in 1996 specifying the requirements for an environmental management system in organization (companies and institutions) with the goal of minimizing harmful effects on the environment and the goal of continual improvement of environmental performance. + +== J == +joule (J)– the basic unit of energy; the equivalent of 1 watt of power radiated or dissipated for 1 second. Natural gas consumption is usually measured in megajoules (MJ), where 1 MJ = 1, 000,000 J. On large accounts it may be measured in gigajoules (GJ), where 1 GJ = 1 000,000,000 J. + +== K == +kerbside collection - collection of household recyclable materials (separated or co-mingled) that are left at the kerbside for collection by local council services. +keystone species - a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and help in determine the types and numbers of various others species in a community. +Kyoto Protocol - an international agreement adopted in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. The Protocol sets binding emission targets for developed countries that would reduce their emissions on average 5.2 percent below 1990 levels. + +== L == +land use, Land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) - land uses and land-use changes can act either as sinks or as emission sources. It is estimated that approximately one-fifth of global emissions result from LULUCF activities. The Kyoto Protocol allows parties to receive emissions credit for certain LULUCF activities that reduce net emissions. +landfill- solid waste disposal in which refuse is buried between layers of soil, a method often used to reclaim low-lying ground; the word is sometimes used as a noun to refer to the waste itself. +landfill gas – the gas emissions from biodegrading waste in landfill, including CO2, CH4, and small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen with traces of toluene, benzene and vinyl chloride. +landfill levy - levy applied at differential rates to municipal, commercial and industrial and prescribed wastes disposed to licensed landfills the levies used to foster the environmentally sustainable use of resources and best practice in waste management. +landfill prohibition - The banning of a certain material or product type from disposal to landfills. Occurs occasionally, for example, where a preferable waste management option is available. +landfill (dump or tip and historically as a midden) - a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment. +land use planning - a branch of public policy which encompasses various disciplines which seek to order and regulate the use of land in an efficient and ethical way. +leaching – the movement of chemical in the upper layers of soil into lower layers or into groundwater by being dissolved in water. +lithosphere - the solid outermost shell of a rocky planet. +considered ideal for gardening and agricultural uses. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fa8c582d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 13/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +leachate (waste) - the mixture of water and dissolved solids (possibly toxic) that accumulates as water passes through waste and collects at the bottom of a landfill site. +leaf area index (LAI) – the ratio of photosynthetic leaf area to ground area covered (optimal for photosynthesis = 3-5). LAI is often optimised by shifts in leaf angle, a form of solar tracking. +'level (scale, context or framework) – a context, frame of reference or degree of organisation within an integrated system. A level may or may not be spatially delimited. +life cycle (of a product) - All stages of a product's development, from raw materials, manufacturing through to consumption and ultimate disposal. +Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) - an objective process to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with a product, process, or activity. A means of identifying resource use and waste released to the environment, and to assess management options. +life support systems - according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the biophysical processes "that sustain the productivity, adaptability and capacity for renewal of lands, waters, and / or the biosphere as a whole." +lilacwater – recycled water that is unsuitable for drinking. +linear low-density polyethylene - a member of the polyolefin family of plastics. It is a strong and flexible plastic and usually used in film for packaging, bags and for industrial products such as pressure pipe. +linear metabolism - direct conversion of resources into wastes that are often sent directly to landfill +loam - a soil composed of sand, silt, and clay in relatively even concentration (about 40-40-20% concentration respectively), *locally existing capacity - the total ecological production that is found within a country's territories. It is usually expressed in hectares based on world average productivity. +low-density polyethylene - A member of the polyolefin family of plastics. It is a flexible material and usually used as film for packaging or as bags. +low entropy energy - to high-quality energy, or energy that is concentrated and available. Electricity is considered the energy carrier with the lowest entropy (i.e. highest quality) as it can be transformed into mechanical energy at efficiency rates well above 90%. In contrast, fossil fuel chemical energy can only be converted into mechanical energy at a typical efficiency rate of 25% (cars) to 50 percent (modern power plants). The chemical energy of biomass is of lower quality. + +== M == +magma - molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other terrestrial planet) that often collects in a magma chamber and is ejected by volcano's. +manure - organic matter used as fertilizer in agriculture. +market benefits - benefits of a climate policy that can be measured in terms of avoided market impacts such as changes in resource productivity (e.g., lower agricultural yields, scarcer water resources) and damages to human-built environment (e.g., coastal flooding due to sea-level rise). +material flow – the cycling of materials, which is driven by the flow of energy. +material identification - words, numbers or symbols used to designate composition of components of a product or packaging. Note: a material identification symbol does not indicate whether an item can be recycled. +materials recovery facility (MRF) - a centre for the reception and transfer of materials recovered from the waste stream. At a MRF, materials are also sorted by type and treated (e.g. cleaned, compressed) +Mauna Loa record - the record of measurement of atmospheric CO2 concentrations taken at Mauna Loa Observatory, Mauna Loa, Hawaii, since March 1958. This record shows the continuing increase in average annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations. +maximum soil water deficit – amount of water stored in the soil that is readily available to plants +megadiverse countries – The 17 countries that are home to the largest fraction of wild species (Australia is one such) +microorganism – an organism visible only through a microscope. +middle East– 15 countries - Bahrain, Islamic Rep. Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen. +mitigation hierarchy - a tool that aims to help management of biodiversity risk and is commonly applied in Environmental Impact Assessments. It includes a hierarchy of steps (but is not limited to): avoidance, minimisation, rehabilitation, restoration, and offset. +mobile garbage bin - A wheeled kerbside container for the collection of garbage or other materials. +monoculture - the practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. +Montreal Protocol –an international treaty signed in 1987 designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion, especially CFC's. +mortality rate – generally understood as the total number of deaths per 1000 people of a given age group +mulch - any composted or non-composted organic material, excluding plastic, that is suitable for placing on soil surfaces to restrict moisture loss from the soil and to provide a source of nutrients to the soil. +municipal waste - solid waste generated from domestic premises (garbage and hard waste) and council activities such as street sweeping, litter and street tree lopping. Also includes waste dropped at transfer stations and construction waste from owner/occupier renovations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fca47809f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 14/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== N == +National Packaging Covenant - a self-regulatory agreement between packaging industries and government. +natural- the existing air, water, land and energy resources from which all resources derive. Main functions include resource production (such as fish, timber or cereals), waste assimilation (such as CO2 absorption, sewage decomposition), and life support services (UV protection, biodiversity, water cleansing, climate stability). The environmental services that must be maintained so that human development can be sustainable. +natural capital - natural resources and ecological processes that are equivalent to financial capital. +natural resources - naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. +natural selection - the process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common. +nature-positive - a global societal goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030, measured from a 2020 baseline, and with the aim of achieving full recovery by 2050. +neighbourhood environment improvement plan - plans developed by a local community including residents, special interest groups, local government, local industry and government agencies. +nematocide – a chemical that kills nematodes. +net primary production - the energy or biomass content of plant material that has accumulated in an ecosystem over a period of time through photosynthesis. It is the amount of energy left after subtracting the respiration of primary producers (mostly plants) from the total amount of solar energy that is fixed biologically; gross primary productivity minus respiratory losses (this is the carbon gain). +nickel cadmium batteries - batteries typically used in appliances such as power tools and mobile phones. Cadmium is a heavy metal that poses risk to human and ecosystem health. +noise pollution (environmental noise) - displeasing human or machine created sound that disrupts the activity or happiness of human or animal life. +nonpoint source pollution - water pollution affecting a water body from diffuse sources, rather than a point source which discharges to a water body at a single location. +no-till farming - considered a kind of conservation tillage system and is sometimes called zero tillage. +no net loss - biodiversity policies that aim to neutralise biodiversity loss, defined relative to an appropriate reference scenario; it is the point at which project-related impacts on biodiversity are balanced by measures taken to avoid and minimise the project's impacts. +non-ferrous metals - those metals that contain little or no iron, e.g. copper, brass and bronze. +Non Government Organisation (NGO) - A not-for-profit or community-based organization. +nutrients – chemicals required for the growth of organisms. Phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium are major plant nutrients but there are also many trace elements, elements that are needed in small quantities for the growing and developing of animal and plant life. + +== O == +Ocean acidification - reduction in pH. Caused by their uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. +Oceania - the islands of the southern, western, and central Pacific Ocean, including Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Sometimes extended to encompass Australia, New Zealand, and Maritime Southeast Asia. +old growth forest - an area of forest that has attained great age and so exhibits unique biological features. +omnivore - a species of animal that eats both plants and animals as its primary food source. +open-pit mining (opencast mining, open-cut mining) - a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow. +old growth forests - forests dominated by mature trees and with little or no evidence of any disturbance such as logging, ground clearing and building. +organic agriculture - a holistic production management system that avoids the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides and GM organisms, minimises pollution of air, soil and water, and optimises the health and productivity of interdependent communities of plants, animals and people. +organic gardening – gardening that follows, in general principle, the philosophy of organic agriculture +organic – derived from a living organism. +organics - plant or animal matter originating from domestic or industrial sources, e.g. grass clippings, tree prunings, food waste. +overshoot- growth beyond an area's carrying capacity; ecological deficit occurs when human consumption and waste production exceed the capacity of the Earth to create new resources and absorb waste. During overshoot, natural capital is being liquidated to support current use so the Earth's ability to support future life declines. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e5b36d00a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 15/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +Patterns in nature - are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. +pay-by-weight systems - financial approaches to managing waste that charge prices according to the quantity of waste collected, rather than a price per pick-up or fixed annual charge, as typically applied to households for kerbside services. Pay-by-weight systems may provide an incentive to reduce waste generation. +per capita consumption - the average amount of commodity used per person. +Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) - organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. +pervious surface – one which can be penetrated by air and water. +pesticide - means any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest. This includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit, and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2003). +photosynthesis – the transformation of radiant energy to chemical energy by plants; the manufacture by plants of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. The reaction is driven by energy from sunlight, catalysed by chlorophyll and releases oxygen as a byproduct. The capture of the Sun's energy (primary production) to power all life on Earth (consumption). +photovoltaic - the direct conversion of light into electricity +phytoplankton– plant plankton cf. Plankton. +plankton – mostly microscopic animal and plant life suspended in water and a valuable food source for animals cf. Phytoplankton. +plant quality - a standard of plant appearance or yield. +plastic - One of many high-polymeric substances, including both natural and synthetic products, but excluding rubbers. At some stage in its manufacture every plastic is capable of flowing, under heat and pressure, if necessary, into the desired final shape. +Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) - the principle that producers of pollution should in some way compensate others for the effects of their pollution. +polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – a clear, tough, light and shatterproof type of plastic, used to make products such as soft drink bottles, film packaging and fabrics. +polypropylene (PP) - a member of the polyelofin family of plastics. PP is light, rigid and glossy and is used to make products such as washing machine agitators, clear film packaging, carpet fibres and housewares. +polystyrene (PS) - a member of the styrene family of plastics. PS is easy to mould and is used to make refrigerator and washing machine components. It can be foamed to make single use packaging, such as cups, meat and produce trays. +polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - a member of the vinyl family of plastics. PVC can be clear, flexible or rigid and is used to make products such as fruit juice bottles, credit cards, pipes and hoses. +postconsumer material or waste - material or product that has served its intended purpose and has been discarded for disposal or recovery. This includes returns of material from the distribution chain; waste that is collected and sorted after use; kerbside waste cf. pre-consumer waste. +potable – safe to drink. +power- the rate at which work is done; electrically, power = current x voltage (P = I V) +Precautionary Principle – where there are threats of serious irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for introducing measures to prevent that degradation (Rio Declaration). +precipitation – (weather) any liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface; includes drizzle, rain, snow, snow pellets, ice crystals, ice pellets and ha +preconsumer material or waste - material diverted to the waste stream during a manufacturing process; waste from manufacture and production. +pre-industrial - for the purposes of the IPCC this is defined as 1750. +prescribed waste and prescribed industrial waste - Those wastes listed in the Environment Protection (Prescribed Waste) Regulations 1998 and subject to requirements under the industrial waste management policy 2000. Prescribed wastes carry special handling, storage, transport and often licensing requirements, and attract substantially higher disposal levies than non-prescribed solid wastes. +primary productivity - the fixation rate at which energy is fixed by plants. +producer responsibility – the legal responsibilities of producers/manufacturers for the full life of their products. +producer – (ecology) a plant, that is able to produce its own food from inorganic substance; (energetics) an organism or process that generates concentrated energy from sunlight beyond its own needs. +product stewardship – the principle of shared responsibility by all sectors involved in the manufacture, distribution, use and disposal of products for the consequences of these activities; manufacturing responsibility extending to the entire life of the product. +Product – a thing produced by labour; mostly the material items we buy in shops; (ecology) the results of photosynthesis. +productivity (ecology) - the rate at which radiant energy is used by producers to form organic substances as food for consumers. +provisioning services – one of the major ecosystem services: the products obtained from ecosystems e.g. genetic resources, food, fibre and fresh water. +pyrolysis - advanced thermal technology involving the thermal decomposition of organic compounds in the complete absence of oxygen under pressure and at elevated temperature. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ac60a0c1b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 16/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== R == +radiative forcing - changes in the energy balance of the earth-atmosphere system in response to a change in factors such as greenhouse gases, land-use change, or solar radiation. Positive radiative forcing increases the temperature of the lower atmosphere, which in turn increases temperatures at the Earth's surface. Negative radiative forcing cools the lower atmosphere. Radiative forcing is most commonly measured in units of watts per square meter (W/m2). +rain garden – an engineered area for the collection, infiltration and evapotranspiration of rainwater runoff, mostly from impervious surfaces; it reduces rain runoff by allowing stormwater to soak into the ground (as opposed to flowing into storm drains and surface waters which can cause erosion, water pollution, flooding, and diminished groundwater). They can also absorb water contaminants that would otherwise end up in water bodies. The terminology arose in Maryland, USA in the 1990s as a more marketable expression for bioremediation. +rainwater harvesting – collecting rainwater either in storages or the soil mostly close to where it falls; the attempt to increase rainwater productivity by storing it in pondages, wetlands etc., and helping to avoid the need for infrastructure to bring water from elsewhere. Practiced on a large scale upstream this reduces available water downstream. +rangeland – a region where grazing or browsing livestock is the main land use. +raw materials - materials that are extracted from the ground and processed e.g. bauxite is processed into aluminium. +reclaimed water - water taken from a waste (effluent) stream and purified to a level suitable for further use. +recovered material – (waste) material that would have otherwise been disposed of as waste or used for energy recovery, but has instead been collected and recovered (reclaimed) as a material input thus avoiding the use of new primary materials. +recovery rate – (waste) the recovery rate is the percentage of materials consumed that is recovered for recycling. +recyclables – strictly, all materials that may be recycled, but this may include the recyclable containers and paper/cardboard component of kerbside waste (excluding garden organics). +recycled content - proportion, by mass, of recycled material in a product or packaging. Only pre-consumer and post-consumer materials are considered as recycled content. +recycled material – see recovered material. +recycled water – treated stormwater, greywater or blackwater suitable for uses like toilet flushing, irrigation, industry etc. It is non-drinking water and is indicated using a lilac non-drinking label. +recycling - a wide range of activities, including collection, sorting, reprocessing and manufacture of products into new goods. +reforestation – the direct human conversion of non-forested land to forested land through planting, seeding or promotion of natural seed sources, on land that was once forested but no longer so. According to the language of the Kyoto Protocol, for the first commitment period (2008–2012), reforestation activities are limited to reforestation occurring on lands that did not contain forest at the start of 1990; replanting of forests on lands that have recently been harvested. +regulating services – (sustainability) the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes including, for example, the regulation of climate, water or disease. +renewable energy - any source of energy that can be used without depleting its reserves. These sources include sunlight (solar energy) and other sources such as, wind, wave, biomass, geothermal and hydro energy. +renewable energy certificates - Market trading mechanisms created through the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 in connection with the commonwealth government's mandatory renewable energy target. The certificates provide a 'premium' revenue stream for electricity generated from renewable sources. +reprocessing – (waste) changing the physical structure and properties of a waste material that would otherwise have been sent to landfill, in order to add financial value to the processed material, this may involve a range of technologies including composting, anaerobic digestion and energy from waste technologies such as pyrolysis, gasification and incineration. +residual waste – (waste) waste that remains after the separation of recyclable materials (including green waste). +resource flow - the totality of changes in multiple resource stocks, or at least any pair of them, over a specified period of time +resource intensity – ratio of resource consumption relative to its economic or physical output; for example, litres of water used per dollar spent, or litres of water used per tonne of aluminium produced. At the national level, energy intensity is the ratio of total primary energy consumption of the country to either the gross domestic product, or the physical output (total goods produced). +resource productivity – the output obtained for a given resource input. +resource recovery – (waste) the process of obtaining matter or energy from discarded materials. +resource stock - the total amount of a resource often related to resource flow (the amount of resources harvested or used per unit of time). To harvest a resource stock sustainably, the harvest must not exceed the net production of the stock. Stocks are measured in mass, volume, or energy and flows in mass, volume, or energy per unit of time. +respiration – (biology) uptake by a living organism of oxygen from the air (or water) which is then used to oxidise organic matter or food. The outputs of this oxidation are usually CO2 and H2O; the metabolic process by which organisms meet their internal energy needs and release CO2. +retail therapy – using shopping to obtain a ‘lift’ to make up for other things lacking in our lives. +retrofit - to replace existing items with updated items. +reuse - the second pillar of the waste hierarchy - recovering value from a discarded resource without reprocessing or remanufacture e.g.clothes sold though opportunity shops strictly represent a form of re-use, rather than recycling +risk – the probability of a (negative) occurrence. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9e88a8b51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 17/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +salinisation – (ecology) the process by which land becomes salt-affected. salinity – (ecology) salt in water and soils, generally in the context of human activity such as clearing and planting for annual crops rather than perennial trees and shrubs. Can make soils infertile. scale – the physical dimensions, in either space or time, of phenomena or events; cf. a level which may or may not have a scale. sectors – (economics) economic groupings used to generalise patterns of expenditure and use. sediment – (ecology) soil or other particles that settle to the bottom of water bodies. self-organisation – the process by which systems use energy to develop structure and organisation. sentinel indicator – (ecology) an indicator that captures the essence of the process of change affecting a broad area of interest and which is also easily communicated. septic sewage – sewage in which anaerobic respiration is taking place characterised by a blackish colour and smell of hydrogen sulphide. septic tank - a type of sedimentation tank in which the sludge is retained long enough for the organic content to undergo anaerobic digestion. Typically used for receiving the sewage from houses and other premises that are too isolated for connection to a sewer. sequestration – (global warming) the removal of carbon dioxide from the Earth's atmosphere and storage in a sink as when trees absorb CO2 in photosynthesis and store it in their tissues. sewage- water and raw effluent disposed through toilets, kitchens and bathrooms. Includes water-borne wastes from domestic uses of water from households, or similar uses in trade or industry. sewer - a pipe conveying sewage. sewerage - a system of pipes and mechanical appliances for the collection and transportation of domestic and industrial sewages. sewerage system – sewage system infrastructure: the network of pipes, pumping stations and treatment plants used to collect, transport, treat and discharge sewage. sewer-mining - tapping directly into a sewer (either before or after a sewage treatment plant) and extracting wastewater for treatment and use. shredder flock - the residue from shredded car bodies, whitegoods and the like. Silent Spring - environmental science book by Rachel Carson published in 1962 that inspired the environmental movement and later led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. simple living - a lifestyle individuals may pursue for a variety of motivations, such as spirituality, health, or ecology. Others may choose simple living for reasons of social justice or a rejection of consumerism. Some may emphasise an explicit rejection of "westernised values", while others choose to live more simply for reasons of personal taste, a sense of fairness or for personal economy. Simple living as a concept is distinguished from the simple lifestyles of those living in conditions of poverty in that its proponents are consciously choosing to not focus on wealth directly tied to money or cash-based economics. sinks - processes or places that remove or store gases, solutes or solids; any process, activity or mechanism that results in the net removal of greenhouse gases, aerosols, or precursors of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. slow Food – the slow food movement was founded in Italy in 1986 by Carlo Petrini as a response to the negative impact of multinational food industries. Slow Food is a counteracting force to Fast Food as it encourages using local seasonal produce, restoring time-honoured methods of production and preparation, and sharing food at communal tables. Slow Food encourages environmentally sustainable production, ethical treatment of animals and social justice. Gatherings of Slow Food supporters are called convivia and in September Victoria has 11 of these. Slow Food members seek to defend biodiversity in our food supply, to better appreciate how our lives can be improved by understanding the sensation of taste, and to celebrate the connection between plate and planet. sludge - waste in a state between liquid and solid. sodicity – (ecology) a measure of the sodium content of soil. Sodic soils are dispersible and are thus vulnerable to erosion. sodification - the build-up in soils of sodium relative to potassium and magnesium in the composition of the exchangeable cations of the clay fraction. soil acidification - reduction in pH, usually in soil. Acidification can result in poorly structured or hard-setting topsoils that cannot support sufficient vegetation to prevent erosion. soil bulk density – the relative density of a soil measured by dividing the dry weight of a soil by its volume. soil compaction – the degree of compression of soil. Heavy compaction can impede plant growth. soil conditioner - any composted or non-composted material of organic origin that is produced or distributed for adding to soils, it includes 'soil amendment', 'soil additive', 'soil improver' and similar materials, but excludes polymers that do not biodegrade, such as plastics, rubbers, and coatings. soil moisture deficit – the volume of water needed to raise the soil water content of the root zone to field capacity. soil organic carbon (SOC) – the total organic carbon of a soil exclusive of carbon from undecayed plant and animal residue. soil organic matter (SOM) – the organic fraction of the soil exclusive of undecayed plant and animal residues. soil structure – the way soil particles are aggregated into aggregates or “crumbs”, important for the passage of air and water +soil water storage – total amount of water stored in the soil in the plant root zone. solar energy - the radiant energy of the Sun, which can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or electricity. solar power - electricity generated from solar radiation. solid industrial waste - solid waste generated from commercial, industrial or trade activities, including waste from factories, offices, schools, universities, State and Federal government operations and commercial construction and demolition work. Excludes wastes that are prescribed under the Environment Protection Act 1970 and quarantine wastes. solid inert waste - hard waste and dry vegetative material and which as a negligible activity or effect on the environment, such as demolition material, concrete, bricks, plastic, glass, metals and shredded tyres. solid waste - non-hazardous, non-prescribed solid waste materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial waste, generally: domestic and municipal; commercial and industrial; construction and demolition; other. source separation – (waste) separation of recyclable material from other waste at the point and time the waste is generated, i.e. at its source. This includes separation of recyclable material into its component categories, e.t. paper, glass, aluminium, and may include further separation within each category, e.g. paper into computer paper, office whites and newsprint; The practice of segregating materials into discrete materials streams prior to collection by or delivery to reprocessing facilities. specialist species – those that can only thrive in a narrow range of environmental conditions and/or have a limited diet. specific heat capacity – the amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1oC. It can be considered a measure of resistance to an increase in temperature and important for energy saving. stakeholders - parties having an interest in a particular project or outcome. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de90085c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 18/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +State Environment Protection Policies - statutory instruments under the Environment Protection Act 1970 that identify beneficial uses of the environment that are to be protected, establish environmental indicators and objectives and define attainment programs to implement the policies. State of the Environment reporting - a scientific assessment of environmental conditions, focusing on the impacts of human activities, their significance for the environment and social responses to the identified trends. steady state – a constant pattern e.g. a balance of inflows and outflows. stormwater – rainfall that accumulates in natural or artificial systems after heavy rain; surface run-off or water sent to (stormwater) drains during heavy rain. strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) - a system of incorporating environmental considerations into policies, plans and programs esp in the EU. sullage – domestic waste water from baths, basins, showers, laundries, kitchens and floor waste (but not from toilets). Superfund –a United States federal government program designed to fund the cleanup of sites contaminated with hazardous substances and pollutants. It was established as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). supporting services – (sustainability) ecosystem services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services e.g. biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation, nutrient and water cycling. surface runoff – that part of rainfall passing out of an area into the drainage system. suspended solids (SS) – solid particles suspended in water; used as an indicator of water quality. sustainability - the Brundtland definition is ‘Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. sustainability covenant - Under Section 49 of the Environment Protection Act 1970, a Sustainability Covenant is an agreement which a person or body undertakes to increase the resource use efficiency and/or reduce ecological impacts of activities, products, services and production processes. Parties can voluntarily enter into such agreements with EPA, or could be required to if they are declared by Governor in Council, on the recommendation of EPA, to have potential for significant impact on the environment. sustainability science - the multidisciplinary scientific study of sustainability, focusing especially on the quantitative dynamic interactions between nature and society. Its objective is a deeper and more fundamental understanding of the rapidly growing inter-dependence of the nature-society system and the intention to make this sustainable. It critically examines the tools used by sustainability accounting and the methods of sustainability governance. sustainability Triangle – a graphic indication of the action needed to stabilize CO2 levels below about 500 ppm. It shows stabilization ‘wedges’ indicating savings made per year by the use of a particular strategy. sustainable consumption - sustainable resource use - a change to society's historical patterns of consumption and behaviour that enables consumers to satisfy their needs with better performing products or services that use fewer resources, cause less pollution and contribute to social progress worldwide. sustainable development – see Sustainability. swale – an open channel transporting surface run-off to a drainage system, usually grassed; a swale promotes infiltration, the filtration of sediment by plants and ornamental interest. system – a set of parts organised into a whole, usually processing a flow of energy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1068dad41 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 19/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== T == +take-back - a concept commonly associated with product stewardship, placing responsibility on brand-owners, retailers, manufacturers or other supply chain partners to accept products returned by consumers once they have reached the end of their useful life. Products may then be recycled, treated or sent to landfill. +technosphere – synthetic and composite components and materials for med by human activity. True technosphere materials, like plastics, are not biodegradable. +temperate – with moderate temperatures, weather, or climate; neither hot nor cold; mean annual temperature between 0 – 20 deg C. +thermal mass – (architecture) any mass that can absorb and store heat and can therefore be used to buffer temperature change. Concrete, bricks and tiles need a lot of heat energy to change their temperature and therefore have high thermal mass, timber has low thermal mass. +third pipe system – a third pipe, in addition to the standard water supply pipe and sewer disposal pipe, which carries recycled water for irrigation purposes. +threshold – (ecology) a point that, when crossed, can bring rapid and sometimes unpredictable change in a trend. An example would be the sudden altering of ocean currents due to the melting of ice at the poles. +topsoil – mostly fertile surface soil moved or introduced to topdress gardens, roadbanks, lawns etc. +total energy use – as applied in this book is the total of combined direct and indirect energy use +total fertility rate – the number of children that, on average, a woman would have in her lifetime at present age-specific fertility rates. Calculated as the average number of children born per woman of every given age in a particular year and totalled for all ages. +total water use - in water accounting: distributed water use + self-extracted water use + reuse water use cf. water consumption; here used to mean total direct and indirect water use. +town water – water supplied by government or private enterprise and known as the mains or reticulated water supply. +transfer station – (waste) a facility allowing drop-off and consolidation of garbage and a wide range of recyclable materials. Transfer stations have become an integral part of municipal waste management, playing an important role in materials recovery and improving transportation economics associated with municipal waste disposal. +transgenic plant – a plant into which genetic material has been transferred by genetic engineering. +Triple Bottom Line – a form of sustainability accounting going beyond the financial ‘bottom line’ to consider the social and environmental as well as economic consequences of an organisation's activity; generally included with economic accounts. Term coined by John Elkington in 1994 +tropical – occurring in the tropics (the region on either side of the equator); hot and humid with a mean annual temperature greater than 20oC. +turbine - A machine for converting the heat energy in steam or high temperature gas into mechanical energy. In a turbine, a high velocity flow of steam or gas passes through successive rows of radial blades fastened to a central shaft. + +== U == +United Nations - an international organisation based in New York and formed to promote international peace, security, and cooperation under a charter signed by 51 founding countries in San Francisco in 1945 +United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – The UNFCCC and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) were established at the 1992 U.N. Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Kyoto Protocol was then formulated by the UNFCCC and sets specific timelines and timetables for reducing industrialized nations’ GHG emissions and allows some international trading in carbon credits. For more information visit: +upstream – those processes necessary before a particular activity is completed e.g. for a manufactured product this would be the extraction, transport of materials etc. needed prior to the process of manufacture cf. downstream. +urban heat island - the tendency for urban areas to have warmer air temperatures than the surrounding rural landscape, due to the low albedo of streets, sidewalks, parking lots, and buildings. These surfaces absorb solar radiation during the day and release it at night, resulting in higher night temperatures. +urban metabolism – the functional flow of materials and energy required by cities. + +== V == +veloway - cycle track; cycleway; contrasts with freeway. +vinyl - a type of plastic (usually PVC) used to make products such as fruit juice bottles, credit cards, pipes and hoses. +virtual water - the volume of water required to produce a commodity or service. First coined by Professor J.A. Allan of the University of London in the early 1990s, though this is now more widely known as cf. embedded (embodied) water. +visual waste audit - observing, estimating and recording data on waste streams and practices without physical weighing. +volatile organic compound (VOC) – molecules containing carbon and differing proportions of other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine and chlorine. With sunlight and heat they form ground-level ozone. +volt - The unit of potential difference between two points is the volt (V) (commonly called voltage). One thousand volts equals 1 kilovolt (kV). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2306ee2df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 20/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== W == +waste - any material (liquid, solid or gaseous) that is produced by domestic households and commercial, institutional, municipal or industrial organisations, and which cannot be collected and recycled in any way for further use. For solid wastes, this involves materials that currently go to landfills, even though some of the material is potentially recyclable. +waste analysis -the quantifying of different waste streams, recording and detailing of it as a proportion of the total waste stream, determining its destination and recording details of waste practices. +waste assessment - observing, measuring, and recording data and collecting and analysing waste samples. Some practitioners consider an assessment to be one where observations are carried out visually, without sorting and measuring individual streams (see visual waste audit). +waste audit -see waste assessment. +waste avoidance – primary pillar of the waste hierarchy; avoidance works on the principle that the greatest gains result from efficiency-centred actions that remove or reduce the need to consume materials in the first place, but deliver the same outcome. +waste factors - (used in round-wood calculations) give the ratio of one cubic metre of round wood used per cubic metre (or tonne) of product. +waste generation - generation of unwanted materials including recyclables as well as garbage. Waste generation = materials recycled + waste to landfill. +waste hierarchy (waste management hierarchy)– a concept promoting waste avoidance ahead of recycling and disposal, often referred to in community education campaigns as 'reduce, reuse, recycle.' The waste hierarchy is recognised in the Environment Protection Act 1970, promoting management of wastes in the order of preference: avoidance, reuse, recycling, recovery of energy, treatment, containment, disposal. +waste management - practices and procedures that relate to how the waste is dealt with. +waste minimisation - techniques to keep waste generation at a minimum level in order to divert materials from landfill and thereby reduce the requirement for waste collection, handling and disposal to landfill; recycling and other efforts made to reduce the amount of waste going into the waste stream. +waste reduction - Measures to reduce the amount of waste generated by an individual, household or organisation. +waste stream - Waste materials that are either of a particular type (e.g. 'timber waste stream') or produced a particular source (e.g. 'C&I waste stream'). +waste treatment - where some additional processing is undertaken of a particular waste. This may be done to reduce its toxicity, or increase its degradability or compostability. +wastewater - used water; generally not suitable for drinking. +water consumption - in water accounting: distributed water use + self-extracted water use + reuse water use - distributed water supplied to other users - in-stream use (where applicable). +water cycle (hydrological cycle) passage of the water between the oceans and waterbodies, land and atmosphere. +water entitlement - the entitlement, as defined in a statutory water plan, to a share of water from a water source. +Water Footprint - the total volume of freshwater that is required in a given period to perform a particular task or to produce the goods and services consumed at any level of the action hierarchy. Country water footprint is a concept introduced by Hoekstra in 2002 as a consumption-based indicator of water use in a country – the volume of water needed to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of a country. +water harvesting – see rainwater harvesting. +water intensity - volume of water used per unit of production or service delivery; this is generally further reduced to monetary unit return per given volume of water used. Essentially equivalent to water productivity. +water neutral – a scientifically based calculator for individuals to be extended to cover the construction industry, the food and beverage sector and other corporations or organisations. The water offset calculators aimed at business and other organisations are being developed and will be launched with the Individual Water Offset Calculator. +water productivity – the efficiency of outcomes for the amount of water used; the quantity of water required to produce a given outcome. WP-field relates to crop output e.g. kg of wheat produced per m3 of water. WP-basin relates to water productivity in the widest possible sense as including crop, fishery yield, environmental services etc. Increasing WP means obtaining increasing value from the available water. +water quality - the microbiological, biological, physical and chemical characteristics of water. +water resources - water in various forms, such as groundwater, surface water, snow and ice, at present in the land phase of the hydrological cycle—some parts may be renewable seasonally, but others may be effectively mined. +water restrictions - mandatory staged restrictions on the use of water, which are relative to water storage levels. +water trading - transactions involving water access entitlements or water allocations assigned to water access entitlements. +water treatment - the process of converting raw untreated water to a public water supply safe for human consumption; can involve, variously, screening, initial disinfection, clarification, filtration, pH correction and final disinfection. +water table – upper level of water in saturated ground. +watershed – a water catchment area (North America) or drainage divide (non-American usage). +weather - the hourly/daily change in atmospheric conditions which over a longer period constitute the climate of a region cf. climate. +weathering - is the breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and biological organisms. +well-being – a context-dependent physical and mental condition determined by the presence of basic material for a good life, freedom and choice, health, good social relations, and security. +wetlands - areas of permanent or intermittent inundation, whether natural or artificial, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water not exceeding 6 m at low tide. (Adapted from definition of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance). Engineered wetlands are becoming more frequent and are sometimes called constructed wetlands. In urban areas wetlands are sometimes referred to as the kidney of a city. +whitegoods - household electrical appliances like refrigerators, washing machines, clothes dryers, and dishwashers. +wind energy - the kinetic energy present in the motion of the wind. Wind energy can be converted to mechanical or electrical energy. A traditional mechanical windmill can be used for pumping water or grinding grain. A modern electrical wind turbine converts the force of the wind to electrical energy for consumption on-site and/or export to the electricity grid. +wind turbines – see wind energy. +work – physical or mental effort; a force exerted for a distance; an energy transformation process which results in a change of concentration or form of energy. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0121c25be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 3/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +C3 & C4 plants – C4 plants comprise about 5% of all plants, are most abundant in hot and arid conditions, and include crops like sugar cane and soybeans. During photosynthesis they form molecules with 4-carbon atoms and saturate at the given level of CO2. C3 plants, the other 95%, photosynthesise to form 3 carbon molecules and increase photosynthesis with as CO2 levels increase. calorie – a basic measure of energy that has been replaced by the SI unit the joule; in physics it approximates the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °C which is about 4.184 joules. The Calories in food ratings (spelled with a capital C) and nutrition are ‘big C’ Calories or kcal. calorific value – the energy content of a fuel measured as the heat released on complete combustion. cancer – a group of diseases in which cells are aggressive (grow and divide without respect to normal limits), invasive (invade and destroy adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastatic (spread to other locations in the body). capillary action (wicking) – water drawn through a medium by surface tension. car pooling – giving people lifts to help reduce emissions and traffic. carbon budget – a measure of carbon inputs and outputs for a particular activity. carbon credit – a market-driven way of reducing the impact of greenhouse gas emissions; it allows an agent to benefit financially from an emission reduction. There are two forms of carbon credit, those that are part of national and international trade and those that are purchased by individuals. Internationally, to achieve Kyoto Protocol objectives, ‘caps’ (limits) on participating country's emissions are established. To meet these limits countries, in turn, set ‘caps’ (allowances or credits: 1 convertible and transferable credit = 1 tonne of CO2-e emissions) for operators. Operators that meet the agreed ‘caps’ can then sell unused credits to operators who exceed ‘caps’. Operators can then choose the most cost-effective way of reducing emissions. Individual carbon credits would operate in a similar way cf. carbon offset. carbon cycle – the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e ) – the unit used to measure the impacts of releasing (or avoiding the release of) the seven different greenhouse gases; it is obtained by multiplying the mass of the greenhouse gas by its global warming potential. For example, this would be 21 for methane and 310 for nitrous oxide. carbon dioxide – a gas with the chemical formula CO2; the most abundant greenhouse gas emitted from fossil fuels. carbon equivalent (C-e) – obtained by multiplying the CO2-e by the factor 12/44. carbon footprint – a measure of the carbon emissions that are emitted over the full life cycle of a product or service and usually expressed as grams of CO2-e. carbon labelling – use of product labels that display greenhouse emissions associated with goods (www.carbontrustcertification.com for product carbon footprint methodology). carbon neutral – activities where net carbon inputs and outputs are the same. For example, assuming a constant amount of vegetation on the planet, burning wood will add carbon to the atmosphere in the short term but this carbon will cycle back into new plant growth. carbon pool – a storage reservoir of carbon. carbon sink – any carbon storage system that causes a net removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. carbon source – opposite of carbon sink; a net source of carbon for the atmosphere. carbon stocks – the quantity of carbon held within a carbon pool at a specified time. carbon taxes – a surcharge on fossil fuels that aims to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. carcinogen – a substance, radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of cancer or in the facilitation of its propagation. carrying capacity – the maximum population that an ecosystem can sustain cf. biocapacity. catchment area – the area that is the source of water for a water supply whether a dam or rainwater tank. cell – (biology) the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms and is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living +CFC – chlorofluorocarbon. CFCs are potent greenhouse gases which are not regulated by the Kyoto Protocol since they are covered by the Montreal Protocol. chlorinated hydrocarbon – see organochloride +chlorofluorocarbons – one of the more widely known family of haloalkanes. circular metabolism – a system in which wastes, especially water and materials, are reused and recycled cf. linear metabolism. Class A pan – (water management) an open pan used as a standard for measuring water evaporation. cleaner production – the continual effort to prevent pollution, reduce the use of energy, water and material resources and minimise waste – all without reducing production capacity. clearcutting – a forestry or logging practice in which most or all trees in a forest sector are felled. climate change – a change in weather over time and/or region; usually relating to changes in temperature, wind patterns and rainfall; although may be natural or anthropogenic, common discourse carries the assumption that recent climate change is anthropogenic. climate – the general variations of weather in a region over long periods of time; the "average weather" cf. weather. cogeneration – the simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat from the combustion of the same fuel source. cohousing – clusters of houses having shared dining halls and other spaces, encouraging stronger social ties while reducing the material and energy needs of the community. coir – fibre of the coconut. commercial and industrial waste – (waste management) solid waste generated by the business sector as well as that created by State and Federal government, schools and tertiary institutions. Does not include that from the construction and demolition industry. commingled materials – (waste management) materials mixed together, such as plastic bottles, glass, and metal containers. Commingled recyclable materials require sorting after collection before they can be recycled. comparative risk assessment – a methodology which uses science, policy, economic analysis and stakeholder participation to identify and address areas of greatest environmental risk; a method for assessing environmental management priorities. The US EPA (www.epa.gov/seahome/comprisk.html) offers free software which contains the history and methodology of comparative risk, as well as many case studies. compensation point – the point where the amount of energy produced by photosynthesis equals the amount of energy released by respiration. Complex system is a system composed of many components which may interact with each other. compost – the aerobically decomposed remnants of organic matter. composting – the biological decomposition of organic materials in the presence of oxygen that yields carbon dioxide, heat, and stabilised organic residues that may be used as a soil additive. confined aquifer – aquifers that have the water table above their upper boundary and are typically found below unconfined aquifers. conspicuous consumption – the lavish spending on goods and services that are acquired mainly for the purpose of displaying income or wealth rather than to satisfy basic needs of the consumer. construction and demolition waste – (waste management) includes waste from residential, civil, and commercial construction and demolition activities, such as fill material (e.g. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f27661691 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 21/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Z == +zero waste – turning waste into resource; the redesign of resource-use so that waste can ultimately be reduced to zero; ensuring that by-products are used elsewhere and goods are recycled, in emulation of the cycling of wastes in nature. + +== See also == +Environmental science +Climate change acronyms +Glossary of climate change +List of environmental issues +List of sustainability topics + +== References == + +== External links == +Environmental Terminology Discovery Service — EEA +(multilingual environmental glossary in 28 languages: ar, bg, cs, da, de, el, en, es, et, eu, fi, fr, hu, is, it, lt, lv, mt, nl, no, pl, pt, ro, ru, sk, sl, sv, tr) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bafc966b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 4/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +soil), asphalt, bricks and timber. C&D waste excludes construction waste which is included in the municipal waste stream. C&D waste does not generally include waste from the commercial and industrial waste stream. consumer democracy – using your economic capacity to promote your values. consumer – organism, human being, or industry that maintains itself by transforming a high-quality energy source into a lower one cf. Producer, primary production. consumption (ecology) – the use of resources by a living system, the inflow and degradation of energy that is used for system activity. consumption (economics) – part of disposable income (income after taxes paid and payments received) that is not saved, essentially the goods and services used by households; this includes purchased commodities at the household level (such as food, clothing, and utilities), the goods and services paid for by government (such as defence, education, social services and health care), and the resources consumed by businesses to increase their assets (such as business equipment and housing). contour ploughing (contour farming) – the farming practice of plowing across a slope following its contours. The rows formed have the effect of slowing water run-off during rainstorms so that the soil is not washed away and allows the water to percolate into the soil. controlled burning – a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) – International agreement among 167 governments aiming to ensure that cross-border trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to the degree of protection they need (see: http://www.cites.org) +Corporate Social Responsibility – integration of social and environmental policies into day-to-day corporate business. covenants – formal agreements or contracts, often between government and industry sectors. The national packaging covenant and sustainability covenants are examples of voluntary covenants with a regulatory underpinning. Land covenants protect land for wildlife into the future. critical load – a concept in pollution studies hypothesizing that there exist quantitative thresholds for one or more pollutants above which significant detrimental effects on ecological systems (e.g. the eutrophication of natural waterways) will occur, and/or conversely below which they are not known to occur. crop coefficient (Kc) – (water management) a variable used to calculate the evapotranspiration of a plant crop based on that of a reference crop. crop evapotranspiration (ETc) – (water management) is the crop water use – the daily water withdrawal. crop rotation (crop sequencing) – the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same space in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the buildup of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped. crude oil – naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons under normal temperature and pressure. cullet – crushed glass that is suitable for recycling by glass manufacturers. cultural eutrophication - the process that speeds up natural eutrophication because of human activity. cultural services – the non-material benefits of ecosystems including refreshment, spiritual enrichment, knowledge, artistic satisfaction. culture jamming – altering existing mass media to criticise itself (e.g. defacing advertisements with an alternative message). Public activism opposing commercialism as little more than propaganda for established interests, and the attempt to find alternative expression. culvert – drain that passes under a road or pathway, may be a pipe or other conduit. cut and fill – removing earth from one place to another, usually mechanically. cyanobacteria (Cyanophyta or blue-green algae) – a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. cyclone – intense low pressure weather systems; mid-latitude cyclones are atmospheric circulations that rotate clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and are generally associated with stronger winds, unsettled conditions, cloudiness and rainfall. Tropical cyclones (which are called hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere) cause storm surges in coastal areas. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57c677d09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 5/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +DDT - a chlorinated hydrocarbon used as a pesticide that is a persistent organic pollutant. +debt-for-Nature Swap - a financial transaction in which a portion of a developing nation's foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in conservation measures. +decomposers – consumers, mostly microbial, that change dead organic matter into minerals and heat. +deforestation - the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land for agriculture, urban use, development, or wasteland. +dematerialisation – decreasing the consumption of materials and resources while maintaining quality of life. +desalination producing potable or recyclable water by removing salts from salty or brackish water. This is done by three methods: distillation/freezing; reverse osmosis using membranes and electrodialysis; ion exchange. At present, all these methods are energy intensive. +desert – an area that receives an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (9.8 in) or an area in which more water is lost than falls as precipitation. +desertification - the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities. +detritivore (detritus feeder) - animals and plants that consume detritus (decomposing organic material), and in doing so contribute to decomposition and the recycling of nutrients. +detritus - non-living particulate organic material (as opposed to dissolved organic material). +developing countries – development of a country is measured using a mix of economic factors (income per capita, GDP, degree of modern infrastructure (both physical and institutional), degree of industrialisation, proportion of economy devoted to agriculture and natural resource extraction) and social factors (life expectancy, the rate of literacy, poverty). The UN-produced Human Development Index (HDI) is a compound indicator of the above statistics. There is a strong correlation between low income and high population growth, both within and between countries. In developing countries, there is low per capita income, widespread poverty, and low capital formation. In developed countries there is continuous economic growth and a relatively high standard of living. The term is value-laden and prescriptive, as it implies a natural transition from "undeveloped" to "developed" when such transitions can instead be imposed. Although poverty and physical deprivation are clearly undesirable, it does not follow that it is therefore desirable for "undeveloped" economies to move towards affluent Western-style "developed" free market economies. The terms "industrialised" and "non-industrialised" are no different in this assumption. +dfE – design for the environment; dfE considers 'cradle to grave' costs and benefits associated with material acquisition, manufacture, use, and disposal. +dfM – design for manufacturing; designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. +dfS – design for sustainability; an integrated design approach aiming to achieve both environmental quality and economic efficiency through the redesign of industrial systems. +dfX – design for assembly/disassembly, re-use. recycle. +dieback – (arboriculture) a condition in trees or woody plants in which peripheral parts are killed, either by parasites or due to conditions such as acid rain. +dietary energy supply – food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. +dioxin - any one of a number of chemical compounds that are persistent organic pollutants and are carcinogenic. +distributed water – (water management) purchased water supplied to a user; this is usually through a reticulated mains system (but also through pipes and open channels, irrigation systems supplied to farms). +diversion rate – (waste disposal) the proportion of a potentially recyclable material that has been diverted out of the waste disposal stream and therefore not directed to landfill. +divertible resource – (water management) the proportion of water runoff and recharge that can be accessed for human use. +downcycling – (waste management) recycling in which the quality of an item is diminished with each recycling. +downstream – those processes occurring after a particular activity e.g. the transport of a manufactured product from a factory to the wholesale or retail outlet cf. upstream. +drainage – (water management) that part of irrigation or rainfall that runs off an area or is lost to deep percolation. +drawdown – (water management) drop in water level, generally applied to wells or bores. +dredging - (water management) the repositioning of soil from an aquatic environment, using specialized equipment, in order to initiate infrastructural and/or ecological improvements. +drift net - a type of fishing net used in oceans, coastal seas and freshwater lakes. +drinking water – (potable water) – water fit for human consumption in accordance with World Health Organisation guidelines. +drip irrigation – (water management) a drip hose placed near the plant roots so minimising deep percolation and evaporation. +driver – (ecology) any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. A direct driver is one that unequivocally influences ecosystem processes and that can be measured. +drop-off centre – (waste management) a location where discarded materials can be left for recycling. +drought – an acute water shortage relative to availability, supply and demand in a particular region. An extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. +dryland salinity - (water management) accumulation of salts in soils, soil water and ground water; may be natural or induced by land clearing \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58874ba38 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 6/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== E == +eco- - a prefix now added to many words indicating a general consideration for the environment e.g. ecohousing, ecolabel, ecomaterial. eco-asset – a biological asset that provides financial value to private land owners when they are maintained in or restored to their natural state. ecolabel - seal or logo indicating a product has met a certain environmental or social standards. ecological deficit - of a country or region measures the amount by which its Ecological Footprint exceeds the ecological capacity of that region. Ecological Footprint (Eco-footprint, Footprint)– a measure of the area of biologically productive land and water needed to produce the resources and absorb the wastes of a population using the prevailing technology and resource management schemes; a measure of the consumption of renewable natural resources by a human population, be it that of a country, a region or the whole world given as the total area of productive land or sea required to produce all the crops, meat, seafood, wood and fibre it consumes, to sustain its energy consumption and to give space for its infrastructure. ecological niche - the habitat of a species or population within its ecosystem. ecological succession - the more-or-less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community with time. ecological sustainability - the capacity of ecosystems to maintain their essential processes and function and to retain their biological diversity without impoverishment. ecologically sustainable development - using, conserving and enhancing the human community's resources so that ecological processes, on which all life depends, can be maintained and enriched into the future. ecology - the scientific study of living organisms and their relationships to one another and their environment; the scientific study of the processes regulating the distribution and abundance of organisms; the study of the design of ecosystem structure and function. externality – a cost or benefit that are not borne by the producer or supplier of a good or service. In many environmental situations environmental deterioration may be caused by a few while the cost is borne by the community; examples would include overfishing, pollution (e.g. production of greenhouse emissions that are not compensated for in any way by taxes etc.), the environmental cost of land-clearing etc. ecoregion - (bioregion) the next smallest ecologically and geographically defined area beneath realm (or ecozone). ecosystem boundary – the spatial delimitation of an ecosystem usually based on discontinuities of organisms and the physical environment. ecosystem services - the role played by organisms, without charge, in creating a healthy environment for human beings, from production of oxygen to soil formation, maintenance of water quality and much more. These services are now generally divided into four groups, supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural. ecosystem - a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment all interacting as a functional unit. e-cycling – recycling electronic waste. effective rainfall – the volume of rainfall passing into the soil; that part of rainfall available for plant use after runoff, leaching, evaporation and foliage interception. energy efficiency - using less energy to provide the same level of energy service. effluent - a discharge or emission of liquid, gas or other waste product. El Niño - a warm water current which periodically flows southwards along the coast of Ecuador and Peru in South America, replacing the usually cold northwards flowing current; occurs once every five to seven years, usually during the Christmas season (the name refers to the Christ child); the opposite phase of an El Niño is called a La Niña. embodied energy - the energy expended over the entire life cycle of a good or service cf. emergy. emergent property – a property that is not evident in the individual components of an object or system. emergy – “energy memory” all the available energy that was used in the work of making a product directly and indirectly, expressed in units of one type of available energy (work previously done to provide a product or service); the energy of one type required to make energy of another. emission standard - a level of emissions that, under law, may not be exceeded. emissions intensity – emissions expressed as quantity per monetary unit. emissions trading – see carbon trading. emissions - substances such as gases or particles discharged into the atmosphere as a result of natural processes of human activities, including those from chimneys, elevated point sources, and tailpipes of motor vehicles. endangered species – a species which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in number, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. energetics – the study of how energy flows within an ecosystem: the routes it takes, rates of flow, where it is stored and how it is used. energy - a property of all systems which can be turned into heat and measured in heat units. * available energy – energy with the potential to do work (exergy); +* delivered energy – energy delivered to and used by a household, usually gas and electricity; +* direct energy - the energy being currently used, used mostly at home (delivered energy) and for fuels used mainly for transport; +* embodied energy - t the energy expended over the entire life cycle of a good or service OR the energy involved in the extraction of basic materials, processing/manufacture, transport and disposal of a product OR the energy required to provide a good or service; +* geothermal energy – heat emitted from within the Earth's crust as hot water or steam and used to generate electricity after transformation; +* hydro energy – potential and kinetic energy of water used to generate electricity; +* indirect energy – the energy generated in, and accounted for, by the wider economy as a consequence of an agent's actions or demands; +* kinetic energy - the energy possessed by a body because of its motion; +* nuclear energy - energy released by reactions within atomic nuclei, as in nuclear fission or fusion (also called atomic energy); +* operational energy – the energy used in carrying out a particular operation; +* potential energy – the energy possessed by a body as a result of its position or condition e.g. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ea5da522 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 7/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +coiled springs and charged batteries have potential energy; +* primary energy – forms of energy obtained directly from nature, the energy in raw fuels (electricity from the grid is not primary energy), used mostly in energy statistics when compiling energy balances; +* solar energy – solar radiation used for hot water production and electricity generation (does not include passive solar energy to heat and cool buildings etc.); +* secondary energy – primary energies are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient secondary forms such as electrical energy and cleaner fuels; +* stationary energy – that energy that is other than transport fuels and fugitive emissions, used mostly for production of electricity but also for manufacturing and processing and in agriculture, fisheries etc.; +* tidal/ocean/wave energy– mechanical energy from water movement used to generate electricity; +* useful energy – available energy used to increase system production and efficiency; +* wind energy – kinetic energy of wind used for electricity generation using turbines +energy accounting – measuring value by the energy input required for a good or service. A form of accounting that builds in a measure of our impact on nature (rather than being restricted to human-based items). energy audit - a systematic gathering and analysis of energy use information that can be used to determine energy efficiency improvements. The Australian and New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 3598:2000 Energy Audits defines three levels of audit. Energy Footprint - the area required to provide or absorb the waste from coal, oil, gas, fuelwood, nuclear energy and hydropower: the Fossil Fuel Footprint is the area required to sequester the emitted CO2 taking into account CO2 absorption by the sea etc. energy management - A program of well-planned actions aimed at reducing energy use, recurrent energy costs, and detrimental greenhouse gas emissions. energy recovery – the productive extraction of energy, usually electricity or heat, from waste or materials that would otherwise have gone to landfill. energy-for-land ratio - the amount of energy that can be produced per hectare of ecologically productive land. The units used are gigajoules per hectare and year, or GJ/ha/yr. For fossil fuel (calculated as CO2 assimilation) the ratio is 100 GJ/ha/yr. enhanced greenhouse effect - the increase in the natural greenhouse effect resulting from increases in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases due to emissions from human activities. ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation) a suite of events that occur at the time of an El Niño; at one extreme of the cycle, when the central Pacific Ocean is warm and the atmospheric pressure over Australia is relatively high, the ENSO causes drought conditions over eastern Australia cf. El Niño, Southern Oscillation. environment - the external conditions, resources, stimuli etc. with which an organism interacts. Environmental ethics - There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. environmental flows - river or creek water flows that are allocated for the maintenance of the waterway ecosystems. environmental indicator - physical, chemical, biological or socio-economic measure that can be used to assess natural resources and environmental quality. environmental impact assessment (EIA) - the assessment of the environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. environmental movement (environmentalism) - both the conservation and green movements; a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. environmental science - the study of interactions among physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment. epidemiology - the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. erosion - displacement of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other particles) usually by the agents of currents such as, wind, water, or ice by downward or down-slope movement in response to gravity or by living organisms. Escherichia coli (E. coli) – a bacterium used as an indicator of faecal contamination and potential disease organisms in water. estuary - a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. ethical consumerism - buying things that are made ethically i.e. without harm to or exploitation of humans, animals or the natural environment. This generally entails favoring products and businesses that take account of the greater good in their operations. ethical living – adopting lifestyles, consumption and shopping habits that minimise our negative impact, and maximise our positive impact on people, the environment and the economy cf. consumer democracy, sustainable living. eutrophication - the enrichment of waterbodies with nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, which stimulates the growth of aquatic organisms. eutrophication - an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. euxenic - with extremely low oxygen cf. anoxic. evaporation – water converted to water vapour. evapotranspiration (ET) – the water evaporating from the soil and transpired by plants. e-waste - electronic waste, especially mobile phones, televisions and personal computers. extended producer responsibility (EPR) (product take-back) - a requirement (often in law) that producers take back and accept responsibility for the responsible disposal of their products; this encourages the design of products that can be easily repaired, recycled, reused or upgraded. external water footprint – the embodied water of imported goods cf. internal water footprint. externality – (environmental economics) by-products of activities that affect the well-being of people or damage the environment, where those impacts are not reflected in market prices. The costs (or benefits) associated with externalities do not enter standard cost accounting schemes. The environment is often cited as a negatively affected externality of the economy (see economic externality). extinction event - (mass extinction, extinction-level event, ELE) - a sharp decrease in the number of species in a relatively short period of time. extinction - the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity. Extreme points of Earth - the geographical locations that differ relative to other locations on the landmasses, continents or countries. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..466dd2e09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 8/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== F == +feedback – flow from the products of an action back to interact with the action. +feedlot (feedyard) - a type of Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO) (also known as "factory farming") which is used for finishing livestock, notably beef cattle, prior to slaughter. +fertigate – apply fertiliser through an irrigation system. +fertility rate - number of live births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 44 years cf. birth rate, mortality rate. +fertilizers (also spelled fertilisers) - compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves. +flyway - the flight paths used in bird migration. Flyways generally span over continents and often oceans. +food chain (food webs, food networks and/or trophic networks) - the feeding relationships between species within an ecosystem. +food miles - the emissions produced and resources needed to transport food and drink around the globe. +food security - food produced in sufficient quantity to meet the full requirements of all people i.e. total global food supply equals the total global demand. For households it is the ability to purchase or produce the food they need for a healthy and active life (disposable income is a crucial issue). Women are typically gatekeepers of household food security. For national food security, the focus is on sufficient food for all people in a nation and it entails a combination of national production, imports and exports. Food security always has components of production, access and utilisation. +footprint – (Ecological Footprint) in a very general environmental sense a "footprint" is a measure of environmental impact. However, this is usually expressed as an area of productive land (the footprint) needed to counteract the impact. +forage - the plant material (mainly plant leaves) eaten by grazing animals. +forest – land with a canopy cover greater than 30%. +fossil fuel - any hydrocarbon deposit that can be burned for heat or power, such as coal, oil and natural gas (produces carbon dioxide when burnt); fuels formed from once-living organisms that have become fossilized over geological time. +fossil water – groundwater that has remained in an aquifer for thousands or millions of years; when geologic changes seal the aquifer preventing further replenishment, the water becomes trapped inside and is then referred to as fossil water. Fossil water is a limited resource and can only be used once. +freegan - a person using alternative strategies for living based on limited participation in the conventional economy and minimal consumption of resources. Freegans embrace community, generosity, social concern, freedom, cooperation, and sharing - in opposition to materialism, moral apathy, competition, conformity, and greed. The most notorious freegan strategy is "urban foraging" or "dumpster diving". This technique involves rummaging through the garbage of retailers, residences, offices, and other facilities for useful goods. The word freegan is compounded from "free" and "vegan". cf. affluenza, froogle. +freon - DuPont's trade name for its odourless, colorless, nonflammable, and noncorrosive chlorofluorocarbon and hydrochlorofluorocarbon refrigerants, which are used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems +fair trade - a guarantee that a fair price is paid to producers of goods or services; it includes a range of other social and environmental standards including safety standards and the right to form unions. +freshwater - water containing no significant amounts of salt; potable water suitable for all normal uses cf. potable water. +front – (weather) the boundary between warm (high pressure) and cold (low pressure) air masses. +froogle - a play on the word frugal; people who lead low-consumption life-styles: a person who is part of a new movement towards self-sufficiency and waste-reduction achieved by bartering goods and services especially through the internet, making their own products, soap, clothes, and breeding chickens and goats, growing their own food, baking their own bread, harvesting their own water and energy, and helping to develop a sense of community. Sometimes referring to people who have made a resolution to only buy essentials for a particular period of time cf. freegan, affluenza. +fugitive emissions - in the context of the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, these are greenhouse gases emitted from fuel production itself including, processing, transmission, storage and distribution processes, and including emissions from oil and natural gas exploration, venting, and flaring, as well as the mining of black coal. +full cost pricing - the pricing of commercial goods—such as electric power—that includes not only the private costs of inputs, but also the costs of the externalities required by their production and use cf. externality. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f64f4ffe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 9/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +G8 - The Group of Eight is an international forum for the world's major industrialised democracies that emerged following the 1973 oil crisis and subsequent global recession. It includes Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the UK and the US which represents about 65% of the world economy. Gaia hypothesis - an ecological hypothesis that proposes that living and nonliving parts of the earth are a complex interacting system that can be thought of as a single organism. gene pool - the complete set of unique alleles in a species or population. generalist species - those able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources. gene - a locatable region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a unit of inheritance, which is associated with regulatory regions, transcribed regions and/or other functional sequence regions. genetic diversity - one of the three levels of biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics. greenhouse effect - the process in which the emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere warms a planet's surface. greenhouse gas - components of the atmosphere that contribute to the greenhouse effect. green manure - a type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Green Revolution - the ongoing transformation of agriculture that led in some places to significant increases in agricultural production between the 1940s and 1960s. groundwater - water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of lithologic formation. garden organics - organics derived from garden sources e.g. prunings, grass clippings. genetic engineering - the use of various experimental techniques to produce molecules of DNA containing new genes or novel combinations of genes, usually for insertion into a host cell for cloning; the technology of preparing recombinant DNA in vitro by cutting up DNA molecules and splicing together fragments from more than one organism; the modification of genetic material by man that would otherwise be subject to the forces of nature only. genome – the total genetic composition of an organism +geosphere - the solid part of planet Earth, the main divisions being the crust, mantle, and liquid core. The lithosphere is the part of the geosphere that consists of the crust and upper mantle. geothermal energy - energy derived from the natural heat of the earth contained in hot rocks, hot water, hot brine or steam. global acres see global hectares. global dimming – a reduction in the amount of direct solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth due to light diffusion as a result of air pollution and increasing levels of cloud. A phenomenon of the last 30–50 years. economic globalization - the emerging international economy characterized by free trade in goods and services, unrestricted capital flows and more limited national powers to control domestic economies. global hectares - acres/hectares that have been adjusted according to world average biomass productivity so that they can be compared meaningfully across regions; 1 global hectare is 1 hectare of biologically productive space with world average productivity. global warming potential - a system of multipliers devised to enable warming effects of different gases to be compared. global warming – the observable increase in global temperatures considered mainly caused by the human induced enhanced greenhouse effect trapping the Sun's heat in the Earth's atmosphere. globalisation – the expansion of interactions to a global or worldwide scale; the increasing interdependence, integration and interaction among people and organisations from around the world. A mix of economic, social, technological, cultural, and political interrelationships. glyphosate – the active ingredient in the herbicide RoundupTM. governance – the decision-making procedure; who makes decisions, how they are made, and with what information. The structures and processes for collective decision-making involving governmental and non-governmental actors. Great Pacific Garbage Patch - a gyre of marine debris particles in the central North Pacific Ocean discovered between 1985 and 1988. The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative pelagic concentrations of plastic, chemical sludge, and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre. green architecture - building design that moves towards self-sufficiency sustainability by adopting circular metabolism. green design - environmentally sustainable design. green power - Electricity generated from clean, renewable energy sources (such as solar, wind, biomass and hydro power) and supplied through the grid. green products and services - products or services that have a lesser or reduced effect on human health and the environment when compared with competing products or services that serve the same purpose. Green products or services may include, but are not limited to, those which contain recycled content, reduce waste, conserve energy or water, use less packaging, and reduce the amount of toxics disposed or consumed. green purchasing - purchasing goods and services that minimise impacts on the environment and that are socially just. Green Star – a voluntary building rating for green design covering 9 impact categories up to 6 stars which equals world leader. green waste (green organic material or green organics, sometimes referred to as "green wealth") - plant material discarded as non-putrescible waste - includes tree and shrub cuttings and prunings, grass clippings, leaves, natural (untreated) timber waste and weeds (noxious or otherwise). green – (sustainability) like ‘eco’ - a word frequently used to indicate consideration for the environment e.g. green plumbers, green purchasing etc., sometimes used as a noun e.g. the Greens. greenhouse effect - the insulating effect of atmospheric greenhouse gases (e.g., water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) that keeps the Earth's temperature about 60 °F (16 °C) warmer than it would be otherwise cf. enhanced greenhouse effect. greenhouse gases - any gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect; gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and from human activity, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation. Water vapor (H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are a natural part of the atmosphere and include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4, persisting 9-15 yrs with a greenhouse warming potential (GWP) 22 times that of CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O persists 120 years and has a GWP of 310), ozone (O3), hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride. greenlash – dramatic changes in the structure and dynamic behaviour of ecosystems. greenwashing - companies that portray themselves as environmentally friendly when their business practices do not back this up. Generally applies to excessive use of green marketing and packaging when this does not take account of the total ecological footprint. greenwater – water replenishing soil moisture, evaporating from soil, plant and other surfaces, and transpired by plants. In nature the global average amount of rainfall becoming green water is about 60%. Of the green water about 55% falls on forests, 25% on grasslands and about 20% on crops. We can increase green water productivity by rainwater harvesting, increased infiltration and runoff collection. Green water cannot be piped or drunk (cannot be sold) and is therefore generally ignored by water management authorities but it is crucial to plants in both nature and agriculture and needs careful management as an important part of the global water cycle. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23bcf93b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of environmental science" +chunk: 10/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:50.397633+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +greywater – household waste water that has not come into contact with toilet waste; includes water from baths, showers, bathrooms, washing machines, laundry and kitchen sinks. gross primary productivity - total carbon assimilation. groundwater – water found below the surface – usually in porous rocks, or soil, or in underground aquifers. growth – increase in size, weight, power etc. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5fe1d4a17 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of experimental design" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:51.786573+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A glossary of terms used in experimental research. + +== Concerned fields == +Statistics +Experimental design +Estimation theory \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9610451df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of experimental design" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:51.786573+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Glossary == +Alias: When the estimate of an effect also includes the influence of one or more other effects (usually high order interactions) the effects are said to be aliased (see confounding). For example, if the estimate of effect D in a four factor experiment actually estimates (D + ABC), then the main effect D is aliased with the 3-way interaction ABC. Note: This causes no difficulty when the higher order interaction is either non-existent or insignificant. Analysis of variance (ANOVA): A mathematical process for separating the variability of a group of observations into assignable causes and setting up various significance tests. Balanced design: An experimental design where all cells (i.e. treatment combinations) have the same number of observations. Blocking: A schedule for conducting treatment combinations in an experimental study such that any effects on the experimental results due to a known change in raw materials, operators, machines, etc., become concentrated in the levels of the blocking variable. Note: the reason for blocking is to isolate a systematic effect and prevent it from obscuring the main effects. Blocking is achieved by restricting randomization. Center Points: Points at the center value of all factor ranges. Coding Factor Levels: Transforming the scale of measurement for a factor so that the high value becomes +1 and the low value becomes -1 (see scaling). After coding all factors in a 2-level full factorial experiment, the design matrix has all orthogonal columns. Coding is a simple linear transformation of the original measurement scale. If the "high" value is Xh and the "low" value is XL (in the original scale), then the scaling transformation takes any original X value and converts it to (X − a)/b, where a = (Xh + XL)/2 and b = (Xh−XL)/2. To go back to the original measurement scale, just take the coded value and multiply it by b and add a or, X = b × (coded value) + a. As an example, if the factor is temperature and the high setting is 65°C and the low setting is 55°C, then a = (65 + 55)/2 = 60 and b = (65 − 55)/2 = 5. The center point (where the coded value is 0) has a temperature of 5(0) + 60 = 60°C. Comparative design: A design that allows the (typically mean-unbiased) estimation of the difference in factor effects, especially for the difference in treatment effects. The estimation of differences between treatment effects can be made with greater reliability than the estimation of absolute treatment effects. Confounding: A confounding design is one where some treatment effects (main or interactions) are estimated by the same linear combination of the experimental observations as some blocking effects. In this case, the treatment effect and the blocking effect are said to be confounded. Confounding is also used as a general term to indicate that the value of a main effect estimate comes from both the main effect itself and also contamination or bias from higher order interactions. Note: Confounding designs naturally arise when full factorial designs have to be run in blocks and the block size is smaller than the number of different treatment combinations. They also occur whenever a fractional factorial design is chosen instead of a full factorial design. Control group: a set of experimental units to which incidental treatments are applied but not main treatments. For example, in applying a herbicide as one treatment, plots receiving that treatment might be driven over by a machine applying the herbicide but treatments not receiving the herbicide would not normally be driven over. The machine traffic is an incidental treatment. If there was a concern that the machine traffic might have an effect on the variable being measured (e.g. death of strawberry plants), then a control treatment would receive the machine traffic but no herbicide. Control groups are a way of eliminating the possibility of incidental treatments being the cause of measured effects. The incidental treatments are controlled for. Compare treatment groups. A treatment that is only the absence of the manipulation being studied is simply one of the treatments and not a control, though it is now common to refer to a non-manipulated treatment as a control. Crossed factors: See factors below. Design: A set of experimental runs which allows you to fit a particular model and estimate your desired effects. Design matrix: A matrix description of an experiment that is useful for constructing and analyzing experiments. Design of Experiments: A systematic, rigorous approach to engineering problem-solving that applies principles and techniques at the data collection stage so as to ensure the generation of valid, defensible, and supportable engineering conclusions +Design Point: A single combination of settings for the independent variables of an experiment. A Design of Experiments will result in a set of design points, and each design point is designed to be executed one or more times, with the number of iterations based on the required statistical significance for the experiment. Effect (of a factor): How changing the settings of a factor changes the response. The effect of a single factor is also called a main effect. A treatment effect may be assumed to be the same for each experimental unit, by the assumption of treatment-unit additivity; more generally, the treatment effect may be the average effect. Other effects may be block effects. (For a factor A with two levels, scaled so that low = -1 and high = +1, the effect of A has a mean-unbiased estimator that is evaluated by subtracting the average observed response when A is -1 from the average observed response when A = +1 and dividing the result by 2; division by 2 is needed because the -1 level is 2 scaled units away from the +1 level.) +Error: Unexplained variation in a collection of observations. See Errors and residuals in statistics. Note: experimental designs typically require understanding of both random error and lack of fit error. Experimental unit: The entity to which a specific treatment combination is applied. For example, an experimental unit can be a +PC board +silicon wafer +tray of components simultaneously treated +individual agricultural plants +plot of land +automotive transmissions +Living organisms or parts of them +etc. Factors: Process inputs that an investigator manipulates to cause a corresponding change in the output. Some factors cannot be controlled by the experimenter but may affect the responses. These uncontrolled factors should be measured and used in the data analysis, if their effect is significant. Note: The inputs can be discrete or continuous. Crossed factors: Two factors are crossed if every level of one occurs with every level of the other in the experiment. Nested factors: A factor "A" is nested within another factor "B" if the levels or values of "A" are different for every level or value of "B". Note: Nested factors or effects have a hierarchical relationship. Fixed effect: An effect associated with an input variable that has a limited number of levels or in which only a limited number of levels are of interest to the experimenter. Interaction: Occurs when the effect of one factor on a response depends on the level of another factor(s). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27679a68c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of experimental design" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_experimental_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:51.786573+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lack of fit error: Error that occurs when the analysis omits one or more important terms or factors from the process model. Note: Including replication in a designed experiment allows separation of experimental error into its components: lack of fit and random (pure) error. Model: Mathematical relationship which relates changes in a given response to changes in one or more factors. Nested Factors: See factors above. Orthogonality: Two vectors of the same length are orthogonal if the sum of the products of their corresponding elements is 0. Note: An experimental design is orthogonal if the effects of any factor balance out (sum to zero) across the effects of the other factors. Paradigm: a model created given the basic design, the hypothesis and the particular conditions for the experiment. Random effect: An effect associated with input variables chosen at random from a population having a large or infinite number of possible values. Random error: Error that occurs due to natural variation in the process. Note: Random error is typically assumed to be normally distributed with zero mean and a constant variance. Note: Random error is also called experimental error. Randomization: A schedule for allocating treatment material and for conducting treatment combinations in a designed experiment such that the conditions in one run neither depend on the conditions of the previous run nor predict the conditions in the subsequent runs. Note: The importance of randomization cannot be over stressed. Randomization is necessary for conclusions drawn from the experiment to be correct, unambiguous and defensible. Regression discontinuity design: A design in which assignment to a treatment is determined at least partly by the value of an observed covariate lying on either side of a fixed threshold. Replication: Performing the same treatment combination more than once. Note: Including replication allows an estimate of the random error independent of any lack of fit error. Resolution: In fractional factorial designs, "resolution" describes the degree to which the estimated main-effects are aliased (or confounded) with estimated higher-order interactions (2-level interactions, 3-level interactions, etc.). In general, the resolution of a design is one more than the smallest order interaction which is aliased with some main effect. If some main effects are confounded with some 2-level interactions, the resolution is 3. Note: Full factorial designs have no confounding and are said to have resolution "infinity". For most practical purposes, a resolution 5 design is excellent and a resolution 4 design may be adequate. Resolution 3 designs are useful as economical screening designs. Response(s): The output(s) of a process. Sometimes called dependent variable(s). Response surface: A designed experiment that models the quantitative response, especially for the short-term goal of improving a process and the longer-term goal of finding optimum factor-values. Traditionally, response-surfaces have been modeled with quadratic-polynomials, whose estimation requires that every factor have three levels. Rotatability: A design is rotatable if the variance of the predicted response at any point x depends only on the distance of x from the design center point. A design with this property can be rotated around its center point without changing the prediction variance at x. Note: Rotatability is a desirable property for response surface designs (i.e. quadratic model designs). Scaling factor levels: Transforming factor levels so that the high value becomes +1 and the low value becomes -1. Screening design: A designed experiment that identifies which of many factors have a significant effect on the response. Note: Typically screening designs have more than 5 factors. Test plan: a written document that gives a specific listing of the test procedures and sequence to be followed. Treatment: A treatment is a specific combination of factor levels whose effect is to be compared with other treatments. Treatment combination: The combination of the settings of several factors in a given experimental trial. Also known as a run. Treatment group: see Control group +Variance components: Partitioning of the overall variation into assignable components. + +== See also == +Glossary of probability and statistics +Notation in probability and statistics +Glossary of clinical research +List of statistical topics + +== References == + +== External links == +"A Glossary of DOE Terminology", NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, retrieved 20 March 2013 + + This article incorporates public domain material from the National Institute of Standards and Technology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md index 656c8dd32..fb0725f52 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" 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b50056466..79b8aa883 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-15.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-15.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 16/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md index c06a2daa7..fd915d732 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 17/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md index a985a55cf..e9025c39f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 18/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md index cfb64b4a1..6c162f9d4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 19/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md index 3e7be99cf..18b5c054d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 20/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md index 96a11f768..96f27d73f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md index 92b808aab..ca022f932 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 21/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md index c5c6ec461..241973b6c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 22/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md index 6735fc894..4ff1ac5b2 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 23/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md index 3fb5fe9cd..0d0f88f71 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 24/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md index 4dc4b4f7f..a626f44b5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 25/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md index 2cb4c5fb1..c98cb6e26 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 26/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md index d251d2bd2..d3b3eaa0b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 27/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md index 26b21a2e5..89757b1b7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 28/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md index 783b98e21..08844558f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 29/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md index 77186662a..650120a0e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md index 5b924cd80..21f38732a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md index 8c44ea357..7dc8f60a6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md index 59fa73b6b..f4611f48a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md index 4c6bc427c..ed05c2c4b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md index 7eb2f5134..e63ceeee6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md index c9d0c676c..f4ba18c48 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/29 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:53.394949+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md index ac2a0ac6a..88748ff36 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md index 91db36a82..3cb777925 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md index 1b1b48f48..e52f20958 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md index 1273ed2a1..a54a2f9aa 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 12/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md index 2f3c5248f..7437cfaa6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 13/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md index 9ff4038cb..86730e518 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 14/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md index dd43d6097..57823963e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 15/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md index ed120fea1..00e7a811d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 16/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md index b22cb574c..17327f6f8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 17/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md index fd1fe9c6c..e83e78454 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 18/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md index 4142b9ad1..4c5d64155 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 19/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md index baa6d47cd..fda7255f1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 20/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md index 288024c3d..8ace604f7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md index 5c98ba2f7..eb8d0024b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 21/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md index 7bc7516e7..66282cdd4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md index 66e70a4c6..900fc57c9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/21 source: 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ad5253f68..27db1a43d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md index 11e3c18e4..6972cdeb6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md index 4146d34a5..769f83cbb 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md index d61e83763..5e1600413 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/21 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:54.848656+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md index 746f35864..81cd652c6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md index 27102a60d..a8a163409 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md index 55e5872b3..01642aee4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md index a20e4f68c..c50a29b82 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md index f3678d8dd..d6cba9308 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-5.md 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--git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md index 6aee7e513..53fa067d9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md index f8bec9d8b..952cfe180 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md index b41e723c0..4be1b0ee5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/10 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:56.265417+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..84f168668 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Glossary of Geothermal Heating and Cooling provides definitions of many terms used within the Geothermal heat pump industry. The terms in this glossary may be used by industry professionals, for education materials, and by the general public. + +== A == + +=== Active Borehole Length === +The length of the U-bend in the borehole below the header trench (usually 4 to 6 feet less than the total borehole length from the surface). + +=== Advanced Geothermal System (AGS) === +See Closed-Loop Geothermal System entry. + +=== Ambient Air === +The surrounding air (usually outdoor air or the air in a specific location). + +=== Ambient Ground Temperature === +The natural temperature of the earth in a specific location. This temperature will typically be quite stable at a depth of 30' (9 m) and is usually close to the annual average air temperature of the area and is influenced primarily by the average air temperature and secondarily by the thermal energy absorbed from the sun. While the ambient ground temperature is constant, as heat is extracted or rejected via the ground heat exchanger (GHX), the temperature will vary. Typically, a GHX is designed to operate at a minimum fluid temperature of about 32°F (0°C) and a maximum fluid temperature of 90°F (32°C) + +=== Annual Ground Load === +Defined to be the difference between the annual amount of heat rejected to the GHEX in the cooling mode and the annual amount of heat extracted from the GHEX in the heating mode. + +=== Antifreeze === +A variety of Antifreeze solutions are used in geothermal ground loops. The most common types are: Propylene glycol, Methanol, and Ethanol + +=== As-Built Drawing === +A detailed drawing that shows everything included on the site plan in addition to the exact location, dimensions, and other pertinent details for a given GHEX installation after the installation is complete. + +=== Auxiliary Heat === +A supplemental source of heating to provide additional heat to assist a geothermal heating and cooling system. Auxiliary heat can also be used as back-up emergency heat if heat pump goes into fault. + +=== Average Efficiency === +Seasonal average versus peak Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) or coefficient of performance (COP). + +== B == + +=== Balance Point Temperature === +The outdoor air temperatures where internal heat gains from people, appliances, etc. offset the envelope heat loss to the atmosphere. It is at the balance point temperatures where no indoor heating or cooling will be required to maintain the temperature of the home at the thermostat set point. + +=== Bend === +A fitting either molded separately or formed from pipe for the purpose of accommodating a directional change. + +=== Bentonite Grout === +A common grout mix used to protect aquifers from ground or cross contamination and ensure good contact between loop and surrounding soil. + +=== Best Practice === +Commonly accepted practices among industry professionals. + +=== Bin === +In the bin method, a temperature increment, usually 5 F, into which the range of temperatures for an area are divided. Bins are used to produce a frequency distribution of hourly, monthly, or annual outdoor temperature occurrences for a specified location. + +=== Bleed === +Discharge of water from a standing column well to maintain desired temperatures + +=== Block Load === +Defined to be the sum of the zone loads. A block load calculation is necessary for a building with multiple zones served by a centralized heating/cooling system. + +=== Blowers === +Fans used to force air across the heat exchanger. With a ground source heat pump, the only blower used is to force air through the central heating system. + +=== Brine === +A mixture of water and antifreeze + +=== Buffer Tank === +A storage tank for geo conditioned water + +=== Building Management System === +A computerized or digital control system that controls many or all of the systems in a building, including the HVAC system, lighting system, building access controls, etc. + +== C == + +=== Centralized Pumping System === +Flow centers located centrally in a ground source system that produce flow to all heat pump units in that system. + +=== Circulating Pump(s) === +The pump(s) that circulates the fluid in the closed-loop system during normal operation. + +=== Closed-Loop Ground Source Heat Pump === +The heat exchange loop in a Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) system that consists of the ground heat exchanger, the circulating pump, and the water-source heat pump in which the heat transfer fluid is not exposed to the atmosphere. + +=== Closed-Loop Geothermal System === +A subsurface circuit of wellbores containing a fluid heated by a geothermal hot rock resource, without direct contact of the fluid with the resource. Unlike the closed loop in a Ground Source Heat Pump, which is used for small-scale residential heating and cooling, Closed-Loop Geothermal Systems are used for utility-scale energy production (typically >1 megawatt). A Closed-Loop Geothermal System is sometimes referred to as an Advanced Geothermal System (AGS). + +=== Coaxial Heat Exchanger === +A tube in tube heat exchanger where water (or brine) is separated from refrigerant. + +=== Coefficient of Performance === +A measure of heat pump efficiency. It is calculated by dividing the heating or cooling output of a heat pump (in BTUs/hr) and dividing it by the energy input (converted to BTUs/hr). + +=== Coil === +A heat exchanger used to transfer energy from one source to another. In ground source heat pumps, water-to-refrigerant and refrigerant-to-air coils are used. + +=== Combination GSHP Unit === +A GSHP that has the ability to heat or cool air at full capacity or to heat or cool water at full capacity, but not both at the same time. + +=== Condenser === +A heat exchanger in which hot, pressurized (gaseous) refrigerant is condensed by transferring heat to cooler surrounding air, water, or earth. + +=== Compressor === +The central component of a heat pump system. The compressor increases the pressure of a refrigerant fluid, and simultaneously reduces its volume, while causing the fluid to move through the system. + +== D == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..088148531 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Deep Earth Temperatures === +Relatively constant temperature at a given depth which vary when heat is extracted or rejected by ground loops. + +=== Degree Day === +A measure of the severity and duration of an outdoor temperature deviation above or below a fixed temperature (65 F), used in estimating the heating or cooling requirement and fuel consumption of a building for either summer or winter conditions. + +=== Delta P === +Difference in pressure between two test points + +=== Delta T === +Temperature difference between two test sites such as supply and return air or entering and leaving water in ground loop. + +=== Demand (DMD) === +The electrical input required to operate a GSHP unit for space conditioning. + +=== Design Loop Temperatures === +Temperatures that the ground loop is designed to stay above during the heating mode and below during cooling mode. + +=== Design Outdoor Temperature === +Outdoor air temperatures that coincides with the peak seasonal heating or cooling load. + +=== Design Loads === +The peak heating or cooling load used to select the equipment for a system (such as a heat pump) and to design the air distribution system (supply air diffusers, return air grilles, and the duct system). Design loads are based on standard or accepted conditions for a given locality (a design day). + +=== Design Temperature, Summer === +A specific temperature used in calculating the cooling load of a building. The summer design temperature is typically the outdoor air temperature that is exceeded 0.4% or 1.0% of the time. + +=== Design Temperature, Winter === +A specific temperature used in calculating the heating load of a building. The winter design temperature is typically the outdoor temperature that is exceeded 99.0% or 99.6% of the time. + +=== Desuperheater === +A device for recovering superheat from the compressor discharge gas of a heat pump or central air conditioner for use in heating or preheating water. Also known as a heat recovery water heater. + +=== Dimension Ratio (DR) === +A specific ratio of the average specified outside diameter to the minimum specified wall thickness (OD/t) for outside-diameter controlled plastic pipe. + +=== Direct Expansion (DX) Earth-Coupled Heat Pump === +A heat pump system in which the refrigerant is circulated in pipes buried underground. + +=== Distributed Pumping System === +A system made up of smaller, individual pumping stations (one flow center for each heat pump) each controlled individually by the operation of the specific heat pump unit that they serve. + +=== Dual Circuit GSHP Unit === +A GSHP which utilizes two compressors (generally of different capacities) connected to two refrigeration circuits to allow multiple modes of operation. This unit may use one compressor in heating or cooling of ducted air only, one compressor to heat water only, one compressor heating or cooling air while the other is heating water, or both compressors either heating or cooling air. + +== E == + +=== Efficiency === +A measure of the useful output of a system divided by the input required to drive the system. + +=== Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) === +A measure of cooling efficiency for heat pump equipment, expressed as the cooling energy removed from the space (Btu) divided by the electric energy consumed to provide that cooling (W). + +=== Energy Loads === +Used in predicting the energy necessary to operate the system for some prescribed time such as a month, year, or season. The calculation methodology may be the same as for the design load; however, the actual operating and weather data are used instead of design conditions. + +=== Energy Model === +A detailed heat loss and heat gain calculation for a building. The calculation takes into account heat transfer to and from the space inside the building to the outside air. It takes into account the construction of the building walls and roof, including insulation values, mass of the structure, orientation of the different components to the sun, color of the material. An 8,760 hourly model is used to calculate the heat loss/gain based on the historical average temperature data (usually 20 years) for the building location. The modeler then overlays building occupancy schedules, lighting schedules, ventilation, etc. to account for internal heat gains, heat losses and gains from the mechanical system, etc. in detail, on a room by room basis. The software than calculates the actual heating and cooling loads required for every hour of the year. The detailed energy analysis allows us to calculate the energy consumption per day, month or year. This can be translated into energy cost based on local utility rates. It also allows us to calculate energy transfer to and from the GHX and size the system accurately. + +=== Emergency Heat === +A backup heat source that is activated if heat pump shuts off. The most common form of emergency heat is electric resistance. + +=== Entering Water Temperature (EWT) === +The temperature of the water entering the heat pump from the ground loop heat exchanger. Systems are designed so that the entering water temperature does not fall below the Minimum Entering Water Temperature during heating or rise above the Maximum Entering Water Temperature during cooling. Entering water temperature has a significant effect on heat pump operating efficiency. + +=== Equipment Loads === +Loads served by the heating/cooling system that are not included in peak heating/ cooling block load calculations. These loads include duct and hydronic piping losses/gains as well as ventilation loads. + +=== Evaporator === +A heat exchanger in which cold, low-pressure (liquid) refrigerant is vaporized to absorb heat from the warmer surrounding air, earth, or water. + +=== Expansion Valve === +A device that reduces the pressure of liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator and meters and regulates the flow of refrigerant so that it can properly absorb heat. + +== F == + +=== Fan Coil === +A water or refrigerant coil through which air is circulated for conditioning + +=== Finish Tank === +Water heater downstream of a buffer tank \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f91fa1ef5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Flow Center === +A packaged set of circulating pumps mounted in a cabinet, which often includes valves and ports for flushing/purging, antifreeze charging (if used), and loop pressurization (if a pressurized flow center is used). + +=== Flow Meter === +A device that indicates water flow (often in gallons per minute) + +=== Flow Rater === +Component that reduces fluid flow to a specified rate (such as 4 gpm). + +=== Fluid Factor === +A factor, F, used in calculating geoexchange rate, G, in BTUs/hr. + +where ΔT is in °F and Q is gallons per minute. +For water, F is approximately 500. For antifreeze solutions, F is approximately 485. + +=== Flush Cart === +A system which integrates the purge pump with the valving, hose connections, electrical connections, filtration, and reservoir tank on a hand cart for maximum portability and ease of use during operation. Flush carts fabricated for residential or light commercial use will typically utilize high-head, high-volume purge pumps from 1-1/2 hp to 3 hp in size. + +=== Flow Regime === +The nature of fluid flow in any situation. Flow regime can either be regarded as laminar, transitional, or turbulent. + +=== Flushing Velocity === +Velocity of fluid (often stated in feet/second) required to force air out of any pipe in a ground loop heat exchanger, generally accepted minimum is 2 feet/sec. + +=== Forced Air === +System that conditions a space by circulating air through a heat exchanger or fan coil + +=== Fossil Fuel System === +A home heating system that uses natural gas, liquid propane or fuel oil. + +=== Fusion === +Method of joining loop pipes together. Most common are socket fusion, butt fusion or electro fusion. + +== G == + +=== Gauge Pressure === +Pressure reading directly taken from a pressure sensor or gauge (psi). + +=== GeoExchange System === +A system that utilizes renewable thermal energy in the shallow subsurface to extract or reject heat. + +=== Geo Stab === +Fusionless loop fittings + +=== Ground Coupled Heat Pump === +See Ground Source Heat Pump + +=== GHX Circuit === +Most GHX's (ground heat exchangers) are designed and built with one or more "supply and return runout pipe pairs". Connected to the runout pipe pairs are 2 or more GHX circuits that are installed in vertical boreholes, horizontal trenches or submerged in bodies of water. The GHX circuits are the primary heat exchange surface areas that absorb heat from the ground or water or reject heat to it. + +=== Geothermal Heat Pump === +A refrigeration-based system that extracts or rejects heat (BTUs) from an open or closed loop system + +=== Ground loop === +See Ground Heat Exchanger. + +=== Ground Heat Exchanger (GHX) === +A heat exchanger buried in the ground around or under a building. Typically it is built by burying a continuous coil of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or cross linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe in the ground. The pipe can be buried in excavated trenches 4' to 10' (1.3 to 3 m) deep, inserted into horizontal or vertical boreholes, or laid in the bottom of a pond, lake or the ocean. + +=== Ground Loads === +Associated with ground source systems and related to the design of the GHEX. In principle, these calculations are similar to the energy loads except the ground load is heat rejected to the ground (cooling mode) or removed from it (heating mode). + +=== Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) === +A heat pump system that uses the ground as a heat source and/or heat sink. +In a closed loop system, the heat exchanger is typically coils of high-density polyethylene pipe installed in the ground under or around a building. A heat transfer fluid, usually water or water mixed with antifreeze (propylene glycol, ethanol or methanol), is circulated through this pipe, warming or cooling to the temperature of the earth or rock around it. +In open loop systems the pipe draws water from a well, lake or pond. After it is warmed or cooled the water is returned via a discharge well or back to the lake or pond. +The fluid from the open or closed loop is circulated through a heat pump. The refrigerant in the heat pump either extracts heat from the fluid or rejects heat to it, cooling or warming the refrigerant. When heat is absorbed by the refrigerant, the heat pump boosts its temperature and sends it to the air handler to circulate hot air to heat the home and (optionally) to a hot water heater to produce domestic hot water. The now cooled fluid goes back into the closed loop or, in an open loop system, is sent back to its source. +When the heat pump cools the building, the air handler transfers the heat to the heat pump's refrigerant, warming it and the heat transfer fluid. The now heated fluid circulates back into the closed loop for cooling back to the ambient ground temperature. In an open loop system is sent to the discharge well or back into the lake or pond. + +=== Grout === +A material used during the grouting process specifically designed to form a hydraulic barrier in the borehole and to promote transfer between the GHEX piping and the earth. Most grouting products are bentonite-based with fewer being cement-based. + +=== Grouting === +The practice of making a conscious effort to form a hydraulic barrier in a borehole to protect the integrity of the deep earth environment. Proper grouting implies that an approved grouting material is used and that it is placed in the hole starting through a tremie line, filling it from bottom to top. + +== H == + +=== Header === +A manifold that joins parallel loops to a common header pipe + +=== Heat Energy === +Thermal energy (often measured in BTUs) that is transferred from and to ground loop with the heat pump. + +=== Heat Exchanger === +A device, often a coil, specifically designed to transfer heat between two physically separated fluids of different temperatures. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88b9dea20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Heat of extraction (HE) === +Thermal energy removed from the ground loop and provided to the building during heating mode. This is commonly referred to as geoexchange and is recognized as renewable thermal energy. Commonly expressed in BTU/hr + +=== Heat of Extraction === +The portion of a GSHP's heating capacity that is extracted from the earth in the heating mode. Heat of extraction is always smaller than the heating capacity of the heat pump because the electrical power consumption of the compressor, fan, and pumps add to the heating capacity of the GSHP. + +=== Heat Fusion === +Making a joint by heating the mating surfaces of the pipe components to be joined and pressing them together so that they fuse and become essentially one piece. + +=== Heat Gain === +When cooling a building the heat gain is the amount of btus a system must be able to reject elsewhere + +=== Heat Load === +Heat load is a calculation that identifies both the heat gain and the heat loss + +=== Heat Loss === +When heating a building the heat loss is the total number of btus that a system needs to extract from elsewhere or produce through combustion or resistance + +=== Heat Pump === +A mechanical device used for heating and cooling which operates by moving heat energy from one location to another (generally for comfort conditioning). Heat pumps can draw from or discharge heat to air, water, or earth, and are most often either air source or water source. + +=== Heat of rejection (HR) === +The amount of heat that must be rejected to the earth in the cooling mode to provide cooling to the space. The heat of rejection is always larger than the cooling capacity of the heat pump because the electrical power consumption of the compressor, fan, and pumps must also be rejected to the heat sink (ground connection). + +=== Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning System === +A building system designed to maintain the required temperature and air quality in occupied spaces in a building. It includes equipment that provides heating and cooling to the distribution system, which delivers this conditioned air to all parts of a building, as well as adequate air quality by ventilating and filtering the air. Often referred to as "HVAC." + +=== Heat Sink === +The medium—air, water, earth, etc.—which receives heat from a heat pump. + +=== Heat Source === +The medium—air, water, earth, etc.—from which heat is extracted by a heat pump. + +=== Heating Seasonal Performance Factor (HSPF) === +A measure of heating efficiency for air source heat pump equipment on an annual basis, expressed as the heating energy provided to the space (Btu) divided by the electric energy consumed (Watt-hour) over the entire heating season. + +=== Heat Transfer Resistance === +A system's resistance to heat flow resulting from the specific thermal properties and dimensions of the system. + +=== Horizontal loop === +See description here + +=== Hybrid System === +For residential systems, this typically refers to package units that can provide space heating and domestic hot water. In commercial applications, this typically refers to systems that consist of multiple types of heating/cooling systems. + +=== Hydronic === +A heating or cooling distribution system using liquid piped throughout the house to radiators or convectors. + +== I == + +=== Inhibitor === +A fluid additive specifically designed to decrease the rate of oxidation in metal (rust) and promotion of microbial life (bacteria) in the closed-loop circulating fluid. + +=== Integrated Design Process (IDP) === +A process used when designing a building in which all of the stakeholders in a project work closely together in an attempt to achieve the most efficient building and system possible. As an example, a lighting designer may determine that the energy cost savings from installing more efficient lighting in a building is not very cost-effective because the electricity saved by the lighting will not pay for the additional cost of installing the lights for more than 30 years...and would normally recommend against installing the lighting. But, when the reduced heat gain from more efficient lighting is taken into account, the capacity of the cooling system can be reduced enough to pay for the more efficient lighting, and savings resulting from both the lighting and cooling system are taken into account, it results in an overall saving for the owner. + +=== Internal Gains === +In load calculations internal gains are things that contribute heat in a building such as lighting and other appliances. + +== J == + +=== Joint === +The location at which two pieces of pipe or a pipe and a fitting are connected. + +== K == + +== L == + +=== Laminar Flow === +Fluid that flows in static layers with no intermixing. See Laminar flow + +=== Latent Cooling Load === +The amount of moisture that must be removed to the space at the desired humidity level. + +=== Latent Heat === +The thermal energy required for water to make a phase change from vapor (humidity) to liquid (water condensate that runs down the drain) or liquid to solid (ice). See Latent heat + +=== Leaving Air Temperature (LAT) === + +=== Leaving Water Temperature (LWT) === + +=== Loop System === +The ground heat exchange for a heat pump. It is either open or closed loop. + +== M == + +=== Manual J === +Among the most common load calculation formula. + +=== Maximum EWT === +In loop field design, the maximum entering water temperature is what you size your loops not to exceed during the cooling season + +=== Minimum EWT === +In loop field design the minimum entering water temperature (from the GHX) permitted throughout the heating season + +=== Methanol === +Commonly used antifreeze. See Methanol \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..64ce44c6b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Monitoring System === +Monitoring systems in the context of a geothermal system are used to monitor efficiency and operation. Some also give notices for maintenance such as filter changes and alerts for trouble such as excessive auxiliary use. This system could be linked to the internet for remote monitoring, could be in the form of an electric meter, an hour counter or a web based monitor or thermostat. + +=== Multi-pipe Trench === +A horizontal loop generally consisting of 2, 4 or 6 pipes. Pipes may be pinned to trench walls for separation or may have one course on the bottom of the trench and a second course after a foot or two of backfill. + +=== Multi-source heat pump === +A heat pump with access to more than one source/sink element of thermal energy. Common elements include, ground, solar, air, biomass, waste heat. Often applied with a thermal battery or thermal energy storage devices. + +== N == + +=== Non-Pressurized Flow Center === +A flow center that maintains a flow of water into the suction side of the pump (maintaining a flooded volute and reliable pump operation) by having the pump located directly adjacent to a column of water (in a canister). As a result, the system can operate at "zero" or atmospheric pressure. Thus the term "non-pressurized" simply means a device that allows for reliable pump operation without the need to elevate the system pressure (typically 20-60 psig for pressurized systems). Non-pressurized does not mean that the system is open to the atmosphere, but simply a closed sealed system that operates at atmospheric pressure. + +== O == + +=== Open Loop === +A system using water from a well, lake or pond that is discharged to a drain, re-injected into a return well or returned to the same well, lake or pond it was extracted from. + +== P == + +=== P/T Port === +Generally at or close to where water or brine enters and leaves the geothermal unit, a P/T port is an opening where one may insert a gauge to measure pressure (P) or temperature (T). + +=== Package System === +In geothermal terms, a self-contained forced water to air system. Both the refrigeration and air handling systems are in one unit. + +=== Passive Solar === +A system that extracts heat energy from the sun through an intermediary. In the context of geothermal, the sun warms the earth and the loop system collects that solar energy for space conditioning. + +=== Percent of Load === +In the geothermal context the percent of load is usually the amount of seasonal btus provided by each of the geothermal stages. This is not the same than a percentage of the actual heat loss/gain. Peak loads happen infrequently so 98% of the seasonal load might be 60% of peak the peak load. + +=== Performance Factor === +The ratio of useful output capacity of a system to the input required to obtain it. Units of capacity and input need not be consistent. + +=== Pond Loop === +Loop system placed in a pond or lake instead of buried under ground. + +=== Positive Displacement Pump === +A pump that moves a set volume of fluid through the system for each revolution of the driving shaft. Positive displacement pumps are commonly used in conjunction with highsolids grouting materials. + +=== Power Flushing === +A higher than normal water flow and pressure in a ground heat exchanger used to flush air and debris from the closed-loop piping system. + +=== Pressure Drop === +In geothermal pressure drop most commonly refers to a measurement of entering and leaving water pressures at the unit to determine gallons per minute of flow through the coaxial heat exchanger. In general hydronics including loop fields it is also a factor in design that must be overcome with pumping power to deliver desired GPM. + +=== Pressurized Flow Center === +A flow center that typically consists of circulating pumps mounted in a cabinet. Positive pressure must be maintained on the system at all times (via pressurization of the lines) to ensure positive suction-side pressure on the pumps in order to produce flow. + +=== Pressure Rating === +The estimated maximum pressure that the medium in the pipe can exert continuously with a high degree of certainty that failure of the pipe will not occur. + +=== Pump Curve === +A curve used to display the amount of back pressure (head loss, feet) that a given circulating pump would be able to overcome at a given flow rate, typically provided by the pump manufacturer. + +=== Pump and Dump === +Open loop system adds heat to or removes it from water and then discharges it. + +=== Purge Pump === +A high-pressure and high-flow-rate pump used to flush air and debris from the closed-loop circuit of a closed-loop/ground-source (cl/gs) heat pump system. + +== Q == + +== R == + +=== Racetrack === +Multi pipe trench of generally 2, 4 or 6 pipes + +=== Radiant === +In the context of geothermal, hydronic radiant floors walls or ceilings are one way to deliver/extract heat. + +=== Refrigerant === +A fluid of extremely low boiling point used to transfer heat between the heat source and heat sink. It absorbs heat at low temperature and low pressure and rejects heat at a higher temperature and higher pressure, usually involving changes of state in the fluid (i.e., from liquid to vapor and back). + +=== Return (Air) === +Air returned to the space conditioning unit from the conditioned space. + +=== Reversing valve === +A refrigerant valve that reverses refrigerant flow to determine whether system is heating or cooling + +=== Reverse return === +On closed loop headers the parallel loop that is closest to the heat pump on one header would return farthest from the heat pump on the other. + +=== Reynolds number === +The Reynolds number is used to determine flow conditions in the ground loop heat exchanger. Turbulent flow is desirable as it enhances the heat exchange process. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0ce98b59 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Rule of Thumb === +An estimate based on limited information. In geothermal "rules of thumb" are generally not considered best practice, especially not for sizing equipment or loopfields. + +=== Run Fraction === +The fraction of time that a GSHP system operates to condition a space for a given period of time, expressed as a decimal. + +=== Run Time === +The number of hours that a GSHP system operates to condition a space for a given period of time. + +== S == + +=== Saturated Liquid === +The temperature and pressure where refrigerant is all liquid, but will immediately begin to evaporate with addition of heat. + +=== Saturated Vapor === +The temperature and pressure where refrigerant is all vapor, but will immediately begin to condense with removal of heat. + +=== Saturation Temperature === +The temperature at which refrigerant will either immediately condense with the removal of heat (if in the vapor phase) or evaporate with the addition of heat (if in the liquid phase) at a given pressure. + +=== Scaling === +The build up of water impurities on the inside surface of the water-to-refrigerant heat exchanger in a GSHP, primarily caused by hardness and alkalinity of the water. This problem occurs primarily in open-loop systems and can cause fouling in the heat exchanger, diminishing the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the system. + +=== Schedule === +A pipe size and wall thickness classification system (outside diameters and wall thicknesses) originated by the iron pipe industry. + +=== Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) === +A measure of cooling efficiency for air source heat pump equipment on an annual basis, expressed as the cooling energy removed from the space divided by the electric energy consumed over the entire cooling season. + +=== Seasonal Performance Factor (SPF) === +A measure of efficiency for heat pumps on a seasonal basis, based on a specified boundary scheme that specifies which electrical measurements are taken into account in the calculation (e.g., ground loop pump, fan, heat pump controls, backup heaters, etc.). The methodology of calculating the SPF makes it possible to compare the heat pump system with common heating systems like oil or gas. By this comparison it is also possible to calculate the CO2- and primary energy reduction potential from different heat pump systems compared to other heating systems. + +=== Sensible Cooling Load === +The amount of sensible heat that must be removed to maintain the space at the thermostat set point temperature. + +=== Sensible Heat === +Thermal energy required to change the temperature of water or air. See Sensible heat + +=== Sensible Heat Factor (SHE) === +The percentage of the total cooling load that can be attributed to the sensible load. Defined to be sensible cooling load divided by the total load, expressed as a decimal. + +=== Series System === +A system in which the circulating fluid from the heat pump(s) has a single flow path through the ground heat exchanger. + +=== Short Looped === +In geothermal a "short looped" system is one which fails to maintain minimum and maximum entering water temperatures due to inadequate design. + +=== Site derived renewable fraction (SDRF) === +The percentage of total annual energy usage that is derived on site or locally from renewable elements and was not imported into the site. This includes both thermal energy (solar thermal, earth energy, biomass, etc.) as well as electrical energy (photo-voltaics, deep geothermal, hydro-electric, etc.) + +=== Site Plan === +A detailed drawing that shows where buildings, buried utilities, landscaping, permanent fencing, etc. are located on a property and also where a potential GHEX could be installed. + +=== Slinky loop === +A type of loop that is coiled much like a flattened child's toy of the same name. Generally laid flat in the bottom of a trench, vertical slinkies have been used as well. + +=== Solenoid === +Mechanical device used for a variety of functions, including interrupting flow of water when an open loop system is not running. + +=== Soil/Field Resistance === +The resistance to heat flow resulting from soil thermal properties and underground pipe placement. + +=== Split System === +A heat pump that has an air handler and fan coil separate from the refrigeration components + +=== Stab fittings === + +=== Standing Column Well (SCW) === +An open loop system that returns water from the geothermal, into the same well it was extracted from. Usually a designer includes a bleed off to keep from adding or extracting too much heat. Bleed water is replaced by fresh water from the aquifer the SCW is drawing from. + +=== Supplemental Heating === +A heating system component used when a heat pump cannot satisfy the space heating requirements by itself, during the defrost cycle (for air source equipment only), or as an emergency backup when the main system is inoperable. Usually electric resistance heat, but natural gas, LPG, or oil heating systems are also used. + +== T == + +=== Temperature Lift === +The difference in temperature between the heat source a heat pump is connected to and the temperature that is being produced is referred to as the temperature lift. For example, if a heat pump is extracting heat from heat transfer fluid in a GHX that is 40°F (4.4°C) and is rejecting heat to water that is 120°F (49°C), the temperature lift is 80°F (44.6°C) + +=== Therm === +A quantity of heat equivalent to 100,000 Btu. + +=== Thermal Conductivity === +Measure of the ability of the ground to conduct thermal energy. See Thermal conductivity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b5ca8d94a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geothermal heating and cooling" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geothermal_heating_and_cooling" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:57.485688+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Thermal Conductivity Test === +A thermal conductivity test measures the ability of the soil or rock a heat exchanger is buried in to transfer energy. To conduct a thermal conductivity test (TC test) of a vertical borehole, HDPE pipe is installed in a borehole to the depth that is most appropriate for the site and building loads. Heated water is circulated through the pipe. It is typically heated using electric elements powered by a generator. The flow rate and temperature of the water is measured as it enters and leaves the borehole. The test is typically operated for at least 48 hours. Flow rate and temperature data are recorded usually every 2 minutes. This is used to calculate the thermal properties of the borehole to determine how much heat can be rejected to or extracted from the borehole. This is used in conjunction with the building energy loads to calculate the number, spacing and depth of the boreholes for a proposed GCHP system. + +=== Thermal Energy Storage === +Tanks or devices used to store thermal energy. This can include tanks to store chilled water or ice (cold storage) or tanks used to store hot water or a variety of phase change materials (was, eutectic salts, rock, concrete or thermal mass, etc.). Energy can also be stored in earth surrounding the piping of a GHX field. + +=== Thermally Enhanced Grout === +High performance grout with a greater TC than more commonly used products + +=== Throttling Valve === +Most commonly used to restrict flow between desuperheaters and buffer tanks, throttling valves allow an operator to achieve higher delta T between entering and leaving water by slowing the GPM flow. + +=== Ton of Refrigeration === +A measure of the amount of heat absorption required to melt I ton of ice in 24 hours. A ton of refrigeration is a measure of the amount of cooling delivered by a heat pump (or other air conditioning system). One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to a cooling rate of 12,000 Btu per hour. + +=== Total Cooling Load === +The total amount of heat energy that must be removed from a space to keep it at the thermostat set point temperature as well as at the desired humidity level, defined to be the sum of the sensible cooling load and the latent cooling load. + +=== Tremie Line === +The pipe used to pump an appropriate grouting material into a borehole from the bottom of the hole to the top. A tremie line will commonly be made of I-inch or I-IL-inch diameter HDPE pipe. + +=== Turbulent Flow Regime === +The flow condition where fluid flow becomes chaotic and disordered. The mixing effect caused by turbulent flow maximizes heat transfer between the fluid and pipe walls in the closed-loop GHEX while also increasing the system pumping pressure. + +== U == + +=== Ubend === +A plastic pipe assembly consisting of 2 lengths of plastic pipe (HDPE or PEX-a) joined at one end by a molded plastic U-bend. The U-tube is inserted into a vertical or horizontal borehole. In most cases bentonite and/or cement grout fills the annular space inside the borehole around the U-tube piping. Heat transfer fluid is circulated through the U-tube and through a heat pump. When there is a difference in the temperature of the heat transfer fluid and the earth and/or rock surrounding the U-tube piping, energy is transferred to or from the ground. + +=== Unitary Heat Pump === +A complete factory-assembled heat pump. + +== V == + +=== Valve, Expansion === +A device for regulating the flow of liquid refrigerant to the evaporator. Two types of valves are commonly used: an electronic valve that responds to variation in electric resistance reflecting changes in refrigerant temperature, and a thermostatic valve that uses a refrigerant-filled bulb to sense changes in refrigerant temperature. + +=== Valve, Reversing === +An electrically operated valve that allows the heat pump to switch from heating to cooling, or vice versa, by changing the refrigerant's direction of flow. + +=== Variable refrigerant flow === +The next generation in technology that allows a compressor to only use what is required to satisfy demand versus multi-stage or single stage systems that sometimes use more energy that is required + +=== Vertical loop === +A ground loop oriented in the vertical direction, commonly in one or more vertical boreholes. + +=== Vorizontal Loop === +Generally installed by a directional boring machine this loop travels both horizontally and vertically. + +== W == + +=== Water Source Heat Pump === +A heat pump that uses a water-to-refrigerant heat exchanger to extract heat from the heat source. + +=== Water Source Heat Pump, Closed Loop === +Closed-loop systems circulate a heat transfer fluid (such as water or a water-antifreeze mixture) continuously to extract or reject heat from a ground or water heat source or sink. + +=== Water Source Heat Pump, Open Loop === +Open-loop systems pump groundwater or surface water from a well, river, or lake through a water-to-refrigerant heat exchanger and return the water to its source, a drainage basin, pond, or storm sewer. + +=== Water to Air === +A heat pump that transfers thermal energy from ground loop (water) and distributes through building via air ducts. + +=== Water to Water === +A heat pump that transfers thermal energy from ground loop (water) and distributes through building via a hydronic (water) system. + +== X == + +=== X === +Exchange/Exchanger. Shorthand i.e. GHX, DX, HX. + +== Y == + +== Z == + +=== Zone Load === +The amount of heating or cooling that the delivery system must provide to satisfy the peak loads for a specific zone, and a single thermostat is used to control the delivery system for that zone. + +== Acronyms == + +== Glossary of geothermal heat pump terms == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a5600fd83 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of industrial automation" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:01.435537+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of industrial automation is a list of definitions of terms and illustrations related specifically to the field of industrial automation. For a more general view on electric engineering, see Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering. For terms related to engineering in general, see Glossary of engineering. + +== A == +abbreviated address callingCalling that enables a user to employ an address having fewer characters than the full address when initiating a call. + +absolute coordinatesThe absolute distances or angles that specify the position of a point with respect to the datum of a coordinate system. + +absolute coordinateOne of the coordinates that identify the position of an addressable point with respect to the origin of a specified coordinate system. + +absolute errorThe algebraic result of subtracting a true, specified or theoretically correct value from the computed, observed, measured or achieved value. + +absolute instructionA display command using absolute coordinates. + +absolute position sensorA sensor that gives directly the coordinate position of an element of a machine. + +absolute programmingProgramming using words indicating absolute dimensions (absolute coordinates). + +absolute vectorA vector whose start and end points are specified in absolute coordinates. + +accelerationRate of change of the velocity at the point under consideration per unit of time. + +accuracyA qualitative assessment of freedom from error or of the degree of conformity to a desired value, a high assessment corresponding to a small error. + +active accommodationType of control in which the combination of sensor outputs, control commands, and robot motion is used to achieve alteration of a robot's preprogrammed motions in response to sensed inputs (e.g, used to stop a robot when forces reach set levels, or to perform force feedback tasks like insertions, door opening and edge tracing). + +active devicesDevices which require a power supply independent of the value of input signals. + +active outputOutput the power of which in all possible states of the device is derived from supply power. + +actual conditionsConditions observed during operation. + +actuatorA power mechanism used to effect motion of the robot (e.g. a motor which converts electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic energy to effect motion of the robot). + +adaptive controlA control scheme that adjusts the control system parameters from conditions detected during the process. + +address (in numerical control)A character, or group of characters, at the beginning of a word, that identifies the data following in the word. + +address block formatA block format in which each word contains an address. + +address tabulation block formatA tabulation block format in which each word contains an address. + +addressable pointAny point of a device that can be addressed. + +aiming fieldOn a display surface, a circle or other pattern of light used to indicate the area in which the presence of a light-pen can be detected at a given time. + +alignment function characterThe character ":" used as the address character for a sequence number word that indicates a block in a control tape after which are recorded the data necessary for machining to be commenced or recommenced. + +alignment poseA specified pose of the mechanical interface coordinate system in relation to the base coordinate system. + +ambient temperatureTemperature of the environment in which the apparatus is working. + +amplificationRatio between the output signal variations and the control signal variations (for analogue devices only). + +amplifierAny device that increases the magnitude of an applied signal. It receives an input signal and delivers a larger output signal that, in addition to its increased amplitude, is a replica of the input signal. + +analog dataData a represented by a physical quantity that is considered to be continuously variable and whose magnitude is made directly proportional to the data or to a suitable function of the data. + +analog input channel amplifierAn amplifier attached to one or more analog input channels, that adapts the analog signal level to the input range of the succeeding analog-to-digital converter. + +analog input channel (in process control)The analog data path between the connector and the analog-to-digital converter in the analog input subsystem. + +analog output channel amplifierAn amplifier attached to one or more analog output channels, that adapts the output signal range of the digital-to-analog converter to the signal level necessary to control the technical process. + +analog representationA representation of the value of a variable by a physical quantity that is considered to be continuously variable, the magnitude of the physical quantity being made directly proportional to the variable or to a suitable function of the variable. + +analogue anplifierAmplifier the output of which is continuously variable with the applied control signal. + +anisochronous transmissionA data transmission process in which there is always an integral number of unit intervals between any two significant instants in the same group; between two significant instants located in different groups, there is not always an integral number of unit intervals. + +answeringThe process of responding to a calling station to complete the establishment of a connection between data stations. + +anti-vibration mountingDevice for insulating machine vibrations from the structure upon which it is mounted. + +argument (in numerical control)Data which qualifies a command. + +arm (primary axes)An interconnected set of links and powered joints comprising members of longitudinal shape which supports, positions and orientates the wrist and/or an end effector. + +articulated structureSet of links and joints which constitutes the arm and the wrist. + +asynchronous transmissionData transmission in which the time of occurrence of the start of each character, or block of characters, is arbitrary; once started, the time of occurrence of each signal representing a bit within the character, or block, has the same relationship to significant instants of a fixed time base. + +attained poseThe pose achieved by the robot in response to the command pose. + +automaticPertaining to a process or device that, under specified conditions, functions without human intervention. + +automatic answeringAnswering in which the called data terminal equipment (DTE) automatically responds to the calling signal. + +automatic calling (in a data network)Calling in which the elements of the selection signal are entered into the data network contiguously at the full data signaling rate. + +automatic controlControl method which operates without human intervention. + +automatic cycleCycle of operations which, once started, repeats indefinitely until stopped. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..438014534 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of industrial automation" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_industrial_automation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:01.435537+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +automatic modeThe operating mode in which the robot control system can operate in accordance with the task program. + +autcmatic mode of operationThe mode of operation of a numerically controlled machine in which it operates in accordance with the control data until stopped by the program or the operator. + +automationThe implementation of processes by automatic means. + +axis1. A direction in which a part of a robot can move in a linear or rotary mode. The number of axes is normally the number of guided and mutually independently driven links.2. A direction in which a part of a machine can move in a linear or rotary mode. + +== See also == +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of power electronics +Glossary of civil engineering +Glossary of mechanical engineering +Glossary of structural engineering + +== Notes == + +== References == + +=== Attribution === + This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: IS 15571: Industrial automation glossary. New Delhi, Bureau of Indian Standards. 2005. + +== External links == + +=== Websites === +Glossary of Industrial Automation +Automation Glossary of terms +Glossary of technical terms commonly used by ABB +An automation glossary +Glossary - Industrial Electronic/Electrical Terms +Robotics Glossary: a Guide to Terms and Technologies + +=== PDFs === +Glossary of Terms used in Programmable Controller-based Systems +Glossary of Terms for Process Control +INDUSTRY 4.0: Glossary of terms/buzzwords/jargon \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_levelling_terms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_levelling_terms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ac7cc354 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_levelling_terms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of levelling terms" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_levelling_terms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:02.734801+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a glossary of levelling terms. Levelling is a surveying method used to find relative height, one use of which is to ensure ground is level during construction, for example, when excavating to prepare for laying a foundation for a house. + + +== Levelling terms == +Automatic level – variant of the dumpy level, that makes use of a compensator that ensures that the line of sight remains horizontal once the operator has roughly leveled the instrument. The surveyor sets the instrument up quickly and doesn't have to relevel it carefully each time he sights on a rod on another point. It also reduces the effect of minor settling of the tripod. Three adjustment screws are used to level the instrument. + + +Back sight (BS) – short for "back sight reading", the first staff reading taken by the surveyor after the levelling instrument is set up and levelled. B.S is generally taken on the point of known reduced level as on the benchmark or a change point. +Benchmark (surveying) – fixed reference point of known elevation with respect to which RL of other points is determined. Benchmarks can be arbitrary or permanent, the former is used for calculation of reduced levels for small survey works and the latter is used to calculate the elevations of significantly important locations and points. Arbitrary benchmarks are assumed to be equal to 100 meters generally and then the elevations with respect to assumed benchmark is determined. It is commonly practiced by engineering students. For GTS surveys of the country, surveyors use permanent benchmarks to calculate the elevations of different points. +Datum surface – reference plane with respect to which RL of the other survey points is determined. The datum surface may be real or imaginary location with a nominated elevation of zero. The commonly used datum is mean sea level. +Dumpy level – optical instrument used to establish or check points in the same horizontal plane. It is used in surveying and building with a vertical staff to measure height differences and to transfer, measure and set heights. Also called a builder's level or leveling instrument. + + +Fore sight (FS) – short for "fore sight reading", the last staff reading taken before changing the instrument to the other position. It is the staff reading taken on point whose RL is to determined. This sight is considered as negative and deduced from Height of Instrument to determine RL of the point. + + +Intermediate sights – all readings taken between back sight and fore sight. These are the points whose RL is determined by the method already mentioned above in FS. Also called inter-sight readings. +Laser level – control tool consisting of a laser beam projector that can be affixed to a tripod, and which projects a fixed red or green beam along the horizontal and/or vertical axis. A rotary laser level is a more advanced laser level in that it spins the beam of light fast enough to give the effect of a complete 360 degree horizontal or vertical plane, thus illuminating not just a fixed line, but a horizontal plane. +Levelling – measurement of geodetic height using an optical levelling instrument and a level staff or rod having a numbered scale. Common levelling instruments include the spirit level, the dumpy level, the digital level, and the laser level. +Levelling staff – specialized measuring stick or vertical staff used with the dumpy level, held by a second person while the operator of the level looks through it and takes readings off of the staff. Also call a rod. +Reduced level (RL) – equating elevations of survey points with reference to a common assumed datum. The elevation is positive or negative according as point lies above or below datum. +Spirit level – instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb). While used by surveyors, different types of spirit levels may be used by carpenters, stonemasons, bricklayers, other building trades workers, millwrights and other metalworkers, and in some photographic or videographic work. + + +== See also == +Surveying +Prismatic compass (surveying) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18ac66049 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of library and information science" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:04.073733+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary page is created to give readers a place to find key terms and concepts used in the Library and Information Science (LIS) field. There are a large range of topics including cataloging and organization, metadata, digital libraries, archival studies, and other areas covered. The purpose is to have one place with reliable sources for professionals in the field and students who are planning to go into it. + +This page is a glossary of library and information science. + +== A == + +Abstract +Is a brief set of statements that summarize, classifies, evaluates, or describes the important points of a text, particularly a journal article. An abstract is typically found on the first page of a scholarly article. Because an abstract summarizes an article, it is very useful for either browsing or keyword searching. + +Annotation +An explanatory or critical note or commentary. Annotation is also the process of adding an explanatory or critical note or commentary to a text. Reference lists are often annotated with comments about what each resource covered and how useful it was. + +Appendix +A group of supplementary material appended to a text. It is usually related to the material in the main part of the text but not so closely related to it that it should be put into the main text. Put background information and supporting facts in the appendices. An example of a file that should be put in an appendix is a file of detailed charts and graphs of recent research closely related to the paper's main topic. + +Archive +A place in which selected materials such as documents, objects, and other records are preserved due to their value both culturally, historically, or evidentiary to the individual, organisation, or society curating the collection. + +Arrangement +The organization of entities in a certain order. + +Article +1. (General) A document of writing, physical or virtual, on any given subject matter. +2. (Scholarly) A document of writing specifically planned, researched, and curated by researchers to share insights within original research. This process is often quality assured through peer review where a group of academic peers review the article for its quality, merit, and original contribution. These are often published within academic journals that facilitate their quality assurance, publication, and access. + +Author +An originator of a creative work, particularly a writer of a text. Searching by author can be an effective form of information gathering. + +Authority control +cataloging process in library management of assigning unique headings to subjects such as author names and book titles to enable greater efficiency in referencing. + +== B == + +Bibliography +A list of writings related to a specific subject, writings by a specific author, or writings used in producing a specific text. + +Bibliographic database +Is a computer based list of library resources. Typically each record contains the call number, author, title, publishing information, and other card catalog information. + +Bibliographic Framework (BIBFRAME) +Data model for linked metadata of bibliographic description. Initiated by the Library of Congress to replace the MARC standards. + +Boolean logic +The algebraic system, developed by George Boole that is applied to Boolean expressions that contain Boolean operators such as AND, OR, NOT AND, and XOR (exclusive OR). This binary algebraic system is used primarily in switching circuits and database searches. Boolean operators are not to be confused with proximity operators such as NEAR. + +Browse +To inspect something casually, particularly to use a web browser to casually inspect web pages over the Internet. This involves following links from page to page (also called surfing) rather than searching directly. The main difference between browsing and searching is that with browsing you have very little advance knowledge of what will be on the next page. + +== C == + +Call number +An identification marker used in libraries to categorize and locate books and other resources. Each resource is assigned a combination of letters and numbers which correspond with a location in the library. For example, the call number for the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is BF76.7 .P83 2001. + +Catalog/ catalogue +A complete and systematically organized enumeration of items, particularly the complete enumeration of a libraries' resources on a set of paper cards (card catalog) or in an electronic database (bibliographic database). + +Categorization +Grouping together like concepts, entities, objects, resources, etc. + +Citation +The quoting or mentioning of a source. All works used in preparing a paper should be cited. + +Citation search +A search, by name, of all references to an individual. Some databases have a specific citation search option, otherwise you use a full-text search. For an example of a database that has a specific citation search option go to the University of Michigan Library Database. + +Classification +The arrangement of subjects into certain categories. + +Community analysis +The analysis of a set of people. Such analyses enable librarians to know the needs of patrons and hopefully provide better services to them. In a city library district, the set of relevant people would be all those who live in the city or those people eligible to use the library. Analysis may also be restricted to a subset of eligible library users. + +Conceptual model +A representation of a system. It consists of concepts used to help people know, understand, or simulate a subject that the model represents. In contrast, physical models are physical object such as a toy model that may be assembled and made to work like the object it represents. + +Controlled vocabulary +Limiting searches to the exact subject headings contained in the Library of Congress. An example would be "History – Bibliography etc". Some indexes, like Wilson Indexes, have their own system of headings and hence their own controlled vocabulary. + +Copyright +The legal right granted to a copyright holder for the exclusive sale, distribution or reproduction of a creative work. It is a form of intellectual property that prevents others from using a creative work without consent of the owner. For example, Thomas Mann holds the copyright on the book The Oxford Guide to Library Research. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9fd8a71b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of library and information science" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:04.073733+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cross reference database +A collection of records that have one or more fields that reference other related records. These connections (for example between "marketing" and "promotion") make browsing very productive and allow related-items searches. + +== D == + +Database +Is an organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed electronically from a computer system. + +Descriptor +An index term used to identify a record in a database. It can consist of a word, phrase, or alphanumerical term. It can describe the content of the record or be an arbitrary code. When a descriptor is descriptive, it can be an effective search parameter. + +Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) +A hierarchical system for classifying books and other library materials by subject, first published in 1876 by the librarian and educator Melvil Dewey, who divided human knowledge into 10 main classes, each of which is divided into 10 divisions, etc. In Dewey Decimal call numbers, Arabic numerals and decimal fractions are used in the class notation (example: 996.9) and an alphanumeric book number is added to subarrange works of the same classification by author and by title and edition (996.9 B3262h). + +Digital preservation +A formal process to ensure that digital information of continuing value remains accessible and usable in the long term. +Dissertation +A written treatise or thesis, usually lengthy, usually authored by a doctoral candidate, usually directed by a faculty advisor, and usually intended to advance the state of the art in a given discipline. There can be an oral component to the process, in which the dissertation must be defended in front of critical judges. Dissertation searches are valuable because of their currency. + +Document delivery +The transfer of a database record, or other information resource, to the end user. It can involve direct internet or email transfers, CD delivery via mail, paper delivery via mail, or delivery via interlibrary loan. + +== E == + +Edition +A version of a published text, or all the instances of a published text issued at a given time. An example would be the 2nd edition (2001). + +Entry +Any record, or a field in a record, that has been included, or entered, into a database. An entry word is the headword in a dictionary, encyclopedia, or glossary. + +Enumeration +Is a complete, ordered listing of all the items in a collection. + +== F == + +Field +An element of a database record. It contains one type of information and has a unique address. All or most other records in the database have a similar field. An example is the field "name". + +Finding aid +A description of an archival collection that describes the collection as a whole rather than individual pieces within the collection. + +Free-text search + +1. is a simple word or character search, usually with very few Boolean, proximity, or scope limiting options. It is simple and fast. + +2. a search in which all the entries are freed from their original format of presentation. Text that originated in a journal article looks much the same as text that originated in a glossary or chat room. + +3. the deliberate limiting of the scope of the search parameters to include only records that are available free of charge. + +Full text database +A collection of records containing complete versions of the original source, rather than just bibliographies, abstracts, or abridgements. An example is JSTOR. A related concept is that of a full text search which searches only sources that are complete, and ignores those records that are mere abstracts or descriptors. + +== I == + +Information extraction +Is the task of automatically extracting structured information from unstructured and/or semi-structured machine-readable documents. + +Information literacy +Is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning. + +Information mapping +Is a research-based method for writing clear and user focused information, based on the audience's needs and the purpose of the information. + +Information science +Is a field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. + +Interlibrary loan +Or interloan – a service whereby a user of one library can borrow books or receive photocopies of documents that are owned by another library. The user makes a request with their local library, which, acting as an intermediary, identifies owners of the desired item, places the request, receives the item, makes it available to the user, and arranges for its return. This resource sharing system is being promoted by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). + +Inventory +A tool used to provide a record of what is owned. + +== J == + +Journal +A periodical publication that presents articles in a specific subject area. These may be academic journals, trade journals, or organizational newsletters. + +== K == + +Keyword search +A search of a database using some keyword, a significant word from the title, abstract, or descriptor of a record as a point of reference to the article's overall content. + +== L == + +Literature search +A systematic and thorough search of all material, print or electronic, published on a given topic. This can include books, journals, newspapers, catalogs, encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, bibliographies, handbooks, manuals, indexes, yearbooks, gazetteers, directories, chronologies, almanacs, and guides. + +Location device +A number or other designation system that is used to physically locate an item. + +== M == + +MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloging) +A set standard of prescribed codes that allows a record to be "read" by a machine by identifying specific elements of a catalog record. MARC is used to share bibliographic data between libraries by transmitting the encoded metadata from one system to another, then displayed to the user in an identifiable form. + +Menu +A list of options from which a computer user can choose. This saves the user from having to memorize a set of commands. It also reduces the decision down to the basic information required (note the etymology from the French word minuet meaning small). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..272723c85 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of library and information science" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_library_and_information_science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:04.073733+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Monograph +A written document on a single subject, usually scholarly in nature and of approximately book length. They are valuable information sources because of their depth in a limited subject area. + +== O == + +OCLC (Online Computer Library Center) +A comprehensive bibliographic network that provides bibliographic, abstract, and full-text information to users. + +Operators +Symbols that represent operations. In computer science there are binary and unary operators depending on the number of elements or records an operator acts on. In database searching there are Boolean and Proximity operators. Boolean operators are a subclass of logical operators (Logical operators are binary operators that manipulate data at the bit level.). A Boolean operator manipulates the binary "true/false" value. + +Online catalog +Or electronic catalog – a record of the holdings of an institution (e.g. library or museum) or group of institutions (a consortium), often searchable, that can be found on the Internet. + +Open access +A mechanism by which research outputs are distributed online, free of cost or other barriers,[1] and, in its most precise meaning, with the addition of an open license applied to promote reuse. + +Open source +In production and development a philosophy or methodology promoting free redistribution and access to an end product's design and implementation details. + +== P == + +Pathfinder +A subject bibliography used to find resources the library has available on a specific topic. + +Paywall +A method of restricting access to content via a paid subscription. + +Periodical index +An alphabetized listing of works that are published at regular intervals of more than one day. + +Plagiarism +Directly or indirectly passing off the work of others as your own. Characterised from poor use of citations and paraphrasing. + +Plan S +The name for an initiative started in 2018 to established open access science publishing amongst twelve European countries. + +Primary source +The originator of a primary record. A primary record is a resource created by the same people that initially experienced or used it. They create the records for their own purposes, records that often remain unpublished. Sometimes they witness an event, sometimes they are involved in an event, and sometimes the record is directly created by the event. + +== R == + +Record +1. (Store information) A written document, both physical or virtual, that holds an account of a given subject of interest for future reference. +2. (Computer science) Is a collection of data items that can be read and processed by a computer programme, with multiple records contained within a file or dataset. +3. (Database) Is a collection of a fixed number of variables known as fields, with each field having its own identifier and data type across a given row. These fields can have numerous data types such that a record within a database might look like: Unique ID, first name, last name, age, country, etc. + +Reference service +Also called reference and information services or reader services +The personal assistance provided to the library users in finding information. All the functions performed by a trained librarian employed in the reference section of a library to meet the information needs of patrons (in person, by telephone, or electronically), including but not limited to answering substantive questions, instructing users in the selection and use of appropriate tools and techniques for finding information, conducting searches on behalf of the patron, directing users to the location of library resources, assisting in the evaluation of information, referring patrons to resources outside the library when appropriate, etc. are regarded as the services provided under library reference services. + +== S == + +Search strategy +A generalized set of technique used in the process of determining what information you currently have, determining what information you need, and determining how to get it. Some possible strategies include; controlled vocabulary searches, specific entry searches, browsing, general scanning, broad to narrow searches, adjacent item browsing, subject tracings searches, keyword searches, citation searches, literature searches, cross reference searches, and chat room questions and other direct people contact searches. + +Subject heading +The name of the category that a record is included under. For example, the record "natural frequency of vibration" might be found under the subject heading of "Acoustics", and acoustics, in turn, might be found under the subject heading "Physics". + +Subject directory +An hierarchical grouping of related subject headings. The tree structure shows relationships between subject headings. They can be found either inside a database or separate from a data base. + +== T == + +Thesaurus +A book of synonyms, often also containing antonyms. An example is Roget's Thesaurus. In database searching, a thesaurus strategy is to use multiple iterations to search for related words and generate result. The database will often suggest synonyms and related words to try. + +Truncation +The shortening of a search word, field, or record. In the case of truncating a search word, this is a strategy used to search among multiple variants or spellings of a word. The asterisk (*) is generally used as a wildcard to replace a letter or letters. An example is invest* which will pick up instances of invest, investor, investments, investigations, etc. In some databases, the asterisk must be accompanied with a number that define the number of characters that can be truncated. + +== W == + +Weeding +Is the systematic removal of resources from a library based on selected criteria around usage, value or quality, and physical condition, amongst other select criteria depending on the goals of the organisation. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96b85f91b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 1/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones. +This glossary of mechanical engineering terms pertains specifically to mechanical engineering and its sub-disciplines. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..78816dead --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 2/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== A == +Abrasion – is the process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive. Abrasion can be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements. Absolute zero – is the lowest possible temperature of a system, defined as zero kelvin or −273.15 °C. No experiment has yet measured a temperature of absolute zero. Accelerated life testing – is the process of testing a product by subjecting it to conditions (stress, strain, temperatures, voltage, vibration rate, pressure etc.) in excess of its normal service parameters in an effort to uncover faults and potential modes of failure in a short amount of time. By analyzing the product's response to such tests, engineers can make predictions about the service life and maintenance intervals of a product. Acceleration – In physics, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's second law. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m s−2). Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law. As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and its acceleration. Accelerometer – is a device that measures proper acceleration. Proper acceleration, being the acceleration (or rate of change of velocity) of a body in its own instantaneous rest frame, is not the same as coordinate acceleration, being the acceleration in a fixed coordinate system. Accuracy and precision – In measurement of a set, accuracy is closeness of the measurements to a specific value, while precision is the closeness of the measurements to each other. More commonly, accuracy or trueness is a description of systematic errors, a measure of statistical bias, while precision is a description of random errors, a measure of statistical variability; the two concepts are independent of each other. Alternatively, ISO defines accuracy as describing a combination of both random and systematic observational error, so high accuracy requires both high precision and high trueness. Ackermann steering geometry – a geometric arrangement of linkages in the steering of a car or other vehicle designed to solve the problem of wheels on the inside and outside of a turn needing to trace out circles of different radii. It was invented by the German carriage builder Georg Lankensperger in Munich in 1817, then patented by his agent in England, Rudolph Ackermann (1764–1834) in 1818 for horse-drawn carriages. Erasmus Darwin may have a prior claim as the inventor dating from 1758. Acoustic droplet ejection– (ADE) uses a pulse of ultrasound to move low volumes of fluids (typically nanoliters or picoliters) without any physical contact. This technology focuses acoustic energy into a fluid sample in order to eject droplets as small as a picoliter. ADE technology is a very gentle process. This feature makes the technology suitable for a wide variety of applications including proteomics and cell-based assays. Active cooling – an active cooling system is one that involves the use of energy to cool something, as opposed to passive cooling that uses no energy. Such systems circulate a coolant to transfer heat from one place to another. The coolant is either a gas, such as in air cooling of computers, or a liquid such as in a car engine. In the latter case, liquid is pumped to transfer heat from the engine to the radiator, which in turn is cooled by passing air over it. Other active cooling systems make use of a refrigeration cycle. Actual mechanical advantage – The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is the mechanical advantage determined by physical measurement of the input and output forces. AMA takes into account energy loss due to deflection, friction, and wear. Adjoint equation – is a linear differential equation, usually derived from its primal equation using integration by parts. Gradient values with respect to a particular quantity of interest can be efficiently calculated by solving the adjoint equation. Methods based on solution of adjoint equations are used in wing shape optimization, fluid flow control and uncertainty quantification. For example + + + + d + + X + + t + + + = + a + ( + + X + + t + + + ) + d + t + + + b + ( + + X + + t + + + ) + d + W + + + {\displaystyle dX_{t}=a(X_{t})dt+b(X_{t})dW} + + this is an Itō stochastic differential equation. Now by using Euler scheme, we integrate the parts of this equation and get another equation, + + + + + X + + n + + + 1 + + + = + + X + + n + + + + + a + Δ + t + + + ζ + b + + + Δ + t + + + + + {\displaystyle X_{n+1}=X_{n}+a\Delta t+\zeta b{\sqrt {\Delta t}}} + +, here + + + + ζ + + + {\displaystyle \zeta } + + is a random variable, later one is an adjoint equation. Aerodynamics – the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields. Agitator (device) – a device or mechanism to put something into motion by shaking or stirring. Agitators usually consist of an impeller and a shaft; an impeller is a rotor located within a tube or conduit attached to the shaft, which helps enhance the pressure in order for the flow of a fluid be done. Air handler – an air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to regulate and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. Air compressor – a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air). By one of several methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increasing the pressure. When tank pressure reaches its engineered upper limit the air compressor shuts off. The compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into use. Air conditioner – Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A/C, or air con) is the process of removing heat and moisture from the interior of an occupied space, to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. Air preheater – (APH) any device designed to heat air before another process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil. Airflow – Airflow, or air flow, is the movement of air from one area to another. The primary cause of airflow is the existence of pressure gradients. Air behaves in a fluid manner, meaning particles naturally flow from areas of higher pressure to those where the pressure is lower. Atmospheric air pressure is directly related to altitude, temperature, and composition. In engineering, airflow is a measurement of the amount of air per unit of time that flows through a particular device. Allowance – a planned deviation between an exact dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final dimension. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2a532bf2f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 11/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Safety engineering – +Screw theory – +Seal – +Second law of thermodynamics – states that when energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases. In other words, heat always moves from hotter objects to colder objects unless energy is supplied to reverse the direction of heat flow, and not all heat energy can be converted into work in a cyclic process. +Semiconductor – +Series and parallel circuits – +Shear force diagrams – +Shear pin – +Shear strength – +Shear stress – +Simple machine – +Simulation – +Slide rule – +Society of Automotive Engineers – +Solid mechanics – +Solid modeling – +Split nut – +Sprung mass – +Statics – +Steering – +Stress–strain curve – a chart which gives the relationship between stress and strain for a given material. It is obtained by gradually applying load to a test coupon and measuring the deformation. +Structural failure – +Student Design Competition – +Surveying – +Suspension – +Switch – an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to another. + +== T == +Technical drawing – the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed. In industry and engineering, common conventions constitute a visual language and help to ensure that the drawing is precise, unambiguous and relatively easy to understand. Many of the symbols and principles of technical drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO 128. +Technology – refers to both the application of knowledge for achieving practical goals in a reproducible way, and the products and tools resulting from such efforts. +Tensile strength – also called ultimate tensile strength or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In brittle materials the ultimate tensile strength is close to the yield point, whereas in ductile materials the ultimate tensile strength can be higher. +Tensile stress – +Testing adjusting balancing – +Theory of elasticity – +Thermodynamics – a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics. +Third law of thermodynamics – states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value when its temperature approaches absolute zero, because its atoms would stop moving. However, heat transfer between the system and its surroundings would prevent the system from ever reaching absolute zero. +Toe – +Torque – +Torsion beam suspension – +Torsion spring – +Toughness – +Track gauge – Spacing of the rails on a railway track +Transmission – +Truck – +Truck (railway) – Chassis for wheels and suspension under railway vehicles, bogie outside U.S. +Turbine – +Tribology – +Touch screen – +tear – +Tire manufacturing – + +== U == +Understeer – +Unibody – +Unsprung weight – + +== V == +Verification and Validation – +Valve – a device or natural object (such as a heart valve) that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways +Vector – a geometric object that has magnitude (or length) and direction. A vector quantity is differentiated from a scalar quantity which only has magnitude, not direction. Vectors can be added to other vectors according to vector algebra. +Vertical strength – +Viscosity – +Volt – the SI unit of electric potential, electric potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force, which uses the symbol V. +Vibration – +Velocity diagrams – + +== W == +Wear – is the damaging, gradual removal or deformation of material at solid surfaces. Causes of wear can be mechanical (e.g., erosion) or chemical (e.g., corrosion). The study of wear and related processes is referred to as tribology. +Wedge – a triangular shaped tool, and is a portable inclined plane, and one of the six classical simple machines. It can be used to separate two objects or portions of an object, lift up an object, or hold an object in place. It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt end into forces perpendicular (normal) to its inclined surfaces. The mechanical advantage of a wedge is given by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width. Although a short wedge with a wide angle may do a job faster, it requires more force than a long wedge with a narrow angle. +Weight transfer – +Wheel – In its primitive form, a wheel is a circular block of a hard and durable material at whose center has been bored a hole through which is placed an axle bearing about which the wheel rotates when torque is applied to the wheel about its axis. The wheel and axle assembly can be considered one of the six simple machines. +Wheel and axle – a machine consisting of a wheel attached to a smaller axle so that these two parts rotate together in which a force is transferred from one to the other. The wheel and axle can be viewed as a version of the lever, with a drive force applied tangentially to the perimeter of the wheel and a load force applied to the axle, respectively, that are balanced around the hinge which is the fulcrum. +Wheelset – the wheel–axle assembly of a railroad car. The frame assembly beneath each end of a car, railcar or locomotive that holds the wheelsets is called the bogie (or truck in North America). Most North American freight cars have two bogies with two or three wheelsets, depending on the type of car; short freight cars generally have no bogies but instead have two wheelsets. +Work – the energy transferred to or from an object via the application of force along a displacement. Work is a scalar quantity. + +== X == +X bar charts \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ceab88ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 12/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Y == +Yield point – In materials science and engineering, the yield point is the point on a stress–strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior. Below the yield point, a material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible and is known as plastic deformation. +Yield strength – or yield stress, is a material property and is the stress corresponding to the yield point at which the material begins to deform plastically. The yield strength is often used to determine the maximum allowable load in a mechanical component, since it represents the upper limit to forces that can be applied without producing permanent deformation. In some materials, such as aluminium, there is a gradual onset of non-linear behavior, making the precise yield point difficult to determine. In such a case, the offset yield point (or proof stress) is taken as the stress at which 0.2% plastic deformation occurs. Yielding is a gradual failure mode which is normally not catastrophic, unlike ultimate failure. +Young's modulus – Young's modulus + + + + E + + + {\displaystyle E} + +, the Young modulus or the modulus of elasticity in tension, is a mechanical property that measures the tensile stiffness of a solid material. It quantifies the relationship between tensile stress + + + + σ + + + {\displaystyle \sigma } + + (force per unit area) and axial strain + + + + ε + + + {\displaystyle \varepsilon } + + (proportional deformation) in the linear elastic region of a material and is determined using the formula: + + + + + E + = + + + σ + ε + + + + + {\displaystyle E={\frac {\sigma }{\varepsilon }}} + + +Young's moduli are typically so large that they are expressed not in pascals but in gigapascals (GPa). + +== Z == +Zero defects – (or ZD), was a management-led program to eliminate defects in industrial production that enjoyed brief popularity in American industry from 1964 to the early 1970s. Quality expert Philip Crosby later incorporated it into his "Absolutes of Quality Management" and it enjoyed a renaissance in the American automobile industry—as a performance goal more than as a program—in the 1990s. Although applicable to any type of enterprise, it has been primarily adopted within supply chains wherever large volumes of components are being purchased (common items such as nuts and bolts are good examples). +Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics – If body A is in thermal equilibrium (no heat transfers between them when in contact) with body C, and body B is in thermal equilibrium with body C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with B. + +== See also == +Mechanical engineering +Engineering +Glossary of engineering +National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying +Fundamentals of Engineering Examination +Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination +Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering +Glossary of aerospace engineering +Glossary of civil engineering +Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering +Glossary of structural engineering +Glossary of areas of mathematics +Glossary of artificial intelligence +Glossary of astronomy +Glossary of automotive design +Glossary of biology +Glossary of calculus +Glossary of chemistry +Glossary of economics +Glossary of physics +Glossary of probability and statistics + +== References == + +=== Works cited === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7fae8dc33 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 3/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The unifying abstract concept is that a certain amount of difference allows for some known factor of compensation or interference. For example, an area of excess metal may be left because it is needed to complete subsequent machining. Common cases are listed below. An allowance, which is a planned deviation from an ideal, is contrasted with a tolerance, which accounts for expected but unplanned deviations. American Society of Mechanical Engineers – The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is a professional association that, in its own words, "promotes the art, science, and practice of multidisciplinary engineering and allied sciences around the globe" via "continuing education, training and professional development, codes and standards, research, conferences and publications, government relations, and other forms of outreach." +Ampere – the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics. Applied mechanics – describes the behavior of a body, in either a beginning state of rest or of motion, subjected to the action of forces. Applied mechanics, bridges the gap between physical theory and its application to technology. It is used in many fields of engineering, especially mechanical engineering and civil engineering. In this context, it is commonly referred to as engineering mechanics. Archimedes' screw – also known by the name Archimedean screw or screw pump, is a machine used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. Water is pumped by turning a screw-shaped surface inside a pipe. The screw pump is commonly attributed to Archimedes, +Artificial intelligence – (AI), sometimes called machine intelligence, is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. In computer science AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving". Assembly drawing – see Technical drawing. Automaton clock – An automaton clock or automata clock is a type of striking clock featuring automatons. Clocks like these were built from the 1st century BC through to Victorian times in Europe. A cuckoo clock is a simple form of this type of clock. Automobile – a wheeled motor vehicle used for transportation. Most definitions of car say they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four tires, and mainly transport people rather than goods. Automobile handling – Automobile handling and vehicle handling are descriptions of the way a wheeled vehicle responds and reacts to the inputs of a driver, as well as how it moves along a track or road. It is commonly judged by how a vehicle performs particularly during cornering, acceleration, and braking as well as on the vehicle's directional stability when moving in steady state condition. Automotive engineering – Automotive engineering, along with aerospace engineering and marine engineering, is a branch of vehicle engineering, incorporating elements of mechanical, electrical, electronic, software and safety engineering as applied to the design, manufacture and operation of motorcycles, automobiles and trucks and their respective engineering subsystems. It also includes modification of vehicles. Manufacturing domain deals with the creation and assembling the whole parts of automobiles is also included in it. The automotive engineering field is research -intensive and involves direct application of mathematical models and formulas. The study of automotive engineering is to design, develop, fabricate, and testing vehicles or vehicle components from the concept stage to production stage. Production, development, and manufacturing are the three major functions in this field. Axle – a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..94f2cd17a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 4/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +Babbitt – also called Babbitt metal or bearing metal, is any of several alloys used for the bearing surface in a plain bearing. The original Babbitt alloy was invented in 1839 by Isaac Babbitt in Taunton, Massachusetts, United States. Backdrive – a component used in reverse to obtain its input from its output. This extends to many concepts and systems from thought based to practical mechanical applications. Backlash – sometimes called lash or play, is a clearance or lost motion in a mechanism caused by gaps between the parts. It can be defined as "the maximum distance or angle through which any part of a mechanical system may be moved in one direction without applying appreciable force or motion to the next part in mechanical sequence",p. 1-8. Balancing machine – a measuring tool used for balancing rotating machine parts such as rotors for electric motors, fans, turbines, disc brakes, disc drives, propellers and pumps. Ball detent – a simple mechanical arrangement used to hold a moving part in a temporarily fixed position relative to another part. Usually the moving parts slide with respect to each other, or one part rotates within the other. Ball screw – a mechanical linear actuator that translates rotational motion to linear motion with little friction. A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball bearings which act as a precision screw. As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads, they can do so with minimum internal friction. Ball spline – Ball splines (Ball Spline bearings) are a special type of linear motion bearing that are used to provide nearly frictionless linear motion while allowing the member to transmit torque simultaneously. There are grooves ground along the length of the shaft (thus forming splines) for the recirculating ground balls to run inside. The outer shell that houses the balls is called a nut rather than a bushing, but is not a nut in the traditional sense—it is not free to rotate about the shaft, but is free to travel up and down the shaft. Beale number – a parameter that characterizes the performance of Stirling engines. It is often used to estimate the power output of a Stirling engine design. For engines operating with a high temperature differential, typical values for the Beale number range from ( 0.11 ) to ( 0.15 ); where a larger number indicates higher performance. Bearing – a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. Bearing pressure – a particular case of contact mechanics often occurring in cases where a convex surface (male cylinder or sphere) contacts a concave surface (female cylinder or sphere: bore or hemispherical cup). Excessive contact pressure can lead to a typical bearing failure such as a plastic deformation similar to peening. This problem is also referred to as bearing resistance. Bearing surface – the area of contact between two objects. It usually is used in reference to bolted joints and bearings, but can be applied to a wide variety of engineering applications. On a screw the bearing area loosely refers to the underside of the head. Strictly speaking, the bearing area refers to the area of the screw head that directly bears on the part being fastened. For a cylindrical bearing it is the projected area perpendicular to the applied force. On a spring the bearing area refers to the amount of area on the top or bottom surface of the spring in contact with the constraining part. The ways of machine tools, such as dovetail slides, box ways, prismatic ways, and other types of machine slides are also bearing surfaces. Belt – a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel. Belt friction – describes the friction forces between a belt and a surface, such as a belt wrapped around a bollard. When one end of the belt is being pulled only part of this force is transmitted to the other end wrapped about a surface. The friction force increases with the amount of wrap about a surface and makes it so the tension in the belt can be different at both ends of the belt. Belt friction can be modeled by the Belt friction equation. Bending – In applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element. Biomechatronics – an applied interdisciplinary science that aims to integrate biology, mechanics, and electronics. It also encompasses the fields of robotics and neuroscience. Biomechatronic devices encompass a wide range of applications from the development of prosthetic limbs to engineering solutions concerning respiration, vision, and the cardiovascular system. Body in white – or BIW refers to the stage in automobile manufacturing in which a car body's components have been joined together, using one or a combination of different techniques: welding (spot, MIG/MAG), riveting, clinching, bonding, laser brazing etc. BIW is termed before painting and before the engine, chassis sub-assemblies, or trim (glass, door locks/handles, seats, upholstery, electronics, etc.) have been assembled in the frame structure. Bogie – a chassis or framework that carries a wheelset, attached to a vehicle—a modular subassembly of wheels and axles. Bogies take various forms in various modes of transport. Bonded seal – a type of washer used to provide a seal around a screw or bolt. Originally made by Dowty Group, they are also known as Dowty seals or Dowty washers. Now widely manufactured, they are available in a range of standard sizes and materials +Brittleness – A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Buckling – instability that leads to a failure mode. When a structure is subjected to compressive stress, buckling may occur. Buckling is characterized by a sudden sideways deflection of a structural member. This may occur even though the stresses that develop in the structure are well below those needed to cause failure of the material of which the structure is composed. Bus – A bus (archaically also omnibus, multibus, motorbus, and autobus) is a road vehicle designed to carry many passengers. Bushing – or rubber bushing is a type of vibration isolator. It provides an interface between two parts, damping the energy transmitted through the bushing. A common application is in vehicle suspension systems, where a bushing made of rubber (or, more often, synthetic rubber or polyurethane) separates the faces of two metal objects while allowing a certain amount of movement. This movement allows the suspension parts to move freely, for example, when traveling over a large bump, while minimizing transmission of noise and small vibrations through to the chassis of the vehicle. A rubber bushing may also be described as a flexible mounting or antivibration mounting. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3e22a572 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 5/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Boiler – a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2057ee5ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 6/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +CAD – see Computer-aided design. +CAM – see Computer-aided manufacturing +CAID – see Computer-aided industrial design. +Calculator – An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. +Calculus – the mathematical study of continuous change. +Car handling – Automobile handling and vehicle handling are descriptions of the way a wheeled vehicle responds and reacts to the inputs of a driver, as well as how it moves along a track or road. It is commonly judged by how a vehicle performs particularly during cornering, acceleration, and braking as well as on the vehicle's directional stability when moving in steady state condition. +Carbon fiber reinforced polymer – or carbon fiber reinforced plastic, or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP, or often simply carbon fiber, carbon composite, or even carbon), is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. +Carbon fibers – or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers. +Classical mechanics – describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies. +Clean room design – the method of copying a design by reverse engineering and then recreating it without infringing any of the copyrights associated with the original design. Clean-room design is useful as a defense against copyright infringement because it relies on independent invention. However, because independent invention is not a defense against patents, clean-room designs typically cannot be used to circumvent patent restrictions. +Clevis fastener – a fastener consisting of a U-shaped bracket through which a pin is placed +Clock – an instrument used to measure, keep, and indicate time. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units: the day, the lunar month, and the year. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia. +Clutch – a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission especially from driving shaft to driven shaft. +CNC – (CNC)), the automated control of machining tools (drills, boring tools, lathes) by means of a computer. An NC machine alters a blank piece of material (metal, plastic, wood, ceramic, or composite) to meet precise specifications by following programmed instructions and without a manual operator. +Coefficient of thermal expansion – describes how the size of an object changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure. Several types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear. The choice of coefficient depends on the particular application and which dimensions are considered important. +Coil spring – also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device which is typically used to store energy and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to maintain a force between contacting surfaces. They are made of an elastic material formed into the shape of a helix which returns to its natural length when unloaded. +Combustion – also known as burning when accompanied by fire, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture as smoke. Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is + + + + + + C + + + x + + + + + + + + H + + + y + + + + + + + + + + + + + + z + + + + O + + 2 + + + + + + ⟶ + + + x + + + + CO + + 2 + + + + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..85dfa0c72 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 7/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + + + + + + + y + + + 2 + + + + + + H + + 2 + + + + + + O + + + + {\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}{}+{\mathit {z}}O2->{\mathit {x}}CO2{}+{\frac {\mathit {y}}{2}}H2O}}} + +, where + + + + z + = + x + + + + + y + 4 + + + + + {\displaystyle z=x+{\frac {y}{4}}} + +. +Composite material – (also called a composition material, or shortened to composite), is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure, differentiating composites from mixtures and solid solutions. +Compression ratio – The static compression ratio, (symbol + + + + ε + + + {\displaystyle \varepsilon } + +), of an internal combustion engine or external combustion engine is a value that represents the ratio of the volume of its combustion chamber from its largest capacity to its smallest capacity. It is a fundamental specification for many common combustion engines. +Compressive strength – or compression strength, is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently. +Computational fluid dynamics – (CFD) a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems. +Computer – a device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. A "complete" computer including the hardware, the operating system (main software), and peripheral equipment required and used for "full" operation can be referred to as a computer system. This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster. +Computer-aided design – (CAD) the use of computer systems (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD (for Computer Aided Design and Drafting) is also used. +Computer-aided industrial design – (CAID) a subset of computer-aided design (CAD) software that can assist in creating the look-and-feel, or industrial design aspects of a product in development. +Computer-aided manufacturing – (CAM) the use of software to control machine tools and related ones in the manufacturing of workpieces. This is not the only definition for CAM, but it is the most common; CAM may also refer to the use of a computer to assist in all operations of a manufacturing plant, including planning, management, transportation and storage. +Computer numerical control – Numerical control (NC), (also computer numerical control (CNC)), is the automated control of machining tools (drills, boring tools, lathes) and 3D printers by means of a computer. An NC machine alters a blank piece of material (metal, plastic, wood, ceramic, or composite) to meet precise specifications by following programmed instructions and without a manual operator. +Conservation of mass – The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time. +Constant-velocity joint – (also known as homokinetic or CV joints), allow a drive shaft to transmit power through a variable angle, at constant rotational speed, without an appreciable increase in friction or play. They are mainly used in front wheel drive vehicles. Modern rear wheel drive cars with independent rear suspension typically use CV joints at the ends of the rear axle halfshafts and increasingly use them on the drive shafts. +Constraint – +Continuum mechanics – a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. +Control theory – in control systems engineering is a subfield of mathematics that deals with the control of continuously operating dynamical systems in engineered processes and machines. The objective is to develop a control model for controlling such systems using a control action in an optimum manner without delay or overshoot and ensuring control stability. +Corrosion – a natural process that converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and stopping corrosion. +Cotter pin – a pin or wedge passing through a hole to fix parts tightly together. +Crankshaft – a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion; whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts the rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion between two motions, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach. +Cybernetics – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e95e579e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 8/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +Damping ratio – an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing, restricting or preventing its oscillations. In physical systems, damping is produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples include viscous drag in mechanical systems, resistance in electronic oscillators, and absorption and scattering of light in optical oscillators. +Deformation (engineering) – refers to the change in size or shape of an object. Deformation that is reversible is termed as elastic deformation, while irreversible deformation is termed plastic deformation. Strain is the relative deformation of an infinitesimally small cube of material, and is generally linearly proportional to the forces or stresses acting on the cube while the deformation is elastic. The determination of the stress and strain throughout a solid object is given by the field of strength of materials and for a structure by structural analysis. +Delamination – is a mode of failure where a material fractures into layers. A variety of materials including laminate composites and concrete can fail by delamination. +Design – +Design for manufacturability – (also sometimes known as design for manufacturing or DFM), is the general engineering practice of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The concept exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but the implementation differs widely depending on the manufacturing technology. +Diesel engine – (also known as a compression-ignition or CI engine), named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical compression (adiabatic compression). +Differential –A differential is a gear train with three shafts that has the property that the rotational speed of one shaft is the average of the speeds of the others, or a fixed multiple of that average. +Dimensionless number – a quantity to which no physical dimension is assigned. Dimensionless quantities are widely used in many fields, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering, and economics. +Diode – a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from cathode to plate. A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. +Diode laser – +Docking sleeve – +Drafting – +Drifting – +Driveshaft – a component for transmitting mechanical power and torque and rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drivetrain that cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them. +Dynamics – the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the study of forces and their effects on motion. +Dynamometer – a device for simultaneously measuring the torque and rotational speed (RPM) of an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover so that its instantaneous power may be calculated. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e35471ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 9/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== E == +Elasticity – In physics, elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence and to return to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed. Solid objects will deform when adequate forces are applied to them. If the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and size when these forces are removed. Hooke's law states that the force should be proportional to the extension. The physical reasons for elastic behavior can be quite different for different materials. In metals, the atomic lattice changes size and shape when forces are applied (energy is added to the system). When forces are removed, the lattice goes back to the original lower energy state. For rubbers and other polymers, elasticity is caused by the stretching of polymer chains when forces are applied. +Electric current – a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is measured as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. +Electric motor – an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of rotation of a shaft. Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or electrical generators. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in the reverse direction, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. +Electrical engineering – Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design and application of equipment, devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. +Electrical circuit – an electrical network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. +Electrical network – an interconnection of electrical components (e.g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors) or a model of such an interconnection, consisting of electrical elements (e.g., voltage sources, current sources, resistances, inductances, capacitances). +Electromagnetism – +Electronic circuit – a type of electrical circuit which is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. +Electronics – +Energy – +Engine – +Engineering – the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items. +Engineering cybernetics – +Engineering drawing – a type of technical drawing that is used to convey information about an object. Detail drawings commonly specify the dimensions and tolerances for the construction of a single component, while a master drawing or assembly drawing links the detail drawings for each component in a system. Only required information is typically specified, usually only in one place to avoid inconsistency. +Engineering economics – a subset of economics that studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making engineering decisions regarding the allocation of limited resources. It is a simplified application of microeconomics in that it assumes elements such as price determination, competition and demand/supply to be fixed inputs. +Engineering ethics – a field that examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. Many engineering professional societies have prepared codes of ethics which are largely similar to each other. +Engineering management – the combination of technological problem-solving and the organizational, administrative, legal and planning abilities of management in order to oversee the operational performance of complex engineering driven enterprises. +Engineering society – a professional organization for engineers of various disciplines. Some are umbrella type organizations which accept many different disciplines, while others are discipline-specific. There are also many student-run engineering societies, commonly at universities or technical colleges. +Exploratory engineering – the process of designing and analyzing detailed hypothetical models of systems that are not feasible with current technologies or methods, but do seem to be clearly within the bounds of what science considers to be possible. It usually results in prototypes or computer simulations that are as convincing as possible to those that know the relevant science, given the lack of experimental confirmation. + +== F == +Fits and tolerances - +Factor of safety – +False precision – +Fast fracture – +Fatigue – +Fillet – +First law of thermodynamics – states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can change only from one form to another. +Finite element analysis – +Flange - +Fluid mechanics – +Flywheel – +Force – an influence that can push or pull an object to change its motion. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (e.g. moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. +Force density – +Forging – +Four-bar linkage – +Four-stroke cycle – +Four wheel drive – +Friction – the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction including static friction between non-moving surfaces and kinetic friction between moving surfaces; for two given solid surfaces, static friction is greater than kinetic friction. Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other. +Front wheel drive – +Fundamentals of Engineering exam – +Fusible plug – +Fusion deposition modelling – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dbde6ccad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mechanical engineering" +chunk: 10/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:05.490215+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +Gas compressor – +Gauge – +Gear – a rotating circular machine part having cut or inserted teeth which mesh with another compatible toothed part to transmit torque and speed. Each gear tooth essentially functions as a lever with its fulcrum at the gear's center. +Gear coupling – a mechanical device for transmitting torque between two shafts that are not collinear. It consists of a flexible joint fixed to each shaft. The two joints are connected by a third shaft, called the spindle. +Gear ratio – the ratio of the pitch circles of mating gears which defines the speed ratio and the mechanical advantage of the gear set. +Granular material – + +== H == +Heat engine – a system that converts heat or thermal energy—and chemical energy—to mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work. +Heat transfer – +Heating and cooling systems – +Hinge – +Hoberman mechanism – +Hobson's joint – +Hooke's law – +Hotchkiss drive – +HVAC – +Hydraulics – +Hydrostatics – + +== I == +Ideal machine – +Ideal mechanical advantage – +Imperial College London – +Inclined plane – +Independent suspension – +Inductor – +Industrial engineering – +Inertia – +Institution of Mechanical Engineers – +Instrumentation – +Integrated circuit – +Intelligent pump – +Invention – a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An inventor who creates or discovers a new invention can sometimes receive a patent, or legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling that invention for a limited time. + +== J == +Jack chain – +Jacking gear – +JIC fitting – +Joule – the SI unit of energy, which uses the symbol J. It is equal to the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton displaces a mass through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force applied. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. + +== K == +Kelvin – the primary SI unit of temperature, which uses the symbol K and has absolute zero as its zero point. The temperature in degree Celsius is defined as the temperature in kelvins minus 273.15 (i.e. 0 °C is equal to 273.15 K). +Kinematic determinacy – +Kinematics – + +== L == +Laser – +Leaf spring – +Lever – a simple machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever. +Liability – +Life cycle cost analysis – +Limit state design – +Linkage – +Live axle – +Load transfer – +Locomotive – +Lubrication – + +== M == +Machine – +Machine learning – +Machinery's Handbook – a classic, one-volume reference work in mechanical engineering and practical workshop mechanics published by Industrial Press, New York, since 1914; its 31st edition was published in 2020. Recent editions of the handbook contain chapters on mathematics, mechanics, materials, measuring, toolmaking, manufacturing, threading, gears, and machine elements, combined with excerpts from ANSI standards. +Magnetic circuit – +Margin of safety – +Mass transfer – +Materials – +Materials engineering – +Material selection – +Mechanical advantage – +Mechanical biological treatment – +Mechanical efficiency – +Mechanical engineering – +Mechanical equilibrium – +Mechanical work – +Mechanics – +Mechanochemistry – +Mechanosynthesis – +Mechatronics – +Microelectromechanical systems – +Micromachinery – +Microprocessor – +Microtechnology – +Modulus of rigidity-- +Molecular assembler – +Molecular nanotechnology – +Moment – +Moment of inertia – +Motorcycle – +Multi-link suspension – + +== N == +Nanotechnology – +Newton (unit) – the SI unit of force, which uses the symbol N. It is defined as 1 kg⋅m/s2, the force which gives a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of 1 metre per second per second. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, specifically Newton's second law of motion. +Normal stress – +Nozzle – + +== O == +Ohm's law – states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. It is typically expressed as the equation I = V ÷ R, where I is the current through the conductor, V is the voltage measured across the conductor and R is the resistance of the conductor. +Orientation +Overdrive – +Oversteer – + +== P == +Pascal (unit) – the SI unit of pressure, which uses the symbol Pa and is defined as one newton per square metre. It is also used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength. +Physics – +Pinion – +Piston – +Pitch drop experiment – +Plain bearing – +Plasma processing – +Plasticity – +Pneumatics – +Poisson's ratio – +Position vector – +Potential difference – +Power – the amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time. Power is a scalar quantity. +Power stroke – +Pressure – +Process control – +Product lifecycle management – +Professional engineer (PE) – In the United States, this designation is given to engineers who have passed the Principles and Practice of Engineering exam, or PE exam. Upon passing the PE exam and meeting other eligibility requirements, that vary by state, such as education and experience, an engineer can then become registered in their State to stamp and sign engineering drawings and calculations as a PE. +Project management – +Pulley – +Pump – + +== Q == +Quality – +Quality control – +Quality assurance – + +== R == +Rack and pinion – +Rack railway – +Railcar – +Rail gauge – +Railroad car – +Railroad switch – +Rail tracks – +Random vibration – +Reaction kinetics – +Rear wheel drive – +Refrigeration – +Reliability engineering – +Relief valve – +RepRap Project – +Resistive force – +Resistor – +Reverse engineering – +Rheology – +Rigid body – +Robotics – +Roller chain – +Rolling – +Rotordynamics – +Rube Goldberg machine – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..766e93765 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 1/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of medicine includes definitions of medical terminology and other terms pertaining to medicine and related fields. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3bc222d38 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 2/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== A == +Aarskog–Scott syndrome – (AAS) A rare, inherited (X-linked) disease characterized by short stature, facial abnormalities, skeletal and genital anomalies. Abdomen – The part of the body between the chest and pelvis, which contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs. Abdominal external oblique muscle – The largest, and outermost, of the three flat muscles of the lateral anterior abdominal wall. Abdominal internal oblique muscle – A muscle of the abdominal wall, which lies below the external oblique and just above the transverse abdominal muscles. Abductor pollicis brevis muscle – A muscle in the hand that abducts (straightens) the thumb. Abductor pollicis longus muscle – One of the extrinsic muscles of the hand. Its major function is to abduct the thumb at the wrist. Abscess – A collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Accommodation – the process by which the eye focuses on an object. Accommodation reflex – a reflex action of the eye, measured as a response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa). Acetabulum – a concave surface of the pelvis, which forms the pelvic section of the hip joint. Achilles tendon – a tendon of the back of the leg, and the thickest in the human body. It attaches the plantaris, gastrocnemius (calf) and soleus muscles to the calcaneus (heel) bone. Acne – a long-term skin disease that occurs when hair follicles are clogged with dead skin cells and oil from the skin. Acne vulgaris – see Acne +Acupressure – an alternative medicine technique where pressure is applied to acupuncture points. Pressure may be applied by hand, by elbow, or with various devices. Acupuncture – a form of alternative medicine in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Adam's apple – the lump or protrusion that is formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx seen especially in males. Adaptive immune system – also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is a subsystem of the overall immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth. Adenoma – (plural adenomas or adenomata) is a benign tumor of epithelial tissue with glandular origin, glandular characteristics, or both. Adrenal gland – The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Allergy – Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions. ADHD – Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Alzheimer's disease – (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time. It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (short-term memory loss). Anal canal – is the terminal part of the large intestine. It is situated between the rectum and anus, below the level of the pelvic diaphragm. In humans it is approximately 2.5 to 4 cm (0.98-1.58 in) long. It lies in the anal triangle of perineum in between the right and left ischioanal fossa. Anatomy – is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. Anesthesiology – Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology, anaesthesia or anaesthetics (see Terminology) is the medical speciality concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after surgery. Angiology – is the medical specialty which studies the diseases of the circulatory system and of the lymphatic system, i.e., arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels, and its diseases. Ankle – The ankle, or the talocrural region, is the region where the foot and the leg meet. The ankle includes three joints: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the subtalar joint, and the inferior tibiofibular joint. The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" (without qualifiers) can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint. Anterior tibial artery – The anterior tibial artery of the leg carries blood to the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsal surface of the foot, from the popliteal artery. Antibiotic – is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria and is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections. Antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections. Antibody – (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Aorta – is the main artery in the human body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries). The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation. Appendix – The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal [or caecal] appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the cecum, from which it develops in the embryo. The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the colon, located at the junction of the small and the large intestines. The term "vermiform" comes from Latin and means "worm-shaped." The appendix used to be considered a vestigial organ, but this view has changed over the past decades. Arm – is the part of the upper limb between the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the elbow joint. In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the forearm which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the hand. Anatomically the shoulder girdle with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term brachium may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own. Arteriole – is a small-diameter blood vessel in the microcirculation that extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries. Arterioles have muscular walls (usually only one to two layers of smooth muscle) and are the primary site of vascular resistance. The greatest change in blood pressure and velocity of blood flow occurs at the transition of arterioles to capillaries. Artery – is a blood vessel that takes blood away from the heart to all parts of the body (tissues, lungs, etc.). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..45412971e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 11/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +External iliac artery – The external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. External iliac vein – The external iliac veins are large veins that connect the femoral veins to the common iliac veins. Their origin is at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligaments and they terminate when they join the internal iliac veins (to form the common iliac veins). Both external iliac veins are accompanied along their course by external iliac arteries. External jugular vein – receives the greater part of the blood from the exterior of the cranium and the deep parts of the face, being formed by the junction of the posterior division of the retromandibular vein with the posterior auricular vein. Eye – The human eye is a sense organ that reacts to light and allows vision. Rod and cone cells in the retina are photoreceptive cells which are able to detect visible light and convey this information to the brain. Eyes signal information which is used by the brain to elicit the perception of color, shape, depth, movement, and other features. The eye is part of the sensory nervous system. Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin, and entrainment of the circadian rhythm. Eye surgery – also known as ophthalmic surgery, is a medical procedure performed on the eye or its surrounding tissues to treat various conditions, improve vision, or correct eye disorders. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6dfb2506 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 12/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== F == +Face – is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions. The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely. Fallopian tube – The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx), are tubes that stretch from the uterus to the ovaries, and are part of the female reproductive system. The fertilized egg passes through the fallopian tubes from the ovaries of female mammals to the uterus. The fallopian tube is simple columnar epithelium with hair-like extensions called cilia which carry the fertilized egg. In other animals, the equivalent of a fallopian tube is an oviduct. Fellowship (medicine) – is the period of medical training, in the United States and Canada, that a physician, dentist, or veterinarian may undertake after completing a specialty training program (residency). During this time (usually more than one year), the physician is known as a fellow. Fellows are capable of acting as an attending physician or a consultant physician in the specialist field in which they were trained, such as Internal Medicine or Pediatrics. After completing a fellowship in the relevant sub-specialty, the physician is permitted to practice without direct supervision by other physicians in that sub-specialty, such as Cardiology or Oncology. Female reproductive system – is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a foetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the foetus. The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix. Femoral artery – is a large artery in the thigh and the main arterial supply to the thigh and leg. It enters the thigh from behind the inguinal ligament as the continuation of the external iliac artery. Femoral nerve – is a nerve in the thigh that supplies skin on the upper thigh and inner leg, and the muscles that extend the knee. Femoral vein – In the human body, the femoral vein is a blood vessel that accompanies the femoral artery in the femoral sheath. It begins at the adductor hiatus (an opening in the adductor magnus muscle) and is a continuation of the popliteal vein. It ends at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligament, where it becomes the external iliac vein. The femoral vein bears valves which are mostly bicuspid and whose number is variable between individuals and often between left and right leg. Femur – The femur, or thigh bone, is the proximal bone of the hindlimb in tetrapod vertebrate, the largest bone of the human body. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint, while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia and kneecap, forming the knee joint. Fibromyalgia – a chronic condition characterized by widespread pain in muscles and soft tissues throughout the body. It is believed to affect how the brain and spinal cord process pain signals, leading to increased sensitivity to pain. Fibrous joint – a type of joint in the human body where adjacent bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue. These joints are characterized by their lack of a joint cavity and minimal to no movement, making them classified as synarthroses. Fibula – is a long bone located on the lateral side of the tibia in the leg. It is the smaller of the two bones in the lower leg and plays a crucial role in maintaining stability and supporting the ankle joint. Finger – is one of the digits located on the hand of a human or animal, typically used for gripping, touching, or manipulating objects. Each finger consists of three little bones known as phalanges, which confer structure and strength. These bones are interconnected by joints encased in muscles, tendons, and ligaments, facilitating smooth movement. First aid – is the immediate assistance provided to someone who is injured or ill, aimed at preserving life, preventing the condition from worsening, and promoting recovery until professional medical help arrives. Flat bone – are one of the main types of bones in the human body, characterized by their thin and flattened shape. They consist of two layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone, which contains red bone marrow. This structure provides strength while keeping the bones lightweight, allowing them to effectively protect underlying organs and serve as attachment points for muscles. Foot – The foot is a complex anatomical structure made up of multiple joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and a network of blood vessels and nerves that are intended to support weight, allow movement, and maintain balance. It is divided into three sections: the forefoot (toes and metatarsals), the midfoot (arch-forming bones), and the hindfoot (heel and ankle). Crucial bones include the calcaneus (heel bone), talus (ankle bone), and tarsals. The plantar fascia is a thick band of connective tissue that supports the arch and absorbs trauma. Plantar fasciitis, bunions, flat feet, and fractures are all common foot-related medical conditions. Forearm – is the region of the upper limb located between the elbow and the wrist. It consists of two bones, the radius and the ulna, and contains 20 muscles that facilitate various movements, such as bending and rotating the wrist and hand. The forearm plays a crucial role in force application and the precise placement of the hand in space, aided by the elbow and distal and proximal radioulnar joints. Forehead – is the area of the face located above the eyes and below the hairline. It constitutes the upper third of the face and is bounded by the hairline at the top, the eyebrows at the bottom, and the glabella (the smooth part of the forehead between the eyebrows) centrally. Frontal bone – +Frontal nerve – is the largest branch of the ophthalmic nerve (V1), itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). The frontal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve immediately before entering the superior orbital fissure. In then travels superolateral to the annulus of Zinn between the lacrimal nerve and inferior ophthalmic vein. After entering the orbit it travels anteriorly between the roof periosteum and the levator palpebrae superioris. Midway between the apex and base of the orbit it divides into two branches, the supratrochlear nerve and supraorbital nerve. The two branches of the frontal nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the forehead, mucosa of the frontal sinus, and the skin of the upper eyelid. Frontalis muscle – is a thin, flat muscle located on the forehead. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c30276f6e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 13/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +It originates from the galea aponeurotica and inserts into the skin of the eyebrows, playing a key role in facial expressions by raising the eyebrows and wrinkling the forehead. Innervated by the temporal branch of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), it helps convey emotions like surprise or concern. Its activity is also relevant in clinical conditions such as Bell's palsy and cosmetic procedures like Botox, which target its function to reduce forehead lines. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ecd7c0abb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 14/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +Gallbladder – In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats. +Gamete – is a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually. Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells, also referred to as sex cells. +Ganglion – is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. In the somatic nervous system this includes dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia among a few others. In the autonomic nervous system there are both sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia which contain the cell bodies of postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons respectively. +Gastrocnemius muscle – (plural gastrocnemii) is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of humans. It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel, a three joint muscle (knee, ankle and subtalar joints). The muscle is named via Latin, from Greek γαστήρ (gaster) 'belly' or 'stomach' and κνήμη (knḗmē) 'leg', meaning 'stomach of leg' (referring to the bulging shape of the calf). +Gastroenterology – Gastroenterology is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders. Diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract, which include the organs from mouth into anus, along the alimentary canal, are the focus of this speciality. +Gastrointestinal tract – The gastrointestinal tract, (GI tract, GIT, digestive tract, digestion tract, alimentary canal) is the tract from the mouth to the anus which includes all the organs of the digestive system in humans and other animals. Food taken in through the mouth is digested to extract nutrients and absorb energy, and the waste expelled as feces. The mouth, esophagus, stomach and intestines are all part of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs. +Gene therapy – (also called human gene transfer) is a medical field which focuses on the utilization of the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acids into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease. +General surgery – is a surgical specialty that focuses on abdominal contents including esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, appendix and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland (depending on local referral patterns). They also deal with diseases involving the skin, breast, soft tissue, trauma, Peripheral artery disease and hernias and perform endoscopic procedures such as gastroscopy and colonoscopy. +Genetics – is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. +Genitourinary system – The genitourinary system, or urogenital system, are the organs of the reproductive system and the urinary system. These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways, like the male urethra. Also, because of their proximity, the systems are sometimes imaged together. +Geriatrics – or geriatric medicine, is a specialty that focuses on health care of elderly people. It aims to promote health by preventing and treating diseases and disabilities in older adults. There is no set age at which patients may be under the care of a geriatrician, or geriatric physician, a physician who specializes in the care of elderly people. Rather, this decision is determined by the individual patient's needs, and the availability of a specialist. It is important to note the difference between geriatrics, the care of aged people, and gerontology, which is the study of the aging process itself. The term geriatrics comes from the Greek γέρων geron meaning "old man", and ιατρός iatros meaning "healer". However, geriatrics is sometimes called medical gerontology. +Gonad – A gonad, sex gland, or reproductive gland is a mixed gland that produces the gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism. In the female of the species the reproductive cells are the egg cells, and in the male the reproductive cells are the sperm. The male gonad, the testicle, produces sperm in the form of spermatozoa. The female gonad, the ovary, produces egg cells. Both of these gametes are haploid cells. Some hermaphroditic animals have a type of gonad called an ovotestis. +Gout – is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot, and swollen joint. Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intensity in less than 12 hours. The joint at the base of the big toe is affected in about half of cases. It may also result in tophi, kidney stones, or urate nephropathy. +Gracilis muscle – is the most superficial muscle on the medial side of the thigh. It is thin and flattened, broad above, narrow and tapering below. +Great saphenous vein – (GSV, alternately "long saphenous vein"; ) is a large, subcutaneous, superficial vein of the leg. It is the longest vein in the body, running along the length of the lower limb, returning blood from the foot, leg and thigh to the deep femoral vein at the femoral triangle. +The guarding reflex in the urinary system is the gradual tightening of the external urethral sphincter, which prevents urine from exiting the bladder as the bladder fills and pressure on the sphincter increases. At low levels of pressure this occurs unconsciously. +Gynaecology – or gynecology (see spelling differences) is the medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system. Almost all modern gynaecologists are also obstetricians (see obstetrics and gynaecology). In many areas, the specialities of gynaecology and obstetrics overlap. The term means "the science of women". Its counterpart is andrology, which deals with medical issues specific to the male reproductive system. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da28a2bc1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 15/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == +Hand – A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates. The human hand normally has five digits: four fingers plus one thumb; these are often referred to collectively as five fingers, however, whereby the thumb is included as one of the fingers. It has 27 bones, not including sesmoid bones, the number of which varies between people, 14 of which are the phalanges (proximal, intermediate and distal) of the fingers and thumb. The metacarpal bones connect the fingers and the carpal bones of the wrist. Each human hand has five metacarpals and eight carpal bones. +Hand surgery – deals with both surgical and non-surgical treatment of conditions and problems that may take place in the hand or upper extremity (commonly from the tip of the hand to the shoulder) including injury and infection. Hand surgery may be practiced by graduates of general surgery, orthopedic surgery and plastic surgery. Chiroplasty, or cheiroplasty, is plastic surgery of the hands. +Head – In human anatomy, the head is at the top of the human body. It supports the face and is maintained by the skull, which itself encloses the brain. The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony skull. The brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the neck, and the seven cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weighs between 2.3 and 5 kilograms (5.1 and 11.0 lb) The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the eyes, nose, and mouth. On either side of the mouth, the cheeks provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head. +Health – as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." This definition has been subject to controversy, as it may have limited value for implementation. Health may be defined as the ability to adapt and manage physical, mental and social challenges throughout life. +Health care – Health care, health-care, or healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, recovery, or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Physicians and physician associates are a part of these health professionals. Dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, medicine, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training and other health professions are all part of health care. It includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. +Hearing – +Heart – +Heel – +Hematemesis- +Hematology – +Hematoma- +Hematuria- +Hemodialysis- +Hemolysis- +Hemopathy- +Hemoperfusion- +Hemophilia- +Hemoptysis- +Hemorrhoid- +Hyperhydrosis- +High blood pressure – +Hyperkalemia- +Hip bone – +Histology – +Homeostasis – +Hormone – +Hospice – +Hospital – +Hospital medicine – +Human back – +Human body – +Human brain – +Human digestive system – +Human eye – +Human head – +Human mouth – +Human musculoskeletal system – +Human nose – +Human reproductive system – +Human skeleton – +Humerus – +Hydrocele – +Hypersalivation – +Hypertension – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a60994060 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 16/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +Iliac artery, common – The common iliac arteries are two large arteries that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra. They end in front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. +Iliac artery, external – The external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. They proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the psoas major muscles. They exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the pubic tubercle at which point they are referred to as the femoral arteries. The external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant. +Ilium – (plural ilia), is the uppermost and largest part of the hip bone, and appears in most vertebrates including mammals and birds, but not bony fish. All reptiles have an ilium except snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium. The ilium of the human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum. +Immune system – is a network of biological processes that protects an organism against disease. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions. +Immunohistochemistry – +Immunology – is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, and transplant rejection); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology. +Iliac vein, common – In human anatomy, the common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the abdomen at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra, forming the inferior vena cava. They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs. Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries. +Iliac vein, deep circumflex – +Iliac vein, external – +Iliac vein, internal – +Index finger – +Infectious diseases (medical specialty) – +Inferior oblique muscle – +Inferior thyroid artery – +Inferior vena cava – +Influenza – +Inspection (medicine) – +Integumentary system – +Intensive care medicine – +Internal carotid artery – +Internal iliac vein – +Internal jugular vein – +Internal medicine – +Internship (medicine) – +Interventional cardiology – +Interventional radiology – +Ischium – + +== J == +Jaundice- also known as icterus, is a yellowish or greenish pigmentation of the skin and whites of the eyes due to high bilirubin levels. It is commonly associated with itchiness. The feces may be pale and the urine dark. Jaundice in babies occurs in over half in the first week following birth and does not pose a serious threat in most. If bilirubin levels in babies are very high for too long, a type of brain damage, known as kernicterus, may occur. +Jaw – The jaw is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth, typically used for grasping and manipulating food. The term jaws is also broadly applied to the whole of the structures constituting the vault of the mouth and serving to open and close it and is part of the body plan of humans and most animals. +Jejunum- is the second part of the small intestine in humans and most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. Its lining is specialised for the absorption by enterocytes of small nutrient molecules which have been previously digested by enzymes in the duodenum. +Joint – A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally. +Jugular vein – The jugular veins are veins that take deoxygenated blood from the head back to the heart via the superior vena cava. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..832f02463 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 17/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== K == +Keratogenesis– The production of horny cells in the epidermis. +Keratopathy- +Kidney – The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about 12 centimetres (4+1⁄2 inches) in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder. +Knee – In humans and other primates, the knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of two joints: one between the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and patella (patellofemoral joint). It is the largest joint in the human body. The knee is a modified hinge joint, which permits flexion and extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of osteoarthritis. +Korsakoff syndrome- (KS) is an amnestic disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency typically associated with prolonged use of alcohol. The syndrome and psychosis are named after Sergei Korsakoff, the Russian neuropsychiatrist who discovered it during the late 19th century. This neurological disorder is caused by a lack of thiamine in the brain, and is also exacerbated by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol. When Wernicke encephalopathy accompanies Korsakoff syndrome the combination is called Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome; however, a recognized episode of Wernicke encephalopathy is not always obvious. + +== L == +Large intestine –The large intestine, also known as the large bowel or colon, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation. +Laryngeal prominence – The Adam's apple, or laryngeal prominence, colloquially known as the neck triangle, is the lump or protrusion in the human neck formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx seen especially in males. +Laryngeal ventricle – (also called the ventricle of the larynx, laryngeal sinus, or Morgagni's sinus) is a fusiform fossa, situated between the vestibular and vocal folds on either side, and extending nearly their entire length. There is also a sinus of Morgagni in the pharynx. +Laryngospasm – +Ligament – is the fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones. +Lips – are a visible body part at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an erogenous zone when used in kissing and other acts of intimacy. +Little finger – or pinky finger, also known as the fifth digit, or pinkie, is the most ulnar and smallest finger of the human hand, opposite the thumb, and next to the ring finger. +Liver – is an organ only found in vertebrates which detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion and growth. In humans, it is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the diaphragm. Its other roles in metabolism include the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, and the production of hormones. +Long bone – +Lumbar vertebrae – +Lung – +Lung cancer – +Lupus erythematosus – +Lymph – +Lymphatic system – +Lymphatic vessel – +Lymph node – +Lymphocyte – +Lymphoma - Cancer of the lymphatic system. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cd718bf7c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 18/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +Major depressive disorder – (MDD), also known simply as depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood. Low self-esteem, loss of interest in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, and pain without a clear cause are common symptoms. Those affected may also occasionally have delusions or hallucinations. Some people have periods of depression separated by years, while others nearly always have symptoms present. Major depression is more severe and lasts longer than sadness, which is a normal part of life. +Male reproductive system – +Mammary gland – +Mandible – The mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human face. It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle ear). +Masseter muscle – In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter. The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest. +Maternal-fetal medicine – (MFM), also known as perinatology, is a branch of medicine that focuses on managing health concerns of the mother and fetus prior to, during, and shortly after pregnancy. +Maxilla – in vertebrates, is the upper fixed (not fixed in Neopterygii) bone of the jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the hard palate in the front of the mouth. The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw. +MCAT – Medical College Admission Test. +Medical biology – +Medical classification – A medical classification is a list of standardized codes used in the process of medical coding and medical billing. +Medical coding – The practice of assigning statistical codes to medical statements, such as those made during a hospital stay. Closely related to medical billing. +Medical College Admission Test – (MCAT), is a computer-based standardized examination for prospective medical students in the United States, Australia, Canada, and Caribbean Islands. It is designed to assess problem solving, critical thinking, written analysis and knowledge of scientific concepts and principles. +Medical device – is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Medical devices benefit patients by helping health care providers diagnose and treat patients and helping patients overcome sickness or disease, improving their quality of life. Significant potential for hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assurance before regulating governments allow marketing of the device in their country. As a general rule, as the associated risk of the device increases the amount of testing required to establish safety and efficacy also increases. Further, as associated risk increases the potential benefit to the patient must also increase. +Medical diagnosis – (abbreviated Dx or DS) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. +Medical ethics – +Medical history – +Medical imaging – +Medical laboratory – +Medical research – +Medical school – +Medical sign – +Medical speciality – +Medication – +Medulla oblongata – +Metacarpal bones – +Metatarsal bones – +Microbiology – +Middle finger – +Middle temporal artery – +Molecular biology – +Mouth – +Muscle – +Muscular system – +Musculoskeletal system – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d614cb21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 19/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== N == +Nail – A nail is a claw-like keratinous plate at the tip of the fingers and toes in most primates. Nails correspond to claws found in other animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called alpha-keratin which is found in the hooves, hair, claws and horns of vertebrates. +Nanobiotechnology – Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of nanotechnology and biology. Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies. +Nasal cavity – is a large, air-filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face. The nasal septum divides the cavity into two cavities, also known as fossae. Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two nostrils. The nasal cavity is the uppermost part of the respiratory system and provides the nasal passage for inhaled air from the nostrils to the nasopharynx and rest of the respiratory tract. The paranasal sinuses surround and drain into the nasal cavity. +Nasopharynx – The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the skull to the upper surface of the soft palate. It includes the space between the internal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined by respiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated. +Navel – The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, colloquially known as the belly button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the abdomen at the attachment site of the umbilical cord. All placental mammals have a navel. +Nephrology – is a specialty of medicine that concerns with study of the kidneys, specifically normal kidney function and kidney disease, the preservation of kidney health, and the treatment of kidney disease, from diet and medication to renal replacement therapy (dialysis and kidney transplantation). +Nerve – is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibres called axons, in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses called action potentials that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the central nervous system. Each axon within the nerve is an extension of an individual neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin. +Nervous system – is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events. +Neurology – is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous systems (and their subdivisions, the autonomic and somatic nervous systems), including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system. +Neuroscience – (or neurobiology), is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, mathematical modeling, and psychology to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons and neural circuits. +Neurosurgery – or neurological surgery, is the medical specialty concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, central and peripheral nervous system, and cerebrovascular system. +Nose – The human nose is the most protruding part of the face. It bears the nostrils and is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system. The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including the nasal septum which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two. On average the nose of a male is larger than that of a female. +Nuclear medicine – is a medical specialty involving the application of radioactive substances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Nuclear medicine imaging, in a sense, is "radiology done inside out" or "endoradiology" because it records radiation emitting from within the body rather than radiation that is generated by external sources like X-rays. In addition, nuclear medicine scans differ from radiology, as the emphasis is not on imaging anatomy, but on the function. For such reason, it is called a physiological imaging modality. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans are the two most common imaging modalities in nuclear medicine. +Nutrition – is the science that interprets the nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes ingestion, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a37c73624 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 20/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== O == +Oblique muscle of auricle – The oblique muscle of auricle (oblique auricular muscle or Tod muscle) is an intrinsic muscle of the outer ear. The oblique muscle of auricle is placed on the cranial surface of the pinna. It consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the concha to the convexity immediately above it. +Obstetrics – is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field. +Obstetrics and gynaecology – Obstetrics and gynaecology (British English) or obstetrics and gynecology (American English) is the medical specialty that encompasses the two subspecialties of obstetrics (covering pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period) and gynecology (covering the health of the female reproductive system – vagina, uterus, ovaries, and breasts). It is commonly abbreviated as OB-GYN or OB/GYN in US English, and as obs and gynae or O&G in British English. +Occipital bone – is a cranial dermal bone and the main bone of the occiput (back and lower part of the skull). It is trapezoidal in shape and curved on itself like a shallow dish. The occipital bone overlies the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. At the base of skull in the occipital bone, there is a large oval opening called the foramen magnum, which allows the passage of the spinal cord. +Ocular surgery – +Olfaction – or the sense of smell, is the process of creating the perception of smell. It occurs when an odor binds to a receptor within the nose, transmitting a signal through the olfactory system. Olfaction has many purposes, including detecting hazards, pheromones, and plays a role in taste. +Oncology – is a branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an oncologist. +Ophthalmology – is a branch of medicine and surgery which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. An ophthalmologist is a specialist in ophthalmology. The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology. Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders. +Optometry – is a health care profession that involves examining the eyes and applicable visual systems for defects or abnormalities as well as prescribing the correction of refractive error with glasses or contact lenses and the treatment of eye diseases. +Organ – is a group of tissues with similar functions. Plant life and animal life rely on many organs that co-exist in organ systems. +Oral and maxillofacial surgery – is a surgical specialty focusing on reconstructive surgery of the face, facial trauma surgery, the oral cavity, head and neck, mouth, and jaws, as well as facial cosmetic surgery. +Orbicularis oculi muscle – +Orbicularis oris muscle – +Orthopedic surgery – +Ossicles – +Otitis – +Otorhinolaryngology – +Ovary – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d24590dbc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 3/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Most arteries carry oxygenated blood; the two exceptions are the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the organs that oxygenate it. The effective arterial blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system. Arthritis – is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. Asperger syndrome – (AS), also known as Asperger's, is a developmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. As a milder autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it differs from other ASDs by relatively normal language and intelligence. Although not required for diagnosis, physical clumsiness and unusual use of language are common. Asthma – is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath. Atony – absence of muscle tone. Atrial fibrillation – (AF or A-fib) is an abnormal heart rhythm characterized by rapid and irregular beating of the atria. Often it starts as brief periods of abnormal beating which become longer and possibly constant over time. Often episodes have no symptoms. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type. It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person's age. Auscultation – is listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a stethoscope. Auscultation is performed for the purposes of examining the circulatory and respiratory systems (heart and breath sounds), as well as the gastrointestinal system. Autism – is a developmental disorder characterized by troubles with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs during the first two or three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening. Axilla – (also, armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the joint where the arm connects to the shoulder. It also provides the under-arm sweat gland. Axillary artery – is a large blood vessel that conveys oxygenated blood to the lateral aspect of the thorax, the axilla (armpit) and the upper limb. Its origin is at the lateral margin of the first rib, before which it is called the subclavian artery. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..453d7cbb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 21/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +Palate – is the roof of the mouth in humans and other mammals. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. A similar structure is found in crocodilians, but in most other tetrapods, the oral and nasal cavities are not truly separated. The palate is divided into two parts, the anterior, bony hard palate and the posterior, fleshy soft palate (or velum). +Palliative care – (derived from the Latin root palliare, or "to cloak") is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex illness. Within the published literature, many definitions of palliative care exist; most notably, the World Health Organization describes palliative care as "an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychosocial, and spiritual." In the past, palliative care was a disease specific approach, but today the World Health Organization takes a more broad approach, that the principles of palliative care should be applied as early as possible to any chronic and ultimately fatal illness. +Palpation – is the process of using one's hands to check the body, especially while perceiving/diagnosing a disease or illness. +Pancreas – is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas has both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in food entering the duodenum from the stomach. +Papillary - In oncology, papillary refers to neoplasms with projections ("papillae", from Latin, 'nipple') that have fibrovascular cores. +Parasitology – is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology. +Parathyroid glands – are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other tetrapods. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the thyroid gland in variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes parathyroid hormone in response to a low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones. +Parkinson's disease – +Patella – +Pathology – +Pectineus muscle – +Pectoralis major muscle – +Pectoralis minor muscle – +Pediatrics – +Pelvis – +Penis – +Percussion (medicine) – +Peripheral nervous system – +Peripheral vision – +Phalanx bone – +Pharmacology – +Pharynx – +Physician – +Physical examination – +Physiology – +Pineal gland – +Pituitary gland – +Placenta – +Plastic surgery – +Plexus – A branching network of vessels or nerves. +Pons – +Posterior tibial artery – +Preventive healthcare – +Prognosis – +Prostate – +Psychiatry – +Pubis – +Pulmonary artery – +Pulmonary circulation – +Pulmonary vein – +Pulmonology – +Pulse – + +== Q == +Quadriplegia – Tetraplegia, also known as quadriplegia, is paralysis caused by illness or injury that results in the partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso; paraplegia is similar but does not affect the arms. The loss is usually sensory and motor, which means that both sensation and control are lost. The paralysis may be flaccid or spastic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b5ff86966 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-21.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 22/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== R == +Radial artery – In human anatomy, the radial artery is the main artery of the lateral aspect of the forearm. +Radial nerve – is a nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin. It originates from the brachial plexus, carrying fibers from the ventral roots of spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8 & T1. +Radiology – is the medical discipline that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the body. +Radius – The radius, or radial bone, is one of the two large bones of the forearm, the other being the ulna. It extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist and runs parallel to the ulna. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. It is a long bone, prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally. +Rectum – is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the gut in others. The adult human rectum is about 12 centimetres (4.7 in) long, and begins at the rectosigmoid junction, the end of the sigmoid colon, at the level of the third sacral vertebra or the sacral promontory depending upon what definition is used. Its caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming the rectal ampulla. It terminates at the level of the anorectal ring (the level of the puborectalis sling) or the dentate line, again depending upon which definition is used. In humans, the rectum is followed by the anal canal which is about 4 centimetres (1.6 in) long, before the gastrointestinal tract terminates at the anal verge. The word rectum comes from the Latin rectum intestinum, meaning straight intestine. +Rectus abdominis muscle – also known as the abdominal muscle, is a paired muscle running vertically on each side of the anterior wall of the human abdomen, as well as that of some other mammals. There are two parallel muscles, separated by a midline band of connective tissue called the linea alba. It extends from the pubic symphysis, pubic crest and pubic tubercle inferiorly, to the xiphoid process and costal cartilages of ribs V to VII superiorly. The proximal attachments are the pubic crest and the pubic symphysis. It attaches distally at the costal cartilages of ribs 5-7 and the xiphoid process of the sternum. +Rectus femoris muscle – is one of the four quadriceps muscles of the human body. The others are the vastus medialis, the vastus intermedius (deep to the rectus femoris), and the vastus lateralis. All four parts of the quadriceps muscle attach to the patella (knee cap) by the quadriceps tendon. The rectus femoris is situated in the middle of the front of the thigh; it is fusiform in shape, and its superficial fibers are arranged in a bipenniform manner, the deep fibers running straight (Latin: rectus) down to the deep aponeurosis. Its functions are to flex the thigh at the hip joint and to extend the leg at the knee joint. +Red blood cell – The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues — via blood flow through the circulatory system. Red blood cells take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries. +Renal artery – +Renal vein – +Reproductive system – +Residency (medicine) – +Respiratory system – +Rheumatology – +Rib cage – +Ring finger – + +== S == +Sacrum – The sacrum (plural: sacra or sacrums), in human anatomy, is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine that forms by the fusing of sacral vertebrae S1–S5 between 18 and 30 years of age. +Salivary gland – The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts. Humans have three paired major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), a pair of seromucous tubarial glands (discovered in 2020) as well as hundreds of minor salivary glands. Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous or seromucous (mixed). +Saphenous nerve – (long or internal saphenous nerve) is the largest cutaneous branch of the femoral nerve. It is a strictly sensory nerve, and has no motor function. +Saphenous vein, great – +Saphenous vein, small – +Sartorius muscle – +Scalp – +Scapula – +Sciatic nerve – +Scrotum – +Sebaceous gland – +Seminal vesicle – +Sensory nervous system – +Sensory processing – +Serratus anterior muscle – +Serratus posterior inferior muscle – +Serratus posterior superior muscle – +Skeletal muscle – +Skin – +Skull – +Small intestine – +Small saphenous vein – +Smooth muscle tissue – +Special senses – +Specialty (medicine) – +Spinal cord – +Spinal nerve – +Sole – +Soleus muscle – +Spleen – +Sports medicine – +Sternohyoid muscle – +Sternum – +Stomach – +Striated muscle tissue – +Subclavian artery – +Subcutaneous tissue – +Superficial temporal artery – +Superior oblique muscle – +Superior thyroid artery – +Superior vena cava – +Surgery – +Sweat gland – +Symptom – +Synovial bursa – +Synovial joint – +Synovial membrane – +Systemic lupus erythematosus – +Systems biology – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-22.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..37ff60e9c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-22.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 23/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== T == +Tarsus – In the human body, the tarsus is a cluster of seven articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of the tibia and the fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. It is made up of the midfoot (cuboid, medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform, and navicular) and hindfoot (talus and calcaneus). +Taste – The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste (flavor). Taste is the perception produced or stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food and other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste. +Teeth – +Temple – +Temporal arteries, deep – +Temporal artery, middle – +Temporal artery, superficial – +Temporal muscle – +Tendon – +Tensor fasciae latae muscle – +Testicle – +Thigh – +Thoracic diaphragm – +Thorax – +Throat – +Thumb – +Thymus – +Thyroid – +Thyroid artery, inferior – +Thyroid artery, superior – +Thyroid ima artery – +Tibia – +Tibialis anterior muscle – +Tibialis posterior muscle – +Tissue – +Toe – +Toll-like receptor – +Tongue – +Toxicology – +Trachea – +Trapezius muscle – +Triceps brachii muscle – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-23.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26102d83c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-23.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 24/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== U == +Ulna – is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the radius, the other long bone in the forearm. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. +Ulnar artery – is the main blood vessel, with oxygenated blood, of the medial aspects of the forearm. It arises from the brachial artery and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the radial artery. It is palpable on the anterior and medial aspect of the wrist. +Ulnar nerve – In human anatomy, the ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is common. This nerve is directly connected to the little finger, and the adjacent half of the ring finger, innervating the palmar aspect of these fingers, including both front and back of the tips, perhaps as far back as the fingernail beds. +Ureter – The ureters are tubes made of smooth muscle that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually 20–30 cm (8–12 in) long and around 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) in diameter. The ureter is lined by urothelial cells, a type of transitional epithelium, and has an additional smooth muscle layer in third closest to the bladder that assists with peristalsis. +Urethra – The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of urine from the body of both females and males. In human females and other primates, the urethra connects to the urinary meatus above the vagina, whereas in marsupials, the female's urethra empties into the urogenital sinus. Females use their urethra only for urinating, but males use their urethra for both urination and ejaculation. The external urethral sphincter is a striated muscle that allows voluntary control over urination. The internal sphincter, formed by the involuntary smooth muscles lining the bladder neck and urethra, receives its nerve supply by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The internal sphincter is present both in males and females. +Urinary bladder – The urinary bladder, or simply bladder, is a hollow muscular organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination. In the human the bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible organ that sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and 500 ml (10.14 and 16.91 fl oz) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more. +Urinary system – The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine. The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called nephrons. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by urination (voiding). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra. +Urology – also known as genitourinary surgery, is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the male and female urinary-tract system and the male reproductive organs. Organs under the domain of urology include the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, and the male reproductive organs (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis). +Uterus – The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive secondary sex organ of the reproductive system in humans and most other mammals. In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the upper end, the fundus, is connected to the fallopian tubes. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation. In the human embryo, the uterus develops from the paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a duplex uterus. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-24.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..52a7aa805 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-24.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 25/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== V == +Vaccine – is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g., vaccines against cancer, which are being investigated). +Vagina – In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vulva to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the hymen. At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the uterus) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and birth. It also channels menstrual flow (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related primates as part of the monthly menstrual cycle. +Vas deferens – also called ductus deferens, is part of the male reproductive system of many vertebrates; these ducts transport sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in anticipation of ejaculation. It is a partially coiled tube which exits the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal. +Vastus intermedius muscle – arises from the front and lateral surfaces of the body of the femur in its upper two-thirds, sitting under the rectus femoris muscle and from the lower part of the lateral intermuscular septum. Its fibers end in a superficial aponeurosis, which forms the deep part of the quadriceps femoris tendon. +Vastus lateralis muscle – +Vastus medialis – +Vein – +Vena cava, inferior – +Vena cava, superior – +Ventricle – +Ventricle system – +Venule – +Vertebral column – +Virology – is the study of viral – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of microbiology or of medicine. +Visual acuity – (VA), commonly refers to the clarity of vision, but technically rates an examinee's ability to recognize small details with precision. Visual acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (1) the sharpness of the retinal image within the eye, (2) the health and functioning of the retina, and (3) the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain. +Visual cortex – The visual cortex of the brain is the area of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information. It is located in the occipital lobe. Sensory input originating from the eyes travels through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and then reaches the visual cortex. The area of the visual cortex that receives the sensory input from the lateral geniculate nucleus is the primary visual cortex, also known as visual area 1 (V1), Brodmann area 17, or the striate cortex. The extrastriate areas consist of visual areas 2, 3, 4, and 5 (also known as V2, V3, V4, and V5, or Brodmann area 18 and all Brodmann area 19). +Visual field test – is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumours or other neurological deficits. Visual field testing can be performed clinically by keeping the subject's gaze fixed while presenting objects at various places within their visual field. Simple manual equipment can be used such as in the tangent screen test or the Amsler grid. When dedicated machinery is used it is called a perimeter. +Visual perception – is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment. This is different from visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision. +Vital signs – (also known as vitals) are a group of the four to six most important medical signs that indicate the status of the body's vital (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery. The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, gender, and overall health. There are four primary vital signs: body temperature, blood pressure, pulse (heart rate), and breathing rate (respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the LOINC internationally accepted standard coding system. +Vitamin D – is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and many other biological effects. In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D3 (also known as cholecalciferol) and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol). +Vitrectomy – is a surgery to remove some or all of the vitreous humor from the eye. Anterior vitrectomy entails removing small portions of the vitreous humor from the front structures of the eye—often because these are tangled in an intraocular lens or other structures. Pars plana vitrectomy is a general term for a group of operations accomplished in the deeper part of the eye, all of which involve removing some or all of the vitreous humor—the eye's clear internal jelly. +Vitreous body – +Vulva – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-25.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-25.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..814332b45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-25.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 26/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== W == +Waist – is the part of the abdomen between the rib cage and hips. On people with slim bodies, the waist is the narrowest part of the torso. The waistline refers to the horizontal line where the waist is narrowest, or to the general appearance of the waist. +Wart – Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet, they can also affect other locations. One or many warts may appear. They are not cancerous. +Weber test – is a screening test for hearing performed with a tuning fork. It can detect unilateral (one-sided) conductive hearing loss (middle ear hearing loss) and unilateral sensorineural hearing loss (inner ear hearing loss). The test is named after Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878). Conductive hearing ability is mediated by the middle ear composed of the ossicles: the malleus, the incus, and the stapes. Sensorineural hearing ability is mediated by the inner ear composed of the cochlea with its internal basilar membrane and attached cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The outer ear consisting of the pinna, ear canal, and ear drum or tympanic membrane transmits sounds to the middle ear but does not contribute to the conduction or sensorineural hearing ability save for hearing transmissions limited by cerumen impaction (wax collection in the ear canal). The Weber test has had its value as a screening test questioned in the literature. +Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome – (WKS) is the combined presence of Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) and alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. Due to the close relationship between these two disorders, people with either are usually diagnosed with WKS as a single syndrome. It mainly causes vision changes, ataxia and impaired memory. +Wernicke's area – also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech, the other being Broca's area. It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language, in contrast to Broca's area, which is involved in the production of language. It is traditionally thought to reside in Brodmann area 22, which is located in the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of right-handed individuals and 60% of left-handed individuals. +Whiplash – is a non-medical term describing a range of injuries to the neck caused by or related to a sudden distortion of the neck associated with extension, although the exact injury mechanisms remain unknown. The term "whiplash" is a colloquialism. "Cervical acceleration–deceleration" (CAD) describes the mechanism of the injury, while the term "whiplash associated disorders" (WAD) describes the injury sequelae and symptoms. +White blood cell – White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. +White matter – refers to areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that are mainly made up of myelinated axons, also called tracts. Long thought to be passive tissue, white matter affects learning and brain functions, modulating the distribution of action potentials, acting as a relay and coordinating communication between different brain regions. +Working memory – is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience. +Wrist – In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as 1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the radius and the carpus and; (3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the metacarpus or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints. This region also includes the carpal tunnel, the anatomical snuff box, bracelet lines, the flexor retinaculum, and the extensor retinaculum. As a consequence of these various definitions, fractures to the carpal bones are referred to as carpal fractures, while fractures such as distal radius fracture are often considered fractures to the wrist. + +== X == +Xanthoma – A xanthoma (pl. xanthomas or xanthomata) (condition: xanthomatosis), from Greek ξανθός (xanthós) 'yellow', is a deposition of yellowish cholesterol-rich material that can appear anywhere in the body in various disease states. They are cutaneous manifestations of lipidosis in which lipids accumulate in large foam cells within the skin. They are associated with hyperlipidemias, both primary and secondary types. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-26.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-26.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1fb88150b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-26.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 27/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Y == +Yaws – is a tropical infection of the skin, bones and joints caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum pertenue. The disease begins with a round, hard swelling of the skin, 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter. The center may break open and form an ulcer. This initial skin lesion typically heals after three to six months. After weeks to years, joints and bones may become painful, fatigue may develop, and new skin lesions may appear. The skin of the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet may become thick and break open. The bones (especially those of the nose) may become misshapen. After five years or more large areas of skin may die, leaving a scar. +Yellow fever – is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains particularly in the back, and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin. If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is increased. + +== Z == +Zellweger spectrum disorders – are a group of rare disorders that create the same disease process. The subdivisions of this spectrum are hyperpipecolic acidemia, Infantile Refsum disease, neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (NALD), and Zellweger syndrome. It can also be referred to as Peroxisomal Biogenesis Disorders, Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum, NALD, Cerebrohepatorenal Syndrome, and ZSS. It can affect many body organs, including the kidneys, eyes, and hearing. It is named after Hans Zellweger. +Zika virus – (ZIKV) (pronounced or ) is a member of the virus family Flaviviridae. It is spread by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus. Its name comes from the Ziika Forest of Uganda, where the virus was first isolated in 1947. Zika virus shares a genus with the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. Since the 1950s, it has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. From 2007 to 2016, the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic. +Zoonosis – A zoonosis (plural zoonoses, or zoonotic diseases) is an infectious disease caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite or prion) that has jumped from a non-human animal (usually a vertebrate) to a human. Typically, the first infected human transmits the infectious agent to at least one other human, who, in turn, infects others. +Zygomatic bone – In the human skull, the zygomatic bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a paired irregular bone which articulates with the maxilla, the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone and the frontal bone. It is situated at the upper and lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of the cheek, part of the lateral wall and floor of the orbit, and parts of the temporal fossa and the infratemporal fossa. It presents a malar and a temporal surface; four processes (the frontosphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal), and four borders. +Zonular dialysis – Deficient support of the lenticular capsule of the eye by the Zonules of Zinn. + +== See also == +List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes +List of bones of the human skeleton +List of nerves of the human body +List of skeletal muscles of the human body +Anatomical terms of location +Anatomical terminology +List of diseases +Medical College Admission Test + +== References == + +=== Works cited === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..df7217e3e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 4/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +Back – The human back is the large posterior area of the human body, rising from the top of the buttocks to the back of the neck and the shoulders. It is the surface of the body opposite from the chest. The vertebral column runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the shoulders at the top and the pelvis at the bottom. Back pain – is pain felt in the back. It is divided into neck pain (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected. The lumbar area is the most common area for pain, as it supports most of the weight in the upper body. Episodes of back pain may be acute, sub-acute, or chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate into the arms and hands as well as the legs or feet, and may include numbness, or weakness in the legs and arms. Barotrauma – is injury caused by a pressure difference between tissues and a gas filled space. Basal +Anatomy: In the direction of the base. Antonym apical. Physiology: Lowest sustained level or minimum level required, as in basal metabolic rate. Beta cell – Beta cells (β cells) are a type of cell found in pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete insulin. Beta cells make up 50-70% of the cells in human islets. In patients with type I or type II diabetes, beta-cell mass and function are diminished, leading to insufficient insulin secretion and hyperglycemia. Biceps – also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion). Biceps brachii – The biceps, also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion). Bile duct – is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry bile. Bile, required for the digestion of food, is secreted by the liver into passages that carry bile toward the hepatic duct, which joins with the cystic duct (carrying bile to and from the gallbladder) to form the common bile duct, which opens into the intestine. Biliary tract – The biliary tract, (biliary tree or biliary system) refers to the liver, gall bladder and bile ducts, and how they work together to make, store and secrete bile. Bile consists of water, electrolytes, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids and conjugated bilirubin. Some components are synthesised by hepatocytes (liver cells), the rest are extracted from the blood by the liver. Binge eating disorder – (BED), is an eating disorder characterized by frequent and recurrent binge eating episodes with associated negative psychological and social problems, but without subsequent purging episodes (e.g. vomiting). BED is a recently described condition, which was required to distinguish binge eating similar to that seen in bulimia nervosa but without characteristic purging. Individuals who are diagnosed with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder exhibit similar patterns of compulsive overeating, neurobiological features of dysfunctional cognitive control and food addiction, and biological and environmental risk factors. Indeed, some consider BED a milder version of bulimia, and that the conditions are on the same spectrum. Biological engineering – or bioengineering, or bio-engineering, is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products. Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure and applied sciences, such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics, bioinformatics, separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials, renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, agricultural engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies. Biology – is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution. Biochemistry – sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Bioinformatics – is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, information engineering, mathematics and statistics to analyze and interpret biological data. Biopsy – is a medical test commonly performed by a surgeon, interventional radiologist, or an interventional cardiologist involving extraction of sample cells or tissues for examination to determine the presence or extent of a disease. Biostatistics – are the application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology. It encompasses the design of biological experiments, especially in medicine, pharmacy, agriculture and fishery; the collection, summarization, and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and inference from, the results. A major branch is medical biostatistics, which is exclusively concerned with medicine and health. Bipolar disorder – is a mental disorder that causes periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood +Birth control – also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy. Bladder cancer – is any of several types of cancer arising from the tissues of the urinary bladder. It is a disease in which cells grow abnormally and have the potential to spread to other parts of the body. Symptoms include blood in the urine, pain with urination, and low back pain. Blood pressure – is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. Used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the pressure in large arteries of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum during one heartbeat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two heartbeats) and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), above the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Blood vessel – The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and microcirculation, that transports blood throughout the human body. Bone – is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9a8e99aea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 5/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions. Bone marrow – is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones. Bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or hematopoiesis. It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb). Brachial artery – is the major blood vessel of the (upper) arm. It is the continuation of the axillary artery beyond the lower margin of teres major muscle. It continues down the ventral surface of the arm until it reaches the cubital fossa at the elbow. It then divides into the radial and ulnar arteries which run down the forearm. In some individuals, the bifurcation occurs much earlier and the ulnar and radial arteries extend through the upper arm. The pulse of the brachial artery is palpable on the anterior aspect of the elbow, medial to the tendon of the biceps, and, with the use of a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) often used to measure the blood pressure. Brachial plexus – is a network of nerves formed by the ventral rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit. It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm and hand. Brachial veins – In human anatomy, the brachial veins are venae comitantes of the brachial artery in the arm proper. Because they are deep to muscle, they are considered deep veins. Their course is that of the brachial artery (in reverse): they begin where radial veins and ulnar veins join (corresponding to the bifurcation of the brachial artery). They end at the inferior border of the teres major muscle. At this point, the brachial veins join the basilic vein to form the axillary vein. The brachial veins also have small tributaries that drain the muscles of the upper arm, such as biceps brachii muscle and triceps brachii muscle. Brachioradialis – is a muscle of the forearm that flexes the forearm at the elbow. It is also capable of both pronation and supination, depending on the position of the forearm. It is attached to the distal styloid process of the radius by way of the brachioradialis tendon, and to the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus. Bradycardia –is a condition typically defined wherein an individual has a resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute (BPM) in adults. Brain – The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the body, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull bones of the head. Brain tumor – occurs when abnormal cells form within the brain. There are two main types of tumors: malignant or cancerous tumors and benign tumors. Brain metastasis – is a cancer that has metastasized (spread) to the brain from another location in the body and is therefore considered a secondary brain tumor. The metastasis typically shares a cancer cell type with the original site of the cancer. Breast – The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso of primates. In females, it serves as the mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed infants. Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. At puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause breast development in female humans and to a much lesser extent in other primates. Breast development in other primate females generally only occurs with pregnancy. Breast cancer – is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin. In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, or yellow skin. Broca's area – or the Broca area, is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain with functions linked to speech production. Bronchiole – The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the nose or mouth to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain cartilage or glands in their submucosa. They are branches of the bronchi, and are part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region. Bronchus – A bronchi is a passage of airway in the respiratory system that conducts air into the lungs. The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. These are the widest and enter the lungs at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi. The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi. Bruit – also called vascular murmur, is the abnormal sound generated by turbulent flow of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery. Bulimia nervosa – also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging. Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time. Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed. Buttocks – are two rounded portions of the anatomy, located on the posterior of the pelvic region and comprise a layer of fat superimposed on the gluteus maximus and gluteus medius muscles. Physiologically, the buttocks enable weight to be taken off the feet while sitting. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..65b872916 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 6/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +Calcium – Calcium ions (Ca2+) contribute to the physiology and biochemistry of organisms and the cell. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways, where they act as a second messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle cell types, and in fertilization. Many enzymes require calcium ions as a cofactor, those of the blood-clotting cascade being notable examples. Extracellular calcium is also important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable cell membranes, as well as proper bone formation. Calf – is the back portion of the lower leg in human anatomy. The muscles within the calf correspond to the posterior compartment of the leg. The two largest muscles within this compartment are known together as the calf muscle and attach to the heel via the Achilles tendon. Several other, smaller muscles attach to the knee, the ankle, and via long tendons to the toes. Cancer – is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body. Capillary – is a small blood vessel from 5 to 10 micrometres (μm) in diameter, and having a wall one endothelial cell thick. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: they convey blood between the arterioles and venules. These microvessels are the site of exchange of many substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them. Carcinogen – is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis, the formation of cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Carcinogenesis – also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. Cardiac arrest – a sudden loss of blood flow resulting from the failure of the heart to effectively pump. Symptoms include loss of consciousness and abnormal or absent breathing. Some individuals may experience chest pain, shortness of breath, or nausea before cardiac arrest. If not treated within minutes, it typically leads to death. Cardiac catheterization – (heart cath or just cath), is the insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart. This is done both for diagnostic and interventional purposes. Cardiac muscle – (also called heart muscle or myocardium), is one of three types of vertebrate muscles, with the other two being skeletal and smooth muscles. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of the heart. The myocardium forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the epicardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) joined by intercalated discs, encased by collagen fibres and other substances that form the extracellular matrix. Cardiac surgery – or cardiovascular surgery, is surgery on the heart or great vessels performed by cardiac surgeons. It is often used to treat complications of ischemic heart disease (for example, with coronary artery bypass grafting); to correct congenital heart disease; or to treat valvular heart disease from various causes, including endocarditis, rheumatic heart disease, and atherosclerosis. It also includes heart transplantation. Cardiology – is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart as well as parts of the circulatory system. Cardiothoracic surgery – (also known as thoracic surgery) is the field of medicine involved in surgical treatment of organs inside the thorax (the chest)—generally treatment of conditions of the heart (heart disease) and lungs (lung disease). Cardiovascular disease – (CVD), is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. CVD includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other CVDs include stroke, heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic disease, and venous thrombosis. Carotid artery, common – In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) ) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries. Carotid artery, external – The external carotid artery is a major artery of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it splits into the external and internal carotid artery. It supplies blood to the face and neck. Carotid artery, internal – The internal carotid artery is a major paired artery, one on each side of the head and neck, in human anatomy. They arise from the common carotid arteries where these bifurcate into the internal and external carotid arteries at cervical vertebral level 3 or 4; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as face, scalp, skull, and meninges. Carotid artery stenosis – is a narrowing or constriction of any part of the carotid arteries, usually caused by atherosclerosis. Carpal bones – Are the eight small bones that make up the wrist (or carpus) that connects the hand to the forearm. In human anatomy, the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist. Carpal tunnel syndrome – (CTS), is a medical condition due to compression of the median nerve as it travels through the wrist at the carpal tunnel. The main symptoms are pain, numbness and tingling in the thumb, index finger, middle finger and the thumb side of the ring fingers. Cartilage – is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than muscle. The matrix of cartilage is made up of chondrin. Cartilaginous joint – Cartilaginous joints are connected entirely by cartilage (fibrocartilage or hyaline). Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile synovial joint. Cartilaginous joints also forms the growth regions of immature long bones and the intervertebral discs of the spinal column. Catheter – Is a thin tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. By modifying the material or adjusting the way catheters are manufactured, it is possible to tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications. Celiac disease – another way of spelling coeliac disease +Cell biology – also called cytology, is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell, which is the basic unit of life. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f05f1b2d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 7/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cell biology is concerned with the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment. Central nervous system – (CNS), is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. Cephalic vein – is a superficial vein in the arm. It communicates with the basilic vein via the median cubital vein at the elbow and is located in the superficial fascia along the anterolateral surface of the biceps brachii muscle. Near the shoulder, the cephalic vein passes between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles (deltopectoral groove) and through the deltopectoral triangle, where it empties into the axillary vein. Cerebellum – (Latin for "little brain"), is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger. In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity. Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning in humans. Cerebrum – is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In the human brain, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the central nervous system. The prosencephalon is the embryonic structure from which the cerebrum develops prenatally. In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia. The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres. With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the body. Cervical cancer – is a cancer arising from the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, or pain during sexual intercourse. While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer. Cervix – or cervix uteri, is the lower part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system. The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during pregnancy. The narrow, central cervical canal runs along its entire length, connecting the uterine cavity and the lumen of the vagina. The opening into the uterus is called the internal os, and the opening into the vagina is called the external os. The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina. Cheek – The cheeks constitute the area of the face below the eyes and between the nose and the left or right ear. "Buccal" means relating to the cheek. In humans, the region is innervated by the buccal nerve. The area between the inside of the cheek and the teeth and gums is called the vestibule or buccal pouch or buccal cavity and forms part of the mouth. Chin – is the area of the face below the lower lip and including the mandibular prominence. It is formed by the lower front of the mandible. Chronic fatigue syndrome – (CFS), also referred to as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), is a medical condition characterized by long-term fatigue and other persistent symptoms that limit a person's ability to carry out ordinary daily activities. Ciliary muscle – is a ring of smooth muscle in the eye's middle layer (vascular layer) that controls accommodation for viewing objects at varying distances and regulates the flow of aqueous humor into Schlemm's canal. It changes the shape of the lens within the eye, not the size of the pupil which is carried out by the sphincter pupillae muscle and dilator pupillae. Ciliary sulcus – The space between the anterior surface of the ciliary body of the eye and the posterior surface of the base of the iris. It is one of the sites for intraocular lens implantation. Circulatory system – The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. Clavicle – also known as the collar bone, is a long bone that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum. There are two, one on the right, and one on the left side of the trunk. Along with the shoulder blade, the clavicles make up the shoulder girdle. The clavicle has many functions. It connects the axial and appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, helps extend range of motion, and protects neurovascular structures. Clinic – (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a healthcare facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded. Clinical research – is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness (efficacy) of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. Clinical research is different from clinical practice. In clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment. Coeliac disease – Coeliac disease or celiac disease is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the small intestine. Classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic diarrhoea, abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite and among children failure to grow normally. This often begins between six months and two years of age. Non-classic symptoms are more common, especially in people older than two years. There may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms, a wide number of symptoms involving any part of the body or no obvious symptoms. Coeliac disease was first described in childhood; however, it may develop at any age. It is associated with other autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 1 and thyroiditis, among others. Colorectal surgery – is a field in medicine dealing with disorders of the rectum, anus, and colon. Common carotid artery – In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) ) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries. Common cold – also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cfa3bf24b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 8/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally, those with other health problems may develop pneumonia. Common iliac artery – The common iliac arteries are two large arteries that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra. They end in front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. Common iliac vein – The common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the abdomen at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra, forming the inferior vena cava. They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs. Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries. Coronary arteries – are the blood vessels (arteries) of coronary circulation, which transports oxygenated blood to the actual heart muscle. The heart requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function and survive, much like any other tissue or organ of the body. Corpus callosum – also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain. The corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, about ten centimetres in length and consisting of 200–300 million axonal projections. Cranial nerves – are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the spinal cord). Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck. Cure – is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a medication, a surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured. Cytogenetics – is a branch of genetics that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis and meiosis. Cytokines – are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. Cytokines are peptides, and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8d000e2f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 9/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +Decompression sickness – is a condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming in supersaturated tissues after a reduction in ambient pressure, and either obstructing perfusion or causing local damage. +Deep circumflex iliac vein – is formed by the union of the venae comitantes of the deep iliac circumflex artery, and joins the external iliac vein about 2 cm. above the inguinal ligament. It also receives small tributary branches from the thoracoepigastric vein +Deep temporal arteries – The deep temporal arteries, two in number, anterior and posterior, ascend between the temporalis and the pericranium. They supply the muscle, and anastomose with the middle temporal artery. The anterior communicates with the lacrimal artery by means of small branches which perforate the zygomatic bone and great wing of the sphenoid. +Definitive treatment – Medical treatment generally accepted as most appropriate for the condition. +Deltoid muscle – is the muscle forming the rounded contour of the human shoulder. Anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though electromyography suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the nervous system. +Dentistry – also known as Dental and Oral Medicine, is a branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area. +Dermatitis – also known as eczema, is a group of diseases that result in inflammation of the skin. These diseases are characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened. The area of skin involved can vary from small to the entire body. +Diagnosis – Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx or DS) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. +Diabetes mellitus – (DM), commonly known as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a prolonged period. Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications. Acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or death. Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes. +Dietary reference intake – (DRI), is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academies (United States). +Differential diagnosis – is the distinguishing of a particular disease or condition from others that present similar clinical features. +Digestive system – The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. +Disease – is an abnormal condition in an organism, or part of it, that negatively affects structure or function. Disease can be caused by external factors, or internal dysfunctions, such as abnormal immune responses. +Dysbarism \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ad16452b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of medicine" +chunk: 10/27 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:06.887607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== E == +Ear – is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation. Ear infection – Otitis is a general term for inflammation or infection of the ear, in both humans and other animals. It is subdivided into the following: +Otitis externa, external otitis, or "swimmer's ear", involves the outer ear and ear canal. In external otitis, the ear hurts when touched or pulled. Otitis media, or middle ear infection, involves the middle ear. In otitis media, the ear is infected or clogged with fluid behind the ear drum, in the normally air-filled middle-ear space. This very common childhood infection sometimes requires a surgical procedure called myringotomy and tube insertion. Otitis interna, or labyrinthitis, involves the inner ear. The inner ear includes sensory organs for balance and hearing. When the inner ear is inflamed, vertigo is a common symptom. Elbow – is the visible joint between the upper and lower parts of the arm. It includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the elbow pit, the lateral and medial epicondyles, and the elbow joint. The elbow joint is the synovial hinge joint between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body. Embryology – is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology. Emergency medicine – also known as accident and emergency medicine, is the medical specialty concerned with the care of illnesses or injuries requiring immediate medical attention. Emergency physicians care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. As first-line providers, their primary responsibility is to initiate resuscitation and stabilization and to start investigations and interventions to diagnose and treat illnesses in the acute phase. Endocrine system – is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology. Endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine. Endocrinology – is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology. Epidemiology – is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences. Epiglottis – is a leaf-shaped flap in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. It stands open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx. During swallowing, it closes to prevent aspiration of food into the lungs, forcing the swallowed liquids or food to go along the esophagus toward the stomach instead. It is thus the valve that diverts passage to either the trachea or the esophagus. Epilepsy – is a group of neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking. These episodes can result in physical injuries, including occasionally broken bones. In epilepsy, seizures have a tendency to recur and, as a rule, have no immediate underlying cause. Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy. Erectile dysfunction – (ED), also called impotence, is the type of sexual dysfunction in which the penis fails to become or stay erect during sexual activity. It is the most common sexual problem in men. Through its connection to self-image and to problems in sexual relationships, erectile dysfunction can cause psychological harm. Erector spinae muscles – The erector spinae or spinal erectors is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the back. Esophagus – The esophagus, (American English) or oesophagus (British English; see spelling differences) (), informally known as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is a fibromuscular tube, about 25 cm (10 in) long in adults, which travels behind the trachea and heart, passes through the diaphragm and empties into the uppermost region of the stomach. During swallowing, the epiglottis tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the larynx and lungs. Expedition medicine – The medical specialty concerned with the medical care, planning, and prevention for expeditions in remote and resource-limited settings. Extensor pollicis brevis muscle – In human anatomy, the extensor pollicis brevis is a skeletal muscle on the dorsal side of the forearm. It lies on the medial side of, and is closely connected with, the abductor pollicis longus. Extensor pollicis et indicis communis muscle – In human anatomy, the extensor pollicis et indicis communis is an aberrant muscle in the posterior compartment of forearm. It was first described in 1863. The muscle has a prevalence from 0.5% to 4%. Extensor pollicis longus muscle – In human anatomy, the extensor pollicis longus muscle (EPL) is a skeletal muscle located dorsally on the forearm. It is much larger than the extensor pollicis brevis, the origin of which it partly covers and acts to stretch the thumb together with this muscle. External carotid artery – is a major artery of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it splits into the external and internal carotid artery. External carotid artery supplies blood to the face and neck. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md index 7cd20aa6f..2ed88eef6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:58.418684+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:08.303598+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md index 97a176238..be692ea24 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:58.418684+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:08.303598+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59de1ed2e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 1/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of meteorology is a list of terms and concepts relevant to meteorology and atmospheric science, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. + +== 0–9 == + +2 meter temperature +Temperature value at 2 meters above the ground, calculated rather than directly observed. Also written as 2t, 2m temperature, T2m, or with "metre" + +== A == + +advection +The horizontal transport of some property of the atmosphere or ocean, such as thermal energy, humidity, or salinity. In the context of meteorology, the related term convection generally refers to vertical transport. + +actinoform +Also actiniform. +Describing a collection of low-lying, radially structured clouds with distinct shapes (resembling leaves or wheels in satellite imagery), and typically organized in extensive mesoscale fields over marine environments. They are closely related to and sometimes considered a variant of stratocumulus clouds. + +actinometer +A scientific instrument used to measure the heating power of radiation, particularly solar radiation. + +active surface +That part of the Earth's surface which is in direct contact with the atmosphere and which undergoes the greatest diurnal temperature changes, absorbing heat during the day and radiating it to the atmosphere at night. Examples include bare soil, the canopy of a forest, and the uppermost surface waters of the ocean. + +adiabat +A line drawn on a thermodynamic diagram along which an air parcel moves as it ascends or descends through the atmosphere, cooling or warming adiabatically; the path followed by this line depends on whether it is a dry adiabat or a saturated adiabat. + +adiabatic cooling +An adiabatic process of expansional cooling, in which a rising air parcel decreases in temperature as it increases in volume. + +adiabatic heating +Also adiabatic warming. +An adiabatic process of compressional warming, in which a sinking air parcel increases in temperature as it decreases in volume. + +adiabatic lapse rate +The rate at which a parcel of air changes temperature adiabatically as it moves vertically through the atmosphere. The parcel's moisture content affects this rate: as it rises, a parcel saturated with moisture cools more slowly than a dry parcel because the release of latent heat at the phase change between gas and liquid acts to buffer the temperature decrease caused by the adiabatic expansion. When not otherwise qualified, the term most often refers to the dry adiabatic lapse rate. + +adiabatic process +Any idealized hypothetical process by which energy is transferred between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings only as work, without a corresponding transfer of heat or mass. Most compressible fluids, including gases in the atmosphere, behave approximately adiabatically, such that meteorologists often use the assumption of adiabatic isolation when describing atmospheric systems. In such systems the temperature of a dry parcel of air changes without any exchange of energy with its surroundings: as the parcel rises, the decrease in the surrounding atmospheric pressure enables the air in the parcel to expand in volume, which decreases its internal energy and therefore its temperature (expansional cooling); as the parcel sinks and is compressed, its temperature increases (compressional warming). + +aerobiology +The branch of biology that studies airborne organic particles, such as bacteria, viruses, fungal spores, pollen grains, and very small insects, which are passively transported by the air. + +aerography +The production of weather charts. + +aerology +See atmospheric science. + +aeronomy +The branch of meteorology that studies the upper regions of the Earth's or other planetary atmospheres, specifically their atmospheric motions, chemical compositions and properties, and interactions with the other parts of the atmosphere and with space. + +aerosol +A suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas. Examples of natural aerosols include mist, clouds, fog, and dust. + +ageostrophy + +air current +Any concentrated area of winds that develops because of differences in pressure and/or temperature between adjacent air parcels. They are generally divided into horizontal and vertical currents and exist at a variety of scales and in various layers of the atmosphere. + +air mass +A volume of air defined by its temperature and moisture content. + +air parcel +In fluid dynamics, any amount of air that remains identifiable throughout its dynamic history while moving with an associated air flow. + +air-mass thunderstorm +Any thunderstorm that is generally weak and usually not severe. Such storms move relatively slowly, are short-lived, and often exist only as single cells (rather than in long continuous lines or complexes), but may still produce lightning and heavy rainfall. They derive their energy from solar radiation and commonly develop in temperate zones during summer afternoons. + +Alberta clipper + +almanac +An annual publication of calendar events. + +aloft +Located in the atmosphere at some height (often significantly high) above the Earth's surface. The term is typically used to distinguish an upper-air observation from a surface weather observation, as in "winds aloft". + +altimeter +A scientific instrument used to measure the altitude of an object (e.g. a weather balloon) with respect to a fixed level such as sea level. + +altocumulus castellanus + +altocumulus (Ac) +A middle-altitude cloud genus characterized by small globular masses, laminae, or rolls, white or gray in color, arranged in patches or extensive sheets at altitudes between 2 and 7 kilometres (6,600 and 23,000 ft), with the individual elements being larger and more distinct than in cirrocumulus but smaller than in stratocumulus. Like other stratocumuliform clouds, altocumulus usually signifies convection aloft. It is one of several classic "warning clouds" recorded by the aviation industry as a signal of developing thunderstorms. + +altostratus + +American Meteorological Society (AMS) +A scientific and professional organization in the United States whose mission is to promote and disseminate information about the atmospheric, oceanic, and hydrologic sciences, and advance technologies, applications, and services related to them. + +anabatic wind +A wind that blows upslope from the low elevations of a valley to the higher elevations of surrounding hills or mountains as the result of daytime surface heating in the valley, usually at speeds of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph) or less but occasionally at much higher speeds. Contrast katabatic wind. + +anemometer +A scientific instrument used to measure wind speed. + +annular tropical cyclone \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6ca7d3425 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 2/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +anticyclone +Any large-scale air mass characterized by outward spiraling winds which circulate around a strong center of high atmospheric pressure. Surface-based anticyclones generally bring about cool, dry air and clear skies and are often implicated in weather phenomena such as fog and haze. Contrast cyclone. + +anticyclonic rotation + +anticyclonic storm +Any storm system involving an anticyclone, in which winds circulate around a region of high pressure in the direction opposite to that expected around a region of low pressure. Anticyclonic storms rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. + +anticyclonic tornado + +anticyclogenesis +The development or strengthening of an anticyclonic circulation in the atmosphere, which may result in the formation or maintenance of a high-pressure area. Contrast cyclogenesis. + +antitriptic wind +A wind generated by the local topography of a particular place; examples include anabatic winds and katabatic winds. Most such winds are diurnal in character. + +Anvil +The top of a cumulonimbus (Cb) is often flat and spreading, shaped like an anvil. Thunderstorm anvils are capable of spreading great distances away from the thunderstorm itself. + +apparent temperature +See heat index. + +arcus cloud + +Arctic cyclone + +Atlantic hurricane +A tropical cyclone (locally known as a hurricane) that forms in the Atlantic Ocean and achieves one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph (119 km/h; 64 kn). Most of these storms occur between June 1 and November 30 each year, a time period referred to as the Atlantic hurricane season. + +atmometer +See evaporimeter. + +atmosphere +The various layers of gases surrounding the Earth and held in place by gravity. The Earth's atmosphere is the origin of the weather phenomena studied in meteorology. Atmospheric composition, temperature, and pressure vary across a series of distinct sublayers including the troposphere and stratosphere. + +atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) +See planetary boundary layer. + +atmospheric circulation +The global-scale movement of air masses within the Earth's atmosphere. All meteorological phenomena are consequences of the atmospheric circulation, which manifests as a network of both latitudinal and longitudinal "cells" of convective activity; together with ocean circulation, these cells are the primary means by which thermal energy from the Sun is redistributed across the Earth's surface. + +atmospheric convection + +atmospheric density (ρ) +The density (mass per unit volume) of the Earth's atmosphere. Atmospheric density generally decreases proportionally with elevation above sea level, and also tends to vary with changes in atmospheric pressure, temperature, and humidity. According to the International Standard Atmosphere, at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 15° C, air has a density of approximately 1.225 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3), about 1⁄1000 the density of liquid water. + +atmospheric lake +A long-lived pool of water vapor. + +atmospheric model + +atmospheric pressure (p) +Also barometric pressure. +The pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of the air above the measurement point, and therefore decreases proportionally as altitude increases. The average atmospheric pressure at sea level on Earth is equal to approximately 1 standard atmosphere (atm), which is defined as exactly 101,325 pascals (760 mmHg). + +atmospheric river + +atmospheric science +Sometimes called aerology. +The collective of scientific disciplines that studies the Earth's atmosphere and its processes, including the effects other systems have on the atmosphere and those the atmosphere has on other systems. Meteorology and climatology are sub-disciplines. + +atmospheric sounding +A measurement of the vertical distribution of physical properties through an atmospheric column, usually including pressure, temperature, wind speed and direction, moisture content, ozone concentration, and pollution, among others. + +atmospheric temperature +A measure of temperature at one or more locations within the Earth's atmosphere. Temperatures recorded in the atmosphere can vary widely with altitude, humidity, and solar irradiance, among other factors. + +atmospheric thermodynamics + +atmospheric tide +A global-scale periodic oscillation of the Earth's atmosphere caused by gravitational and thermal influences from the Sun and the Moon, analogous to oceanic tides. + +atmospheric window +Any of the ranges of small bandwidths in the electromagnetic spectrum at which the Earth's atmosphere is nearly transparent, i.e. where absorption by atmospheric gases is nearly zero and transmittance approaches unity both for incoming and outgoing radiation. Examples include the optical window from ~0.3 to 0.9 μm, the infrared window from ~8 to 13 μm, and the microwave window at wavelengths longer than ~1 mm. The existence of these windows is vital for the Earth–atmosphere system to be maintained near thermal equilibrium. + +autumn + +avalanche + +Aviation Area Forecast (FA or ARFOR) +Also simply called an area forecast. +A former message product of the U.S. National Weather Service issued to provide information to pilots and aviation routes about weather conditions across a large regional area within the United States. FAs were issued three times daily, valid for 18 hours, and covered an area the size of several states. They were replaced by Graphic Area Forecasts (GFAs) in 2017. + +== B == + +backing +A change of wind direction in a counterclockwise fashion (e.g. northerly to northwesterly to westerly). Contrast veering. + +backscatter +The diffuse reflection of waves, particles, or signals back to the same direction from which they originated. Backscattering is the principle underlying all weather radar systems, which can distinguish radar returns backscattered from target aerosols such as raindrops and snowflakes because the strength of the returns depends largely on the size and reflectivity of the targets. + +ball lightning + +banana belt +Any segment of a larger geographic region that typically experiences warmer temperatures than the region as a whole, especially during the local winter season, which may prove favorable for agriculture. + +barbs + +barograph +A scientific instrument used to measure and continuously record changes in atmospheric pressure over time. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6944dfaf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 11/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +haze +Any suspension in the atmosphere of very small, dry particulate matter, including natural aerosols (e.g. dust, salt, or smoke) as well as man-made pollutants (e.g. smog), the individual particles of which are invisible to the naked eye but collectively produce a milky, often opalescent sky with reduced visibility at long distances. Haze usually indicates sub-saturated air, whereas fog or mist indicates full saturation. + +hazardous seas warning + +hazardous seas watch + +heat dome +The effect created by Earth's atmosphere trapping hot ocean air like a lid or cap. + +heat burst +A rare phenomenon involving a sudden, localized increase in surface temperature (sometimes 10 °C (18 °F) or more within just a few minutes) associated with a decaying thunderstorm or other mesoscale convective system and possibly accompanied by gusty winds and a rapid decrease in humidity. + +heat index (HI) +Also apparent temperature, felt air temperature, and humiture. +A meteorological index that posits the apparent temperature perceived by the average human being who is exposed to a given combination of air temperature and relative humidity in a shaded area. For example, when the air temperature is 32 °C (90 °F) with 70% relative humidity, the heat index is 41 °C (106 °F). + +heat lightning + +heat wave +A period of weather characterized by excessively high temperatures, which may or may not be accompanied by high humidity or by drought. Very hot weather is often only referred to as a heat wave if the temperature is abnormal relative to the typical climate for a given location during a given season. Contrast cold wave. + +heavy snow warning +A type of weather warning formerly issued by the U.S. National Weather Service to alert areas in which a high rate of snowfall (generally 6 in (15 cm) or more in 12 hours) was occurring or was forecast. The warning was replaced by the Winter Storm Warning for Heavy Snow beginning with the 2008–09 winter storm season. + +helicity + +high-pressure area + +hodograph +Also velocity diagram. +A vectorial visual representation of the movement of a body or a fluid, with the position of any data plotted on it proportional to the velocity of the moving particle. In the context of meteorology, hodographs are used to plot winds from atmospheric soundings: for a given vector, wind direction is indicated by the angle from the center axis and wind speed by the distance from the center. + +hook echo +A characteristic spiral or hook-shaped radar echo associated with some (though not all) tornadoes, usually protruding from the larger echo returned by a multicell or supercell thunderstorm and signifying intense mesocyclonic curvature. Hook echoes are produced by a conspicuous contrast between backscattering from heavy precipitation as it is drawn into a strongly circulating stream of air and the relative lack of scattering in an adjacent circulation of precipitation-free air. These echoes may only last a few minutes, and though they are not infallible indicators of tornadogenesis, they do reveal extreme turbulence. + +horseshoe vortex + +humidity +A measure of the amount of water vapor present in a parcel of air. By quantifying the saturation of the air with moisture, humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog occurring. The amount of water vapor needed to achieve full saturation increases as the air temperature increases. Three primary measurements of humidity are widely employed in meteorology: absolute, relative, and specific. + +humidex + +humilis +See cumulus humilis. + +hurricane +The local name for a tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean and achieves one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph (119 km/h; 64 kn). + +hurricane hunters + +huaico +Also huayco. +A mudslide or flash flood caused by torrential rainfall occurring high in the Andes mountains of South America, especially during the weather phenomenon known as El Niño. + +hydrometeor +Any particulate of liquid or solid water within the atmosphere, encompassing all types of precipitation, formations due to condensation such as clouds and haze, and particles blown from the Earth's surface by wind such as blowing snow and sea spray. + +hydrometeorology +A branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the transfer of water and energy between land surfaces and the lower atmosphere. + +hydrosphere +The combined mass of all solid, liquid, and gaseous forms of water found on, beneath, or above the surface of the Earth, including all oceans, lakes, streams, groundwater, atmospheric water vapor, snow, ice caps, and glaciers. + +hydrostatic equilibrium + +hygrometer +A scientific instrument used to measure humidity. + +hygroscopy +The phenomenon by which a substance attracts and retains water molecules via either absorption or adsorption from the surrounding environment. + +hypsometer +A scientific instrument used to measure height or elevation, either by trigonometry or by the principle that atmospheric pressure influences the boiling point of liquids. + +== I == + +ice +Water frozen into a solid state. Ice is abundant on Earth's surface and in the atmosphere and plays a major role in Earth's water cycle and climate. Its natural occurrence in weather phenomena takes many forms, including snowflakes, hail, frost, icicles, and ice spikes. + +iceberg + +ice accretion indicator + +ice crystal +1. A minute spicule of ice that forms from water in the atmosphere at temperatures below the freezing point of 0 °C (32 °F). Ice crystals may take on any of a number of macroscopic, crystalline forms depending on the temperature at their formation, including needles, hexagonal prisms, and stars. Their growth occurs by the diffusion of water vapor onto them, and they may collide with other ice crystals to form snowflakes. +2. A type of precipitation composed of very small, unbranched crystals of ice which fall slowly and often seem to float in the air. + +ice fog +A type of fog consisting of a sufficient concentration of tiny ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere to reduce visibility to less than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). Ice fog forms at very low ambient air temperatures, typically −30 °C (−22 °F) or below, usually in calm conditions at high latitudes but sometimes also as the result of mild maritime air blowing across ice- or snow-covered surfaces. + +ice pellets \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f3b38120 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,138 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 12/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ice spike +A rare ice formation that consists of a long, slender projection of ice extending upward from the surface of a frozen body of water, often in the shape of an inverted icicle. + +ice storm +A type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain which results in the accumulation of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) of ice on exposed surfaces. + +icicle +A long, slender spike of ice formed when water dripping or falling from an object freezes. + +incus + +Indian summer + +inflow +The influx of heat and moisture into a storm system from the surrounding environment. The inflow of parcels of warm, moist air drives and sustains most types of storms, including thunderstorms and tropical cyclones. Contrast outflow. + +instrument flight rules (IFR) + +International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) +A static atmospheric model of the variations in temperature, pressure, density, and viscosity over a wide range of altitudes within the Earth's atmosphere, established as an international standard by the International Organization for Standardization in order to provide a common reference for atmospheric variables relevant to meteorology and atmospheric science. + +Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) +Also the doldrums or the calms. + +irisation +See cloud iridescence. + +== J == + +jet-effect wind +See canyon wind. + +jet stream +Also simply jet. +A narrow, fast-flowing, meandering air current primarily occurring in the upper part of the troposphere, at altitudes above 9 km (30,000 ft), and usually flowing from west to east. The Northern and Southern Hemispheres each have a predictable though discontinuous polar jet and subtropical jet; low-level jets and other types of jet streams can form under certain conditions. + +jet streak +Also jet stream core or jet maximum. +The region of maximum wind speed that runs along the elongated axis of a jet stream. In the local winter, the maximum speed in the polar-front jet stream can reach upwards of 200 knots (370 km/h; 230 mph). + +== K == + +K-index +Also George's index. +An operational atmospheric stability index indicating the potential for thunderstorms, based on temperature lapse rate, moisture content of the lower troposphere, and the vertical extent of the moist layer. K-index values of 36 and above suggest a high likelihood of thunderstorm development. + + + + + + K + + D + P + + + + + {\displaystyle K_{DP}} + + +kata-front +A warm front or cold front that is overrun by drier air, or in which the warm air subsides, so that any clouds and precipitation tend to be suppressed, making them generally inactive fronts. Contrast ana-front. + +katabatic wind +Also catabatic wind, drainage wind, or fall wind. +A local wind that carries cold, high-density air from a higher elevation downslope under the force of gravity as a result of the radiative cooling of the upland ground surface at night, usually at speeds on the order of 10 kn (19 km/h) or less but occasionally at much higher speeds. Contrast anabatic wind. + +Kelvin temperature scale + +Kelvin–Helmholtz instability +A phenomenon of instability that occurs occasionally in an atmospheric layer within which wind speed increases rapidly with altitude. Kelvin–Helmholtz waves form in this layer of strong vertical wind shear, and are often marked by a distinct train of clouds that resemble breaking ocean waves. + +khamsin +Also chamsin, hamsin, and khamaseen. +The local name for a dry, hot, seasonal wind, often carrying large quantities of dust or sand, that occurs in the deserts of Egypt, Israel, Palestine, and Jordan. Compare haboob, harmattan, sirocco, and simoom. + +kinematics +A branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies, and systems of bodies without considering the forces that caused the motion. + +knot (kn) +A unit of speed commonly used in maritime and aviation disciplines, equivalent to one nautical mile per hour (1.1508 miles per hour or 0.5145 metres per second). It is often used in meteorology for measuring wind speed. + +Köppen climate classification + +== L == + + + + + + L + + D + R + + + + + {\displaystyle L_{DR}} + + +La Niña + +Lagrangian equations + +lake-effect snow +A weather phenomenon produced when a cold air mass moves across long expanses of warmer lake water, which causes the lowest layers of air to pick up warm water vapor from the lake, rise through the upper layers, freeze and then precipitate on the lake's leeward shores. In combination with orographic lift, the effect produces narrow but very intense bands of precipitation, especially snow, which can deposit at very high rates and result in very large amounts of snowfall over a region. The same effect can also occur over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. + +laminar flow +A flow in which the particles of a fluid moves smoothly in parallel layers or sheets, i.e. without turbulence. + +land breeze +An offshore local wind that blows from land to sea, usually at night, a result of the more rapid cooling of the land surface relative to the sea after sunset. It blows in the opposite direction of a sea breeze, its daytime counterpart in a diurnal cycle of coastal winds caused by lateral differences in surface temperature between land and sea. + +landfall +The movement of a storm or other weather phenomenon over land after being over water. + +landslide + +landspout +A type of tornado emerging from a parent cloud that does not contain a pre-existing mid-level mesocyclone or other rotation. Landspouts share a development process and resemblance with waterspouts. They are generally smaller and weaker than supercell tornadoes and are rarely detected by Doppler weather radar. + +lapse rate +The rate at which an atmospheric variable, most commonly temperature or pressure, decreases with increasing altitude. + +latent heat +The amount of heat absorbed or released per unit mass during a change of phase of a substance at constant temperature and pressure. In meteorology, the term usually refers to the amount absorbed or released in the various transformations between the three physical states of water: ice, liquid water, and water vapor. For instance, the latent heat of vaporization requires about 2.4 million Joules per kilogram at 0 °C. Contrast sensible heat. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3deca39c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 13/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +latent heat flux +The movement of water vapor (a major transporter of latent heat) from one location to another, e.g. from the tropics toward the poles, where there is a persistent energy deficit relative to lower latitudes. Poleward latent heat flux reaches its global maximum of 1.5 × 1015 watts at latitudes 38 °N and 40 °S. + +law of storms +A general statement of the manner in which the winds of a cyclone rotate about the cyclone's center, and the way in which the entire disturbance moves across the Earth's surface. The development by meteorologists of a "law" describing the general behavior of storms proved important in historical times to sailors navigating during storms at sea. + +layer cloud +See stratiform. + +lee trough +Also lee depression, orographic depression, and dynamic trough. +A trough of low atmospheric pressure that forms preferentially to the lee or downwind side of a mountain barrier when air currents flow in directions perpendicular to the barrier and become vertically "squashed" as they cross it. As the column resumes its original depth on the other side of the barrier, it tends to develop a strong spin about its vertical axis, which manifests as a low-pressure center. + +lee wave + +Lemon technique +A method used by meteorologists which focuses on updrafts and uses weather radar to determine the relative strength of thunderstorm cells in a vertically sheared environment. + +length of record +The time interval during which a particular observation or observations in general have been maintained without interruption at a meteorological station, and which therefore serves as the frame of reference for climatic data at that station. + +lenticular cloud +A type of stationary cloud with a distinct lens or saucer shape which typically forms in an arrangement perpendicular to the wind direction and at altitudes less than 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) above sea level, most commonly above or near very large natural obstructions in the atmosphere, such as mountains and hills. + +level of free convection (LFC) +The altitude in the atmosphere at which the temperature of the environment decreases faster than the moist adiabatic lapse rate of a saturated air parcel at the same level. Air masses with one or many LFCs are potentially unstable and may develop convective clouds such as cumulonimbus. + +Lidar +Also rendered as LIDAR, LiDAR, or LADAR. +A surveying method that measures the distance to a target by illuminating the target with pulsed laser light and measuring the reflected pulses with a sensor; differences in laser return times and wavelengths can then be used to create digital three-dimensional representations of the target. The name is now used as an acronym of light detection and ranging. + +lifted index (LI) +The difference in temperature between the ambient environment and an air parcel that is lifted adiabatically at a given pressure height within the troposphere, typically 500 hectopascals (0.49 atm). When the value of the lifted index is positive, the atmosphere at the given height is stable; when it is negative, the atmosphere is unstable. + +lifting condensation level (LCL) +Also lifted condensation level. +The altitude to which a parcel of air must be raised or lifted before expansional cooling at the dry adiabatic lapse rate causes it to reach complete saturation (i.e. a relative humidity of 100 percent). If the parcel is lifted further beyond the LCL, water vapor within the parcel will begin to condense into cloud droplets. The LCL is a good approximation of the height of a cloud base when air is lifted mechanically from the surface. + +light pillar + +lightning +A naturally occurring electrostatic discharge during which two electrically charged regions of the atmosphere or ground temporarily equalize themselves, instantaneously releasing about a billion joules of energy across a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, from very hot plasma to brilliant flashes of light visible in the atmosphere. Lightning is often followed by its audible consequence, thunder, and is one of the distinguishing features of thunderstorms. Lightning phenomena are generally separated into three classes based on where they occur – either inside a single cloud, between two different clouds, or between a cloud and the ground – but many other observational variants have been recognized. + +lightning activity level + +lightning detection + +lightning strike +Any lightning discharge that occurs between the atmosphere and an object (rather than between different parts of the atmosphere). Most lightning strikes are cloud-to-ground, meaning they terminate on the Earth's surface or on an object attached to it, but lightning can also strike airborne objects or travel from ground-to-cloud. The primary electron-conducting channel in such discharges, visible for a fraction of a second as a very bright, "zigzagging" path of light, is sometimes called a lightning bolt. + +line echo wave pattern (LEWP) + +lithometeor + +low-level jet + +low-level windshear alert system + +low-pressure area (L) + +low-topped supercell (LT) + +lysimeter +An instrument used to measure the total amount of evapotranspiration that occurs within a certain area of the Earth's surface, usually by recording the amount of precipitation received by the area and the amount of moisture subsequently lost through the soil. + +== M == + +mackerel sky +A sky that is partially or fully covered by high altocumulus or cirrocumulus clouds with a regular pattern of ripples and patches separated by small areas of blue sky, resembling the scales on a mackerel. + +macroburst +A strong downburst that affects a path longer than 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) and persists for up to 30 minutes, with surface winds reaching as high as 210 kilometres per hour (130 mph). + +macrometeorology +The study of the largest-scale meteorological processes, i.e. those occurring over very large regions, oceans, continents, or the entire Earth, such as the general circulation, as opposed to mesometeorology and micrometeorology. See also synoptic-scale meteorology. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf8192d58 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 14/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +MAFOR +A North American system used in the transmission of marine weather forecasts to compress large amounts of information about meteorological and marine conditions, including visibility, expected future wind speed and direction, the "state of sea", and the period of validity of the forecast, into shorter code for convenience during radio broadcasting. MAFOR is an abbreviation of MArine FORecast. + +manometer +A scientific instrument consisting of a liquid column gauge used to measure differences in the pressures of gases, as with a mercury barometer. + +marine climate +Also maritime climate. +A regional climate that is strongly influenced by its location in relation to a sea or ocean, characterized by relatively small diurnal and seasonal temperature variations and high atmospheric moisture content, which contributes to high precipitation and humidity. Contrast continental climate. + +marine cloud brightening + +marine stratocumulus + +mass flow +The movement of a fluid, such as an air mass, down a pressure or temperature gradient. + +meridional circulation +The component of the large-scale atmospheric general circulation that is oriented parallel to a meridian or line of longitude, and thus shows large north–south movement. + +mesocyclone + +mesohigh + +mesolow + +mesonet + +mesoscale convective complex (MCC) + +mesoscale convective discussion (MCD) + +mesoscale convective system (MCS) + +mesoscale convective vortex (MCV) + +mesoscale meteorology + +mesosphere +The third major layer of the Earth's atmosphere, above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. The lower boundary of the mesosphere varies between 50 and 65 km (31 and 40 mi) above the Earth's surface, depending on latitude and time of year. + +mesovortices + +METAR + +Météo-France +The national meteorological agency of France. + +meteorology +A branch of the atmospheric sciences which seeks to understand and explain observable weather events, with a major focus on weather prediction. Meteorology uses variables familiar in chemistry and physics to describe and quantify meteorological phenomena, including temperature, pressure, water vapor, mass flow, and how these properties interact and change over time. + +microburst + +micronet +A weather observation network even denser than a mesonet, such as the Oklahoma City Micronet. + +microscale meteorology + Meteorological phenomena that occur on a scale of 40 m to 4 km. + +mini-supercell +A distinct kind of supercell that is smaller than a typical supercell. + +mini-tornado +A fallacious term often used in news media to refer to damaging winds accompanying a thunderstorm, indifferently caused by tornadoes or microbursts, on a small area. + +misocyclone +A vortex with a width between 40 metres (130 ft) and 4 kilometres (2.5 mi), which in the strictest sense includes waterspouts and landspouts. + +misoscale meteorology + +mixed cloud +A cloud composed of both liquid water droplets and ice crystals (e.g. altostratus, cumulonimbus, and nimbostratus), as opposed to a warm cloud. + +mixing ratio +A measure of atmospheric moisture content, usually expressed as the dimensionless ratio of the mass of water vapor in a given parcel of air to the unit mass of dry air (i.e. grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air). + +mock sun +See parhelion. + +Modified Fujita Scale +An update to the original Fujita scale from 1971 proposed by Ted Fujita in 1992. + +moist adiabat +See saturated adiabat. + +moist adiabatic lapse rate +See saturated adiabatic lapse rate. + +moisture convergence +An area where moisture concentrates due to the air flow near the surface. + +mountain breeze + +mountain-gap wind +See gap wind. + +multicellular thunderstorm +A thunderstorm consisting of more than one convection cell, i.e. more than one circulating system of updrafts and downdrafts. + +multiple-vortex tornado + +moisture +Also moisture content or water content. +The presence of liquid, especially water, within a body or substance, often in trace amounts. Moisture in the air in the form of water vapor underlies the concept of humidity. + +monsoon +1. An abrupt seasonal wind reversal accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation. +2. Any seasonal change in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea. In this context, the term is often used to refer specifically to the rainy phase of such a pattern, and in some places colloquially (and less correctly) to any locally very heavy but short-term rainfall. + +Morning Glory cloud + +mudflow +Also mudslide. + +murus +See wall cloud. + +== N == + +nacreous cloud +Also mother-of-pearl cloud. +A rare type of polar stratospheric cloud that forms at altitudes of 24–30 kilometres (79,000–98,000 ft), usually in high-latitude regions. These clouds are normally lenticular in form but may resemble cirrus, and often exhibit brilliant iridescence similar to mother-of-pearl shortly after sunset or before sunrise. + +National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) + +National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) + +National Hurricane Center (NHC) + +National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) + +National Severe Storms Forecast Center (NSSFC) +A predecessor forecasting center to the Storm Prediction Center that was located in Kansas City, Missouri. + +National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) +A NOAA lab in Norman, Oklahoma tasked with researching severe weather. + +National Tornado Database +The official NOAA record of all known tornadoes within the United States from 1950 to present. + +National Weather Center (NWC) + +National Weather Service (NWS) +The national meteorological agency of the United States, tasked with providing weather forecasts, warnings of severe weather, and other weather-related services to organizations and the public for the purposes of protection, safety, and general information. + +neap tide +A small-amplitude oceanic tide of minimum tidal range occurring semi-monthly near the times when the Moon is in quadrature, i.e. the first and third quarters. + +needle ice + +negative tilt +The angular displacement of a trough line such that the axis of the trough is rotated clockwise from a north–south meridian (as opposed to the counterclockwise rotation of a positively tilted trough); in the Northern Hemisphere, negative tilt corresponds to a northwest-to-southeast orientation. Most troughs begin with a positive tilt and gradually become neutral (north–south) and then negatively tilted as the flow of cold air distorts their shape. Positive tilt thus indicates the building phase of the trough, when clouds and precipitation develop, and negative tilt indicates the dissipation of its energy, when the most severe weather occurs. + +nephelometer + +nephology +The scientific study of clouds. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54f3a132d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 15/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +nephoscope +A scientific instrument used to measure the altitude, direction, and velocity of atmospheric clouds relative to a point on the ground directly below them. + +NEXRAD + +nimbostratus (Ns) +A genus of cloud occurring at low or middle altitudes, typically between 0.5 and 5.5 kilometres (1,600 and 18,000 ft), and often appearing as a dull, dark gray, ragged, nearly uniform sheet or layer that obscures the Sun and produces more or less continuously falling light to moderate precipitation but no lightning or thunder. Low, ragged fractus clouds frequently occur below nimbostratus and may or may not merge with it. + +noctilucent cloud + +nonadiabatic process +See diabatic process. + +nor'easter +Also northeaster. +A macro-scale extratropical cyclone, especially one which impacts the middle and north Atlantic coasts of North America. The name derives from the direction of the winds that most strongly affect the eastern seaboard between the months of October and March. Such storms are often accompanied by very heavy rain or snow, which can cause severe coastal flooding, and hurricane-force winds. + +Nor'west arch +Also Canterbury arch; associated with nor'wester. +A conspicuous high-altitude arch-shaped cloud formation that appears regularly in otherwise clear blue skies above the east coast of New Zealand's South Island, when a strong, hot, northwesterly föhn wind (known as "The Nor'wester") pushes cooling moist air over the Southern Alps. + +normal +The average value of a meteorological element (e.g. temperature, precipitation, or humidity) over a given period of time, most commonly three consecutive 10-year intervals totaling 30 years. + +northern lights +See aurora. + +Novaya Zemlya effect + +nowcasting + +numerical weather prediction + +== O == + +obscuring phenomena +Any atmospheric phenomenon exclusive of clouds that restricts vertical visibility, including various hydrometeors such as rain and snow as well as lithometeors such as dust and sand. + +occluded front +A type of front formed during the process of cyclogenesis when a cold front overtakes a warm front. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas when a warm air mass is physically separated (or "occluded") from the cyclonic center at the Earth's surface by the intervention of a cooler air mass; the warmer air is lifted into a trough of warm air aloft. In surface weather analysis, occluded fronts are symbolized by various combinations of the symbols for cold and warm fronts. + +ocean current +Any regular, permanent or semi-permanent movement or flow of ocean water, either in a cyclic pattern or as a continuous stream along a defined path. Ocean currents are generally driven by wind or by geostrophic forces related to seawater density gradients. They are major transporters of the heat introduced by solar radiation, usually moving warm water from the tropics to higher latitudes and returning cold water in the opposite direction, by which they exert an important influence on climate and weather phenomena across the world. + +oceanic climate +See marine climate. + +offshore current +Any ocean current that flows parallel to, or away from, the coastline of a landmass. + +offshore wind +Any wind that blows from land out over a body of water, e.g. a land breeze. Contrast onshore wind. + +okta +Also octa. +A unit of measurement used to describe the amount of cloud cover at a given location in terms of how many eighths of the sky are covered in clouds, ranging from 0 oktas (completely clear) to 8 (completely overcast) or sometimes 9 oktas (indicating that the sky is obstructed from view). + +omega equation + +onshore wind +Any wind that blows from a body of water to land, e.g. a lake or sea breeze. Contrast offshore wind. + +opacity + +orographic cloud +Any cloud whose form and extent is determined by the effects of high-elevation terrain upon the passing flow of air, especially the forced uplift of moist air as it passes over hills or mountains. As the rising air mass encounters reduced atmospheric pressures, adiabatic cooling commonly results in condensation and precipitation. Orographic clouds are usually very slow-moving or stationary; examples include lenticular clouds and cap clouds. + +orographic lift +Also orographic uplift. +The forced ascent of an air mass as it passes over a topographic barrier such as a range of hills or mountains. If the air is moist, the uplift may result in adiabatic cooling, leading to saturation, condensation, and the formation of orographic clouds and often precipitation. + +orographic precipitation + +overcast +The condition of cloud clover wherein clouds obscure at least 95% of the sky. The type of cloud cover that qualifies as overcast is distinguished from obscuring surface-level phenomena such as fog. + +overrunning +The action of an air mass aloft, often relatively warm, moving over another air mass of greater density at the surface, as occurs in a warm front. + +overshooting top +A distinct, bulging protuberance produced by a vigorous updraft that rises above the top of the anvil of a cumulonimbus cloud. Overshooting tops are generally short-lived, but those that persist may indicate the potential for strong thunderstorms and severe weather. + +outflow +Air that flows outwards (away from) a storm system. Outflow typically radiates from thunderstorms in the form of a wedge of rain-cooled air, which is often delineated by a low, thick cloud preceded by a gust front, apparent both from the ground and in weather radar imagery. The altitude at which the outflow occurs is strongly correlated with the intensity and persistence of large storm systems such as tropical cyclones. + +outflow boundary +Also gust front. +The boundary between the cooled outflow air from a thunderstorm and the air of the surrounding environment, similar to a cold front. New thunderstorms often develop along outflow boundaries. + +outflow jet + +ozone depletion + +ozone layer +Also the ozone shield and ozonosphere. +A region of the Earth's atmosphere containing relatively high concentrations of the gaseous chemical ozone (O3) and which is responsible for absorbing more than 97 percent of the Sun's incoming medium-frequency ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The ozone layer is found mainly in the lower portion of the stratosphere, between approximately 15 and 35 kilometres (9.3 and 21.7 mi) in altitude, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically. + +== P == + +paleoclimatology + +pampero + +pan evaporation \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9217b84a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 16/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pancake ice +A form of ice that consists of round, flat pieces of ice with elevated rims, with diameters ranging from 30 cm (12 in) to 3 m (9.8 ft), and thicknesses of up to 10 cm (3.9 in). + +pannus +Also scud; often used interchangeably with fractus. + +parhelion +Also sun dog or mock sun. +An optical phenomenon in which a patch of bright light is visible along the main 22° halo around the Sun, commonly occurring as a pair of such patches with one on either side of the solar disk; the halo itself is not always visible. More rarely, parhelia may occur at other points on the parhelic circle. They are caused by the refraction of sunlight by airborne ice crystals with diameters less than 30 μm (0.0012 in), e.g. those present in cirrus or cirrostratus clouds. + +Particularly Dangerous Situation + +pascal (Pa) +The SI derived unit of pressure, defined as one newton per square metre. In meteorology, measurements of atmospheric pressure are often given in hectopascals (hPa) or kilopascals (kPa). + +Pascal's law +Also Pascal's principle. +A hydrostatic principle which states that pressure applied to a confined incompressible fluid (e.g. air) is transmitted equally and undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel. + +Pearson scale +Also Fujita-Pearson scale or F-P-P scale. +A tornado rating scale developed by Allen Pearson differentiating path length (P) and path width (P) to accompany NOAA Fujita scale (F) ratings. + +pedestal cloud +See wall cloud. + +pentad +A period of five consecutive days sometimes used in preference to the seven-day week in the analysis of meteorological data because it divides conveniently into the number of days (365) in a standard year. + +period of record +The length of time during which a specific meteorological element (e.g. temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc.) has been officially observed and recorded at a particular place. + +perlucidus +A cloud variety characterized by a widespread sheet or patch of cloud with distinct gaps between the cloud elements such that the Sun, Moon, clear sky, or overlying clouds are visible from the ground. It is most often applied to stratocumulus and altocumulus. + +permafrost + +photometeor +Any bright object or other optical phenomenon appearing in the Earth's atmosphere when sunlight or moonlight creates a reflection, refraction, diffraction, or interference under particular circumstances. Common examples of photometeors include halos, coronae, rainbows, crepuscular rays, and sun dogs. + +physical meteorology +A branch of meteorology concerned with the structure and composition of the atmosphere and the various optical, electrical, acoustical, and thermodynamic phenomena that characterize it, including aerosols and clouds, precipitation, and electromagnetic radiation. + +Phi_DP ( + + + + + Φ + + D + P + + + + + {\displaystyle \Phi _{DP}} + +) + +pile d'assiettes +A series of lenticular clouds stacked vertically one above another, produced by wave motion occurring in multiple humid layers of air. The term comes from the French meaning "pile of plates". + +pileus +Also cap cloud or scarf cloud. +A small accessory cloud, appearing as a smooth, shallow, lenticular "cap", that forms above or attached to the top of a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. Pileus clouds are formed when moist air above the parent cloud is cooled to its dew point by a strong updraft, and are good predictors of thunderstorms; a pileus atop a cumulus cloud often foreshadows its transformation into a cumulonimbus cloud. + +pilot balloon +See ceiling balloon. + +pilot report (PIREP) +An inflight report by an aircraft pilot or crew member of the weather experienced by the aircraft. A complete coded report typically includes information about the location and/or extent of reported weather phenomena; the time of observation; a description of the phenomena; the altitude of the phenomena; and the type or status of the aircraft. + +polar high +Also polar anticyclone. +An extensive high-pressure area across the polar latitudes of either the Northern or Southern Hemisphere which acts as a source of very cold and generally dry air. The anticyclone over the Arctic, known as the Arctic high, is generally seasonal, while that over Antarctica, known as the Antarctic high, is semi-permanent. + +polar low +Also polar-air depression. +A relatively small-scale, non-frontal, migratory low-pressure system that occurs in the polar latitudes of either the Northern or Southern Hemisphere. Such systems are secondary depressions that form over oceans poleward of the polar front, most commonly during the local winter, and can produce blustery, snowy conditions. + +polar front +Either of the two semi-permanent, semi-continuous boundaries separating warm, moist tropical air from cold, dry polar air in the middle latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The northern polar front can often be traced as a continuous line of several thousand kilometers over the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. It is the most significant front in terms of air mass contrast and susceptibility to cyclonic disturbance. + +polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) + +polar stratospheric cloud (PSC) + +polar vortex +Either of the two very large, persistent, rotating, upper-level low-pressure areas suspended in the Earth's atmosphere near the geographic poles. The polar vortices predictably strengthen during their local winter and weaken during their local summer as the temperature contrast between the poles and the Equator changes. When either vortex is weak, high-pressure zones of lower latitudes may push poleward, driving the vortex, jet stream, and masses of cold, dry polar air into the mid-latitudes, which can cause sudden, dramatic drops in temperature known as cold waves. + +potential temperature ( + + + + θ + + + {\displaystyle \theta } + +) + +potential vorticity + +power flash +A sudden bright light caused when an overhead power line is severed or especially when a transformer explodes. Severe weather is one of the most common causes. + +precipitable water +Also total precipitable water (TPW). +The depth of water, in millimeters or inches, that could be measured if all of the water in a column of the atmosphere were precipitated as rain. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c3f7cbf83 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 17/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +precipitation +Any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls by gravity, the main forms of which include rain, sleet, snow, hail, and graupel. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes locally saturated with water vapor such that the water condenses into liquid or solid droplets and thus "precipitates" out of the atmosphere. + +pressure gradient +The horizontal or vertical rate of change of barometric pressure in the atmosphere, usually expressed in hectopascals (hPa) per metre; the term is also sometimes used more loosely to denote simply the magnitude of the gradient within a pressure field. The three-dimensional pressure gradient vector is usually resolved into its vertical and horizontal components. + +pressure gradient force (PGF) +The force experienced by a unit mass of air in response to differences in atmospheric pressure in either the horizontal or vertical plane, i.e. a pressure gradient, such that air parcels are accelerated away from regions of high pressure and toward regions of low pressure. A strong pressure gradient force leads to intense atmospheric flows and strong winds. + +pressure system +A relative peak or lull in the spatial distribution of sea-level atmospheric pressure. High- and low-pressure systems evolve by the interactions of temperature, moisture, and solar radiation in the atmosphere, and are directly responsible for most local weather phenomena. + +prevailing winds +The predominant winds encountered at a particular point or region of the Earth's surface, identified by their source and direction. Though wind speed and direction can vary widely for a given location at a given time, the prevailing winds represent the primary trend in the characteristics of local winds averaged over a long period of time. They are influenced both by global patterns of atmospheric air movements and by local topography. + +psychrometer + +psychrometrics +Also psychrometry and hygrometry. +The field of engineering concerned with the physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures, especially the mixture of air and water vapor. + +Pulse-Doppler radar + +pulse storm +A thunderstorm that produces brief but strong updrafts, common in humid areas of the continental United States during the summer. These storms are often associated with severe weather, particularly sudden and intense wind gusts, very large hailstones which grow continuously as they are repeatedly moved up and down within the storm, and flash flooding. + +pyranometer +Also solarimeter. +A type of actinometer used to measure solar irradiance on a planar surface and solar flux density in the hemisphere above. + +pyrgeometer + +pyrheliometer + +== Q == + +Q vector +In quasi-geostrophic and semi-geostrophic theory, a horizontal vector which appears in the omega equation and tends to point in the direction of rising air. If + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + + points toward warm air, the geostrophic flow is frontogenetic; if it points toward cold air, the geostrophic flow is frontolytic. + +quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) +A method of estimating the approximate amount or rate of precipitation that has fallen at a location or across a region based on radar measurements or satellite data. + +quantitative precipitation forecast (QPF) +A prediction of the amount of precipitation that will fall at a given location within a given time period, expressed in units of depth (e.g. inches). + +quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) +Also stratospheric oscillation. +A marked oscillation in the zonal winds in the lower part of the equatorial stratosphere, in which the direction changes gradually from westerly to easterly and back to westerly with a period that fluctuates between approximately 24 and 30 months. + +quasi-geostrophic approximation +Also geostrophic approximation and pseudogeostrophic approximation. +A form of the primitive equations of motion in which the geostrophic wind, an idealized approximation to the actual wind, is used to simplify the system of momentum and thermodynamic equations known as the quasi-geostrophic equations. These equations are derived from an expansion of terms in powers of the Rossby number, which is presumed small. The quasi-geostrophic approximation is useful in the analysis of extratropical synoptic-scale systems, but less accurate in situations in which the ageostrophic wind plays an important advective role, e.g. near fronts. + +quasi-geostrophic motion +The flow of a fluid in which an approximate geostrophic balance between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force holds, but for which other terms such as the inertial terms involving temporal change or advective acceleration still play a key dynamic role despite their relatively small magnitude. + +quasi-geostrophic theory +A theory of atmospheric dynamics that involves the quasi-geostrophic approximation in the derivation of the quasi-geostrophic equations. This theory is relatively accurate for synoptic-scale atmospheric motions in which the Rossby number is less than unity, but it cannot accurately describe some local atmospheric structures such as fronts or small, strong low-pressure cells as well as other theories. + +quasi-linear convective system (QLCS) +See squall line. + +quasi-stationary front +A front that is stationary or nearly so; conventionally, a front that is moving at a speed less than about 5 knots (5.8 mph). + +== R == + +radar echo +The portion of the pulsed beam of microwave energy emitted by a radar transmitter that is reflected back to the receiver after the signal encounters a specific target or obstruction in the atmosphere, such as individual particles of precipitation. The term may also refer to the backscatter produced by these objects. + +radar imaging +Any method that uses radar technology to map the location and characteristics of selected environmental phenomena by emitting a pulse of microwave radiation at a target and analyzing the portion that is partially returned by backscattering. Radar imaging is widely used in the atmospheric sciences to create images indicating large-scale spatial patterns of meteorological data, e.g. the intensity and distribution of precipitation, or the height and orientation of wind-driven ocean waves. + +radar meteorology +A branch of meteorology concerned with the use of primarily ground-based radar technologies for the analysis and prediction of atmospheric phenomena across a wide variety of spatial scales. + +radar winds +Atmospheric motion detected by using radar to track a target attached to a radiosonde, or by Doppler radar. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7bd39f8f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 18/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +radiation fog +Fog formed over land, generally at night in moist, calm air under clear skies. The most common type of fog, it is caused by the radiative cooling of the Earth's surface and the lowest layers of the atmosphere when the temperature of the air near the ground decreases below its dew point. Radiation fog occurs most often in the autumn and winter, and is often deepest around sunrise but usually disperses after dawn when heated by solar radiation. + +radiatus (ra) +A cloud variety characterized by broad parallel bands of cloud that appear to converge because of perspective. This variety may apply to cumulus, stratocumulus, altocumulus, altostratus, or cirrus clouds. + +radiosonde +Also radio-sounding device. +A battery-powered scientific instrument released into the atmosphere, usually by a weather balloon, which measures various atmospheric variables and transmits them by radio telemetry to a ground receiver. Radiosondes are essential sources of meteorological data. + +radius of maximum wind (RMW) +The distance between the center of a cyclone and its band of strongest winds, often used as a metric for determining a cyclone's potential intensity. + +rain +A type of precipitation that occurs when liquid water in the form of droplets condenses from atmospheric water vapor, becoming heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. + +rainband +A cloud and precipitation structure associated with an elongated area of rainfall and generated by differences in temperature. Rainbands may develop as squall lines ahead of cold fronts; tropical cyclones are usually composed of multiple curved rainbands. + +rainbow +An optical phenomenon that takes the form of a circular arc of light separated into concentric colored bands consisting of all of the individual colors of the visible spectrum, which occurs when sunlight is refracted as it passes through water droplets in the atmosphere and is then reflected from the rear of the droplets. In a primary bow, usually appearing with an angular distance of 42° centered on the anti-solar point, the color separation produces a spectrum with red on the outer edge of the arc and violet on the inner edge; a secondary bow, with an angular distance of 51°, is also sometimes visible, but the colors are typically much dimmer and appear in the reverse order. + +raindrop size distribution (DSD) + +rainy season +Also wet season and green season. +An annually recurring period of one or more months during which precipitation, particularly rainfall, is at or near its average annual maximum for a certain region. The term is used especially in tropical climates, where the rainy season contrasts with the dry season. + +rain and snow mixed +A class of precipitation composed of both rain and snow, the latter usually partially melted, that is reported in some weather observation formats. It usually occurs only briefly at any one location as a transition phase from rain to snow or vice versa. + +rain gauge +Also udometer, pluviometer, and ombrometer. +An instrument used to collect and measure the amount of liquid precipitation that occurs within a certain area over a certain period of time. + +rain of animals + +rain shadow +A relatively and consistently dry area on the leeward side of a significant geographic uplift such as a mountain range. Rain shadows exist because the uplift acts as a barrier to the passage of precipitation-producing weather systems: moist air masses crossing high elevations are forced upward by orographic lift, which causes the moisture to condense and precipitate on the windward side, leaving the air depleted of moisture by the time it reaches the leeward side. + +rain showers +Often simply showers. +Short, intense periods of rainfall, especially when occurring in widely scattered locations. + +rapid intensification + +ravine wind +A local wind generated as a result of a pressure gradient between two ends of a narrow valley, blowing from higher to lower pressure (usually in the downstream direction), with its velocity increased by the funneling effect of the ravine itself. + +rawinsonde +A type of balloon-borne radiosonde that is tracked using position change as determined by radar or radiotheodolite in order to specifically measure wind speed and direction aloft, and sometimes also other meteorological variables. + +rear flank downdraft (RFD) + +regional forecast +A weather forecast for a specified geographic region, usually a wider area than that covered by a local forecast. + +relative humidity + +remote sensing +The acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation. In meteorology, satellite- or aircraft-based sensor technologies are widely used to detect and classify objects on the surface or within the atmosphere or oceans based on propagated electromagnetic signals. + +reshabar +1. A strong northwesterly wind that blows across the Caucasus Mountains from the Black Sea in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east. +2. A local wind, cold in winter and hot in summer, that affects northern Syria, northern Iraq, western Iran, and southeastern Turkey. + +retrogression +Also retrograde motion. +Any motion of an atmospheric wave or pressure system that opposes, or occurs in a direction opposite to, the normal or typical flow in which it is embedded, e.g. a situation in which Rossby waves move westward, contrary to the generally westerly winds flowing through the pattern. + +Rho_hv ( + + + + + ρ + + h + v + + + + + {\displaystyle \rho _{hv}} + +) + +ridge +Also wedge. +An elongated region of relatively high atmospheric pressure, almost always associated with an area of maximum anticyclonic curvature of wind flow. Ridges may exist at the surface or aloft or both; they may contain the closed circulation of a distinct high-pressure area, and a high may have one or more distinct ridges. Under certain conditions, ridges may alternate with troughs in a high-amplitude pattern. + +rime +A coating of ice on the surface of an object. See hard rime and soft rime. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ece2fc34 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 19/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +rocketsonde +A type of radiosonde that is transported into the upper atmosphere, e.g. the thermosphere, by rocket propulsion before being ejected and descending to the Earth's surface by parachute. Rocketsondes are used to make soundings at altitudes much higher than can usually be obtained by balloon or aircraft. They can provide instantaneous vertical profiles for a number of meteorological variables (temperature, pressure, ozone concentration, wind speed and direction, etc.) as they descend through the layers of the atmosphere. + +rogue wave + +roll cloud +An elongated, low-level accessory cloud in the shape of a horizontal tube that appears to rotate slowly about its horizontal axis, and is associated with but completely detached from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud above it. Though rare, roll clouds typically occur behind the gust front along the leading edge of a thunderstorm or squall line; they are also sometimes associated with cold fronts. + +Rossby number + +Rossby wave +Also long wave or planetary wave. +A very large-scale atmospheric wave appearing on an upper-air isobaric analysis of the middle and upper troposphere. Rossby waves consist of a series of ridges and troughs with very long wavelengths (typically a few thousand kilometres) stretching around the Earth, principally in the middle latitudes. They are strongly linked to surface weather patterns. + +rotation +See cyclonic rotation. + +== S == + +saddle point +See col. + +Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) +Also simply called the Saffir–Simpson scale. +A rating system used to classify hurricanes (tropical cyclones in the Western Hemisphere) into one of five categories according to the intensity of their sustained winds, measured as the maximum sustained wind speed averaged over a one-minute interval at an altitude of 10 meters above the surface. Category 1, the lowest rating on the scale, indicates average sustained wind speeds of 33–42 metres per second (64–82 kn; 74–94 mph), where the lower limit is also used to define the distinction between a tropical storm and a hurricane; Category 5, the highest rating, indicates wind speeds of 70 metres per second (136 kn; 157 mph) or more. + +sandstorm +See dust storm. + +sastrugi +(sing.) sastruga; also spelled zastrugi +Sharp, irregular grooves or ridges formed on a snow surface by wind erosion, saltation of snow particles, and deposition, usually parallel to the prevailing winds. They are often found in the polar regions and in large, open areas such as frozen lakes in cold temperate regions. + +satellite sounding +An atmospheric sounding obtained from instruments on a meteorological satellite in orbit around the Earth. + +satellite tornado +An independent tornado that revolves around a larger, primary tornado (typically a very large and intense one) and interacts with the same mesocyclone. Satellite tornadoes are distinct from the subvortices of a multiple-vortex tornado, though they may still merge into their companion tornado. + +saturated adiabat +Also moist adiabat. +A curved line drawn on a thermodynamic diagram that traces the path of a moisture-saturated air parcel as it moves through the atmosphere adiabatically. Saturated parcels tend to behave very differently from dry parcels; the latter are instead described by a dry adiabat. + +saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) +Also moist adiabatic lapse rate. + +saturation vapor pressure +The maximum possible partial pressure exerted by a quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given temperature. Saturation vapor pressure increases non-linearly with air temperature according to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation, such that the vapor pressure in millibars at 32 °C (90 °F) is approximately double the value at 21 °C (70 °F). + +scarf cloud +See pileus. + +scavenging +The process by which particulate matter in the atmosphere is captured and removed by precipitation. + +scud +See pannus. + +sea breeze +An onshore local wind that blows from sea to land, a result of the more rapid warming of the land surface relative to the sea during the day. It blows in the opposite direction of a land breeze, its nighttime counterpart in a diurnal cycle of coastal winds caused by lateral differences in surface temperature between land and sea. + +sea spray +Aerosol particles formed directly by the ocean, mostly by ejection into the atmosphere by bursting bubbles at the air-sea interface. + +sea state + +sea surface temperature (SST) +Also ocean surface temperature. +The water temperature of the surface layer of a sea or ocean, usually measured at a depth between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) beneath the surface. Air masses in the atmosphere are strongly influenced by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore. + +season +Any division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and the duration of daylight. Seasons result from the Earth's orbit around the Sun and its axial tilt relative to the ecliptic plane. In temperate and polar regions, four calendar-based seasons – spring, summer, autumn, and winter – are generally marked by significant changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface; these changes become less dramatic as one approaches the Equator, and so many tropical regions have only two or three seasons, such as a wet season and a dry season. In certain parts of the world, the term is also used to describe the timing of important ecological events, such as hurricane seasons, flood seasons, and wildfire seasons. + +secondary front +A front that arises between two air masses which, despite nominally originating from the same source region, have acquired different meteorological properties because they have followed different paths or are of different ages. + +secular trend +A gradual change (either an increase or a decrease) in the values of one or more measured variables (e.g. temperature) that takes place over a long period of time, after the effects of fluctuations that occur over comparatively short periods have been removed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4b1749128 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 20/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +seiche +A stationary or standing wave (i.e. a wave that oscillates in time without moving through space) that occurs in an enclosed or semi-enclosed body of water, such as a lake or bay, or in the atmosphere, continuing to oscillate for some time after the force initiating its formation has ceased (occasionally as long as several days). Seiches may be caused by a variety of forces, including strong winds, earthquakes, landslides, and sudden changes in atmospheric pressure. + +sensible heat +The heat absorbed or transmitted by a substance during a change in temperature that is not accompanied by a change of phase (i.e. enthalpy) and which can be measured or "sensed", e.g. with a thermometer. Contrast latent heat. + +sensible temperature +The temperature of the air or an object as it is felt or experienced by an individual. This may differ from the actual measured temperature for any of a number of reasons, e.g. as a result of humidity (as with a heat index) or wind speed (as with wind chill). Compare apparent temperature. + +severe thunderstorm +A type of severe weather consisting of an especially strong or intense thunderstorm accompanied by locally damaging downdraft winds exceeding 50 knots (58 mph), heavy rain, frequent lightning, and/or large hailstones with a diameter of at least 20 millimetres (0.79 in). Severe thunderstorms are often capable of producing tornadoes as well. + +severe weather +Any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage on the ground surface, serious social disruption, or loss of human life. There are many types of severe weather, including strong winds, excessive precipitation, thunderstorms, tornadoes, tropical cyclones, blizzards, and wildfires. Some severe weather may be more or less typical of a given region during a given season; other phenomena may be atypical or unpredictable. + +sferics +See atmospherics. + +shade temperature +The air temperature as measured by a thermometer housed inside an instrument shelter, which allows air to circulate freely around the thermometer while sheltering it from the potentially confounding effects of direct solar radiation, precipitation, and thermal energy emitted from the ground and surrounding objects. Shade temperature is a standard meteorological method for measuring air temperature. + +sheet lightning +A diffuse illumination of the sky caused by a lightning discharge in which the bolt form of the discharge is not visible to an observer because of the presence of an obfuscating cloud. + +shelf cloud +Also arcus cloud. +A low, elongated, wedge-shaped accessory cloud that occurs along a gust front, often masking the boundary between updrafts and downdrafts. Shelf clouds are associated with and attached to the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, unlike roll clouds, which are not attached. + +short wave +Any relatively small, short-wavelength ripple (i.e. a trough or a ridge) superimposed upon a longer wave pattern in the planetary-scale movement of air currents within the middle and upper troposphere. Short-wave troughs in particular are frequently associated with major cyclonic developments. + +shower +A brief downpour of precipitation (especially rain, but also snow or hail) that starts and ends abruptly and typically lasts less than 10 minutes. Showers are characterized by rapid changes in intensity and are usually associated with convective clouds (e.g. cumulonimbus) which do not completely cover the sky, such that brightness is frequently evident during showers. + +SIGMET + +significant level +In a radiosonde observation, an altitude or elevation (other than a mandatory level) for which temperature, pressure, and humidity are reported because temperature and/or moisture content data at that level are sufficiently important or unusual to warrant the attention of the forecaster, or because they are required for the accurate portrayal of the observation. + +simoom + +single cell thunderstorm +See air-mass thunderstorm. + +sirocco + +skew-T log-P diagram + +sky + +Skywarn +Sometimes stylized as SKYWARN. +The storm spotting program of the U.S. National Weather Service. Skywarn organizations have also been formed in Europe and Canada. + +skipping tornado + +sleet + +slush +A slurry mixture of small ice crystals (such as snow) and liquid water. Slush forms when ice or snow melts. + +snow +A type of solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals which precipitate from the atmosphere and subsequently undergo changes on the Earth's surface. Snow occurs when particles in the atmosphere attract supercooled water droplets, which nucleate and freeze into hexagonal crystals known as snowflakes; upon reaching the ground it may then accumulate into snowpack or snowdrifts and, over time, metamorphose by sintering, sublimation, and freeze-thaw mechanisms. Unless the local climate is cold enough to maintain persistent snow cover on the ground, snow typically melts seasonally. + +snow gauge +An instrument for measuring snowfall by quantifying the accumulation of snow in an area of specified size, either by capturing and retaining the snow, which is subsequently melted into water in order to yield an easily quantifiable measure, or by weighing it. The latter form is capable of providing a continuous record of the rate of snowfall. + +snow grains + +snow roller +Also snow bale or snow donut. +A phenomenon in which large snowballs form naturally as clumps of snow are blown along the ground by strong winds, growing larger as they accumulate material along the way. + +Snowbelt +A region near the Great Lakes of North America where heavy snowfall in the form of lake-effect snow is particularly common. + +snowdrift +A deposit of snow sculpted by wind into a mound during a snowstorm. + +snowflake + +snowspout +See winter waterspout. + +snowsquall +A sudden, moderately heavy snowfall characterized by strong surface wind gusts and blowing snow. It is similar to a blizzard but is more local in scale, and snow accumulations may or may not be significant. + +snowstorm +Often used interchangeably with winter storm. +A type of winter storm accompanied particularly by heavy precipitation in the form of snow. Very large snowstorms with strong winds and meeting certain other criteria are called blizzards. + +SODAR + +soft hail +See graupel. + +solar irradiance + +solarimeter +See pyranometer. + +sounding +See atmospheric sounding. + +sounding balloon +See weather balloon. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..83c4c26e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 3/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +baroclinity +Also baroclinicity. +A measure of the misalignment between a pressure gradient and a density gradient in a stratified fluid such as the atmosphere. In the context of meteorology, a baroclinic atmosphere is one in which atmospheric density depends on both temperature and pressure, in contrast to a barotropic atmosphere, in which density depends only on pressure. Areas of high atmospheric baroclinity are generally found in the temperate and polar latitudes and are characterized by the frequent formation of cyclones. + +barotropity +Also barotropicity. +The close alignment between a pressure gradient and a density gradient in a stratified fluid such as the atmosphere. In the context of meteorology, a barotropic atmosphere is one in which atmospheric density depends only on pressure and is more or less independent of temperature, in contrast to a baroclinic atmosphere. Unlike liquids, gaseous fluids such as the air in the atmosphere are generally not barotropic, but the assumption of barotropity can nonetheless be useful in modeling fluid behavior. Tropical latitudes are more nearly barotropic than the mid-latitudes because air temperature is more nearly horizontally uniform in the tropics. + +barometer +A scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. The two most common types are mercury barometers and aneroid barometers. + +barometric pressure +See atmospheric pressure. + +barrier jet +A low-level core of high wind speeds that sometimes occurs at altitudes of 1,000–1,500 metres (3,300–4,900 ft) in the vicinity of a mountain range, as a consequence of the deceleration of an airflow as it crosses a major topographic barrier and releases latent heat which changes the local thermodynamics of the flow. + +Beaufort scale + +Bernoulli's principle +A principle of fluid dynamics which states that an increase in the speed of a moving fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in the pressure exerted by the fluid or in the fluid's potential energy. + +Bishop's ring + +black ice +Also clear ice. +A thin, nearly transparent coating of glaze ice on a solid surface, especially a road or walkway, which because of its transparency is often practically invisible and therefore presents a significant hazard to drivers and pedestrians. + +blizzard +A severe snowstorm characterized by strong sustained winds of at least 35 mph (56 km/h) and blowing snow, typically lasting three hours or more. They can have an immense size, covering hundreds or thousands of square miles, and occur most often in temperate, polar, or mountainous regions during the winter. + +block +Also blocking high and blocking anticyclone. +A nearly stationary pattern in the atmospheric pressure field overlying a large geographic area, which effectively "blocks" or diverts the movements of cyclones and other convective systems. These blocks can remain in place for days or weeks, causing the areas affected by them to experience the same kind of weather for extended periods of time. + +blowing dust +A lithometeor phenomenon that occurs when particles of dust are lifted from the Earth's surface by wind and blown about in clouds or sheets. It is classified as an obstruction to vision in METAR aviation weather observations and is commonly reported if the amount of suspended dust reduces horizontal visibility to 10 kilometres (6 mi) or less. Extreme cases may be called dust storms. + +blowing sand +A lithometeor phenomenon that occurs when grains of sand are lifted from the Earth's surface by wind and blown about in clouds or sheets. It is classified as an obstruction to vision in METAR aviation weather observations and is commonly reported if the amount of suspended sand reduces horizontal visibility to 10 kilometres (6 mi) or less. Extreme cases may be called sandstorms. + +blowing snow +Snow blown about by wind, either from falling snow or snow lifted from the surface, to a height of at least 2 metres (6.6 ft), reducing visibility. It is a defining characteristic of blizzards. + +bounded weak echo region (BWER) + +bow echo +A characteristic radar return from a mesoscale convective system that is shaped like an archer's bow and usually associated with squall lines or lines of convective thunderstorms. The distinct bow shape is a result of the focusing of a strong flow at the rear of the system. Especially strong bow echoes may develop into derechos. + +breeze +1. Any generally light wind. +2. Any local-scale air movement that is convectively forced, e.g. a land breeze or sea breeze. +3. On the Beaufort scale, a wind speed of force numbers 2 to 6, ranging from 4–27 knots (7–50 km/h; 5–31 mph), and categorized as follows: light breeze, 4–6 knots; gentle breeze, 7–10 knots; moderate breeze, 11–16 knots; fresh breeze, 17–21 knots; and strong breeze, 22–27 knots. + +brightband + +Bulk Richardson Number (BRN) +A dimensionless ratio related to the consumption of turbulence divided by the shear production of turbulence (the generation of kinetic energy caused by wind shear). It is an approximation of the Gradient Richardson Number. + +bushfire +See wildfire. + +Buys Ballot's law + +== C == + +calm +A state of the atmosphere in which there is virtually no horizontal motion of the air. It corresponds to force number 0 on the Beaufort scale, with a wind speed less than 1 kn (1.9 km/h). Calm conditions are common in the subtropical high-pressure belts and in the doldrums. + +Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society (CMOS) +The national society of individuals and organizations dedicated to advancing atmospheric and oceanic sciences and related environmental disciplines in Canada, officially constituted in 1967. + +Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC) +Provides forecast guidance to national and regional prediction centres in Canada. + +Canterbury arch +See Nor'west arch. + +cap cloud +Also standing cloud. +An approximately stationary cloud on or hovering above an isolated mountain peak. See also pileus and lenticular cloud. + +capacity +The ability of a wind current to transport material, as measured by the maximum amount of detritus (e.g. silt, sand, and/or gravel) carried past a specific point per unit time. Capacity increases with wind speed and decreases as the particle size of the detrital debris increases. + +capping inversion + +castellanus +Also castellatus. +A cloud species that displays at least in its upper part cumuliform protuberances resembling the turrets of a castle, giving a crenellated aspect. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7a8a1806 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 21/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +sounding rocket +Also rocketsonde, research rocket, and suborbital rocket. +A sub-orbital rocket carrying scientific instruments designed to record measurements and perform experiments in the upper atmosphere while in flight, usually reaching altitudes ranging from 48 to 145 kilometres (30 to 90 mi) above the surface of the Earth, i.e. higher than weather balloons but lower than weather satellites. + +specific humidity + +spindrift +Also spoondrift. +Sea spray blown from cresting waves during a gale. This spray "drifts" in the direction of the gale and is distinct enough that it is sometimes used to judge wind speed at sea. + +spring + +sprite + +squall +A sudden, sharp increase in sustained wind speed that lasts for several minutes, as opposed to a gust, which lasts only for a few seconds. Squalls are technically defined as an increase of at least 8 meters per second (16 kn) to a minimum sustained wind speed of 11 meters per second (21 kn) lasting in excess of one minute, or an increase of at least 3 in force on the Beaufort scale to force 6 or higher. There may be even higher gusts during a squall. They are generally associated with active weather such as rain showers, thunderstorms, or snowstorms, and in colloquial usage the term often refers to the storm or cell itself, not just the wind. + +squall line + +St. Elmo's fire +A weather phenomenon in which luminous plasma is created by a corona discharge at the tips of long, sharply pointed objects in a strong atmospheric electrical field, such as that generated by a thunderstorm. + +standard atmosphere + +standing cloud +See cap cloud. + +static atmospheric model + +station model + +stationary front + +steam devil + +steering +Any influence upon the direction of movement of an atmospheric disturbance that is exerted by another aspect of the state of the atmosphere. + +Stevenson screen + +storm +Any disturbed state of an environment or atmosphere especially affecting the ground surface and strongly implying severe weather. Storms are characterized by significant disruptions to normal atmospheric conditions, which can result in strong wind, heavy precipitation, and/or thunder and lightning (as with a thunderstorm), among other phenomena. They are created when a center of low pressure develops within a system of high pressure surrounding it. + +storm cell +An air mass which contains up and down drafts in convective loops and which moves and reacts as a single entity. It functions as the smallest unit of a storm-producing weather system. + +storm chasing + +Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena (SD) +Also simply Storm Data. +A National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) publication beginning in 1959 which details quality-controlled tornado and other severe weather summaries as the official NOAA record of such events. + +storm shelter +A type of underground bunker designed to protect the occupants from violent severe weather, particularly tornadoes. + +storm spotting +A type of weather spotting in which observers watch for the approach of storms and severe weather and actively relay their findings to local meteorological authorities. + +storm surge + +Storm Prediction Center (SPC) + +Storm Track + +straight-line wind +Also plough wind, thundergust, and hurricane of the prairie. +Any very strong and potentially damaging wind that lacks the rotational damage pattern associated with the winds of a tornado and hence is said to blow in a "straight line". Straight-line winds commonly accompany the gust front of a thunderstorm or originate with a downburst and may gust as high as 130 mph (210 km/h). + +stratocumulus + +stratocumuliform + +stratosphere +The second major layer of the Earth's atmosphere, above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The lower boundary of the stratosphere varies between 7 and 20 km (4.3 and 12.4 mi) above the Earth's surface, depending on latitude. + +stratospheric oscillation +See quasi-biennial oscillation. + +stratus + +striation +A fine, narrow groove or channel in a cloud formation, formed parallel to the direction of the airflow, thus giving a visible indication of the flow relative to the parent cloud. Striations are often observed in the rotating updrafts of strong thunderstorms, where they may produce a conspicuous "barber's pole" effect. See also corrugations. + +Stüve diagram + +subtropical cyclone + +subtropical high + +summer + +sun dog +See parhelion. + +sunshine recorder + +sunshower +A meteorological phenomenon in which rain falls while the sun is shining. + +supercell + +surface boundary layer +The thin, lowermost layer of the atmosphere that is in direct contact with the ground or water surface, loosely defined as the layer below the standard height of anemometers, i.e. below 10 metres (33 ft). Friction effects are largely uniform at all depths within this layer, and wind speed and direction are primarily determined by local surface topography and by the vertical temperature distribution. It is a subdivision of the broader planetary boundary layer. + +surface weather analysis + +surface weather observation + +sustained wind + +synoptic scale meteorology + +== T == + +tail cloud +Also cauda. +A ragged band of cloud and/or fractus extending from a wall cloud toward the precipitation core. + +temperature +A physical quantity expressing the thermal motion of a substance, such as a mass of air in the atmosphere, and proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of the substance's constituent particles. Temperature is measured with a thermometer calibrated in one or more temperature scales: the Kelvin scale is the standard used in scientific contexts, but the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are more commonly used in everyday contexts and for weather forecasting. + +temperature gradient +A physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes within or across a particular system or location. It is typically expressed in units of degrees (on a particular temperature scale) per unit length; the SI unit is kelvin per meter (K/m). + +temperature inversion + +tephigram \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e88e87ce --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-21.md @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 22/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF) +A format for reporting current and forecast weather conditions, particularly as such information relates to aviation. Standard TAFs are issued by major civil airfields at least four times a day (every six hours) and generally apply to a 24- or 30-hour period and an area within approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from the center of an airport runway complex. TAFs complement and use similar encoding to METAR reports, but also take into account local geographic influences on weather. + +Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR) + +thermal +Also thermal column. +A column of rising air in the lower altitudes of the Earth's atmosphere. It is a form of atmospheric updraft created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by solar radiation, and an example of atmospheric convection. + +thermal wind +The vector difference between the geostrophic wind at two different altitudes in the atmosphere, i.e. the hypothetical vertical wind shear that would exist if the wind obeyed geostrophic balance in the horizontal direction while atmospheric pressure obeyed hydrostatic balance in the vertical direction. The name is derived from the notion of a theoretical wind that blows parallel to the thickness contours plotted on a thickness chart, where the thickness of the layers between isobaric surfaces is proportional to the mean temperature, with high values corresponding to warm air and low values to cold air. + +thermo-hygrograph +Also hygrothermograph. +An instrument that combines the functions of a thermograph and a hygrograph by recording both temperature and humidity simultaneously on a single chart. + +thermodynamic diagrams + +thermometer +An instrument used to measure temperature or a temperature gradient. + +thermosphere + +thunder +The sound produced as a result of the sudden thermal expansion of air within and surrounding the channel of a lightning discharge. This expansion creates an audible supersonic shock wave that, depending on the listener's distance from the source, can range from a sharp, loud crack (sometimes called a thunderclap or peal of thunder) to a deep, sustained rumble. Thunder is a defining feature of thunderstorms. + +thundershower +A relatively weak thunderstorm. + +thundersnow + +thunderstorm +Also electrical storm and lightning storm. +A storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder. Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, often along a front. They can develop in any geographic location but are most common in the mid-latitudes. They are usually accompanied by strong winds and heavy rain; especially strong or severe thunderstorms can produce some of the most dangerous weather phenomena, including large hail, downbursts, and tornadoes. + +thunderstorm asthma + +tilted updraft + +tornado +Also twister, whirlwind, and cyclone. +A rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both a parent cloud and the surface of the Earth. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible in the form of a condensed funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, usually during a thunderstorm, with a cloud of rotating dust and debris beneath it. The most extreme tornadoes can achieve wind speeds of more than 480 km/h (300 mph), span more than 3.2 km (2.0 mi) in diameter, and stay on the ground for more than 100 km (dozens of miles) before dissipating. + +Tornado Alley + +tornado climatology + +tornado debris signature (TDS) +Also debris cloud or debris ball. +An area of high reflectivity detected by weather radar that is caused by large amounts of debris being lofted into the air, which is often indicative of a tornado. + +tornado emergency + +tornado family + +tornadogenesis + +tornado outbreak +The occurrence of multiple tornadoes (typically at least six to ten) spawned by the same synoptic scale weather system, usually within the same day and in the same region. + +tornado outbreak sequence +Also extended tornado outbreak. +A period of continuous or nearly continuous tornado activity consisting of a series of tornado outbreaks spanning multiple days, with very few or no days lacking outbreaks. + +tornado preparedness + +tornado vortex signature (TVS) +A rotation algorithm detected by weather radar that indicates the likely presence of a strong mesocyclone such as a tornado. Such signatures can be used to track the location and development of a tornadic rotation within a larger storm. + +tornado warning + +tornado watch + +Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) + +TORRO scale + +Totable Tornado Observatory (TOTO) + +trace +An amount of precipitation that is too small to reliably or accurately measure. + +training + +tropical cyclone +Variously hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, or simply cyclone. +A very large, rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center surrounded by a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and continuous spiral bands of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. Tropical cyclones develop almost exclusively over and derive their strength from warm tropical seas. The strongest systems can last for more than a week, span more than 1,600 km (1,000 mi) in diameter, and cause significant damage to coastal regions with powerful winds, storm surges, and concentrated precipitation that leads to flooding. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone may be referred to by different names and categorized within a variety of classes. + +tropical cyclone scales + +tropical cyclogenesis +The process by which a tropical cyclone develops and strengthens within the atmosphere. The mechanisms governing cyclone formation in the tropics are distinct from those that govern the development of subtropical and extratropical cyclones. + +tropical depression + +tropical disturbance + +tropical storm + +tropical wave + +tropics +The region of the Earth surrounding the Equator, generally delimited in latitude between the Tropic of Cancer (23°26' N) in the Northern Hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°26' S) in the Southern Hemisphere. + +tropopause +The boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere, on average situated approximately 17 km (11 mi) above equatorial regions and 9 km (5.6 mi) above the polar regions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-22.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a139cd654 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-22.md @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 23/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +troposphere +The lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, within which nearly all weather phenomena occur. The troposphere contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's total mass and 99% of its water vapor and aerosols. The average height of the troposphere above the Earth's surface varies between 6 and 18 km (3.7 and 11.2 mi) depending on latitude. + +trough +An elongated region of relatively low atmospheric pressure, often associated with a front. Troughs may exist at the surface or aloft or both; the lifting of moist air by convergent winds usually causes clouds and precipitation to follow immediately behind a trough. Under certain conditions, troughs may alternate with ridges in a high-amplitude pattern. + +trowal + +tsunami + +turbulence +Fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity, caused by excessive kinetic energy in parts of the fluid flow. + +twilight +1. The indirect illumination of the lower atmosphere caused by the scattering of sunlight when the Sun itself is not directly visible because it is below the horizon. +2. The time period during which such illumination occurs, either between astronomical dawn and sunrise or between sunset and astronomical dusk. + +TWISTEX +An acronym for Tactical Weather-Instrumented Sampling in/near Tornadoes EXperiment. + +typhoon +The local name for a tropical cyclone that occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, between 180° and 100°E in the Northern Hemisphere. + +== U == + +unstable air mass +Any air mass with high convective instability, characterized by dramatic vertical air currents. + +updraft +Also updraught and vertical draft. +Any vertical current of rising air in the atmosphere, often within a cloud, especially one originating from the tendency of warm air to ascend in altitude. Updrafts commonly develop when multiple smaller, more general ascending currents called thermals become concentrated and organized into a single flow, often as compensation for the development of a strong current of cold air moving in the opposite direction, known as a downdraft. Updrafts and downdrafts together are associated with the strong atmospheric convective forces that characterize multicell and supercell storm systems, and play important roles in the formation of tropical cyclones and tornadoes. + +upper-air chart + +upper-air sounding + +upper-level low + +upper-level outflow + +upslope fog + +urban heat island (UHI) +An urban or metropolitan area within which air temperatures are significantly warmer than in surrounding rural or uninhabited areas as a result of human activities, especially the artificial modification of land surfaces and the generation of waste heat by energy usage. Urban heat islands can greatly influence precipitation, air quality, and the likelihood of certain weather phenomena in the vicinity of large cities, though not all cities have a distinct urban heat island. + +US Standard Atmosphere + +University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) + +== V == + +valley breeze + +valley exit jet + +vertical draft +See updraft. + +vertically integrated liquid (VIL) +An estimate of the total mass of precipitation contained in a cloud, obtained by measuring the intensity of radar echoes returned from the atmosphere. + +vertical wind shear + +virga + +virtual temperature ( + + + + + T + + v + + + + + {\displaystyle T_{v}} + +) +The temperature of a moist air parcel at which a theoretical dry air parcel would have a total pressure and density equal to those of the moist parcel. + +visibility + +visual flight rules (VFR) +A set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going, as opposed to instrument flight rules, under which operation of the aircraft primarily occurs through referencing the onboard instruments rather than through visual reference to the ground and environs. + +Von Kármán constant + +Von Kármán vortex street + +Von Kármán wind turbulence model + +vortex +(pl.) vortices or vortexes +A region within a fluid in which the flow revolves around an axis line, which may be straight or curved. Vortices are a major component of turbulence and may be observed in many types of meteorological phenomena, including the winds surrounding a tropical cyclone, tornado, or dust devil. + +vorticity + +== W == + +wall cloud +Also murus and pedestal cloud. +A large, localized, persistent, and often abrupt lowering of cloud that develops beneath the surrounding base of a cumulonimbus cloud and from which tornadoes sometimes form. + +warm advection +The movement, by horizontal winds, of warm air into an area. Sometimes, low-level warm advection is erroneously referred as "overruning". + +warm front +A type of front located at the leading edge of a warmer air mass as it overtakes a cooler air mass that is moving more slowly in the same direction. Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts, which sometimes follow them, and the temperature difference between the air masses they separate is often greater. Stratiform clouds, fog, and steady rain with occasional thunderstorms often precede the boundary as it moves. In surface weather analysis, warm fronts are symbolized by a red line with semicircles pointing in the direction of travel. + +watch +A class of weather advisory issued by a meteorological agency or weather forecasting service to notify the public that conditions in the coverage area are favorable for the development of a particular form of hazardous or severe weather, though the hazardous weather itself is not currently present, e.g. a tornado watch or hazardous seas watch. Watches are usually issued for a large geographic area, often for one or more administrative jurisdictions (e.g. counties in the United States). A watch is the first stage of a weather alert, indicating the need for precautionary planning, preparedness, and taking steps to ensure that any further information communicated by the issuing service will be received. It is distinct from and often precedes a warning, which indicates the imminent approach of hazardous weather. + +water vapor +Water in its gaseous state. Water vapor is ubiquitous in the atmosphere, being continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation, and plays a major role in numerous meteorological processes. + +waterspout + +weak echo region (WER) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-23.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd3460253 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-23.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 24/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +weather +The state of the atmosphere at a given time and location. Weather is driven by a diverse set of naturally occurring phenomena, especially air pressure, temperature, and moisture differences between one place and another, most of which occur in the troposphere. + +weather balloon +Also sounding balloon. +A high-altitude balloon used to carry scientific instruments into the atmosphere, which then measure, record, and transmit information about meteorological variables such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind speed by means of a radiosonde or other measurement device, often one which is expendable. Weather balloons are only feasible in the lower atmosphere and typically do not exceed 40 kilometres (25 mi) in altitude; higher parts of the atmosphere are generally studied with sounding rockets or satellites. + +weather bomb +See explosive cyclogenesis. + +weather forecasting +The application of science and technology to predict the conditions of the atmosphere at a given time and location. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and then using meteorology to project how the atmosphere will change. Forecasting is important to a wide variety of human activities, including business, agriculture, transportation, recreation and general health and safety, because it can be used to protect life and property. + +weather front +See front. + +weather map +A map which displays various meteorological features across a particular area for a particular point or range of time. Weather maps often use symbols such as station models to conveniently present complicated meteorological data. They are used for both research and weather forecasting purposes. + +weather modification + +Weather Prediction Center (WPC) + +Weather Surveillance Radar (WSR) +1. In the United States, WSR-1, WSR-57, WSR-74, and WSR-88D. +2. In Canada, the Canadian weather radar network (WKR and CWMN). + +weather reconnaissance + +weather satellite + +weather spotting +The act of observing weather, often on the ground, for the purpose of reporting to a larger group or organization, such as the U.S. National Weather Service. + +weather station +Any facility, either on land or at sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions in order to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and/or climate. + +weather vane +Also wind vane and weathercock. +An instrument (often an architectural ornament) used to indicate the direction of the wind. + +Weatherwise +A photographically adorned general interest weather magazine that frequently publishes articles on tornadoes and other severe weather. + +wet-bulb temperature + +wet-bulb globe temperature + +wet season +An annual period of relatively high or frequent precipitation, during which most of a region's annual total rainfall (or snowfall) occurs and weather patterns are dominated by lengthy periods of low atmospheric pressure, extensive cloud cover, and high humidity. The term is primarily used in the tropics, in contrast to the dry season. + +whirlwind +Any vertically oriented rotating vortex of air that develops as a result of turbulent air currents created by heating and flow gradients. Examples include major whirlwinds such as tornadoes, waterspouts, and landspouts and minor whirlwinds such as gustnadoes and dust devils. + +wildfire + +willy-willy +See dust devil. + +wind +The bulk movement of air within the Earth's atmosphere. Wind occurs on a wide range of scales, from very strong thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes to milder local breezes lasting a few hours to global atmospheric circulations caused by the differential heating of the Equator and the poles and the Earth's rotation. Winds are often referred to by their strength and direction; the many types of wind are classified according to their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effects. + +wind chill +Also wind chill index and wind chill factor. +A meteorological index that estimates the effect of wind speed on the apparent temperature perceived by humans, particularly the decrease in human body temperature attributable to the movement of cold air. There is no universally agreed-upon formula for measuring or calculating wind chill, though it is commonly reported as a temperature. It is usually defined only for air temperatures at or below 10 °C (50 °F) and wind speeds above 4.8 km/h (3.0 mph). + +wind direction +The direction from which a wind originates; e.g. a northerly wind blows from the north to the south. Wind direction is usually reported using cardinal directions or in azimuth degrees measured clockwise from due north. Instruments such as windsocks, weather vanes, and anemometers are commonly used to indicate wind direction. + +wind gradient + +wind gust +A brief increase in the speed of the wind, usually lasting less than 20 seconds. Gusts are more transient than squalls. They are usually only reported by weather stations when the maximum or peak wind speed exceeds the average or sustained wind speed by 10–15 knots (12–17 mph). + +wind profiler + +wind shear +Sometimes used interchangeably with wind gradient. +Any difference in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal. + +wind speed +The measured speed of the air comprising a wind. Changes in wind speed are often caused by air parcels being exposed to pressure and temperature gradients in the atmosphere. Wind speed is measured with an anemometer, but may also be less precisely classified using the Beaufort scale. + +windsonde +A radiosonde specifically designed for determining wind conditions in the upper levels of the atmosphere, particularly one that transmits only pressure observations and not temperature or humidity data. + +windstorm +Any storm that produces or is characterized by very strong winds. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-24.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0779f67c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-24.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 25/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +windsock +A tapered conical tube made from a lightweight fabric, often brightly colored and hung loosely from a pole in an open area in order to serve as a simple visual indicator of wind speed and direction by filling with air as the wind blows. A windsock fills and points in the opposite direction from which the wind is blowing (e.g. if the wind is blowing from the west, the windsock will point east), and the angle at which it hangs from the pole can provide a basic approximation of wind speed (e.g. if the wind is very light, the windsock may hang limply at a shallow angle; if it is very strong, the windsock may point straight out from the pole and flap wildly). Windsocks are commonly employed at airports to provide useful real-time visual approximations of the wind's strength and direction to pilots. + +winter + +winter storm +Often used interchangeably with snowstorm. +1. Any storm which occurs during the local winter. +2. Any meteorological event in which varieties of precipitation which can only occur at low temperatures are formed, such as snow, sleet, or freezing rain. Such events are not necessarily restricted to the winter season but may occur in late autumn or early spring, or very rarely in the summer, as well. + +winter waterspout +Also snowspout. + +World Meteorological Organization (WMO) + +== X == + +X band + +== Y == + +yellow wind + +Younger Dryas + +== Z == + +Z-R relation + +Zdr + +zastrugi +See sastrugi. + +zephyr + +zonal flow + +Zonda wind + +zud +Also spelled dzud. + +== See also == +Outline of meteorology +Timeline of meteorology +Glossary of climate change +Glossary of tornado terms +Glossary of tropical cyclone terms +List of weather instruments + +== References == + +== External links == +"AMS Glossary". American Meteorological Society. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a118ef8f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 4/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +catabatic wind +See katabatic wind. + +ceiling +A measure of the height above the Earth's surface of the base of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that covers more than half of the sky (more than four oktas). An "unlimited" ceiling means either that the sky is mostly free of cloud cover or that the clouds are sufficiently high so as not to impede aircraft operation by visual flight rules. + +ceiling balloon +Also pilot balloon or pibal. +A type of weather balloon used by meteorologists to determine the height of the cloud base above ground level during daylight hours by measuring the time it takes for the balloon, released from the ground and rising at a known rate of ascent, to begin to disappear into the clouds. + +ceiling projector +A type of cloud-height indicator that uses a searchlight to project a beam of light vertically onto a cloud base (similar to a ceilometer), with the height of the illuminated spot then calculated by the observer using a clinometer or alidade. + +ceilometer +An instrument that uses a laser transmitter or other light source and a collocated receiver to determine the height of a cloud ceiling or cloud base overhead, or to measure the concentration of aerosols within the atmosphere. + +cell +1. Any atmospheric circulation feature that is more or less closed, occurring at any of number of scales, including massive latitudinally oriented circulations such as Hadley cells; mesoscale motions that characterize cellular convection and cause the formation of cellular clouds; and storm cells formed by updraft and/or downdraft loops within a thunderstorm. +2. In weather radar, a local maximum in radar reflectivity that undergoes a life cycle of growth and decay, and which often displays an identifiable structure in radar returns. Cells in ordinary convective thunderstorms typically last 20 to 30 minutes, but may form longer-lasting multicell storms or supercells. + +cellular cloud +A mesoscale organization of convective activity in the form of a quasi-regular pattern of clouds behaving as individual convective cells, often stretching horizontally for tens of kilometers. Such patterns may be composed of open or closed cells or both: the open cells consisting of a ring of cumulus with a clear center, and the closed cells filled with stratocumulus surrounded by a clear rim. + +Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms (CAPS) +Develops techniques for computer-based prediction of high-impact local weather, such as individual spring and winter storms, using Doppler weather radar and other sources. Based in Oklahoma, United States. + +central dense overcast (CDO) +The large, centralized, contiguous area of thunderstorms surrounding the rotational center of a strong tropical or subtropical cyclone. When a cyclone reaches sufficient intensity, a distinguishable eye may develop within the CDO. The strongest winds and heaviest rainfall are usually found beneath the coldest cloud tops in the CDO. + +central pressure +The atmospheric pressure at the center of a recognizable high or low-pressure area at any given instant, i.e. the highest pressure in a high or the lowest pressure in a low. + +ceraunometer +An instrument used for counting the number of lightning discharges within a specific radius. + +chinook wind +A warm, dry föhn wind formed by a rainstorm dropping its precipitation onto the windward side of a mountain, thus drying the air mass before it blows across the leeward side, drops in elevation, and warms by adiabatic heating. Common in the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada, a chinook can cause temperatures to rise from −48 °C (−54.4 °F) to 9 °C (48.2 °F) in 24 hours, an increase of 57 °C (103 °F). + +circulation +Common short form of atmospheric circulation. + +cirrocumulus (Cc) +A genus of cloud with both stratiform and cumuliform characteristics, signifying atmospheric convection, and appearing as white, patchy, transient sheets of ripples or tufts organized in undulating rows, usually between 5 and 12 km (16,000 and 39,000 ft) above sea level. Though composed mainly of ice crystals, cirrocumulus is distinguished from cirrus and cirrostratus by the presence of small amounts of supercooled liquid water droplets. + +cirrostratus + +cirrus (Ci) +A genus of cloud characterized by thin, wispy, feather-like strands that appear white or light grey in color and form at very high altitudes, usually between 5 and 13.7 km (16,000 and 45,000 ft) above sea level. Cirrus clouds often develop from the outflow of cumulonimbus clouds in advance of fronts or thunderstorms, and therefore may indicate the imminent arrival of precipitation. + +clear ice +A type of solid precipitation which forms when relatively large drops of water are supercooled into a dense, transparent coating of ice without air or other impurities. It is similar to glaze and hard rime and, when formed on the ground, is often called black ice. + +clear-air turbulence + +climate +The statistics of weather in a given region over long periods of time, measured by assessing long-term patterns of variation in temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind, precipitation, and other meteorological variables. The climate of a particular location is generated by the interactions of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere and strongly influenced by latitude, altitude, and local topography. Climates are often classified according to the averages or typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. + +climatology +Also climate science. +A branch of the atmospheric sciences that studies climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over an extended to indefinite period of time. Climatology incorporates aspects of oceanography, geology, biogeochemistry, and the related field of meteorology to understand the long-term dynamics of climate-influencing phenomena and to produce climate models which can be used to estimate past climates and predict future climates. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d3340395b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 5/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cloud +An aerosol consisting of a visible mass of minute liquid droplets, frozen crystals or other particles suspended in the atmosphere. Water or various other chemicals may compose the droplets and crystals. On Earth, clouds are formed as a result of the saturation of an air mass when it is cooled to its dew point or when it gains sufficient moisture (usually in the form of water vapor) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature. There are many different types of clouds, which are classified and named according to their shape and altitude. + +cloud atlas +A pictorial key to the classification and nomenclature of clouds. + +cloud base +The lowest altitude of the visible portion of a cloud. + +cloud bow +See fogbow. + +cloud cover +The obscuration of all or part of the sky by clouds as observed from a particular location, or the specific fraction of the sky obscured by clouds as measured in oktas. + +cloud drop effective radius + +cloud genus +See cloud type. + +cloud iridescence +Also irisation. +A type of photometeor consisting of colorful iridescent patterns appearing most commonly near the semi-transparent edges of thin clouds such as cirrus and altocumulus that are in the general proximity of the Sun or Moon. They are caused by the diffraction of sunlight or moonlight by thin, uniform layers of very small water droplets or ice crystals. + +cloud species +Any of a set of 14 Latin terms used to describe the shape and internal structure of tropospheric clouds. Cloud species are subdivisions of cloud genera and are themselves further subdivided into cloud varieties. + +cloud tag + +cloud type +Also cloud genus. +Any of a set of Latin names used to classify and identify clouds occurring in the troposphere, typically by characteristics such as their altitude, shape, and convective activity. A set of 10 or 12 traditional cloud types defined by the World Meteorological Organization and further subdivided into cloud species and cloud varieties is widely used in meteorology. Other classification systems have proposed many additional types. + +cloud variety + +cloudburst +A colloquial term used to describe an excessive precipitation event, characterized by brief, sudden, exceptionally heavy rain and/or hail falling from a cloud, typically as part of a thunderstorm associated with violent upward and downward convective currents. + +col +Also saddle point and neutral point. +The point of intersection of a trough and a ridge in the pressure pattern of a weather map. It generally takes the shape of a saddle in which the air pressure is slightly higher than that within the low-pressure regions but still lower than that within the anticyclonic zones. + +cold front +A type of front located at the leading edge of a cooler air mass as it replaces a warmer air mass. Cold fronts lie within a sharp surface trough of low pressure and the temperature difference between the air masses they separate can exceed 30 °C (86 °F). When enough moisture or instability is present, lines of rain or thunderstorms may accompany the boundary as it moves. In surface weather analysis, cold fronts are symbolized by a blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of travel. + +cold wave +Also cold spell and cold snap. +A period of weather characterized by excessively low temperatures, which may or may not also be accompanied by changes in humidity. Very cold weather is often only referred to as a cold wave if the temperature, or the rate at which the temperature decreases within a given time period, is abnormal relative to the typical climate for a given location during a given season. Contrast heat wave. + +cold-core low + +Colorado low +A type of low-pressure area that forms in southeastern Colorado or northeastern New Mexico, in the United States, and then proceeds to move east across the Great Plains, often producing heavy snow and ice when occurring in the winter. + +convection +See atmospheric convection. + +convective available potential energy (CAPE) +A measure of the maximum kinetic energy per unit mass that a rising air parcel could hypothetically acquire by remaining warmer and less dense than the surrounding air<; more specifically, the integrated amount of work that the upward buoyancy force would perform on a given mass of air if it rose vertically through the entire atmosphere, typically expressed in Joules per kilogram (J/kg). CAPE exists so long as a given air parcel can ascend and still remain warmer than the surrounding air. This is possible if the parcel is moist, because water vapor releases heat as it condenses, which can slow the parcel's rate of cooling and thus keep it warmer than surrounding air up to some definite height. The repeated ascent of relatively warm and moist air can stimulate the formation of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds and drive the development of thunderstorms. CAPE is thus commonly interpreted as the capacity of the atmosphere to support the vertical movement of air (i.e. atmospheric convection), as an indicator of convective instability, or as a rough measure of the likelihood or potential intensity of storms. Values of CAPE in environments conducive to severe thunderstorms are commonly in the thousands of Joules per kilogram. + +convective condensation level + +convective inhibition (CIN) + +convective instability +The inability of an air mass to resist vertical motion. In a stable atmosphere vertical movement of air is generally difficult, whereas in an unstable atmosphere vertical disturbances can be quite exaggerated, resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity that may lead to extensive vertical clouds, storms, and severe weather. + +convective outlooks + +convective storm detection + +convergence +A pattern of fluid flow that brings about a net inflow of fluid elements into a region, in either the atmosphere or the ocean, accompanied by compensating vertical motion. When convergence occurs in the lower atmosphere, generally below about 550 hectopascals (0.54 atm), the compensatory air motion is upward, with inflow gradually changing to outflow at higher altitudes; when it occurs in the upper atmosphere, the air motion is downward, with divergence near the surface. + +convergence zone \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7f89864e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 6/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +corona +An optical phenomenon consisting of apparent concentric, pastel-colored rings around a bright celestial object (such as the Sun or the Moon), which are produced by the diffraction of light by individual water droplets or sometimes small ice crystals in a cloud or on a foggy glass surface. Coronae differ from halos in that the latter are formed by refraction from comparatively large particles. + +crepuscular rays + +crosswind +Any wind that moves in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction of travel of a reference object, such as an airplane. + +Crow instability +Also vortex Crow instability. +An inviscid line-vortex instability most commonly observed in the skies behind large aircraft such as the Boeing 747. It occurs when the wingtip vortices interact with contrails from the engines, producing characteristic visual distortions in the shapes of the contrails. + +cumuliform +Of or relating to heaped, "puffy" clouds, such as cumulus or cumulonimbus, that form as a result of atmospheric convection. + +cumulonimbus + +cumulus (Cu) +A genus of cloud characterized by low-level "puffy" or "cotton-like" forms with flat bases (generally opaque white in color but sometimes with grey undersides), which occur individually or multiply in a variety of distinct subforms, usually at altitudes less than 2 km (6,600 ft) above sea level. Cumulus clouds normally produce little or no precipitation, but can develop into precipitation-bearing clouds such as cumulonimbus when influenced by atmospheric instability, moisture, and temperature gradients. + +cumulus congestus + +cumulus humilis + +cumulus mediocris + +cyclone +Any large-scale air mass characterized by inward spiraling winds which circulate around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure. Cyclones can form over land or water, can vary in size from mesocyclones such as tornadoes to synoptic-scale phenomena such as tropical cyclones and polar vortices, and may transition between tropical, subtropical, and extratropical phases. Contrast anticyclone. + +cyclonic rotation + +cyclogenesis +The development or strengthening of a cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere. Cyclogenesis may refer to a number of different processes that occur under a variety of conditions and at a variety of scales, all of which result in the formation of some sort of cyclone; for instance, tornadoes are a type of mesocyclone whose development may be variously described as cyclogenesis or, more specifically, tornadogenesis. Contrast anticyclogenesis. + +== D == + +dark adaptor goggles +Also red adaptation goggles. +A type of specialized eyewear used by meteorologists and astronomers for adapting the eyes to the dark prior to an observation made at night, or for aiding with identification of clouds during bright sunshine or when there is a glare from snow. + +dawn +Also daybreak. +The first appearance of sunlight in the eastern sky before sunrise, or the time that marks the beginning of the morning twilight. + +daytime +The period of the day between sunrise and sunset, during which any given point on the Earth experiences natural illumination from especially direct sunlight, known as daylight. + +dBZ +Abbreviation of decibel relative to Z + +debris cloud +See tornado debris signature. + +deepening +A decrease in the central and surrounding sea-level pressure within the circulation of a pressure system (usually a low-pressure system) over a short period of time, with the result that mass is exported from the total air column overlying the system faster than it is supplied. Deepening of a low is commonly accompanied by the intensification of its cyclonic circulation and hence its winds, and the term is frequently used to imply cyclogenesis. Contrast filling. + +deflation +The removal of snow, dust, sand, or other loose material from a surface by the action of the wind. + +deformation +The rate of change of shape of a fluid body such as an air mass. This quantity is very important in the formation of atmospheric fronts, in the explanation of cloud shapes, and in the diffusion of materials and properties through the atmosphere. + +degree-day +A measure of the difference between the mean daily temperature and a specified reference temperature for a given day. For a specified period, e.g. a month or a year, the number of degree-days is the sum of all degree-days within that period. + +dense fog +An advisory issued by the U.S. National Weather Service to caution the public about the possibility that horizontal visibility may be reduced by dense fog to 0.25 miles (0.40 km) or less. + +depression +Any area of low atmospheric pressure at a given level in the atmosphere; i.e. a "low" or trough. The term is used especially frequently to refer to an early stage in the development of a tropical cyclone during which the disturbance is only weakly developed or poorly organized; see tropical depression. + +derecho +A type of storm that produces widespread, straight-lined sustained winds that are associated with severe thunderstorms. + +dew +Liquid water droplets that commonly appear on thin, exposed surfaces in the morning or evening due to the condensation of atmospheric moisture on radiatively cooled surfaces. When temperatures are low enough, the water droplets freeze into ice particles known as frost. + +dew point (Td) +Also dewpoint or dew-point. +The temperature to which an air parcel must be cooled, at constant pressure and moisture content, in order for saturation to occur. Continued cooling below the dew point will cause condensation of water droplets if atmospheric conditions are favorable. Dew point is often used as a proxy by which to indicate the moisture content of the air. + +dew point depression (T–Td) +The difference between the actual temperature and the dew point at a certain altitude in the atmosphere. A small dew point depression indicates more moisture and higher relative humidity, which in the lower troposphere can result in low cloud bases and lifted condensation levels, which are important factors contributing to the development of severe thunderstorms. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..228e3ffa4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 7/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +diabatic process +Also non-adiabatic process. +Any thermodynamic process in which the temperature of an air parcel changes as a result of the transfer of energy (e.g. heat) between the parcel and its surroundings, as opposed to an adiabatic process, in which the temperature changes without any such exchange. Most thermodynamic processes near the Earth's surface are diabatic, owing to the continual mixing of air and turbulence. + +Diablo wind + +diamond dust +A ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. Because it generally forms in sub-freezing temperatures beneath otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, diamond dust is sometimes referred to as clear-sky precipitation. + +diffluence +The elongation of a fluid body, such as an air mass, normal to the flow (streamline divergence). It is a flow pattern of deformation. + +diffuse sky radiation +Also simply diffuse radiation. +The component of incoming solar radiation that is scattered from the direct solar beam by molecules of air, aerosols, clouds, or particulate matter in the atmosphere and subsequently reaches the Earth's surface in nearly equal amounts from nearly all parts of the sky during daylight. + +direct circulation +A closed, vertically distributed thermal circulation in the atmosphere, in which warm, lighter air rises and cold, denser air sinks (or, equivalently, a system in which the rising motion occurs at a higher potential temperature than the sinking motion). Such a cell converts heat energy to potential energy and then to kinetic energy. Contrast indirect circulation. + +discontinuity +A horizontal zone across which temperature, humidity, wind speed, or any other meteorological variable changes abruptly, such as a front. + +disdrometer +A scientific instrument used to measure the size distribution and velocity of falling hydrometeors such as raindrops. + +diurnal +Occurring or varying in the course of a solar day (i.e. daily; completed within and recurring every 24 hours), or during the local daytime. + +diurnal variation +Also diurnal range. +The range between the maximum and minimum values of a meteorological quantity (e.g. temperature, pressure, relative humidity) observed during the course of a solar day. + +Dobson unit (DU) +A unit of measurement used to describe the quantity of a trace gas (primarily atmospheric ozone concentrations) present in a vertical column of the atmosphere. It is defined as the thickness (in units equivalent to 10 μm) of the layer of pure gas which would be formed if all of the gas molecules in the column could be collected on the surface at standard temperature and pressure. + +doldrums +See Intertropical Convergence Zone. + +Doppler on Wheels (DOW) + +Doppler weather radar + +downburst +A surface-level wind system that emanates from an elevated point source and blows radially in all directions upon making contact with the ground. Downbursts are created when rain-cooled air descends rapidly, and can produce very strong damaging winds. They are often confused with tornadoes, although a tornado causes air to move inward and upward whereas a downburst directs it downward and outward. Microbursts, macrobursts, and heat bursts are all types of downburst. + +downdraft + +drifting snow +Particles of snow lifted by the wind to a modest height, generally less than 1.8 metres (6 ft) above the ground. Drifting snow does not significantly reduce visibility at eye level below 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), in contrast to blowing snow. + +drizzle +A type of light precipitation consisting of liquid water droplets which are smaller than ordinary raindrops, generally less than 0.05 millimetres (0.002 in) in diameter and falling at a rate of less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in) per day. + +drought +Also drouth. +Any prolonged period of below-average precipitation in a given region that results in shortages in the local water supply, whether of atmospheric, surface water, or ground water. Droughts can last for months or even years, and may be declared after as few as 15 days; annual or seasonal decreases in precipitation, such as dry seasons in the tropics, are sometimes called droughts, though a true drought is by definition abnormal or irregular. Drought conditions result from the confluence of a wide variety of climatic factors and may be exacerbated by hot temperatures; in turn, droughts may increase the likelihood of wildfires. + +dry lightning +Lightning associated with a dry thunderstorm. + +dry line +Also dryline. +A synoptic-scale boundary between moist air and dry air, generally subtler than a true front but still inherently unstable, because humid air is less dense than dry air at the same temperature and pressure. The term often refers in particular to the transient line running approximately north–south through the Great Plains of central North America, where warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico meets dry air from the western United States, though dry lines also occur on other continents. The North American dry line regularly advances eastward during the daytime and retreats westward at night as changes in temperature affect surface-level mixing of the air masses. Convective activity commonly develops along dry lines, generally on the moist side; in the spring and summer, the dry line plays an important role in the development of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes over the central United States. + +dry microburst + +dry punch +Meteorological slang for a synoptic-scale or mesoscale weather process. A dry punch that occurs near the Earth's surface may result in a dry line bulge, whereas a dry punch aloft may increase the potential for severe thunderstorms. + +dry season +An annual period of relatively low or infrequent precipitation, during which weather patterns are typically dominated by lengthy periods of high atmospheric pressure, high temperatures, and low humidity. The term is primarily used in the tropics, in contrast to the wet season. + +dry thunderstorm +Also heat storm. +A thunderstorm that produces thunder and lightning but in which most or all of its precipitation evaporates before reaching the ground. Dry thunderstorms occur necessarily in dry conditions, and their lightning strikes, sometimes referred to as dry lightning, are a major cause of wildfires. + +dual polarization weather radar + +dusk + +dust devil \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1cb412d6b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 8/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +dust storm +Also duster or duststorm. +A meteorological phenomenon characterized by very strong winds that blow dust-filled air over an extensive area. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose dirt, sand, and/or small rocks from a dry surface into the atmosphere, drastically reducing visibility. Though the term is sometimes restricted to storms occurring over normally arable land suffering from drought, it is also used interchangeably with sandstorm and haboob. + +== E == + +echo +On a radar display, the appearance of the radio signal that is scattered or reflected back from a target. The distinct characteristics of a radar echo can be used to identify the distance and velocity of the target with respect to the signal source as well as the target's size, shape, and composition. + +eddy +The swirling motion of a fluid and the reverse current created when the flow regime experiences turbulence, such as when an obstacle blocks part of the path of flow. + +Ekman layer +The layer in a fluid in which there is a force balance between the pressure-gradient force, the Coriolis force, and turbulent drag. Ekman layers occur in both the atmosphere and the ocean. + +Ekman number + +Ekman spiral + +Ekman transport + +energy-helicity index (EHI) + +El Niño +The warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), associated with the annual development of a band of warm ocean water in the eastern equatorial Pacific, which brings low pressure and heavy rainfall to the coasts of Central and South America. The El Niño phase of the cycle may last between two and seven years, with local weather patterns recurring every year. The cool phase of the ENSO is called La Niña. + +El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) +An irregular long-term periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean which affects the climate of most of the world but especially the tropics and subtropics in a cycle lasting years or decades. The phenomenon, a consequence of the Walker circulation, is marked by two phases: a warming phase, El Niño, during which sea temperatures are above average over a large part of the eastern Pacific Ocean, driving high pressure and dry weather in Asia and low pressure and heavy precipitation in the Americas; and a cooling phase, La Niña, during which sea temperatures are below average in the eastern Pacific and the reverse weather pattern occurs. Each phase can last for several years, with local seasonal weather patterns recurring predictably, though there are also long intervals of "neutral" or average conditions when neither El Niño nor La Niña is active. + +electrometeor +Any visible or audible indicator of atmospheric electricity, including all types of lightning discharges, thunder, and aurorae. + +emagram +One of four thermodynamic diagrams used to display temperature lapse rate and moisture content profiles in the atmosphere. Emagrams have axes of temperature (T) and pressure (p). Temperature and dew point data from radiosondes are plotted on these diagrams to allow calculations of convective stability or convective available potential energy. + +Enhanced Fujita scale (EF scale) + +ensemble forecasting +A weather forecasting technique in which a numerical weather model generates a set of multiple (often several dozen) forecasts, each based on a slightly different set of initial atmospheric conditions, intended to provide an indication of the range of possible future states of the atmosphere. If the forecasts are consistent, they are usually considered reliable; if they diverge, meteorologists may feel less confident in making specific predictions for the forecast area. + +entrainment +The process by which the air surrounding a developing cloud is mixed into an ascending convection current within the cloud, which has the effect of reducing the current's buoyancy. If very dry air is introduced, evaporation of the cloud droplets may cause the cloud system to dissipate completely. + +Environment and Climate Change Canada + +environmental lapse rate (ELR) +The actual rate at which atmospheric temperature changes with altitude, as measured by a radiosonde; this is in contrast to the rate predicted by the theoretical process lapse rate. On average, the temperature of the troposphere decreases with height at a rate of 6.5 °C (11.7 °F) per kilometre, but this rate is influenced by many factors. In general, the ELR is lower nearer to the ground surface, during the local winter, and over continental landmasses. + +Environmental Modeling Center (EMC) + +Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) +The predecessor agency (1965–1970) to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1970–present). + +equivalent potential temperature ( + + + + + θ + + e + + + + + {\displaystyle \theta _{e}} + +) + +equivalent temperature ( + + + + + T + + e + + + + + {\displaystyle T_{e}} + +) +The temperature obtained when an air parcel expands adiabatically, at constant pressure, until its water vapor content has been condensed out and the latent heat of condensation is available to raise the air temperature. + +Eulerian equations + +European windstorm + +evaporimeter +Also atmometer. +An instrument used to measure the rate of evaporation of water into the atmosphere. The most basic design consists of an open, ground-level evaporation pan from which water is allowed to evaporate freely. + +explosive cyclogenesis + +extratropical cyclone + +extreme weather +Any weather that is unexpected, unusual, unpredictable, unseasonal, or especially severe (i.e. weather at the extremes of an historical distribution). + +eye +A typically circular region at the center of a strong tropical cyclone that is the location of the storm's lowest barometric pressure. The eye is usually characterized by light winds, clear skies, and mostly calm weather, in stark contrast to the severe weather that occurs in the surrounding eyewall and the rest of the storm. + +eye of the wind +A nautical term used to describe the direction from which the wind is blowing. + +eyewall +Also eye wall. +The sharply defined inner edge of the ring of cumulonimbus clouds surrounding the eye of a cyclone, where the storm's most intense convective activity and strongest updrafts typically occur, and therefore usually also the heaviest precipitation, highest sustained wind speeds, and most violent thunderstorms. See also wall cloud. + +== F == + +fall wind +See katabatic wind. + +Fata Morgana \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a693b655e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 9/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +fetch +Also fetch length. +The length of water over which a given wind blows. Fetch length and wind speed together determine the size of the waves that form on the surface of a body of water; the longer the fetch and the stronger the wind, the more wind energy is imparted to the water surface and the larger the resulting sea state. + +field mill +A scientific instrument used to measure the strength of electric fields in the atmosphere. + +fire whirl +Also fire devil and fire tornado. +A whirlwind induced by a fire and often at least partially composed of flame or ash. They are usually associated with very large wildfires. Fire whirls are seldom classified as true tornadoes, as their vorticity usually derives from turbulent surface winds and heat-induced lifting rather than from a tornadic mesocyclone aloft. + +firestorm +A very large wildfire or other conflagration which because of its intensity is able to create and sustain its own storm-force winds. Firestorms develop when a convective updraft of hot air rising from the burning area draws in strong wind gusts from all directions, which supply the fire with additional oxygen and thereby induce further combustion. They are often associated with flammagenitus clouds and fire whirls. + +flammagenitus +Also pyrocumulus and fire cloud. + +flash flood +Any flood which very rapidly inundates low-lying areas such as washes, rivers, dry lakes, and basins, especially one which recedes again in less than six hours. Flash flooding can be caused by heavy rain associated with severe weather, large amounts of meltwater from melting ice or snow, or the sudden collapse of a natural ice or debris dam. + +flash freezing +The process by which objects such as liquid hydrometeors are cooled below their freezing point very quickly, typically upon being subjected to extremely cold atmospheric temperatures or by making contact with a frozen surface. + +flood +An overflow of water which submerges land that is usually dry. Flooding may occur when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, or oceans escape their boundaries by overtopping or puncturing levees, or it may occur when precipitation accumulates on saturated ground more rapidly than it can either infiltrate or run off. + +flumen +Also beaver's tail. + +fog +A visible aerosol of minute water droplets or ice crystals that is suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. Fog is often considered a type of low-lying cloud and is heavily influenced by local topography, nearby bodies of water, and wind conditions. + +fogbow +Also white rainbow, mist bow, and cloud bow. +An optical phenomenon in which a whitish or faintly colored primary rainbow, often with red and blue edges, is visible on a background of fog or mist at the observer's anti-solar point. It is caused by the refraction, reflection, and diffraction of light from the Sun or Moon by small water droplets with diameters less than 100 micrometres (0.004 in). + +föhn wind +Also foehn wind. +A type of warm, dry, downslope wind that occurs in the lee of a mountain range. + +forward-flank downdraft (FFD) +Also front-flank downdraft. + +fractus (Fr) +Often used interchangeably with scud. +A cloud type or species consisting of ragged, irregularly shaped patches or shreds of cumulus or stratus. + +frazil ice +Tiny clusters of ice crystals that form seasonally in supercooled waters in rivers, lakes, and oceans, or wherever conditions are made favorable by vertical mixing or turbulence such as that caused by waves and currents, which prevents the crystals from freezing into sheet ice. It is common in the polar regions, often forming on the downwind side of leads and in polynyas, and in certain conditions may take on an oily or "greasy" appearance. + +free atmosphere +The upper levels of the atmosphere, beyond the planetary boundary layer, where the effects of surface heating and friction may be assumed to be absent. It thus approximately corresponds to that part of the atmosphere that is above the altitude at which the wind becomes geostrophic. + +freezing drizzle +A type of precipitation in which drizzle consisting of supercooled liquid water droplets, often falling through a temperature inversion in the lower atmosphere, freezes upon impact with the ground or other cold surfaces to form a coat of glaze ice. Compare freezing rain. + +freezing fog +A condition in which supercooled water droplets comprising fog freeze either while suspended in the air, filling the air with visible ice crystals similar to very light snow, or upon contact with sub-freezing surfaces, forming a coating of rime and/or glaze ice. + +freezing rain +Liquid droplets of rain that become supercooled while falling through a sub-freezing air mass and then freeze upon impact with any surface they encounter; the resulting glaze ice can accumulate to a thickness of several centimeters. Unlike mixed rain and snow, ice pellets, and hail, freezing rain exists entirely as a liquid until it hits a surface. + +freshet +1. A springtime thaw of snow and ice that produces a significant local inundation of rivers, streams, small watercourses, and floodplains as the snowpack melts within a watershed. +2. Any temporarily inundated or rapidly flowing watercourse or newly created (and often ephemeral) drainage channel resulting from snowmelt. + +front +A boundary separating two masses of air of different density and usually also of different temperature and humidity. Weather fronts are the principal cause of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics, often bringing with them clouds, precipitation, and changes in wind speed and direction as they move. Types of fronts include cold fronts, warm fronts, and occluded fronts. + +frontogenesis +The meteorological process by which a weather front is created, usually as a result of the narrowing of one or more horizontal temperature gradients across the boundary between two adjacent air masses. Contrast frontolysis. + +frontolysis +The dissipation or weakening of an atmospheric weather front. Contrast frontogenesis. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4712b543e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteorology" +chunk: 10/25 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:09.813841+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +frost +A very thin layer of ice crystals on a solid surface, typically restricted to that which forms when water vapor in an atmosphere whose temperature is above freezing comes into contact with a surface whose temperature is below freezing. Frost may exhibit a great variety of forms. + +Fujita scale +Also simply called the F scale. + +funnel cloud +A funnel-shaped cloud associated with a rotating column of air and protruding from the base of a parent cloud but not reaching the ground or a water surface. Funnel clouds form most frequently in association with supercell thunderstorms and often develop into tornadoes. + +== G == + +gale +1. A strong surface wind, typically used as a descriptor in nautical contexts and variously defined based on speed. In the modern Beaufort scale, a gale is any sustained wind of Beaufort number 7 or greater, corresponding to near gale at 28–33 kn (52–61 km/h; 32–38 mph); gale at 34–40 kn (63–74 km/h); strong gale at 41–47 kn (76–87 km/h); and storm at 48–55 kn (89–102 km/h). +2. Any unusually strong wind. + +gale warning + +gap wind +A local, low-level wind that blows along a valley or through a col between mountains, often at speeds as high as 20–40 knots (37–74 km/h; 23–46 mph). + +general circulation + +geopotential height +A measure of the vertical distance or altitude above mean sea level that accounts for variations in gravitational potential as altitude and latitude change. In meteorology and atmospheric science, geopotential height is often used in place of ordinary altitude when calculating the primitive equations in numerical weather prediction and when creating atmospheric models. + +geostrophic wind +The theoretical wind that would result from an exact balance between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force (known as geostrophic balance). The true wind almost always differs from the geostrophic wind due to the influence of other forces such as friction from the ground. + +glaze +Also glazed frost. +A coating of smooth, clear ice, sometimes of considerable thickness, that forms when supercooled water, usually precipitated as freezing rain or freezing drizzle, freezes upon contact with the ground or other exposed surfaces where the temperature (and that of the lower atmosphere) is at or below 0 °C (32 °F). Glaze is denser, harder, and more transparent than rime and hoarfrost. + +GPS meteorology +A type of observational meteorology that interprets the effects of atmospheric properties such as total precipitable water vapor on the propagation of Global Positioning System (GPS) radio signals to derive information about the state of the local atmosphere. + +graupel +Also soft hail and snow pellets. +A type of precipitation that forms when supercooled water droplets are collected and freeze on falling snowflakes, forming balls of rime 2–5 mm (0.079–0.197 in) in diameter. Graupel is distinct from hail, small hail, and ice pellets. + +Great Salt Lake effect +A lake-effect snow that occurs in the lee of Utah's Great Salt Lake. + +grease ice +A stage in the formation of sea or lake ice in which a thin layer of densely clumped frazil ice crystals is prevented from freezing into a solid surface by the motion of the water, which gives the ice a characteristic soupy or "greasy" appearance similar to an oil slick. + +green flash +An optical phenomenon consisting of a momentary glimmer of green light occasionally observed near the upper limb of the Sun's apparent disk just as it disappears from view at sunset or just as it appears at sunrise. It is most likely to be seen where there is a low, clear, distant horizon, such as over the ocean. + +ground blizzard +A weather condition that occurs when loose snow or ice on the ground is lifted and blown into the air by strong winds. This can create low-visibility conditions even in the absence of precipitation. + +ground truth +Information, such as local weather conditions, provided by direct observation (i.e. empirical evidence) as opposed to information provided by inference. + +gust +A brief, sudden increase in the speed of the wind, usually lasting less than 20 seconds. Gusts are more transient than squalls and are followed by a lull or slowing of the wind speed. They are generally only reported by weather stations when the maximum wind speed exceeds the average wind speed by at least 10–15 knots (12–17 mph). + +gust front +See outflow boundary. + +gustnado +Also gust front tornado. +A relatively weak tornado associated with the outflow at the leading edge of a thunderstorm cell, and often occurring along a gust front. A debris cloud or dust whirl may indicate the presence of a gustnado. + +== H == + +haboob + +Hadley cell +Also tropical cell. + +hail +A type of solid precipitation that consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, usually 5–150 mm (0.20–5.91 in) in diameter, each of which is called a hailstone. Hail formation requires environments with strong, upward motion of air and low altitudes at which water freezes, which makes it possible within most thunderstorms. It is distinct from graupel and sleet or ice pellets. + +hailstorm +Any storm, usually a strong thunderstorm, which precipitates hail. + +Haines Index +Also Lower Atmosphere Severity Index. +A weather index that measures the potential for dry, unstable air to contribute to the development of large or erratic wildland fires. The index derives from data on the stability and moisture content of the lower atmosphere and is calculated over three ranges of atmospheric pressure. + +halo + +hard rime +A type of rime consisting of opaque, granular masses of ice deposited primarily on vertical surfaces by freezing fog. Hard rime is more compact and amorphous than soft rime and usually develops on windward surfaces exposed to high wind speeds and air temperatures between −2 and −8 °C (28 and 18 °F). + +Harmattan \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ce7498e42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,118 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 1/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of physics is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to physics, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including mechanics, materials science, nuclear physics, particle physics, and thermodynamics. For more inclusive glossaries concerning related fields of science and technology, see Glossary of chemistry terms, Glossary of astronomy, Glossary of areas of mathematics, and Glossary of engineering. + +== A == + +ab initio +A mathematical model which seeks to describe atomic nuclei by solving the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation for all constituent nucleons and the forces that exist between them. Such methods yield precise results for very light nuclei but become more approximate for heavier nuclei. + +Abbe number +Also called the V-number or constringence. +In optics and lens design, a measure of a transparent material's dispersion (a variation of refractive index versus wavelength). High values of V indicate low dispersion. + +absolute electrode potential +In electrochemistry, the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface). + +absolute humidity +The ratio of the water vapor in a sample of air to the volume of the sample. + +absolute motion + +absolute pressure +Is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. + +absolute scale +Any system of measurement that begins at a minimum, or zero point, and progresses in only one direction. The zero point of an absolute scale is a natural minimum, leaving only one direction in which to progress, whereas an arbitrary or "relative" scale begins at some point selected by a person and can progress in both directions. + +absolute zero +The theoretical lowest possible temperature, understood by international agreement as equivalent to 0 Kelvin or −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F). More formally, it is the theoretical lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, at which enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum values and the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion. + +absorption spectroscopy +Any of various spectroscopic techniques that measure the absorption of electromagnetic radiation due to its interaction with a sample. The sample absorbs energy, i.e. photons, from the radiating field. The intensity of the absorption varies as a function of frequency or wavelength, and this variation is the absorption spectrum. Absorption spectroscopy is performed across the electromagnetic spectrum. + +absorptivity + +accelerating expansion of the universe +The observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time. + +acceleration +The rate at which the velocity of a body changes with time, also the rate of change of the rate at which the position of a body changes with time. + +acceleration due to gravity +The acceleration on an object caused by the force of gravitation. + +accelerometer +An instrument used to measure the proper acceleration of a body irrespective of other forces. + +acoustics +The branch of physics dealing with the production, transmission, and effects of sound. + +adhesion +adhesion is what makes things stick together. +It's the force that allows tape to stick to a surface or glue to hold two objects together. Contrast cohesion. + +adiabatic cooling + +adiabatic heating + +adiabatic process +A process which occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred to the surroundings only as work. The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics. + +aerodynamics +The study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields. + +afocal system +An optical system that produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam, i.e. has an infinite effective focal length. This type of system can be created with a pair of optical elements where the distance between the elements is equal to the sum of each element's focal length ( + + + + d + = + + f + + 1 + + + + + + f + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle d=f_{1}+f_{2}} + +). + +air mass +1. In meteorology, a volume of air that is defined by its temperature and water vapor content. Air masses may cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles and generally adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them. They are often classified according to their latitude and their source regions. +2. In astronomy, the "amount of air that one is looking through" when observing a star or other celestial source from a vantage point that is within Earth's atmosphere. It is formulated as the integral of air density along the light ray. + +air mass coefficient +Defines the direct optical path length through the Earth's atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the path length vertically upwards, i.e. at the zenith. The air mass coefficient can be used to help characterize the solar spectrum after solar radiation has traveled through the atmosphere. + +albedo +The fraction of the total light incident on a reflecting surface, especially a celestial body, which is reflected back in all directions. + +alloy +A chemical mixture of a metal with one or more other metals or other elements. + +alpha decay +Also α-decay. +A type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle and thereby transforms or "decays" into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. + +alpha particle (α) +Also symbolized by α2+, He2+, and 42He2+. +A type of subatomic particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 ion. It has a charge of +2 e and a mass of 4 u. Alpha particles are classically produced in the process of radioactive alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways and given the same name. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e297fa1cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 2/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +alternating current (AC) +A form of electric current in which the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. Contrast direct current. + +ammeter +An instrument used to measure electric current. + +amorphous solid +A type of solid which does not have a definite geometric shape. + +ampere (A) +Often abbreviated as amp. +The SI base unit of electric current, defined as one coulomb of electric charge per second. + +amplifier +Also electronic amplifier or (informally) amp. +An electronic device that can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. By definition, an amplifier is any circuit that has a power gain greater than one. + +amplitude +The height of a wave as measured from its center (normal) position. + +angle of incidence +In geometric optics, the angle between a ray incident on a surface and the line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence, called the normal. The ray can be formed by any wave: optical, acoustic, microwave, X-ray, etc. + +angle of reflection +The change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media such that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound, and water waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular reflection. + +ångström (Å) +A unit of length primarily used to measure subatomic particles that is equal to 10−10 metres (one ten-billionth of a metre) or 0.1 nanometres. + +angular acceleration +The time rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α). Just like angular velocity, there are two types of angular acceleration: spin angular acceleration and orbital angular acceleration, representing the time rate of change of spin angular velocity and orbital angular velocity, respectively. Unlike linear acceleration, angular acceleration need not be caused by a net external torque. For example, a figure skater can speed up her rotation (thereby obtaining an angular acceleration) simply by contracting her arms inwards, which involves no external torque. + +angular displacement +The angle (in radians, degrees, or revolutions) through which a point revolving around a centre or line has been rotated in a specified sense about a specified axis. + +angular frequency (ω) +Also angular speed, radial frequency, circular frequency, orbital frequency, radian frequency, and pulsatance. +A scalar measure of rotation rate. It refers to the angular displacement per unit time (e.g. in the rotation of an astronomical body) or the rate of change of the phase of a sinusoidal waveform (e.g. in oscillations and waves), or as the rate of change of the argument of the sine function. Angular frequency (or angular speed) is the magnitude of the vector quantity that is angular velocity. The term angular frequency vector + + + + + + + ω + → + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\vec {\omega }}} + + is sometimes used as a synonym for the vector quantity angular velocity. + +One revolution is equal to 2π radians, hence + + + + + ω + = + + + + 2 + π + + T + + + = + + 2 + π + f + + , + + + {\displaystyle \omega ={{2\pi } \over T}={2\pi f},} + + +where: +ω is the angular frequency or angular speed (measured in radians per second), +T is the period (measured in seconds), +f is the ordinary frequency (measured in hertz) (sometimes symbolised with ν). + +angular momentum +Also (rarely) moment of momentum or rotational momentum. +The rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity–that is, the total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant. + +angular velocity (ω) +A measure of the rate at which an object rotates or revolves relative to another point, i.e. how fast the angular position or orientation of an object changes with time. There are two types of angular velocity: spin angular velocity refers to how fast a rigid body rotates with respect to its centre of rotation, whereas orbital angular velocity refers to how fast a rigid body's centre of rotation revolves about a fixed origin, i.e. the time rate of change of its angular position relative to the origin. Angular velocity is generally expressed as an angle or arc per unit time; e.g. the SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second (rad/sec), with the radian having a dimensionless value of unity, so that the unit is often written as 1/sec. Angular velocity is usually represented by the Greek letter omega (ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise. + +anion +A negatively charged ion. Contrast cation. + +annihilation +In particle physics, the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy and conservation of momentum are obeyed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf024f248 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,163 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 11/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +quark +An elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. + +quasiparticle + +== R == + +radiant energy + +radiation + +radioactive decay + +radionuclide +Also radioactive nuclide, radioisotope, or radioactive isotope. +Any nuclide possessing excess nuclear energy to the point that it is unstable. Such excess energy is emitted through any of several processes of radioactive decay, resulting in a stable nuclide or sometimes another unstable radionuclide which can then undergo further decay. Certain radionuclides occur naturally; many others can be produced artificially in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators, or radionuclide generators. + +radius of curvature + +redshift +A phenomenon which occurs when light seen coming from an object that is moving away from the observer is proportionally increased in wavelength or "shifted" to the red end of the visible light spectrum. + +refraction +The change in direction of a wave as it passes from one transmission medium to another or as a result of a gradual change in the medium. Though most commonly used in the context of refraction of light, other waves such as sound waves and fluid waves also experience refraction. + +refractive index + +relative atomic mass + +relativistic mechanics + +relativity + +rest frame + +rigid body +An idealization of a solid body in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of the external forces exerted on it. Even though such an object cannot physically exist due to relativity, objects can normally be assumed to be perfectly rigid if they are not moving near the speed of light. + +rotational energy +Also angular kinetic energy. +The kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object, which forms part of its total kinetic energy. + +rotational speed +Also speed of revolution. +The number of complete rotations or revolutions a rotating body makes per unit time. + +Rydberg formula +A formula used in atomic physics to describe the wavelengths of spectral lines of many chemical elements. + +== S == + +scalar +Any simple physical quantity that can be described by a single number (as opposed to vectors, tensors, etc., which are described by several numbers such as magnitude and direction) and is unchanged by coordinate system rotations or translations (in Newtonian mechanics) or by Lorentz transformations or central-time translations (in relativity). + +scattering +The general physical process by which some forms of radiation, such as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by one or more localised non-uniformities in the medium through which they pass. + +science +A systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. + +screw +A mechanism that converts rotational motion to linear motion, and a torque (rotational force) to a linear force; one of six classical simple machines. + +second law of thermodynamics + +Seebeck effect + +series circuit + +shadow matter + +shear modulus +Also modulus of rigidity. + +shear strength + +shear stress + +shortwave radiation (SW) +Radiant energy of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths in the visible, near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared spectra, the broadest definition of which includes all radiation with a wavelength between 0.1 μm and 5.0 μm. + +Schrödinger equation +A mathematical equation which describes the time evolution of wave functions in quantum mechanics. + +simple harmonic motion + +simple machine +A mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. In general, a set of six classical simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists drawing from Greek texts on technology are collectively defined as the simplest mechanisms that can provide mechanical advantage (also called leverage). + +siphon +A tube in an inverted U shape that causes a liquid to flow uphill without pumps, powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity. The term may also more generally refer to a wide variety of devices involving the flow of liquids through tubes. + +Snell's law + +solar cell + +solid + +solid mechanics + +solid-state physics + +solubility +The tendency of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (called a solute) to dissolve in another solid, liquid, or gaseous substance (called a solvent) to form a homogeneous solution of the solute in the solvent. The solubility of a solute fundamentally depends on the specific solvent as well as on temperature and pressure. + +sonoluminescence + +sound +A mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas and composed of frequencies within the range of human hearing. + +special relativity + +specific activity + +speed + +speed of light ( + + + + c + + + {\displaystyle c} + +) +A fundamental universal physical constant defined as exactly 299,792,458 metres per second, a figure that is exact because the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time. When not otherwise qualified, the term "speed of light" usually refers to the speed of light in vacuum, as opposed to the speed of light through some physical medium. + +speed of sound + +spherical aberration + +spin quantum number + +stable isotope ratio +The relative abundances of the atomically stable isotopes of a given element as they occur in nature or in a particular experimental context. + +stable nuclide +Any nuclide that is not radioactive and does not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay, as opposed to a radionuclide. When such nuclides are referred to in relation to specific elements, they are usually termed stable isotopes. + +standard atomic weight + +Standard Model +The theory of particle physics which describes three of the four known fundamental forces (the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the strong force, but not the gravitational force) and classifies all known elementary particles. + +standing wave + +state of matter + +statics +The branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force and torque, or "moment") on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity. + +statistical mechanics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb9dcaffe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,227 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 12/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +stiffness +The rigidity of an object, i.e. the extent to which it resists deformation in response to an applied force. + +strain +The transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration. A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body. + +strain hardening + +strength of materials + +stress +1. An applied force or system of forces that tends to strain or deform a physical body. +2. A measure of the internal forces acting within a deformable body. +3. A quantitative measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within a body on which internal forces act. + +stress–strain curve + +string duality + +string theory + +strong interaction +Also strong force and strong nuclear force. + +structural load + +subatomic particle +Any particle that is smaller than an atom. + +sublimation +The physical process by which matter is transformed directly from the solid phase to the gas phase without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. Sublimation is an endothermic phase transition that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substance's triple point in its phase diagram. + +superconductivity + +superconductor +A phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. + +superhard material + +superposition principle + +supersymmetry (SUSY) + +surface tension + +== T == + +temperature +A physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. + +tensile modulus + +tensile strength + +tesla (T) + +test particle + +theoretical physics +A branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems in order to rationalize, explain, and predict natural phenomena, as opposed to experimental physics, which relies on data generated by experimental observations. + +theory of everything (ToE) + +theory of relativity + +thermal conduction + +thermal equilibrium +A state in which there is no net flow of thermal energy between two physical systems when the systems are connected by a path permeable to heat. A system may also be said to be in thermal equilibrium with itself if the temperature within the system is spatially and temporally uniform. Systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are always in thermal equilibrium, but the converse is not always true. + +thermal radiation + +thermionic emission + +thermodynamic equilibrium + +thermodynamic free energy + +thermodynamics + +thermometer +An instrument used to measure temperature. + +third law of thermodynamics + +threshold frequency + +torque +Also moment or moment of force. +The tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object. + +total internal reflection + +toughness +The ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing. Material toughness is defined as the amount of energy per unit volume that a material can absorb before rupturing. It is also defined as the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed. + +trajectory +The path that a moving object follows through space as a function of time. + +transducer + +transmission medium + +transverse wave + +trigonometry +A branch of mathematics that studies triangles and the relationships between their sides and the angles between these sides. + +trimean + +triple point +The temperature and pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of a given substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. + +truncated mean + +== U == + +unbalanced forces +When there is unbalanced force(s); and as such, the object changes its state of motion. The object is not at equilibrium and subsequently accelerates. + +uncertainty principle +Any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position x and momentum p, cannot be known simultaneously. + +unified atomic mass unit +One dalton: one-twelfth the mass of an isolated neutral atom of the isotope 126C in its ground state. + +uniform motion + +uniform circular motion + +unit vector + +utility frequency +The frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in an electric power grid transmitted from a power plant to the end-user. + +== V == + +vacuum +An area of space which contains no matter. + +valence electron +An electron that is associated with an atom and can participate in the formation of a chemical bond. + +valence shell +The outermost electron shell of an atom. + +valley of stability + +Van de Graaff generator + +variable capacitor + +variable resistor + +vector +Any quantity that has both magnitude and direction. + +vector space +A mathematical structure formed by a collection of elements called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers called scalars. + +velocity ( + + + + v + + + {\displaystyle v} + +) +A vector quantity defined as the rate of change of the position of an object with respect to a given frame of reference. Velocity specifies both an object's speed and direction of motion (e.g. 60 kilometres per hour to the north). + +virtual image + +virtual particle + +viscoelasticity + +viscosity + +visible light +A form of electromagnetic radiation generally defined as the range of wavelengths visible to the average human eye. + +volt (V) +The SI derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force, defined as the difference in electric potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those two points. + +Volta potential + +voltage + +voltmeter +An instrument used for measuring the difference in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit. + +volt per metre + +volume + +== W == + +W and Z bosons + +watt (W) +A derived unit of power in the International System of Units (SI) defined as one joule per second. The watt measures the rate of energy conversion or transfer. + +wave +A disturbance or oscillation that travels through spacetime accompanied by a transfer of energy. + +wave equation + +wave function + +wave function collapse + +wave–particle duality + +wavelength +A measure of the distance traversed by a single spatial period of a sinusoidal wave, i.e. the distance over which the wave's shape repeats. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87146de19 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 13/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +weak interaction +Also weak force or weak nuclear force. +One of the four fundamental forces of nature, along with the strong nuclear force, electromagnetism, and gravitation. It is responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles and initiates the process known as hydrogen fusion in stars. + +weber (Wb) + +wedge +A triangular round tool in the form of a compound and portable inclined plane; one of six classical simple machines. + +weight + +wheel and axle +A wheel attached to an axle in such a way that the two parts rotate together and transfer forces between them; one of six classical simple machines. + +white body +A hypothetical idealized physical body that reflects all incident electromagnetic radiation completely and uniformly in all directions; the opposite of a black body. + +wind +The flow of gases on a large scale. + +work + +work function + +== X == + +X-ray +A high-energy photon (between 100 eV and 100 keV) with a wavelength shorter than that of ultraviolet radiation and longer than that of gamma radiation. + +== Y == + +Young’s modulus +A measure of the stiffness of a solid material which defines the relationship between mechanical stress and strain. + +== Z == + +Zeeman effect +The effect of splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field by the lifting of degeneracy in electronic states. + +== See also == +Outline of physics +Index of physics articles +Glossary of areas of mathematics +Glossary of astronomy +Glossary of biology +Glossary of calculus +Glossary of chemistry terms +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of probability and statistics + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..479566cda --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 3/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +anode +The electrode through which a conventional electric current flows into a polarized electrical device; the direction of current flow is, by convention, opposite to the direction of electron flow, and so electrons flow out of the anode. In a galvanic cell, the anode is the negative terminal or pole which emits electrons toward the external part of an electrical circuit. However, in an electrolytic cell, the anode is the wire or plate having excess positive charge, so named because negatively charged anions tend to move towards it. Contrast cathode. + +anti-gravity +A theory of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to the lack of weight under gravity experienced in free fall or orbit, or to balancing the force of gravity with some other force, such as electromagnetism or aerodynamic lift. + +antimatter + +antineutron +The antiparticle of the neutron, with symbol n. It differs from the neutron only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign. It has the same mass as the neutron, and no net electric charge, but has opposite baryon number (+1 for the neutron, −1 for the antineutron). This is because the antineutron is composed of antiquarks, while neutrons are composed of ordinary quarks. The antineutron consists of one up antiquark and two down antiquarks. + +antiparticle +In particle physics, every type of particle has an associated antiparticle with the same mass but with opposite physical charges such as electric charge. For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the antielectron (often referred to as the positron). While the electron has a negative electric charge, the positron has a positive electric charge, and is produced naturally in certain types of radioactive decay. Some particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle. Otherwise, for each pair of antiparticle partners, one is designated as "normal" matter (the kind comprising all matter with which humans usually interact), and the other (usually given the prefix "anti-") as antimatter. + +antiproton +The antiparticle of the proton, having the same mass but a negative electric charge and an oppositely directed magnetic moment. + +antiquark +For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle known as an antiquark that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties (such as the electric charge) have equal magnitude but opposite sign. + +arc length + +Archimedes' principle +A physical principle which states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid. + +area moment of inertia + +astrophysics +The branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the Universe, especially with the compositional nature of celestial bodies rather than their positions or motions in space. + +attenuation coefficient +The measure of how much the incident energy beam (e.g. ultrasound or x-rays) is weakened by the material it is passing through. + +atom +A basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. + +atomic line filter + +atomic mass + +atomic mass unit +A deprecated term, usually referring to the unified atomic mass unit, a carbon-based standard, but historically referring to an oxygen-based standard. + +atomic number (Z) +The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is most often used to classify elements within the periodic table. + +atomic orbital + +atomic packing factor + +atomic physics +A branch of physics that studies atoms as isolated systems of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Compare nuclear physics. + +atomic structure + +atomic weight (A) +The sum total of protons (or electrons) and neutrons within an atom. + +audio frequency +Also known as audible frequency (AF). +A periodic vibration whose frequency is in the band audible to the average human, i.e. within the standard human hearing range (generally accepted as 20 to 20,000 Hz). It is the property of sound that most determines pitch. + +Avogadro constant +The ratio of the number of constituent particles in a substance, usually atoms or molecules, to the amount of substance, of which the SI unit is the mole. It is defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. + +Avogadro number +The total number of individual particles, molecules, or other indivisible units in one mole of a substance, or exactly 6.02214076×1023 by definition. + +Avogadro's law +A physical law which states that volumes of gases which are equal to each other at the same temperature and pressure will contain equal numbers of molecules. + +axion +A hypothetical subatomic particle postulated to account for the rarity of processes that break charge-parity symmetry. It is very light, electrically neutral, and pseudoscalar. + +azimuthal quantum number +A quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. + +== B == + +Babinet's principle +A theorem concerning diffraction which states that the diffraction pattern from an opaque body is identical to that from a hole of the same size and shape except for the overall forward beam intensity. + +background radiation +The ubiquitous ionizing radiation to which the general human population is exposed. + +balanced forces +When all the forces acting upon an object balance each other, the object will be at equilibrium; it will not accelerate. + +ballistics + +Balmer series +Also Balmer lines. +In atomic physics, one of a set of six named series describing the spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom. The Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an empirical equation discovered by Johann Balmer in 1885. + +barometer +A scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure. Pressure tendency can forecast short-term changes in the weather. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5de0b360a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 4/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +baryon +A class of composite subatomic particle in the hadron family, such as a proton or a neutron, each of which is made of (usually) three quarks. Nearly all matter humans are likely to encounter is baryonic matter. Baryons are also considered fermions. + +battery +A combination of two or more electrical cells which produces electricity. + +beam +A structural element that is capable of withstanding a load primarily by resisting bending. Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion. + +bending +Also known as flexure. +The behavior of a slender structural element (e.g. a beam) which is subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element. + +bending moment +The reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element, causing the element to bend. The simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam. + +Bernoulli equation + +Bernoulli's principle +In fluid dynamics, a principle which states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. + +Bessel function +A canonical solution y(x) of Friedrich Bessel's differential equation + + + + + + x + + 2 + + + + + + + d + + 2 + + + y + + + d + + x + + 2 + + + + + + + + x + + + + d + y + + + d + x + + + + + + + ( + + + x + + 2 + + + − + + α + + 2 + + + + ) + + y + = + 0 + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}{\frac {d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}}+x{\frac {dy}{dx}}+\left(x^{2}-\alpha ^{2}\right)y=0} + + +for an arbitrary complex number α, the order of the Bessel function. Although α and −α produce the same differential equation, it is conventional to define different Bessel functions for these two values in such a way that the Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of α. The most important cases are when α is an integer or half-integer. Bessel functions for integer α are also known as cylinder functions or the cylindrical harmonics because they appear in the solution to Laplace's equation in cylindrical coordinates. Spherical Bessel functions with half-integer α are obtained when the Helmholtz equation is solved in spherical coordinates. + +beta decay +Also β-decay. +In nuclear physics, a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to its isobar. + +beta particle +A high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by certain types of radioactive atomic nuclei. + +Big Bang +The prevailing cosmological model that describes the early development of the Universe. + +binding energy +The mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts. A bound system typically has a lower potential energy than the sum of its constituent parts. + +binomial random variable + +biocatalysis + +biophysics +An interdisciplinary science using methods of and theories from physics to study biological systems. + +black body +A hypothetical idealized physical body that completely absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. Perfect black bodies are imagined as substitutes for actual physical bodies in many theoretical discussions of thermodynamics, and the construction of nearly perfect black bodies in the real world remains a topic of interest for materials engineers. Contrast white body. + +black-body radiation +The type of electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, or emitted by a black body (an opaque and non-reflective body) held at constant, uniform temperature. The radiation has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the temperature of the body. + +block and tackle +A system of two or more pulleys with a rope or cable threaded between them, usually used to lift or pull heavy loads. + +Bohr model + +boiling point +The temperature at which a liquid undergoes a phase change into a gas; the vapour pressure of liquid and gas are equal at this temperature. + +boiling point elevation +The phenomenon by which the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) increases when another compound is added, meaning that the resulting solution has a higher boiling point than the pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope. + +Boltzmann constant +A physical constant relating the average kinetic energy of the particles in a gas with the temperature of the gas. It is the gas constant R divided by the Avogadro constant NA. + +Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) + +boson +A type of subatomic particle that behaves according to Bose–Einstein statistics and possesses integer spin. Bosons include elementary particles such as photons, gluons, W and Z bosons, Higgs bosons, and the hypothetical graviton, as well as certain composite particles such as mesons and stable nuclides of even mass number. Bosons constitute one of two main classes of particles, the other being fermions. Unlike fermions, there is no limit to the number of bosons that can occupy the same quantum state. + +Boyle's law +A chemical law which states that the volume of a given mass of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure. + +Bra–ket notation + +Bragg's law + +bremsstrahlung +Radiation emitted by the acceleration of unbound charged particles. + +Brewster's angle +Also polarization angle. +The angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is completely transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected is consequently perfectly polarized. + +british thermal unit (btu) +An Imperial unit of energy defined as the amount of energy needed to heat one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit; 1 btu is equal to about 1,055 joules. In scientific contexts the btu has largely been replaced by the SI unit of energy, the joule. + +brittleness +The tendency of a material to break without significant plastic deformation when subjected to stress. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..693986883 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,166 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 5/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Brownian motion +Also pedesis. +The apparently random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas) resulting from their continuous bombardment by fast-moving atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid. + +bubble +A globule of a gaseous substance immersed or suspended in a liquid; e.g. a pocket of air completely enclosed by water, usually but not necessarily assuming a spherical shape. + +Bulk modulus +A measure of a substance's resistance to uniform compression defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume. Its base unit is the pascal. + +buoyancy +An upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. + +== C == + +calculus +A branch of mathematics that studies change and has two major sub-fields: differential calculus (concerning rates of change and slopes of curves), and integral calculus (concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under and between curves). These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. + +capacitance +The ratio of the change in the electric charge of a system to the corresponding change in its electric potential. There are two closely related notions of capacitance: self capacitance and mutual capacitance. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits self capacitance. A material with a large self capacitance holds more electric charge at a given voltage than one with low capacitance. The notion of mutual capacitance is particularly important for understanding the operations of the capacitor, one of the three elementary linear electronic components (along with resistors and inductors). + +capacitive reactance +An opposition to the change of voltage across an electrical circuit element. Capacitive reactance + + + + + + + X + + C + + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {X_{C}}} + + is inversely proportional to the signal frequency + + + + + + f + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {f}} + + (or angular frequency, ω) and the capacitance + + + + + + C + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {C}} + +. + +capacitor +An electrical circuit element consisting of two conductors separated by an insulator (also known as a dielectric). + +Carnot cycle +A theoretical ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference by the application of work to the system. It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct. + +Cartesian coordinate system +A coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a set of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular oriented lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis (plural axes) of the system, and the point where they meet is called the origin, at ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin. + +cathode +The electrode through which a conventional electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device; the direction of current flow is, by convention, opposite to the direction of electron flow, and so electrons flow into the cathode. In a galvanic cell, the cathode is the positive terminal or pole which accepts electrons flowing from the external part of an electrical circuit. However, in an electrolytic cell, the cathode is the wire or plate having excess negative charge, so named because positively charged cations tend to move towards it. Contrast anode. + +cathode ray + +cation +A positively charged ion. Contrast anion. + +celestial mechanics + +Celsius scale +Also centigrade scale. +A scale and unit of measurement of temperature. + +center of curvature + +center of gravity +The point in a body around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanish. Near the surface of the earth, where gravity acts downward as a parallel force field, the center of gravity and the center of mass are the same. + +center of mass +Within a given distribution of mass, the unique point in space at which the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero. + +center of pressure + +centigrade +See Celsius scale. + +central-force problem +A classic problem in potential theory involving the determination of the motion of a particle in a single central potential field. The solutions to such problems are important in classical mechanics, since many naturally occurring forces, such as gravity and electromagnetism, are central forces. + +centrifugal force +The apparent outward force that draws a rotating body away from the centre of rotation. It is caused by the inertia of the body as the body's path is continually redirected. + +centripetal force +A force which keeps a body moving with a uniform speed along a circular path and is directed along the radius towards the centre. + +cGh physics +Any attempt in mainstream physics to unify existing theories of relativity, gravitation, and quantum mechanics, particularly by envisioning the three universal constants fundamental to each field – the speed of light ( + + + + c + + + {\displaystyle c} + +), the gravitational constant ( + + + + G + + + {\displaystyle G} + +), and the Planck constant ( + + + + h + + + {\displaystyle h} + +) – as the edges of a three-dimensional cube, at each corner of which is positioned a major sub-field within theoretical physics according to which of the three constants are accounted for by that sub-field and which are ignored. One corner of this so-called "cube of theoretical physics", where all three constants are accounted for simultaneously, has not yet been satisfactorily described: quantum gravity. + +chain reaction +A sequence of reactions in which a reactive product or byproduct causes additional similar reactions to take place. + +change of base rule + +charge carrier + +chemical physics +A branch of chemistry and physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics by investigating physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics. + +chromatic aberration + +circular motion \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1817313e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,206 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 6/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +classical mechanics +Also Newtonian mechanics. +A sub-field of mechanics concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the collective actions of a system of forces. + +coefficient of friction + +coherence + +cohesion +The tendency of similar particles or surfaces to cling to one another. Contrast adhesion. + +cold fusion + +complex harmonic motion + +composite particle + +Compton scattering +A type of light–matter interaction in which a photon is scattered by a charged particle, usually an electron, which results in part of the energy of the photon being transferred to the recoiling electron; a resulting decrease in the energy of the photon is called the Compton effect. The opposite phenomenon occurs in inverse Compton scattering, when a charged particle transfers part of its energy to a photon. + +concave lens + +condensation point + +condensed matter physics +A branch of physics that studies the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. + +conservation of momentum + +conservation law + +constructive interference + +continuous spectrum + +continuum mechanics + +convection +The transfer of heat by the actual transfer of matter. + +convex lens + +coulomb (C) +The SI derived unit of electric charge, defined as the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second. + +Coulomb's law + +converging lens + +cosmic background radiation + +creep + +crest +The point on a wave with the maximum value or upward displacement within a cycle. + +crest factor + +critical angle + +critical mass +The smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. + +cube of theoretical physics +See cGh physics. + +Curie temperature + +current density + +current length + +curvilinear motion +The motion of a moving particle or object that conforms to a known or fixed curve. Such motion is studied with two coordinate systems: planar motion and cylindrical motion. + +cyclotron +A type of particle accelerator in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the center along a spiral path. + +== D == + +Dalton's law + +damped vibration + +Damping ratio +Any influence upon or within an oscillatory system that has the effect of reducing, restricting, or preventing its oscillations. Damping is a result of processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. + +Darcy–Weisbach equation + +dark energy + +dark matter + +DC motor +A mechanically commutated electric motor powered by direct current. + +decibel + +definite integral + +deflection +The degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance. + +deformation +1. (mechanics) +2. (engineering) + +density +Also mass density. +A physical property of a substance defined as its mass per unit volume. + +derivative +For a mathematical function of a real variable, a measurement of the sensitivity to change of the function value (output) with respect to a change in its argument (input); e.g. the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity and measures how quickly the position of the object changes as time changes. Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. + +destructive interference + +diamagnetism + +dielectric +An electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they would in a conductor but only shift slightly from their equilibrium positions, with positive charges displaced in the direction of the field's flow and negative charges displaced in the opposite direction; this creates an internal electric field that reduces the larger field within the dielectric material. + +diffraction + +direct current (DC) + +dispersion + +displacement +1. (fluid) Occurs when an object or substance is immersed in a fluid, pushing the fluid particles out of the way and taking their place. The volume of the immersed object will be exactly equal to the volume of the displaced fluid, so that the volume of the immersed object can be deduced if the volume of the displaced fluid is measured. +2. (vector) The shortest distance from the initial to the final position of a point. Thus, it is the length of an imaginary straight-line path, typically distinct from the path actually travelled. + +distance +A numerical description of how far apart objects are. + +drift velocity + +Doppler effect +The change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source. Compared to the emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the instant of passing by, and lower during the recession. + +drag +Forces which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative fluid flow velocity. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity. + +ductility +A solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. + +dynamics +The branch of classical mechanics that studies forces and torques and their effects on motion, as opposed to kinematics, which studies motion without reference to these forces. + +dyne + +== E == + +econophysics + +elastic collision + +elastic energy + +elastic instability + +elastic modulus + +elasticity +The tendency of a material to return to its original shape after it is deformed. + +electric charge +A physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. + +electric circuit +An electrical network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. + +electric current +Also simply current. +A flow of electric charge through a conductive medium. + +electric displacement field + +electric field +The region of space surrounding electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. The electric field represents the force exerted on other electrically charged objects by the electrically charged particle the field is surrounding. + +electric field gradient + +electric field intensity + +electric generator + +electric motor + +electric potential + +electric power +The rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. + +electrical conductor +Also simply conductor. +Any material which contains movable electric charges and therefore can conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7028beeb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,257 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 7/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +electrical insulator +Also simply insulator. +Any material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely and which therefore does not readily conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field. + +electrical potential energy + +electrical and electronics engineering + +electrical network +An interconnection of electrical elements such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, voltage sources, current sources, and switches. + +electrical resistance +Also simply resistance. +The opposition to the passage of an electric current through an electrical element. Good insulators typically have very high electrical resistance. + +electricity +The set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charges. + +electro-optic effect + +electrochemical cell + +electrodynamics + +electrolytic cell + +electromagnet +A type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of an electric current. + +electromagnetic field +Also abbreviated EM field or EMF. +A physical field produced by moving electrically charged objects. + +electromagnetic induction + +electromagnetic radiation +Also abbreviated EM radiation or EMR. +A form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space. + +electromagnetic spectrum + +electromagnetic wave equation + +electromagnetism + +electromechanics + +electromotive force ( + + + + + + E + + + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}} + +) +Also abbreviated emf. +The electrical intensity or "pressure" developed by a source of electrical energy such as a battery or generator and measured in volts. Any device that converts other forms of energy into electrical energy provides electromotive force as its output. + +electron +A subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. + +electron capture + +electron cloud + +electron pair + +electron paramagnetic resonance +Also called electron spin resonance (ESR) and electron magnetic resonance (EMR). +A method for studying materials with unpaired electrons which makes use of the Zeeman effect. It shares some basic principles with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). + +electronvolt (eV) +A unit of energy equal to approximately 1.6×10−19 joule. By definition, it is the amount of energy gained by the charge of a single electron moved across an electric potential difference of one volt. + +electronegativity +A chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. + +electronics +A field that deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits as well as associated passive interconnection technologies. + +electrostatics + +electrostriction + +elementary charge + +elementary particle + +emission spectrum + +emissivity + +energy +The ability to do work. + +energy level + +endothermic +An adjective used to refer to a process or reaction in which a system absorbs energy from its surroundings, usually in the form of heat but also in the form of light, electricity, or sound. Contrast exothermic. + +engineering physics + +enthalpy + +entropy +A quantity which describes the randomness or "disorder" of a substance or system. + +equilibrant force + +equipartition + +escape velocity +The velocity at which the kinetic energy plus the gravitational potential energy of an object is zero. It is the speed needed to "escape" from a gravitational field without further propulsion. + +excited state + +exothermic +An adjective used to refer to a process or reaction that releases energy from a system, usually in the form of heat but also in the form of light, electricity, or sound. Contrast endothermic. + +experimental physics + +== F == + +farad + +falling bodies +Objects that are moving towards a body with greater gravitational influence, such as a planet. + +faraday + +Faraday constant + +Fermat's principle + +Fermi surface + +fermion +A type of particle that behaves according to Fermi–Dirac statistics, obeys the Pauli exclusion principle, and possesses half-integer spin. Fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as all composite particles made of an odd number of these (such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei). Fermions constitute one of two main classes of particles, the other being bosons. + +ferrimagnetism + +ferromagnetism + +field line + +first law of thermodynamics + +fission +Either a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei), often producing free neutrons and photons (in the form of gamma rays) and releasing relatively large amounts of energy. + +flavour + +fluid + +fluid mechanics + +fluid physics + +fluid statics + +fluorescence + +flux + +flux density + +focal length + +focus + +force (F) +Any interaction or influence that, unless counterbalanced by other forces, will cause a physical body to change its velocity or shape. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. The SI unit used to measure force is the newton. + +force carrier + +force field + +frame of reference + +Fraunhofer lines + +free body diagram + +frequency + +frequency modulation + +free fall +Any motion of a body where its own weight is the only force acting upon it. + +freezing point +The temperature at which a substance changes state from liquid to solid. + +friction + +function + +fundamental forces +Also fundamental interactions. + +fundamental frequency + +fundamental theorem of calculus + +fusion +A nuclear reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei join together or "fuse" to form a single, heavier nucleus. + +== G == + +gamma ray +A form of electromagnetic radiation of very high frequency and therefore very high energy. + +gas + +general relativity + +geophysics + +gluon + +Graham's law of diffusion + +gravitation +Also gravity. +A natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract each other with a force proportional to their masses. + +gravitational constant (G) +Also universal gravitational constant and Newton's constant. +A physical constant involved in the calculation of the gravitational force between two bodies. + +gravitational energy +The potential energy associated with a gravitational field. + +gravitational field +A model used to explain the influence that a massive body extends into the space around itself, producing a force (gravity) capable of interacting with or influencing other nearby physical bodies. Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain and represent gravitational phenomena. It is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). + +gravitational potential +The gravitational potential at a location is equal to the work (energy transferred) per unit mass that is done by the force of gravity to move an object to a fixed reference location. + +gravitational wave +A ripple in the curvature of spacetime that propagates as a wave and is generated in certain gravitational interactions, travelling outward from their source. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3b1d476de --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,187 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 8/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +graviton +A hypothetical elementary particle that meditates the force of gravitation. + +gravity +See gravitation. + +ground + +ground reaction force + +ground state + +group velocity + +== H == + +hadron +A composite particle made from two or more quarks held together by the strong force. Protons and neutrons are both considered hadrons. + +half-life +The time required for a quantity to fall to half its value as measured at the beginning of the time period. In physics, half-life typically refers to a property of radioactive decay, but may refer to any quantity which follows an exponential decay. + +Hamilton's principle + +Hamiltonian mechanics + +harmonic mean + +heat +A form of energy transferred from one body to another by thermal interaction. + +heat transfer + +Helmholtz free energy + +hertz +The SI unit of frequency, defined as the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon. + +Higgs boson + +homeokinetics +The physics of complex, self-organizing systems. + +horsepower (hp) + +Huygens–Fresnel principle + +hydrostatics + +== I == + +ice point +A physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a liquid to a solid. + +impedance +The measure of the opposition that an electric circuit presents to a current when a voltage is applied. + +implosion + +impulse +The change in momentum, which is equal to the average net external force multiplied by the length of time this force acts. + +indefinite integral + +inductance + +infrasound + +inertia +The resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion or rest, or the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion. + +inductive reactance + +integral + +integral transform + +International System of Units (SI) +The modern form of the metric system, comprising a system of units of measurement devised around seven base units and the convenience of the number ten. + +invariant mass + +ion +An atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net positive or negative electric charge. + +ionic bond +A type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. + +ionization +The process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as electrons or other ions. + +ionization chamber + +ionizing radiation + +isotope +A variant of a particular chemical element. While all atoms of a given element share the same number of protons, each isotope differs from the others in its number of neutrons. + +== J == + +Josephson effect + +joule (J) +A derived unit of energy, work, or amount of heat in the International System of Units. + +jerk +The rate of change of acceleration, or the third derivative of displacement. + +== K == + +Kelvin +A scale and unit of measurement of temperature. The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale which uses absolute zero as its null point. + +kinematics +The branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion. The study of kinematics is often referred to as the "geometry of motion". + +kinetic energy +The energy that a physical body possesses due to its motion, defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. The body continues to maintain this kinetic energy unless its velocity changes. Contrast potential energy. + +Kirchhoff's circuit laws +Also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws. +Two approximate equalities that deal with the current and voltage in electrical circuits. See Kirchhoff's laws for other meanings of the term. + +Kirchhoff's equations +In fluid dynamics, a set of equations which describe the motion of a rigid body in an ideal fluid. + +== L == + +Lagrangian mechanics + +laminar flow +Also called streamline flow. +Occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers with no disruption between the layers. + +Laplace transform + +Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector +Also abbreviated LRL vector. +A vector used chiefly to describe the shape and orientation of the orbit of one astronomical body around another, such as a planet revolving around a star. For two bodies interacting by Newtonian gravity, the LRL vector is a constant of motion, meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit; equivalently, the LRL vector is said to be conserved. + +laser +A device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word "laser" is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". + +law of universal gravitation + +LC circuit +A circuit consisting of an inductor (with inductance L) and a capacitor (with capacitance C). + +Lenz's law + +lepton +An elementary particle which does not undergo strong interactions but is subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. Two main classes of leptons exist: charged leptons (also known as the electron-like leptons) and neutral leptons (better known as neutrinos). + +lever +A type of machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge or fulcrum; one of six classical simple machines. + +levitation + +light +A form of electromagnetic radiation that occupies a certain range of wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum. In physics, the term sometimes refers collectively to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, in which case light includes gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves, but in common usage "light" more often refers specifically to visible light. + +linear actuator +A form of motor that generates a linear movement directly. + +linear algebra +The branch of mathematics concerning vector spaces, often finite or countably infinite dimensional, as well as linear mappings between such spaces. + +line of force + +linear elasticity +The mathematical study of how solid objects deform and become internally stressed due to prescribed loading conditions. Linear elasticity is a simplification of the more general nonlinear theory of elasticity and is a branch of continuum mechanics. + +Liouville's theorem +Phase space volume is conserved. + +liquid +One of four classical states of matter having a definite volume but no fixed shape. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f9ad5552a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,139 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 9/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +liquid crystal (LC) +A state of matter which has properties between those of a conventional liquid and those of a solid crystal. For instance, an LC may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way. + +longitudinal wave + +== M == + +M-theory +An extension of string theory that attempts to unify seemingly contradictory mathematical formulations and which identifies 11 dimensions. + +Mach number +A dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of the speed of an object moving through a fluid to the local speed of sound. + +Mach's principle +The proposition that the existence of absolute rotation (the distinction of local inertial frames vs. rotating reference frames) is determined by the large-scale distribution of matter. + +machine +Any powered tool consisting of one or more parts that is constructed to achieve a particular goal. Machines are usually powered by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or electrical means, and are frequently motorised. + +machine element +An elementary component of a machine. There are three basic types: structural components, mechanisms, and control components. + +Maclaurin series +A representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of the function's derivatives at a single point. + +magnetic field +A mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field. + +magnetism +A property of materials that respond to an applied magnetic field. + +magnetostatics + +mass + +mass balance +Also material balance. +An application of the law of conservation of mass to the analysis of physical systems. + +mass density +See density. + +mass flux +The rate of mass flow per unit area. The common symbols are j, J, φ, or Φ, sometimes with subscript m to indicate mass is the flowing quantity. Its SI units are kg s−1 m−2. + +mass moment of inertia +A property of a distribution of mass in space that measures its resistance to rotational acceleration about an axis. + +mass number +Also atomic mass number or nucleon number. +The total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. + +mass spectrometry + +material properties + +materials science +An interdisciplinary field incorporating elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering that is concerned with the design and discovery of new materials, particularly solids. + +mathematical physics +The application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories. + +mathematics +The abstract study of topics encompassing quantity, structure, space, change, and other properties. + +matrix +A rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged in rows and columns. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. + +matter +Any substance (often a particle) that has rest mass and (usually) also volume. + +Maxwell's equations +A set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits. Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents. + +measure of central tendency +A term which relates to the way in which quantitative data tend to cluster around some value. A measure of central tendency is any of a number of ways of specifying this "central value". + +mechanical energy + +mechanical filter + +mechanical equilibrium + +mechanical wave + +mechanics +The branch of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. + +melting +Also called fusion. +A physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid. + +meson +A type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of one quark and one antiquark bound together by the strong interaction. All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few hundredths of a microsecond. + +modulus of elasticity +The mathematical description of an object's or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e. non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic deformation region. As such, a stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus. + +molar concentration + +molar mass +A physical property of matter defined as the mass of a given substance divided by the amount of substance and expressed in grams per mole. + +molecule +An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by having a net electric charge equal to zero. + +molecular physics +A branch of physics that studies the physical properties of molecules and the chemical bonds between atoms as well as their molecular dynamics. It is closely related to atomic physics and overlaps greatly with theoretical chemistry, physical chemistry and chemical physics. + +moment + +moment of inertia +A property of a distribution of mass in space that measures its resistance to rotational acceleration about an axis. + +momentum +A vector quantity consisting of the product of the mass and velocity of an object. + +monochromatic light + +motion +Any change in the position of an object over time. Motion can be mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, speed, acceleration, and momentum, and is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in an object's position relative to that frame. An object's motion cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force. + +muon +An elementary particle, technically classified as a lepton, that is similar to the electron, with unitary negative electric charge (−1) and a spin of 1⁄2. Muons are not believed to have any sub-structure. + +== N == + +nanoengineering +The practice of engineering on the nanoscale. Nanoengineering is largely a synonym for nanotechnology, but emphasizes the applied rather the field. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0f79e7f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,220 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of physics" +chunk: 10/13 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:11.278375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +nanotechnology +Also abbreviated as nanotech. +The manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale; a more generalized description by the National Nanotechnology Initiative is "the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres". + +Navier–Stokes equations + +neurophysics + +neutrino +A type of electrically neutral subatomic particle denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu). All evidence suggests that neutrinos have mass but that their mass is tiny even by the standards of subatomic particles. Their mass has never been measured accurately. + +neutron +A subatomic particle having a mass slightly greater than that of a proton but no electric charge. Along with protons they constitute the nucleus of every atom. Each neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks. + +prompt neutron +Immediate emission of neutrons after a nuclear fission event. + +delayed neutron +Delayed emission of neutrons after a nuclear fission event, by one of the fission products (actually, a fission product daughter after beta decay). + +neutron cross-section + +newton (N) + +Newton's laws of motion +A set of three physical laws which describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. Together they form the basis for classical or Newtonian mechanics. + +Newton's law of universal gravitation + +Newtonian fluid + +Newtonian mechanics + +normal force + +nuclear force + +nuclear physics +The branch of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. + +nuclear reaction + +nuclear transmutation + +nucleon +Either a proton or a neutron in its role as a component of an atomic nucleus. + +nucleus + +nuclide +Also spelled nucleide. +An atomic species characterized by the specific composition of its nucleus, i.e. by its number of protons, its number of neutrons, and its nuclear energy state. + +== O == + +ohm +The SI derived unit of electrical resistance. + +Ohm's law +The electric current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. + +optical tweezers +An optomechanical device used for the capture, analysis, and manipulation of dielectric objects or particles, which operates via the application of force by the electric field of light. + +optically detected magnetic resonance +An optical technique for the initialisation and readout of quantum spin in some crystal defects. + +optics +The branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light; however, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. + +== P == + +paraffin + +parallel circuit + +parity +1. (mathematics) +2. (physics) + +particle + +particle accelerator + +particle displacement + +particle physics +A branch of physics that studies the nature of particles, which are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter and radiation. + +Pascal's law +A principle in fluid mechanics which states that pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the initial pressure variations remain the same. + +Pauli exclusion principle + +pendulum + +periodic table of the elements +Also simply called the periodic table. +A tabular display of the chemical elements organised on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons). + +phase (matter) + +phase (waves) + +phase equilibrium + +phenomenology + +phosphorescence + +photoelectric effect + +photon +An elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. + +photonics + +physical chemistry +The study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of laws and concepts of physics. + +physical constant + +physical quantity + +physics +The natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. + +piezoelectricity + +pion + +Planck constant ( + + + + h + + + {\displaystyle h} + +) +Also called Planck's constant. +A fundamental universal physical constant that is the quantum of action in quantum mechanics. + +Planck units + +Planck's law + +plasma + +plasma physics + +plasticity + +pneumatics +The study and control of mechanical force and movement generated by the application of compressed gas. + +positron + +potential energy + +power + +pressure +The ratio of force to the area over which that force is distributed. + +principle of relativity + +probability +A measure of the expectation that an event will occur or that a statement is true. Probabilities are given a value between 0 (will not occur) and 1 (will occur). The higher the probability of an event, the more certain one can be that the event will occur. + +probability distribution + +probability theory + +proton + +psi particle + +pulley +A wheel on an axle that is designed to support movement of a cable or belt along its circumference; one of six classical simple machines. Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and transmit power. + +pulse + +pulse wave + +== Q == + +quantization + +quantum + +quantum chromodynamics + +quantum electrodynamics (QED) +The relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism, giving a complete account of matter and light interaction. + +quantum field theory +A theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of subatomic particles in particle physics and quasiparticles in condensed matter physics. + +quantum gravity + +quantum mechanics +A branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena at microscopic scales, where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. Quantum mechanics departs from classical mechanics at atomic and subatomic length scales, and provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter that occur at this scale. + +quantum number + +quantum physics + +quantum state \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71a3a7895 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,129 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of power electronics" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of power electronics is a list of definitions of terms and concepts related to power electronics in general and power electronic capacitors in particular. For more definitions in electric engineering, see Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering. For terms related to engineering in general, see Glossary of engineering. +The glossary terms fit in the following categories in power electronics: + +Electronic power converters; converters, rectifiers, inverters, filters. +Electronic power switches and electronic AC power converters; switches and controllers. +Essential components of electric power equipment; device, stack, assembly, reactor, capacitor, transformer, AC filter, DC filter, snubber circuit. +Circuits and circuit elements of power electronic equipment; arms and connections. +Operations within power electronic equipment; commutations, quenchings, controls, angles, factors, states, directions, intervals, periods, frequencies, voltages, breakthroughs and failures, breakdowns, blocking and flows. +Properties of power electronic equipment +Characteristic curves of power electronic equipment +Power supplies + +== A == + +AC capacitor +A capacitor essentially designed for operation with alternating voltage.AC conversion factor +For AC conversion, the ratio of the fundamental output power to the fundamental input power. + +AC converter +A converter for AC conversion. + +AC filter +A filter on the AC side of a converter, designed to reduce the circulation of harmonic currents in the associated system. + +AC voltage converter +An AC converter for changing the voltage. + +(electronic) AC (power) conversion +Electronic conversion from AC to AC + +(electronic) AC/DC (power) conversion +Electronic conversion from AC to DC or vice versa. + +AC/DC converter +An electronic converter for rectification or inversion or both. + +angle of overlap +The commutation interval expressed in angular measure. + +(valve) arm +A part of the circuit of a power converter or switch bounded by any two AC or DC terminals and including one or more simultaneously conducting electronic valve devices connected together and other components if any. + +asymmetrical phase control +Phase control with different delay angles in the principal arms of a converter connection or commutating group. + +automatic switching on +The property of an equipment having a forced characteristic such that the equipment is switched on automatically. + +automatic switching off +The property of an equipment having a forced characteristic such that the equipment is switched off automatically. + +auto-sequential commutation +A method of capacitor commutation where the next principal arm to conduct in sequence when turned on connects the capacitor supplying the commutating voltage to the foregoing principal arm. + +auxiliary arm +Any valve arm other than a principal arm. + +== B == + +basic converter connection +The electrical arrangement of principal arms in a converter. + +boost converter +step-up converter +A direct DC converter providing an output voltage which is higher than the input voltage. + +boost and buck connection +A series connection of two or more converter connections the direct voltages of which may be added or subtracted depending on the control of the individual connections. + +breakdown (of an electronic valve device or of a valve arm) +A failure that permanently deprives an electronic valve device or a valve arm of its property to block voltage. + +breakthrough +A failure by which a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices loses its ability to block voltage during the forward blocking interval. + +bridge connection +A double-way connection of pairs of arms such that the center terminals are the phase terminals of the AC circuit, and that the outer terminals of like polarity are connected together and are the DC terminals. + +buck converter +step-down converter +A direct DC converter providing an output voltage which is lower than the input voltage. + +by-pass arm +An auxiliary arm providing a conductive path which allows the current to circulate without an interchange of power between source and load. + +== C == + +capacitor commutation +A method of self-commutation in which the commutating voltage is supplied by capacitors included in the commutation circuit.capacitor element (or element) +An indivisible part of a capacitor consisting of two electrodes separated by a dielectric.capacitor losses +The active power consumed by a capacitor.capacitor unit (or unit) +An assembly of one or more capacitor elements in the same container with terminals brought out.capacitor bank +An assembly of two or more capacitor units, electrically connected to each other.capacitor +A general term used when it is not necessary to state whether reference is made to an element, a unit or a capacitor bank.capacitor equipment +An assembly of capacitor units and their accessories intended for connection to a network. + +circuit angle +In a rectifier connection, the phase angle between the peak of the line to neutral voltage on the AC line side and the simultaneous or next peak of the unsmoothed direct voltage at zero current delay angle. + +circuit crest working off-state voltage +The highest instantaneous value of the off-state voltage developed across a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, excluding all repetitive and non-repetitive transients. + +circuit crest working reverse voltage +The highest instantaneous value of the reverse voltage developed across a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, excluding all repetitive and non-repetitive transient voltages. + +circuit non-repetitive peak off-state voltage +The highest instantaneous value of any non-repetitive transient off-state voltage developed across a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices. + +circuit non-repetitive peak reverse voltage +The highest instantaneous value of any non-repetitive transient reverse voltage developed across a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices. + +circuit repetitive peak off-state voltage +The highest instantaneous value of the off-state voltage developed across a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, including all repetitive transient voltages but excluding all non-repetitive transient voltages. + +circuit repetitive peak reverse voltage +The highest instantaneous value of a reverse voltage developed across a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices, including all repetitive transient voltages but excluding all non-repetitive transient voltages. + +circuit reverse blocking interval +The interval during which a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices is in the reverse blocking state. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4454a35a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of power electronics" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +circuit off-state interval +The interval during which a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices is in the off state. + +characteristic (curve) (of a converter) +A curve showing the relationship between the values of the output voltage and the values of the output current. + +commutating voltage +The voltage which causes the current to commutate. + +commutation +In a power converter the transfer of current from one conducting arm to the next to conduct in sequence, without interruption of the current, both arms conducting simultaneously during a finite time interval. + +commutation circuit +The circuit consisting of the commutating arms and the source providing the commutating voltage. + +commutating group +A group of principal arms which commutate cyclically among themselves without intermediate commutation of the current to other principal arms. + +commutation capacitor +A capacitor included in the commutation circuit to supply commutating voltage. + +commutation inductance +The resulting inductance in the commutation circuit. + +commutation interval +The time interval in which commutating arms are carrying principal current simultaneously. + +commutation failure +A failure to commutate the current from a conducting arm to the succeeding arm. + +commutation notch +A periodic voltage transient that may appear in the AC side voltage of a line or machine commutated converter due to the commutation. + +commutation number +The number of commutations from one principal arm to another during one elementary period in each commutating group. + +commutation reactor +A reactor included in the commutation circuit to increase the commutation inductance. + +composite characteristic +A characteristic consisting of parts of the stabilized voltage and stabilized current characteristics. + +conducting direction (of an electronic valve device or of a valve arm) +The direction in which an electronic valve device or a valve arm is capable of conducting current. + +conduction interval (of a valve arm) +That part of an elementary period in which the valve arm conducts. + +conduction ratio +The ratio of the conduction interval to the sum of the conduction interval and the idle interval. + +conduction through +In inverter operation, the situation that a valve arm continues conduction at the end of the normal conduction interval or at the end of the hold-off interval. + +(electronic) (power) conversion +Change of one or more of the characteristics of an electric power system essentially without appreciable loss of power by means of electronic valve devices. + +(electronic) (power) converter +An operative unit for electronic power conversion, comprising one or more electronic valve devices, transformers and filters if necessary and auxiliaries if any. + +converter connection +The electrical arrangement of valve arms and other components essential for the function of the main power circuit of a converter. + +converter section of a double converter +That part of a double converter in which the main direct current when viewed from the DC terminals always flows in the same direction. + +controllable valve device +A valve device the current path of which is bistably controlled in its conducting direction. + +constant current power supply +A power supply that stabilizes output current with respect to changes of influence quantities. + +constant voltage power supply +A power supply that stabilizes output voltage with respect to changes of influence quantities. + +constant voltage or constant current power supply +A stabilized power supply that operates as a constant voltage power supply or constant current power supply depending on load conditions. + +constant voltage to constant current crossover +The behavior of a stabilized power supply that automatically converts the mode of operation from voltage stabilization to current stabilization when the output current reaches a preset value, and vice versa. + +continuous flow (of direct current) +A flow of direct current which is not periodically interrupted. + +conversion factor (in general) +The ratio of the fundamental output power or DC output power to the fundamental input power or DC input power. + +container temperature rise (△θcase) (capacitor) +The difference between the temperature of the hottest point of the container and the temperature of the cooling air. + +controlled ideal no-load direct voltage +The theoretical no-load direct voltage of an AC/DC converter corresponding to a specified trigger delay angle assuming no threshold voltages of electronic valve devices and no voltage rise at small loads. + +controlled conventional no-load direct voltage +The mean value of the direct voltage corresponding to a specified trigger delay angle which would be obtained by extrapolating the direct voltage/current characteristic from the region of continuous flow of direct current to zero current. + +conventional no-load direct voltage +The mean value of the direct voltage which would be obtained by extrapolating the direct voltage/current characteristic. from the region of continuous flow of direct current to zero current at zero trigger delay angle, i.e. without phase control. + +cooling-air temperature (θamb) (capacitor) +The temperature of the cooling air measured at the hottest position in the bank, under steady-state conditions, midway between two units. If only one unit is involved, it is the temperature measured at a point approximately 0-1 m away from the capacitor container and at two-thirds of the height from its base. + +crossover area +With stabilized power supplies, the range of values of the output quantities within which a change of mode of operation occurs, e.g. from constant voltage to constant current. + +crossover point +With stabilized power supplies a point given by the intersection of the lines representing the nominal values of the two stabilized output quantities, usually the centre of the crossover area. + +current delay angle +The time expressed in angular measure by which the starting instant of current conduction is delayed by phase control. + +current pulse width (τ) (capacitor)The time of current flow during the charging or discharging from one voltage value to another of the capacitor. +current source inverter +current fed inverter +A current stiff inverter. + +current stiff AC/DC converter +An electronic AC/DC converter having an essentially smooth current on the DC side provided e.g. by means to reduce the harmonic currents. + +cycloconverter +A direct frequency converter. + +== D == + +DC capacitor +A capacitor essentially designed for operation with direct voltage.DC converter +A converter for DC conversion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ec21baf1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of power electronics" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +DC conversion factor +for DC conversion, the ratio of the DC power value on the load side to that on the source side. + +(electronic) DC (power) conversion +Electronic conversion from DC to DC + +DC filter +A filter on the DC side of a converter, designed to reduce the ripple in the associated system. + +DC form factor +The ratio of the rms value to the mean value averaged over a full period of a periodically varying quantity having a non zero DC component. + +DC power +The product of the direct voltage and the direct current (mean values). + +DC ripple factor +The ratio of half the difference between the maximum and minimum value of a pulsating direct current to the mean, value of this current. + +direct AC/DC converter +An electronic AC/DC converter without a DC or AC link. + +direct AC converter +An AC converter without a DC link. + +direct (power) conversion +Electronic conversion without a DC or AC link. + +direct DC converter +DC chopper +A DC converter without an AC link. + +direct commutation +A commutation between two principal arms without transfer through any auxiliary arms. + +direct inverter +An inverter without a DC link. + +direct rectifier +A rectifier without a DC or AC link. + +direct voltage regulation +The difference between the conventional no-load direct voltage and the direct voltage at load at the same trigger delay angle excluding the correcting effect of stabilizing means if any. + +double converter +A current stiff reversible AC/DC converter with direct current in both directions. + +double-way connection (of a converter) +A converter connection such that the current through each of the phase terminals of the AC circuit is bidirectional. + +duty cycle (capacitor) +1. continuous duty; Operation time such that a capacitor is at thermal equilibrium for most of the time. +2. intermittent duty ; Discontinuous working or operation with variable loads which should be described in terms of ON/OFF or HIGH/LOW periods with their durations. + +== E == + +electronic AC (power) switch +An electronic power switch capable of switching alternating current. + +electronic AC power controller +A unit which is able to operate as a controllable direct AC voltage converter as well as an electronic AC switch. + +electronic DC (power) switch +An electronic power switch capable of switching direct current. + +electronic device +A device the function of which is based on charge carriers moving through a semiconductor, a high vacuum or a gas discharge. + +elementary frequency +The reciprocal of the elementary period. + +elementary period +The duration of one cycle of the phenomena that are periodically repeated. + +electronic power filter +active power filter +A converter for filtering. + +electronic (power) switching +Switching an electric power circuit by means of electronic valve devices. + +electronic (power) switch +An operative unit for electronic power switching comprising at least one controllable valve device. + +electronic valve device +An indivisible electronic device for electronic power conversion or electronic power switching, comprising a single non-controllable or bistably controlled unidirectionally conducting current path. + +equivalent series resistance of a capacitor +An effective resistance which, if connected in series with an ideal capacitor of capacitance value equal to that of the capacitor in question, would have a power loss equal to the active power dissipated in that capacitor underspecified operating conditions. + +external commutation +A commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by a source outside the converter or electronic switch. + +external quenching +A method of quenching in which the quenching results from causes external to the electronic valve device. + +== F == + +false firing +The firing of a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices at an incorrect instant. + +flyback converter +A DC converter where the energy is transferred from the source side to the load side during the idle interval(s) of the controllable principal arm(s) after being stored in an inductance. + +firing +The establishment of current in the conducting direction in a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices. + +firing failure +A failure to achieve conduction in a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices during the conduction interval. + +forward breakdown +A failure that permanently deprives a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices of its property to block forward voltage. + +forward converter +A DC converter where the energy is transferred from the source side to the load side during the conduction interval(s) of the controllable principal arm(s). + +four-quadrant converter +An AC/DC or DC converter with two directions of DC power flow, associated with two directions of direct voltage and two directions of direct current. + +free-wheeling arm +A by-pass arm containing only non-controllable valve devices. + +frequency converter +An AC converter for changing the frequency. + +forced characteristic (of a line commutated converter) +A characteristic obtained by additional means, e.g. stabilization, with specified variation limits of influence quantities. + +fully controllable connection +A uniform connection with all principal arms controllable. + +fundamental factor +The ratio of the rms value of the fundamental component to the rms value of the alternating quantity. + +fundamental power +The active power determined by the fundamental components of voltage and current. + +== H == + +half-controllable connection +A non-uniform connection with half the number of principal arms controllable. + +harmonic content +The quantity obtained by subtracting from an alternating quantity its fundamental component. + +(total) harmonic factor +The ratio of the rms value of the harmonic content of an alternating quantity to the r.m.s. value of the quantity. + +high vacuum valve device +An electronic valve device in which the degree of vacuum is so high that the effects of ionization are negligible. + +hold-off interval +The interval between the instant when the on-state current of a latching valve device has decreased to zero and the instant when the same valve device is subjected to reapplied off-state voltage. + +== I == + +indirect AC converter +An AC converter with a DC link. + +indirect AC/DC converter +An electronic AC/DC converter with a DC or AC link. + +indirect commutation +A series of commutations from one principal arm to another or back to the original one by successive commutations via one or more auxiliary arms. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c916cb43 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,153 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of power electronics" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +indirect (power) conversion +Electronic conversion with one or more DC or AC link(s). + +indirect current link AC converter +An AC converter with a current stiff DC link . + +indirect DC converter +A DC converter with an AC link. + +indirect inverter +An inverter with a DC link. + +indirect rectifier +A rectifier with a DC or AC link. + +indirect voltage link AC converter +An AC converter with a voltage stiff DC link. + +inductive direct voltage regulation +The direct voltage regulation due to the commutation inductance(s). + +influence quantity +In the field of power electronics any quantity generally external to a power supply which may affect its performance. + +inherent delay angle +The current delay angle occurring, even without phase control, caused by multiple overlap. + +inherent direct voltage regulation +The direct voltage regulation excluding the effect of the AC system impedance. + +intermittent flow (of direct current) +A flow of direct current which is periodically interrupted. + +internal discharge device +A device incorporated in the capacitor connecting the terminals of the unit, capable of reducing the residual voltage effectively to zero after the capacitor has been disconnected from the supply. + +internal (element) fuse +A device incorporated in the capacitor which disconnects an element or a group of elements in the event of breakdown. + +insulation voltage (Ui) +The RMS rated value of the insulation voltage of capacitive elements and terminals to case or earth. If not specified, the RMS value of the insulating voltage is equivalent to the rated voltage divided by a square root of 2. + +interphase transformer +An electromagnetic device enabling the operation in parallel of two or more phase displaced commutating groups through inductive coupling between the windings placed, on the same core. + +inversion factor +For inversion, the ratio of the fundamental output power to the DC power. + +ideal no-load direct voltage +The theoretical no-load direct voltage of an AC/DC converter assuming no reduction by phase control, no threshold voltages of electronic valve devices, and no voltage rise at small loads. + +idle interval (of a valve arm) +That part of an elementary period in which the valve arm does not conduct. + +ionic valve device +filled valve device +An electronic valve device in which the effects of the ionization of a gas play an important role. + +(electronic) (power) inversion +Electronic conversion from DC to AC + +inverter +AC/DC converter for inversion. + +== J == + +jumping characteristic +The property of an equipment to jump from one characteristic to another, e.g. by changing the predetermined value of a stabilizing device. + +== L == + +latching valve device +A controllable valve device which latches when it is turned on, that means it remains in the on state when the trigger signal has ended. + +line commutation +An external commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by the line. + +load commutation +An external commutation where the commutating voltage is taken from a load other than the line. + +lowest operating temperature (θmin) (capacitor) +The lowest temperature at which the capacitormay be energized. + +== M == + +machine commutation +External commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by a rotating machine.maximum current (Imax) (capacitor) +The maximum RMS current for continuous operation.maximum loss power (Pmax) (capacitor) +The maximum loss power with which the capacitor may be loaded at the maximum case temperature. maximum operating temperature (θmax) (capacitor) +The highest temperature of the case at which capacitor may be operated. maximum peak current (i) (capacitor) +The maximum current amplitude which occurs instantaneously during continuous operation.maximum surge current (is) (capacitor) +The admissible peak current induced by a switching or any other disturbance of the system which is allowed for a limited number of times.metal-foil capacitor (non self-healing) +A capacitor in which the electrodes usually consist of metal foils separated by a dielectric, in the event of breakdown of the dielectric, the capacitor does not restore itself.model capacitor +A smaller unit which simulates a complete unit or element in an electrical test, without reducing the severity of the electrical, thermal or mechanical conditions. + +multi-connected converter +A converter consisting of two or more converter units parallel connected or series connected or both, each of which is an operative converter of its own. + +multiple connection (of commutating groups) +A connection in which two or more identical commutating groups which do not commutate simultaneously are connected in such a way that their direct currents add. + +multicycle control +The process of varying the ratio of the number of cycles which include current conduction to the number of cycles in which no current conduction occurs. + +multicycle control factor +The ratio between the number of conducting cycles and the sum of conducting and non-conducting cycles in the case of multicycle control. + +== N == + +natural characteristic (of a line commutated converter) +A characteristic determined only by the basic parts of the equipment, e.g. transformer and valve device assembly. + +non-conducting direction (of an electronic valve device or of a valve arm) +The reverse of the conducting direction. + +non-controllable connection +A uniform connection with all principal arms non-controllable. + +non-controllable valve device +rectifier diode +A reverse blocking valve device the current path of which conducts in its conducting direction without any control signal being applied. + + non-recurrent surge voltage (Us) (capacitor) +A peak voltage induced by a switching or any other disturbance of the system which is allowed for a limited number of times and for durations shorter than the basic period. + +non-reverse blocking valve device +A controllable valve device which is not capable of blocking any voltage of more than several volts in its non-conducting direction. + +non-uniform connection +A connection with both controllable and non-controllable principal arms. + +== O == + +off state +forward blocking state +The non-conducting state of a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices when load current in the conducting direction is not allowed to flow due to the absence of a turn-on signal. + +on state +conducting state +The condition when conducting current flows through an electronic valve device or an arm. + +one-quadrant converter +An AC/DC or DC converter with one possible direction of DC power flow. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f12baf2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of power electronics" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +operating temperature (capacitor) +The temperature of the hottest point on the +case of the capacitor in thermal equilibrium. + +overpressure disconnector +A disconnecting device designed to interrupt the current path in the case of abnormal increase of the internal pressure. + +== P == + +pair of antiparallel arms +Two valve arms in parallel with opposite conducting directions. + +pair of arms +Two series connected valve arms with the same conducting direction. + +parallel operation +A mode of operation of stabilized power supplies in which all similar output terminals are connected together and arranged so that the total load is shared by all the supplies. + +phase control factor +In the case of phase control, the ratio of the voltage at prevailing current delay angle to the voltage at zero current delay angle, all voltage drops being assumed to be zero. + +phase converter +An AC converter for changing the number of phases. + +phase control +The process of varying the instant within the cycle at which current conduction in an electronic valve device or a valve arm begins. + +power electronic capacitor +A power capacitor intended to be used in power electronic equipment and capable of operating continuously under non-sinusoidal current or voltage. + +power electronics +The field of electronics which deals with the conversion or switching of electric power with or without control of that power. + +principal arm +A valve arm involved in the major transfer of power from one side of the converter or electronic switch to the other. + +pulse control +The process of varying the starting or termination instants or both of a repeated current conduction in a principal arm. + +pulse control factor +The conduction ratio of a principal arm in the case of pulse duration control, assuming the commutation inductance to be zero. + +pulse frequency (fp) (capacitor) +The repetition rate of periodic current pulses. + +pulse frequency control +Pulse control at variable frequency and fixed pulse duration. + +pulse frequency control +Pulse control at variable frequency and fixed pulse duration. + +pulse number +The number of non-simultaneous symmetrical direct or indirect commutations from one principal arm to another which occur during one elementary period. + +pulse width modulation control +PWM control (abbreviation) +Pulse control in which the pulse width or frequency or both are modulated within each fundamental period to produce a certain output waveform. + +== Q == + +quenching +The termination of current flow in an arm without commutation. + +quenching voltage +The voltage which causes quenching of the current. + +== R == + +reactive power converter +A converter for reactive power compensation that generates or consumes reactive power without the flow of active power except for the power losses in the converter. + +rated AC voltage (Un) (capacitor) +The maximum operating peak recurrent voltage of either polarity of a reversing type waveform for which the capacitor has been designed. + +rated DC voltage (Un) (capacitor) +The maximum operating peak voltage of either polarity but of a non-reversing type wave form, for which the capacitor has been designed, for continuous operation. + +real no-load direct voltage +The actual mean direct voltage at zero direct current. + +(electronic) (power) rectification +Electronic conversion from AC to DC + +rectification factor +For rectification, the ratio of the DC power to the fundamental input power. + +rectifier +An AC/DC converter for rectification. + +regenerative arm +A valve arm which transfers a part of the power from the load side to the source side. + +(electronic) (power) resistance control +Control using the continuous variation of the resistance of electronic devices. + +resistive direct voltage regulation +The direct voltage regulation due to resistance (threshold voltages of electronic valve devices excluded). + +resonant converter +A converter using (a) resonant circuit(s) to provide commutation or to reduce switching losses. + +resonant frequency (fr) (capacitor) +The lowest frequency at which the impedance of +the capacitor becomes minimum. + +reversible converter +A converter in which the direction of the power flow is reversible. + +reverse blocking state +the non-conducting state of a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices when reverse voltage is applied between its main terminals (electrodes). + +reverse blocking valve device +A valve device which is capable of blocking a specified direct voltage applied in its non-conducting direction. + +reverse breakdown +A failure that permanently deprives a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices of its property to block reverse voltage. + +ripple voltage (on the DC side) +The peak-to-peak alternating voltage component of the voltage on the DC side of a converter. + +== S == + +slave operation +A mode of operation of stabilized power supplies achieving coordinated control of interconnected stabilized supplies by setting the master supply alone. + +self-commutation +A commutation where the commutating voltage is supplied by components within the converter or the electronic switch. + +self-healing metallized dielectric capacitor +A capacitor, the electrodes of which are deposited on the dielectric (usually by evaporation); in the event of breakdown of the dielectric, the capacitor restores itself. + +semiconductor converter +An power converter with semiconductor valve devices. + +semiconductor switch +An electronic power switch with semiconductor valve devices. + +semiconductor valve device +An electronic valve device which is a semiconductor device. + +sequential phase control +Asymmetrical phase control such that the delay angles are determined according to a given sequence. + +single converter +A current stiff reversible AC/DC converter with direct current in one direction. + +single-way connection (of a converter) +A converter connection such that the current through each of the phase terminals of the AC circuit is unidirectional. + +snubber (circuit) +A subcircuit connected to one or more electronic valve devices in order to relieve it (them) of stress as for instance overvoltage transients, switching losses, high rate of rise of current or voltage, etc. + +stabilized current characteristic +A characteristic with a stabilized output current. + +stabilized output characteristic +A forced characteristic with an output quantity which is stabilized with respect to changes of influence quantities. + +stabilized voltage characteristic +A characteristic with a stabilized output voltage. + +stabilization +In the field of power electronics the reduction of the effect of changes of influence quantities on the output quantity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a006cfc52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,118 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of power electronics" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +stabilized power supply +In the field of power electronics an equipment which takes electrical energy from a source and supplies it stabilized by means inside the equipment to one or more pairs of output terminals. + +stage (of a series connection) +A part of a series connection of two or more converter connections consisting of one or more parallel connected converter connections. + +steady-state condition (capacitor) +Thermal equilibrium attained by the capacitor at constant output and at constant cooling-air temperature. + +symmetrical phase control +Phase control with equal delay angles in all principal arms of a fully controllable converter connection or commutating group. + +switched valve device +A controllable valve device which may be turned on and off by a control signal. + +== T == + +tangent of the loss angle (tanδ) of a capacitor +The ratio between the equivalent series resistance and the capacitive reactance of a capacitor at specified sinusoidal alternating voltage and frequency. threshold voltage (of an electronic valve device) +The value of the voltage obtained at the intersection of the voltage axis and the straight line approximation of the on-state characteristic of an electronic valve device. + +transfer factor (of a DC converter) +The ratio of the voltage on the load side and the voltage on the source side. + +transition current +The mean direct current of a converter connection when the direct current(s) of the commutation group(s) become(s) intermittent when decreasing the current. + +trigger advance angle +The time expressed in angular measure by which the trigger pulse is advanced with respect to the reference instant. + +trigger delay angle +The time expressed in angular measure by which the trigger pulse is delayed with respect to the reference instant in the case of phase control. + +triggering +The control action to achieve firing of a latching valve device or an arm consisting of such devices. + +tolerance band +With stabilized power supplies the range of steady-state values of a stabilized output quantity lying between specified limits of deviation from a preset value, e.g. a nominal value. + +total direct voltage regulation +The direct voltage regulation including the effect of the AC system impedance. + +total harmonic distortion THD +The ratio of the rms value of the harmonic content of an alternating quantity to the rms value of the fundamental component of the quantity. + +turn-off arm +An auxiliary arm which temporarily takes over the current directly from a conducting valve arm, consisting of one or more latching valve devices which cannot be turned off by a control signal. + +two-quadrant converter +An AC/DC or DC converter with two possible directions of DC power flow associated with one direction of direct current and two directions of direct voltage or vice versa. + +== U == + +uniform connection +A connection with either all principal arms controllable or all principal arms non-controllable. + +== V == + +valve device assembly +An electrically and mechanically combined assembly of electronic valve devices or stacks, complete with all its connections and auxiliaries in its own mechanical structure. + +valve device blocking +An operation to prevent further turn-on of a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices by inhibiting the control signals. + +valve device commutation +A method of self-commutation in which the commutating voltage is created by turning off the conducting electronic valve device by a control signal. + +valve device quenching +A method of quenching in which the quenching is performed by the electronic valve device itself. + +valve device stack +A single structure of one or more electronic valve devices with its (their) associated mounting(s) and auxiliaries if any. + +voltage stiff AC/DC converter +An electronic AC/DC converter having an essentially smooth voltage on the DC side provided e.g. by a low impedance path for the harmonic currents. + +voltage source inverter +voltage fed inverter +A voltage stiff inverter. + +== Overview of electronic power converters == + +== See also == +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of civil engineering +Glossary of mechanical engineering +Glossary of structural engineering + +== Notes == + +== References == + +=== Attribution === + This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: IS 1885-27: Electrotechnical vocabulary. 27. New Delhi, Bureau of Indian Standards. 2008. + This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: IS 13648: Power electronics capacitors. New Delhi, Bureau of Indian Standards. 1993. + +== External links == + +=== Websites === +Online Electrotechnical Vocabulary +A Glossary of Electrical Terms +Electronic Terminology +Electronics Glossary +Glossary / Dictionary of Electronics Terms + +=== PDFs === +Pictorial Glossary +Electrical Engineering Dictionary Archived 2021-04-13 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_pre-Christian_Lithuanian_names-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_pre-Christian_Lithuanian_names-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d26c5640c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_pre-Christian_Lithuanian_names-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,123 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of pre-Christian Lithuanian names" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_pre-Christian_Lithuanian_names" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:58.803312+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A number of Lithuanian surnames evolved from the ancient pre-Christian Lithuanian personal names, such as Budrys, Girdenis, Tylenis, Vilkas, Amantas, Bukantas, Rimgaila, Vizgirda, Tarvydas. Many of them are of compound type, typically consisting of two stems (dithematic names), and many are of single stem. Sometimes the order of these stems may reverse, e.g., Norvaišas vs. Vaišnoras, Tautvydas vs. Vytautas. +Some two-stemmed names have a clear etymology, arising from nicknames, such as Baltakis = Balt-akys = "White eyes". Alfred Senn suggests that such transparent names are less ancient development, while those with non-evident etymology originate from the Indo-European pra-language. +A two-stemmed name may be further compounded into a patronymic cognomen/surname: Algirdas—Algirdaitis (son of Algirdas; see Lithuanian names of Vladimir Olgerdovich, Andrei of Polotsk, Dmitry of Bryansk), Žygimantas—Žygimantaitis. +Much of this glossary of stems common in ancient Lithuanian names is based on Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames, searchable online in the Lithuanian Surname Database (LSD). + + +== A == +Al-, Alg-; several suggested etymologies +Algimantas, Algirdas, Almantas, Alminas, Alvydas +Ar- +Arminas, Arvydas +Aš- +lt:Ašmantas, Ašvydas + + +== B == +bu, but (may be first or second stem), associated with the verb "to be" (search for "Butautas" in the LSD) +Butautas, Bukantas, Bukontas, Butigeidis, Butkintas/Butkus, Butnorius, Butrimas, Butvilas, Butvydas +Darbutas, Gembutas, Gimbutas, Gimbutis, Kaributas, Kintibutas, Mažbutas, Narbutas, Norbutas, Seibutis, Vembutas, Vilbutas , + + +== D == +Dár-: from daryti, "to do", "to make" +Darbutas, Dargis, Darvydas +-dau-, most probably from daug, "much" (search for "Daubaras" in the LSD) +Daumantas, Daukantas, Dautartas, Mindaugas + + +== G == +-gail-; from gaileti/gailus, "sorry", or gailas, "strong" (search for "Bargaila" in the LSD) +Kęsgaila, Jogaila, Rimgailė, Švitrigaila +-ged-: the root from gedḗti “to regret; to be sad”, gedēuti “to ask, to search, to inquire, when missing something; to long for; to want, to desire”. +Gediminas Gedgaudas Gedvilas.... +Sirgedas +-gird-, -gerd-; from girdeti, išgirsti, "hear" (search for "Girdvainis" in the LSD) +Girdenis, Girdvainis, Vizgirda + + +== K == +Kal- +Kalmantas, Kalminas +Kant- +Kantautas, Kantalgas, Norkantas +Kęs, Kens-, connected with kễsti (keñčia) "endure", "suffer" +Kęsgaila, Kęsminas/Kesminas, Kęsminavičius, Kęstaras, Kęstartas, Kęstautas, Kęstutis, Kęsvilas, Kęsvinas + + +== L == +'-leng-' , "easy", "light" +Lengvenis, lt:Lengvinas + + +== M == +-mant- is thought to be associated with the word manyti, "to think", " to know", as in mantus, "clever", "cunning" +Daumantas, lt:Mangirdas, Mantautas, Mantvila/Montvila/Mantvilas/Montvilas, Rimantas, Sudmantas, Vidmantas, Žygimantas (search for "Manginas" in the LSD) +-min- +Alminas, Arminas, Lukminas, Mindaugas, Mingaila, Minvydas + + +== N == +-nor-: from norėti, "to want" +Daunoras, Noreika, Norvaišas, Vainoras, Vaišnoras, Norkantas / Norkus, Norvilas / Norvila + + +== R == +Ra- +Ramantas, Ratautas +Rad- +Radvilas, Radvila, Radvanas, Radvinas +-rim- from rimti, "calm down", ramus, "calm" (search for "Rimgaila" in the LSD) +Butrimas, Tautrimas, Rimantas, Rimgaila, Rimvydas + + +== S == +sūd-: +Sudmantas (Sudemunt, Sudimont, Sudymont; see lt:Sudimantai), Sudmantis, Sudgintas, Sudvinas +-sur-, probably from Old Prussian sur-gi, "about" +Survila + + +== T == +Tar- +Tarvydas, Tarvilas +-tau-/-taut-; "-tautas" is a very common second part. The Lithuanian word wikt:tautà is a cognate of Latvian tautà and Old Prussian tauto, all meaning "land, country, region", etc. +Some examples: Butautas/Butautis, Mantautas, Vytautas, Tautginas, Tautkantas, Tautkus, Tautrimas, Tautvydas/Tautvidas + + +== V == +Vaid-: Several hypotheses of Baltic roots: (1) to see, to know; (2) associated with the verb vaidyti ("to visit, to appear", (3) "to act" (as actor)) or (4) vaidytis (to quarrel). +Vaidila/Vaidyla/Vaidilas/Vaidilė/Vaidilutis/Vaidilutė, Vaida, Vaidas, Vaidotas/Vaidatas, Vaidutis, Vaidginas, Vaidmanas, Vaidelys/Vaidelis, Vaidulas +-vel-, -vil- is associated with the word viltis, "hope" (search for "Vilbutas" in the LSD) +Erdvilas, Butvilas/Butvila, Mantvila/Montvila/Mantvilas/Montvilas, Norvilas/Norvila, Radvila, Survilla, Vìlbutas, Vilmantas +-vid/vyd- "to see" (a common Indo-Eropean stem; cf. išvysti, видеть, "vision") +Buivydas, Buitvydas, Manvydas, Rimvydas, Tautvydas/Tautvidas, Vidmantas +-vin: Kazimieras Būga reports several names with this stem: +Buivinas, Daugvinas, Gedvinas, Kąsvinas, Kęsvinas, lt:Lengvinas, Lingvinas, Liutvinas, Mantvinas, Mulvinas, Skirvinas, Sudvinas + + +== Z == +Žei- +lt:Žeimantas, Žeimintas + + +== See also == +Germanic name § Dithematic names +Slavic names § Dithematic names + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Irma Stirbaitė, DVIKAMIENĖS LIETUVIŲ PAVARDĖS, M.S. thesis based on the analysis of the Lietuvių pavardžių žodynas \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4989134e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,206 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of probability and statistics" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:13.947239+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of statistics and probability is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the mathematical sciences of statistics and probability, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. For additional related terms, see Glossary of mathematics and Glossary of experimental design. + +== A == + +admissible decision rule + +algebra of random variables + +alternative hypothesis + +analysis of variance + +atomic event +Another name for elementary event. + +== B == + +bar chart + +Bayes' theorem + +Bayes estimator + +Bayes factor + +Bayesian inference + +bias +1. Any feature of a sample that is not representative of the larger population. +2. The difference between the expected value of an estimator and the true value. + +binary data +Data that can take only two values, usually represented by the binary digits 0 and 1. + +binomial distribution + +bivariate analysis +A type of quantitative statistical analysis in which exactly two variables are analyzed, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them. Contrast multivariate analysis. + +blocking +In experimental design, the arranging of experimental units in groups ("blocks") that are similar to one another. Blocking is often used to manage the problem of pseudoreplication. + +Box–Jenkins method + +box plot + +== C == + +causal study +A statistical study in which the objective is to measure the effect of some variable on the outcome of a different variable. For example, a causal study might ask the question: "How will my headache feel if I take aspirin, versus if I do not take aspirin?" Causal studies may be either experimental or observational. + +central limit theorem + +central moment + +characteristic function + +chi-squared distribution + +chi-squared test + +cluster analysis + +cluster sampling + +complementary event + +completely randomized design + +computational statistics +The study of statistical methods that are enabled by using computational methods, at the interface of statistics and computer science. + +concomitants +In a statistical study, any variables whose values are unaffected by experimental treatments, such as a unit’s age, gender, and cholesterol level before starting an experimental diet. + +conditional distribution +Given two jointly distributed random variables X and Y, the conditional probability distribution of Y given X (written "Y | X") is the probability distribution of Y when X is known to be a particular value. + +conditional probability +The probability of some event A, assuming the occurrence of event B. In mathematical notation, conditional probability is written P(A|B), and is read "the probability of A, given B". + +conditional probability distribution + +confidence interval (CI) +In inferential statistics, a range of plausible values for some unknown parameter, such as a population mean, defined as an interval with a lower bound and an upper bound. The precise values of these bounds are calculated from a pre-determined confidence level, chosen by the researcher. The confidence level represents the frequency of intervals that, over the long run, capture the true value of the unknown parameter; i.e. 95% of confidence intervals computed at the 95% confidence level contain the true value, and likewise for other confidence levels. For example, based on a study of sleep habits among a random sample of 100 people, a researcher may estimate at the 95% confidence level that the overall population sleeps somewhere between 5 and 9 hours per night. There is a 95% chance that the true population mean falls within this interval, because 95% of random samples taken from this same population will yield 95% confidence intervals that contain the true mean. + +confidence level +Also confidence coefficient. +A number indicating the probability that the confidence interval (range) captures the true population mean. For example, a confidence interval with a 95% confidence level has a 95% chance of capturing the population mean. Technically, this means that, if the experiment were repeated many times, 95% of the CIs computed at this level would contain the true population mean. + +confounder +A variable that influences both the dependent variable and the independent variable, causing a spurious association. The existence of hidden confounding variables is an important quantitative explanation why correlation does not imply causation: if changes in two variables appear to be correlated, it is risky to presume that one change causes the other because it is possible that one or more unidentified confounders has in fact caused the changes in both variables. A classic example is the correlation between increased consumption of ice cream and increased crime in the summer. It is irrational to assume that eating more ice cream makes people commit more crime, or vice versa; it is more likely that one or more additional variables, e.g. warmer weather, increase both ice cream consumption and crime simultaneously. In this example, warmer weather is the confounder. + +conjugate prior + +continuous variable + +convenience sampling + +correlation +Also correlation coefficient. +A numeric measure of the strength of a linear relationship between two random variables (one can use it to quantify, for example, how shoe size and height are correlated in the population). An example is the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, which is found by dividing the covariance of the two variables by the product of their standard deviations. Independent variables, by definition, have a correlation of 0. A population correlation is often represented by the symbol + + + + ρ + + + {\displaystyle \rho } + +, and a sample correlation by + + + + r + + + {\displaystyle r} + +. + +count data +Data arising from counting, and which can therefore take only non-negative integer values. + +covariance +Given two random variables X and Y, with expected values + + + + E + ( + X + ) + = + μ + + + {\displaystyle E(X)=\mu } + + and + + + + E + ( + Y + ) + = + ν + + + {\displaystyle E(Y)=\nu } + +, the expected value of random variable + + + + ( + X + − + μ + ) + ( + Y + − + ν + ) + + + {\displaystyle (X-\mu )(Y-\nu )} + +, written in statistical notation as + + + + cov + ⁡ + ( + X + , + Y + ) + + + {\displaystyle \operatorname {cov} (X,Y)} + +. The covariance is used for measuring correlation; it can be interpreted as the degree to which the two variables change simultaneously with each other or "co-vary". + +== D == + +data + +data analysis + +data set +A sample and the associated data points. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..64a848066 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,230 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of probability and statistics" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:13.947239+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +data point +A typed measurement — it can be a Boolean value, a real number, a vector (in which case it is also called a data vector), etc. + +decision rule + +decision theory + +degrees of freedom + +density estimation + +dependence + +dependent variable + +descriptive statistics + +design of experiments + +deviation + +discrete variable + +dot plot + +double counting + +== E == + +elementary event +An event which contains only a single outcome in the sample space; in a set of possibilities, a possibility that can occur in precisely one way. For example, when pulling a card from a standard deck of playing cards, 'pulling the jack of spades' is an elementary event (because there is only one jack of spades in the entire deck), while 'pulling a king or an ace' is not (because there are a combined four kings and four aces in the deck). + +estimation theory +The branch of statistics concerned with estimating the values of parameters based on measured empirical data with a random component. The parameters describe an underlying physical setting in such a way that their values affect the distribution of the measured data; an estimator attempts to use the measurements to approximate the unknown parameters. + +estimator +A function of the known data that is used to estimate an unknown parameter; an estimate is the result of the actual application of the function to a particular set of data. For example, the mean can be used as an estimator. + +expected value +Also expectation, mathematical expectation, first moment, or simply mean or average. +The sum of the probabilities of each possible outcome of an experiment multiplied by their corresponding payoff or "value". Thus, it represents the average amount one "expects" to win per bet if bets with identical odds are repeated many times. For example, the expected value of rolling a fair six-sided die is 3.5. The concept is, intuitively, a generalization of the weighted average of all possible outcomes of a particular procedure or experiment, and can be viewed as the arithmetic mean of a large number of independent realizations of the experiment. The expected value of random variable X is typically written as E(X) for the expectation operator, and + + + + μ + + + {\displaystyle \mu } + + (mu) for the parameter. + +experiment +Any procedure which can be infinitely repeated and which has a well-defined set of outcomes. + +exponential family + +event +A subset of the sample space of a procedure or experiment (i.e. a possible outcome) to which a probability can be assigned. For example, on rolling a die, "getting a three" is an event (with a probability of 1⁄6 if the die is fair), as is "getting a five or a six" (with a probability of 1⁄3). + +== F == + +factor analysis + +factorial experiment + +frequency + +frequency distribution + +frequency domain + +frequentist inference + +== G == + +general linear model + +generalized linear model + +grouped data + +== H == + +histogram +An approximate graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data. A histogram displays this distribution by dividing the entire range of values into a series of consecutive, non-overlapping intervals and then counting how many instances of the dataset fall into each interval. + +== I == + +independence + +independent variable + +interquartile range (IQR) +Also midspread, middle 50%, and H-spread. +A measure of the statistical dispersion or spread of a dataset, defined as the difference between the 25th and 75th percentiles of the data. To calculate the IQR, the dataset is divided into four rank-ordered even parts or quartiles, the boundaries between which, at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles, are denoted + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +1, + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +2, and + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +3, respectively; the IQR = + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +3 + + + + − + + + {\displaystyle -} + + + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +1. + +== J == + +joint distribution +Given two random variables X and Y, the joint distribution of X and Y is the probability distribution of X and Y together. + +joint probability +The probability of two events occurring together. The joint probability of A and B is written + + + + P + ( + A + ∩ + B + ) + + + {\displaystyle P(A\cap B)} + + or + + + + P + ( + A + , + + B + ) + + + {\displaystyle P(A,\ B)} + +. + +== K == + +Kalman filter + +kernel + +kernel density estimation + +kurtosis +A measure of the "tailedness" of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable. There are different ways of quantifying, estimating, and interpreting kurtosis, but a common interpretation is that kurtosis represents the degree to which the shape of the distribution is influenced by infrequent extreme observations (outliers); in this case, higher kurtosis means more of the variance is due to infrequent extreme deviations, as opposed to frequent modestly sized deviations. + +== L == + +L-moment + +law of large numbers (LLN) +A theorem according to which the average of the results obtained from performing the same experiment a large number of times should be close to the experiment's expected value, and tends to become closer to the expected value as more trials are performed. The law suggests that a sufficiently large number of trials is necessary for the results of any experiment to be considered reliable, and by extension that performing only a small number of trials may produce an incomplete or misleading interpretation of the experiment's outcomes. + +likelihood function +A conditional probability function considered a function of its second argument with its first argument held fixed. For example, imagine pulling a numbered ball with a number k from a bag of n balls, numbered 1 to n; a likelihood function for the random variable N could be described as the probability of pulling k given that there are n balls: the likelihood will be 1/n for n greater than or equal to k, and 0 for n smaller than k. Unlike a probability distribution function, this likelihood function will not sum up to 1 on the sample space. + +loss function + +likelihood-ratio test + +== M == + +M-estimator + +marginal distribution +Given two jointly distributed random variables X and Y, the marginal distribution of X is simply the probability distribution of X when information about Y is ignored. + +marginal likelihood \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f6595a47d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,170 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of probability and statistics" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:13.947239+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +marginal probability +The probability of a given event, ignoring any information about other events. The marginal probability of A is written P(A). Contrast conditional probability. + +Markov chain Monte Carlo + +mathematical statistics + +maximum likelihood estimation + +mean +1. The expected value of a random variable. +2. The arithmetic mean, i.e. the mathematical average of a set of numerical values, calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values. + +median + +median absolute deviation + +mode + +moving average +Also moving mean and rolling mean. +A series of mathematical averages or means of different subsets of a larger data set, usually computed so as to understand trends in the data set over time. + +multimodal distribution + +multivariate analysis + +multivariate kernel density estimation + +multivariate random variable +A vector whose components are random variables on the same probability space. + +mutual exclusivity + +mutual independence +A collection of events is said to be mutually independent if for any subset of the collection, the joint probability of all events occurring is equal to the product of the joint probabilities of the individual events. Think of the result of a series of coin-flips. This is a stronger condition than pairwise independence. + +== N == + +nonparametric regression + +nonparametric statistics + +non-sampling error + +normal distribution + +normal probability plot + +null hypothesis (H0) +The statement being tested in a test of statistical significance; usually a statement of 'no effect' or 'no difference'. For example, in a test of whether light has an effect on sleep, the null hypothesis would be that light has no effect on sleep (i.e. sleep patterns are the same regardless of the lighting conditions). The null hypothesis is an expression of the expectation that the dependent variable will not change significantly as the independent variable is modified; statistical significance is measured and reported according to the degree to which this expectation is met. Contrast alternative hypothesis. + +== O == + +opinion poll + +optimal decision + +optimal design + +outlier + +== P == + +p-value + +pairwise independence +A set of random variables, any two of which are independent. + +parameter +Any measured quantity of a statistical population that summarizes or describes an aspect of the population, e.g. a mean or a standard deviation; often a quantity to be estimated based on the corresponding quantity calculated by drawing random samples from the population. Can be a population parameter, a distribution parameter, or an unobserved parameter. + +particle filter + +percentile + +pie chart + +point estimation + +power + +prior probability +In Bayesian inference, prior beliefs or other information that is available before new data or observations are taken into account. + +population parameter +See parameter. + +posterior probability +The result of a Bayesian analysis that encapsulates the combination of prior beliefs or information (the prior probability) with observed data. + +principal component analysis (PCA) + +probability + +probability density +The probability in a continuous probability distribution. For example, you can't say that the probability of a man being six feet tall is 20%, but you can say he has 20% of chances of being between five and six feet tall. Probability density is given by a probability density function. Contrast probability mass. + +probability density function +The probability distribution for a continuous random variable. + +probability distribution +A function that gives the probability of all elements in a given space; see List of probability distributions. + +probability measure +The probability of events in a probability space. + +probability plot + +probability space +A sample space over which a probability measure has been defined. + +== Q == + +quantile +A particular point or value at which the range of a probability distribution is divided into continuous intervals with equal probabilities, or at which the observations in a sample are divided in the same way. The number of groups into which the range is divided is always one greater than the number of quantiles dividing them. Commonly used quantiles include quartiles (which divide a range into four groups), deciles (ten groups), and percentiles (one hundred groups). The groups themselves are termed halves, thirds, quarters, etc., though the terms for the quantiles are sometimes used to refer to the groups, rather than to the cut points. + +quartile +A type of quantile which divides a range of data points into four groups, termed quarters, of equal size. For any quartile-divided dataset, there are exactly three quartiles or cut points that create the four groups. The first quartile ( + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +1) is defined as the middle data point or value that is halfway between the smallest value (minimum) and the median of the dataset, such that 25 percent of the data lies below this quartile. The second quartile ( + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +2) is the median itself, with 50 percent of the data below this point. The third quartile ( + + + + Q + + + {\displaystyle Q} + +3) is defined as the middle value halfway between the median and the largest value (maximum) of the dataset, such that 75 percent of the data lies below this quartile. Because the data must be ordered from smallest to largest in order to compute them, quartiles are a type of order statistic. + +quota sampling + +== R == + +random variable +A measurable function on a probability space, often real-valued. The distribution function of a random variable gives the probability of the different values of the variable. The mean and variance of a random variable can also be derived. See also discrete random variable and continuous random variable. + +randomized block design + +range +The length of the smallest interval which contains all of the data in a dataset, calculated as the arithmetic difference between the largest and smallest values contained in the dataset and expressed in the same units used for the data. The range provides a measure of the statistical dispersion of the dataset. + +recursive Bayesian estimation \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e15124bed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,256 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of probability and statistics" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:13.947239+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +regression analysis +A data analysis or statistical model that employs a set of statistical methods which estimate the relationships between a dependent variable and one or more error-free independent variables. The most common example of such a model is a linear regression, in which the equation of a line that most closely fits a set of data points according to a specific mathematical criterion is calculated and plotted on a graph of the data points; other forms of regression use related methods to estimate alternative parameters or to estimate conditional expectations from various non-linear models. + +repeated measures design + +response variable +Any variable whose value is or is expected to be affected by an experimental treatment, or by changes in one or more other variables; e.g. cholesterol levels after following a particular diet for six months. Response variables are those that change or respond to some phenomenon under study. The term is often used interchangeably with dependent variable. + +restricted randomization + +robust statistics + +round-off error + +== S == + +sample +That part of a population which is actually observed or measured. + +sample covariance + +sample mean +The arithmetic mean of a sample of values drawn from a population, commonly denoted by + + + + + + x + ¯ + + + + + {\displaystyle {\overline {x}}} + +. An example is the average test score of a subset of 10 students from a class. On the assumption that the sample is representative of the larger population, the sample mean is often used as an estimator of the population mean, which in this example would be the average test score of all of the students in the class. + +sample space +The set of possible outcomes of an experiment. For example, the sample space for rolling a six-sided die is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. + +sampling +The process of using a fraction of observations or samples selected from a larger population in order to study and estimate characteristics of the larger population. Sampling relies on the assumption that a sufficiently sized subset of data points chosen from a larger set of data points, when chosen according to appropriate criteria, is representative of the larger set as a whole – i.e. that the statistical properties of the subset are nearly the same as the properties of the larger set – and therefore that researchers are justified in using the samples to make inferences about the larger population without having to actually observe or measure every single data point in the population, which may be prohibitively expensive, difficult, or impossible to do in reality. + +sampling bias + +sampling distribution +The probability distribution, obtained by repeated sampling of the population, of a given statistic. + +sampling error + +scatter plot + +scale parameter + +significance level + +simple random sample + +Simpson's paradox + +skewness +A measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable about its mean. Roughly speaking, a distribution has positive skew (right-skewed) if the higher tail is longer, and negative skew (left-skewed) if the lower tail is longer. Perfectly symmetrical distributions always have zero skewness, though zero skewness does not necessarily imply a symmetrical distribution. + +spaghetti plot + +spectrum bias + +standard deviation +The most commonly used measure of statistical dispersion. It is the square root of the variance, and is generally denoted with the lowercase Greek letter + + + + σ + + + {\displaystyle \sigma } + + (sigma). + +standard error + +standard score + +statistic +The result of applying a statistical algorithm to a data set. It can also be described as an observable random variable. + +statistical dispersion + +statistical graphics + +statistical hypothesis testing + +statistical independence +Two events are independent if the outcome of one does not affect that of the other (for example, getting a 1 on a single die roll does not affect the probability of getting a 1 on a second roll). Similarly, when we assert that two random variables are independent, we intuitively mean that knowing something about the value of one of them does not yield any information about the value of the other. + +statistical inference +Inference about a population based on a random sample drawn from that population or, more generally, about a random process from its observed behavior during a finite period of time. + +statistical model + +statistical population +A set of entities about which statistical inferences are to be drawn, often based on random sampling. One can also talk about a population of measurements or values. + +statistical dispersion +A measure of the diversity within a set of data, expressed by the variance or the standard deviation. + +statistical parameter +A parameter that indexes a family of probability distributions. + +statistical significance + +statistics + +Student's t-test + +stem-and-leaf display + +stratified sampling + +survey methodology + +survival function + +survivorship bias + +symmetric probability distribution + +systematic sampling + +== T == + +test statistic + +tidy data +Standard for structuring data such that "each variable is a column, each observation is a row, and each type of observational unit is a table". It is equivalent to Codd's third normal form. + +time domain + +time series + +time series analysis + +time series forecasting + +treatments +Variables in a statistical study that are conceptually manipulable. For example, in a health study, following a certain diet is a treatment whereas age is not. + +trial +Can refer to each individual repetition when talking about an experiment composed of any fixed number of them. As an example, one can think of an experiment being any number from one to n coin tosses, say 17. In this case, one toss can be called a trial to avoid confusion, since the whole experiment is composed of 17 ones. + +trimmed estimator + +type I and type II errors + +== U == + +unimodal probability distribution + +units +In a statistical study, the objects to which treatments are assigned. For example, in a study examining the effects of smoking cigarettes, the units would be people. + +== V == + +variance +A measure of its statistical dispersion of a random variable, indicating how far from the expected value its values typically are. The variance of random variable X is typically designated as + + + + var + ⁡ + ( + X + ) + + + {\displaystyle \operatorname {var} (X)} + +, + + + + + σ + + X + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle \sigma _{X}^{2}} + +, or simply + + + + + σ + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle \sigma ^{2}} + + +== W == + +weighted arithmetic mean + +weighted median + +== X == + +XOR, exclusive disjunction + +== Y == + +Yates's correction for continuity, yules correction + +== Z == + +z-test + +== See also == +Outline of probability +Outline of statistics +Notation in probability and statistics +Probability axioms +Glossary of experimental design +List of statistical topics +List of probability topics +Glossary of areas of mathematics +Glossary of calculus + +== References == + +== External links == + +"A Glossary of DOE Terminology", NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, NIST, retrieved 28 February 2009 +Statistical glossary, statistics.com, retrieved 28 February 2009 +Probability and Statistics on the Earliest Uses Pages (Univ. of Southampton) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7dae1d45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary covers terms found in the psychiatric literature; the word origins are primarily Greek, but there are also Latin, French, German, and English terms. Many of these terms refer to expressions dating from the early days of psychiatry in Europe; some are deprecated, and thus are of historic interest. + +== A == + +=== abreaction === +Abreaction is a process of vividly reliving repressed memories and emotions related to a past event. Sigmund Freud used hypnosis to rid his patients of pathological memories through abreaction. + +=== abulia === +Aboulia or Abulia, in neurology, refers to a lack of will or initiative. The individual is unable to act or make decisions independently. The condition may range from subtle to overwhelming in severity. + +=== achromatopsia === +Achromatopsia is a term referring to or acquired agnosia for color. This term includes color blindness. +Achromatopsia is a condition characterized by a partial or total absence of color vision. People with complete achromatopsia cannot perceive any colors; they see only black, white, and shades of gray. Incomplete achromatopsia is a milder form of the condition that allows some color discrimination. +Achromatopsia also involves other problems with vision, including an increased sensitivity to light and glare (photophobia), involuntary back-and-forth eye movements (nystagmus), and significantly reduced sharpness of vision (low visual acuity). Affected individuals can also have farsightedness (hyperopia) or, less commonly, nearsightedness (myopia). These vision problems develop in the first few months of life. +Achromatopsia is different from the more common forms of color vision deficiency (also called color blindness), in which people can perceive color but have difficulty distinguishing between certain colors, such as red and green. + +=== affect illusion === +Mild illusions or misperceptions associated with changes in mood; e.g. mistaking a shadow for the presence of a person, perceiving movement in peripheral when there is none. + +=== akataphasia === +Akataphasia (Kraepelin 1896) refers to a syntactic disturbance of speech resulting from dissolution of logical ordering of thoughts. It manifests as rambling speech. Compare Derailment. + +=== akathisia === + +Akathisia refers to a subjective feeling of restlessness in the lower limbs that is related to abnormal activity in the extrapyramidal system in the brain, often due to antipsychotic medication. It tends to manifest as an inability to sit still. + +=== alexithymia === + +Alexithymia refers to an inability to identify and describe emotions in the self. + +=== Alice in Wonderland experience === + +In Alice in Wonderland experience, individuals perceive objects (including animals and other humans, or parts of humans, animals, or objects) as appearing substantially smaller than in reality. Generally, the object appears far away or extremely close at the same time. An alternate term for this is somaesthetic aura. Also see § Lilliputian hallucinations + +=== alogia === + +Literally, this term means "not having words". The term may refer to either "poverty of speech" or "poverty of thought". In the former, speech, though adequate in verbiage, conveys very little information and may consist of stock phrases or vague references. In poverty of thought, by contrast, there is a far-reaching impoverishment of the entire thinking of the individual, who, as a result, says very little. It is typically a negative symptom of schizophrenia, although it may also be seen in advanced dementia. + +=== amenomania === +Amenomania (compound of Latin amoenus, "cheerful"; and Greek μανία, "madness") is a disused psychiatric diagnosis. + +=== amok === + +The phrase "running amok" describes the behavior of an individual who is very agitated and may be at danger of causing harm to themselves or others. The syndrome of "Amok" is found in the DSM-IV TR. + +=== anhedonia === + +Anhedonia refers to an inability to experience pleasure, and may be described as a feeling of emotional emptiness. It can be a negative symptom of schizophrenia. It also may be seen in severe depressive states and schizoid personality disorder. + +=== anosognosia === + +Anosognosia is a condition in which a person who has a certain disability seems unaware of the existence of their disability. § hemiasomatognosia is a subtype of anosognosia in which the person with hemiplegia neglects one half of their body. + +=== Anton's syndrome === + +Anton syndrome, occasionally known as Anton-Babinski syndrome, is a form of cortical blindness in which the individual denies the visual impairment. The individual may attempt to walk, bumping into objects and injuring himself. +Anton syndrome is caused by damaging the occipital lobes bilaterally or from disrupting the pathway from the primary visual cortex into the visual association cortex. + +=== anwesenheit === +Anwesenheit refers to the false perception of an unfamiliar presence. It is commonly associated with periods of grief, schizophrenia and other emotional disturbances. + +=== apophanous perception === +This is an alternate term for delusional perception. It is one of the Schneiderian first rank symptoms and is defined as a true perception, to which an individual attributes a false meaning. + +=== aphemia === +Aphemia is the alternate term for mutism. Mutism is absence of speech with apparently normal level of consciousness. Mutism can be dissociative (hysterical) in which an individual (commonly a child or adolescent) stops speaking at once without involvement of any neurological or physical contributing factor; or it can be elective (selective) in which a child does not speak at all in certain situations (such as in school) but speaks well in other conditions (like at home or at play). A rare cause of mutism is akinetic mutism which results due to a lesion around the third ventricle of the brain. + +=== apperception === +Apperception is a normal phenomenon and refers to the ability to understand sensory inputs in their context, to interpret them and to incorporate them into experience. Failure of apperception is seen in delirious states. + +=== astasia-abasia === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..33256f44e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,102 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Astasia-abasia is a form of psychogenic gait disturbance in which gait becomes impaired in the absence of any neurological or physical pathology. The person usually walks in a bizarre manner. They stagger and appear as if going to fall, but always manage to catch hold of something in time. Sometimes these people cannot even stand, but on the other hand they are well able to move their legs while lying down or sitting. Often associated with conversion disorder or somatization disorder. + +=== asyndesis === +Asyndesis means loosening of association. A milder form of derailment of thought, it is marked by the individual leaping from topic to topic which have only the most tenuous, if any, connection with each other. This is in contrast with § flight of ideas, whereby the individual's successive ideas may be linked and "understandable" to the listener. +See also § akataphasia and § entgleisen term introduced by (Cameron). + +=== autism === + +From aut = "self" and -ism = "state or orientation". Originally, Eugen Bleuler used this term to describe schizophrenia. In general, it refers to any (pathological) tendency to be self-absorbed to such a degree that the feelings, thoughts and desires of a person are governed by their internal apprehension of the world and not by an external reality shared with others. +Today the term is used most often to refer to a specific developmental syndrome (see autism spectrum). + +=== autistic thinking === + +autistic thinking is an outdated term for egocentric thought processes that have little or no relation to consensus reality. The term does not accurately describe the thinking styles of autistic people. + +=== autochthonous delusion === + +Jaspers defined this as a delusion arising without apparent cause. For example, suddenly, without apparent cause, having the delusional belief that one is an alien. + +=== autokabalesis === + +Autokabalesis is a term for committing suicide by jumping from a very high place. + +=== automatic obedience === +Automatic obedience is an exaggerated co-operation with an examiner's request, as if the individual were an "automaton" robotically obeying a command. It is often a sign of catatonia. + +=== automatism === + +Automatisms are sequences of activity that occur without conscious control. They may be simple and repetitive (tic-like) or complex, and are usually natural-looking but purposeless. Automatic behavior is not usually recalled afterwards. + +=== autoscopy === +Autoscopy is the reduplicative hallucination of "seeing one's own body from the outside" while still maintaining an egocentric visuo-spatial perspective. Autoscopy is sometimes used synonymously with out-of-body experience. + +=== avolition === + +Avolition is an inability to initiate and complete goal-directed behavior. It can sometimes be misinterpreted as laziness, but it is actually a negative symptom of schizophrenia. + +== B == + +=== belle indifference === +Belle indifference or la belle indifférence is characterized by a lack of concern and feeling of indifference about a disability or symptom. It can be seen in conversion disorder. + +=== bouffée délirante === +Bouffée délirante is a French term used in the past for acute and transient psychotic disorders (F23 in ICD-10). In DSM-IV, it is described as "brief psychotic disorder" (298.8). The symptoms usually have an acute onset and reach their peak within two weeks. The symptoms start resolving in a few weeks and complete recovery usually occurs within two or three months. + +=== brain fag syndrome === + +Brain fag syndrome is an example of a culture-bound syndrome. "Brain fag" was once a common term for mental exhaustion. Today, the syndrome describes students (predominantly males, particularly in West Africa) experiencing symptoms including somatic, sleep-related and cognitive complaints, head and neck pains, difficulty in concentrating and retaining information, and eye pain. + +=== brain fog === +Synonym of § clouding of consciousness. + +=== bruxism === + +Bruxism refers to teeth grinding behavior that is usually seen in children. + +== C == + +=== Capgras' syndrome or illusion des sosies === + +In Capgras syndrome, the individual feels that a person familiar to them, usually a family member, has been replaced by an imposter. This is a type of delusion that can be experienced as part of schizophrenia. Capgras syndrome and several other related disorders are referred to as "delusional misidentification syndrome". + +=== catalepsy === + +Catalepsy is the term for catatonic rigidity of the limbs which often results in abnormal posturing for long intervals. + +=== cataplexy === + +Cataplexy refers to a sudden loss of muscle tone and is commonly precipitated by a strong emotional response. + +=== catatonia === + +Catatonia involves a significant psychomotor disturbance, which can occur as catalepsy, stupor, excessive purposeless motor activity, extreme negativism (seemingly motiveless resistance to movement), mutism, echolalia (imitating speech), or echopraxia (imitating movements). There is a catatonic subtype of schizophrenia. + +=== cerea flexibilitas === + +Cerea flexibilitas, meaning "waxy flexibility", refers to people allowing themselves to be placed in postures by others, and then maintaining those postures for long periods even if they are obviously uncomfortable. It is characterized by an individual's movements having the feeling of a plastic resistance, as if the person were made of wax. This occurs in catatonic schizophrenia, and a person with this condition can have their limbs placed in fixed positions as if the person were in fact made from wax. + +=== chorea === + +Chorea refers to erratic involuntary movements. The term comes from the Greek word "choreia" or "dance" since usually large groups of muscles are involved simulating dance-like movements. + +=== circumstantial speech === + +Circumstantial thinking, or circumstantial speech, refers to a person being unable to answer a question without giving excessive, unnecessary detail. This differs from tangential thinking, in that the person does eventually return to the original point, circling back on-topic. + +=== clang association === + +Clang associations are ideas that are related only by similar or rhyming sounds rather than actual meaning. + +=== Claparede's paradox === +Claparede's paradox refers to retention of non-verbal and implicit memory in people with Korsakoff's syndrome. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..594fa117f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== clouding of consciousness === +Clouding of consciousness, also known as brain fog or mental fog, is a global impairment in higher central nervous functioning. All aspects of cognitive functioning are affected. On mental status examinations it is manifest by disorientation in time, place and person, memory difficulties caused by failure to register and recall, aphasia, and agnosia. Impaired perception functioning leads to illusions and hallucinations often in the visual sensory modality. This then causes agitation and distress and secondary delusions. The term confusion state is sometimes used to mean clouding of consciousness, but is avoided whenever possible because it is ambiguous. + +=== coenestopathic state === +Coenestopathic state refers to a situation in which an individual in a coenestopathic state has a localized distortion of body awareness. + +=== confabulation === + +Confabulation is the confusion of imagination with memory, or the confusion of true memories with false memories. + +=== conversion disorder === + +Conversion disorder involves the unintentional production of symptoms or deficits affecting motor or sensory function that are not fully explained by a neurological or medical condition. This can manifest as paralysis, for example. It generally involves psychological factors, and symptoms may worsen in the context of situational conflict. + +=== coprolalia === + +Coprolalia is the involuntary utterance of socially inappropriate phrases. It is a phonic tic associated with Tourette syndrome, although less than 15% of persons with Tourette's have coprolalia. + +=== Cotard delusion === + +Cotard delusion involves the belief in an individual that one or more of their organs has changed in some way, has ceased functioning, or has disappeared entirely. +This type of delusion is most commonly seen in patients with schizophrenia. + +== D == + +=== defenestration === +Defenestration refers to an individual voluntarily ejecting themselves from a window or another elevated position, usually in the context of attempted suicide. Also see § autokabalesis. + +=== déjà vu === +In déjà vu, a person feels undue familiarity to an event or a person. + +=== déjà pensée === +In déjà pensée, a completely new thought is seen as familiar by an individual, as if it had occurred before. The sensation may be caused by a type of convulsion known as a "partial seizure" which occurs in parts of the temporal lobe or other areas of the brain – typically the individual remains conscious throughout. + +=== dementia praecox === + +Dementia praecox refers to a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually beginning in the late teens or early adulthood. + +=== dementia pugilistica === + +Dementia pugilistica, also called "chronic traumatic encephalopathy", "pugilistic Parkinson's syndrome", "boxer's syndrome", and "punch-drunk syndrome", is a neurological disorder which affects career boxers and others who receive multiple dazing blows to the head. The condition develops over a period of years, with the average time of onset being about 16 years after the start of a career in boxing. + +=== derailment === + +Derailment, also known as loosening of associations, refers to disorganized thinking that jumps between ideas that seem entirely unrelated. Compare § akataphasia, § asyndesis, § entgleisen, § flight of ideas, § knight's move thinking, and § logorrhoea. It can be seen in individuals with schizophrenia, as well as those experiencing mania. + +=== dereistic thinking === +Dereistic means: away from reality, undirected fantasy thinking. Carl Jung wrote, "This is the basic activity of psychic life, this fantasy making", and he used the term image not from afterimage, something one has experienced or seen, but says he takes it from poetic usage. Dereistic thinking: An old descriptive term used to refer to thinking not in accordance with the facts of reality and experience and following illogical, idiosyncratic reasoning. This term is also used interchangeably with § autistic thinking though they are not exact synonyms: dereistic emphasizes disconnection from reality and autistic emphasizes preoccupation with inner experience. + +=== dermatozoenwahn === +Alternate term for organic hallucinosis and delusional parasitosis, the continuous belief that one's skin or body has been infested by parasites or insects. This state cannot be diagnosed if the hallucinatory state is produced while the individual is under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or if the individual fulfills the criterion for delirium. In general, if an individual is under the influence of a drug, or experiencing the symptoms of withdrawal from that drug, this condition is not psychiatric but medical, and termed formication. + +=== dhat === + +Dhat syndrome refers to a complaint of premature ejaculation or impotence and a false belief that semen is being passed in the urine. + +=== doppelgänger === + +The doppelgänger is a phenomenon in which the afflicted believe that their exact "double" is present alongside them all the time and goes with them wherever they go. + +== E == + +=== écho de la pensée === +In écho de la pensée, meaning "thought echo" in French, thoughts seem to be spoken aloud just after being produced. The individual hears the "echo" of their thoughts in the form of a voice after they have made the thought. See also § gedankenlautwerden and § thought sonorization. + +=== entgleisen === +From German entgleisen "to derail". Alternate term used for derailment of thought (a morbid form of loosening of association or asyndesis). A Schneiderian term by origin. In this form of thought the individual jumps from one topic to another during conversation and both topics have literally no connection with each other. This is in contrast with § flight of ideas where connection is present between one topic and another. Compare § akataphasia, § asyndesis, and § derailment. + +=== extracampine === +Extracampine hallucinations are hallucinations beyond the possible sensory field, e.g., an individual "seeing" somebody standing behind them is a visual extracampine hallucination experience. + +== F == + +=== fantasy === + +Fantasy is imagining that expresses desires and aims. + +=== fatuous affect === +The moods of an individual with fatuous affect resemble the moods of a child. This condition is seen in hebephrenic schizophrenia. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ddaf55986 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== flight of ideas === +"Flight of ideas" describes excessive speech at a rapid rate that involves causal association between ideas. Links between ideas may involve usage of puns or rhymes. It is typical of mania, classically seen in bipolar disorder. Compare § derailment and Racing thoughts. + +=== folie à deux === + +Also called "induced psychosis", folie à deux is a delusional disorder shared by two or more people who are closely related emotionally. One has real psychosis while the symptoms of psychosis are induced in the other or others due to close attachment to the one with psychosis. Separation usually results in symptomatic improvement in the one who is not psychotic. +Folie communiquée, folie imposée, folie induite, and folie simultanée are the four subtypes of folie à deux. + +folie communiquée +Folie communiquée, or subtype C of folie à deux, occurs when a normal person has a contagion of their ideas after resisting them for a long time. Once they acquire these beliefs they maintain them despite separation. + +folie imposée +Folie imposée, or subtype A of folie à deux, is the most common form in which the dominant person imposes a delusion into a person who was not previously mentally ill. Separation of the two results in improvement of the non-dominant person. + +folie induite +In folie induite, or subtype D of folie à deux, a person who is already psychotic adds the delusions of a closely associated person to their own. + +folie simultanée +In folie simultanée, or subtype B of folie à deux, a delusional system emerges simultaneously and independently in two closely related persons, and the separation of the two would not be beneficial in the resolution of psychopathology. + +=== Fregoli delusion === + +In Fregoli delusion, a person has a delusional belief that various different people are in fact a certain other person, even if there is no physical resemblance. +Fregoli syndrome is considered a form of delusional misidentification "in which the false identification of familiar people occurs in strangers". + +== G == + +=== gedankenlautwerden === +In Gedankenlautwerden, an individual hears thoughts spoken aloud. Thoughts are heard in the form of a voice at the same time as they are thought, not afterwards. See also § écho de la pensée and § thought sonorization + +=== gegenhalten === +Gegenhalten is a catatonic phenomenon in which the subject opposes all passive movements with the same degree of force as applied by the examiner. It is slightly different from § negativism in which the subject does exactly the opposite to what is asked in addition to showing resistance. + +== H == + +=== hemiasomatognosia === +Hemiasomatognosia is a subtype of anosognosia in which the person with hemiplegia neglects one half of their body. + +=== hyposchemazia; aschemazia === +Hyposchemazia is characterized by the reduced awareness of one's body image and aschemazia by the absence of it. These disorders can have many varied causes such as physical injuries, mental disorders, or mental or physical states. These include transection of the spinal cord, parietal lobe lesions (e.g. right middle cerebral artery thrombosis), anxiety, depersonalization, epileptic auras, migraines, sensory deprivation, and vertigo (i.e. "floating on air"). + +== I == + +=== idée fixe === +Idée fixe is an alternate term for an overvalued idea. In this condition, a belief that might seem reasonable both to the individual and to other people comes to dominate completely the individual's thinking and life. + +=== ideas of alienation === +Thoughts that one's own body part or action is not of one's own. + +=== ideas of influence === +Thoughts that one's own action is caused by someone else's will or some other external cause. + +=== ideas of reference === + +Ideas of reference are a delusional belief that general events are personally directed at oneself. + +=== illusion === +An illusion is a false perception of a detectable stimulus. + +== J == + +=== jargon aphasia === +Jargon aphasia is characterized by incoherent, meaningless speech with neologisms (newly invented words). These are unconscious thoughts that find expression when one is off one's guard and must be consciously repressed. + +== K == + +=== Klüver–Bucy syndrome === + +In Klüver–Bucy syndrome, an individual will display placidity, hyperorality, hypersexuality, and hyperphagia. This condition results from bilateral destruction of the amygdaloid bodies of the limbic system. + +=== knight's move thinking === +Knight's move thinking is a complete loosening of associations where there is no logical link between one idea and the next. Based on a knight on a chessboard where the movement can be any L shaped direction, making it difficult to track. Compare § derailment. + +=== koro === + +Koro is a culture-specific syndrome, generally seen only among Chinese people. It involves a panicked feeling that one's genitals are retracting into the abdomen, and that this will result in death. + +=== kuru === + +Kuru (also known as "laughing sickness" due to the outbursts of laughter that mark its second phase) was first noted in New Guinea in the early 1900s. Kuru is now known to be a prion disease, one of several known transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. + +== L == + +=== latah === +Latah is a culture-specific syndrome usually seen in Southeast Asia and involves startle-induced disorganization, hypersuggestibility, automatic obedience, and echopraxia (a tendency to mimic examiner's or other person's actions). It is usually associated with women. +There is controversy over whether Latah is a real psychiatric condition, or merely a display of exhibitionism that would otherwise not be socially acceptable. + +=== l'homme qui rit === +In l'homme qui rit (from the French, meaning "the man who laughs"), an individual displays inappropriate laughter accompanied by release phenomena of the frontal subdominant lobe. + +=== Lilliputian hallucinations === +Lilliputian hallucinations are characterized by abnormal perception of objects as being shrunken in size but normal in detail. Usually seen in delirium tremens. + +=== logoclonia === +In logoclonia, the individual often repeats the last syllable of a word. Compare echolalia. Often a symptom of Alzheimers or Parkinson's disease. Might occur in people with autism. + +=== logorrhoea === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..66f53f6cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Logorrhoea, also known as "volubility", is characterized by fluent and rambling speech using numerous words. Compare § derailment. + +== M == + +=== mania === + +Mania is often mirrored as a minor image of depression. Mania is a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level. As mania intensifies, irritability can be more pronounced and result in anxiety or violence. Mania symptoms are elevated mood, flights of ideas, pressure of speech, increased energy, decreased need or desire for sleep, and hyperactivity. + +=== mania a potu === +Mania a potu is an alcohol intoxication state with violent and markedly disinhibited behavior. This condition is different from violent behavior in otherwise normal individuals who are intoxicated. + +=== metonymy === +Metonymy is a speech disturbance in which patients, commonly with schizophrenia, use inappropriate words or expressions that are related to the proper ones. Examples include: consume a menu, instead of a meal; lose the piece of string of the conversation, not the thread of the conversation. See also § word approximation. + +=== mitgehen === +Mitgehen (German: [ˈmɪtˌɡeːən] ) is an extreme form of mitmachen in which very slight pressure leads to movement in any direction, also called the "anglepoise" effect or "anglepoise lamp sign". This movement occurs despite instructions to resist the pressure, as individuals with this condition often experience even slight pressure as forcible grasping and pushing. + +=== mitmachen === +In mitmachen (German: [ˈmɪtˌmaxn̩] ), one's body can be put into any posture, despite instructions given to resist. Compare § mitgehen. + +=== moria === +Moria is the condition characterized by euphoric behavior, such as frivolity and the inability to act seriously. In addition, there is a lack of foresight and a general indifference. It is found in frontal lobe lesions, often along with § witzelsucht, particularly when the orbital surface is damaged. Recent research has shown its presence in frontotemporal dementia. + +== N == + +=== negativism === +Resistance to attempts to move the subject, who then does the opposite of what is asked. Negativism is usually a sign of catatonia, and may progress to (catatonic) rigidity. It is slightly different from § gegenhalten, in which the individual resists movement but does not perform the opposite movement. Also see: oppositional defiance disorder (ODD). + +=== neologism === +In a neurological or psychopathological context, neologisms are nonsensical words or phrases whose origins are unrecognizable, and are associated with aphasia or schizophrenia. Incorrectly constructed words whose origins are understandable may also be called neologisms, but are more properly referred as § word approximations. + +== O == + +=== omega sign === +The omega sign is the occurrence of a fold (like the Greek letter omega, Ω ) in the forehead, above the nose, produced by the excessive action of the corrugator muscle. It is sometimes seen in depression. + +=== oneiroid state === +From Greek oneiros as meaning "dream". In an oneiroid state one feels and behaves as though in a dream. Also known as "oneirophrenia" as described by Ladislas J. Meduna. + +=== oneirophrenia === +See § oneiroid state or oneirophrenia. + +=== overvalued idea === +Overvalued ideas are exaggerated beliefs that a person sustains beyond reasons, but are not as unbelievable and are not as persistently held as delusions. +Preoccupation with spouse's possible infidelity can be an overvalued idea if no evidence exists to arouse suspicion. +Body dysmorphic disorder's obsessive preoccupation that some aspect of one's own appearance is severely flawed is another example of an overvalued idea. + +== P == + +=== palilalia === + +Palilalia is characterized by the repetition of a word or phrase; i.e., the subject continues to repeat a word or phrase after once having said. It is a form of § perseveration. + +=== palinacousis === +In palinacousis the subject continues to hear a word, a syllable or any sound, even after the withdrawal of stimulus. It is a type of § perseveration. + +=== palinopsia === + +In palinopsia a visual image persists after the stimulus has gone (similar to an afterimage seen after looking into a bright light). + +=== parapraxis === + +A Freudian slip, or parapraxis, is an error in speech, memory or physical action that is believed to be caused by the unconscious mind. + +=== paraprosopia === +A delusion in which a person believes they have seen a face transform into a grotesque form – often described as a 'monster', 'vampire', 'werewolf' or similar. This is very rare and most likely to be described by people with schizophrenia. + +=== paraschemazia === +Paraschemazia is characterized by a distortion of body image. It can be caused by hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD and mescalin, epileptic auras, and sometimes migraines. + +=== pareidolia === + +In pareidolia a vague or random stimulus is mistakenly perceived as recognizable. Pareidolia is a type of illusion and hence called "pareidolic illusion". + +=== perseveration === + +This term refers to uncontrollable repetition of a particular response, such as a word, phrase, or gesture, despite the absence or cessation of the original stimulus. Usually it is seen in organic disorders of brain, head injury, delirium or dementia, however can be seen in schizophrenia as well. + +=== pfropfschizophrenie === +This refers to schizophrenia in people with mild learning disabilities. + +=== piblokto === + +Piblokto, pibloktoq, or Arctic hysteria, is a condition exclusively appearing in Inuit societies living within the Arctic Circle. Appearing most prevalently in winter, it is considered to be a form of a culture-specific disorder. +Symptoms can include intense "hysteria" (including screaming and uncontrolled wild behavior), depression, coprophagia, and insensitivity to extreme cold. This condition is most often seen in Inuit women. + +=== poverty of ideas === +Often associated with schizophrenia, dementia, and severe depression, poverty of ideas is a thought disturbance in which thought spontaneity and productivity are reduced, and are seen in speech that is vague, has many simple or meaningless repetitions, or full of stereotyped phrases. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd068628c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== pseudologia fantastica === +Pseudologia fantastica is a condition in which a person grossly exaggerates their symptoms or even tells a lie about their symptoms in order to get medical attention. Seen in malingering and Munchausen syndrome. + +=== psychological pillow === +Where the individual holds their head a few centimetres above the bed. No explanation is offered for this. It is a symptom of catatonia and can last for many hours. + +=== psychopathology === + +Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress or to +the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. + +== R == + +=== rabbit syndrome === +Rabbit syndrome is characterized by rapid, vertical, rhythmic movements of lips so that it resembles a rabbit chewing. It is a type of extrapyramidal symptom, distinct from tardive dyskinesia as it spares the tongue and involves vertical movements only. + +=== reduplicative hallucination === +In reduplicative hallucinations there is the perception of seeing a double. Particular kinds of reduplicative hallucination include autoscopy, heautoscopy and out-of-body experiences. + +=== reduplicative paramnesia === +Reduplicative paramnesia is a delusional misidentification syndrome in which one's surroundings are believed to exist in more than one physical location. + +=== reflex hallucination === +Reflex hallucinations occur when true sensory input in one sense leads to production of a hallucination in another sense, e.g. seeing a doctor writing (visual) and then feeling him writing across one's stomach (tactile). + +=== restlessness === +Restlessness has two components: akathisia (subjective "inner" restlessness) and psychomotor agitation (an excess of motor activity). + +=== retardation === +Mental retardation (more commonly referred to as intellectual disability) is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of themselves, and social skills. +In children, these limitations will cause a child to learn and develop more slowly than a typical child. Children with intellectual disability may take longer to learn to speak, walk, and take care of their personal needs such as dressing or eating. They are likely to have trouble learning in school. They will learn, but it will take them longer. There may be some things they cannot learn. + +=== left–right disorientation === +Left–right disorientation is one of the four cardinal signs of Gerstmann's syndrome. + +== S == + +=== scanning speech === +Scanning speech is an ataxic dysarthria in which syllable durations are equalized. It is characteristic of the dysarthria of multiple sclerosis. Together with nystagmus and intention tremor it forms Charcot's triad 1. + +=== schizophasia === + +Schizophasia, commonly referred to as word salad, is confused, and often repetitious, language that is symptomatic of various mental illnesses. + +=== schnauzkrampf === +A schnauzkrampf is a grimace resembling pouting sometimes observed in catatonic individuals. + +=== sensitiver beziehungswahn === +Sensitiver beziehungswahn, is an alternate term for ideas of reference. In this the person thinks as people are talking about them or observing them or a talk is going on about them on television or radio. Seen in social phobia, depression, delusional disorder and in schizophrenia where they are often present up to a delusional extent. + +=== Stockholm syndrome === + +The Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response sometimes seen in a hostage, in which the hostage exhibits loyalty to the hostage-taker, in spite of the danger (or at least risk) in which the hostage has been placed. Stockholm syndrome is also sometimes discussed in reference to other situations with similar tensions, such as battered person syndrome, child abuse cases, and bride kidnapping. + +=== synaesthesiae === +Also spelled synæsthesia, synaesthesia, or synesthesia—plural synesthesiae, from the Greek syn- meaning "union" and aesthesis meaning "sensation", it is a neurological phenomenon in which two or more bodily senses are coupled. + +== T == + +=== telegrammatic or telegraphic speech === + +In telegraphic speech conjunctions and articles are missed out; meaning is retained and few words are used. + +=== thought blocking === + +Thought blocking, also referred to as thought withdrawal, refers to an abrupt stop in the middle of a train of thought; the individual might or might not be unable to continue the idea. This is a type of formal thought disorder that can be seen in schizophrenia. + +=== thought sonorization === +A combined term for § gedankenlautwerden and § écho de la pensée ("thought echo") + +=== torpor === +Torpor in psychopathology is usually taken to mean profound inactivity not caused by reduction in consciousness. + +=== Tourette syndrome === +Tourette syndrome (abbreviated as TS or Tourette's) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood or adolescence. It is characterized by multiple movement (motor) tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic. Common tics are blinking, coughing, throat clearing, sniffing, and facial movements. These are typically preceded by an unwanted urge or sensation in the affected muscles, can sometimes be suppressed temporarily, and characteristically change in location, strength, and frequency. Tourette's is at the more severe end of a spectrum of tic disorders. The tics often go unnoticed by casual observers. + +=== traumatic bonding === +Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change. + +=== trichotillomania === +Also known as "hair pulling disorder", trichotillomania (TTM) is an impulse control disorder characterised by a long term urge that results in the pulling out of one's hair. This occurs to such a degree that hair loss can be seen. Efforts to stop pulling hair typically fail. Hair removal may occur anywhere; however, the head and around the eyes are most common. The hair pulling is to such a degree that it results in distress + +== V == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3796f2f41 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of psychiatry" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:16.754443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== verbigeration === +Verbigeration is a verbal stereotypy (repetition) in which usually one or several sentences or strings of fragmented words are repeated continuously. Sometimes individuals will produce incomprehensible jargon in which stereotypies are embedded. The tone of voice is usually monotonous. This can be produced spontaneously or precipitated by questioning. The term verbigeration was first used in psychiatry by Karl Kahlbaum in 1874, and it referred to a manner of talking which was very fast and incomprehensible. At the time verbigeration was seen as a "disorder of language" and represented a central feature of catatonia. The word is derived from the Latin word verbum (also the source of verbiage), plus the verb gerĕre, to carry on or conduct, from which the Latin verb verbigerāre, to talk or chat, is derived. However, clinically the term verbigeration never achieved popularity and as such has virtually disappeared from psychiatric terminology. Compare Echolalia. + +=== verstimmung === +An ill-humored mood state often accompanied by low mood and depressive symptoms. The people surrounding the individual often feel upset by this condition. + +=== vorbeigehen; vorbeireden === +In vorbeigehen or vorbeireden, an individual will answer a question in such a way that it is clear the question was understood, though the answer itself is very obviously wrong. For example: "How many legs does a dog have?" – "Six". +This condition occurs in Ganser syndrome and has been observed in prisoners awaiting trial. Vorbeigehen (German: [foːɐ̯ˈbaɪ̯ˌɡeːən] , giving approximate answers) was the original term used by Ganser but Vorbeireden (talking past the point) is the term generally in use (Goldin 1955). This behavior is also seen in people trying to feign psychiatric disorders (hence its association with prisoners). + +== W == + +=== wahneinfall === +Wahneinfall is an alternate term for autochthonous delusions or delusional intuition. This is one of the types of primary delusions in which a firm belief comes into the individual's mind "out of the blue" or as an intuition, hence called "delusional intuition". Other types of primary delusions include delusional mood (or atmosphere), delusional (apophanous) perception and delusional memories. Care is taken not to impugn an otherwise-rational individual's instinctive aversion or inexpressible sense of or belief about a thing by dismissing it as wahneinfall. + +=== waxy flexibility === +Waxy flexibility, also known as § cerea flexibilitas, is characterized by an individual's movements having the feeling of a plastic resistance, as if the person were made of wax. This occurs in catatonic schizophrenia, and a person with this condition can have his limbs placed in fixed positions as if the person were in fact made from wax. + +=== waxy rigidity === +Compare § mitmachen and § waxy flexibility. + +=== windigo psychosis === + +Windigo (also wendigo, windago, windiga, witiko, and numerous other variants) psychosis is a culture-bound disorder which involves an intense craving for human flesh and the fear that one will turn into a cannibal. This was alleged to have occurred among Algonquian Indian cultures. + +=== witzelsucht === +Witzelsucht is a tendency to tell inappropriate jokes and create excessive facetiousness and inappropriate or pointless humor. It is seen in frontal lobe disorders usually along with § moria. Recent research has shown that it may also be seen in frontotemporal dementia. + +=== word approximation === +Usage of words in an unconventional or inappropriate way (as in § metonymy), or usage of new but understandable words that are conventionally constructed, contrasting with § neologisms, which are new words whose origins cannot be understood. + +=== word-salad === +Word salad (derived from the German: Wortsalat) is characterized by confused, and often repetitious, language with no apparent meaning or relationship attached to them. It is often symptomatic of various mental illnesses, such as psychoses, including schizophrenia. Compare § derailment. + +=== würgstimme === +Würgstimme refers to speaking in an odd muffled or strangled voice. It is mainly seen in schizophrenia. + +== Z == + +=== Zeitraffer === +Zeitraffer (German: [ˈt͡saɪ̯tˌʁafɐ] ) phenomenon, which translates to "time-lapse" in English, highlights how events, objects, and processes change and evolve over time, sometimes in ways that are imperceptible in real-time. +From a philosophical perspective, Zeitraffer can be related to various philosophical themes: +1. Temporality: It raises questions about the nature of time, whether it is continuous or discrete, and how our perception of time affects our understanding of reality. +2. Impermanence: Zeitraffer reminds us of the transient nature of existence, emphasizing how everything is subject to change and decay. +3. Perception and Reality: It underscores the difference between how we perceive the world in real-time and how it actually changes over time, raising questions about the reliability of our senses and the nature of reality. + +=== Zeitlupenwahrnehmung === +Zeitlupenwahrnehmung phenomenon translates to “slow motion perception” in English + +=== zoophilia === + +One of the paraphilias, characterized by marked distress over, or acting on, urges to indulge in sexual activity that involves animals. + +== See also == +Outline of psychiatry + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_philosophy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_philosophy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67ab94342 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_philosophy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,161 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of quantum philosophy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_philosophy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:19.473116+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a glossary for the terminology applied in the foundations of quantum mechanics and quantum metaphysics, collectively called quantum philosophy, a subfield of philosophy of physics. +Note that this is a highly debated field, hence different researchers may have different definitions on the terms. + + +== Physics == + + +=== Non-classical properties of quantum mechanics === +nonseparability +See also: entangled +Nonlocality +Superposition of states +See also: Schrödinger's cat + + +=== Quantum phenomena === +decoherence +uncertainty principle +See also: Einstein and the quantum +entanglement +See also: Bell's theorem, EPR paradox and CHSH inequality +quantum teleportation +superselection rule +quantum erasure +delayed choice experiment +Quantum Zeno effect +premeasurement +ideal measurement + + +=== Suggested physical entities === +hidden variables +ensemble + + +=== Terms used in the formalism of quantum mechanics === +Born's rule +collapse postulate +measurement +relative state +decoherent histories + + +== Metaphysics == +objective and subjective +ontic and epistemic +intrinsic and extrinsic +agnostic +Philosophical realism +determinism +causality +empiricism +rationalism +scientific realism +psychophysical parallelism + + +== Interpretations of quantum mechanics == + +List of interpretations: + +Bohmian Mechanics +de Broglie–Bohm theory +consistent histories +Copenhagen interpretation +conventional interpretation +Usually refer to the Copenhagen interpretation. +Ensemble Interpretation +Everett interpretation +See relative-state interpretation. +hydrodynamic interpretation +Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber theory (GRW theory / GRW effect) +many-worlds interpretation +many-minds interpretation +many-measurements interpretation +modal interpretations +objective collapse theory +orthodox interpretation +Usually refer to the Copenhagen interpretation. +Penrose interpretation +Pilot wave +Quantum logic +relative-state interpretation +relational quantum mechanics +stochastic interpretation +transactional interpretation + + +== Uncategorized items == +quantum Darwinism +completeness +relativistic measurement theory +consciousness and observer role +quantum correlation +quantum indeterminism +stochastic collapse +pointer state +quantum causality +postselection +entropy +quantum cosmology + + +== People == + +Early researchers (before the 1950s): + +Max Born +Albert Einstein +Niels Bohr +J. S. Bell +Hugh Everett III +David Bohm +1950s–2010s: + +Roland Omnès +W. H. Zurek +Erich Joos +Max Tegmark +Maximilian Schlosshauer +H. D. Zeh +David Deutsch +Robert B. Griffiths +Bernard d'Espagnat +Carl von Weizsäcker +2000s or later: + +Bob Coecke +Robert Spekkens + + +== See also == +time arrow +quantum chaos +probability interpretations +relative frequency approach +probability theory as extended logic, decision theory +history of quantum mechanics + + +== Further reading == +Schlosshauer, Maximilian (2007). Decoherence and the Quantum-to-Classical Transition (1st ed.). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. Bibcode:2007dqct.book.....S. +d'Espagnat, Bernard (2003). Veiled Reality: An Analysis of Quantum Mechanical Concepts (1st ed.). US: Westview Press. +d'Espagnat, Bernard (2006). On Physics and Philosophy (1st ed.). US: Princeton Univ. Press. +Greenberger, Daniel; Hentschel, Klaus; Weinert, Friedel, eds. (2009). Compendium of Quantum Physics: Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-70622-9. + + +== External links == +https://web.archive.org/web/20121004044323/http://users.ox.ac.uk/~mert0130/teaching/qmreading.doc +Philosophy of Physics - A guide for the aspiring researcher +Quantum Mechanics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5d9b3ab34 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of robotics" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:20.792976+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots. Robotics is related to the sciences of electronics, engineering, mechanics, and software. +The following is a list of common definitions related to the Robotics field. + +== A == +Actuator: a motor that translates control signals into mechanical movement. The control signals are usually electrical but may, more rarely, be pneumatic or hydraulic. The power supply may likewise be any of these. It is common for electrical control to be used to modulate a high-power pneumatic or hydraulic motor. +Aerobot: a robot capable of independent flight on other planets. A type of aerial robot. +Arduino: The current platform of choice for small-scale robotic experimentation and physical computing. +Artificial intelligence: is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. +Aura (satellite): a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA in 2004 which collects atmospheric data from Earth. +Automaton: an early self-operating robot, performing exactly the same actions, over and over. +Autonomous vehicle: a vehicle equipped with an autopilot system, which is capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator. + +== B == +Biomimetic: See Bionics. +Bionics: also known as biomimetics, biognosis, biomimicry, or bionical creativity engineering is the application of biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. + +== C == +CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing): These systems and their data may be integrated into robotic operations. +Čapek, Karel: Czech author who coined the term 'robot' in his 1921 play, Rossum's Universal Robots. +Chandra X-ray Observatory: a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA in 1999 to collect astronomical data. +Cloud robotics: robots empowered with more capacity and intelligence from cloud. +Combat, robot: a hobby or sport event where two or more robots fight in an arena to disable each other. This has developed from a hobby in the 1990s to several TV series worldwide. +Cruise missile: a robot-controlled guided missile that carries an explosive payload. +Cyborg: also known as a cybernetic organism, a being with both biological and artificial (e.g. electronic, mechanical or robotic) parts. + +== D == +Degrees of freedom: the extent to which a robot can move itself; expressed in terms of Cartesian coordinates (x, y, and z) and angular movements (yaw, pitch, and roll). +Delta robot: a tripod linkage, used to construct fast-acting manipulators with a wide range of movement. +Drive Power: The energy source or sources for the robot actuators. + +== E == +Emergent behaviour, a complicated resultant behaviour that emerges from the repeated operation of simple underlying behaviours. +Envelope (Space), Maximum The volume of space encompassing the maximum designed movements of all robot parts including the end-effector, workpiece, and attachments. +Explosive ordnance disposal robot A mobile robot designed to assess whether an object contains explosives; some carry detonators that can be deposited at the object and activated after the robot withdraws. + +== F == +FIRST(For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology): an organization founded by inventor Dean Kamen in 1989 in order to develop ways to inspire students in engineering and technology fields. +Forward chaining: a process in which events or received data are considered by an entity to intelligently adapt its behavior. + +== G == +Gynoid: A humanoid robot designed to look like a human female. + +== H == +Haptic: tactile feedback technology using the operator's sense of touch. Also sometimes applied to robot manipulators with their own touch sensitivity. +Hexapod (platform): A movable platform using six linear actuators. Often used in flight simulators and fairground rides, they also have applications as a robotic manipulator. +Hexapod (walker): A six-legged walking robot, using a simple insect-like locomotion. +Human–computer interaction. +Humanoid: A robotic entity designed to resemble a human being in form, function, or both. +Hydraulics: the control of mechanical force and movement, generated by the application of liquid under pressure. cf. pneumatics. + +== I == +Industrial robot: A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. +Insect robot: A small robot designed to imitate insect behaviors rather than complex human behaviors. + +== K == +Kalman filter: a mathematical technique to estimate the value of a sensor measurement, from a series of intermittent and noisy values. +Kinematics: the study of motion, as applied to robots. This includes both the design of linkages to perform motion, their power, control and stability; also their planning, such as choosing a sequence of movements to achieve a broader task. +Inverse Kinematics: the process of determining joint angles required for a robot's end-effector to reach a desired position and orientation in space. Used in motion planning to calculate motor commands from target positions. + +== L == +Linear actuator A form of motor that generates a linear movement directly. + +== M == +Manipulator or gripper: A robotic 'hand'. +Mobile robot: A self-propelled and self-contained robot that is capable of moving over a mechanically unconstrained course. +Muting: The deactivation of a presence-sensing safeguarding device during a portion of the robot cycle. +Mecanum wheel: A wheel fitted with angled rollers that enables a robot vehicle to move in multiple directions, including sideways. + +== O == +Ornithopter – An aerial robot or drone that achieves flight through a flapping-wing mechanism rather than rotating blades or fixed wings, often utilized for highly maneuverable flight. + +== P == +Parallel manipulator: an articulated robot or manipulator based on a number of kinematic chains, actuators and joints, in parallel. cf. serial manipulator. +Pendant: Any portable control device that permits an operator to control the robot from within the restricted envelope (space) of the robot. +Pneumatics: the control of mechanical force and movement, generated by the application of compressed gas. cf. hydraulics. +Powered exoskeleton: is a wearable mobile machine that allow for limb movement with increased strength and endurance. +Prosthetic robots: programmable manipulators or devices for missing human limbs. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2079e875c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of robotics" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:20.792976+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== R == +Remote manipulator: A manipulator under direct human control, often used for work with hazardous materials. +Robonaut: a development project conducted by NASA to create humanoid robots capable of using space tools and working in similar environments to suited astronauts. + +== S == +Sensor fusion:The process of combining data from multiple sensors, such as LiDAR, cameras, global positioning systems (GPS), and inertial measurement units (IMUs), to produce a more accurate and reliable understanding of an environment than using a single sensor alone. It is widely used in robotics and autonomous systems to improve perception, localization, and decision-making. +Serial manipulator: an articulated robot or manipulator with a single series kinematic chain of actuators. cf. parallel manipulator. +Service robots are machines that extend human capabilities. +Servo, a motor that moves to and maintains a set position under command, rather than continuously moving. +Servomechanism An automatic device that uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism. +Single Point of Control The ability to operate the robot such that initiation or robot motion from one source of control is possible only from that source and cannot be overridden from another source. +Slow Speed Control A mode of robot motion control where the velocity of the robot is limited to allow persons sufficient time either to withdraw the hazardous motion or stop the robot. +Snake robot A robot component resembling a tentacle or elephant's trunk, where many small actuators are used to allow continuous curved motion of a robot component, with many degrees of freedom. This is usually applied to snake-arm robots, which use this as a flexible manipulator. A rarer application is the snakebot, where the entire robot is mobile and snake-like, so as to gain access through narrow spaces. +Stepper motor +Stewart platform A movable platform using six linear actuators, hence also known as a Hexapod. +Subsumption architecture A robot architecture that uses a modular, bottom-up design beginning with the least complex behavioral tasks. +Surgical robot, a remote manipulator used for keyhole surgery +Swarm robotics involve large numbers of mostly simple physical robots. Their actions may seek to incorporate emergent behavior observed in social insects (swarm intelligence). +Synchro + +== T == +Teach Mode: The control state that allows the generation and storage of positional data points effected by moving the robot arm through a path of intended motions. +Three Laws of Robotics, coined by the science fiction author Isaac Asimov, one of the first serious considerations of the ethics and robopsychological aspects of robotics. +Tool Center Point (TCP) The origin of the tool coordinate system. + +== U == +Uncanny valley A hypothesized zone in which humanoid robot behavior and appearance begin to approach that of actual humans, but are still missing vital elements, to the point that these mimicked actions or images cause revulsion. +Unimate, the first off-the-shelf industrial robot, of 1961. + +== W == +Waldo, a short story by Robert Heinlein, that gave its name to a popular nickname for remote manipulators. +Walking robot, a robot capable of locomotion by walking. Owing to the difficulties of balance, two-legged walking robots have so far been rare and most walking robots have used insect-like multilegged walking gaits. + +== Z == +Zero Moment Point. Zero Moment Point is a concept related with dynamics and control of legged locomotion, e.g., for humanoid robots. It specifies the point with respect to which dynamic reaction force at the contact of the foot with the ground does not produce any moment, i.e. the point where total inertia force equals 0 (zero). +ZMP. See Zero Moment Point. + +== See also == +Outline of robotics +Index of robotics articles +Artificial intelligence +Glossary of artificial intelligence + +== References == + +== External links == + +Online Robotics glossary repositories: + +Learn About Robots +Robot Glossary - Industrial Technology Defined Archived 2008-07-06 at the Wayback Machine +Robomatrix Robotics Glossary +JPL Robotics Glossary +GoRobotics Robotics Glossary + This article incorporates public domain material from OSHA Technical Manual - SECTION IV: CHAPTER 4 - INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS AND ROBOT SYSTEM SAFETY. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Retrieved 2011-01-28. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e3bddae8c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 1/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Indo-European language family comprises a vast number of languages and dialects spoken throughout the world today. All of these languages are descended from a common ancestor known as Proto-Indo-European, which scholars estimate was spoken about six thousand years ago. This common ancestor has been reconstructed by historical linguists using the comparative method. Although there is disagreement about the historical relationship of these languages to each other, this glossary uses the neo-traditional model of Indo-European phylogeny which states that the main branches of the family are Albanian, Anatolian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indo-Iranian, Italic, and Tocharian. +This glossary provides a list of sound laws that have been formulated by linguists for the various Indo-European languages. Any sound law which affects any of the major branches of the Indo-European family or more than one descendant language are included. Laws affecting one language may be included if a family has fewer than five members. + +== Proto-Indo-European or multiple branches == + +asno law + +The word-medial sequence *-mn- is simplified after long vowels and diphthongs or after a short vowel if the sequence was tautosyllabic and preceded by a consonant. The *n was deleted if the vocalic sequence following the cluster was accented, as in Ancient Greek θερμός (thermós, 'warm') from Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰermnós ('warm'); otherwise, the *m was deleted, as in Sanskrit अश्नः (áśnaḥ) from Proto-Indo-European *h₂éḱmnes ('anvil [gen. sg.]'). The sequence remains if the *-mn- sequence is heterosyllabic, such as in Ancient Greek πρύμνος (prýmnos, 'prominent'). The law was first discovered by Johannes Schmidt in 1895 and is named for the Avestan reflex 𐬀𐬯𐬥𐬋 (asnō). + +aspirate throwback +(Ancient Greek, Sanskrit) Also, aspiration throwback. When a root-final aspirated stop loses its aspiration for whatever reason, typically due to another process, the aspiration is retracted to the initial consonant whenever that initial consonant is capable of taking an aspirated quality. One example includes the Ancient Greek root τρίχ- (tríkh-, 'hair'), which becomes θρίξ (thríx) in the nominative form. The process was mentioned earlier by the Sanskrit scholar Pāṇini, but brought to modern scholarship in the first clause of a two-part law proposed by Hermann Grassmann in 1863, though the name "aspirate throwback" appears later. The second clause is now referred to alone as Grassmann's law. + +Bartholomae's law + +Also, Buddha rule. If a cluster of two or more obstruents contains at least one voiced aspirated consonant, the whole cluster becomes voiced and aspirated. The process may have been inherited from Proto-Indo-European, though this is not universally accepted. The law is named after the German linguist Christian Bartholomae who discussed outcomes of the process in the various Indo-Iranian languages in 1882. The alternative name stems from the fact that the etymon for the Sanskrit word बुद्ध (buddhá; 'awake, enlightened') is affected by this process, derived from *bʰewdʰ, meaning 'to be awake', and *-tó-, the passive past participle suffix. + +Beekes's law +In word-initial position, when a string consisting of a resonant followed by a laryngeal and then a consonant, the laryngeal is vocalized based on its laryngeal coloring. Examples of this process include Latin lassus ('tired') from Proto-Indo-European *lh₂dʰtos, where *h₂ is an *a-coloring laryngeal. The law is named after the Dutch linguist Robert S. P. Beekes who first proposed the process in 1988; the first use of the appellation in the literature was in a 2009 work by the American linguist Michael Weiss. + +boukólos rule + +Labiovelars lose their labialization and become plain velars when preceded or followed by *w or *u. This dissimilatory process explains the reflex in words like Ancient Greek βουκόλος (boukólos, 'cowherd'), derived from Proto-Indo-European *gʷoukʷólos. The expected form *βουπόλος (*boupólos) does not appear because the initial *kʷ in *kʷólos is preceded by the *u in *gʷou-, whereas in αιπόλος (aipólos, 'goatherd'), the expected form -πόlos (-pólos) is attested, derived from Proto-Indo-European *ai(ǵ)kʷólos. This process remained productive into Proto-Germanic, where it also came to apply to labiovelars preceded by *-un- through an assimilatory process which caused *n to have a labialized allophone. Examples of this include Proto-Germanic *tungōn- from Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂- both meaning 'tongue', whence both Latin lingua (from Old Latin dengua) and English tongue (from Old English tunge). + +double-dental rule +When two dental consonants form a consonant cluster, a sibilant is epenthesized between the dental consonants. Examples include Proto-Indo-European *witsto- ('seen, known'), which is underlyingly *wid-tó-. Whether this should be interpreted as *s-insertion or affrication is debated. + +Dybo's law + +Laryngeal consonants are lost between a vowel and any other consonant in pretonic syllables. Examples of this include Proto-Celtic *wiro- (whence Old Irish fer, meaning 'man'), Latin vir ('man'), and Old English wer ('man'), all of which are derived from Proto-Indo-European *wiHró-. If the vowel is long before the process occurs, it is shortened. The process likely did not take place in Proto-Indo-European as it only affected the western Indo-European languages; examples from eastern families show laryngeal retention, such as Lithuanian výras ('man, husband') and Sanskrit वीरः (vīráḥ; 'man, hero'). The law is named for the Russian linguist Vladimir Dybo, who published work on the topic in 1961. + +Eichner's law +(Controversial) The long vowel *ē does not undergo laryngeal coloring with *h₂ and *h₃, the *a-coloring or *o-coloring laryngeals, respectively. The law is named for the German-Austrian linguist Heiner Eichner who first proposed the law in 1973 to explain the derivation of Hittite mēḫur ('time, period') from Proto-Indo-European *meh₂-, making it cognate with Latin mātūrus ('ripe, mature') and providing several other examples. The Dutch linguist Tijmen Pronk has cast doubt on the validity of the law, arguing that most, if not all, purported etymologies can be explained through other means. Frederik Kortlandt similarly rejects the law as an example of intellectual laziness. Still, other linguists – such as Vincent Martzloff and Barbora Machajdíková – argue that while Pronk and others have successfully settled several edge cases, the law is still valid. + +Grassmann's law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3eccba823 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 2/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +(Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, pre-Proto-Tocharian) Also, Graßmann's law; ha-ha rule; breath dissimilation. When an aspirated consonant is followed by another aspirated consonant in same or following syllable, the first consonant loses its aspiration. Examples of pairs affected by this process include Ancient Greek θρίξ (thríx, 'hair') in the nominative case, but τριχός (trikhós) in the genitive case. Hermann Grassmann first proposed this process in 1863 as the second clause of a two-part law. The first clause is now known as the aspirate throwback. The law remained productive after the Greek devoicing of aspirates and /h/, from earlier *s, which behaved as an aspirated stop. This sound change likely also took place at some point between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Tocharian based on the behavior of *dʰ in word-initial position. A variation of this law was applied to Latin, called the limited Latin Grassman's law, to explain why expected sound changes did not occur to word-initial aspirates, such as *dʰragʰeti ('drags') becoming Latin trahit rather than the expected *frahit. The American linguist Michael Weiss concludes that the process can be explained through other means. + +Kortlandt effect +Proto-Indo-European *d undergoes debuccalization, becoming the laryngeal *h₁, whenever it is followed by a dental consonant, a consonant followed by a dental, or whenever the following syllable begins with a dental. Examples include Ancient Greek ἑκατόν (hekatón, 'one hundred') from *dḱm̥tom, where the simple loss of the initial *d is attested in forms like Latin centum and Sanskrit शतम् (śatám), but the debuccalization of *d instead of deletion adequately explains the initial aspirate in the Greek term. The process also explains the relationship between the Ancient Greek terms δρέπω (drépō, 'I pluck'), from the Proto-Indo-European root *drep-, and Homeric Greek *ἐρέπτομαι (*eréptomai; 'I feed on, I munch'), from the same root affected by the debuccalization (*h₁rep-). The law is named after the Dutch linguist Frederik Kortlandt, who first proposed the sound change in 1983. The debuccalization appears to have taken place before the Anatolian languages split off from Proto-Indo-European. + +Kuiper's law + +Laryngeals are lost in utterance-final position. The process does not cause compensatory lengthening. One form of the Latin nominative singular, which ends in -a rather than the expected *-ā, is thought to be derived from an earlier usage of the vocative case, which would have invoked the law; this process did not affect the related Sabellic languages, however. The process similarly affected the vocative in Ancient Greek as well. The law is named for the Dutch linguist F. B. J. Kuiper, who published work on this process in 1955. + +*kʷetwóres rule + +In a word of three syllables with a vowel pattern *é-o-V, where V is any vowel, the accent is moved forward to the middle syllable, becoming *e-ó-V. This explains the penultimate accent in terms like Vedic Sanskrit चत्वारः (catvā́raḥ), the nominative plural form of 'four', from Proto-Indo-European *kʷetwóres. The law is named after this example. + +Lindeman's law + +Proto-Indo-European monosyllabic words beginning with a consonant–resonant pair may vocalize the resonant and place a new resonant between it and the following vowel, giving way to an alternative disyllabic form. Examples of this process include the Proto-Indo-European word *dwóh₁ ('two') leading to Sanskrit द्वा (dvā́), but the Lindeman form *duwóh₁ leading to Latin duō and Ancient Greek δύω (dýō). The process is often connected to Sievers's law, in part due to its being based against Edgerton's converse, though Byrd disputes that the processes are connected at all. The law is named for the Norwegian linguist Fredrik Otto Lindeman, who first discussed the topic in 1965. + +métron rule + +In a dental–dental–resonant sequence, one of the dental consonants is deleted and there is no compensatory lengthening. Evidence from Latin and Gaulish seems to suggest that the second dental consonant was simply deleted, but evidence from Greek and Sanskrit indicates that the second dental consonant underwent voicing assimilation and then the resulting geminate was shortened; Proto-Germanic evidence provides examples of both. The name is derived from the Greek term μέτρον (métron, 'measure'), derived from Proto-Indo-European *méd-tro-. + +neognós rule +Laryngeals are lost in zero-grade contexts where full-grade root contains a consonant–vowel–resonant–laryngeal string, in that order, in certain reduplicated forms and in some other compounds. Examples include the Ancient Greek term νεογνός (neognós, 'newborn'); the Greek term is derived from Proto-Indo-European *newoǵn̥h₁o- through the medial form *newoǵno-. + +Osthoff's law + +When a long vowel is followed by either a liquid or nasal consonant which is itself followed by a stop consonant or *s, the vowel is shortened. In addition to liquids or nasals, glides may also trigger the process in that position, though this is controversial. The law is named after the German linguist Hermann Osthoff, who first postulated the process in 1879, followed by two important reanalyses in 1881 and 1884, though this particular appellation was not universal until as late as 1939. + +Pinault's law + +Also, Pinault's rule. Laryngeals are dropped in word-medial position between a consonant and *y, such as in Latin socius ('friend') from Proto-Indo-European *sokʷh₂-yo-. Only *h₂ and *h₃ appear to have been affected, though the law has been invoked to explain instances of *h₁'s disappearance in the same context, such as Proto-Celtic *gan-yo- ('to be born') from Proto-Indo-European *ǵnh₁yetor. The law is named for the French linguist Georges-Jean Pinault. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abf33b586 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 11/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +humī rule + +(Latino-Faliscan) In unaccented word-initial syllables, historic *o becomes u before m. Examples include umbilīcus ('navel') against Ancient Greek ὀμφαλός (omphalós), both from Proto-Indo-European *h₃n̥bʰ-, and uncus ('hook') against Ancient Greek ὄγκος (ónkos, 'barb of an arrow'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂onḱ-. Most counterexamples can be attributed to consonantal changes, such as somnus ('sleep'), derived from Proto-Indo-European *swep-no-. A handful of exceptions can be attributed to previous vowel changes, including glomus ('ball-shaped mass'), from an earlier *glemus. While typically attributed to Latin, it is possible the law also applied to Faliscan. It is unlikely that the law applied to the Sabellic languages. The name is derived from the Latin word humī ('on the ground'), which exhibits this rule. + +Lachmann's law + +When a short vowel is followed by an underlyingly voiced stop followed by a voiceless stop, it is lengthened. The process explains the differences between verbal forms, such as agō ('I drive') and cadō ('I fall'), and their respective derivatives, such as āctus ('made, done') and cāsus ('a fall'). Although the law was popularized by Paul Kiparsky, it is named for the German classicist Karl Lachmann who wrote about the process in 1850. It is unclear if the law applied to the whole Italic language family, but it applied at least to Latin. + +pius law + +Also, Thurneysen's law. The Proto-Italic diphthong *ūy, derived from a Proto-Indo-European sequence of *u followed by a laryngeal and *i, is fronted to *īy. Examples include Oscan piíhiúí ('pious [dative singular]') and Latin pius ('pious'), both from Proto-Italic *pīyo- derived from Proto-Indo-European *puh₂yo- 'pure'. The root is shared with the Latin pūrus ('pure'), derived from Proto-Indo-European *puH-ro- ('clean'), which did not undergo this change. Warren Cowgill argued that this law also occurred in Celtic in attempting to unify both Italic and Celtic into a double-jointed Italo-Celtic subfamily. + +Thurneysen–Havet's law + +Also, Havet's law; Thurneysen–Havet–Vine's law.  Proto-Italic *o becomes *a before a heterosyllabic *w followed by a vowel. This process precedes the Proto-Italic rounding of the diphthong *e to *o before *w. Examples include Latin caueō ('I am weary of, I beware of'), derived from Proto-Indo-European *kowh₁-eyo-, whence Ancient Greek κοέω (koéō; 'I am aware, I perceive'). Though originally formulated for Latin only, examples of the process in Umbrian, as in sauitu, and probably Venetic, as in the personal name ho.s.tihau.o, are also attested. Brent Vine considers the law to be one of the oldest, if not the oldest, processes common to Proto-Italic. It also precedes the emergence of initial stress following the loss of Proto-Indo-European lexical pitch, which may make it even earlier than Proto-Italic. The law is named for the Swiss linguist Rudolf Thurneysen and the French classicist Louis Havet, who appear to have developed the concept largely independently of each other in 1884 and 1885, respectively. However, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure first articulated the concept in 1879. + +== Tocharian == + +Klingenschmitt's rule + +(Tocharian B) Before the introduction of the Tocharian B accent rule, ä is deleted from the second syllable when it occurs between two nasal consonants. If the accent would have fallen on the syllable with the deleted vowel, the stress moves to the first syllable. It is possible that the law may also apply in instances where ä is flanked by two identical or very similar non-nasal consonants, though this has not been firmly established. In some instances, it is unclear whether the applicable sound law for a term is the result of Klingenschmitt's rule or the pātär rule because the reflexes can be explained through either process. The law is named for the German linguist Gert Klingenschmitt who first articulated the concept in 1994. + +pātär rule +(Tocharian B) Also, pātär accentuation rule. In a word which is underlyingly three or more syllables, when the primary syllable contains a full vowel – often ā or *æ – and the second syllable contains ä or its reflex e, the primary syllable is stressed. Examples of this include eṅkoṣ (plural preterite participle of 'seize'), from earlier *ǽnkäwæṣə, as contrasted with ltuweṣ (preterite participle of 'go out'), from earlier *lätä́wæṣä. The name comes from the German linguist Melanie Malzahn's use of the term pātär (accusative singular of 'father') as an example, being derived from earlier *pā́tärä. + +Though the law is credited to Malzahn's 2010 work, significant aspects of the full vowel conditions were originally identified by the Icelandic linguist Þórhallur Eyþórsson in his 1993 analysis of Tocharian accent. + +yāmu rule +(Tocharian B) Also, yāmu condition. In words of three or more syllables, Proto-Tocharian stress moves from the first syllable to the second syllable unless the first syllable contains a non-high vowel and the second has a schwa or "schwa-antecedent" (i.e., *i, *e, *u, or *R̥), even when the resulting Tocharian B word has fewer syllables. Examples include the Proto-Tocharian form *lə́klænta becoming läklénta ('sorrows'), but *yáməwə becoming yā́mu ('done'). + +== See also == + +== References == + +=== Notes === + +=== Citations === + +=== Sources === + +== Further reading == + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..867180605 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 3/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Rix's law +(Greek, Italic, Celtic) In zero-grade roots, when a laryngeal is followed by a syllabic resonant and at least one other consonant, the laryngeal undergoes coloring. Examples of the process include Proto-Indo-European *h₂ŕ̥tḱos ('bear') becoming Ancient Greek ᾰ̓́ρκτος (árktos) as compared with Hittite 𒄯𒁖𒂵𒀸 (ḫartaggas), which preserves the laryngeal, and Sanskrit ऋक्षः॑ (ṛ́kṣaḥ), which deletes the laryngeal. The process is generally assumed to have occurred in both Greek and Latin, though it is not universally accepted in the latter. The Celtic languages show a "limited version" where the laryngeal invariably becomes Proto-Celtic *a, irrespective of laryngeal color. Examples include Old Irish ortae ('was slain') from Proto-Indo-European *h₃r̥g-to-, and Middle Irish art ('bear') from Proto-Indo-European *h₂ŕ̥tḱos. The law is named for the German linguist Helmut Rix who first suggested the concept in 1970 for Ancient Greek. + +ruki sound law + +(Balto-Slavic, Albanian, Armenian, Indo-Iranian) Also, RUKI; ruki; ruki rule; ruki change; iurk rule; Pedersen's law. In the satem languages, Proto-Indo-European *s is retracted when preceded by *r, *u, *k, or *i. In Indo-Iranian, the phoneme retracted to š, while in Slavic it further retracted into x in most circumstances. This change is not generally believed to be commonly derived from an earlier common innovation, but rather were independently conditioned. In Indo-Iranian, the sound change caused the retroflexion of t, d, and n in the same contexts, not just s. Similarly, it does not appear that the Baltic languages underwent the full process. The consonants *g and *gʰ are sometimes considered to trigger the law as well. The name is derived from the constituent letters which govern the change. Its order is a Russian mnemonic device; ruki (руки) means 'hands'. Although the concept was articulated as early as 1818 by Rasmus Rask, the alternative name is derived from Holger Pedersen, who wrote about the process in detail. + +Saussure effect + +(Not fully accepted) Also, de Saussure's law; Saussure–Hirt effect; Saussure–Hirt law. When a word-initial laryngeal–resonant cluster is followed by *o or when a word-medial *o is followed by a laryngeal–resonant–consonant string, the laryngeal consonant is deleted. The process does not cause comprensatory lengthening. Examples of the process include Greek μοιχός (moikhós, 'adulterer'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃moyǵʰ-, when contrasted with its e-grade counterpart ὀμείχω (omeíkhō, 'I urinate'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃meyǵʰ-. The law is named for the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure who first described the process in 1905. The alternative name is derived from its prominence in the German linguist Hermann Hirt's 1921 handbook on Indo-European vocalism. Some linguists, such Tijmen Pronk and Lucien van Beek have cast doubt on the validity of the process. Van Beek, for example, argues that the law is inconsistently applied, can usually be explained through other means, and that the *o was not always a condition of laryngeal loss. + +Schmidt–Hackstein's law +Also, Schmidt's law; Schmidt–Hackstein rule; lex Schmidt–Hackstein. If a syllable-final laryngeal consonant is preceded by a consonant and followed by a consonant cluster, the laryngeal is deleted. The law is named for the German linguists Gernot Schmidt and Olav Hackstein. Schmidt first proposed the process in 1973 as a process of the Indo-Iranian languages to reconcile the broad number of variants of the word 'daughter' in the Iranian languages. In 2002, Hackstein developed a syllable-based approach which solved several apparent exceptions. + +Siebs's law + +(Not fully accepted) If an s-mobile is added to a root that begins with a voiced consonant, that consonant is devoiced. If it is aspirated, it retains its aspiration, giving a tripartite alternation between the s-mobilized, plain, and voiced unaspirated forms. The law is named after the German linguist Theodor Siebs who first proposed the concept in 1901, though it was not published until 1904. + +Sievers's law + +Also, Sievers–Edgerton law; Sievers's rule.  When a word-medial consonant is followed by a glide in an unaccented syllable, a high vowel – either *i or *u – is inserted if the preceding syllable is heavy. Examples of this include *mert-yo- becoming *mertiyo-, whence Sanskrit मर्त्यः (mártiyaḥ, 'mortal'), and *ḱerdʰ-yo- becoming *ḱerdʰiyo-, whence Gothic 𐌷𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌳𐌴𐌹𐍃 (hairdeis, 'herdsman'). Alternations including *u did not persist into Proto-Germanic. Although it has been obfuscated by other phonological processes in Albanian, Armenian, Slavic, and Celtic languages, all other branches of Indo-European show evidence of these alternations. The law is named for the German philologist Eduard Sievers, who first promulgated the concept in 1878. The extensions made by Franklin Edgerton in 1934 and 1943 to Sievers's work are sometimes called Edgerton's converse or the converse of Sievers's law, which led to the double-jointed name. The process is often linked with Lindeman's law. + +Stang's law + +When *w, *h₂, or *m precede a word-final *m, it is dropped and the preceding vowel undergoes compensatory lengthening. Examples of this include *dyḗm ('daylight [acc.]') from an underlying **dyéw-m form. The law is named after the Norwegian linguist Christian Stang who first articulated the concept in 1965. + +Streitberg's law +(Not widely accepted) When a full-grade syllable is stressed and followed by a deleted syllable, the vowel becomes long. The process was reevaluated by Julius Purczinsky in 1970, but Collinge finds it unconvincing. The law is named for the German linguist Wilhelm Streitberg, who discussed the process in two articles published in 1893 and 1894. + +Szemerényi's law + +1. (Not fully accepted) In pre-Proto-Indo-European, the word-final fricatives *s and *h₂ are deleted following a vowel–resonant sequence, followed by compensatory lengthening. Some linguists include in the law a process where if the resulting sequence is *-ōn, the *n is also dropped, but others describe that deletion as a separate process. The law is named after the Hungarian-British linguist Oswald Szemerényi who first described the process in 1956. +2. Also, broad Szemerényi's law; final Szemerényi's law. In pre-Proto-Indo-European, syllable-final fricatives are deleted following a vowel–consonant sequence, followed by compensatory lengthening. The process is blocked if the consonant preceding the fricative is in a cluster or if the following syllable begins with a consonant. + +Wackernagel's law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3e984425 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 4/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In compounds, the first vowel is deleted as the word undergoes crasis; the remaining vowel is sometimes then lengthened. It is unclear which languages this rule fully applied to; it certainly applies to Ancient Greek and Wagernackel's original formulation included the Indo-Iranian languages as well. Examples of the process include Ancient Greek στρατηγός (stratēgós, 'general'), composed of στρατός (stratós, 'army') and ἀγός (agós, 'leader'). The process sometimes occurs between words in addition to compounds, but it is relatively rare and may be guided by meter constraints, at least in Greek. The law is named after the Swiss linguist Jacob Wackernagel who is credited with first describing the process in 1889. + +weather rule + +Also, Wetter-Regel, Wetter rule.  Laryngeals are lost in word-medial position preceding a stop followed by a resonant and a vowel. The law is named for its reflex in English, weather, which is derived from Proto-Indo-European *weh₁dʰrom ('weather'); the laryngeal *h₁ is deleted before the sequence *-dʰro- which comprises a stop, a resonant, and a vowel, respectively. The law does not cause compensatory lengthening. + +Weise's law + +The palatovelar consonants *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are depalatalized when preceding *r unless that *r is followed by an *i. The law is named after the German linguist Oskar Weise who observed the results of the change in a 1881 essay on the topic. + +== Albanian == + +Rosenthall's law +Within a morpheme, only one nasal–stop cluster is allowed; if more than one cluster exists in the underlying representation, any of these clusters created by morphophonological processes, such as epenthesis, are deleted. Examples are found in the terms kuvend ('assembly') and mbrëmë ('last night'), where the respective expected epenthetic forms *nguvend and *mbrëmbë reduced following this process. The process has been likened to Lyman's law in Japanese and Grassmann's law in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit. The law is named for the American linguist Samuel Rosenthall who first proposed the process in 2022. + +== Anatolian == + +Čop's law +(Luwian) When a word-initial syllable in Proto-Indo-European contained a short and stressed *e and followed by a consonant–vowel sequence, the vowel becomes a and the following consonant geminates. Examples of the process include Cuneiform Luwian mallit- ('honey') from Proto-Indo-European *mélit- and maddu- ('wine') from *médʰu- ('honey, honey wine'). H. Craig Melchert considers the law to have been operative in Proto-Anatolian, though Alwin Kloekhorst considers it a uniquely Luwian innovation based on the historical "lentition rules" found in Proto-Anatolian. The law is named for the Slovenian linguist Bojan Čop who published work on the process in 1970, though the original formulation was much broader. + +Sturtevant's law +At some point after Proto-Indo-European, but before the first attestation of Hittite, voiceless stops developed into geminates in word-medial position and voiced stops devoiced. Examples of the process include 𒄿𒌑𒃷 (yukan, 'yoke') from Proto-Indo-European *yugóm, contrasted with 𒊭𒀝𒋼𒀀 (šakkar; 'dung, excrement') from Proto-Indo-European *sóḱr̥. The law is named for the American linguist Edgar Sturtevant, who first formulated the law in 1932, though he credited "the inspiration for [the] observation" to his student C. L. Mudge. + +== Armenian == + +Adjarian's law + +Also Acharian's law. In some Armenian dialects, the vowels in an initial syllable are fronted after voiced stops. The process appears to have been mediated by the advancement of the tongue root, evidenced by some dialects in Malatya among others. The law is named after the Armenian linguist Hrachia Acharian, who first described the process in 1901. + +== Balto-Slavic == + +de Saussure's law + +Also, Saussure's law; Fortunatov–de Saussure's law; Fortunatov's law; law of Saussure/Fortunatov. If a word's stress is on a syllable without a falling tone, the stress moves to the closest following syllable with an acute vowel. The law is named after the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure who built on previous works on the subject by Filipp Fortunatov and Adalbert Bezzenberger in 1894 and 1896. Fortunatov, however, independently applied the process to Slavic stress. The process was preceded by Pedersen's law. It is unclear when the process occurred; it appears not to have affected Latvian at all. Slavicists such as Edward Stankiewicz, George Shevelov, and André Vaillant believe the law affected Slavic, whereas Balticists and Balto-Slavicists like Frederik Kortlandt, Christian Stang, and Vladimir Dybo restrict the law to Baltic and perhaps only Lithuanian. + +Ebeling's law +In disyllabic verbs, if the syllable-final vowel is short or has a circumflexed tone, the stress is moved from that final syllable to the first syllable. The process appears to have been resistant to homophony, however. The law is named for the Dutch linguist Carl Ebeling who first postulated the process in 1963, with a revised form in 1967; it was later revised further by Frederik Kortlandt in 1977. Chronologically, the process occurred extremely early in the history of the language, shortly after the application of Hirt's law and before the application of Dybo's law. + +Lidén's law +Word-initial *w in Proto-Indo-European is lost before non-syllabic *r and *l as the language developed into Proto-Balto-Slavic. The law is named for the Swedish linguist Evald Lidén, who wrote about the process in 1899. The process described by the law likely occurred after the development of Hirt's law, but before the syllabification of resonants. While it is possible that the law occurred after the syllabification of resonants and only affected non-syllabic resonants, Ranko Matasović finds this "improbable on phonetic grounds". + +Hirt's law + +Also, Hirt–Illich-Svitych's law. If the syllable preceding the expected stressed syllable has a vowel immediately followed by a laryngeal, the stress is retracted to that syllable. Examples include comparisons of Lithuanian výras ('man, husband') and mótė ('mother') with Sanskrit वीरः (vīráḥ; 'man, hero') and माता (mātā́, 'mother'), respectively. The law was first proposed by the German philologist Hermann Hirt in 1895, but the original formulation was corrected in 1963 by the Soviet linguist Vladislav Illich-Svitych. The process applied prior the elimination of zero-grade stems and before laryngeal consonants underwent their merger; Ebeling demonstrated in 1967 that it must have occurred after the language underwent oxytonesis. It occurred shortly before the application of Ebeling's law. + +Pedersen's law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..85049599b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 5/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In words with a mobile accent paradigm of three syllables or longer, the accent was retracted from a medial onto the initial syllable. Examples include Lithuanian piemuõ ('shepherd') in the nominative, but píemenį in the accusative. A falling tone is always found on the affected syllable when the law is not invoked. The law is named after the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen, who first proposed it in 1933. The process occurred very early in the Balto-Slavic period; Frederik Kortlandt considers Pedersen's law to be the oldest law of retraction and possibly the earliest law of accent in the language. However, the process later reappeared in both the Slavic and Baltic languages. In Lithuanian, for example, it appears to have reappeared sometime after the lengthening of stressed e and a, but before the application of de Saussure's law. In Slavic, it occurred after the application of Ebeling's law. + +Winter's law + +Short vowels with non-acute accents are lengthened before unaspirated voiced stops (*b, *d, *g, but not *ǵ). The newly lengthened vowel receives the acute accent. The law is named after the German linguist Werner Winter who wrote his proposal in 1976, though it was not published until 1978. Frederik Kortlandt has dated the law to the final years of the Balto-Slavic period. + +=== Baltic === + +Endzelīns's law +Also, Endzelin's law. The Proto-Indo-European diphthongs *ei, *ai, and *oi become *ẹ̄́ before undergoing diphthongization to *íe in the Baltic languages. Examples of the process include Lithuanian diẽvas and Latvian dìevs, both meaning 'God' and both from Proto-Indo-European *deíwos. The Swedish linguist Tore Torbiörnsson has dated the law to sometime before de Saussure's law, though it is possible the law is constrained to Latvian and Lithuanian rather than all of the Baltic languages. The law is named for the Latvian linguist Jānis Endzelīns, also known by his Russian name Ivan Martynovich Endzelin, who proposed the concept in 1907, though only including Proto-Indo-European *ei and defended it repeatedly for over forty years. However, the German philologist Hermann Hirt articulated a similar concept in 1892 following an earlier publication by Karl Brugmann. Endzelīns's work gained more traction after a 1948 piece was translated into English in 1971. + +Hjelmslev's law +(Lithuanian) When a vowel receives an accent, it takes on the intonation of the following syllable. The law is named for the Danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev, who proposed the process in his doctoral thesis in 1932. Kortlandt states that, if the ictus retracts to a laryngealized vowel, the laryngeal is deleted and the result is a rising tone, but N. E. Collinge argues this is beyond the scope of process and that both Hjelmslev and de Saussure allow for a falling tone in their analyses. + +Leskien's law +(Lithuanian) If a word-final long vowel contains a falling accent, it is shortened. This process precedes Hjemslev's law, but is preceded by de Saussure's and Nieminen's laws. The law is named for the German linguist August Leskien, who first established the law in 1881. + +Nieminen's law +When the Proto-Baltic sequence *-ás is found word-finally, it is reduced to *-əs and loses its ability to carry stress. As a result, final stress is retracted to the penultimate syllable. This change explains the accentuation paradigm of o-stem nouns. Examples include báltas ('white') and var̃nas ('raven') from earlier *langás and *warnás, respectively. This is contrasted with mobile paradigms, where the accent is final, such as in galvà ('head') and žvėrìs ('beast'). The process also explains some plural stress changes, such as in Lithuanian diẽvas ('god'), with primary stress, and dievaĩ ('gods'), with final stress. The law is named after the Finnish linguist Eino Nieminen who proposed the law in 1922. The process certainly precedes Leskien's law in Lithuanian, but has been suggested to go at least as far back as Proto-Baltic based on evidence from Old Prussian. + +=== Slavic === + +Dolobko's law +Also, Vasilyev–Dolobko's law. In a word with mobile stress and a final encliticized morpheme, the stress moves from the initial syllable to the final syllable. If the encliticized morpheme has no syllable, the stress moves to the preceding syllable. This process occurred sometime between the end of the Balto-Slavic period and the loss of intervocalic *j, which places it sometime before Dybo's law. The law is named after the Soviet linguist Mily Dolobko who wrote about the law in 1927. Because its first formulation was by Leonid Vasilyev, another Soviet linguist, in 1905, it is sometimes known by the joint name. + +Dybo's law + +Also, Dybo–Illich-Svitych's law; Illich-Svitych's law. If a neoacute syllable was accented, the accent shifted to the following syllable. The process was blocked if the accent was underlyingly mobile. Examples include *blъxy ('fleas'), with stress on the second syllable, as compared with Lithuanian blùsos and Greek ψῠ́λλαι (psýllai), where stress falls on the first. Though it always shifts right, the resulting accent differed based on the conditions of the following syllable. For example, the underlying form **dòbrota became *dobròta ('goodness'), while **žènica became *ženı̋ca (diminutive of 'wife'). The process has been dated to around the turn of the 9th century and followed shortly by Stang's law of Slavic; it precedes Ivšić's law, but is preceded by Van Wijk's law. The law is named for the Russian linguists Vladimir Dybo and Vladislav Illich-Svitych, who first discovered the process. Dybo published an article on the topic in 1962, followed by another in 1963 which was co-authored with Illich-Svitych and another the same year by Illich-Svitych alone. + +fall of the weak yers + +Following the results of Havlík's law, weak yers were deleted. Examples are found in Old East Slavic, where earlier forms for the word 'prince' demonstrate a retained yer (кънѧзь [kъnjazь]), but later forms show it without (кнѧзь [knjazь]); the retained forms are dated to around 1075, while loss became widespread between the 1120s and 1210s. + +Fortunatov's law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb420d55f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 6/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +(Controversial) In short falling non-final syllables, stress moves to the following syllable if the following syllable has a rising accent. Some exceptions are well known, such as in Russian гото́ва (gotóva) but Serbo-Croatian gòtova, or in the historical dual Serbo-Croatian ȍba but Russian о́ба (óba). Despite this, the law saw a substantive defense in 1964 by George Shevelov, though it remains controversial. The law is named for the Russian linguist Filipp Fortunatov, who first proposed it in 1880. + +Georgiev's law +When word-initial short vowels are stressed, they are lengthened, provided they were originally in closed syllables. Examples include Proto-Balto-Slavic *ắkmō(n) becoming Proto-Slavic *kā̋my ('stone'). The law is named for the Bulgarian linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev, who first proposed it in 1965. + +Hartmann's law +(Not fully solved) This three-pronged process governs the application of intonation in Slavic derivations. In class I, if the acute falls on the noun stem, the adjective derivation retains stress on the stem. Examples of this include the Ukrainian noun горо́х (horókh, 'peas') and its relational adjective горо́ховий (horókhovyj). In class II, if the stem has undergone an oxytonizing process and stress does not fall on the stem, stress falls on the derivational suffix. Examples of this include the Russian noun бобё́р (bobjór, 'beaver') with its relational adjective бобро́вый (bobróvyj. In class III, if the stem is not stressed and has not undergone any oxytonizing process, the stress falls on the inflectional suffix. Examples of this include го́род (górod; 'town, city') with its relational adjective городово́й (gorodovój; 'urban, municipal'). The law is named after the linguist Hans Hartmann who established the process in a 1936 work. + +Havlík's law + +In late Proto-Slavic, the vowels represented by *ь and *ъ, called yers, become "weak" – that is, subject to moraic shortening – in final position or if they are followed by a vowel other than another yer. A yer becomes "strong" if the following syllable contained a weak yer. In words with three successive syllables all containing yers, the final yer was weak, causing the penultimate syllable to be strong and the antepenultimate weak. This process represents the first phase of the larger yer shift; the second phase is known as the fall of the weak yers, where weak yers were deleted. Still, the term "Havlík's law" is sometimes applied to the yer shift as a whole. The law is named after the Czech linguist Antonín Havlík who first described the outcomes of the process in Old Czech in 1889. + +Ivšić's law + +(Not fully accepted) Also, Ivšić's rule; Stang's law; Stang–Ivšić's law. In circumflex syllables with long vowels, the ictus moves to the preceding vowel and creating the neo-acute accent. The process occurs before Dybo's law. Though widely accepted by modern linguists, several exceptions remain unexplained. Those who subscribe to the Moscow accentological school initially accepted the law, but have become unconvinced that the law is valid. Because Dybo's law is preceded by Stang's law and usually neutralizes the former's effects, they argue parsimoniously that the accents simply never shift in these instances. Kortlandt, a member of the Leiden accentological school, argues that the Moscow school misinterprets the conditions under which the law is triggered. The law is named for the Norwegian linguist Christian Stang, who built upon the Croatian linguist Stjepan Ivšić's 1911 work on accentual retraction in 1957. + +Ivšić's retraction + +Also, Ivšić's law. In Kajkavian, Carinthian Slovene, and Pannonian Slovene, neoacute accents retract to the preceding long vowel. Examples of this process include *zābȃva ('party') becoming zãbava. In the Kajkavian dialect spoken in Turopolje, Croatia, neoacute accents retract to the preceding regardless of vowel length, such as in nȅ pušim ('I don't smoke'), as opposed to ne pȗšim elsewhere. The law is named for the Croatian linguist Stjepan Ivšić, who first articulated the concept in 1937. + +law of open syllables + +Also, opening of syllables; tendency to rising sonority; law of rising sonority. Word- and syllable-final obstruents and obstruent clusters are deleted. Final nasals are lost after short vowels and nasalized after long vowels. Though often treated as one process, the law is an oft-cited case of diachronic conspiracy, where several unrelated sound changes combine into a specific outcome not created by any other individually. + +law of syllabic synharmony + +Also, law of syllabic synharmonism; syllable synharmony. In Early Common Slavic, consonants are dragged forward to the palate or otherwise become coronal before front vowels, and back vowels move forward when following palatal consonants. The shift gives the sounds a synharmonic timbre, leading to the traditional "soft" and "hard" consonant distinction in modern Slavic languages. The process was blocked by the merger of *ɛː and *aː after palatal consonants. + +Meillet's law + +In words with a mobile accent paradigm, if the first syllable is accented with a rising (acute) accent in Proto-Balto-Slavic, it is converted into a falling (circumflex) accent in Proto-Slavic. Examples of this include Serbo-Croatian gláva in the nominative case, but glȃvu in the accusative. The process appears to be somewhat resistant to analogical leveling. The law is named after the French linguist Antoine Meillet who first described the law in 1902. + +Shakhmatov's law +(No longer widely accepted) Also, Šaxmatov's law. Stressed circumflex accents shift to the preceding syllable. The law is named after Aleksey Shakhmatov who described the process in 1915. + +Slavic first palatalization + +Also, first palatalization of velars; first regressive palatalization. When the velar sounds *k, *g, and *x occur before front vowels and *y, they undergo palatalization and become *č, *ž, and *š, respectively. If the velar follows a sibilant (i.e., *sk or *zg), the sibilant was backed to *šč and *ždž before the cluster was reduced in some dialects to *št and *žd. The process was probably mediated by coronalization before a final assibilation. The time at which the process occurred is unknown but it must have begun prior to the Migration Period and was completed sometime between the 6th and 8th centuries. + +Slavic second palatalization \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..13f74ad78 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 7/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Also, second palatalization of velars; second regressive palatalization. Following the monophthongization of Proto-Slavic *ai to *ě in open syllables and *i in closed syllables, velars became palatalized again. The process had different outcomes based on dialect: *k typically became *c and *g became either *dz or simply *z, but *x became *š in West Slavic, *xʲ in Novgorodian, and *s elsewhere. The process is estimated to have happened around the same time the West Slavs were migrating north of Carpathia and the Novgorodians were migrating to what is now northwestern Russia. Like the first palatalization, the process occurred in several stages: palatal coarticulation, palatalization, and assibilation. It appears that Novgorodian only went through the first stage. Clusters that had originally contained *ku̯ underwent palatalization in South Slavic and some East Slavic unless it was preceded by *s, but West Slavic and Novgorodian did not experience this palatalization at all. + +Slavic third palatalization + +Also, progressive velar palatalization; palatalization of Baudouin de Courtenay. When Proto-Slavic *i, *ī, or *in precede a velar, the velar is palatalized and then assibilated; *k and *g become *c and *dz, respectively, in all languages, with *dz undergoing further lenition to *z outside of Eastern South Slavic, Slovak, and Lechitic. In West Slavic, *x became *š, but *s or *sʲ in South and East Slavic. Examples of this process include earlier *liːkad, meaning 'face', which became *liːca (whence Old Czech líce), and *mεːsinkaːd, the genitive singular form of 'moon', which became *mεːsĩːcaː (whence Old Polish miesięca). The first stage of this process was in effect by the 6th and 7th centuries. + +van Wijk's law +When *j follows a consonant, it becomes *ь. In post-tonic syllables, the *ь assimilated to the following vowel, lengthening it. Whether the lengthening process is a part of the larger assimilatory process is the subject of some debate, though the lengthening as a separate result is sometimes termed "van Wijk's length". Although Aleksey Shakhmatov was the first to suggest the process in 1898, the law is named for the Dutch linguist Nicolaas van Wijk, who published work on the process in 1916. + +yer shift + +Also, jer shift; third Slavic vowel shift; fall of the yers. The yer vowels, *ь and *ъ, underwent two-part process followed by a third step that fractured the realization of the vowel qualities. First, yer vowels underwent an alternating pattern of weakening every other yer in a word beginning with weakening the final one; this first part of the shift is referred to as Havlík's law. The process is a patterned form of compensatory lengthening. Next, the weak yers were deleted, referred to as the fall of the weak yers. Following this deletion, the remaining strong yers were thereby shifted to different vowel qualities in the various Slavic languages, which collectively are known as the vocalization of the yers. + +== Celtic == + +Joseph's law +During the period between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Celtic, when *e is followed by a resonant then by *a, the *e assimilates to *a. In other words, in the sequence *eRa, where *R signifies any resonant, *e becomes *a, thereby becoming *aRa. Examples of this change include Proto-Celtic *taratro- ('drill'), whence Irish tarathar ('auger') from earlier *teratro-, derived from Proto-Indo-European *terh₁tro-, whence Ancient Greek τέρετρον (téretron; 'borer, gimlet'). The law does not affect *ā and probably did not affect environments where the *a was word-final. The law also appears to have affected words where the *a was formerly a laryngeal consonant in Proto-Indo-European, such as in Proto-Celtic *banatlo- ('broom plant') which may be derived from Proto-Indo-European *bʰenH-tlo from a root meaning 'to hit, to strike'. The process was expanded in Welsh include environments where the resonant is followed by a nasal, explaining the vowel quality in Welsh words like sarnu 'to trample' but not Old Irish sernaid ('to arrange, to order'), both from a Proto-Celtic *sternū / *starnati paradigm (from an older subjunctive Proto-Indo-European form *ster-nh₂-o, cognate with Latin sternō). Similarly, another expansion of the process appears in both Brittonic and Gaulish, causing the assimilation of *o to *a in the resonant–vowel environment *oRa, thereby rendering *aRa. Compare Middle Welsh taran ('thunder') and Gaulish Taranis ('the Celtic god of thunder'), which were affected by the expanded law, with Old Irish torann ('thunder'), which was not. The law is named after Lionel Joseph who covered the topic in 1982. + +MacNeill's law + +(Old Irish) Also, MacNeill–O'Brien's law. In syllables beginning with a sonorant or *β and which have a short or syncopated vowel, the lenition of Old Irish n, r, and l is lost in final unstressed syllables even when they are etymologically expected to be lenited in that position. The law is named after the Irish nationalist politician and language revivalist Eoin MacNeill who first articulated the concept in a 1909 publication. The alternative name is derived from additions made by Micheal A. O'Brien in 1956. + +McCone's law + +1. (Old Irish) Proto-Celtic *b and *u̯ become *β before *n word-internally. The latter change is rare, but occurs in words like Old Irish amnair ('maternal uncle') from Proto-Celtic *au̯n and omun ('fear') from *ɸoβnos. The law appears to have only occurred in contexts where there is no front vowel preceding the cluster, which accounts for apparent counterexamples like Welsh clun ('hip, haunch') from Proto-Indo-European *ḱlownis and Old Irish búan ('permanent') from *bʰewHnos, though some other etymologies account for different sources; the Welsh term may be a later borrowing from Latin clūnis, for example. The law shares a relationship to another Proto-Celtic sound change where *ɸ became *u̯ between either *a or *o and *n. The law is named after the Irish linguist Kim McCone. +2. (Old Irish) Unless the syllable is stressed, voiceless obstruents are voiced word-initially and word-finally. + +== Germanic == + +Bugge's rule \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a8bfbc3b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 8/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1. (Controversial) Voiceless word-initial stops in Proto-Indo-European become voiced fricatives, whenever it falls "not less than three syllables" from the onset. The process helps to explain one major set of exceptions to Verner's law, though it may not always be represented in the orthography; Bugge considered hænep ('hemp') to have a voiced consonant, against its Ancient Greek cognate κάνναβις (kánnabis, 'cannabis'). The rule is named for Sophus Bugge who first postulated the concept in 1887. +2. (Old Norse) In ljóðaháttr verse, if an even-numbered line ends in a trochee, the heavy syllable is made light; in other words, in strong–weak metrical feet, heavy strong syllables are prohibited at the end of a verse. Examples include the fourth-line dómr um dauðan hvern ('reputation for each dead person') rather than *dómr um dauðan hverjan. In instances such as hvat skal hans tryggðum trúa? ('how should one trust in his trustworthiness?'), the typically-long primary syllable is short, even though the orthography implies a heavy syllable. The process is dated to somewhere before the turn of the 10th century and can help to date certain texts. However, in some later Icelandic texts, the form changed somewhat to prohibit long primary syllables when the final word in a verse is disyllabic, which has obfuscated some dating efforts. The rule is also named after Sophus Bugge who first articulated the idea in 1879. + +Cowgill's law + +(Not fully accepted) Following the application of Grimm's law, when the laryngeal consonant *h₃ is preceded by a sonorant and followed by *w, it becomes *k. Purported examples of this process include Proto-Indo-European *gʷih₃wós ('alive') becoming Proto-Germanic *kwikwaz. It may also have affected *h₂, as in *taikuraz from Proto-Indo-European *dayh₂wḗr ('brother-in-law'), as compared with Sanskrit देवा (devā́) and Greek δᾱήρ (dāḗr). The law has been the subject of heated debate; Don Ringe, however, describes objections to the law as somewhat incoherent. Dating the law has proven somewhat difficult; Ringe suggests that if the law affects *h₂, it probably preceded Grimm's law and the epenthesis of *ə between nonsyllabic consonants and laryngeals. If true, it likely became *g before being devoiced to *k by Grimm's law. Irrespective of whether the law affected *h₂, it certainly preceded the merger of labiovelars and clusters of a velar consonant followed by *w. The law is named for the American linguist Warren Cowgill who formulated what is considered its strongest defense over several decades, though it was first proposed by William Austin, another American linguist, in 1946. + +Germanic spirant law + +Also, Primärberührung; Primärberührungseffekt. When a Proto-Indo-European plosive is followed by *s or *t, it becomes a voiceless fricative. The law was late enough to apply to Latin loans in the Germanic languages, examples of which include German Schrift from Latin scriptum. + +Grimm's law + +Also, first Germanic sound shift; first Germanic consonant shift; Rask's rule. The three series of Proto-Indo-European plosives undergo a chain shift. The first shift causes voiceless stops – *p, *t, *k, and *kʷ – to become the voiceless fricatives *f, *θ, *x, and *xʷ, respectively. Next, the plain voiced stops – *b, *d, *g, and *gʷ – devoice and become *p, *t, *k, and *kʷ, respectively. Lastly, the aspirated voiced stops – *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ, and *gʷʰ – become plain voiced stops *b, *d, *g, and *gʷ, respectively. This sound change is sometimes obfuscated in Old High German as a result of the High German consonant shift. The process did not affect the second consonant in a cluster of two adjacent obstruents. Compare two versions of the Old Frisian word for 'throat': strot- and throt-. Both are derived from the Proto-Indo-European s-mobile root *(s)trewd-, the former including the s-mobile while the latter does not. In this example, the form with the s-mobile blocks the aspiration of the *t. Several other exceptions are covered by Verner's law. The Danish linguist Rasmus Rask is credited with first articulating the law in 1818, but its more common name is from German folklorist Jacob Grimm, who – after reading Rask's work – expanded on it and published it in the preface of his German grammar book in 1819 with a rewrite in 1822. + +Hesselman's law +(North Germanic) Vowel lengthening processes occur in monosyllabic words before they occur in disyllabic ones. It is possible the law also occurs in Alemannic and Bavarian German. The law was named after the Swedish linguist Bengt Hesselman – based on his work in 1901 and 1902 – by Tomas Riad, another Swedish linguist. + +Holtzmann's law + +(North and East Germanic) Also, Verschärfung; sharpening; intensification. The geminated glides *jj and *ww are hardened into geminate plosives. In North Germanic, *jj becomes *ggj, but it became *ddj in East Germanic. The geminate *ww becomes *ggw in both, though it did not affect Vandalic, an East Germanic language; compare Gothic 𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐍃 (triggws; 'true, faithful') with Vandalic triova, both from the Proto-Germanic root *trewwō-. The law is named for the German linguist Adolf Holtzmann who articulated the concept in 1835. + +Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law + +(Ingvaeonic languages) When *n is followed by a fricative, the *n is lost and the preceding vowel is lengthened to compensate. The vowel was probably nasalized first and then experienced a loss in nasal quality before lengthening. + +Kluge's law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c4a2001d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 9/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +(Controversial) Following Grimm's law, if a stop consonant abuts *n, the *n devoices and assimilates, creating a geminate stop. Donald Ringe writes that "the problem with Kluge's suggestion is simply that the etymologies are unconvincing". Another issue is that Gothic appears to be unaffected by the process, as in 𐌰𐌿𐌷𐌽𐍃 (aúhns, 'oven'), suggesting that it may not be a common Germanic innovation. Frederik Kortlandt, however, supports the law, estimating that it can be dated to between Grimm's and Verner's laws, though he places Verner's law before Grimm's. The American philologist Robert D. Fulk does not dismiss this view, but suggests that it requires a reworking of Proto-Germanic consonant reconstructions. Don Ringe and Ann Taylor refute this reordering of the laws. The law is named for the German philologist Friedrich Kluge who suggested the concept in 1884. + +Thurneysen's law + +(Gothic) Spirants in unaccented syllables changed their voiced–unvoiced quality based on the quality of the preceding consonant, whereby voiced spirants appear after unvoiced consonants and voiceless spirants appear after voiced consonants. Examples of both can be found in the dative singular forms, 𐌰𐌲𐌹𐍃𐌰 (agisa, 'fear') and 𐍂𐌹𐌵𐌹𐌶𐌰 (riqiza, 'darkness'). In short, spirants are voiced when they are immediately preceded by a vowel without primary stress and the preceding consonant before the vowel is unvoiced. If the preceding consonant is a cluster where the second consonant is a liquid, the spirant remains unvoiced, but if the second consonant is a glide, it is voiced. The process does not affect word-final spirants and the second element in a compound word where the simplex is stress-bearing. While some exceptions occur due to morphological leveling, there are at least seven words for which Thurneysen could not supply an explanation. The law is named after the Swiss linguist Rudolf Thurneysen who posited the law in 1896 and published it in 1898. + +Verner's law + +Traditionally viewed as occurring after the application of Grimm's law, when a voiceless fricative is preceded by an unaccented syllable and not word-initial or abutting another voiceless consonant, it is voiced. Examples of this process include Proto-Germanic *ubilaz ('evil, bad') from Proto-Indo-European *h₂upélos with the intermediate form *ufélos. Following this, the mobile Proto-Indo-European accent was lost and stress fell on the first syllable by default. The process occurred before the loss of *gʷ from Proto-Germanic's phonemic inventory, though its chronological relation to vowel contraction in hiatus is unclear. Some linguists, such as Robert D. Fulk and Frederik Kortlandt, have suggested that Verner's law may actually precede Grimm's law, mediated by Kluge's law occurring between them. Don Ringe and Ann Taylor refute this reordering of the laws. The law is named after the Danish linguist Karl Verner who described the process in 1876. + +von Bahder's law +(High German, Low German, and Dutch) Proto-Germanic *b  becomes *f before *l or *r, typically in suffixes. Examples of this include Old High German scūfla ('shovel') as contrasted with the alternative form scūvala, without the l abutting the b. However, some vowel insertions have caused some alternations to appear, such as in Old High German sweval and swebal for 'sulfur', while Gothic only has * 𐍃𐍅𐌹𐌱𐌻𐍃 (*swibls). In Dutch, the devoicing applies to all consonants preceding l, r, m, and n when those consonants are followed by a vowel. The vowel insertion also creates voicing alternations, as in Standard Dutch bezem ('broom') and dialectal bessem. Additionally, the process appears to explain some excepted outcomes of Verner's law. The law is named after the German philologist Karl von Bahder who first described the process in 1903, though he only applied it to High German. + +== Greek == + +Bartoli's law + +Also, Bàrtoli's law. In short–long metrical feet where oxytone stress is expected, the syllable becomes paroxytone before a word boundary. The law only occurs in anapestic (short–short–long) and cretic (long–short–long) contexts. An example of this process can be seen in Ancient Greek θυγάτηρ (thygátēr, 'daughter'), in its nominative singular form, when contrasted with its accusative singular form θυγατέρα (thygatéra) and with the Sanskrit nominative singular दुहिता (duhitā́, 'daughter'). While some exceptions can be attributed to analogical change, there are still some unexplained exceptions. The law is named after the Istriot linguist Matteo Bartoli, whose 1930 publication contrasted Sanskrit oxytone words with their Ancient Greek paroxytone cognates. + +Cowgill's law + +Whenever Proto-Indo-European *o occurs between a resonant and a labial, it becomes Greek υ (y). The resonant and the labial can be on either side of the *o and produce the same output. Examples of a resonant followed by *o followed by a labial include νύξ (nýx, 'night') from *nokʷt-, whence also Latin nox ('night'). This law is preceded by laryngeal coloring, meaning that Proto-Indo-European sequences of *h₁o, *h₃o, and *h₃e are also accounted for in the law, as are cases in which the zero-grade form was vocalized, such as in στόρνυμεν (stórnymen, 'we smooth out') from Proto-Indo-European *str̥-n-h̥₃-, showing the nasal infix. Some later sound changes obfuscate the law, but there is evidence to show that the sound change still occurred. For example, Proto-Indo-European *nomn̥ ('name') gave way to Proto-Greek *onuma. Although in Attic Greek the form became ὄνομα (ónoma), the expected form ὄνυμα (ónyma) is found in both Doric and Aeolic Greek; the expected form is also found in derivatives such as ἀνώνυμος (anṓnymos; 'nameless, inglorious'). + +law of limitation + +Also, limitation law. Stress cannot appear any earlier in a word than the antepenultimate syllable. If the final syllable is heavy, it cannot appear any earlier than the penultimate, but syllable-final consonants do not contribute to syllable weight. The law is attested in every known Greek dialect, with the possible exception of Thessalian subdialect of Aeolic Greek. Some exceptions exist in Attic and Ionic Greek as a result of quantitative metathesis, which disrupted the original formulation. The process probably predates Homeric Greek, though it is certainly constrained to Greek and not a larger Indo-European process. + +Miller's law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c815468eb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages" +chunk: 10/11 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +(Not fully accepted) Also, Miller's rule. Immediately following an accented syllable, Proto-Greek aspirated consonants are deaspirated immediately preceding a nasal consonant. Examples of the process include Ancient Greek θρόμβος (thrómbos, 'clot'), from Proto-Indo-European *dʰrónbʰo-, against its related but non-nasalized counterpart τρέφω (tréphō; 'I thicken, I congeal'), from Proto-Indo-European *dʰrebʰo-. The accent condition supplies an explanation for the oft-cited counterexamples ὀμφαλός (omphalós, 'navel'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃(e)nbʰ-l̥-(l)-ó-, and ἀμφί (amphí, 'around'), from *h₂entbʰí. Although many violations can be attributed to Pre-Greek loanwords, the Greek term γόμφος (gómphos; 'peg, bolt') has persisted as an unexplained form, against the expected form *γόμβος (*gómbos). One explanation derives it from Proto-Indo-European *ǵonh₂-bʰo- ('like a tooth'), provided that the law precedes the Saussure effect or some similar loss of laryngeals. The law is not fully accepted; it is notably absent from standard references of Greek historical linguistics and is resolutely rejected by Beekes throughout his Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Despite this, it has gained considerable support in recent years. If true, the process is certainly preceded by Grassmann's law and the devoicing of Proto-Indo-European aspirated stops in Greek; one estimate places the law sometime between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Greek. A similar process appears to have also taken place in Proto-Italic, explaining Latin ambi- ('both'). The law is named for D. Gary Miller who articulated a version of the process in a 1977 paper on Bartholomae's law, though the idea goes at least as far back as Eduard Schwyzer's 1959 Griechische Grammatik ('Greek Grammar'). + +Vendryes's law + +Also, Vendryès's law. Any perispomenon with a short vowel in the antepenultimate becomes proparoxytone in Attic. The law is named after the French linguist Joseph Vendryes. + +Wheeler's law + +Also, law of dactylic retraction. Oxytone words in Proto-Indo-European become paroxytone in Ancient Greek if the word has a dactylic ending; in other words, the stress in dactylic words moved from the final syllable to the penultimate syllable. The law counts endings such as ον (-on), ος (-os), and οι (-oi) as short. Examples of this tonic retraction include cognate pairs like ποικίλος (poikílos; 'variegated, complex'), with a paroxytone, and Vedic Sanskrit पेशलः (peśaláḥ). The law is named after the American philologist Benjamin Ide Wheeler who first described it in 1885. + +== Indo-Iranian == + +Brugmann's law + +In open, non-final syllables, the vowel *o is lengthened and becomes *ā. In all other contexts, *o becomes short *a. Examples of the process include Indo-Iranian descendants of Proto-Indo-European *doru- ('wood'), such as Sanskrit दारु (dāru) and Avestan 𐬛𐬁𐬎𐬭𐬎 (dāuru), as contrasted with Ancient Greek δόρῠ (dórŭ). Masato Kobayashi has argued that the underlying sound change is *o to *ā, but the sound change does not occur in closed syllables to circumvent syllable-weight violations. The law is named for Karl Brugmann who first articulated the process in 1879; although Brugmann applied the term "law" to his work, the use of his name was later applied by his regular collaborator Hermann Osthoff. + +Fortunatov's law + +(Controversial; Sanskrit) When Proto-Indo-European *l precedes a dental consonant, the latter becomes a retroflex consonant and the *l is deleted. Examples include जठर (jaṭhára, 'belly'), which is derived from Proto-Indo-European *ǵelt-, and कुठार (kuṭāra, 'ax'), derived from *kult-. The law is named after the Russian linguist Filipp Fortunatov who proposed it in 1881. + +law of the palatals + +Also, law of palatals; Palatalgesetz. Proto-Indo-European *e palatalizes velar stops and becomes Proto-Indo-Iranian *a. The process is preceded by the delabialization of the labiovelar consonants. Although several linguists have attempted to identify the originator of the law and several have declared a supposed originator, no consensus has been reached. According to N. E. Collinge, it appears that six different linguists – Hermann Collitz, Ferdinand de Saussure, Johannes Schmidt, Esaias Tegnér Jr., Vilhelm Thomsen, and Karl Verner – discovered the law "roughly simultaneously" and "in entire independence" from one another. + +Lubotsky's law +(Not fully accepted) When a laryngeal consonant is preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant cluster starting with *g, *ǵ, or *ǵʰ, the largyngeal is deleted. Examples of the process include Sanskrit श्लक्ष्णः (ślakṣṇáḥ; 'slippery, smooth'), from Proto-Indo-European *sleh₂ǵsn-. Some linguists like Reiner Lipp have attempted to develop alternative derivations, but Tijmen Pronk finds them unconvincing. Some linguists have rejected the law on the basis that they believe Proto-Indo-European had the vowel *a, which remains controversial; Lubotsky has argued trenchantly against *a-based analyses. The law is named for the Russian-Dutch linguist Alexander Lubotsky, who suggested it in a 1981 paper, and first given the appellation by Frederik Kortlandt in 1985. + +== Italic == + +Bugge's canon + +In the third-person singular verbs signifying a present or future, the Proto-Indo-European sequence *-ti becomes -t, but if it expresses the past or subjunctive senses, the Proto-Indo-European sequence *-t either becomes -d or is deleted. In Latin, the process sometimes underwent analogical leveling. In Oscan, the future and future perfect end in -st, while in Umbrian, word-final -t was sometimes deleted as well. The scantly-attested Marrucinian and Vestinian languages invariably show the law in process, and all Osco-Umbrian dialects have no exceptions in the plural. When Oscan was written with the Greek alphabet, d is seemingly inexplicably written with Greek τ, though this has been attributed to difficulty representing Oscan phonology as some other spelling alternations are attested with both in the same script. Edwin W. Fay argues that word-final Proto-Italic *t and *d became indistinguishable early in their history but were later differentiated by sandhi. The law is named after the Norwegian philologist Sophus Bugge who first articulated the concept in 1874. + +Exon's law + +In a word with four or more syllables, if the second and third syllable are light, then the vowel of the second syllable is syncopated. Some examples do not appear to work unless the entire paradigm is considered. Vowels which occur as a result of anaptyxis do not undergo the process as they precede the law chronologically. The law is named for the British classicist Charles Exon who first formulated the law in 1906, though its current form was conceived by the American linguist Andrew Sihler. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0be11a5a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,469 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of string theory" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page is a glossary of terms in string theory, including related areas such as supergravity, supersymmetry, and high energy physics. + +== Conventions == + +-bein +A suffix indicating a frame, where the first part is a German word indicating the dimension (as in zweibein, vierbein, and so on). + +-ino +The superpartners of bosons are often denoted by the suffix -ino; for example, photon/photino. + +s- +The superpartners of fermions are often denoted by adding s- at the beginning; for example, quark/squark. + +== αβγ == + +α +1. Fine-structure constant +2. Regge slope, or inverse of the string tension +How are these related? +There is only one dimensional constant in string theory, and that is the inverse string tension + + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} + + with units of area. Sometimes + + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} + + is therefore replaced by a length + + + + + l + + s + + + = + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + + + {\displaystyle l_{s}={\sqrt {\alpha ^{\prime }}}} + +. The string tension is mostly defined as the fraction + + + + + + + 1 + + 2 + π + + α + + ′ + + + + + + . + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2\pi \alpha ^{\prime }}}.} + + +Tension is energy or work per unit length. In natural units + + + + c + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle c=1} + + and + + + + ℏ + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle \hbar =1} + +, and hence + + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} + + has dimension of length/energy or length/mass. Since + + + + ℏ + + + {\displaystyle \hbar } + + has the dimension of action, i.e. momentum times length, it follows that in natural units mass =1/length, and so + + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} + + has the unit of area. +The slope + + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} + + of a Regge trajectory + + + + α + ( + + M + + 2 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle \alpha (M^{2})} + + in Regge theory is the derivative of spin + + + + S + + + {\displaystyle S} + + or angular momentum with respect to mass-squared, i.e. + + + + + + + + d + S + + + d + + M + + 2 + + + + + + . + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {dS}{dM^{2}}}.} + + +Since angular momentum is moment of momentum + + + + p + + + {\displaystyle p} + +, i.e. length times mass with + + + + c + = + 1 + + + {\displaystyle c=1} + +, + + + + S + + + {\displaystyle S} + + is dimensionless in natural units, and + + + + + α + + ′ + + + + + {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} + + has units of + + + + 1 + + / + + + M + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle 1/M^{2}} + + or area like the inverse string tension. + +3. A Fourier coefficient of a spacetime coordinate. +4. αs is the strong coupling constant + +β +1. One of the two conformal superghost fields β, γ used in the BRST quantization of the superstring +2. Euler beta function +3. Beta function describing the change of coupling constant under the renormalization group flow + +γ +1. Dirac matrix +2. One of the two conformal superghost fields β, γ used in the BRST quantization of the superstring +3. World-sheet metric γab(σ,τ) +4. Photon +5. Euler constant .57721... + +Γ +1. Lattice +2. Euler Gamma function +3. Dirac matrix +4. Width of some scattering process + +δ +1. Kronecker delta function +2. An infinitesimal change in something; for example δL is an infinitesimal change in L + +Δ +1. Propagator +2. Delta baryon, a baryon with 3 light quarks and isospin 3/2 +3. Laplace operator in Euclidean space or more generally a Riemannian manifold + +ε +1. Small positive real number +2. Antisymmetric tensor + +η +1. Flat Lorentzian metric on spacetime +2. Dedekind eta function, a weight 1/2 modular form +3. Eta meson, a neutral flavor meson with PC = –+ + +θ +1. Theta function +2. θc is the Cabbibo angle +3. θw is the Weinberg angle, also called the weak mixing angle + +Λ +1. Cosmological constant +2. Large energy or large mass cutoff in regularization +3. Lambda baryon, a baryon with 2 light quarks and isospin 0 + +μ +1. Renormalization scale, with the dimensions of mass +2. Muon + +ν +Neutrino + +Ξ +1. Xi baryon, a baryon with 1 light quark + +π +1. 3.14159... +2. Pion + +Π +The momentum density conjugate to X + +ρ +Rho meson, a light meson with PC = –– + +σ +1. Spacelike coordinate on the world-sheet +2. Scattering cross section +3. Pauli matrix +4. See #sigma model + +Σ +1. Sigma baryon, a baryon with 2 light quarks and isospin 1 + +τ +1. Timelike coordinate on the world-sheet +2. Element of the upper half plane +3. Tauon + +Υ +Upsilon meson (bb) + +φ +Scalar field + +χ +Neutral-flavor heavy meson with PC = ++ + +ψ +1. Spinor field +2. Psi meson (cc) + +Ω +1. Density of something in the universe; for example, Ων is the neutrino density +2. Omega baryon, a baryon with no light quarks + +== !$@ == + +' (prime) +X′ means ∂X/∂σ. + +dot above letter +Ẋ means ∂X/∂τ + +∇ +1. A covariant derivative +2. The del operator. + +□ +The D'Alembert operator, or non-Euclidean Laplacian. + +[,] +A commutator: [A,B] = AB–BA. + +{,} +An anticommutator: {A,B} = AB+BA. + +== A == + +A +1. A connection 1-form +2. Short for antiperiodic, a boundary condition on strings. +3. Short for axial vector +4. An asymmetry + +action + A function S on the space of fields given (formally) by the integral of the Lagrangian density over spacetime, whose stationary points are the solutions of the equations of motion. +ADE + Refers to the ADE classification (An,Dn, E6, E7, E8) of simply laced Dynkin diagrams, and to several related classifications of Lie algebras, singularities and so on. +ADHM +Initials of Atiyah, Drinfeld, Hitchin, and Manin, as in the ADHM construction of instantons. + +ADM +Initials of Arnowitt, Deser, and Misner, as in ADM energy, a way of defining the global energy in an asymptotically flat spacetime, or ADM decomposition of a metric, or ADM formalism. + +AdS +Anti-de Sitter, as in anti-de Sitter space, a Lorentzian analogue of hyperbolic space + +AdS/CFT +Anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory, especially the AdS/CFT correspondence. + +ALE +Asymptotically locally Euclidean + +ALEPH +ALEPH experiment at LEP + +AMSB +Anomaly mediation supersymmetry breaking + +ASD +Anti self-dual (connection) + +ATLAS +The ATLAS experiment at CERN, a particle detector. + +axino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of an axion. +axion + A hypothetical scalar particle whose mass arises from a coupling rather than from a mass term in the Lagrangian, used to resolve the strong CP problem. + +== B == + +b +1. One of the two conformal ghost fields b, c used in the BRST quantization of the bosonic string. +2. A bottom quark. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..662ee497e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,267 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of string theory" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +B +1. Baryon number +2. Short for boson. +3. Short for baryon. +4. Short for backward;for example, σB is the cross section for backward scattering. +5. a bottom meson. + +BAO +Baryon acoustic oscillation + +BB +Big Bang + +BBN +Big Bang nucleosynthesis + +bino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of the gauge field corresponding to weak hypercharge. +BIon +A BPS solution representing an infinite string ending on a D-brane. Named after the Born–Infeld action. + +BPS + A state related to the Bogomol'nyi–Prasad–Sommerfield bound. +BR +Branching ratio + +BRS +BRST quantization + Short for Becchi, Rouet, Stora and Tyutin, who introduced the BRST quantization of gauge theories. +brane +Short for membrane. a higher-dimensional manifold moving in spacetime. See also p-brane, D-brane. + +BTZ +Initials of Bañados–Teitelboim–Zanelli, as in BTZ black hole, a black hole in 2+1-dimensional gravity. + +BV +Batalin–Vilkovisky, as in Batalin–Vilkovisky formalism. + +== C == + +c +1. The speed of light, when not using units where this is 1. +2. A central charge of the Virasoro algebra or similar algebra. +3. One of the two conformal ghost fields b, c used in the BRST quantization of the bosonic string. +4. A Chern class. +5. A charm quark. + +C +1. Charge, especially the charge symmetry. + +Calabi–Yau + A Kähler manifold with vanishing Ricci curvature, used for compactifying string theories. +CAR +Canonical anticommutation relations + +CBR +Cosmic background radiation + +CC +1. Charged current (weak interaction). +2. Complex conjugate +3. Compatibility condition + +CCR +Canonical commutation relation +CCR and CAR algebras + +CDF +Collider Detector at Fermilab + +CDM +Cold dark matter + +CERN +Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire + +chargino + A hypothetical charged supersymmetric partner of a gauge boson. +Chern–Simons +1. +2. +chiral +1. Not invariant under the parity symmetry. The word comes from the Greek χειρ meaning "hand"; the terms "left-handed" and "right-handed" are often used to describe chiral objects. +2. A chiral multiplet is a type of supermutliplet of a supersymmetry algebra. + +CIPT +Contour improved perturbation theory + +CKG +Short for conformal Killing group. + +CKM +The Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix. + +CKS +Short for conformal Killing spinor. + +CKV +Short for conformal Killing vector. + +CFT +Conformal field theory + +Chan–Paton +A Chan–Paton charge is a degree of freedom carried by an open string on its endpoints. + +cl +1. Short for classical (for example, Scl is the classical action). +2. CL is short for confidence limit. + +closed +A closed string is one with no ends. + +CM +Center of mass (frame) + +CMB +CMBR +Cosmic microwave background radiation + +CMS +1. The Compact Muon Solenoid at CERN, a particle detector. +2. Short for the Center-of-Momentum System, a coordinate system where the total momentum is 0. + +compactification +A method for reducing the apparent dimension of spacetime by wrapping the string around a compact manifold. + +cosmological constant + The constant term of the Lagrangian, inducing a term in the action proportional to the volume of spacetime +CP +Short for Charge–Parity, as in CP symmetry. + +CPC +Short for Charge–Parity conservation. + +CPT +Short for Charge–Parity–Time, as in CPT symmetry or CPT theorem. + +CPV +Short for Charge–Parity violation. + +critical +The critical dimension is the spacetime dimension in which a string or superstring theory is consistent; usually 26 for string theories and 10 for superstring theories. + +CVC +Conserved vector current. + +CY +Short for Calabi–Yau, as in Calabi–Yau manifold, a Ricci-flat Kähler manifold, often used for compactifying superstring theories. + +== D == + +d +1. The exterior derivative of a form. +2. A down quark. +3. The dimension of spacetime. + +D +1. Short for Dirichlet, as in D-brane +2. The dimension of spacetime +3. A connection or differential operator +4. A Dynkin diagram of an orthogonal group in even dimensions. +5. A charmed meson. + +D0 + +D-brane +Dp-brane + Short for Dirichlet (mem)brane, a submanifold (of dimension p+1) on which the ends of strings are constrained to lie, so that the strings satisfy Dirichlet boundary conditions. +D-string +A D1-brane + +DBI +Short for Dirac–Born–Infeld, as in the DBI action, an action based on the Born–Infeld action, a modification of the Maxwell action of electrodynamics. + +DDF +Initials of Del Guidice, Di Vecchia, and Fubini, as in Del Guidice–Di Vecchia–Fubini operator, operators generating an oscillator algebra. + +DELPHI +DELPHI experiment at LEP. + +DESY +Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron + +DGLAP +Initials of Dokshitzer–Gribov–Lipatov–Altarelli–Parisi who introduced the DGLAP evolution equation in QCD. + +Diff +Diffeomorphism or diffeomorphism group. + +dilatino + A supersymmetric partner of the dilaton. +dilaton + A massless scalar particle, related to dilations of spacetime. +Dirichlet +Dirichlet boundary conditions on an open string say that the ends of the string are fixed (often lying on a D-brane). + +DIS +Deep inelastic scattering + +DLCQ +Discrete light-cone quantization + +DM +Dark matter + +DØ + +Dp-brane + Short for Dirichlet (mem)brane, a submanifold (of dimension p+1) on which the ends of strings are constrained to lie, so that the strings satisfy Dirichlet boundary conditions. +DR +1. Short for dimensional regularization. +2. Short for dimensional reduction, a way of constructing theories from simpler theories in higher dimensions, sometimes by making fields invariant under some spacelike translations. + +dS +de Sitter, as in de Sitter space, a Lorentzian analogue of a sphere + +dS/CFT +de Sitter/conformal field theory, especially the dS/CFT correspondence. + +dual resonance model + An early precursor of string theory. +duality + A hidden connection between two different theories, such as S-duality, T-duality, U-duality, mysterious duality. +DY +Initials of Drell–Yan, as in DY process. + +dyon + A hypothetical particle with both electrical and magnetic charge. + +== E == + +e +1. Euler's constant +2. A frame +3. An electron + +E +Energy + +E6 + E6 is the exceptional Lie algebra of rank 6 and dimension 78. +E7 + E7 the exceptional Lie algebra of rank 7 and dimension 133. +E8 + E8 the exceptional Lie algebra of rank 8 and dimension 248. +eff +Short for effective (field theory). + +EFT +Effective field theory, a low-energy approximation to a theory. + +einbein +A frame in 1 dimension + +elfbein +A frame in 11 dimensions \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6b589335e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,276 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of string theory" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +energy–momentum tensor + A symmetric tensor T (also called the stress-energy tensor) describing the variation of the action under changes in the metric, whose components give the local energy, momentum and stress densities. In flat spacetimes it can also be given by combining the Noether currents of the translation symmetries. +EWSB +Electro-weak symmetry breaking. + +== F == + +F +1. A curvature form of a connection +2. The world-sheet fermion number. +3. Short for fermion +3. Short for forward;for example, σF is the cross section for backward scattering. + +F4 + F4 is the exceptional Lie algebra of rank 4 and dimension 52. +FCNC +Flavor-changing neutral current. + +field +A section of a fiber bundle + +FOPT +Fixed-order perturbation theory. + +F-string +Fundamental string + +F-theory + Possibly an abbreviation of father theory. A 12-dimensional string theory introduced by Vafa. +FRW +Friedman–Robertson–Walker metric on spacetime + +== G == + +g +1. A metric +2. A coupling constant +3. The genus of a Riemann surface. +4. A gluon. + +G +1. Newton's gravitational constant, sometimes written GN. +2. The Fermi coupling constant for weak interactions, sometimes written GF. +3. Gn is an odd element of the Ramond or Neveu–Schwarz superalgebra. + +G2 + The exceptional Lie algebra of rank 2 and dimension 14, or a G2 manifold with G2 holonomy. +gaugino +A spin 1/2 supersymmetric partner of a gauge boson. + +gh +Abbreviation for ghost; for example, Sgh is the ghost action. + +ghost +A vector of negative norm. + +GKO +Short for Goddard–Kent–Olive. The GKO construction, also called the coset construction, is a way of constructing unitary discrete series representations of the Virasoro algebra. + +GL +A general linear group. + +gluino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of a gluon. +gluon + A gauge boson associated with the strong force. +GMSB +Gauge mediated supersymmetry breaking. + +goldstino + A massless spin 1/2 particle associated with spontaneous breakdown of supersymmetry, analogous to the Goldstone boson. +GR +General relativity + +graviton + A conjectural spin 2 massless particle responsible for gravity. +gravitino + A supersymmetric partner of the graviton. +Green +Named for Michael Green. + +GS +Green–Schwarz formalism, a way of incorporating supersymmetry into string theory that is supersymmetric in 10-dimensional spacetime. + +GSO +Short for Ferdinando Gliozzi, Joël Scherk, and David A. Olive, as in the GSO projection, a projection in superstring theory that eliminates tachyons. + +GSW +The 2-volume work on superstring theory by Green, Schwarz, and Witten. + +GUT +Grand Unified Theory, a hypothetical theory unifying the strong and electroweak forces. + +GWS +Glashow–Weinberg–Salem theory of the electroweak force. + +GZK +The Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit on the energy of cosmic background radiation from distant sources. + +== H == + +h +1. The weight of a field (for example, its eigenvalue for L0). +2. Hermitian; for example, h.c. stands form hermitian conjugate. + +H +1. The Hamiltonian. +2. The Higgs boson. +3. The Hubble constant. + +Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem + A theorem describing the possible supersymmetries of a quantum field theory, generalizing the Coleman–Mandula theorem. +Hagedorn temperature + The temperature above which the partition function diverges due to the exponentially increasing number of string states. +h.c. +hc +Hermitian conjugate + +HCMS +Hadronic center of mass (frame) + +HDM +Higgs doublet model + +HE +Short for heterotic-E28, a heterotic string theory based on the group E28. + +helicity + The projection of the spin of a massless particle in the direction of its momentum. +HERA +Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage + +heterotic + Named after the Greek word heterosis, meaning hybrid vigour. A hybrid of bosonic string theory and superstring theory, introduced by David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm in 1985. +Higgs boson + A massive scalar particle related to the spontaneous symmetry breaking mechanism in the electroweak theory. +Higgsino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of a Higgs boson. +HO +Short for heterotic-orthogonal, a heterotic string theory based on the orthogonal group O32(R). + +holographic principle + +HQET + +Hyperkähler +Hyperkaehler + A Riemannian manifold with holonomy contained in the compact form of the symplectic group. +Hypermultiplet + A type of supermultiplet (representation) of an extended supersymmetry algebra. + +== I == + +i +√–1 + +I +Isospin. + +IGM +Intergalactic medium + +inflation + A hypothetical very rapid increase in the size of the very early universe. +instanton + A self-dual or anti-self-dual connection in a principal bundle over a four-dimensional Riemannian manifold. +int +Short for interaction; for example, Hint might be an interaction Hamiltonian. + +inv +Short for invisible; for example, Γinv is the width for invisible decays (those unobseverd by an experiment). + +== J == + +J +1. A current +2. A source +3. Spin. + +== K == + +k +A momentum + +K +A kaon (a strange meson). + +K3 + A simply connected compact complex surface of Kodaira dimension 0 +K-theory + A cohomology theory based on vector bundles. +Kac–Moody algebra + A central extension of a loop algebra. +Kähler +Kaehler +Named after Erich Kähler +1. A Kähler manifold is a complex manifold with a compatible Riemannian metric. +2. A Kähler metric is the metric on a Kähler manifold. +3. A Kähler potential is a function of superfields used to construct a Lagrangian. + +Kalb–Ramond field + +KK +Kaluza–Klein + +KM +1. The Kobayashi–Maskawa mechanism for CP violation. +2. Kac–Moody algebra. + +KZ +Initials of Knizhnik and Zamolodchikov, as in KZ equation, a differential equation related to the primary fields of a current algebra. + +== L == + +L +1. A Lagrangian +2. Ln is an element of the Virasoro algebra. +3. An abbreviation for left (moving modes) +4. Lepton number +5. Short for lepton + +L3 +L3 experiment at LEP. + +Lagrangian (field theory) + A function on the jet space of a fiber bundle. +landscape + The (conjectural) moduli space of all (vacuums of) string theories. +LEP +The Large Electron–Positron Collider at CERN. + +lepton + An elementary particle of spin 1/2 that is unaffected by the strong force. +LH +Left-handed + +LHC +The Large Hadron Collider at CERN. + +little string theory + +LL +Double logarithmic + +LO +Leading order (term) + +LQG +Loop quantum gravity + +LQC +Loop quantum cosmology + +LSP +Abbreviation for lightest supersymmetric particle. + +LSS +Large scale structure (of the universe). + +== M == + +m +A mass of a fermion. For example, mt is the mass of the top quark t. + +M +The mass of a boson; for example, MZ is the mass of the Z-boson. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38a094e11 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,251 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of string theory" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Majorana fermion +Majorana spinor + A fermion or spinor with a reality condition, in spacetimes of dimension 2, 3, 4 mod 8. +Majorana–Weyl fermion +Majorana–Weyl spinor + A half-spinor with a reality condition, in spacetimes of dimension 2 mod 8. +Mandelstam variable + A sum or difference of two of the four incoming or outgoing momenta of a 2-particle interaction. +matrix theory +M(atrix) theory + One of several non-perturbative formulations of string theory or M-theory using infinite matrices. +M-brane +membrane + A higher dimensional analogue of a string. +MC +Monte Carlo integration + +MCG + +minimal model +Certain solvable conformal field theories. + +Mirror symmetry (string theory) + A partly conjectural relation between a type IIA superstring theory compactified on a Calabi–Yau manifold and a type IIB superstring theory compactified on a different "mirror" Calabi–Yau manifold. +MLLA +Modified leading logarithm approximation. + +MNS + Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix for neutrino mixing + +monopole + A hypothetical particle similar to a "magnet with only one pole". +Montonen–Olive duality + An early case of S-duality. +MS +minimal subtraction (a renormalization scheme). MS is the modified minimal subtraction scheme. + +MSM +Abbreviation for minimal standard model. + +MSSM +Abbreviation for minimal supersymmetric standard model. + +mSUGRA +Minimal model of supergravity. + +M-theory + +An 11-dimensional theory introduced in the second string theory revolution to unify the 5 known superstring theories. The letter M has been said to stand for membrane, matrix, magic, mystery, monster, and so on. + +MSW +Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect concerning neutrino oscillations in matter. + +multiplet +A linear representation of a Lie algebra or group. +A collection of elementary particles corresponding to a basis of a representation. + +== N == + +N +1. The number of times each irreducible real spinor representation appears in the fermionic part of a supersymmetry algebra or super Minkowski space. It is often used in the description of an extended supersymmetry algebra, as in N=2 superconformal algebra and so on. +2. A nucleon, a baryon with 3 light quarks and isospin 1/2 (such as a proton or neutron). +3. The number of some type of particle. + +Nambu–Goto action + An action for strings, proportional to the area of the worldsheet. +NC +Neutral current (weak interaction). + +Neumann +Neumann boundary conditions on an open string say that the momentum normal to the boundary of the world-sheet is zero. + +neutralino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of a gauge boson with zero charge. +Neveu +Named for André Neveu. + +Neveu–Schwarz algebra + A supersymmetric extension of the Virasoro algebra, similar to the Ramond algebra. +NG +1. Short for Nambu–Goto, as in Nambu–Goto action. +2. Short for Nambu–Goldstone, as in Nambu–Goldstone boson. + +NLL +Next to leading logarithmic (term). + +NLO +Next to leading order (term). + +NLSP +next-to-lightest sypersymmetric particle + +NMSSM +Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model. + +NNLL +Next to next to leading logarithmic (term). + +NNLO +Next to next to leading order (term). + +NNNLL +Next to next to next to leading logarithmic (term). + +no-ghost theorem + A theorem stating that some hermitian form is positive semidefinite, in other words has no ghosts (negative norm vectors). The name is a word-play on no-go theorem. +NR +Non-relativistic + +NRQCD +Non-relativistic quantum chromodynamics + +NS +Neveu–Schwarz, especially the Neveu–Schwarz algebra + +NS–NS +A sector with Neveu–Schwarz conditions on left and right moving modes. + +NS–R +A sector with Neveu–Schwarz conditions on left moving modes and Ramond conditions on right moving modes. + +NUT +The initials of E. Newman, L. Tamburino, and T. Unti, mainly used in Taub–NUT vacuum, a solution to Einsteins' equations. + + +== O == + +O +An orthogonal group + +OCQ +Short for old covariant quantization + +OPAL +The OPAL detector at LEP. + +open +An open string is one with two ends. + +OPE +operator product expansion + A description of short-distance singularities of fields. +orbifold + Something that looks locally like a manifold quotiented by the action of a finite group. +OSp +A Lie superalgebra. + +== P == + +p +A momentum + +P +1. Parity, especially the parity symmetry. +2. Short for periodic, a boundary condition on strings (as opposed to A for antiperiodic). +3. Pseudoscalar (current) +4. Momentum +5. One of the bosonic elements of a supersymmetry algebra. + +p-brane +A p+1 dimensional membrane, where p is a non-negative integer. The dimension of membranes is often given by their space dimension, which is 1 less than their full spacetime dimension. + +PCAC +partially conserved axial vector current + +PDF +Parton distribution function. + +PDG +Particle Data Group. + +photino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of the photon. +photon + The neutral spin 1 gauge boson of the electromagnetic field. +PMNS + Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix for neutrino mixing + +Polyakov action + A modification of the Nambu–Goto action for strings that eliminates the square root. +PQ +Peccei–Quinn, as in Peccei–Quinn theory. + +pQCD +PQCD +Perturbative quantum chromodynamics. + +prepotential +A function used to construct the vector superfield in supersymmetric gauge theory and Seiberg–Witten theory. + +primary field +A field killed by the positive weight operators of the Virasoro algebra (or similar algebra); in other words, a lowest weight vector. + +Princeton string quartet +David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm, who introduced the heterotic string in 1985. + +PSL +Projective special linear group. + +== Q == + +q +A quark. + +Q +1. The BRST operator. +2. A charge +3. One of the fermionic generators of a supersymmetry algebra. + +quark + A strongly interacting elementary particle of spin 1/2. +QCD + +QED + + +== R == + +R +1. Short for Ramond, as in Ramond sector. +2. A curvature tensor +3. An abbreviation for right (moving modes). +4. A radius +5. R-symmetry is a symmetry of extended supersymmetry algebras. + +Ramond +Named for Pierre Ramond. + +Ramond algebra + A supersymmetric extension of the Virasoro algebra, similar to the Neveu–Schwarz algebra. +Rarita–Schwinger + Refers to spin 3/2 fermions. +Regge +1. Physicist Tullio Regge. +2. Regge trajectory: the squared mass of a hadronic resonance is roughly linear in the spin, with the constant of proportionality called the Regge slope. + +revolution +Any new idea in string theory. In particular the first superstring revolution refers to the discoveries in the mid 1980s such as the cancellation of gravitational anomalies and the heterotic string, and the second superstring revolution refers to the discoveries in the mid 1990s, such as D-branes, M-theory, and matrix theory and the AdS/CFT correspondence. + +RG +Renormalization group. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2ed17f8c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of string theory" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +RGE +Renormalization group equation. + +RH +Right-handed + +R–NS +A sector with Ramond conditions on left moving modes and Neveu–Schwarz conditions on right moving modes. + +RNS +Ramond–Neveu–Schwarz, as in RNS formalism, a way of incorporating supersymmetry into string theory that is supersymmetric on the world sheet. + +R-parity + A Z2 symmetry of supersymmetric models. +R-R +Short for Ramond–Ramond sector + +== S == + +s +1. A strange quark. +2. A Mandelstam variable + +S +1. An action +2. A scattering matrix. +3. The transformation τ → –1/τ of the upper half plane +4. Scalar (current) +5. Short for super or supersymmetric + +S-brane +A brane similar to a D-brane, with Dirichlet boundary conditions in the time direction. + +S-duality + Strong–weak duality, a string duality relating theories with a large coupling constant to theories with a small coupling constant +SBB +Standard Big Bang model of the universe + +SCFT +Superconformal field theory, a supersymmetric extension of conformal field theory + +Schwarz +Named for John Henry Schwarz + +Seiberg duality + +SGA +Abbreviation for Spectrum-generating algebra + +short supermultiplet +A supermultiplet (representation) related to BPS states + +sigma model + A classical or quantum model based on the maps from a base manifold to a target manifold. +SL +Special linear group + +SLAC +Stanford Linear Accelerator Center + +SLC +Stanford Linear Collider + +slepton + Hypothetical supersymmetric partner of a lepton +SM + +sneutrino + Hypothetical supersymmetric partner of a neutrino +SO +Special orthogonal group + +Sp +Symplectic group + +sphaleron + Static solution to the electroweak field equations +squark + Supersymmetric partner of a quark. +SSB +Spontaneous symmetry breaking + +SSM +Standard solar model + +stress–energy tensor +Alternative name for the #energy–momentum tensor. + +string field theory + +SU +Special unitary group + +SUGRA +Short for supergravity + +superconformal algebra + A supersymmetric analogue of the Virasoro algebra of conformal symmetries in 2 dimensions +superfield + A supersymmetric analogue of a quantum or classical field +supergravity + A supersymmetric extension of general relativity +supermultiplet + A representation of a supersymmetry algebra +superpotential + A function of chiral superfield not depending on their superderivatives or spacetime derivatives, used to form a Lagrangian. +superspace + A supersymmetric analogue of spacetime +superstring + A supersymmetric analogue of a string +supersymmetry + A generalization of a Lie superalgebra, where the Lie bracket [a,b] is sometimes given by ab+ba rather than ab–ba. +SUSY +An abbreviation for supersymmetry. + +SYM +Supersymmetric Yang–Mills + +== T == + +t +1. A top quark. +2. A Mandelstam variable. +3. Time. + +T +1. The energy–momentum tensor. +2. Time, especially the time symmetry. +3. The transformation τ → τ+1 of the upper half plane. +4. A torus. +5. The string tension. +6. Temperature. +7. Tensor (current) + +T-duality + A string duality relating theories on a large spacetime to theories on a small spacetime. In particular it exchanges type IIA and IIB superstring theory. +tachyon + A particle of imaginary mass moving faster than light. +ToE +TOE +Theory of everything + +type I +type II +type IIA +type IIB + A type of superstring or the corresponding low-energy supergravity theory. The Roman numeral I or II refers to the number of d=10 supersymmetries, and types IIA or IIB are distinguished by whether the supersymmetries of left and right movers have opposite or identical chiralities. + +== U == + +u +1. An up quark. +2. A Mandelstam variable. + +U +A unitary group. + +U-duality + Short for "unified duality". A string duality relating two different string theories. +UED +Universal extra dimensions + +UV +Short for ultra-violet, often referring to short-distance singularities. + +== V == + +V +1. A vertex operator. +2. Vector (current) + +V-A +Vector-Axial vector + +vector superfield +A type of superfield related to vector supermultiplets. + +VEV +Vacuum expectation value of an operator. + +vielbein +A frame + +vierbein +A frame in 4 dimensions. Sometimes used for a frame in an arbitrary number of dimension by authors who do not care that "vier" means four in German. + +Veneziano amplitude + The Euler beta function interpreted as a scattering amplitude. +vertex operator + +Virasoro algebra + A central extension of the Witt algebra of polynomial vector fields on a circle. + +== W == + +w +A complex number + +W +A W-boson + +W-algebra + A sort of generalization of the Virasoro algebra +Weyl +1. Named after Hermann Weyl +2. A Weyl transformation is a rescaling of the world-sheet metric. +3. Weyl spinor, an element of a half-spin representation in even spacetime dimensions. + +WIMP +Weakly interacting massive particle + +wino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of the W-boson. +Witten +Named for Edward Witten. + +WMAP +Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe + +world sheet +The 2-dimensional subset of spacetime swept out by a moving string. + +world-volume +The p+1-dimensional spacetime volume swept out by a p-brane, as in world-volume action. + +WZNW +WZW +Initials of Wess, Zumino, (Novikov), and Witten, as in the WZW model, a σ-model with a group as the target space. + +== XYZ == + +x +A real number + +X +Used for coordinates in Minkowski space. + +y +A real number + +YBE +Yang–Baxter equation + +YM +Yang–Mills + +z +A complex number + +Z +1. A partition function +2. The Z boson. +An element of the center of an extended supersymmetry algebra. + +ZEUS + +zino + A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of the Z-boson. +zweibein +A frame in 2 dimensions + +== See also == +List of string theory topics + +== References == +Becker, Katrin, Becker, Melanie, and John H. Schwarz (2007) String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86069-5 +Binétruy, Pierre (2007) Supersymmetry: Theory, Experiment, and Cosmology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850954-7. +Dine, Michael (2007) Supersymmetry and String Theory: Beyond the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85841-0. +Paul H. Frampton (1974). Dual Resonance Models. Frontiers in Physics. ISBN 0-8053-2581-6. +Michael Green, John H. Schwarz and Edward Witten (1987) Superstring theory. Cambridge University Press. The original textbook. +Vol. 1: Introduction. ISBN 0-521-35752-7. +Vol. 2: Loop amplitudes, anomalies and phenomenology. ISBN 0-521-35753-5. +Kiritsis, Elias (2007) String Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12230-4. +Johnson, Clifford (2003). D-branes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80912-6. +Polchinski, Joseph (1998) String Theory. Cambridge University Press. +Vol. 1: An introduction to the bosonic string. ISBN 0-521-63303-6. +Vol. 2: Superstring theory and beyond. ISBN 0-521-63304-4. +Szabo, Richard J. (Reprinted 2007) An Introduction to String Theory and D-brane Dynamics. Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-427-7. +Zwiebach, Barton (2004) A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83143-1. Contact author for errata. + +== External links == +Particle physics glossary at interactions.org Archived 2016-11-23 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f42d1459 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of structural engineering" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of structural engineering terms pertains specifically to structural engineering and its sub-disciplines. Please see Glossary of engineering for a broad overview of the major concepts of engineering. +Most of the terms listed in glossaries are already defined and explained within itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones. + +== A == +Abutment – refers to the substructure at the ends of a bridge span or dam whereon the structure's superstructure rests or contacts. +Acre – is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one chain by one furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 10 square chains, 1⁄640 of a square mile, or 43,560 square feet, and approximately 4,047 m2, or about 40% of a hectare. +Acrow prop – or BS prop is a piece of construction equipment. It is a telescopic tubular steel prop, used as a temporary support. A jackscrew is similar but not as long and not telescopic. Outside the UK an Acrow prop may be known as a jack post, adjustable post, telescoping prop or ... post, screw jack, adjustable steel column, adjustable steel prop or ... post, adjustable metal prop or ... post, as well as an adjustable shoring post or shore post. +Adhesion – is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent mechanical effects. +Aggregate (composite) – is the component of a composite material that resists compressive stress and provides bulk to the composite material. For efficient filling, aggregate should be much smaller than the finished item, but have a wide variety of sizes. For example, the particles of stone used to make concrete typically include both sand and gravel. +Aggregate (construction) – Construction aggregate is a broad category of coarse to medium grained particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. +Air conditioning – (often referred to as 'AC, A/C, or air con) is the process of removing heat and moisture from the interior of an occupied space to improve the comfort of occupants. Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. +All-in ballast – In structural engineering, all-in-ballast is a pre-mixed aggregate of sharp sand and gravel used specifically for making concrete. The term "all-in" refers to the fact that the components are already combined in the correct proportions, removing the need for separate sourcing and mixing of sand and gravel. +Alloy –is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions). Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are also sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types. +American National Standards Institute – is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. +Annealing (metallurgy) – in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters the physical and sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and reduce its hardness, making it more workable. It involves heating a material above its recrystallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature for a suitable amount of time, and then cooling. +ANSI – American National Standards Institute. +Arch – is a vertical curved structure that spans an elevated space and may or may not support the weight above it, or in case of a horizontal arch like an arch dam, the hydrostatic pressure against it. +Arching or compressive membrane action in reinforced concrete slabs – +Architecture – is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or any other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. +Architectural engineering – +Architrave – also called an epistyle; is the lintel or beam that rests on the capitals of the columns. It is an architectural element in Classical architecture. The term can also be applied to all sides, including the vertical members, of a frame with mouldings around a door or window. The word architrave is also used to refer more generally to a style of mouldings (or other elements) framing the top of a door, window or other rectangular opening, where the horizontal "head" casing extends across the tops of the vertical side casings where the elements join (creating a butt joint, as opposed to a miter joint). +Ashlar – is finely dressed (cut, worked) stone, either an individual stone that has been worked until squared or the structure built of it. Ashlar is the finest stone masonry unit, generally cuboid, mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isodomum, or less frequently trapezoidal. Precisely cut "on all faces adjacent to those of other stones", ashlar is capable of very thin joints between blocks, and the visible face of the stone may be quarry-faced or feature a variety of treatments: tooled, smoothly polished or rendered with another material for decorative effect. +Austenitization – means to heat the iron, iron-based metal, or steel to a temperature at which it changes crystal structure from ferrite to austenite. The more open structure of the austenite is then able to absorb carbon from the iron-carbides in carbon steel. An incomplete initial austenitization can leave undissolved carbides in the matrix. For some iron metals, iron-based metals, and steels, the presence of carbides may occur during the austenitization step. The term commonly used for this is two-phase austenitization. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2198321b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of structural engineering" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +Ballast – is material that is used to provide stability to a vehicle or structure. Ballast, other than cargo, may be placed in a vehicle, often a ship or the gondola of a balloon or airship, to provide stability. +Barrier cable – is a vehicular or pedestrian restraint system. It consists of a steel strand which is similar to the strand used in post-tensioned concrete. +Beam – is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material. +Bearing capacity – is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement. There are three modes of failure that limit bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear failure, and punching shear failure. +Bending – In applied mechanics, bending, (also known as flexure), characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element. +Bending moment – is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. +Benefit–cost analysis – Cost–benefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefit costs analysis (BCA), is a systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives used to determine options which provide the best approach to achieving benefits while preserving savings (for example, in transactions, activities, and functional business requirements). A CBA may be used to compare completed or potential courses of actions, or to estimate (or evaluate) the value against the cost of a decision, project, or policy. It is commonly used in commercial transactions, business or policy decisions (particularly public policy), and project investments. +Bent (structural) – Bents are the building blocks that define the overall shape and character of a structure. They do not have any sort of pre-defined configuration in the way that a Pratt truss does. Rather, bents are simply cross-sectional templates of structural members, i.e., rafters, joists, posts, pilings, etc., that repeat on parallel planes along the length of the structure. The term bent is not restricted to any particular material. Bents may be formed of wooden piles, timber framing, steel framing, or even concrete. +Bistable structure – +Brick – is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now used to denote rectangular units made of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials. Bricks can be joined together using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks. +Brickwork – is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks—called courses— are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall. +Bridge – is a structure built to span a physical obstacle, such as a body of water, valley, or road, without closing the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, usually something that can be detrimental to cross otherwise. +Brittle – +Buckling-restrained braced frame – +Building engineering – +Building services engineering – +Bulk modulus – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ef1b776cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,222 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of structural engineering" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +Calcium aluminate cements – Calcium aluminate cements are cements consisting predominantly of hydraulic calcium aluminates. Alternative names are "aluminous cement", "high-alumina cement" and "Ciment fondu" in French. They are used in a number of small-scale, specialized applications. +Camber beam – In building, a camber beam is a piece of timber cut archwise, and steel bent or rolled, with an obtuse angle in the middle, commonly used in platforms, as church leads, and other occasions where long and strong beams are required. The camber curve is ideally a parabola but practically a circle segment as even with modern materials and calculations, cambers are imprecise. +Castellated beam – is a beam style where an I-beam is subjected to a longitudinal cut along its web following a specific pattern in order to divide it, and reassemble the beam with a deeper web by taking advantage of the cutting pattern. +Cant – The cant of a railway track or camber of a road (also referred to as superelevation, cross slope or cross fall) is the rate of change in elevation (height) between the two rails or edges. This is normally greater where the railway or road is curved; raising the outer rail or the outer edge of the road providing a banked turn, thus allowing vehicles to maneuver through the curve at higher speeds than would otherwise be possible if the surface is flat or level. +Cantilever – is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at one end to a (usually vertical) support from which it protrudes; this connection could also be perpendicular to a flat, vertical surface such as a wall. +Cantlop Bridge – +Carbon steel – +Cast iron – is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. +Casting – +Catenary – +Cavity wall – +Cement – +Cement render – +Collar beam – +Color-tagged structure – +Column – +Common rafter – +Composite order – +Compressive strength – +Computer-aided design – +Computer-aided engineering – +Concrete – +Concrete masonry unit – +Concrete pump – +Construction aggregate – +Construction engineering – +Construction surveying – +Corbel – +Corinthian order – +Corrosion – +Corrosion fatigue – +Corrugated galvanised iron – +Crane – +Cross brace – +Cross bracing – +Curvilinear motion – + +== D == +Dam – is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability. +Damp proofing – +Damped vibration – +Dead load – +Deep cement mixing – +Deep foundation – +Deflection – +Deformation (engineering) – +Deformation (mechanics) – +Density – +Deployable structure – +Doric order – +Double tee – +Dragon beam – +Ductility – +Dumpy level – +Dynamic load testing – +Dynamics – + +== E == +Earthquake engineering – is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. +Earthquake-resistant structures – +Earthworks (engineering) – +Edge jointing – +Endurance time method – +Engineering – +Engineering brick – +Engineering drawing – +Engineering economics – +Engineering ethics – +Engineering physics – +Environmental load – +Engineering physics – +Euler–Bernoulli beam equation – +Excavator – +Expansion joint – + +== F == +Facade engineering – +Falsework – +Fascia – +Feasibility study – +Fibre-reinforced plastic – +Finite element method – +Fire protection engineering – +First fix – +Flange – +Flashing – +Flexibility (engineering) – +Flitch beam – +Fluid – +Fluid mechanics – +Fluid physics – +Fluid statics – +Force – +Force lines – +Formwork – +Foundation – +Fracture toughness – +Framing – +Friction – +Furring – + +== G == +Gable – +Grating – +Gravel – +Gravity-based structure – +Green roof – +Grout – + +== H == +H-beam – +Half-timbering – +Hammerbeam roof – +Hardness – +Hardwood – +Header – +Henderson–Hasselbalch equation – +High strength bolt – +High-tensile steel – +Hip roof – +Hod – +Hoist – +Hollow structural section – +Honeycomb structure – +Hydraulic cement – +Hydraulic engineering – + +== I == +I-beam – +Imposed load – +Infill wall – +Inflatable space structures – +Influence line – +Insulating concrete form – +International Structural Engineering and Construction Society – +International System of Units – +Interval estimation – +Intrados – +Iron – +Interstory drift – + +== J == +Jack rafter – +Jackscrew – +Jetty – +Joinery – +Jointing – +Joist – + +== K == +Kee Klamp – +Kentledge – +Keystone – +King post – +King post truss – + +== L == +Lally column – is a round thin-walled structural steel column oriented vertically to provide support to beams or timbers stretching over long spans. The steel shell of a Lally column is filled with concrete. +Lightening holes – +Limit load (physics) – +Limit state design – +Linear elasticity – +Lintel – +Live load – +Load bearing – +Load-bearing wall – + +== M == +Mass balance – +Mass density – +Material properties – +Materials science – +Metal alloy – +Metallic bond – +Middle-third rule – +Midhinge – +Modified compression field theory – +Modulus of elasticity – +Moment redistribution – +Monocoque – +Multidisciplinary design optimization – +Multi-function structure – + +== N == +Non-hydraulic cement – + +== O == +Offshore construction – is the installation of structures and facilities in a marine environment, usually for the production and transmission of electricity, oil, gas and other resources. It is also called maritime engineering. +Open web steel joist – +Oriented strand board – +Ortman key – +Overhang – + +== P == +Panel building – +Permissible stress design – +Pile cap – +Pile splice – +Plastic hinge – +Plasticity – +Plate (structure) – +Ply (layer) – +Post (structural) – +Pre-engineered building – +Prestressed concrete – +Prestressed structure – +Progressive collapse – +Pyroshock – + +== Q == +Queen post – \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..675230315 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of structural engineering" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== R == +Rafter – is one of a series of sloped structural members that extend from the ridge or hip to the wall plate, downslope perimeter or eave, and that are designed to support the roof deck and its associated loads. A pair of rafters is called a couple. In home construction, rafters are normally made of wood. Exposed rafters are a feature of some traditional roof styles. +Rain gutter – +Reinforced concrete – +Reliability engineering – +Rigid body – +Rolled steel joist – +Roof – +Rubble trench foundation – + +== S == +Sandwich panel – +Sandwich theory – +Second fix – +Seismic analysis – +Semi-monocoque – +Settlement (structural) – +Shallow foundation – +Shear strength – +Shear stress – +Shell – +Shukhov Rotunda – +SI units – +Siphon – +Skyscraper – +Softwood – +Soil structure interaction – +Solid mechanics – +Solid solution strengthening – +Space frame – +Span (engineering) – +Specific weight – +Specified load – +Spontaneous combustion – +State of matter – +Static load testing – +Statical determinacy – +Statics – +Statnamic load test – +Stave (wood) – +Stewart platform +Stiffness – +Storm drain – +Strain – +Strain hardening – +Street gutter – +Strength of materials – +Stress – +Stress–strain analysis – +Stress–strain curve – +Stressed skin – +Structural analysis – +Structural channel – +Structural engineer – +Structural engineering – +Structural engineering software – +Structural engineering theory – +Structural fracture mechanics – +Structural health monitoring – +Structural insulated panel – +Structural integrity and failure – +Structural loads – or actions, are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to structure components. Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures. Assessment of their effects is carried out by the methods of structural analysis. Excess load or overloading may cause structural failure, and hence such possibility should be either considered in the design or strictly controlled. Mechanical structures, such as aircraft, satellites, rockets, space stations, ships, and submarines, have their own particular structural loads and actions. Engineers often evaluate structural loads based upon published regulations, contracts, or specifications. Accepted technical standards are used for acceptance testing and inspection. +Structural material – +Structural mechanics – +Structural pipe fitting – +Structural robustness – +Structural steel – +Structural steel design – +Structural system – +Strut channel – +Subbasement – +Subframe – +Sublimation – +Subsumption architecture – +Surface tension – +Superhard material – +Surveying – +Suspension bridge – is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. + +== T == +T-beam – +Tainter gate – +Technical standard – +Tensile force – +Tensile modulus – +Tensile strength – +Tensile structure – +Tensile testing – +Tension member – +Thin-shell structure – +Tie (cavity wall) – +Timber framing – +Topology optimization – +Torque – +Torsion – +Torsional vibration – +Toughness – +Transient load – +Trimmer – +Tripod (foundation) – +Truss – +Truss connector plate – +Twin bridges – + +== U == +Ultimate tensile strength – +Universal beam – +Universal column – + +== V == +Valve – +Vibration – +Voussoir – + +== W == +W-beam – +Weld access hole – +Windpost – +Wood preservation – +Woodworking joints – + +== X == +X-bracing – + +== Y == +Yield – +Young's modulus – + +== Z == +Zero Defects – + +== See also == +Civil engineering +Engineering +National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying +Fundamentals of Engineering Examination +Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination +Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering +Glossary of aerospace engineering +Glossary of civil engineering +Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering +Glossary of mechanical engineering +Glossary of architecture +Glossary of areas of mathematics +Glossary of engineering +Glossary of prestressed concrete terms + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_vexillology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_vexillology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f65672e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_vexillology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of vexillology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_vexillology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:26.744795+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. + + +== Flag types == + +Banderole or bannerol +Main article: Banderole A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long, narrow flag flown from the masthead of a ship. +Banner +Main article: Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, and in heraldry specifically, a square or rectangular flag whose design is identical to the shield of a coat of arms; also denominated a banner of arms. +Burgee +Main article: Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, which commonly has the shape of a pennant. +Civil ensign, merchant flag, or merchant ensign +Main article: Civil ensign A version of a national flag that is flown on civil ships to denote their nationality. +Civil flag +Main article: Civil flag A version of a national flag that is flown on civil installations or craft. +Colour or color +Main article: Military colours, standards and guidons The flag of a military unit. +Corner flag +Main article: Football pitch § Pitch boundary A small flag flown at each of the corners of a football pitch or other sports field. +Courtesy flag or courtesy ensign +Main article: Maritime flag § Courtesy flag A flag that is flown on a visiting ship in foreign waters as a sign of respect for the foreign nation. +Ensign +Main article: Ensign The flag of any ship or military unit, or, generically, a synonym for any kind of flag. On ships, an ensign is normally flown at the stern. +Fanion +Main article: Fanion A small flag that the French military uses. +Gonfalon, gonfanon, or gonfalone +Main article: Gonfalon A heraldic flag that is suspended and pendent from a crossbar. +Guidon +Main article: Military colours, standards and guidons A small flag that a military unit flies; in Scottish heraldry, a smaller version of the standard (see below). +Jack +Main article: Jack (flag) A flag flown from a short jackstaff at the bow of a ship. +National flag +Main article: National flag A flag that represents and symbolizes a given nation. It is flown by the government of that nation, but can also be flown by its citizens. +Pennon or pennant +Main article: Pennon A flag that is wider at the hoist than at the fly. +Pipe banner +Main article: Pipe banner A decorative flag for Scottish Highland bagpipes. +Prayer flag +Main article: Prayer flag A kind of flag that is flown along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas in order to bless the surrounding land. +Rank flag or distinguishing flag +Main article: Maritime flag § Rank flags A flag that a superior naval officer flies on his flagship or headquarters. +Signal flag +Main article: Flag signals A flag or pennant that communicates or signals information which is not heraldic. +Standard +Main article: Heraldic flag § Heraldic standard In heraldry, a long tapering flag that bears heraldic badges and the motto of the armiger; it may also refer to a military colour that cavalry units fly or a royal standard of a monarch or member of a royal family. +State flag or governmental flag +Main article: State flag A version of a national flag that represents and may be restricted in use only to the national government and agencies thereof; the design of many state flags consists of the civil flag (see above) defaced with a coat of arms or other heraldic charge. +Vexilloid +Main article: Vexilloid A flag-like object that is used in a similar symbolic manner as a flag, but differs from a conventional flag in some way. +Vexillum +Main article: Vexillum A flag-like object that is suspended from a horizontal crossbar; the Ancient Roman army used it as its military standard. +War flag, military flag, or battle flag +Main article: War flag A variant of a national flag that a nation's military forces use on land. +Windsock +Main article: Windsock A conical textile tube that is used to indicate the direction and strength of wind. + + +== Flag elements == + +Badge +A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol. +Canton +Main article: Canton (flag)Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. +Charge +A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag. +Emblem +A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag. +Field +The background of a flag; the color behind the charges. +Fimbriation +A narrow edging or border, generally in white or gold, on a flag to separate two other colors. For example, the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. +Finial +A decorative or protective cap atop the flagpole. Often shaped like a sphere, but can also be a shape with heraldic significance, such as a spear or an eagle. Sometimes referred to as a capper. +Fly +The half or edge of a flag furthest away from the flagpole. This term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. +Heading +Main article: Flag § Hoisting the flag A piece of loose fabric running along the hoist for attaching a flag to its rope. +Hoist +The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole. This term also sometimes refers to the vertical dimension of a flag. +Length +The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole. +Width or breadth +The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. + + +== Basic patterns == +Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs, and as a result, patterns often share names. + + +== Techniques in flag display == + +Distress +Flying the flag upside-down, or tying it into a wheft. +Half-mast +Main article: Half-mast A style of flag display where the flag is flown at least the width of the flag between the top of the flag and the top of the pole. Typically used as a display of mourning or rememberence. +Hoist +The act or function of raising a flag, as on a rope. +Lower +The act or function of taking down a flag, as on a rope. + + +=== Illustrations === +Flag illustrations generally depict flags flying from the observer's point of view from left to right, the view known as the obverse (or "front"); the other side is the reverse (or "back"). There are some exceptions, notably some Islamic flags inscribed in Arabic, which is written from right to left; for these the obverse is defined as the side with the hoist to the observer's right. + + +== See also == + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Dictionary of Vexillology at Flags of the World \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-0.md index 7fc6fbc80..1ed83ef1b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:07.600127+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:41.046209+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-1.md index 9f095a474..8c31962b5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:07.600127+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:41.046209+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-2.md index 748614d85..4db852dea 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:07.600127+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:41.046209+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_nursing_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_nursing_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f03d59511 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_nursing_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Index of nursing articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_nursing_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:48.400467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an index of nursing articles on Wikipedia. + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== P == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== W == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7740ab5cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,271 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of terms related to oncology. The original source for this list was the US National Cancer Institute's public domain Dictionary of Cancer Terms. + +== 0–9 == +10-propargyl-10-deazaaminopterin +– 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate +– 13-cis retinoic acid +– 17-N-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin +– 18F-EF5 +– 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging +– 2-methoxyestradiol +– 2IT-BAD monoclonal antibody 170 +– 3-aminopyridine-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazone +– 3-AP +– 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy +– 3-dimensional radiation therapy +– 4-demethoxydaunorubicin +– 4-hydroxytamoxifen +– 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide +– 4-NQO +– 5-FU +– 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid +– 5-hydroxytryptamine +– 506U78 +– 5Q- syndrome +– 6-hydroxymethylacylfulvene +– 9-cis retinoic acid +– 90Y-DOTA-biotin + +== A == +A33 monoclonal antibody +– AAP +– abarelix +– ABCD rating +– ABI-007 +– ABT-510 +– ABT-751 +– ABX-EGF +– accelerated phase +– ACE inhibitor +– acetylcysteine +– achlorhydria +– acitretin +– acoustic neurofibromatosis +– acridine carboxamide +– acrylonitrile +– actinic keratosis +– action study +– Activase +– acute erythroid leukemia +– acute lymphoblastic leukemia +– acute lymphocytic leukemia +– acute myelogenous leukemia +– acute myeloid leukemia +– acute nonlymphocytic leukemia +– AD 32 +– adenocarcinoma +– adenoid cystic cancer +– adenoma +– adenopathy +– adenosine triphosphate +– adenovirus +– adjunct agent +– adjunctive therapy +– adjuvant therapy +– adrenocortical +– Adriamycin +– adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma +– AE-941 +– AEE788 +– aerobic metabolism +– aerobic respiration +– aerodigestive tract +– aerosolize +– aflatoxin +– AFP +– AG013736 +– AG2037 +– AG3340 +– AG337 +– agent study +– agglutinin +– aggressive lymphoma +– agnogenic myeloid metaplasia +– agonist +– agranulocytosis +– AJCC staging system +– alanine aminopeptidase +– alanine transferase +– alanosine +– aldesleukin +– alemtuzumab +– alendronate sodium +– alkalinization +– alkylating agent +– ALL +– all-trans retinoic acid +– allogeneic +– allogeneic bone marrow transplantation +– allogeneic stem cell transplantation +– allogenic +– allopurinol +– Allovectin-7 +– aloe-emodin +– alopecia +– alpha-fetoprotein +– Alteplase +– altretamine +– aluminium sulfate +– ALVAC-CEA vaccine +– Amanita phalloides +– Ambien +– amelanotic melanoma +– Ames, Bruce +– amifostine +– amikacin +– aminocamptothecin +– aminoglutethimide +– aminoglycoside antibiotic +– aminolevulinic acid +– aminopterin +– AML +– amonafide +– amoxicillin +– amphotericin B +– ampulla +– ampulla of Vater +– amputation +– amsacrine +– amylase +– amyloidosis +– anagrelide +– anakinra +– anaphylactic shock +– anaplastic +– anaplastic large cell lymphoma +– anaplastic thyroid cancer +– anastomosis +– anastrozole +– androgen +– androgen ablation +– androgen suppression +– androgen-independent +– anecdotal report +– anemia +– anetholtrithione +– Angelica root +– angiogenesis +– angiogenesis inhibitor +– angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma +– angiosarcoma +– angiostatin +– angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor +– anhydrovinblastine +– anidulafungin +– animal model +– annamycin +– anorexia +– ansamycin +– antagonist +– anterior mediastinotomy +– anterior mediastinum +– anthracenedione +– anthracycline +– anthraquinone +– anti-CEA antibody +– anti-idiotype vaccine +– anti-inflammatory +– antiandrogen +– antiandrogen therapy +– anti-angiogenesis +– antiangiogenic +– antibody +– antibody therapy +– anticachexia +– anticancer antibiotic +– anticarcinogenic +– anticoagulant +– anticonvulsant +– antidepressant +– antiemetic +– antiestrogen +– antifolate +– antifungal medication +– antigen +– antigen-presenting cell +– antigen-presenting cell vaccine +– antiglobulin test +– antihormone therapy +– antimetabolite +– antimicrotubule agent +– antimitotic agent +– antineoplastic +– antineoplastic antibiotic +– antioxidant +– antiparasitic +– antiretroviral therapy +– antisense c-fos +– antithymocyte globulin +– antituberculosis +– antitumor antibiotic +– Antiviral drug +– anxiolytic +– APC +– APC vaccine +– APC8015 +– apheresis +– aplastic anemia +– aplidine +– apocrine gland +– apolizumab +– apoptosis +– appendix +– arctigenin +– arctiin +– arginine butyrate +– aromatase inhibitor +– arsenic trioxide +– arteriogram +– arteriography +– asbestos +– ascites +– asparaginase +– aspartate transaminase +– aspergillosis +– Aspergillus +– asthenia +– astrocyte +– astrocytoma +– asymptomatic +– atamestane +– ataxia +– ataxia-telangiectasia +– ataxic gait +– atelectasis +– athymic nude mouse +– ATLL +– ATP +– atrasentan +– atypical hyperplasia +– ATRT atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor +– augmerosen +– autoimmune disease +– autologous +– autologous bone marrow +– autologous bone marrow transplantation +– autologous lymphocyte +– autologous stem cell transplantation +– autologous tumor cell +– Avastin +– axilla +– axillary artery +– axillary bud +– axillary dissection +– axillary lymph node +– axillary lymph node dissection +– axillary nerve +– axillary vein +– azacitidine +– azoxymethane +– AZQ +– AZT \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e6c9ea60e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,172 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +B cell +– B lymphocyte +– B3 antigen +– B43-PAP immunotoxin +– B7-1 +– Bacillus Calmette Guérin +– bacterial toxin +– barium enema +– barium solution +– barium swallow +– Barrett's esophagus +– basal cell +– basal cell carcinoma +– basal cell nevus syndrome +– basophil +– batimastat +– BAY 12-9566 +– BAY 43-9006 +– BAY 56-3722 +– BAY 59-8862 +– BB-10901 +– BBBD +– BBR 2778 +– BBR 3464 +– BCG +– BCG solution +– bcl-2 antisense oligodeoxynucleotide G3139 +– BCX-1777 +– Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome +– beclomethasone +– Bellini duct carcinoma +– bendamustine +– benign +– benign proliferative breast disease +– benign prostatic hyperplasia +– benign prostatic hypertrophy +– benign tumor +– benzaldehyde +– benzoylphenylurea +– benzydamine +– Beriplast P +– best practice +– beta alethine +– beta carotene +– beta hemolytic streptococcus group B +– beta-endorphin +– beta-glucan +– beta-human chorionic gonadotropin +– bevacizumab +– bexarotene +– Bexxar regimen +– BG00001 +– BI-RADS +– Biafine cream +– BIBX 1382 +– bicalutamide +– bidi (oncology) +– bilateral cancer +– bilateral nephrectomy +– bilateral prophylactic mastectomy +– bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy +– bile duct +– biliary +– bilirubin +– binding agent +– bioavailable +– biochanin A +– biochemical reactions +– biological response modifier +– biological therapy +– biomarker +– Biomed 101 +– biopsy +– biopsy specimen +– biotherapy +– Birt–Hogg–Dube syndrome +– bispecific antibody +– bispecific monoclonal antibody +– bisphosphonate +– bizelesin +– BL22 immunotoxin +– black cohosh +– black snakeroot +– blast +– blast crisis +– blast phase +– bleomycin +– blessed thistle +– blinded study +– blood cell count +– blood chemistry study +– blood thinner +– blood transfusion +– blood–brain barrier +– blood–brain barrier disruption +– BMS-182751 +– BMS-184476 +– BMS-188797 +– BMS-214662 +– BMS-247550 +– BMS-275291 +– BMS-354825 +– Bolus (medicine) +– bolus infusion +– bone marrow +– bone marrow ablation +– bone marrow aspiration +– bone marrow biopsy +– bone marrow metastases +– bone marrow transplantation +– bone metastases +– bone scan +– bone-seeking radioisotope +– Boron neutron capture therapy +– boronophenylalanine-fructose complex +– bortezomib +– Bowen's disease +– BPH +– brachial plexopathy +– brachial plexus +– brachytherapy +– brain metastasis +– brainstem glioma +– brain stem tumor +– brain tumor +– BRCA1 +– BRCA2 +– breakthrough pain +– breast cancer in situ +– breast density +– breast duct endoscopy +– Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System +– breast implant +– breast reconstruction +– breast self-exam +– breast-conserving surgery +– breast-sparing surgery +– Brief Pain Inventory +– BRIP1 +– brivudine +– BRM +– bromelain +– bronchiole +– bronchitis +– bronchoscope +– bronchoscopy +– bronchus +– brostallicin +– broxuridine +– bryostatin 1 +– buccal mucosa +– budesonide +– bupropion +– burdock +– Burkitt's leukemia +– Burkitt's lymphoma +– burr hole +– buserelin +– buspirone +– busulfan +– buthionine sulfoximine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d3b971e5c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,316 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +C cell +– c-erbB-2 +– c-kit +– CA 19-9 assay +– CA-125 +– CA-125 test +– cachexia +– calcitonin +– calcitriol +– CAM +– Campath-1H +– camptothecin +– camptothecin analog +– cancer +– cancer induction +– Cancer Information Service +– cancer of unknown primary origin +– cancer stem cell +– cancer vaccine +– Cancer.gov +– Candidiasis +– Candidosis +– CAP-1 +– capecitabine +– capsaicin +– captopril +– carbendazim +– carbogen +– carbon-11 acetate +– carboplatin +– carboxyamidotriazole +– carboxypeptidase-G2 +– carcinoembryonic antigen +– carcinoembryonic antigen peptide-1 +– carcinogen +– carcinogenesis +– carcinoid +– carcinoid syndrome +– carcinoma +– carcinoma in situ +– carcinomatosis +– carcinosarcoma +– carcinosis +– carcinostatic +– cardin (oncology) +– carmustine +– carnitine +– carotenoid +– carzelesin +– case report +– case series +– case-control study +– caspofungin acetate +– Castleman's disease +– CAT scan +– catechol +– cauterization +– cauterize +– cBR96-doxorubicin immunoconjugate +– CC-1088 +– CC-49 monoclonal antibody +– CC-5013 +– CC-8490 +– CCI-779 +– CD34 antigen +– CD40-ligand +– CEA +– CEA assay +– cecum +– cefalexin +– cefepime +– cefixime +– ceftriaxone +– celecoxib +– celiac disease +– cell +– cell differentiation +– cell motility +– cell proliferation +– cell respiration +– cell adhesion +– cellular adoptive immunotherapy +– cellular metabolism +– cellulitis +– central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumor +– central venous access catheter +– CEP-2563 dihydrochloride +– CEP-701 +– cephalosporin +– ceramide +– cerebellar hemangioblastoma +– cerebellopontine +– cerebral hemisphere +– cerebrospinal fluid +– cerebrospinal fluid diversion +– cervical +– cervical intraepithelial neoplasia +– cervix +– cetuximab +– cevimeline +– CGP 48664 +– Chamberlain procedure +– chemoembolization +– chemoimmunotherapy +– chemoprevention +– chemoprevention studies +– chemoprotective +– chemoradiation +– chemoradiotherapy +– chemosensitivity +– chemosensitivity assay +– chemosensitizer +– chemotherapeutic agent +– chemotherapy +– chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy +– chest x-ray +– chiasma +– child-life worker +– chitin +– chlorambucil +– chlorine +– chloroma +– chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide +– cholangiocarcinoma +– cholangiosarcoma +– cholelith +– cholestasis +– chondrocyte +– chondroitin sulfate +– chondrosarcoma +– chordoma +– chorioallantoic membrane +– choriocarcinoma +– choroid plexus tumor +– CHPP +– chronic granulocytic leukemia +– chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis +– chronic leukemia +– chronic lymphoblastic leukemia +– chronic lymphocytic leukemia +– chronic myelogenous leukemia +– chronic myeloid leukemia +– chronic myelomonocytic leukemia +– chronic phase +– chronic phase chronic myelogenous leukemia +– CHS 828 +– CI-1033 +– CI-958 +– CI-980 +– CI-994 +– ciclosporin +– cidofovir +– cilengitide +– cimetidine +– Cipro +– ciprofloxacin +– circulatory system +– cirrhosis +– CIS +– cisplatin +– citric acid/potassium-sodium citrate +– cladribine +– clarithromycin +– clear cell adenocarcinoma +– clear-cell sarcoma +– clear cell sarcoma of the kidney +– clinical breast exam +– clinical resistance +– clinical series +– clinical study +– clinical trial +– CLL +– clodronate +– clofarabine +– CML +– CMML +– CMV +– cnicin +– CNS +– CNS metastasis +– CNS prophylaxis +– CNS sanctuary +– CNS tumor +– co-culture +– co-trimoxazole +– coactivated T cell +– cobalt 60 +– Cockayne syndrome +– coenzyme Q10 +– cohort study +– COL-3 +– cold nodule +– Coley's toxins +– collagen disease +– collagenase +– collecting duct +– coloanal anastomosis +– coloanal pull-through +– Colorectal cancer (colon cancer) +– colon polyp +– colonoscope +– colonoscopy +– colony-stimulating factor +– colorectal +– colposcope +– colposcopy +– combination chemotherapy +– combretastatin A4 phosphate +– comedo carcinoma +– common bile duct +– comorbidity +– compassionate use trial +– complementary and alternative medicine +– complete blood count (CBC) +– complete hysterectomy +– complete metastasectomy +– complete remission +– complete response +– compound nevus +– compression bandage +– computed tomographic colonography +– computed tomography +– computed tomography colography +– computerized axial tomography +– computerized tomography +– concurrent therapy +– condylomata acuminata +– cone biopsy +– congestive heart failure +– conization +– consecutive case series +– consolidation therapy +– contiguous lymphoma +– continent reservoir +– contingency management +– continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion +– continuous infusion +– contralateral +– control animal +– control group +– controlled clinical trial +– controlled study +– conventional therapy +– conventional treatment +– cooperative group +– CoQ10 +– cordectomy +– cordycepin +– core biopsy +– corticosteroid +– Corynebacterium granulosum +– coumestan +– coumestrol +– CP-358,774 +– CP-609,754 +– CP-724,714 +– CP4071 +– CpG 7909 +– CPT 11 +– CQS +– craniopharyngioma +– craniotomy +– creatine +– creatinine +– cribriform +– crisnatol mesylate +– Crohn's disease +– cryopreservation +– cryosurgery +– cryotherapy +– cryptorchidism +– CSF +– CT scan +– CT-2103 +– CT-2106 +– CT-2584 +– CTC +– cultured cell +– cultured cell line +– cumulative dose +– curcumin +– cutaneous breast cancer +– cutaneous T-cell lymphoma +– cyanogenic glucoside +– cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor +– cyclophosphamide +– cyclosporine +– cyproheptadine +– cyproterone acetate +– cyst +– cystectomy +– cystosarcoma phyllodes +– cystoscope +– cystoscopy +– cytarabine +– cytochlor +– cytogenetics +– cytokine +– cytology +– cytomegalovirus +– cytopenia +– cytoplasm +– cytotoxic +– cytotoxic chemotherapy +– cytotoxic T cell \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..496f9bd0b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,349 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +D-20761 +– da-huang +– dacarbazine +– dacliximab +– daclizumab +– dactinomycin +– daidzein +– dalteparin +– danazol +– darbepoetin alfa +– darkfield microscope +– Data Safety and Monitoring Committee +– daunorubicin +– DCIS +– de novo +– death cap +– debulking operation +– decitabine +– decortication +– deferoxamine +– defibrotide +– degenerative disease +– dehydroepiandrosterone +– delayed-type hypersensitivity response +– dendritic cell +– dendritic cell vaccine +– denileukin diftitox +– dental implant +– deoxycytidine +– deoxyribonucleic acid +– DepoFoam-encapsulated cytarabine +– depsipeptide +– dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans +– dermatologist +– dermis +– DES +– deslorelin +– desmoid tumor +– desmoplastic +– desmoplastic melanoma +– desmoplastic small round cell tumor +– dexamethasone +– dexmethylphenidate +– dexrazoxane +– dextroamphetamine-amphetamine +– dextromethorphan acetic acid +– DFMO +– DHA-paclitaxel +– DHEA +– di-dgA-RFB4 monoclonal antibody +– diagnosis +– diagnostic mammogram +– diagnostic procedures +– diagnostic trial +– diathermy +– diaziquone +– didanosine +– DIEP flap +– diethylstilbestrol +– differentiation +– difluoromethylornithine +– digital mammography +– digital photography +– digital rectal examination +– dihematoporphyrin ether +– dimesna +– dimethyl sulfoxide +– dimethylxanthenone acetic acid +– diphosphonate +– dipyridamole +– disease progression +– disease-free survival +– disease-specific survival +– distal +– distal pancreatectomy +– distant cancer +– distraction +– disulfiram +– DJ-927 +– DNA +– docetaxel +– dock +– dolasetron +– dolastatin 10 +– donepezil +– dose +– dose-dense chemotherapy +– dose-dependent +– dose-limiting +– dose-rate +– dosimetrist +– double-blinded +– double-contrast barium enema +– doubling time +– doxercalciferol +– doxorubicin +– doxycycline +– DRE +– dronabinol +– drug tolerance +– dry orgasm +– DTGM fusion protein +– ductal carcinoma +– ductal carcinoma in situ +– ductal lavage +– Dukes' classification +– dumping syndrome +– duodenitis +– DX-52-1 +– DX-8951f +– dyscrasia +– dysesthesia +– dysgeusia +– dysphagia +– dysplasia +– dysplastic nevi +– dysplastic nevus +– dyspnea + +== E == +E7070 +– E7389 +– EBV +– ecchymosis +– echocardiography +– ecteinascidin 743 +– ectocervical +– edatrexate +– edotecarin +– edrecolomab +– efaproxiral +– effector cell +– efficacy +– eflornithine +– EGb761 +– EGFR +– EKB-569 +– electroacupuncture +– electrodesiccation +– electrolarynx +– electroporation therapy +– eligibility criteria +– embolism +– embolization +– embryoma +– embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma +– embryonal tumor +– embryonic +– EMD 121974 +– emitefur +– emodin +– enalapril +– encephalopathy +– enchondroma +– endocervical curettage +– endocrine cancer +– endocrine pancreas cell +– endocrine therapy +– endometrial +– endometrial biopsy +– endometrial disorder +– endometrial hyperplasia +– Endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia +– endometriosis +– endometrium +– endorectal ultrasound +– endoscope +– endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography +– endoscopic ultrasound +– endoscopy +– endostatin +– endothelial cell +– endothelin receptor antagonist +– endothelin-1 protein receptor antagonists +– eniluracil +– enoxaparin +– ENT +– enterostomal therapist +– enucleation +– enveloped virus +– eosinophil +– eosinophilia +– EP-2101 +– ependymal tumor +– ependymoma +– epidemiology +– epidermal growth factor receptor +– epidermoid carcinoma +– epigastric +– epiglottis +– epinephrine +– epipodophyllotoxin +– epirubicin +– epithelial +– epithelial carcinoma +– epithelial ovarian cancer +– epithelium +– epitope +– EPO906 +– epoetin alfa +– epoetin beta +– epothilone +– epothilone B +– epothilone D +– epratuzumab +– Epstein-Barr virus +– EPT +– ER +– ER+ +– ER- +– ERA-923 +– erb-38 immunotoxin +– ErbB1 +– ERCP +– erlotinib +– ERT +– ERUS +– erythema +– erythrocyte +– erythrocyte sedimentation rate +– erythrodysplasia +– erythroid dysplasia +– erythroleukemia +– erythroleukoplakia +– erythroplakia +– erythropoietin +– esophageal +– esophagectomy +– esophagitis +– esophagoscopy +– esophagram +– esophagus +– ESR +– essential thrombocythemia +– essential thrombocytosis +– estradiol +– estramustine +– estramustine phosphate +– estrogen +– estrogen receptor +– estrogen receptor negative +– estrogen receptor positive +– estrogen receptor test +– estrogen replacement therapy +– etanercept +– etanidazole +– ethynyluracil +– etidronate +– etiology +– etoposide +– etoposide phosphate +– ETS +– evaluable disease +– evaluable patients +– everolimus +– Ewing's family of tumors +– Ewing's sarcoma +– exatecan mesylate +– excision +– excisional biopsy +– exemestane +– exisulind +– exocrine pancreas cell +– expanded access trial +– extensive-stage small cell lung cancer +– external radiation +– external-beam radiation +– extrahepatic +– extrapleural pneumonectomy + +== F == +false-negative test result +– false-positive test result +– familial adenomatous polyposis +– familial atypical multiple mole melanoma syndrome +– familial cancer +– familial dysplastic nevi +– familial polyposis +– Family history (medicine) +– FAMMM syndrome +– Fanconi anemia +– Fanconi syndrome +– FAP +– fatty-replaced breast tissue +– fazarabine +– fecal occult blood test +– fenretinide +– fentanyl +– fiber +– fibrin sealant +– fibroblast +– fibroid +– fibromatosis +– fibrosarcoma +– fibrosis +– fibrous +– fifth cranial nerve +– filgrastim +– filgrastim-SD/01 +– finasteride +– fine-needle aspiration +– first-line therapy +– FK463 +– flavonoid +– flavopiridol +– flecainide +– flow cytometry +– floxuridine +– flt3L +– fluconazole +– flucytosine +– fludarabine +– fludeoxyglucose F 18 +– fludrocortisone +– fluoropyrimidine +– fluoroscope +– fluoroscopy +– fluorouracil +– fluoxetine +– flutamide +– FOBT +– folate +– folate antagonist +– FOLFOX +– folic acid +– follicular large cell lymphoma +– follicular mixed cell lymphoma +– follicular thyroid cancer +– formaldehyde +– FR901228 +– fractionation +– free radical +– fulguration +– fulvestrant +– functional magnetic resonance imaging +– fundus +– fungating lesion +– fusion protein \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd3af1ead --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,234 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +G-CSF +– gabapentin +– Gail model +– gallium nitrate +– gallium scan +– gamma knife +– gamma ray +– ganciclovir +– ganglioside +– gastrectomy +– gastric atrophy +– gastrinoma +– gastroenterologist +– gastroesophageal junction +– gastroesophageal reflux disease +– gastrointestinal +– gastrointestinal stromal tumor +– gastrointestinal tract +– gastroscope +– gastroscopy +– gefitinib +– geldanamycin analog +– GEM 231 +– gemcitabine +– gemtuzumab ozogamicin +– gene expression profiling +– gene therapy +– gene transfer +– gene-modified +– genetic analysis +– genetic counseling +– genetic deletion +– genetic markers +– genetic susceptibility +– genetic testing +– genistein +– genitourinary system +– genome +– germ cell +– germ cell tumor +– German Commission E +– germinoma +– germline mutation +– Gerota's capsule +– Gerota's fascia +– gestational trophoblastic disease +– gestational trophoblastic neoplasia +– gestational trophoblastic tumor +– GI14721 +– giant cell fibroblastoma +– gimatecan +– GIST +– Gleason score +– Gleevec +– Gliadel Wafer +– glial cell +– glial tumor +– glioblastoma +– glioblastoma multiforme +– glioma +– gliosarcoma +– glossectomy +– glucagon +– glucagonoma +– glucocorticoid +– gluconeogenesis +– glufosfamide +– glutamine +– glutathione +– glutathione S-transferase +– glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase inhibitor +– glycolysis +– glycopeptide +– glycoprotein +– glycoprotein 100 +– glycosaminoglycan +– GM-CSF +– GM2-KLH vaccine +– GnRH +– gonadotropin-releasing hormone +– gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist +– Gonzalez regimen +– Gorlin syndrome +– goserelin +– gossypol +– gp100 +– gp209-2M +– GPX-100 +– grade IV astrocytoma +– graft-versus-host disease +– graft-versus-tumor +– granisetron +– granulocyte +– granulocyte colony-stimulating factor +– granulocytic sarcoma +– granulocytopenia +– granulosa cell tumor +- growing teratoma syndrome +– GTI-2040 +– GVHD +– GW572016 +– GW786034 +– gynecologic +– gynecologic cancer +– gynecologic oncologist + +== H == +HAART +– hairy cell leukemia +– halofuginone hydrobromide +– Halsted radical mastectomy +– hamartoma +– hand-foot syndrome +– head and neck cancer +– Hedyotis diffusa +– HeLa +– helical computed tomography +– helper T cell +– hemagglutinin-neuraminidase +– hemangiopericytoma +– hemangiosarcoma +– hematogenous +– hematologic malignancy +– hematologist +– hematopoiesis +– hematopoietic growth factor +– hematopoietic tissue +– hematoporphyrin derivative +– hemilaryngectomy +– heparin +– hepatectomy +– hepatic +– hepatic arterial infusion +– hepatic artery +– hepatic portal vein +– hepatic veno-occlusive disease +– hepatoblastoma +– hepatocellular carcinoma +– hepatocyte +– hepatoma +– hepatomegaly +– HER1 +– HER2/neu +– HER2/neu gene +– herba scutellaria barbatae +– hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer syndrome +– hereditary mutation +– hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer +– herpesvirus +– heterogenic +– hexyl 5-aminolevulinate +– high-dose chemotherapy +– high-dose-rate remote brachytherapy +– high-dose-rate remote radiation therapy +– high-energy photon therapy +– high-grade lymphoma +– high grade squamous intraepithelial lesion +– high-risk cancer +– highly active antiretroviral therapy +– hilar +– histamine dihydrochloride +– histiocytic lymphoma +– histologic examination +– histology +– histone +– histone deacetylase +– historic cohort study +– historical control subject +– HLA +– HNPCC +– Hodgkin's disease +– Hodgkin's lymphoma +– holmium Ho 166 DOTMP +– homoharringtonine +– hormonal therapy +– hormone receptor +– hormone receptor test +– hormone replacement therapy +– hormone responsive +– hormone therapy +– Horner's syndrome +– host cell +– hot nodule +– HPPH +– HPV +– HRT +– HTLV-1 +– hu14.18-interleukin-2 fusion protein +– Huang Lian +– human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 +– human leukocyte antigen +– human lymphocyte antigen +– human papillomavirus +– human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 +– Hürthle cell neoplasm +– hydrazine sulfate +– hydromorphone +– hydronephrosis +– hydroureter +– hydroxychloroquine +– hydroxyurea +– hypercalcemia +– hyperfractionation +– hyperglycemia +– hypericum perforatum +– hypernephroma +– hyperplasia +– hypersensitivity +– hyperthermia therapy +– hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemoperfusion +– hyperthermic perfusion +– hyperthyroidism +– hyperuricemia +– hypervascular +– hypoglycemia +– hypopharynx +– hypotension +– hypothalamus +– hypothesis +– hypothyroidism +– hypoxia +– hypoxic +– hysterectomy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d8da0eca8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,344 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +ibandronate +– ICI 182,780 +– ICI D1694 +– idarubicin +– IDEC-Y2B8 monoclonal antibody +– idiopathic +– idiopathic myelofibrosis +– idoxifene +– idoxuridine +– ifosfamide +– IH636 grape seed extract +– IL-1 +– IL-1-alfa +– IL-11 +– IL-12 +– IL-2 +– IL-3 +– IL-4 +– IL-6 +– ileostomy +– iloprost +– ILX-295501 +– ILX23-7553 +– IM-862 +– imaging procedure +– imatinib mesylate +– imipenem +– imiquimod +– immune adjuvant +– immune function +– immune response +– immune system +– immune system tolerance +– immunoassay +– immunocompetence +– immunocompetent +– immunocompromised +– immunodeficiency +– immunodeficiency syndrome +– immunoglobulin +– immunological adjuvant +– immunology +– immunomodulation +– immunophenotyping +– immunoscintigraphy +– immunostimulant +– immunosuppression +– immunosuppressive +– immunosuppressive therapy +– immunotherapy +– immunotoxin +– in situ cancer +– incisional biopsy +– incomplete Freund's adjuvant +– indinavir +– indium In 111 ibritumomab tiuxetan +– indium In 111 pentetreotide +– indole-3-carbinol +– indolent lymphoma +– indometacin +– induction therapy +– infiltrating cancer +– infiltrating ductal carcinoma +– inflammatory breast cancer +– infliximab +– infrared coagulation +– inguinal orchiectomy +– inoperable +– inositol +– inositol hexaphosphate +– instillation +– Institutional Review Board +– intensification therapy +– Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy +– intercalator +– interferon +– interleukin +– interleukin-1 +– interleukin-1-alpha +– interleukin-11 +– interleukin-12 +– interleukin-2 +– interleukin-3 +– interleukin-4 +– interleukin-4 PE38KDEL cytotoxin +– interleukin-4 PE38KDEL immunotoxin +– interleukin-6 +– interleukin-7 +– intermediate-grade lymphoma +– internal radiation +– interstitial radiation therapy +– intestinal villi +– intoplicine +– intracarotid infusion +– intracavitary +– intracavitary radiation +– intracellular +– intracolonic +– intracranial tumor +– intradermal +– intraductal carcinoma +– intraepithelial +– intrahepatic +– intrahepatic bile ducts +– intrahepatic infusion +– intralesional +– intraluminal intubation and dilation +– Intramuscular injection (IM) +– intraocular melanoma +– intraoperative radiation therapy +– intraperitoneal +– intraperitoneal chemotherapy +– Intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemoperfusion +– intraperitoneal infusion +– intraperitoneal radiation therapy +– intrapleural +– intrathecal +– intrathecal chemotherapy +– intratumoral, meaning within a tumour +– intravenous pyelogram +– intravenous pyelography +– intraventricular infusion +– intravesical +– invasive cancer +– invasive cervical cancer +– inverted papilloma +– investigational +– inviable +– iodine I 131 tositumomab +– iododoxorubicin +– ionomycin +– IORT +– Incontinentia pigmenti +– IRB +– irinotecan +– irofulven +– irradiated +– irradiation +– irreversible toxicity +– iseganan hydrochloride +– ISIS 2503 +– ISIS 3521 +– ISIS 5132 +– islet cell +– islet cell cancer +– islet of Langerhans cell +– isoflavone +– isointense +– isolated hepatic perfusion +– isolated limb perfusion +– isolated lung perfusion +– isotretinoin +– itraconazole +– IU +– IV +– IVP +– ixabepilone + +== J == +J-107088 +– J-pouch coloanal anastomosis +– jaundice +– Jewett staging system +– JM 216 +– junctional nevus +– juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia + +== K == +Kaposi's sarcoma +– karenitecin +– Karnofsky Performance Status +– keloid +– keratan sulfate +– keratinocyte growth factor +– keratoacanthoma +– ketoconazole +– ketorolac +– keyhole limpet hemocyanin +– KGF +– killer cell +– Kinaret +– Klatskin tumor +– Klebsiella +– Klinefelter syndrome +– KOS-862 +– KPS +– kretek +– KRN5500 +– KRN7000 +– Krukenberg tumor +– KW2189 + +== L == +L-377,202 +– L-778,123 +– L-carnitine (see Carnitine) +– laboratory study +– laboratory test +– lacrimal gland +– lactate dehydrogenase +– lactic acid dehydrogenase +– LAK cell +– lamina propria +– lamivudine +– lamotrigine +– laparoscope +– laparoscopic prostatectomy +– laparoscopic-assisted colectomy +– laparoscopy +– laparotomy +– lappa +– large cell carcinoma +– large granular lymphocyte +– laryngectomy +– laser surgery +– laser therapy +– LCIS +– LDH +– lectin +– leflunomide +– leiomyoma +– leiomyosarcoma +– lentinan +– lepirudin +– leptomeningeal +– leptomeningeal cancer +– leptomeningeal metastases +– leridistim +– lerisetron +– Leser-Trélat +– letrozole +– leucovorin +– leukapheresis +– leukemia +– leukocyte +– leukopenia +– leukoplakia +– leuprorelin +– leuvectin +– levamisole +– levocarnitine +– levofloxacin +– LGD1069 +– LH-RH +– Lhermitte's sign +– Li-Fraumeni syndrome +– liarozole +– ligation +– light-emitting diode therapy +– lignan +– limb perfusion +– limited-stage small cell lung cancer +– linac +– liothyronine sodium +– lipophilic +– liposarcoma +– liposomal +– lisofylline +– Hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer) +– liver metastases +– liver scan +– LMB-1 immunotoxin +– LMB-2 immunotoxin +– LMB-7 immunotoxin +– LMB-9 immunotoxin +– lobaplatin +– lobectomy +– lobradimil +– lobular carcinoma in situ +– lobule +– local cancer +– local therapy +– localized gallbladder cancer +– locally advanced cancer +– lometrexol +– lomustine +– lonafarnib +– loop electrosurgical excision procedure +– loop excision +– loperamide hydrochloride +– losoxantrone +– low-grade lymphoma +– lower GI series +– LU 79553 +– LU-103793 +– lubricant +– lumbar puncture +– lumpectomy +– lung metastases +– lurtotecan +– luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone +– luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonist +– lutetium texaphyrin +– LY231514 +– LY293111 +– LY317615 +– LY335979 +– LY353381 hydrochloride +– lycopene +– lymph gland +– lymph node +– lymph node dissection +– lymph node drainage +– lymph node mapping +– lymph vessel +– lymphadenectomy +– lymphadenopathy +– lymphangiogram +– lymphangiography +– lymphangiosarcoma +– lymphatic fluid +– lymphatic mapping +– lymphatic system +– lymphatic vessel +– lymphedema +– lymphoblast +– lymphocyte +– lymphocytic +– lymphocytic leukemia +– lymphoepithelioma +– lymphography +– lymphoid +– lymphokine-activated killer cell +– lymphoma +– lymphomatoid granulomatosis +– lymphoproliferative disorder +– lymphosarcoma +– lymphoscintigraphy +– Lynch syndrome +– lysis +– lysosome +– lytic +– lytic lesion \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..057a956ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,339 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +M protein +– macroglobulinemia +– macrophage +– mafosfamide +– MAGE-3 +– magnetic resonance imaging +– magnetic resonance perfusion imaging +– magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging +– magnetic-targeted carrier +– maintenance therapy +– malabsorption syndrome +– malignancy +– malignant +– malignant ascites +– malignant fibrous cytoma +– malignant fibrous histiocytoma +– malignant meningioma +– malignant mesothelioma +– malignant mixed Müllerian tumor +– malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor +– malondialdehyde +– MALT lymphoma +– mammary +– mammogram +– mammography +– Mammotome +– mantle field +– marimastat +– mast cell +– mastectomy +– mastocytoma +– matrix metalloproteinase +– MDL 101,731 +– MDX-060 +– mean survival time +– measurable disease +– mechlorethamine +– MEDI-507 +– medial supraclavicular lymph node +– median survival time +– mediastinal pleura +– mediastinoscopy +– mediastinum +– medical castration +– medical oncologist +– medroxyprogesterone +– medullary breast carcinoma +– medullary thyroid cancer +– medulloblastoma +– mega-voltage linear accelerator +– megestrol +– meiosis +– melanocyte +– melanoma +– melanoma vaccine +– melphalan +– MEN-10755 +– MEN1 syndrome +– meningeal +– meningeal metastases +– meningioma +– menopausal hormone therapy +– mercaptopurine +– mercury +– Merkel cell cancer +– mesenchymal +– mesenteric membrane +– mesna +– mesonephroma +– mesothelioma +– metaplasia +– metaplastic carcinoma +– metastasectomy +– metastasis +– metastasize +– metastatic +– metastatic cancer +– metasynchronous +– meteorism +– methotrexate +– methoxsalen +– Methoxy polyethylene glycol-epoetin beta +– methyl-5-aminolevulinate +– methylphenidate +– methylprednisolone +– metoclopramide +– metronidazole +– metronomic therapy +– Mexican valerian +– MG98 +– microcalcification +– micrometastases +– micromolar +– microsatellite +– microsatellite instability +– microstaging +– microwave therapy +– microwave thermotherapy +– mifepristone +– Miraluma test +– misoprostol +– mistletoe lectin +– mitochondria +– mitolactol +– mitomycin +– mitosis +– mitotane +– mitotic activity +– mitotic index +– mitotic inhibitor +– mitoxantrone +– mivobulin isethionate +– mixed glioma +– MLN2704 +– modafinil +– modality +– modified radical mastectomy +– Mohs surgery +– molar pregnancy +– molecular risk assessment +– molecularly targeted therapy +– monoclonal antibody +– monoclonal antibody 3F8 +– monocyte +– Montanide ISA-51 +– Morinda citrifolia +– morphology +– motexafin gadolinium +– moxifloxacin +– MPNST +– MRI +– MRSI +– MS 209 +– MS-275 +– mucinous carcinoma +– mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma +– muJ591 monoclonal antibody +– Müllerian tumor +– multicenter study +– multicentric breast cancer +– multidrug resistance +– multidrug resistance inhibition +– multifocal breast cancer +– multimodality treatment +– multiple endocrine adenomatosis +– multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome +– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome +– multiple myeloma +– multiple sclerosis +– multiplicity +– muromonab-CD3 monoclonal antibody +– musculoskeletal +– mycophenolate mofetil +– mycosis fungoides +– mycostatin +– myelin +– myeloablation +– myelodysplasia +– myelodysplastic syndrome +– myelofibrosis +– myelogenous +– myelogram +– myeloid +– myeloma +– myeloproliferative disorder +– myelosclerosis with myeloid metaplasia +– myelosuppression +– myelosuppressive therapy +– myometrium + +== N == +N-acetylcysteine +– N-acetyldinaline +– N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine +– naloxone +– National Cancer Institute +– National Institutes of Health +– natural killer cell +– NB1011 +– NBI-3001 +– NCI +– nebulizer +– neck dissection +– needle biopsy +– needle-localized biopsy +– negative axillary lymph node +– negative test result +– nelarabine +– nelfinavir mesylate +– neoadjuvant therapy +– neoplasia +– neoplasm +– nephrotomogram +– nephrotoxic +– nephroureterectomy +– nerve block +– nerve grafting +– nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy +– nerve-sparing surgery +– neuro-oncologist +– neurobehavioral +– neuroblastoma +– neuroectodermal tumor +– neuroendocrine +– neuroendocrine tumor +– neuroepithelial +– neurofibroma +– neurofibromatosis type I +– neurofibromatosis type 2 +– neuroma +– neuron +– neuropathologist +– neuropathy +– neuropeptide +– neuroradiologist +– neurotoxicity +– neurotoxin +– neurotropism +– neutropenia +– neutrophil +– nevus +– NF1 +– NG-monomethyl-L-arginine +– niacinamide +– nicotinamide +– NIH +– nilutamide +– nimodipine +– nipple discharge +– nitrocamptothecin +– nitrosourea +– NK cell +– NMRI +– node-negative +– node-positive +– nodular parenchyma +– nolatrexed +– non-Hodgkin's lymphoma +– non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) +– nonconsecutive case series +– noncontiguous lymphoma +– nonhematologic cancer +– noni +– nonlytic +– nonmalignant +– nonmalignant hematologic disorder +– nonmelanoma skin cancer +– nonmelanomatous +– nonmetastatic +– nonopioid +– nonprescription +– nonrandomized clinical trial +– nonseminoma +– nonspecific immune cell +– nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug +– nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor +– novobiocin +– NPO +– NR-LU-10 antigen +– NSAID +– nuclear magnetic resonance imaging +– nuclear medicine scan +– nutraceutical +– nystatin + +== O == +O(6)-benzylguanine +– oat cell cancer +– objective improvement +– objective response +– oblimersen +– obtundation +– occult stage non-small cell lung cancer +– octreotide +– ocular melanoma +– ofloxacin +– OGX-011 +– oblimersen +– oligoastrocytoma +– oligodendroglial tumor +– oligodendroglioma +– oltipraz +– omega-3 fatty acid +– omentectomy +– omentum +– omeprazole +– Ommaya reservoir +– oncogene +– oncologist +– oncology +– oncology nurse +– oncology pharmacy specialist +– oncolysate +– oncolysis +– oncolytic +– Oncolytic virus +– Onconase +– ondansetron +– ONYX-015 +– oophorectomy +– open biopsy +– open colectomy +– open label study +– opioid +– opportunistic infection +– oral and maxillofacial surgeon +– orchidectomy +– orchiectomy +– oropharynx +– OSI-7904L +– osmolality +– osteitis deformans +– osteogenic sarcoma +– osteolytic +– osteoporosis +– osteosarcoma +– ostomy +– ovarian ablation +– ovarian epithelial cancer +– ovarian suppression +– Overall Survival (OS) +– overexpress +– overgrowth syndrome +– oxaliplatin +– oxandrolone +– OXi-104 +– oxidative metabolism +– oxidative stress \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e59bdf65e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,360 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +P-32 +– p-value +– p53 gene +– Pacific valerian +– paclitaxel +– Paget's disease of bone +– Paget's disease of the nipple +– PALA +– palatine uvula +– palliative care +– palliative therapy +– Palmar plantar erythrodysesthesia +– pamidronate +– Pancoast's tumor +– pancreatectomy +– pancreatic cancer +– pancreatic duct +– pancreatic enzyme +– pancreatic juice +– pancreatitis +– PAP, same as Pap smear +– Pap smear +– Pap test, same as Pap smear +– papillary serous carcinoma +– papillary thyroid cancer +– papillary tumor +– papilledema +– paracentesis +– parageusia +– paramyxovirus +– paraneoplastic syndrome +– parathyroid gland +– parathyroid hormone +– parenchyma +– paresthesias +– paricalcitol +– parietal pericardium +– Parkinson's disease +– parotidectomy +– paroxetine hydrochloride +– partial cystectomy +– partial laryngectomy +– partial mastectomy +– partial nephrectomy +– partial oophorectomy +– partial remission +– partial response +– passive antibody therapy +– Paterson–Kelly syndrome +– pathological staging +– patient-controlled analgesia +– Patient derived tumor xenografts +– PCA +– PDQ +– peau d'orange +– PEG-interferon alfa-2a +– PEG-interferon alfa-2b +– PEG-MGDF +– pegaspargase +– pegfilgrastim +– PEITC +– peldesine +– pelvic exenteration +– pelvic lymphadenectomy +– pemetrexed disodium +– penclomedine +– penicillamine +– pentetic acid calcium +– pentosan polysulfate +– pentostatin +– pentoxifylline +– peptide +– peptide 946 +– percutaneous ethanol injection +– percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage +– percutaneous transhepatic cholangiodrainage +– percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography +– perfusion +– perfusion magnetic resonance imaging +– pericardial effusion +– perifosine +– perineal colostomy +– perineal prostatectomy +– peripheral blood lymphocyte therapy +– peripheral neuropathy +– peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumor +– peripheral stem cell +– peripheral stem cell support +– peripheral stem cell transplantation +– peristalsis +– peritoneal cancer +– peritoneal infusion +– peritoneal perfusion +– pernicious anemia +– pertuzumab +– PET scan +– petechiae +– Peutz–Jeghers syndrome +– phagocyte +– pharmacokinetics +– phase I trial +– phase I/II trial +– phase II trial +– phase II/III trial +– phase III trial +– phase IV trial +– phenethyl isothiocyanate +– phenoxodiol +– phenylacetate +– phenylbutyrate +– pheochromocytoma +– pheresis +– Philadelphia chromosome +– photodynamic therapy +– photothermal therapy +– photofrin +– photopheresis +– phyllodes tumor +– Physician Data Query +– phytic acid +– phytoestrogen +– phytosterol +– PI-88 +– pilocarpine +– pilocytic +– pineal region tumor +– pineoblastoma +– pineocytoma +– piperacillin/tazobactam +– pirfenidone +– piritrexim +– pixantrone +– PJS +– PKC412 +– plasmacytic +– plasmacytoma +– plasmapheresis +– Plenaxis +– pleomorphic +– pleural effusion +– pleurodesis +– plexiform neurofibroma +– plexopathy +– ploidy +– Plummer–Vinson syndrome +– pluripotent +– pluripotent stem cell +– pM-81 monoclonal antibody +– PNET +– pneumonectomy +– PNU 166148 +– PNU-93914 +– polifeprosan 20 carmustine implant +– poly-ICLC +– polyglutamate camptothecin +– polyglutamate paclitaxel +– polymerase chain reaction +– polymorphism +– polyneuritis +– polyp +– polypectomy +– polyphenol +– Polyphenon E +– polyposis +– pons +– pontine +– porfimer sodium +– porfiromycin +– port-a-cath +– positive axillary lymph node +– positive test result +– positron emission tomography scan +– postremission therapy +– PR+ +– PR- +– precancerous +– precancerous dermatitis +– precancerous dermatosis +– precancerous polyps +– predictive factor +– prednisolone +– prednisone +– preleukemia +– premalignant +– pretracheal space +– prevascular space +– preventive mastectomy +– primary central nervous system lymphoma +– primary endpoint +– primary myelofibrosis +– primary peritoneal cancer +– primary tumor +– primitive neuroectodermal tumor +– prinomastat +– pro-oxidant +– probenecid +– procarbazine +– prochlorperazine +– proctoscopy +– proctosigmoidoscopy +– progesterone receptor negative +– progesterone receptor positive +– progesterone receptor test +– progression-free survival (PFS) +– progressive disease +– proliferative index +– prolymphocytic leukemia +– promegapoietin +– promyelocytic leukemia +– prophylactic cranial irradiation +– prophylactic mastectomy +– prophylactic oophorectomy +– prophylactic surgery +– prophylaxis +– prospective cohort study +– Prost 30 monoclonal antibody +– prostate-specific antigen +– prostate-specific antigen test +– prostatectomy +– prostatic acid phosphatase +– prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia +– prostatitis +– protease inhibitor +– protein kinase C +– proteoglycan +– proteomic profile +– proteomics +– proton beam radiation therapy +– proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging +– PS-341 +– PSA +– psammoma body +– PSC 833 +– pseudomyxoma peritonei +– psoralen +– PTC +– PTCD +– PTK787/ZK 222584 +– ptosis +– pulmonary sulcus tumor +– PV701 +– pyrazine diazohydroxide +– pyrazoloacridine +– pyroxamide + +== Q == +Q10 +– QS21 +– quadrantectomy + +== R == +R-flurbiprofen +– r-tPA +– R101933 +– R115777 +– radiation fibrosis +– radiation oncologist +– radiation physicist +– radiation surgery +– radiation therapist +– radiation therapy +– radical cystectomy +– radical lymph node dissection +– radical mastectomy +– radical perineal prostatectomy +– radical prostatectomy +– radical retropubic prostatectomy +– radioactive drug +– radioactive iodine +– radioactive palladium +– radioactive seed +– radiofrequency ablation +– radiographer +– radioimmunoguided surgery +– radioimmunotherapy +– radioisotope +– radiolabeled +– radiologic exam +– radionuclide scanning +– radiopharmaceutical +– radiosensitization +– radiosensitizer +– radiosurgery +– radiotherapy +– raloxifene +– raltitrexed +– randomized clinical trial +– ranpirnase +– rapamycin +– rapid hormone cycling +– rapid-onset opioid +– ras gene +– rasburicase +– rattlesnake root +– ravuconazole +– rebeccamycin +– recombinant tissue plasminogen activator +– reconstructive surgeon +– reconstructive surgery +– recurrent cancer +– Red blood cell +– Reed–Sternberg cell +– reflux +– refractory cancer +– regional cancer +– regional chemotherapy +– regional enteritis +– regional lymph node +– regional lymph node dissection +– rehabilitation specialist +– relative survival rate +– relaxation technique +– remission induction therapy +– remote brachytherapy +– renal cell cancer +– renal collecting tubule +– renal glomerulus +– renal tubular acidosis +– retinoblastoma +– retinoid +– retinol +– retinyl palmitate +– retroperitoneal +– retropubic prostatectomy +– retrospective cohort study +– retrospective study +– retroviral vector +– retrovirus +– RevM10 gene +– rhabdoid tumor +– rhabdomyosarcoma +– rhizoxin +– ribavirin +– ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor +– rifampin +– risedronate +– ritonavir +– rituximab +– RK-0202 +– RMP-7 +– RNA +– Ro 31-7453 +– Ro 50-3821 +– rofecoxib +– rosiglitazone +– RPI.4610 +– RPR 109881A +– RSR13 +– RSV \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1540113ec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,332 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +S-1 +– S-phase fraction +– safingol +– salpingo-oophorectomy +– salvage therapy +– samarium 153 +– saponin +– saquinavir mesylate +– sarCNU +– sarcoma +– sarcosinamide nitrosourea +– sargramostim +– satraplatin +– SC-70935 +– SCH 54031 +– SCH 66336 +– SCH-58500 +– Schiller test +– Schwann cell +– schwannoma +– scintimammography +– scleroderma +– screening mammogram +– Scutellaria barbata +– SDX-102 +– SDX-105 +– second primary cancer +– second-line therapy +– second-look surgery +– secondary cancer +– sedoxantrone trihydrochloride +– segmental cystectomy +– segmental mastectomy +– selective estrogen receptor modulator +– selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor +– sella turcica +– semaxanib +– seminal vesicle biopsy +– seminoma +– semiparasitic +– semustine +– senile keratosis +– sentinel lymph node +– sentinel lymph node biopsy +– sentinel lymph node mapping +– seocalcitol +– SERM +– serotonin +– sertraline +– serum albumin +– serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase +– Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase +– serum tumor marker test +– sesquiterpene lactone +– sestamibi breast imaging +– severe myelosuppression +– Sézary syndrome +– SGN-00101 +– SGN-15 +– SGOT +– SGPT +– sham therapy +– shave biopsy +– Sho-saiko-to +– sialic acid +– sialyl Tn-KLH +– side-to-end coloanal anastomosis +– sideropenic dysphagia +– sigmoidoscope +– sigmoidoscopy +– signal transduction inhibitor +– signet ring cell carcinoma +– SIL +– sildenafil +– Silybum marianum +– silymarin +– simple mastectomy +– simple nephrectomy +– single blind study +– single-photon emission computed tomography +– siplizumab +– sirolimus +– small cell lung cancer +– small intestine +– smoldering leukemia +– smoldering myeloma +– SMT-487 +– SnET2 +– SNX 111 +– soblidotin +– sodium borocaptate +– sodium salicylate +– sodium sulfite +– sodium thiosulfate +– soft tissue sarcoma +– solar keratosis +– solid tumor +– somatic cell +– somatic mutation +– somnolence syndrome +– sonogram +– sorivudine +– specific immune cell +– SPECT +– SPF +– spiculated mass +– spindle cell cancer +– spindle cell sarcoma +– spiral CT scan +– splenomegaly +– sputum cytology +– squalamine lactate +– squamous cell +– squamous cell carcinoma +– squamous intraepithelial lesion +– SR-29142 +– SR-45023A +– SR49059 +– SSRI +– staging +– staurosporine +– stavudine +– stellate +– stem cell +– stem cell factor +– stem cell transplantation +– stent +– stereotactic biopsy +– stereotactic body radiation therapy +– stereotactic external-beam radiation +– stereotactic injection +– stereotactic radiation therapy +– stereotactic radiosurgery +– stereotaxic radiosurgery +– stereotaxis +– steroid therapy +– STI481 +– STI571 +– stoma +– stomatitis +– streptavidin +– streptozocin +– Stromagen +– stromal tumor +– strontium-89 +– Sturge–Weber syndrome +– SU011248 +– SU101 +– SU5416 +– SU6668 +– subcutaneous port +– subependymal +– suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid +– subglottis +– subset analysis +– subtenon +– sucralfate +– sulfonamide +– sulindac +– superior vena cava +– superior vena cava syndrome +– supraclavicular lymph node +– supraglottic laryngectomy +– supraglottis +– supratentorial +– suramin +– surgical oncologist +– survival rate +– symptom management +– syncytium +– syngeneic bone marrow transplantation +– syngeneic stem cell transplantation +– synovial membrane +– synovial sarcoma +– synthetic protegrin analog +– synthetic retinoid +– systemic chemotherapy +– systemic disease +– systemic lupus erythematosus +– systemic therapy + +== T == +T cell +– T-3 +– T-cell depletion +– T-cell lymphoma +– T138067 +– T4N5 liposomal lotion +– T900607 +– TAC-101 +– tacrolimus +– TAG-72 antigen +– talampanel +– talaporfin sodium +– tamoxifen +– tariquidar +– taurolidine +– taxane +– technetium tc 99m dextran +– technetium tc 99m sulfur colloid +– tegafur +– teicoplanin +– telangiectasia +– temoporfin +– temozolomide +– teniposide +– TENS +– teratoma +– terminal disease +– tetanus toxoid +– tetrahydrouridine +– TG4010 +– theophylline +– thermal ablation +– thermography +– thiotepa +– third-line therapy +– thoracentesis +– thoracoscopy +– thoracotomy +– thrombocyte +– thrombocytopenia +– thrombohemorrhagic event +– thrombophlebitis +– thrombopoietin +– thymidine +– thymidylate synthase inhibitor +– thymoma +– Thyrogen +– thyroglobulin +– thyroid follicular cell +– thyroid hormone +– thyroid-stimulating hormone +– thyroidectomy +– thyrotropin alfa +– tiazofurin +– time to progression +– tin ethyl etiopurpurin +– tin Sn 117m DTPA +– tinidazole +– tioguanine +– tipifarnib +– tirapazamine +– tissue plasminogen activator +– TLK286 +– TM +– Transplacental carcinogenesis +– TNF +– TNFerade +– TNM staging system +– TNP-470 +– tocladesine +– tomography +– topical chemotherapy +– topoisomerase inhibitor +– topotecan +– toremifene +– tositumomab +– total androgen blockade +– total estrogen blockade +– total nodal irradiation +– total parenteral nutrition +– total-body irradiation +– TP-38 immunotoxin +– tPA +– TPA +– trabecular cancer +– transabdominal ultrasound +– transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation +– transdermal +– transferrin-CRM107 +– transitional cell +– transitional cell carcinoma +– transperineal biopsy +– transrectal biopsy +– transrectal ultrasound +– transurethral biopsy +– transurethral needle ablation +– transurethral resection +– transurethral resection of the prostate +– transvaginal ultrasound +– trastuzumab +– Traumeel S +– treosulfan +– tretinoin +– triacetyluridine +– triamcinolone +– Triapine +– tributyrin +– trichothiodystrophy +– triiodothyronine +– trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole +– trimetrexate glucuronate +– triptorelin +– troglitazone +– tropisetron +– troxacitabine +– TRUS +– tuberous sclerosis +– tubulovillous adenoma +– tumor +– tumor antigen vaccine +– tumor board review +– tumor burden +– tumor debulking +– tumor infiltrating lymphocyte +– tumor load +– tumor marker +– tumor model +– tumor necrosis factor +– tumor suppressor gene +– tumor-derived +– tumor-specific antigen +– TUR +– TURP +– TVS +– tympany +– type I and type II errors +– tyrosinase peptide +– tyrosine kinase inhibitor +– TZT-1027 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..facdc53d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oncology articles" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== U == +ubiquinone +– UCN-01 +– UGT1A1 +– ultrasonogram +– ultrasonography +– ultrasound-guided biopsy—see ultrasound and biopsy +– ultraviolet radiation therapy—see ultraviolet radiation and radiation therapy +– uncontrolled study—see clinical trial +– unconventional cancer treatments—see experimental cancer treatment +– undifferentiated—see cellular differentiation +– unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy—see oophorectomy +– unresectable—see resection +– unresectable gallbladder cancer—see gallbladder cancer +– unsealed internal radiation therapy—see radiation therapy +– upper GI series +– urachus +– uracil +– urea nitrogen—see blood urea nitrogen +– ureteroscopy +– urine cytology—see urine +– urokinase +– urologic oncologist—see urology and oncologist +– urothelium +– ursodiol +– UV radiation +– UVA radiation +– UVB radiation +– uvula + +== V == +vaccine adjuvant +– vaccine therapy +– vaccinia CEA vaccine +– vaginal cancer – vaginal melanoma–vaginal tumors – valacyclovir +– valdecoxib +– valerian +– Valeriana officinalis +– Valerianae radix +– valganciclovir +– valproic acid +– vancomycin +– vapreotide +– varicose veins +– vascular endothelial growth factor +– VEGF +– VEGF Trap +– venlafaxine +– video-assisted resection +– video-assisted surgery +– villous adenoma +– villus +– vinblastine +– vinca alkaloid +– vincristine +– vindesine +– vinorelbine +– viral vector +– virotherapy +– virtual colonoscopy +– Virulizin +– virus replication cycle +– virus-neutralizing antibody +– viscotoxins +– visilizumab +– visual pathway glioma +– VNP20009 +– VNP40101M +– von Hippel–Lindau disease +– voriconazole +– vorozole +– vulvar cancer +– VX 853 +– VX-710 + +== W == +Waldenström macroglobulinemia +– warfarin +– wedge resection +– Wermer's syndrome +– Whipple procedure +– white blood cell +– Whitmore-Jewett staging system +– whole cell vaccine +– Wilms' tumor +– Wobe-Mugos E + +== X == +X-ray +– X-ray therapy +– xenograft +– xeroderma pigmentosum +– xerogram +– xerostomia +– XK469 +– XR9576 + +== Y == +YM598 +– yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan +– yttrium Y 90 SMT 487 +– yttrium Y 90-DOTA-tyr3-octreotide + +== Z == +ZD 1839 +– ZD0473 +– ZD6474 +– ziconotide +– zidovudine +– zileuton +– zoledronate +– Zollinger–Ellison syndrome +– Zoloft +– zolpidem +– zosuquidar trihydrochloride + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bec24c286 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Index of optics articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:51.043836+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== W == + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +Category:Optical components +Category:Optical materials + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47106489e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,321 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oral health and dental articles" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:52.331331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Dental pertains to the teeth, including dentistry. Topics related to the dentistry, the human mouth and teeth include: + +== A == +Abfraction • +Abrasion • +Academy of General Dentistry • +Acinic cell carcinoma • +Acrodont • +Adalbert J. Volck • +Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor • +Adhesive Dentistry • +Aetna • +Agar • +Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans • +Aim toothpaste • +Akers' clasp • +Alberta Dental Association and College • +Alfred Fones • +Alfred P. Southwick • +Alginic acid • +Alice Timander • +Allan G. Brodie • +Alveolar bony defects • +Alveolar osteitis • +Alveolar process of maxilla • +Alveolar ridge • +Amalgam • +Ameloblast • +Ameloblastic fibroma • +Ameloblastin • +Ameloblastoma • +Amelogenesis • +Amelogenesis imperfecta • +Amelogenin • +American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry • +American Academy of Periodontology • +American Association of Endodontists • +American Association of Orthodontists • +American Dental Association • +American Dental Education Association • +American Dental Hygienists' Association • +American Society of Dental Surgeons • +American Student Dental Association • +Amosan • +Anbesol • +Angular cheilitis • +Anodontia • +Anthony Hamilton-Smith, 3rd Baron Colwyn • +Antoni Cieszyński • +Apert syndrome • +Apex locator • +Aphthous ulcer • +Applied kinesiology • +Aquafresh • +Archwire • +Arizona Dental Association • +Arm & Hammer • +Armin Abron • +Articaine • +Articulator • +Attrition • +Australian Dental Association • +Automatic toothpaste dispenser + +== B == +Badri Teymourtash • +Baltimore College of Dental Surgery • +Barbed broach • +Barry Cockcroft • +Barodontalgia • +Bartholomew Ruspini • +Baylor College of Dentistry • +Ben Harper • +Ben Humble • +Ben L. Salomon • +Benign lymphoepithelial lesion • +Bernard J. Cigrand • +Bernard Nadler • +Bessie Delany • +Bill Allen • +Bill Emmerson • +Bill Osmanski • +Billy Cannon • +Bioactive glass • +Biodontics • +Black hairy tongue • +Bleeding on probing • +Botryoid odontogenic cyst • +Brachydont • +Brachygnathism • +Breath spray • +Bridge • +Bristol-Myers Squibb • +British Dental Association • +British Dental Health Foundation • +British Dental Students' Association • +British Orthodontic Society • +Bruxism • +Buccal bifurcation cyst • +Buccal mucosa • +Buccal space + +== C == +CAD/CAM Dentistry • +Calcifying epithelial odontogenic tumor • +Calcifying odontogenic cyst • +Calcium hydroxide • +Calculus • +California Dental Association • +Canadian Association of Orthodontists • +Canadian College of Dental Health • +Canadian Dental Association • +Canalicular adenoma • +Canine tooth • +Cantilever mechanics • +Carbon dioxide laser • +Caries vaccine • +Carnassial • +Case School of Dental Medicine • +Cattle age determination • +Cemento-osseous dysplasia • +Cementoblast • +Cementoblastoma • +Cementoenamel junction • +Cementogenesis • +Cementum • +Central giant cell granuloma • +Central odontogenic fibroma • +Central ossifying fibroma • +Central Regional Dental Testing Service • +Centric relation • +Centro Escolar University • +CEREC • +Cervical loop • +Chapin A. Harris • +Chapped lips • +Charles G. Maurice • +Charles Goodall Lee • +Charles H. Strub • +Charles Murray Turpin • +Charles Spence Bate • +Charles Stent • +Charlie Norwood • +Cheilitis • +Chewable toothbrush • +Chewiness • +Chief Dental Officer • +Chlorhexidine • +Christian Medical and Dental Society • +Church and Dwight • +Cingulum • +Cleft lip and palate • +Colgate-Palmolive • +Colgate • +Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry • +Concrescence • +Condensing osteitis • +Configuration factor • +Congenital epulis • +Consultant Orthodontists Group • +Cosmetic dentistry • +Crest • +Crossbite • +Crouzon syndrome • +Crown-to-root ratio • +Crown • +Crown • +Crown lengthening • +Crunchiness • +Curve of spee • +Cusp • +Cusp of Carabelli + +== D == +Dappen glass • +Dan Crane • +Darlie • +David J. Acer • +Deciduous • +Deciduous teeth • +Delta Dental • +Dens evaginatus • +Dens invaginatus • +Dental-enamel junction • +Dental Admission Test • +Dental alveolus • +Dental amalgam controversy • +Dental anatomy • +Dental antibiotic prophylaxis • +Dental anesthesia • +Dental arches • +Dental assistant • +Dental avulsion • +Dental auxiliary • +Dental barotrauma • +Dental braces • +Dental bur • +Dental canaliculi • +Dental care in adolescent Australians • +Dental care of Guantanamo Bay detainees • +Dental caries • +Dental college • +Dental composite • +Dental Council of India • +Dental cyst • +Dental dam • +Dental disease • +Dental drill • +Dental emergency • +Dental engine • +Dental floss • +Dental fluorosis • +Dental follicle • +Dental hygienist • +Dental implant • +Dental informatics • +Dental instruments • +Dental key • +Dental Laboratories Association • +Dental laboratory • +Dental lamina • +Dental laser • +Dental midline • +Dental notation • +Dental papilla • +Dental pathology • +Dental pellicle • +Dental phobia • +Dental plaque • +Dental porcelain • +Dental Practitioners' Association • +Dental public health • +Dental pulp stem cells • +Dental radiography • +Dental restoration • +Dental restorative materials • +Dental sealant • +Dental spa • +Dental subluxation • +Dental surgery • +Dental syringe • +Dental technician • +Dental Technologists Association • +Dental therapist • +Dental trauma • +DenTek Oral Care • +Dentifrice • +Dentigerous Cyst • +Dentin • +Dentin dysplasia • +Dentine bonding agents • +Dentine hypersensitivity • +Dentinogenesis • +Dentinogenesis imperfecta • +Dentistry • +Dentistry Magazine • +Dentistry throughout the world • +Dentition • +Dentition analysis • +Dentrix • +Dentures • +Denturist • +Desquamative gingivitis • +Diane Legault • +Diastema • +Dilaceration • +Doc Holliday • +Don McLeroy • +Donald Leake • +Dr. Alban • +Dr. Radley Tate • +Dr. Tariq Faraj + +== E == +E. Lloyd Du Brul • +Eagle syndrome • +Early childhood caries • +Eastman Kodak • +Ed Lafitte • +Eco-friendly dentistry • +Edentulism • +Edward Angle • +Edward Hudson (dentist) • +Edward Maynard • +Egg tooth • +Electric toothbrush • +Elmex • +Elsie Gerlach • +Embrasure • +Enamel cord • +Enamel knot • +Enamel lamellae • +Enamel niche • +Enamel organ • +Enamel pearl • +Enamel rod • +Enamel spindles • +Enamel tufts • +Enamelin • +Endodontic therapy • +Endodontics • +Epulis fissuratum • +Er:YAG laser • +Erosion • +Eruption cyst • +Erythroplakia • +Euthymol • +Ewald Fabian • +Explorer • +External resorption • +Extraction \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2af42e9e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,273 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oral health and dental articles" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:52.331331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== F == +F. labii inferioris • +Faculty of Dental Surgery • +Faculty of General Dental Practice • +False tooth • +Fatima Jinnah Dental College • +FDI World Dental Federation • +FDI World Dental Federation notation • +FDSRCS England • +Fiberotomy • +Filiform papilla • +Fissured tongue • +Fixed prosthodontics • +Florida Dental Association • +Fluoride therapy • +Focal infection • +Foliate papillae • +Forensic dentistry • +Frank Abbott (dentist) • +Frank Crowther • +Frederick B. Moorehead • +Frederick Bogue Noyes • +Frederick J. Conboy • +Free gingival margin • +Frenulum linguae • +Frey's syndrome • +Fungiform papilla + +== G == +G. Walter Dittmar • +Gardner's syndrome • +Gargling • +Gaspard Fauteux • +Gene Derricotte • +General Dental Council • +General Practice Residency • +Geographic tongue • +Georg Carabelli • +George S. Long • +Gerald Cardinale • +Geriatric dentistry • +Gerrit Wolsink • +Giant cell fibroma • +Gigantiform cementoma • +Gingiva • +Gingival and periodontal pockets • +Gingival cyst of the adult • +Gingival cyst of the newborn • +Gingival enlargement • +Gingival fibers • +Gingival sulcus • +Gingivectomy • +Gingivitis • +Giovanni Battista Orsenigo • +Glandular odontogenic cyst • +Glasgow Dental Hospital and School • +Glass ionomer cement • +GlaxoSmithKline • +Gleem toothpaste • +Glennon Engleman • +Globulomaxillary cyst • +Glossitis • +Gnarled enamel • +Gnathology • +Gold teeth • +Goldman School of Dental Medicine • +Gomphosis • +Göran Lindblad • +Government Dental College, Bangalore • +Granular cell tumor • +Greene Vardiman Black • +Gum graft • +Gunadasa Amarasekara • +Gustatory system + +== H == +Halimeter • +Halitosis • +Hammaspeikko • +Hard palate • +Harold Albrecht • +Harvard School of Dental Medicine • +Head and neck anatomy • +Head and neck cancer • +Healing of periapical lesions • +Henry D. Cogswell • +Henry Schein • +Henry Trendley Dean • +Hertwig's epithelial root sheath • +Heterodont • +Hexetidine • +History of dental treatments • +Horace H. Hayden • +Horace Wells • +Horse teeth • +Human tooth development • +Hydrodynamic theory (dentistry) • +Hyperdontia • +Hypocone • +Hypodontia • +Hypoglossia • +Hypsodont + +== I == +I.P. Dental College • +Ian Gainsford • +Idiopathic osteosclerosis • +Implantology • +Implant-supported bridge • +Impression • +Incisor • +Inferior alveolar nerve • +Inflammatory papillary hyperplasia • +Ingestion • +Inlays and onlays • +Inner enamel epithelium • +Interdental brush • +Interdental papilla • +Interdental plate • +Internal resorption • +International Association for Dental Research • +Interrod enamel • +Invisalign • +Ipana • +Isaac Schour + +== J == +Jack Miller • +James Garretson • +James W. Holley, III • +Jan Boubli • +Jim Harrell, Jr. • +Jim Lonborg • +John Haase • +John Smith • +Johnson & Johnson • +Jon Sudbø • +Journal of Periodontology • +Journal of the American Dental Association • +Julius Franks • +Junaid Ismail Dockrat • +Junctional epithelium + +== K == +Kalodont • +Ken Cranston • +Kolynos • +Korff fibers + +== L == +Laser diode • +Laser scalpel • +Lateral periodontal cyst • +Lentulo spiral • +Lester C. Hunt • +Leukoedema • +Leukoplakia • +Licentiate in Dental Surgery • +Lichen planus • +Lie bumps • +Ligature • +Linea alba • +Lingual tonsils • +Lion • +Lip • +Lip frenulum piercing • +Lip piercing • +Lip Reconstruction • +List of dental organizations • +List of dental schools in Australia • +List of dental schools in the United States • +List of dentists • +List of toothpaste brands • +Listerine • +Louis Pendleton • +Loupe • +Low intensity pulsed ultrasound • +Lucy Hobbs Taylor • +Luting agent + +== M == +Macrodontia • +Malocclusion • +Mammelon • +Mandibular advancement splint • +Mandibular canine • +Mandibular central incisor • +Mandibular first molar • +Mandibular first premolar • +Mandibular lateral incisor • +Mandibular second molar • +Mandibular second premolar • +Mandibular third molar • +Manipal College of Dental Sciences, Manipal • +Manipal College of Dental Sciences, Mangalore • +Marian Spore Bush • +Markus Merk • +Martin van Butchell • +Mastication • +Maury Massler • +Maxilla • +Maxillary canine • +Maxillary central incisor • +Maxillary first molar • +Maxillary first premolar • +Maxillary lateral incisor • +Maxillary second molar • +Maxillary second premolar • +Maxillary third molar • +Maximum intercuspation • +Median alveolar cyst • +Median palatal cyst • +Melbourne Faculty of Dentistry • +Mentadent • +Metacone • +Metastatic tumor of jaws • +Meth mouth • +MFDS • +Michael Krop • +Micro Surgical Endodontics • +Microdontia • +Mike Simpson • +Miles Dewey Davis, Jr. • +Minimal intervention dentistry • +Miswak • +Molar • +Morinosuke Chiwaki • +Mouth • +Mouth assessment • +Mouth breathing • +Mouth disease • +Mouth mirror • +Mouth prop • +Mouthguard • +Mouthwash • +Mucocele • +Mucoepidermoid carcinoma • +Mucogingival junction • +Mucosal lichen planus • +Mucous membrane pemphigoid • +Mucous retention cyst • +MUDH • +Mumps • +Mutually protected occlusion + +== N == +Nasolabial cyst • +Nasopalatine cyst • +National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research • +NBDE • +Nd:YAG laser • +Neonatal line • +Neonatal teeth • +Nevus • +New York State Dental Association • +New York University College of Dentistry • +Nicotine stomatitis • +Nikolsky's sign • +Nobel Biocare • +Norman Simmons (biochemist) • +Northeast Regional Board of Dental Examiners • +Northern Indian Medical & Dental Association of Canada • +Northwestern University Dental School \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd2bd35cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,321 @@ +--- +title: "Index of oral health and dental articles" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:52.331331+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== O == +Obligate nasal breathing • +Occlusal splint • +Occlusal trauma • +Occlusion • +Odontoblast • +Odontoblast process • +Odontode • +Odontogenic keratocyst • +Odontogenic myxoma • +Odontogenic cyst • +Odontoma • +Ohaguro • +Ohio College of Dental Surgery • +Ohio Dental Association • +Oil of cloves • +Oil pulling • +Olaflur • +Omega Pharma • +Ontario Dental Association • +Open Dental • +Orabase B • +Oral-B • +Oral candidiasis • +Oral and maxillofacial radiology • +Oral and maxillofacial surgery • +Oral cancer • +Oral hygiene • Oral care swab • +Oral irrigator • +Oral medicine • +Oral microbiology • +Oral mucosa • +Oral pathology • +Oral Surgery • +Oral torus • +Oral ulcer • +Orofacial granulomatosis • +Orson Hodge • +Orthodontic Facemask & Reverse-Pull Headgear • +Orthodontic headgear • +Orthodontic spacer • +Orthodontic Technicians Association • +Orthodontic technology • +Orthodontics • +Orthopantomogram • +Orville Howard Phillips • +Oscar Willing • +Osseointegrated implant • +Osteonecrosis of the jaw • +Osteoporotic bone marrow defect • +Our Lady of Fatima University • +Outer enamel epithelium + +== P == +Painless Parker • +Pakistan Medical and Dental Council • +Palatal expander • +Palate • +Palatine uvula • +Palmer notation • +Parafunctional habit • +Parotid gland • +Patterson Dental • +Paul Beresford • +Paul N. Cyr • +Pedodontics • +Pemphigus • +Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry • +Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery • +Pepsodent • +Periapical abscess • +Periapical cyst • +Pericoronitis • +Perikyma • +Periodontal curette • +Periodontal ligament • +Periodontal probe • +Periodontal scaler • +Periodontitis • +Periodontitis as a manifestation of systemic disease • +Periodontium • +Periodontology • +Peripheral giant-cell granuloma • +Peripheral odontogenic fibroma • +Peripheral ossifying fibroma • +Permanent teeth • +Peter Kunter • +Peutz–Jeghers syndrome • +Piercing • +Phil Samis • +Philip A. Traynor • +Philip Blaiberg • +Philtrum • +Pierre Corbeil • +Pierre Fauchard • +Pink tooth of Mummery • +Pleomorphic adenoma • +Pleurodont • +Plica fimbriata • +Polk E. Akers • +Polymorphous low-grade adenocarcinoma • +Polynoxylin • +Polyvinyl siloxane • +Post-canine megadontia • +Post and core • +Posterior tongue • +Potassium alginate • +Premolar • +Preparation • +Primordial cyst • +Procaine • +Procter & Gamble • +Prognathism • +Prosthodontics • +Protocone • +Pulp • +Pulp polyp • +Pyogenic granuloma + +== Q == +Quad Helix + +== R == +Rabab Fetieh • +Radial composite deviation • +Radioactive dentin abrasion • +Ragas Dental College • +Raman Bedi • +Randy Starr • +Ranula • +Receding gums • +Reduced enamel epithelium • +Regenerative endodontics • +Regional odontodysplasia • +Removable partial denture • +Retainer • +Retromolar space • +Riggs' disease • +Robert Blake • +Roberto Calderoli • +Rod sheath • +Rodrigues Ottolengui • +Roger Bailey • +Root canal • +Root End Surgery • +Root resorption • +Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons • +Royal College of Dental Surgeons of Ontario • +Royal College of Dentists • +Royal College of Surgeons of England + +== S == +Saint Apollonia • +Salivary gland • +Samir Ghawshah • +Samuel Bemis • +Samuel Cartwright • +Scaling and root planing • +Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry • +Scope • +Secondary palate • +Segmental odontomaxillary dysplasia • +Sheila Faith • +Shovel-shaped incisors • +Sialogram • +Signal • +Simon Hullihen • +Sinodonty and Sundadonty • +Sinus-lift procedure • +Smiley's Good Teeth Puppet Theatre • +Socket preservation • +Sodium alginate • +Soft palate • +SoftDent • +SOHP • +Sonicare • +Southern Regional Testing Agency • +Sozodont • +Speech organ • +Squamous odontogenic tumor • +Stafne defect • +Stan Brown • +Stanley D. Tylman • +Stanley McInnis • +Stannous fluoride • +Stellate reticulum • +Sten Forshufvud • +Steve Green • +Stippling • +Stomatol • +Stomatology • +Stratum intermedium • +Straumann • +Striae of Retzius • +Sublingual gland • +Submandibular gland • +Sulcular epithelium • +:Superior alveolar artery • +Superior mouth • +Supernumerary roots • +Swedish Dental Association • +Sydney Faculty of Dentistry + +== T == +Talon cusp • +Taste • +Taste bud • +Taurodontism • +Teeth cleaning • +Teething • +Teledentistry • +Temporary crown • +Temporary restoration • +Temporomandibular joint • +Temporomandibular joint disorder • +Thaddeus Weclew • +Thomas Berdmore • +Thomas Bramwell Welch • +Tim Whatley • +Tom's of Maine • +Tom Slade • +Tomes' process • +Tongue • +Tongue cleaner • +Tongue diseases • +Tongue piercing • +Tongue scraper • +Tongue thrust • +Tonsillolith • +Tooth • +Tooth-friendly • +Tooth abscess • +Tooth bleaching • +Tooth brushing • +:Tooth development • +Tooth enamel • +Tooth eruption • +Tooth fusion • +Tooth gemination • +Tooth loss • +Tooth painting • +Tooth polishing • +Tooth regeneration • +Tooth squeeze • +Tooth Tunes • +Toothache • +Toothbrush • +Toothpaste • +Toothpick • +Torus mandibularis • +Torus palatinus • +Traumatic bone cyst • +Traumatic neuroma • +Treatment of knocked-out (avulsed) teeth • +Trench mouth • +Treponema denticola • +Trigeminal ganglion • +Trismus • +Tuftelin • +Tufts University School of Dental Medicine • +Turner's hypoplasia • +Twin bloc • +Typodont + +== U == +UCLA School of Dentistry • +Ultra Brite • +Unilever • +Universal numbering system • +University of Illinois at Chicago College of Dentistry • +University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine • +University of Pittsburgh School of Dental Medicine • +University of Tennessee College of Dentistry • +University of the East College of Dentistry • +University of Toronto Faculty of Dentistry + +== V == +Veneer • +Vermillion border • +Vertical dimension of occlusion • +Vestibular lamina + +== W == +Walter Koskiusko Waldowski • +Warthin's tumor • +Water fluoridation • +Water fluoridation controversy • +Western Regional Examining Board • +Weston Price • +White sponge nevus • +Whitening strips • +Wilbur Wonka • +William Donald Kelley • +William Duff • +William Gibson • +William Samuel Hall • +William T.G. Morton • +Wisdom teeth + +== X == +Xerogel • +Xylophagia • +Xerostomia + +== Z == +Zane Grey • +Zinc oxide eugenol + +== See also == + +List of toothpaste brands \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..43453b767 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "Index of pesticide articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:53.600553+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an index of articles relating to pesticides. + + +== 0–9 == + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W, X, Y, Z == + + +== See also == +List of fungicides +List of herbicides +List of insecticides \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd737d710 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Index of physics articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:54.831446+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Physics (Greek: physis–φύσις meaning "nature") is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as mass, charge, matter and its motion and all that derives from these, such as energy, force and spacetime. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave. +The index of physics articles is split into multiple pages due to its size. +To navigate by individual letter use the table of contents below. + + +== See also == +List of basic physics topics + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8acc9bec8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "Index of psychology articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:56.202432+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both conscious and unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motives. Psychology is an academic discipline of broad scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Biological psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups. +Articles related to psychology (excluding psychologists – see list of psychologists) include: + + +== 0–9 == + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +Psychology-related +Outline of psychology +List of counseling topics +Psychology journals +List of psychology topic lists +List of thinking-related topic lists +General reference +List of reference pages +List of topic lists + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychometrics_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychometrics_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34c493a6a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychometrics_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Index of psychometrics articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychometrics_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:57.396590+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Articles related to psychometrics (measuring intelligence and cognitive traits) include: + +Intelligence quotient +Myers-Briggs Type Indicator +Big Five personality traits +Personality tests +Enneagram of Personality +Scholastic Aptitude Test \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radiation_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radiation_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da5e82944 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radiation_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,237 @@ +--- +title: "Index of radiation articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radiation_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:58.624134+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +absorbed dose +Electromagnetic radiation +equivalent dose +hormesis +Ionizing radiation +Louis Harold Gray (British physicist) +rad (unit) +radar +radar astronomy +radar cross section +radar detector +radar gun +radar jamming +(radar reflector) corner reflector +radar warning receiver +(Radarange) microwave oven +radiance +(radiant: see) meteor shower +radiation +Radiation absorption +Radiation acne +Radiation angle +radiant barrier +(radiation belt: see) Van Allen radiation belt +Radiation belt electron +Radiation belt model +Radiation Belt Storm Probes +radiation budget +Radiation burn +Radiation cancer +(radiation contamination) radioactive contamination +Radiation contingency +Radiation damage +Radiation damping +Radiation-dominated era +Radiation dose reconstruction +Radiation dosimeter +Radiation effect +radiant energy +Radiation enteropathy +(radiation exposure) radioactive contamination +Radiation flux +(radiation gauge: see) gauge fixing +radiation hardening +(radiant heat) thermal radiation +radiant heating +radiant intensity +radiation hormesis +radiation impedance +radiation implosion +Radiation-induced lung injury +Radiation Laboratory +radiation length +radiation mode +radiation oncologist +radiation pattern +radiation poisoning (radiation sickness) +radiation pressure +radiation protection (radiation shield) (radiation shielding) +radiation resistance +Radiation Safety Officer +radiation scattering +radiation therapist +radiation therapy (radiotherapy) +(radiation treatment) radiation therapy +(radiation units: see) Category:Units of radiation dose +(radiation weight factor: see) equivalent dose +radiation zone +radiative cooling +radiative forcing +radiator +radio +(radio amateur: see) amateur radio +(radio antenna) antenna (radio) +radio astronomy +radio beacon +(radio broadcasting: see) broadcasting +radio clock +(radio communications) radio +radio control +radio controlled airplane +radio controlled car +radio-controlled helicopter +radio controlled model +(radio controlled plane) model aircraft (see under Powered models) +(radio crystal oscillator) crystal oscillator +(radio detection and ranging) radar +radio direction finder (RDF) +radio electronics +Radio Emergency Associated Communication Teams +radio equipment +radio fingerprinting +radio fix +radio frequency (RF) +radio frequency engineering +radio frequency interference (RFI) +(radio galaxy: see) active galaxy +(radio ham: see) amateur radio +(radio history) history of radio +radio horizon +radio identification tag +radio jamming +radio masts and towers +(radio mesh network) wireless mesh network +radio navigation +radio noise source +radio propagation +(radio pulsar: see) rotation-powered pulsar +(radio receiver) receiver (radio) +(radio relay link: see) microwave radio relay +(radio scanner) scanner (radio) +radio source +radio source SHGb02 plus 14a +(radio spectrum: see) radio frequency +radio spectrum pollution +radio star +radio station +Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) +(radio telegraphy) wireless telegraphy +(radio telephone) radiotelephone +radio telescope +radioteletype (RTTY) +(radio tower: see) radio masts and towers +(radio translator) broadcast translator +(radio transmission) transmission (telecommunications) +(radio transmitter: see) transmitter +(radio tube triode: see) vacuum tube (thermionic valve) +(radio tuner) tuner (radio) +(radio wave: see) radio frequency (RF) +radio window +radio-frequency induction +(radio-jet X-ray binary: see) microquasar +(radio-to-radio: see) repeater +(radioactive boy scout) David Hahn +(radioactive cloud: see) nuclear fallout +radioactive contamination (radioactive exposure) +(radioactive dating) radiometric dating +radioactive decay +radioactive decay path +(radioactive dust: see) nuclear fallout +(radioactive exposure) radioactive contamination +Radioactive Incident Monitoring Network (RIMNET) (in the UK) +(radioactive isotope) radionuclide +radioactive quackery +(radioactive radiation: see) radiation +radioactive tracer +radioactive waste +(radioactivity) radioactive decay +(radioastronomy) radio astronomy +radiobiology +(radiocarbon) carbon-14 +radiocarbon dating (radiocarbon test) +radiocarbon revolution +radiocarbon year +radiochemistry +(radiocommunication: see) radio +Radiocommunications Agency +radiocontrast +radiodensity +radiodetermination +radiofax (HF Fax) +(radiofluorescence) radioluminescence +(radiofrequency) radio frequency +radiogenic +radiographer +radiohalo +radioimmunoassay +(radioiodine) iodine-131 +(radioisotope) radionuclide +radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) +radioisotope heater units +radioisotope rocket +radioisotopic labelling +radioligand +radiolocation +Radiological and Environmental Sciences Laboratory +(radiological bomb) radiological weapon +(radiological dispersal device) dirty bomb +(Radiological Dispersion Device) radiological weapon +Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland (RPII) +Radiological Society of North America +radiological warfare +radiological weapon (radiological dispersion device [RDD]) +radiology +Radiology Information System (RIS) +(radiolucent: see) radiodensity +radioluminescence (radiofluorescence) +radiolyse +radiometer +(radiometric: see) radiometry +radiometric dating +radiometry +(radionavigation) radio navigation +radionuclide +(radionuclide computed tomography) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) +(radionuclide test: see) nuclear medicine +radiodensity +radiopharmaceutical +radioresistant +radiosensitivity +radiosity +radiosonde +(radiostation) radio station +radiosurgery +(radiotelegraphy) telegraphy +radiotelephone +(radiotelescope) radio telescope +radioteletype (RTTY) +(radiotherapy) radiation therapy +(radiothermal generator) radioisotope thermal generator +(radiotoxic: see) ionizing radiation +radium +Radium, Colorado +radium chloride +Radium Girls +Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia +radon +radon difluoride (see same for "radon fluoride") +relative biological effectiveness (RBE) +Röntgen (unit) (roentgen) (symbol R) +röntgen equivalent man (rem) +sievert (symbol: Sv) (unit of dose equivalent) + + +== See also == +list of environment topics +List of radio propagation topics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radio_propagation_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radio_propagation_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a89d7efb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radio_propagation_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,409 @@ +--- +title: "Index of radio propagation articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radio_propagation_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:49:59.900119+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an index to articles about terms used in discussion of radio propagation. + + +== A == +A-index - +active region - +Alfvén wave - +amateur radio bands - +anomalous propagation - +antenna height above average terrain - +area-to-area Lee model - +American Radio Relay League (ARRL) - +atmospheric duct - +aurora - + + +== B == +backscatter - +bow shock - +brightness temperature - +broadcast range - +burst transmission - + + +== C == +Cassegrain antenna - +celestial equator - +cellular telephony - +Chapman function - +clutter (radar) - +co-channel interference - +coherence bandwidth - +coherence time - +communication with submarines - +computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere - +Conder plot - +conjugate points - +corona - +coronagraph - +coronal hole - +coronal loops - +coronal mass ejection - +cosmic noise - +cosmic ray - +COST Hata model - +COST 231 model - +Coverage map - +Cp index - +creeping wave - +critical frequency - +Critical hours - + + +== D == +D region - +decibel - +delay spread - +Dellinger effect - +differential rotation - +dipole antenna - +directional antenna - +diurnal phase shift - +diversity combining - +diversity scheme - +Doppler effect - +Doppler shift - +dose rate - +Dst index - +DXing - + + +== E == +E region - +E-layer - +E-skip - +Early ITU model - +Earth bulge - +Earth–ionosphere waveguide - +Earth Observing System (EOS) - +Earth-Moon-Earth - +eclipse - +ecliptic - +Effective Earth radius - +Egli model - +electric beacon - +electrojet - +electromagnetic electron wave - +electrostatic discharge - +emission line - +ephemeris - +equatorial electrojet - +equinox - +Evershed effect - +exosphere - +expert system - +extraordinary mode - +extreme ultraviolet - +extremely high frequency - +extremely low frequency (ELF) - + + +== F == +F region - +F-layer - +f-spot - +facula - +fade margin - +fading - +fading distribution - +filament (solar physics) - +flare (solar physics) - +flutter (electronics and communication) - +FM DX - +Forbush decrease - +forward scatter - +free space - +free-space path loss - +frequency of optimum transmission - +frequency-hopping spread spectrum - +Fresnel zone - +Friis transmission equation - + + +== G == +gamma rays - +geomagnetic field - +geomagnetic storm - +geomagnetism - +geosynchronous - +Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS) - +GMT - +Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) - +ghosting (television) - +GPS - +ground conductivity - +Ground plane - +ground wave - +group velocity - + + +== H == +Hata model for open areas - +Hata model for suburban areas - +Hata model for urban areas - +heliosphere - +helmet streamer - +high frequency - +high latitude - +HRS type antennas - + + +== I == +Interference (wave propagation) - +International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy (IAG) - +International Cometary Explorer (ICE) - +International Geophysical Year (IGY) - +International Magnetospheric Study (IMS) - +intermediate-field region - +interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) - +interplanetary scintillation - +inversion (meteorology) - +ion-acoustic wave - +ionogram - +ionosphere - +ionospheric absorption - +ionospheric reflection - +ionospheric sounding - +ionospheric storm - +ITU model for indoor attenuation - +ITU terrain model - + + +== K == +K-index - +Kelvin–Helmholtz instability - +Kennelly–Heaviside layer - +knife-edge effect - +Kp index - +Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) - + + +== L == +long-delayed echo (LDE) - +line-of-sight propagation - +linear energy transfer (LET) - +link budget - +Log-distance path loss model - +Longley–Rice model - +low frequency - +low probability of intercept - +low-gain antenna - +low-power communication device - +lowest usable frequency (LUF) - +lowest usable high frequency - + + +== M == +magnetic cloud - +magneto-ionic double refraction - +magnetogram (solar magnetogram) - +magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) - +magnetopause - +magnetosheath - +magnetosphere - +magnetotail - +material scattering - +Maunder minimum - +maximum usable frequency (MUF) - +Maxwell's equations - +medium frequency - +mesosphere - +meteor burst communications - +meteor scatter - +microwaves - +middle latitude - +Mie scattering - +Mie theory - +Miniprop - +Moreton wave - +multipath interference - +multipath propagation - +mush zone - +MW DX - + + +== N == +National Bureau of Standards (NBS) - +National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) - +Near Vertical Incidence Skywave - +National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) - +National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) - +non-line-of-sight propagation - +National Solar Observatory (NSO) - + + +== O == +Okumura model - +one woodland terminal model - +ordinary mode - + + +== P == +path loss - +path profile - +path quality analysis - +penumbra - +perigee - +perihelion - +photosphere - +plasma - +plasma frequency - +plasmapause - +plasmasphere - +point-to-point Lee model - +Polar mesospheric summer echoes - +power delay profile - +prominence - +propagation path obstruction - +propagation graph - +pulse (signal processing) - + + +== R == +radiation belt - +radiation scattering - +radio blackout - +Radio direction finder - +radio frequency - +radio horizon - +radio propagation - +radio propagation beacon - +radio propagation model - +Radio Society of Great Britain - +ray tracing (physics) - +Rayleigh fading - +Rayleigh–Taylor instability - +rain fade - +reference distance - +relative transmission level - +RF planning - +Rician fading - +ring current - +riometer - +Radio Solar Telescope Network (RSTN) - + + +== S == +Schumann resonance - +selective fading - +Shadow loss - +shortwave relay station - +side lobe - +Signal-to-Interference Ratio - +single event upset (SEU) - +Single vegetative obstruction model - +SINPO code - +skip (radio) - +skip zone - +sky wave - +skywave - +Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) - +Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) - +software-defined radio - +solar activity - +solar constant - +solar cycle - +solar flare - +solar flux - +solar flux unit - +solar maximum - +solar minimum - +solar radiation storm level - +solar rotation rate - +solar transition region - +solar wind - +solstice - +Solar Observing Optical Network (SOON) - +South Atlantic anomaly - +Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment - +space weather - +spicule (solar physics) - +SPLAT! - +sporadic E propagation - +spray (solar physics) - +spread spectrum - +stratosphere - +substorm - +sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) - +sunspot - +sunspot cycle - +sunspot number - +super high frequency (SHF) - +supergranulation - +surface wave - +survey magnetometers - +Solar X-ray Imager (SXI) - +synodic - +synoptic chart - + + +== T == +thermal fade - +thermosphere - +time signal - +total electron content - +troposphere - +tropospheric propagation - +tropospheric scatter - +tropospheric wave - +TV and FM DX - + + +== U == +UHF - +UHF CB - +ultrahigh frequency - +ultraviolet - +umbra - +Union Radio Scientifique Internationale (URSI) - + + +== V == +Van Allen radiation belts - +very high frequency - +very low frequency - +VOACAP - + + +== W == +wave propagation - +Weibull fading - +Weissberger's model - +White Alice Communications System - +Wolf number - +WWV (radio station) - + + +== X == +X band - +X-band - +X-ray - +X-ray background - +X-ray burst - + + +== Y == +Young model - + + +== Z == +Zeeman effect - + + +== See also == +Index of radiation articles + + +== External links == +Noaa.gov \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b439ded67 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Index of sociology articles" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:01.232160+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an index of sociology articles. For a shorter list, see List of basic sociology topics. + +== A == +ableism — abortion — absolute poverty — achieved status — acute disease — adaptation — adultism — affect control theory — affirmative action — affluent alienation — age grade — age structure — aging in place — ageism — agency — AGIL Paradigm — aggregate — ageism — agrarian society — agribusiness — AIDS — air pollution — alcoholism — altermodern — alienation — alien land law — alternative society — altruism — alzheimer's disease — Amae — amalgamation — Americanization — Anabaptist — anarchy — androgyny — animal abuse — animism — anomia — anomie — anthropology — antipositivism — antisemitism — apartheid — apollonian — applied science — approach — appropriate technology — The Archaeology of Knowledge — arms race — arms trade — arranged marriage — asceticism — Asch conformity experiments — ascribed status — assimilation — assisted living — attribution theory — autarky — authentic act — authoritarian personality — authoritarianism — authority — autocracy — automation — avant-garde + +== B == +baby boomer — balance of power — base and superstructure — The Bell Curve — belonging — berdache — biological determinism — bioethics — biosocial theory — Black Power — Black Panther Party — blended family — boomerang generation — bourgeoisie — brainwashing — bricolage — bureaucracy — bureaucratic collectivism — bureaucratization — bystander effect + +== C == +capitalism — capitalists — carrying capacity — cash crop — caste — caste system — Catholic Worker — Catholicism — causation — cause marketing — charismatic movement — CBD — Chicago Area Project — Chicago school — Chicano — child labor — chronic disease — church — citizen — citizenship — civil disorder — civil inattention — civil religion — civil rights — civil society — clan — class — class conflict — class consciousness — class structure — classism — cognition — cohabitation — cold war — collective action — collective behavior — collective consciousness —collective punishment — collective representation — collective violence — colonialism — commodity — commodity chain — commodity fetishism — communal riot — communication — communism — community — community care — comparable worth — comparative sociology — complex society — computational sociology — conflict theory — conformity — conglomerates — conscience collective — consciousness — consensus decision-making — consensus reality —consumerism — content analysis — contingent work — contradiction — conversation analysis — core countries — corporation — correlation — corruption — Counterculture — counter-revolutionary — coup d'état — created environment — creole language — crime — critical theory — crowd psychology — crude birth rate — crude death rate — cult — cultural bias — cultural capital — cultural deprivation — cultural imperialism — cultural lag — cultural materialism — cultural pluralism — cultural relativism — cultural reproduction — cultural system — cultural transmission — cultural universal — culture — culture of poverty — culture wars — curative medicine + +== D == +Darwinism — death — debt bondage — deconstruction — defensive medicine — deforestation — deinstitutionalisation — democracy — demographic transition — demography — dependency theory — dependent variable — depletion — desertification — deskilling — deterrence theory — devaluation — developmental state — deviance — deviance amplification — deviant subculture — dialectic — diaspora — differential association — differentiation — diffusion — dionysian — discourse — discrimination — division of labour — division of labour — domestic worker — domestic violence — double standard — doubling time — dramaturgical perspective — Disneyfication — dyad — dysfunction — dystopia + +== E == +ecologism — ecology — economic determinism — ecological modernization — economic interdependence — economies of scale — economy — ecosystem — education — education system — egalitarianism — elder abuse — elite — elite religion — embourgeoisement thesis — emigration — empirical studies — encounter — endogamy — entrepreneur — entropy — environmentalism — environmental sociology — epistemology — estate — ethnic group — ethnic minority — ethnicity — ethnocentrism — ethnography — ethnomethodology — ethnostatistics - eutrophication — evolution — evolutionary sociology — evolutionism — exclusivist — existentialism — exogamy — experiment — exponential growth — export-processing zone — extended family + +== F == +false consciousness — family — fascism — fecundity — feedback — femininity — feminism — Ferdinand Tönnies Society — fertility — fetishism — feudalism — First World — flextime plan — folk religion — forces of production — Fordism — forms of activity and interpersonal relations — functionalism — functions — fundamentalism — futures studies — futurist — futurology + +== G == +gang — GDP — gemeinschaft — Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft — gender — gendered division of labour — gendering — genealogy of power/knowledge — generalized other — generalized other — genetic engineering — genocide — gentrification — geopolitics — German Society for Sociology — gesellschaft — gestalt psychology — ghetto — globalization — glocalisation — GNP — government — Great Depression — grounded theory — group action — group behaviour — group dynamics — The Great Transformation — Green Revolution — greenhouse effect — gross domestic product — gross national product — guerrilla movement + +== H == +habitus — health maintenance organization — hegemony — heterophobia — heterosexuality — hidden curriculum — higher circles — higher education — Hispanic — historical materialism — historical sociology — holocaust — homelessness — homophobia — homosexuality — house work — hunter-gatherer — human ecology — hybridity — hyperreality — hypothesis — honour killing \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34a5122ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Index of sociology articles" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:01.232160+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +'I' and the 'me' — iatrogenesis — ideal type — identity — identity politics — ideology — imagined communities — immigration — imperialism — ingroup — income — independent variable — industrial democracy — industrial production — industrial society — industrial sociology — industrialisation — industrialization of war — infant mortality— informal economy — information technology —infrastructure — inner city — instinct — institution — institutional discrimination — imprinting — institutional racism — insurgency — intelligence — intelligence quotient — intelligentsia — intentional community — interaction — interest group — intergenerational mobility — internal colonialism — international division of labor — interpersonal violence — interpretive + +== J == +Japanization — Jim Crow laws — jingoism — Judaism — justice, distributive — juvenile delinquency + +== K == +kin selection — kinship — kindness + +== L == +labeling theory — labour power — laissez-faire — late modernity — Latino/a — latent function — law — legitimacy — legitimation crisis — Leipzig school — lesbianism — liberal democracy — life-course — life-cycle — life expectancy — lifeworld — limited war — literacy — local knowledge — longevity — longitudinal study — looking-glass self — love — luddism — luddite — lumpenproletariat + +== M == +macrosociology — malthusianism — managed care —managerial class — manifest function — marginalization — marriage — Marxism — masculinity — mass action — mass media — mass society — master status — materialism — matriarchy — matrilineality — matrilocal residence — McDonaldization — mean — means of production — mechanical solidarity — mechanization — median — medicaid — medical gaze — medical model — medicalization — medicare — megalopolis — mental disorder —mercantilism — medical sociology — meritocracy — metanarrative — methodology — microsociology — middle class — militarism — military-industrial complex — millenarianism — minority group — mixed economy — mode — mode of production — mode of reproduction — modernity — modernization — monogamy — monopoly — monotheism — moral panic — mores — mortality rate — multiculturalism — multilineal evolution — multinational corporation — murder + +== N == +nation state — nationalism — nature — neocolonialism — neoliberalism — neo-locality — new international division of labour — non-state actor — non-tariff barriers to trade — norm — normal type — normlessness — nuclear family + +== O == +objectivity — oligarchy — oligopoly — ontological security — ontology — organic solidarity — organization — organizational behavior — organizational studies — organized crime + +== P == +paradigm — participant observation — participatory democracy — pastoral society — Passing - patient dumping — patriarchal — patriarchy — patrilineality — peasant — peer group — periphery countries — phenomenology — Physician Assistant — plea bargaining — pluralism — pluralist theory — police brutality — political economy — political party — politics — political sociology — pollution — polyandry — polyarchy — polygamy — polygyny — polylogism — polytheism — popular culture — positivism — post-Fordism — post-realism — post-structuralism — post-industrial society — postmodernism — postmodernity — poverty — power — power elite — pragmatism — on pragmatic sociology, for now, see: George Herbert Mead — prejudice — primary deviance — Primary and secondary groups — primary labor market — primary sector — private health care — privatism — profanity — professionalism — profession — proletariat — prostitution — proto-globalization — psychopathy — psychosis — public order crime — public health — public sphere — purchasing power parity — + +== Q == +qualitative research — quantitative research + +== R == +race — racism — radical — rape — rationalisation process — rationality — rationalization — realism — rebellion — recidivism — reciprocity — reductionism — reflexive — reflexivity — reform movement — reify — relations of production — relative deprivation — relative poverty — relativism — religion — remodernism — representative democracy — research methods — reserve army of labour — resocialization — retirement home — revolution — riot — risk — rite of passage — ritual — role — role conflict — rural sociology — ruling class — ruling elite + +== S == +sacred — sampling — sampling frame — sanction — Sapir–Whorf hypothesis — scapegoating — schizophrenia — science — scientific management — Second World — secondary data — secondary deviance — secondary group — secondary labor market — sect — secularization — self — self-consciousness — semi-periphery countries — semiotics — serial monogamy — serial reciprocity — sex — sex role — sexism — sexual harassment — sexual script — sick role — significant other — simulation — snowball sampling — for entries beginning with social, see sections below — socialism — socialization — society — sociobiology — sociocultural context — sociocultural evolution — for entries beginning with sociological, see sections below — sociology — for entries beginning with sociology of, see sections below — solid waste — solidarity — sovereignty — split labor market theory — standing army — state (polity) — stateless nation — status — status generalization — status group — status inconsistency — status offense — stem cell — stepfamily — stereotype — stigma — stigmatise — Strategic Defense Initiative — stratification — strike — structural unemployment — structuration — structure — subculture — suburbanization — surplus value — surveillance — survey — symbol — Symbolic Convergence Theory — symbolic interactionism — symbolic system — systems theory \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb3d08da3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Index of sociology articles" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:01.232160+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Social === +social actions — social activism — social actor — social analysis — social animal — social anthropology — social phobia — social assistance — social artifact — social attitude — social balance theory — social behavior — social bookmarking — social capital — social center — social change — social character — social chauvinism — social choice function — social choice theory — social circle — social class — social club — social closure — social cognition — social commentary — social complexity — social computing — social condenser — social conflict — social conservatism — social contact — social contract — social construction — social constructionism — social construction of technology — social context — social control — social cost — Social Credit — social cycle theory — social dance — social Darwinism — social democracy — social demography — social development — social diffusion theory — social dilemma — social disobedience — social disorganization — social division — social ecology — social effect of evolutionary theory — social effects of rock and roll — social elite — social engineering — social environment — social enterprise — social epistemology — social equality — social evolution — social exchange theory — social fact — social fobia — social forces — social forum — social function — social geography — social geometry — social good — social group — social guidance film — social hacking — social hierarchy — social history — social housing — social hygiene movement — social identity — social implosion — social indicator — social inequality — social influence — social informatics — social infrastructure — social injustice — social insect — social institution — social insurance — social interaction — social issues — social judgment theory — social justice — social learning theory — social liberalism — social life — social loafing — social mania — social model of disability — social mobility — social movement — social network — social norm — social order — social organisation — social parasitism — social phenomenon — social philosophy — social policy — social position — social positivism — social power — social pressure — social prestige — social problem — social progress — social psychology — social rank — social reality — social reform — social relation - social reproduction — social research — social resonance — social responsibility — social risk — social risk positions — social robot — social role — social rule — social sciences — social simulation — social skills — social space — social statistics — social status — social stereotype — social stigma — social stratification — social structure — social studies — social support — social system — social theory — social unrest — social work — social trend — social science fiction — Social Solidarity — social work + +=== Sociological === +sociology books — sociological framework — sociological imagination — sociological naturalism — sociological paradigm — sociological perspective — sociological positivism — sociological theory + +=== Sociology of === +See Subfields of sociology for the full list of subfields of sociology +sociology of aging — sociology of architecture — sociology of art — sociology of the body — sociology of childhood — sociology of conflict — sociology of deviance — sociology of disaster — sociology of education — sociology of emotions — sociology of the family — sociology of fatherhood — sociology of film — sociology of food — sociology of gender — sociology of government — sociology of health and illness — sociology of the history of science — sociology of immigration — sociology of knowledge — sociology of language — sociology of law — sociology of leisure — sociology of markets — sociology of medicine — sociology of the military — sociology of music — sociology of punishment — sociology of race — sociology of religion — sociology of science and technology — sociology of sport — sociology of terrorism — sociology of work-sociology of motherhood + +== T == +taboo — Taylorization — technology — terrorism — tertiary sector of economic activity — the Enlightenment — the Renaissance — theoretical approach — theory — Third World — total institution — total war — totalitarianism — totemism — totem — trading network — traditional state — transgender — transnational company — trust — temperament + +== U == +unconscious — underclass — underdevelopment — unemployment — unilineal evolution — unintended consequences — unions — universal health care — upper class — urban ecology — urban renewal — urbanism — urbanization — urban sociology + +== V == +value — value-added theory — verstehen — vertical mobility — Vested interest (communication theory) — victimless crime — violence — visual sociology + +== W == +Wage labour — wealth — wealthfare — welfare — welfare state — whisper campaign — white-collar crime — white flight — white guilt — white privilege — women's liberation movement — work - working class — world-systems theory + +== X == +xenophobia — xenocentrism + +== Y == +youth — youth subculture — youth welfare + +== Z == +zero population growth +Please help the Wikipedia sociology project by adding relevant articles to this list. Articles marked red are yet to be created. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..211a52cb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,257 @@ +--- +title: "Index of solar energy articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:02.634375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of solar energy topics. + + +== A == +Air mass coefficient +Agrivoltaics +Artificial photosynthesis + + +== B == +BP Solar +BrightSource Energy +Building-integrated photovoltaics + + +== C == +Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics +Central solar heating plant +Community solar farm +Compact linear Fresnel reflector +Concentrating photovoltaics +Concentrating solar power +Crookes radiometer + + +== D == +Daylighting +Horace de Saussure +Desertec +Drake Landing Solar Community +Duck curve +Dye-sensitized solar cell + + +== E == +Effect of sun angle on climate +Energy tower (downdraft) +EURO-SOLAR Programme +European Photovoltaic Industry Association + + +== F == +Feed-in tariff +First Solar +Flip Flap +Floating Solar (Floatovoltaics) +Fresnel reflector +Charles Fritts +Calvin Fuller + + +== G == +Geomagnetic storm +Global dimming +Greenhouse +Growth of photovoltaics + + +== H == +Halo (optical phenomenon) +Helioseismology +Heliostat +Home Energy Storage + + +== I == +Indosolar +Insolation +Abram Ioffe +ISE (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems) +Ivanpah Solar Power Facility + + +== J == +Jinko Solar + + +== L == +Light tube +List of photovoltaic power stations +List of solar thermal power stations +Loanpal + + +== M == +Magnetic sail +Auguste Mouchout +Moura photovoltaic power station + + +== N == +Nanocrystal solar cell +Net metering +Nevada Solar One + + +== P == +Parabolic reflector +Parabolic trough +Passive solar +Passive solar building design +Photoelectric effect +Photovoltaic array +Photovoltaic system +Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector +Photovoltaics +Photovoltaics in transport +Polymer solar cell +Polytunnel +PV financial incentives + + +== R == +Row cover + + +== S == +Salt evaporation pond +Sandia National Laboratories +Wolfgang Scheffler +SEGS +Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) +Soil solarization +Solar air conditioning +Solar and Heliospheric Observatory +Solar azimuth angle +Solar balloon +Solar bowl +Solar box cooker +Solar car +Solar car racing +Solar cell +Solar cell efficiency +Solar cell research +Solar-charged vehicle +Solar chemical +Solar chimney +Solar collector +Solar combisystem +Solar constant +Solar cooker +Solar cooling +Solar cycle +Solar Decathlon +Solar desalination +Solar easement +solar eclipse +Solar Energy Generating Systems +Solar flare +Solar fuel +Solar furnace +Solar greenhouse (technical) +Solar heating +Solar hot water in Australia +Solar hydrogen panel +Solar lamp +Solar map +Solar maximum +Solar minimum +Solar mirror +Solar nebula +Solar neon +Solar Orbiter +Solar oven +Solar pond +Solar power +Solar power by country +Solar power in Australia +Solar power in Canada +Solar power in China +Solar power in the European Union +Solar power in Germany +Solar power in India +Solar power in Israel +Solar power in Japan +Solar power in Pakistan +Solar power in Portugal +Solar power in Romania +Solar power in Spain +Solar power in Turkey +Solar power in the United Kingdom +Solar power in the United States +Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert +Solar power satellite +Solar power tower +Solar-powered desalination unit +Solar-powered pump +Solar-powered watch +The Solar Project +Solar prominence +Solar proton event +Solar-pumped laser +Solar radiation +Solar radiation pressure +Solar sail +Solar savings fraction +Solar shingles +Solar still +Solar thermal collector +Solar thermal energy +Solar thermal rocket +Solar Total Energy Project +Solar tracker +Solar updraft tower +Solar variation +Solar variation theory +Solar vehicle +Solar water disinfection +Solar water heating +Solar wind +Solarium +SolarPACES +Sopogy +Space-based solar power +Sun +Sun tanning +Sunburn +Sunscreen +Sunshade + + +== T == +Mária Telkes +Thin-film +Timeline of solar cells +Topaz Solar Farm +Total spectrum solar concentrator +Trombe wall + + +== U == +Ubiquitous Energy + + +== W == +World Solar Challenge + + +== X == + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +List of environment topics +List of photovoltaics companies \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_steam_energy_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_steam_energy_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c6d7e926 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_steam_energy_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Index of steam energy articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_steam_energy_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:03.822089+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +portable engine +steam aircraft +(steam ball) aeolipile +(steam bath) sauna +steam brig +steam bus +steam cannon +steam car +steam crane +steam donkey +steam dummy (dummy engine) +(steam electric power plant) fossil fuel power plant (FFPP) +(steam electrolysis) high-temperature electrolysis +steam engine +stationary steam engine +steam explosion +steam fair +Steam generator (boiler) steam generator +Steam generator (nuclear power) +steam hammer +steam locomotive +steam locomotive nomenclature +steam locomotives of British Railways +Steam Locomotives of Ireland +steam power during the Industrial Revolution +steam railroad +steam reforming +steam rupture +steam shovel +(steam sterilizer) autoclave +steam tank (vehicle) +steam tractor +(steam train)–see steam locomotive +steam tricycle +steam turbine +steam turbine locomotive +steamboat +steamroller +steam whistle +traction engine + + +== See also == + +List of environment topics +Category:Steam road vehicles \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..326e52bda --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,275 @@ +--- +title: "Index of trauma and orthopaedics articles" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:05.010504+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Orthopedic surgery is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal injuries, sports injuries, degenerative diseases, infections, bone tumours, and congenital limb deformities. Trauma surgery and traumatology is a sub-specialty dealing with the operative management of fractures, major trauma and the multiply-injured patient. +List excludes anatomical terminology covered in index of anatomy articles. + +== A == +Abbreviated Injury Scale +- Acetabular fracture +- Acheiropodia +- Achilles tendon rupture +- Acromioplasty +- Adamantinoma +- Adhesive capsulitis of shoulder +- Advanced trauma life support +- Ainhum +- Akin osteotomy +- Albers-Schonberg disease +- Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy +- Allis test +- ALPSA lesion +- Amelia (birth defect) +- American Joint Replacement Registry +- Amphiarthrosis +- Andersson lesion +- Aneurysmal bone cyst +- Ankle replacement +- Anterior cruciate ligament injury +- Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction +- Antley–Bixler syndrome +- Apert syndrome +- Apley grind test +- Apley scratch test +- Apprehension test +- Arachnodactyly +- Arm fracture +- Arthralgia +- Arthritis +- Arthrocentesis +- Arthrodesis +- Arthrogram +- Arthrogryposis +- Arthroplasty +- Arthroscopy +- Arthrotomy +- Articular capsule +- Articular cartilage repair +- Astragalectomy +- Autologous chondrocyte implantation +- Avascular necrosis +- Avulsion fracture + +== B == +Baastrup's sign +- Baker's cyst +- Baksi's prosthesis +- Ballottement +- Bankart lesion +- Bankart's fracture +- Barlow maneuver +- Barré–Liéou syndrome +- Barton's fracture +- Baumann's angle +- Beals syndrome +- Bechterew's +- Bennett's fracture +- Bifid rib +- Bimalleolar fracture +- Blount's disease +- Blumensaat's line +- Blunt trauma +- Bohler's angle +- Bone cutter +- Bone cyst +- Bone density +- Bone disease +- Bone fracture +- Bone fracture healing +- Bone grafting +- Bone healing +- Bone metastases +- Bone mineral +- Bone pathology +- Bone remodeling +- Bone resorption +- Bone tumor +- Bone +- Bosworth fracture +- Bouchard's nodes +- Boutonniere deformity +- Boxer's fracture +- Brachydactyly +- British Orthopaedic Association +- Brodie abscess +- Broström procedure +- Brown tumor +- Bruck syndrome +- Brunelli procedure +- Bryant's traction +- Buddy wrapping +- Bumper fracture +- Bunion +- Burst fracture + +== C == +Calcaneal fracture +- Camurati–Engelmann disease +- Cancellous bone +- Cartilage +- Cartilaginous joint +- Catel–Manzke syndrome +- Cenani–Lenz syndactylism +- Cervical dislocation +- Cervical fracture +- Cervical rib +- Chalkstick fracture +- Chance fracture +- Chandler's disease +- Charnley prosthesis +- Charnley retractor +- Chauffeur's fracture +- Child bone fracture +- Chondroblast +- Chondroblastoma +- Chondrocyte +- Chondrogenesis +- Chondromalacia patellae +- Chondromyxoid fibroma +- Chondrosarcoma +- Chopart's fracture-dislocation +- Clarke's test +- Clavicle fracture +- Clay-shoveler fracture +- Cleidocranial dysostosis +- Clinodactyly +- Club foot +- Clubbed thumb +- Cobb angle +- Codman triangle +- Cole carpenter syndrome +- Colles' fracture +- Combined tibia and fibula fracture +- Compartment syndrome +- Complex regional pain syndrome +- Compression fracture +- Computer-assisted orthopedic surgery +- Congenital knee dislocation +- Congenital limb deformities +- Congenital patellar dislocation +- Conradi–Hünermann syndrome +- Coopernail's sign +- Cortical bone +- Cotrel–Dubousset instrumentation +- Coxa valga +- Coxa vara +- Cozen's test +- Crus fracture +- Crush injury +- Crush syndrome +- Cubitus valgus +- Cubitus varus +- Cunningham shoulder reduction +- Currarino syndrome + +== D == +Danis–Weber classification +- Darrach's procedure +- Darrah procedure +- De Quervain syndrome +- Denis Browne bar +- Denis classification +- Destot's sign +- Diaphysis +- Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis +- Discectomy +- Discoid meniscus +- Dislocated shoulder +- Dislocation of hip +- Displacement (orthopedic surgery) +- Distal radius fracture +- Distraction osteogenesis +- Drawer test +- Dupuytren's contracture +- Durkan's test +- Duverney fracture +- Dynamic compression plate +- Dynamic hip screw +- Dysplasia epiphysealis hemimelica + +== E == +Early appropriate care +- Ecchondroma +- Ectrodactyly +- Ectromelia +- Ehlers–Danlos syndrome +- Eiken syndrome +- Elbow examination +- Elbow extension test +- Ellis–van Creveld syndrome +- Enchondroma +- Enchondromatosis +- Ender's nail +- Endochondral ossification +- Endosteum +- Enthesis +- Epiphyseal plate +- Epiphysiodesis +- Epiphysis +- Erlenmeyer flask deformity +- Essex-Lopresti fracture +- Evans technique +- Evans-Jensen classification +- Ewing's sarcoma +- Exostosis +- External fixation +- Extraskeletal chondroma + +== F == +Fairbank's changes +- Fairbanks disease +- Fat embolism +- Femoral fracture +- Femoral head ostectomy +- Fibrocartilage callus +- Fibrocartilage +- Fibrosarcoma +- Fibrous dysplasia of bone +- Fibrous joint +- Fibular fracture +- Ficat classification +- Finkelstein's test +- Fixation (surgical) +- Flat bone +- Flat feet +- Flexion teardrop fracture +- Foot drop +- Foot fracture +- Forearm fracture +- Frankel's sign +- Freiberg disease +- Froment's sign +- Frykman classification + +== G == +Gaenslen's test +- Galeazzi fracture +- Galeazzi test +- Gamekeeper's thumb +- Garden classification +- Garre's sclerosing osteomyelitis +- Gartland classification +- Genu recurvatum +- Genu valgum +- Genu varum +- Gerber's test +- Gerdy's tubercle +- Geriatric trauma +- Giant-cell tumor of bone +- Gigli saw +- Gilula's Lines +- Girdlestone's Procedure +- Gorham's disease +- Gosselin fracture +- Greenstick fracture +- Grosse-Kempf nail +- Gruen zone +- Gustilo open fracture classification +- Guyon's Canal \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c4b25a10f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,303 @@ +--- +title: "Index of trauma and orthopaedics articles" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:05.010504+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == +Haglund's deformity +- Hajdu–Cheney syndrome +- Hallux rigidus +- Hallux valgus +- Hallux varus +- Hammer toe +- Hand deformity +- Hand fracture +- Hand of benediction +- Hand surgery +- Hangman's fracture +- Haruguchi classification +- Hardinge lateral approach to the hip +- Harrington rod +- Harris Hip Score +- Harris lines +- Harrison's groove +- Haversian canal +- Hawkin's classification +- Hawkins-Kennedy test +- Heberden's node +- Hemarthrosis +- Hematoma +- Hemimelia +- Herbert classification +- Herbert screw +- Herscovici classification +- High ankle sprain +- High tibial osteotomy +- Hilgenreiner's line +- Hill–Sachs lesion +- Hip dysplasia (human) +- Hip examination +- Hip fracture +- Hip replacement +- Hip resurfacing +- Hip spica cast +- Hoffa fracture +- Holdsworth fracture +- Holstein–Lewis fracture +- Hubscher's maneuver +- Hueter-Volkmann law +- Human musculoskeletal system +- Hume fracture +- Hume fracture +- Humerus fracture +- Humphrey's ligament +- Hyaline cartilage +- Hydroxylapatite +- Hyperostosis +- Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy + +== I == +Ideberg classification +- Ilizarov apparatus +- Infantile cortical hyperostosis +- Injury Severity Score +- Internal fixation +- Intervertebral disc annuloplasty +- Intervertebral disc arthroplasty +- Intramedullary rod +- Intramembranous ossification +- Involucrum +- Irregular bone +- Iselin's disease + +== J == +Jansen's metaphyseal chondrodysplasia +- Jefferson fracture +- Jobe's test +- Joint dislocation +- Joint locking (symptom) +- Joint replacement +- Joint replacement registry +- Joint stiffness +- Joint +- Jones fracture +- Juvenile osteoporosis + +== K == +Kanavel's cardinal signs +- Kapandji score +- Kashin–Beck disease +- Keller procedure +- Kellgren-Lawrence grading scale +- Khyphoplasty +- Kienbock's disease +- Kirschner wire +- Klein's line +- Klippel–Feil syndrome +- Klippel–Trénaunay–Weber syndrome +- Knee cartilage replacement therapy +- Knee examination +- Knee replacement +- Kniest dysplasia +- Kocher criteria +- Kocher manoeuvre +- Köhler disease +- Krukenberg procedure +- Kuntscher nail + +== L == +Lachman test +- Larrey's sign +- Larsen syndrome +- Lasègue's sign +- Latarjet procedure +- Lauge-Hansen classification +- Legg–Calvé–Perthes syndrome +- Ligamentous laxity +- Limb lengthening methods +- Lisfranc fracture +- Lisfranc joint +- Lisfranc ligament +- List of orthopedic implants +- Lister's tubercle +- Lobstein syndrome +- Loder classification +- Long bone +- Loosers zone +- Lunotriquetral shear test +- Luxating patella + +== M == +Madelung's deformity +- Maffucci syndrome +- Maisonneuve fracture +- Major trauma +- Malgaigne's fracture +- Malunion +- March fracture +- Marfan syndrome +- Marie-Strümpell disease +- Marshall syndrome +- Marshall–Smith syndrome +- Martin-Gruber Anastomosis +- Mayfield classification +- McCune–Albright syndrome +- McMurray test +- Medullary cavity +- Melnick–Needles syndrome +- Melorheostosis +- Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma +- Metaphysis +- Metatarsophalangeal joint sprain +- Microfracture surgery +- Milch classification +- Mirel's Score +- Monostotic fibrous dysplasia +- Monteggia fracture +- Moore or Southern posterior approach to the hip +- Moore's fracture +- Moore's pin +- Morton's neuroma +- Morton's toe +- Mulder's sign +- Müller AO Classification of fractures +- Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia +- Mumford procedure +- Musculoskeletal injury +- Myxoid chondrosarcoma + +== N == +National hip fracture database +- Neer classification +- Neer impingement sign +- Neer's prosthesis +- Nonossifying fibroma +- Nonunion +- Nonunion of fracture +- Nursemaid's elbow + +== O == +O'Brien's test +- Ober's test +- Oligodactyly +- Ollier disease +- Orthopaedic pathology +- Orthopaedic procedure +- Orthopedic cast +- Orthopedic plaster casts +- Orthopedic plates +- Orthopedic surgery +- Orthotics +- Ortolani test +- Ortolani test +- Osgood–Schlatter disease +- Osseointegration +- Osseous tissue +- Ossification center +- Ossification +- Ostectomy +- Osteitis fibrosa cystica +- Osteitis +- Osteoarthritis +- Osteoblast +- Osteoblastoma +- Osteochondritis dissecans +- Osteochondritis +- Osteochondrodysplasia +- Osteochondroma +- Osteochondromatosis +- Osteochondrosis +- Osteoclast +- Osteocyte +- Osteofibrous dysplasia +- Osteogenesis imperfecta +- Osteoid osteoma +- Osteoid +- Osteolysis +- Osteoma +- Osteomalacia +- Osteomyelitis +- Osteon +- Osteopetrosis +- Osteophyte +- Osteoporosis +- Osteosarcoma +- Osteosclerosis +- Osteostimulation +- Osteotomy + +== P == +Paget's disease of bone +- Panner disease +- Patella alta +- Patella baja +- Patella fracture +- Patellar dislocation +- Patellar tendon rupture +- Pathologic fracture +- Patrick's test +- Patrick's test +- Pauwel's angle +- Pauwel's classification +- Pectus carinatum +- Pectus excavatum +- Pediatric trauma +- Pelvic fracture +- Penetrating trauma +- Perichondrium +- Periosteal reaction +- Periosteum +- Periostitis +- Perkin's line +- Perthes Lesion +- Pes cavus +- Phalen maneuver +- Phocomelia +- Physical therapy +- Pigeon toe +- Pigmented villonodular synovitis +- Pilon fracture +- Pipkin classification +- Pipkin fracture-dislocation +- Pivot-shift test +- Plafond fracture +- Polydactyly +- Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia +- Polytrauma +- Ponseti method +- Porotic hyperostosis +- Pott's fracture +- Preiser disease +- Proteus syndrome +- Protrusio acetabuli +- Pseudarthrosis +- Pulled hamstring +- Pycnodysostosis +- Pyogenic osteomyelitis + +== Q == +Quadriceps tendon rupture + +== R == +Radius fracture +- Rapadilino syndrome +- Reduction (orthopedic surgery) +- Resuscitation +- Resuscitative thoracotomy +- Rett syndrome +- Revised Trauma Score +- Rib fracture +- Rickets +- Rocker bottom foot +- Rolando fracture +- Rotationplasty +- Rotator cuff tear +- Rowe Score +- Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome +- Ruedi-Allgower classification +- Rush nail \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..be21068ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ +--- +title: "Index of trauma and orthopaedics articles" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:05.010504+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Sacralization of the fifth lumbar vertebra +- Salter–Harris fracture +- Sanders classification +- Sarcoma +- Scaphoid fracture +- Scapular fracture +- Schenck classification +- Scheuermann's disease +- Schmorl's nodes +- Schober's test +- Schwartz–Jampel syndrome +- Scoliosis +- Seddon classification +- Segond fracture +- Seidel nail +- Seinsheimer classification +- Separated shoulder +- Sequestrum +- Sesamoid bone +- Sesamoiditis +- Sever's disease +- Shenton's Line +- Shepherd's fracture +- Shin splints +- Short bone +- Shoulder examination +- Shoulder fracture +- Shoulder replacement +- Shoulder surgery +- Silver–Russell syndrome +- Simmonds' test +- Skeletal fluorosis +- SLAP tear +- Slipped capital femoral epiphysis +- Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis +- Smith Peterson nail +- Smith-Petersen anterior approach to the hip +- Smith's fracture +- Soft tissue injury +- Southwick angle +- Speed's test +- Spina bifida occulta +- Spinal curvature +- Spinal fracture +- Spinal fusion +- Spiral fracture +- Splint (medicine) +- Spondylolisthesis +- Sports injury +- Sprained ankle +- Sprengel's deformity +- Steinmann pin +- Stener lesion +- Sternal fracture +- Stieda fracture +- Straight leg raise +- Stress fracture +- Subacromial bursitis +- Sudeck's atrophy +- Sulcoplasty +- Supracondylar fracture +- Swan neck deformity +- Swanson prosthesis +- Swanson's arthroplasty +- Symphysis +- Synchondrosis +- Syndactyly +- Syndesmosis +- Synovectomy +- Synovial fluid +- Synovial joint + +== T == +Talipes equinovarus +- Talwalkar nail +- Taylor Spatial Frame +- Tear of meniscus +- Teisen classification +- Tendon transfer +- Tension band wiring +- Teunissen–Cremers syndrome +- Thomas test +- Thompson and Epstein classification +- Thompson test +- Thurstan Holland sign +- Tibia fracture +- Tibial plateau fracture +- Tietze syndrome +- Tile classification +- Tillaux-Chaput avulsion fracture +- Tinel sign +- Toddler's fracture +- Tommy John surgery +- Trabecula +- Traction (orthopedics) +- Traction splint +- Trauma center +- Trauma surgery +- Trauma team +- Traumatology +- Trendelenburg gait +- Trendelenburg's sign +- Trethowan's sign +- Trevor's disease +- Triage +- Trimalleolar fracture +- Triple arthrodesis +- Tscherne classification +- Tumoral calcinosis + +== U == +Ulnar fracture +- Unhappy triad +- Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty +- Upington disease + +== V == +Valgus deformity +- Valgus stress test +- Vancouver classification +- Varus deformity +- Vertebral osteomyelitis +- Villonodular synovitis +- Volkmann's canals +- Volkmann's contracture +- Volkmann avulsion fracture + +== W == +Waddell's signs +- Wagstaffe-Le Fort avulsion fracture +- Wallis–Zieff–Goldblatt syndrome +- Wassel classification +- Watson-Jones anterolateral approach to the hip +- Watson's test +- Weaver–Dunn procedure +- Webbed toes +- Wedge fracture +- Weil's osteotomy +- Wilson test +- Winged scapula +- Wolff's law +- WOMAC +- Wound healing +- Wrist drop +- Wrist osteoarthritis + +== Y == +Yergason's test +- Young-Burgess classification + +== Z == + +Zadek's procedure \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_wave_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_wave_articles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e8ce229d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_wave_articles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "Index of wave articles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_wave_articles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:06.255800+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of wave topics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md index 175851228..bce7b2c2e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:43:59.105585+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:07.517839+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..410cd6949 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Institute of Physics Awards" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:22.878599+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Institute of Physics (IOP) awards numerous prizes to acknowledge contributions to physics research, education and applications. It also offers smaller specific subject-group prizes, such as for PhD thesis submissions. + +== Bilateral awards == +The Max Born Medal and Prize is awarded yearly by the German Physical Society and the Institute of Physics in memory of the German physicist Max Born. The prize recognizes "outstanding contributions to physics" and is awarded to physicists based in Germany and in the UK or Ireland in alternate years. +The Fernand Holweck Medal and Prize is awarded jointly by the French and British Physical Societies for distinguished work in any aspect of physics that is ongoing or has been carried out within the 10 years preceding the award. +The Harrie Massey Medal and Prize is awarded biennially jointly by the Institute of Physics and by The Australian Institute of Physics. +The Giuseppe Occhialini Medal and Prize is awarded to physicists in alternating years who work in Italy (even dated years) or the UK or Ireland (odd dated years). + +== Business awards == +The Katharine Burr Blodgett Medal and Prize is a gold medal awarded annually for outstanding contributions to the organisation or applications of physics to a physicist in an industrial or commercial context in any sector. +The Dennis Gabor Medal and Prize is a prize awarded for distinguished contributions to the application of physics in an industrial, commercial or business context. +The Clifford Paterson Medal and Prize is awarded for exceptional early career contributions to the application of physics. +The Lee Lucas Award +The Business Innovation Award +The Business Start-Up Award +The Apprentice Award +The Apprenticeship Employer Award + +== Education awards == + +=== The Lawrence Bragg Medal and Prize === +First awarded in 1967, is a gold medal for outstanding and sustained contributions to physics education. Previous winners are: + +=== The Marie Curie-Sklodowska Medal and Prize === +Established in 2016, is awarded for "distinguished contributions to physics education and to widening participation within it." + +=== The Daphne Jackson Medal and Prize === +Established in 2016, is awarded "for exceptional early career contributions to physics education and to widening participation within it." + +=== The Teacher of Physics Award === +Since 1986, celebrates the success of secondary school physics teachers who have raised the profile of physics and science in schools. + +=== The Technician Award === +To recognise the experience of technicians and their contribution to physics + +=== The Goronwy Jones prize === +Awarded to the top-scoring A-level candidate in Physics in Wales. + +== Outreach awards == +The Kelvin Medal and Prize is a gold medal instigated in October 1994 in recognition of the importance of promoting public awareness of the place of physics in the world, of its contributions to the quality of life and its advancement of an understanding of the physical world and the place of humanity within it. +The Lise Meitner Medal and Prize, established in 2016, is awarded for "distinguished contributions to public engagement within physics." +The Mary Somerville Medal and Prize + +== Research awards == +The Isaac Newton Medal and Prize is a gold medal awarded annually to any physicist, regardless of subject area, background or nationality, for outstanding contributions to physics. It is accompanied by a prize of £1000, and the recipient is invited to give the Newton lecture. +The Paul Dirac Medal and Prize is a gold medal awarded for outstanding and sustained contributions to theoretical physics. +The Michael Faraday Medal and Prize is a gold medal awarded annually for outstanding contributions to experimental physics to a physicist of international reputation in any sector. +The Richard Glazebrook Medal and Prize, established in 1965, is a gold medal awarded for "outstanding and sustained contributions to leadership in a physics context." +The John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh Medal and Prize, established in 2008, is awarded biennially in odd-numbered years, for distinguished research in theoretical, mathematical or computational physics. +The Sam Edwards Medal and Prize is awarded for distinguished contributions in soft matter physics +The Rosalind Franklin Medal and Prize is awarded for distinguished contributions to physics applied to the life sciences +The Nevill Mott Medal and Prize is awarded for distinguished contributions to condensed matter physics +The David Tabor Medal and Prize is awarded for distinguished contributions to surface or nanoscale physics. +The Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin Medal and Prize is awarded for plasma or space physics +The Edward Appleton Medal and Prize is awarded for distinguished research in environmental, earth or atmospheric physics. Originally named after Charles Chree, it was established in 1941 and is currently awarded in even-dated years. +The Thomas Young Medal and Prize is awarded biennially in odd-numbered years, for distinguished research in the field of optics, including physics outside the visible region. +The Joseph Thomson Medal and Prize, established in 2008, is awarded biennially, in even-numbered years, for distinguished research in atomic physics (including quantum optics) or molecular physics. +The Ernest Rutherford Medal and Prize, awarded biennially in even-numbered years, was instituted in 1966, replacing the Rutherford Memorial Lecture. The award recognises distinguished research in nuclear physics or nuclear technology and is named in honour of Lord Rutherford of Nelson. +The James Chadwick Medal and Prize is awarded "for distinguished contributions to particle physics." +The Fred Hoyle Medal and Prize is awarded for distinguished contributions to astrophysics or cosmology +The Peter Mansfield Medal and Prize is awarded for medical physics +The James Joule Medal and Prize is awarded for applied physics +The James Clerk Maxwell Medal and Prize is awarded annually (previously between 1962 and 1970, every two years) to recognize outstanding early-career contributions to theoretical physics. +The Henry Moseley Medal and Prize is awarded for exceptional early career contributions to experimental physics +The Jocelyn Bell Burnell Medal and Prize was originally known as the 'Very Early Career Female Physicist Award' +The Simon Memorial Prize \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..666cfa6ec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Institute of Physics Awards" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:22.878599+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Service to the IOP awards == +The President's Medal can be given to both physicists and non-physicists who have provided meritorious services in various fields of endeavour which were of benefit to physics in general and the Institute in particular. +The Phillips Award is awarded for distinguished service to the Institute of Physics. + +== Special Interest Group Prizes and Awards == +Many of the Institute's special interest groups—sub-groups of the organisations members working in, or with an interest in, a specific area or sub-discipline—award prizes, typically annually. These include: + +The IOP Astroparticle Physics Group Early Career Prize, awarded on odd-numbered years to early-career researchers working at an institution in the UK and Ireland in the area of astroparticle physics who 'have five years or less postdoctoral experience (allowing for career breaks)'. +The John Chubb Award, from the Dielectrics and Electrostatics Group for 'outstanding contributions to experimental electrostatics by early career researchers'. +The Mansel Davies Award from the Dielectrics and Electrostatics Group is for 'outstanding contributions to dielectrics by early career researchers'. +The High Energy Particle Physics Group Prize, awarded to 'an early career researcher for outstanding contributions to particle physics research'. +The Liquids and Complex Fluids Early Career Award, 'given biennially to an exceptional scientist, in the early stages of their career, working in the broadly defined area of Liquids and Complex Fluids'. +The Wohlfarth Lectureship, jointly sponsored by the Magnetism Group and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Magnetics Society UK and Ireland Magnetics Chapter, which 'recognises the outstanding contribution made by Professor Peter Wohlfarth to the field of magnetism'. + +== See also == +Institute of Physics +List of physics awards + +== References == + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumeyaay_astronomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumeyaay_astronomy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ceeffc035 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumeyaay_astronomy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Kumeyaay astronomy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumeyaay_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:32.910887+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Kumeyaay astronomy or cosmology (Kumeyaay: My Uuyow, "sky knowledge") comprises the astronomical knowledge of the Kumeyaay people, a Native American group whose traditional homeland occupies what is now Southern California in the United States and adjacent parts of northern Baja California in Mexico. A deeply rooted cosmological belief system was developed and followed by the Kumeyaay civilization based on this knowledge including the computing of time (Kumeyaay Mat’taam). +The first evidence of astronomical observations and visual registration was discovered in the El Vallecito archeological zone. The "Men in a square" rupestric painting located at El Diablito area of El Vallecito depicted a square that aligns with sunlight on the Fall equinox. These paintings were made by the Kumeyaay people, possibly during nomadic travels. Kumeyaay sand paintings and rock art modeled the passage of the sun, moon, and constellations. +Observation areas were made by the Kumeyaay to watch and register astronomical events. However many were destroyed by vandals before protection measures were instituted. + + +== Astronomical objects == +Hatotkeur (Spine of the Sky) – Milky Way +Constellations: + + +== See also == +Cultural astronomy + + +== References == + + +== External links == +San Diego Museum of Man Archived 2016-10-10 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8d85b6e21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "List of American Physical Society prizes and awards" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:01.352786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The American Physical Society gives out a number of awards for research excellence and conduct; topics include outstanding leadership, computational physics, lasers, mathematics, and more. + +== Prizes == + +=== David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics === +The David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics is a prize that has been awarded annually by the American Physical Society since 1988. The recipient is chosen for being "an outstanding contributor to the field of materials physics, who is noted for the quality of his/her research, review articles and lecturing." The prize is named after physicist David Adler with contributions to the endowment by friends of David Adler and Energy Conversion Devices, Inc. The winner receives a $5,000 honorarium. + +=== Will Allis Prize for the Study of Ionized Gases === +Will Allis Prize for the Study of Ionized Gases is awarded biannually "for outstanding contributions to understanding the physics of partially ionized plasmas and gases" in honour of Will Allis. The $10000 prize was founded in 1989 by contributions from AT&T, General Electric, GTE, International Business Machines, and Xerox Corporations. + +=== Early Career Award for Soft Matter Research === +This award recognizes outstanding and sustained contributions by an early-career researcher to the soft matter field. + +=== LeRoy Apker Award === +The LeRoy Apker Award was established in 1978 to recognize outstanding achievements in physics by undergraduate students. Two awards are presented each year, one to a student from a Ph.D. granting institution, and one to a student from a non-Ph.D. granting institution. + +=== APS Medal for Exceptional Achievement in Research === +The APS Medal for Exceptional Achievement in Research was established in 2016 to recognize contributions of the highest level that advance our knowledge and understanding of the physical universe. The medal carries with it a prize of $50,000 and is the largest APS prize to recognize the achievement of researchers from across all fields of physics. It is funded by a generous donation from Jay Jones, entrepreneur. Recipients to date are Edward Witten (2016), Daniel Kleppner (2017), Eugene Parker (2018), Bertrand Halperin (2019), Myriam Sarachik (2020), Gordon Baym (2021), Elliott H. Lieb (2022), Sidney R. Nagel (2023), Stuart Parkin (2024), Paul Corkum (2025), and Francis Halzen (2026). + +=== Hans A. Bethe Prize === +The Hans Bethe Prize is presented annually to recognize outstanding work in theory, experiment or observation in the areas of astrophysics, nuclear physics, nuclear astrophysics, or closely related fields. The prize was first awarded in 1998. + +=== Tom W. Bonner Prize in Nuclear Physics === +The Tom W. Bonner Prize in Nuclear Physics is an annual prize awarded by the Division of Nuclear Physics to recognize outstanding experimental research in nuclear physics. It was established in 1964. + +=== Edward A. Bouchet Award === +The Edward A. Bouchet Award was established in 1994 by the APS Committee on Minorities in physics to recognize and honor distinguished underrepresented minority physics researchers who have made significant contributions to physics research. This lectureship provides funding for Award recipients to conduct visits to institutions where the impact on minority students is significant, to deliver technical or topical lectures, and in some cases, to conduct informal discussions with faculty and students. + +=== Herbert P. Broida Prize === +The Herbert P. Broida Prize, established in 1979, is awarded every two years for outstanding experimental advances in the fields of atomic and molecular spectroscopy or chemical physics. + +=== Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Physics Prize === +The Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize is an annual prize with an award of $20,000 for "outstanding theoretical or experimental contributions to condensed matter physics". The prize is named after Oliver Ellsworth Buckley, a former president of AT&T Bell Laboratories, which endowed the prize in 1952. + +=== Joseph A. Burton Forum Award === +The Joseph A. Burton Forum Award was established in 1974 to recognize outstanding contributions to the public understanding or resolution of issues involving the interface of physics and society. + +=== Stanley Corrsin Award === +Stanley Corrsin Award is a $5000 prize given since 2011 "to recognize and encourage a particularly influential contribution to fundamental fluid dynamics." + +=== Davisson–Germer Prize in Atomic or Surface Physics === +The Davisson–Germer Prize in Atomic or Surface Physics is an annual prize for "outstanding work in atomic physics or surface physics". The prize is named after Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer, who first measured electron diffraction. + +=== John Dawson Award for Excellence in Plasma Physics Research === +The John Dawson Award for Excellence in Plasma Physics Research, established in 1981 but named after John M. Dawson in 2007, is an annual award that recognizes "a particular recent outstanding achievement in plasma physics research". The award carries a prize of $5000 divided among the year's recipients and an allowance for registration and travel to the APS Division of Plasma Physics Annual Meeting. + +=== Max Delbruck Prize in Biological Physics === +The Max Delbruck Prize recognizes and encourage outstanding achievement in biological physics research, and is one of the most prestigious international prizes in biological physics. It is awarded annually with a prize of $10000. + +=== John H. Dillon Medal === +The John H. Dillon Medal is an annual medal with an award of $2,000 for "outstanding accomplishment and unusual promise in research in polymer physics". + +=== DQI Best Thesis Award === +The DQI Best Thesis Award is presented by the APS Division of Quantum Information to recognize outstanding doctoral thesis research in quantum information science and technology. As part of the award process, a small group of finalists (typically 5 out of 100) is selected from the nominations and invited to present their work at the APS Global Physics Summit, after which one finalist is named the award recipient. The possible topics cover quantum information, quantum computing, quantum sensing and quantum communication. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e39814a9d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "List of American Physical Society prizes and awards" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:01.352786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Mildred Dresselhaus Prize in Nanoscience or Nanomaterials === +Mildred Dresselhaus Prize in Nanoscience or Nanomaterials was first awarded in 2023. It honours the legacy of Mildred Dresselhaus, and is awarded for an "outstanding scientist in the areas of nanoscience or nanomaterials". The first recipient of the price was Eva Andrei. + +=== George E. Duvall Shock Compression Science Award === +George E. Duvall Shock Compression Science Award was established in 1987 "to recognize contributions to understanding condensed matter and non-linear physics through shock compression." It is awarded biannually. + +=== Einstein Prize === +The Einstein Prize was established in 1999 to recognize outstanding accomplishments in the field of gravitational physics. It is awarded in odd-numbered years. + +=== Prize for a Faculty Member for Research in an Undergraduate Institution === +Prize for a Faculty Member for Research in an Undergraduate Institution is awarded annually since 1986 to a "physicist whose research in an undergraduate setting has achieved wide recognition and contributed significantly to physics and who has contributed substantially to the professional development of undergraduate physics students". + +=== Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics === +The Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics was inaugurated in 2014 and is awarded annually to recognize and promote outstanding achievements in theoretical nuclear physics. + +=== Fluid Dynamics Prize === +The Fluid Dynamics Prize is a prize that has been awarded annually by the society since 1979. The recipient is chosen for "outstanding achievement in fluid dynamics research". As of 2007 the prize is valued at $10,000. In 2004, the Otto Laporte Award, another APS award on fluid dynamics, was merged into the Fluid Dynamics Prize. + +=== Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award === +The Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award recognizes and enhances outstanding achievements by women physicists in the early years of their careers and provides opportunities for them to present these achievements to others through public lectures. + +=== Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics === +The Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics is awarded annually since 1959 to recognize outstanding publications in the field of mathematical physics. + +=== DPF Instrumentation Award === +The Division of Particles and Fields Instrumentation Award was established in 2015 and is "bestowed annually to honor exceptional contributions to instrumentation advancing the field of particle physics through the invention, refinement, or application of instrumentation and detectors". Inaugural recipients were David Nygren and Veljko Radeka. + +=== Richard A. Isaacson Award in Gravitational-Wave Science === +Richard A. Isaacson Award in Gravitational-Wave Science is an annual award of $5000. It recognizes contributions in gravitational-wave physics and astrophysics, and technologies which enable them. It was first awarded in 2019. + +=== Frank Isakson Prize for Optical Effects in Solids === +The Frank Isakson Prize was established in 1979 to recognize outstanding optical research that leads to breakthroughs in the condensed matter sciences. The prize is awarded in even-numbered years. + +=== Leo P. Kadanoff Prize === +The Leo P. Kadanoff Prize, established in 2018, is awarded annually to recognize outstanding theoretical, experimental, or computational research in statistical and nonlinear physics. + +=== Joseph F. Keithley Award For Advances in Measurement Science === +The Joseph F. Keithley Award For Advances in Measurement Science recognizes physicists who have furthered the development of measurement techniques or equipment for the physics community that provides better measurements. Starting in 1998, the annual award consists of a $5,000 award and certificate. + +=== Lev D. Landau and Lyman Spitzer Jr. Award === +Lev D. Landau and Lyman Spitzer Jr. Award for Outstanding Contributions to Plasma Physics is "given to an individual or group of researchers for outstanding contributions in plasma physics and for advancing the collaboration between Europe and the United States of America." The $4000 prize is funded equally by the Plasma Physics Divisions of American Physical Society and European Physical Society. + +=== Rolf Landauer and Charles H. Bennett Award in Quantum Computing === +Rolf Landauer and Charles H. Bennett Award in Quantum Computing recognizes contributions in quantum information science. It was established in 2015. + +=== Irving Langmuir Prize in Chemical Physics === +The Irving Langmuir Prize in Chemical Physics is awarded annually to US residents, in even years by the American Chemical Society and in odd years by the American Physical Society. The award was established in 1931 to recognize and encourage outstanding interdisciplinary research in chemistry and physics, in the spirit of Nobel Prize-winning chemist Irving Langmuir. + +=== Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize === +APS has awarded the Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize annually since 1989, excepting 2002. The purpose of the prize is to recognize outstanding contributions to physics. Among the recipients are Michael Berry, Alan Guth, Stephen Hawking, and Frank Wilczek. + +=== James Clerk Maxwell Prize === +The James Clerk Maxwell Prize for Plasma Physics was established in 1975 by the Maxwell Technologies, Inc., in honor of the Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell. The prize recognizes outstanding contributions to the field of plasma physics. The prize consists of $10,000 and a certificate citing the contributions made by the recipient. The prize is presented annually. + +=== James C. McGroddy Prize for New Materials === +The James C. McGroddy Prize for New Materials has been awarded annually since 1975 for "outstanding achievement in the science and application of new materials". Initially known as the International Prize for New Materials, the prize has been named for physicist James C. McGroddy since 1999. + +=== Nicholas Metropolis Award for Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Work in Computational Physics === +The Nicholas Metropolis Award recognizes outstanding doctoral thesis work in computational physics, rewarding both exceptional research and excellent written and oral communication of that research. Nicholas Metropolis was a Greek-American physicist who contributed to the Manhattan project and is best known for his work on Monte Carlo simulations. The Metropolis Award has been given annually since 1999. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4ba58422 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "List of American Physical Society prizes and awards" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:01.352786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Lars Onsager Prize in Statistical Physics === +The Lars Onsager Prize recognizes outstanding research in theoretical statistical physics including the quantum fluids. The prize consists of $10,000 as well as a certificate citing the contribution made by the recipient. It is presented annually, beginning in 1997. The prize was endowed in 1993 by Drs. Russell and Marian Donnelly in memory of Lars Onsager and his passion for analytical results. + +=== Abraham Pais Prize for History of Physics === +The Abraham Pais Prize for History of Physics is given jointly by the American Physical Society and the American Institute of Physics for "outstanding scholarly achievements in the history of physics". The prize, named after physicist and historian Abraham Pais, has been awarded annually since 2005. + +=== George E. Pake Prize === +The George E. Pake Prize was established in 1983 to recognize outstanding work by physicists combining original research accomplishments with leadership in the management of research or development in industry. The prize is presented biennially in even-numbered years. + +=== Panofsky Prize in Experimental Particle Physics === +The Panofsky Prize is an annual prize, established in 1985, given to recognize and encourage outstanding achievements in experimental particle physics. + +=== Francis M. Pipkin Award === +The Francis M. Pipkin Award is a biennial prize established in 1997 to recognize the research achievements by an early-career physicist in precision measurement and fundamental physical constants and to encourage the dissemination of the research. + +=== Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy & Dynamics === +The Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy was established in 1976 and is awarded annually to recognize notable contributions to the field of molecular spectroscopy and dynamics. + +=== Polymer Physics Prize === +The Polymer Physics Prize is awarded annually since 1962 for outstanding achievements in polymer physics research. + +=== I. I. Rabi Prize in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics === +The I. I. Rabi Prize in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics was established in 1989 and is awarded biennially to recognize outstanding research by an early-career physicist in atomic, molecular, and optical physics. + +=== Aneesur Rahman Prize for Computational Physics === +The Aneesur Rahman Prize for Computational Physics was established in 1992 with support from IBM Corporation. It recognizes outstanding work in computational physics. It is awarded annually with a value of $5000 and is open to scientists of all nationalities. The winner delivers the Rahman lecture. + +=== Norman F. Ramsey Prize === +The Norman F. Ramsey Prize in Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics, and in Precision Tests of Fundamental Laws and Symmetries recognizes achievements in the two fields of Norman Ramsey: AMO physics and in precisions tests of fundamental laws and symmetries. It was established in 2017. + +=== Andrei Sakharov Prize === +The Andrei Sakharov Prize was established to recognize "outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights." The prize is named in recognition of the courageous and effective work of the Soviet nuclear physicist Andrei Sakharov on behalf of human rights, to the detriment of his own scientific career and despite the loss of his own personal freedom. + +=== J. J. Sakurai Prize === +The J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics is presented by the American Physical Society at its annual April Meeting, and honors outstanding achievement in particle physics theory. The prize, considered one of the most prestigious in physics, consists of a monetary award, a certificate citing the contributions recognized by the award, and a travel allowance for the recipient to attend the presentation. The award is endowed by the family and friends of particle physicist J. J. Sakurai. The prize has been awarded annually since 1985. + +=== Arthur L. Schawlow Prize in Laser Science === +The Arthur L. Schawlow Prize in Laser Science is an annual award established in 1991 to recognize outstanding contributions to basic research which uses lasers to advance the knowledge of the fundamental physical properties of materials and their interaction with light. + +=== Leo Szilard Lectureship Award === +The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award was established in 1974 in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard. It is presented annually for outstanding accomplishments by international physicists to promote the use of physics for the benefit of society. + +=== George E. Valley, Jr. Prize === +George E. Valley, Jr. Prize was established in 2000 to "recognize an early-career individual for an outstanding scientific contribution to physics that is deemed to have significant potential for a dramatic impact on the field." + +=== John Wheatley Award === +Established in 1991 "to honor and recognize the dedication of physicists who have made contributions to the development of physics in countries of the third world" with the support of the Forum on International Physics. + +=== Robert R. Wilson Prize === +The Robert R. Wilson Prize for Achievement in the Physics of Particle Accelerators was established in 1987 "to recognize and encourage outstanding achievement in the physics of particle accelerators. The prize consists of $10,000, an allowance for travel to the meeting at which the prize is awarded and a certificate citing the contributions made by the recipient. It is presented annually." The prize is named after Robert R. Wilson, the first director of Fermilab. + +== See also == +List of physics awards + +== References == + +== External links == +"APS Honors, Prizes & Awards". www.aps.org. American Physical Society. Retrieved 6 October 2023. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_cemeteries-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_cemeteries-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27cecc7d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_cemeteries-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_cemeteries" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:55.911049+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Anglo-Saxon cemeteries have been found in England, Wales and Scotland. The burial sites date primarily from the fifth century to the seventh century AD, before the Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England. Later Anglo-Saxon period cemeteries have been found with graves dating from the 9th to the 11th century. Burials include both inhumation and cremation. Inhumation burials before the late seventh century when pagan funerary rituals were the norm, often consisted of rectangular graves, with coffins or were lined with stones. High status burials, often held burial furniture, predominantly burial beds. Grave goods were often placed with the body, and included jewellery, especially Anglo-Saxon brooches, weapons, tools, and household items. + + +== List of Anglo Saxon Cemeteries == +This is a partial list of Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries. + + +== External links == +Anglo- Saxon treatment of older women during burial +The Ghostly Treasure Ship of Sutton Hoo +1,300-year-old Anglo-Saxon cross presented to Cambridge museum + + +== See also == +Burial in Anglo-Saxon England +Bed burial +List of Anglo-Saxon bed burials +Sutton Hoo + + +== Further reading == +Bayliss, Alex; Hines, John, eds. (2013). Anglo-Saxon Graves and Grave Goods of the 6th and 7th Centuries AD: A Chronological Framework (Society for Medieval Archaeology Monographs). Routledge. ISBN 978-1909662063. +Buckberry, Jo; Cherryson, Annia, eds. (2010). Burial in Later Anglo-Saxon England c 650—1100 AD. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1842179659. +Glasswell, Samantha (2002). The Earliest English: Living and Dying in Early Anglo-Saxon England. Tempus. ISBN 978-0752425344. +Lucy, Sam (2000). The Anglo-Saxon Way of Death: Burial Rites in Early England. Sutton. ISBN 978-0750921039. +Lucy, Sam; Reynolds, Andrew, eds. (2002). Burial in Early Medieval England and Wales. Routledge. ISBN 978-1902653655. + + +=== Worthy Park === +Hawkes, Sonia Chadwick; Wells, Calvin (1975). "Crime and Punishment in an Anglo-Saxon cemetery?". Antiquity. 49 (194): 118–122. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00063481. +Hawkes, Sonia Chadwick; Grainger, Guy (2003), The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Worthy Park, Kingsworthy, near Winchester, Hampshire, Oxford University School of Archaeology Monographs, vol. 59, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0947816607 + + +=== Berinsfield === +Lacy, Sam; et al. (2014). "Anglo-Saxon origins investigated by isotopic analysis of burials from Berinsfield, Oxfordshire, UK". Journal of Archaeological Science. 42 (1): 81–92. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.025. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..74cb70522 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:02.815115+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of Bronze Age hoards in Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) that are associated with the British Bronze Age, approximately 2700 BC to 8th century BC. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. + + + + +== List of hoards == + + +== See also == + +List of hoards in Britain +List of Iron Age hoards in Britain +List of Roman hoards in Britain + + +== Notes == + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Barton, Caroline; Hitchcock, Fi, eds. (2008). Treasure Annual Report 2005/6 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger, ed. (2000). Treasure Annual Report 1998–1999 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2002). Treasure Annual Report 2000 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2003). Treasure Annual Report 2001 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004a). Treasure Annual Report 2002 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004b). Treasure Annual Report 2003 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012. +Hitchcock, Fi, ed. (2006). Treasure Annual Report 2004 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Lewis, Michael, ed. (2009). Portable Antiquities and Treasure Annual Report 2007 (PDF). Department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum. ISBN 978-0-9563795-1-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2011. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cultural_relics_forbidden_to_be_exhibited_abroad-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cultural_relics_forbidden_to_be_exhibited_abroad-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..234b5e121 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cultural_relics_forbidden_to_be_exhibited_abroad-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "List of Chinese cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cultural_relics_forbidden_to_be_exhibited_abroad" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:06.938339+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of Chinese cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad (Chinese: 禁止出境展览文物; pinyin: Jìnzhǐ Chūjìng Zhǎnlǎn Wénwù) comprises a list of antiquities and archaeological artifacts held by various museums and other institutions in the People's Republic of China, which the Chinese government has officially prohibited, since 2003, from being taken abroad for exhibition. Many of the relics on the list symbolize the breakthrough of archaeological discoveries that were made in China since the mid-20th century, when archaeology as a modern science began to take root in China. These items are among the most important excavated treasures in China, and have a particular historical, cultural or artistic significance. +The list was first announced in January 2002, with a second batch of items added to the list in June 2012, and a third batch added the next year in July 2013. + + +== Government regulations prohibiting exhibition abroad == +According to Article 49 of the Regulations for the Implementation of the Law of the People's Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics (State Council Decree No. 377) promulgated on 18 May 2003: + +The only existing or fragile relics among the grade-one relics are prohibited from being taken out of the country for exhibition. The catalogue of cultural relics prohibited from being taken out of the country for exhibition shall be made public on a regular basis by the competent cultural relics administrative department of the State Council. + +A first list of sixty-four cultural relics that are forbidden to be exhibited abroad was published by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage on 19 January 2002 (a year before the above regulation was enacted). +In addition to the list of items explicitly prohibited from being exhibited abroad, cultural relics that fall within one of the following five categories are also prohibited from being exhibited outside of China: + +ancient human remains +the main object of reverence at a place of religious observation +first-grade cultural relics that are unique and easily damaged +objects listed in the catalogue of cultural relics that are prohibited from being exhibited abroad +cultural relics that are not suitable to be exhibited abroad because of their state of preservation +Furthermore, cultural relics may not be sent abroad for exhibition if they have not previously been officially exhibited within China. + + +== First batch (2002) == +In 2002, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage announced its first list of 64 first-grade cultural relics that are forbidden to be taken out of mainland China for exhibition. + + +== Second batch (2012) == +In June 2012, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage announced the second batch of 37 cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad, covering paintings and works of calligraphy. + + +== Third batch (2013) == +On 31 July 2013, a third batch of 94 items were announced, including treasures excavated at archaeological sites such as bronzes, pottery, jades, and others. + + +== Footnotes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4092e6de --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,118 @@ +--- +title: "List of IEEE awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:21.672084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Through its awards program, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers recognizes contributions that advance the fields of interest to the IEEE. For nearly a century, the IEEE Awards Program has paid tribute to technical professionals whose exceptional achievements and outstanding contributions have made a lasting impact on technology, society and the engineering profession. The IEEE Medals and IEEE Technical Field Awards are institution-level awards. They are considered more prestigious than IEEE Society level awards and are administered by IEEE Awards Board. Each year, the IEEE Board of Directors approved the winners of these prestigious medals and awards at their annual board meeting. An IEEE Honors Ceremony is organized and held in New York each year to present the medals and awards to the recipients. +Funds for the awards program, other than those provided by corporate sponsors for some awards, are administered by the IEEE Foundation. + + +== IEEE Medals == +IEEE top medal and highest honor +IEEE Medal of Honor +Medals not specific to a technology field +IEEE Edison Medal (IEEE's principal medal for a meritorious career) +IEEE Founders Medal (for leadership, planning, and administration) +IEEE Mildred Dresselhaus Medal (for carbon-based materials research) +IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal +Medals in specific technology areas +IEEE Frances E. Allen Medal (for computing) +IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal (for telecommunications engineering) +IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies +IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (for information theory and coding) +IEEE Medal for Innovations in Healthcare Technology +IEEE Nick Holonyak, Jr. Medal for Semiconductor Optoelectronic Technologies +IEEE Jack S. Kilby Signal Processing Medal (for signal processing) +IEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal (for electronics and telecommunications) +IEEE Jun-ichi Nishizawa Medal (for materials and device sciences) +IEEE Robert N. Noyce Medal (for microelectronics) +IEEE Dennis J. Picard Medal for Radar Technologies and Applications +IEEE Medal in Power Engineering +IEEE Simon Ramo Medal (for systems engineering) +IEEE John von Neumann Medal (for computer-related technology) +Discontinued medal programs +IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal (last awarded in 2001) +IEEE Lamme Medal (last awarded in 2002) +IEEE Medal for Engineering Excellence (last awarded in 2004) + + +== IEEE Technical field awards == +Current technical field awards +IEEE Biomedical Engineering Award +IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award (for nanotechnology and miniaturization) +IEEE Roger W. Brockett Control Systems Award +IEEE Electromagnetics Award +IEEE Rao R. Tummala Electronics Packaging Award +IEEE Fourier Award for Signal Processing +IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award +IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award (for solid-state devices) +IEEE Herman Halperin Electric Transmission and Distribution Award +IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award +IEEE Innovation in Societal Infrastructure Award +IEEE Internet Award +IEEE Richard Harold Kaufmann Award (for industrial systems engineering) +IEEE Joseph F. Keithley Award in Instrumentation and Measurement +IEEE Gustav Robert Kirchhoff Award (for electronic circuits and systems) +IEEE Leon K. Kirchmayer Graduate Teaching Award +IEEE Computer Science and Engineering Undergraduate Teaching Award +IEEE Koji Kobayashi Computers and Communications Award +IEEE William E. Newell Power Electronics Award +IEEE Daniel E. Noble Award (for emerging technologies) +IEEE Donald O. Pederson Award in Solid-State Circuits +IEEE Frederik Philips Award (for management of research and development) +IEEE Photonics Award +IEEE Robotics and Automation Award +IEEE Frank Rosenblatt Award (for biologically and linguistically motivated computational paradigms such as neural networks) +IEEE Charles Proteus Steinmetz Award (for standardization) +IEEE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Award (for nuclear and plasma engineering) +IEEE Eric E. Sumner Award (for communications technology) +IEEE Undergraduate Teaching Award +IEEE Nikola Tesla Award (for power technology) +IEEE Kiyo Tomiyasu Award (for technologies holding the promise of innovative applications) +IEEE Transportation Technologies Award +IEEE Glenn F. Knoll Radiation Instrumentation Outstanding Achievement Award +IEEE Plasma Science and Applications (PSAC) Award +Discontinued technical field awards +IEEE David Sarnoff Award (for electronics, last awarded in 2016) +IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award (for information processing systems in computer science, last awarded in 2012) +IEEE Judith A. Resnik Award (for space engineering, last awarded in 2012) +IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Data Storage Device Technology Award (last awarded in 2010) +IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Information Storage Systems Award (last awarded in 2015) + + +== IEEE-level paper prizes == +IEEE Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award +IEEE W.R.G. Baker Award + + +== Other IEEE-level recognitions == +IEEE Haraden Pratt Award (for service to IEEE) +IEEE Richard M. Emberson Award (for service to IEEE) +IEEE Corporate Innovation Recognition +IEEE Ernst Weber Engineering Leadership Recognition (also known as IEEE Ernst Weber Managerial Leadership Award, last awarded in 2016) +IEEE Honorary Membership +Hendrik W. Bode Lecture Prize + + +== Scholarships == +IEEE Life Members Graduate Study Fellowship in Electrical Engineering was established by the IEEE in 2000. The fellowship is awarded annually to a first year, full-time graduate student obtaining their masters for work in the area of electrical engineering, at an engineering school/program of recognized standing worldwide. +IEEE Charles LeGeyt Fortescue Graduate Scholarship was established by the IRE in 1939 to commemorate Charles Legeyt Fortescue's contributions to electrical engineering. The scholarship is awarded for one year of full-time graduate work obtaining their masters in electrical engineering an ANE engineering school of recognized standing in the United States. + + +== Awards at the society and technical council level == +The IEEE societies (of which there are 39 as of June 2020) and IEEE technical councils (seven as of June 2020) also have their own award programs. These include recognizing volunteers at the society technical committee levels and conference levels, for service and for technical work. However, IEEE institution level awards are above IEEE societies and technical council level awards, with higher standards, recognition, and prestige. + + +== Student activities == +IEEE offers many student awards, competitions and other opportunities for students to become actively involved. + +IEEEXtreme Programming Competition +IEEEmadC + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_astronomical_treatises-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_astronomical_treatises-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c066dac60 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_astronomical_treatises-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "List of Indian astronomical treatises" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_astronomical_treatises" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:27.657837+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ancient India was one of the most important seat of Astronomical studies. There were many scholars, philosophers and astronomers in ancient India, who wrote treatises on experimental and mathematical astronomy. Most of the Ancient Indian Astronomical Treatises were written and composed in Sanskrit language. + + +== List of the Astronomical Treatises == +Vedanga Jyotisha +Aryabhatiya +Brahmasphuta-siddhanta +Pañcasiddhāntikā +Mahabhaskariya +Laghubhaskariya +Aryabhatiyabhashya +Śisyadhīvrddhida +Siddhāntatilaka +Siddhāntaśiromani +Karanakutūhala +Siddhāntaśekhara +Yantra-rāja +Jyotirmimamsa +Sphutanirnaya +Karanottama +Uparāgakriyākrama +Śiṣyadhīvṛddhidatantra +Brihat-Samhita +Grahana-Maala +Lilavati +Shatapatha Brahmana +Surya Siddhanta +Makarandasarini +Mahadevi (astronomy book) +Rājamṛgāṅka (astronomy book) +Jagadbhūṣaṇa +Grahacaranibandhana and lost text Mahamarganibandhana +Tantrasamgraha +Karanapaddhati +Venvaroha + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_artifacts_abroad-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_artifacts_abroad-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c5fce81ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_artifacts_abroad-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "List of Iranian artifacts abroad" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_artifacts_abroad" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:26.282016+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of Iranian artifacts abroad is a list of notable Iranian and Persian antiquities outside Iran, especially in museums. Most of these were found outside modern Iran, either in parts of the former Persian Empire, or places influenced by it. + + +== Middle East == + + +=== Afghanistan === +Tillya Tepe, commonly referred to as the Bactrian Gold, is a significant archaeological discovery consisting of approximately 20,600 ornaments, coins, and artifacts crafted from gold, silver, ivory, and other materials. These items were unearthed from six richly adorned burial mounds (five female and one male) dated to the 1st century BCE–1st century CE. The collection includes necklaces inlaid with semi-precious stones, intricately designed belts, medallions, and a crown. The site of Yemshi Tepe, a fortified settlement located about 5 km northeast of modern Sheberghan near Akcha, lies just 500 meters from the Tillia Tepe necropolis. The treasure vanished during Afghanistan's conflicts but reemerged in public view in 2003.[1] +The Buddhas of Bamiyan, along with other Afghan antiquities, suffered significant loss during decades of conflict. However, 33 Buddhist and Hindu artifacts, part of a larger cache of 2,500 items, were recently returned to Afghanistan. These pieces had been seized in U.S. raids between 2012 and 2014 from disgraced Manhattan art dealer Subhash Kapoor, who is currently imprisoned in India on charges of smuggling and theft.[2] + + +=== Gallery of Tillya Tepe artifacts === + + +=== Anatolia (Turkey) === +The Xerxes I inscription at Van is a trilingual cuneiform inscription of Xerxes the Great (r. 486–465 BCE). Located on the southern slope of a mountain near the Van Fortress by Lake Van in modern-day Turkey, it lay within the Achaemenid province of Armenia during Xerxes’ reign. The inscription, carved approximately 20 metres (70 feet) above ground on a smoothed rock face, was begun by Darius I of Persia (r. 522–486 BCE), who left it blank. +A Persian city unearthed at Oluz Höyük in Amasya also revealed a trove of artifacts during excavations, where the archaeologists uncovered the column bases of a 2,500-year-old palace from the Achaemenid era. The site contains phases A and B, representing architectural evolution. The site's director of excavations, Dr. Şevket Dönmez of Istanbul University stated: ““For the first time this year, a colonnaded reception hall called 'Apadana', a throne hall, and an executive hall began to come to light. We are just at the beginning of the excavations. But even the current findings are very exciting.” He emphasized the importance of this discovery for Anatolian Iron Age, ancient Persian studies, and religious history. [3] + + +=== Georgia === +The structure known as the Atashgah, meaning "place of fire," in Tbilisi traces its origins to the 5th or 6th century CE during the rule of the Sasanian Empire, when Georgia was under Persian control. It is believed to have functioned as a Zoroastrian fire temple before later conversions.[4] +Additionally, a trove of Persian manuscripts is preserved at the Dagestan Scientific Centre. + + +== Europe and the United States == + +The Metropolitan Museum of Art features a range of Persian antiquities, including ceramics, engraved coins, and pottery dating back over 3,500 years. Many pieces were originally part of the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute. +The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient clay artifact inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform script, was commissioned by Cyrus the Great following his conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE. Discovered in 1879 at Babylon (modern-day Iraq), it is housed in the British Museum, which also funded its discovery. +The Louvre Museum's Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, founded in 1881, exhibits artifacts from Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Persia, including pieces from Sumer, Akkad, and Mari. Notable items include the Stele of the Vultures, Statue of Ebih-Il, and the famed Code of Hammurabi. The Persian section features the "Funerary Head" and Archers of Darius I, as well as objects on loan from Persepolis. +The Oxus treasure (Persian: گنجینه آمودریا) is a remarkable collection of about 180 gold and silver objects from the Achaemenid period, along with roughly 200 coins. Discovered near the Oxus River (likely close to Kobadiyan, Tajikistan) between 1877 and 1880, the treasure is believed to have been associated with a temple where votive offerings accumulated over centuries. The artifacts are typically dated to the 6th–4th centuries BCE, while some coins span later periods. +Most surviving objects are held in the British Museum (Room 52), with some items also housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. + + +== Japan == +The Miho Museum, which holds over 2,000 artifacts in its permanent collection includes many Achaemenid and Central Asian pieces. Some scholars argue several of these objects in its collection may be part of the lost Oxus Treasure, resurfacing in 1993 in Afghanistan, though this theory remains debated. +The Tokyo National Museum also preserves a wide range of Iranian artifacts, including pottery, paintings, calligraphy, metalwork, sculpture, and textiles.[5] [6] + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +5,000 years of Iranian culture showcased, BN Goswamy [7] +[8] +[9] +Iranian Artifacts Abroad [10] + + +== Bibliography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iron_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iron_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a9969c7d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iron_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of Iron Age hoards in Great Britain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iron_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:27.602011+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of Iron Age hoards in Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) that are associated with the British Iron Age, approximately 8th century BC to the 1st century AD. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. Hoards of Celtic coins dating from the time of the Roman occupation of Britain are also included here. + + + + +== List of hoards == + + +== See also == + +List of hoards in Britain +List of Bronze Age hoards in Britain +List of Roman hoards in Britain + + +== Notes == + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Barton, Caroline; Hitchcock, Fi, eds. (2008). Treasure Annual Report 2005/6 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger, ed. (2000). Treasure Annual Report 1998–1999 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2002). Treasure Annual Report 2000 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2003). Treasure Annual Report 2001 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004a). Treasure Annual Report 2002 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004b). Treasure Annual Report 2003 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Hitchcock, Fi, ed. (2006). Treasure Annual Report 2004 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Lewis, Michael, ed. (2009). Portable Antiquities and Treasure Annual Report 2007 (PDF). Department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum. ISBN 978-0-9563795-1-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2011. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jurchen_inscriptions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jurchen_inscriptions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..337f09b8a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jurchen_inscriptions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "List of Jurchen inscriptions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jurchen_inscriptions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:30.252865+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of Jurchen inscriptions comprises a list of the corpus of known inscriptions written in the Jurchen language using the Jurchen script. There are ten monumental inscriptions, mostly dating to the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), but the latest monument dates to the early Ming Dynasty (1413). There are also a number of short Jurchen inscriptions on portable artefacts such as mirrors, seals and paiza. In contrast with inscriptions in Khitan scripts, there are no known examples of stone-inscribed epitaphs in the Jurchen script. + + + + +== Monumental inscriptions in the Jurchen script == + + +== Other inscriptions in the Jurchen script == + + +== See also == + +List of Khitan inscriptions + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Jin Guangping 金廣平; Jin Qizong 金啓孮 (1980). 女真語言文字妍究 [Study on the Jurchen Language and Characters] (in Chinese). Wenwu chubanshe. +Kane, Daniel (1989). The Sino-Jurchen Vocabulary of the Bureau of Interpreters. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-23-3. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Khitan_inscriptions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Khitan_inscriptions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c2042df58 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Khitan_inscriptions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "List of Khitan inscriptions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Khitan_inscriptions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:32.341565+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of Khitan inscriptions comprises a list of the corpus of known inscriptions written in the Khitan large script and the Khitan small script. These two scripts were used by the Khitan people in northern China during the 10th through 12th centuries for writing the extinct Khitan language. The Khitan language was in use during the Liao dynasty (916–1125), the Western Liao dynasty (1124–1218) and the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), but the last recorded Khitan speaker, Yelü Chucai, died in 1244, and the language probably became extinct soon afterwards. +There are no surviving examples of printed texts in the Khitan language, and aside from five example Khitan large characters with Chinese glosses in the Yuan and Ming-era Tao Zongyi's 1376 Important Matters in the History of Calligraphy, there are no Chinese glossaries or dictionaries of Khitan. The Khitan language is therefore little understood, and the two Khitan writing systems are only partially deciphered. +The main source of Khitan texts are monumental inscriptions, mostly comprising memorial tablets buried in the tombs of Khitan nobility. Only one monument in a Khitan script was known before the 20th century, the Record of the Journey of the Younger Brother of the Emperor of the Great Jin Dynasty (Langjun xingji 郎君行記), which is engraved on the 'wordless stele' for Empress Wu Zetian which stands at the Qianling Mausoleum. Until the 1920s it was believed to be written in the Jurchen script. Only after the discovery of the memorial tablets of the Emperor Xingzong of Liao and his consort was it realized that the Record of the Younger Brother of the Emperor and the Liao-dynasty memorial tablets were both written in a Khitan script. Several more memorial tablets in the same script were discovered during the 1930s, including memorials for the Emperor Daozong of Liao and his consort. Initially it was not clear whether the script inscribed on these memorial tablets was the Khitan large script, recorded to have been devised in 920, or the Khitan small script, recorded to have been devised about 925. A different, unknown script, which appeared more similar to Chinese (incorporating many characters borrowed directly from Chinese), had been discovered on a temple monument in 1935, as well as on a memorial to Xiao Xiaozhong in 1951; and in 1962 Jin Guangping suggested that these two monuments were written using the Khitan large script, and that the Record of the Younger Brother of the Emperor and the imperial memorial tablets were written using the Khitan small script. This identification of the two Khitan scripts is now widely accepted. +There are about 15 known monuments with inscriptions in the Khitan large script, ranging in date from 986 to 1176, and about 40 known monuments with inscriptions in the Khitan small script, ranging in date from 1053 to 1171. The two scripts are mutually exclusive (never occurring together on the same monument), but it is not known why the Khitan people used two different scripts, or what determined the choice of which script to use. +In addition to monumental inscriptions, short inscriptions in both Khitan scripts have also been found on tomb murals and rock paintings, and on various portable artefacts such as mirrors, amulets, paiza (tablets of authority given to officials and envoys), and special non-circulation coins. A number of bronze official seals with the seal face inscribed in the Khitan large script are also known. The Khitan characters on these seals are engraved in a convoluted calligraphic style that imitates the Chinese nine-fold seal script style of calligraphy. + + + + +== Monumental inscriptions in the Khitan large script == + + +== Other inscriptions in the Khitan large script == + + +== Khitan large script seals == + + +== Monumental inscriptions in the Khitan small script == + + +== Other inscriptions in the Khitan small script == + + +== Khitan small script seals == + + +== See also == + +List of Jurchen inscriptions +Nova N 176, an undeciphered manuscript codex written in the Khitan large script + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +=== Citations === + + +=== Bibliography === + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..428c2e6ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "List of Maya sites" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:35.546273+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of Maya sites is an alphabetical listing of a number of significant archaeological sites associated with the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. + +The peoples and cultures which comprised the Maya civilization spanned more than 2,500 years of Mesoamerican history, in the Maya Region of southern Mesoamerica, which incorporates the present-day nations of Guatemala and Belize, much of Honduras and El Salvador, and the southeastern states of Mexico from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec eastwards, including the entire Yucatán Peninsula. +Throughout this region, many hundreds of Maya sites have been documented in at least some form by archaeological surveys and investigations, while the numbers of smaller/uninvestigated (or unknown) sites are so numerous (one study has documented over 4,400 Maya sites) that no complete archaeological list has yet been made. The listing which appears here is necessarily incomplete, however it contains notable sites drawn from several large and ongoing surveys, such as the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions (CMHI) and other sources (see References). + +Note : Ignore the Spanish definite article "El" or "La" (and their plurals "Los" and "Las") when looking for a site in the alphabetical listing e.g. for El Mirador, look under M rather than E. + + +== Most important sites == +Maya sites which are known to have been among the largest and most influential polities through the various eras of Maya history —Formative (or Preclassic), Classic and Postclassic— and/or which have left the most impressive archaeological remains include: + + +== Alphabetical listing == + + +=== A === + + +=== B === + + +=== C === + + +=== D === + + +=== E === + + +=== F === + + +=== G === + + +=== H === + + +=== I === + + +=== J === + + +=== K === + + +=== L === + + +=== M === + + +=== N === + + +=== O === + + +=== P === + + +=== Q === + + +=== R === + + +=== S === + + +=== T === + + +=== U === + + +=== V === + + +=== W === + + +=== X === + + +=== Y === + + +=== Z === + + +== See also == +Maya architecture +List of Mesoamerican pyramids +Degradation of Mayan archeological sites + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The long-term research project Text Database Dictionary of Classic Mayan is working on a list of Archaeological Sites with Maya Inscriptions that is constantly growing. The list is sorted by site name, and primarily encompasses the archaeological sites in Mesoamerica where Maya hieroglyphic inscriptions have been discovered and verifiably documented over the course of archaeological survey and excavations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c37f9528 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "List of Mesoamerican pyramids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:39.184676+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Mesoamerican pyramids or ceremonial structures. In most cases they are not true pyramids. There are hundreds of these in many different styles throughout Mexico and Central America. These were made by several pre-Columbian cultures including the Olmecs, Maya, Toltecs, and Aztecs. In most cases they were made by city states that created many structures in the same style. The style for each city state is usually different. These are usually made out of stone and mortar but some of the earliest may have been made out of clay. + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesolithic_settlements-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesolithic_settlements-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d835f970 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesolithic_settlements-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of Mesolithic settlements" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesolithic_settlements" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:40.485880+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic settlements. + + +== Mesolithic Europe == + + +== Epipaleolithic Near East == + + +== See also == +List of Neolithic settlements + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_and_pre-Muisca_sites-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_and_pre-Muisca_sites-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d696a3ac9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_and_pre-Muisca_sites-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "List of Muisca and pre-Muisca sites" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_and_pre-Muisca_sites" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:44.545414+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Muisca and pre-Muisca archaeological sites; sites on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, where archaeological evidence has been discovered of the Muisca and their ancestors of the Herrera, preceramic and prehistorical periods. +Over the course of the centuries and mainly in the 21st century, many sites with evidences of Muisca and pre-Muisca presence have been found and reported. +The possibly oldest evidence of human settlement in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes has been discovered just west of the former Muisca territories, at Pubenza in Tocaima, Cundinamarca. Eight stone tools have been found with bone remains, consisting of among others Haplomastodon and turtles, which have been dated at 16,400 ± 420 years BP. Due to the location at an inundated platform, it is unclear if the bones and thus age were in situ. + + +== Background == + +The Altiplano Cundiboyacense, with its valleys of Sogamoso-Duitama, Tunja and Ubaté-Chiquinquirá and the southeastern flatlands of the Bogotá savanna, as well as the Tenza Valley to the east, was inhabited for 12,000 years by indigenous peoples. At the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, the area of approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi) was populated by the Muisca, organised in a loose confederation; the Muisca Confederation. +While various classifications of the archaeological history of the Andean high plateau exist, the most commonly accepted sequence, in years BP, is shown to the right. + + +== Timeline of inhabitation == + + +== List of Muisca and pre-Muisca sites == + + +== See also == + +List of Muisca research institutes, archaeological sites in Colombia +Muisca art +Muisca Confederation, economy +Lake Guatavita, Tota, Iguaque, Suesca, Fúquene, Siecha Lakes, Tequendama Falls +List of Maya sites + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Aceituno Bocanegra, Francisco Javier; Rojas Mora, Sneider (2012), "Del Paleoindio al Formativo: 10.000 años para la historia de la tecnología lítica en Colombia - From the Paleoindian to the Formative Stage: 10,000 years for the history of lithic technology in Colombia" (PDF), Boletín de Antropología (in Spanish), 28 (43), University of Antioquia: 124–156, ISSN 0120-2510, retrieved 2016-07-08 +Cooke, Richard (1998), "Human settlement of Central America and northernmost South America (14,000-8000 BP)", Quaternary International, 49/50 (1), Pergamon: 177–190, Bibcode:1998QuInt..49..177C, doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(97)00062-1, ISSN 1040-6182 +Correal Urrego, Gonzalo (1990), Aguazuque: Evidence of hunter-gatherers and growers on the high plains of the Eastern Ranges (PDF) (in Spanish), Bogotá, Colombia: Banco de la República: Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales, pp. 1–316, retrieved 2016-07-08{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) +Groot de Mahecha, Ana María (2014) [2008], Sal y poder en el altiplano de Bogotá, 1537-1640 (in Spanish), Universidad Nacional de Colombia, pp. 1–174, ISBN 978-958-719-046-5 +Groot de Mahecha, Ana María (1992), Checua: Una secuencia cultural entre 8500 y 3000 años antes del presente - Checua: a cultural sequence between 8500 and 3000 years before present, Banco de la República, pp. 1–95, retrieved 2016-07-08 +Izquierdo Peña, Manuel Arturo (2009), The Muisca Calendar: An approximation to the timekeeping system of the ancient native people of the northeastern Andes of Colombia (M.A.), Université de Montréal, pp. 1–170, arXiv:0812.0574 +López Estupiñán, Laura (2011), Topando piedras, sumercé. Narraciones en torno a las piedras de Iza y Gámeza, Boyacá, Colombia - Bumping into stones, mister. Tales around the stones of Iza and Gámeza, Boyacá, Colombia (M.A.) (M.A.) (in Spanish), vol. 2, Rupestreweb, retrieved 2016-07-08 +Martínez Celis, Diego; Botiva Contreras, Álvaro (2004a), Manual de arte rupestre de Cundinamarca - Manual of rock art of Cundinamarca (in Spanish), ICANH, pp. 1–60, ISBN 958-8181-07-0 +Martínez Celis, Diego; Botiva Contreras, Álvaro (2004b), Introducción al arte rupestre (in Spanish), ICANH, pp. 1–28 +Martínez Martín, Abel Fernando; Martínez Santamaría, Luz (2012), "Sobre la momificación y los cuerpos momificados de los muiscas - On mummification and the mummified bodies of the Muisca", Revista Salud Historia Sanidad, 7 (in Spanish), 1: 61–80, ISSN 1909-2407 +Martínez Martín, Abel Fernando; Meléndez, Fernardo Francisco; Manrique, Fred Gustavo (2010), "Bio-anthropology and paleopathology of the SO10-IX Muisca mummy from Sátivanorte, Boyacá, Colombia", Colombia Médica, 41 (2), Universidad del Valle: 112–120, ISSN 1657-9534 +Muñoz Castiblanco, Guillermo (2013), Catalogación, registro sistemático y diagnóstico de las pinturas rupestres del Parque Arqueológico de Facatativá (in Spanish), GIPRI, pp. 1–89 +Muñoz Castiblanco, Guillermo (2006), Pinturas rupestres en el Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Colombia - concentración y diversidad en la Sabana de Bogotá: Municipio de Suacha-Sibaté Cundinamarca - Rock paintings on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Colombia - concentration and diversity on the Bogotá savanna: municipality of Soacha-Sibaté, Cundinamarca (in Spanish), pp. 1–22 +Ocampo López, Javier (2007), Grandes culturas indígenas de América - Great indigenous cultures of the Americas (in Spanish), Bogotá, Colombia: Plaza & Janes Editores Colombia S.A., pp. 1–238, ISBN 978-958-14-0368-4 +Silva Celis, Eliécer (1981), Investigaciones en Villa de Leiva (in Spanish), pp. 1–18 +Valverde, Alejandra (2007), "Prácticas funerarias desde la arqueología: El caso de las momias de la Sierra Nevada del Cocuy - Funerary practices in archaeology: The study of Sierra Nevada del Cocuy's mummies, Colombia", Antípoda, 5, Universidad de los Andes: 275–291, doi:10.7440/antipoda5.2007.12, ISSN 1900-5407 +Cronologías de la región Muisca (PDF), University of Pittsburgh, pp. 1–5, retrieved 2016-07-08 + + +== Further reading == +Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne (1985), En busca de los primeros agricultores del Altiplano Cundiboyacense - Searching for the first farmers of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (PDF) (in Spanish), Bogotá, Colombia: Banco de la República, pp. 99–125, retrieved 2016-07-08 +Paepe, Paul de; Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne (1990), "Resultados de un estudio petrológico de cerámicas del Periodo Herrera provenientes de la Sabana de Bogotá y sus implicaciones arqueológicas - Results of a petrological study of ceramics form the Herrera Period coming from the Bogotá savanna and its archaeological implications", Boletín Museo del Oro (in Spanish), Museo del Oro: 99–119, retrieved 2016-07-08 +Rodríguez, José Vicente (2005), "De la sabana a la selva - Un yacimiento formativo ritual en el entorno de la antigua laguna de La Herrera, Madrid, Cundinamarca - From the savanna to the jungle - a ritual formative site in the surroundings of the ancient Lake Herrera, Madrid", Maguaré (in Spanish), 19, Universidad Nacional de Colombia: 103–131 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_museum_collections-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_museum_collections-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bc90c4f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_museum_collections-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "List of Muisca museum collections" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_museum_collections" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:46.012665+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of museum collections pertaining to the Muisca. Most of the Muisca artefacts are housed in the Gold Museum, Bogotá, the museum with the most golden objects in the world. Other findings are in the Archaeology Museum in Sogamoso and in the Archaeology Museum of Pasca. Few artefacts are on display outside Colombia. Most of the objects outside Colombia are tunjos; small offer pieces part of the Muisca religion. + + +== Muisca museum collections == + + +== See also == +List of Muisca research institutes +List of Muisca scholars +Muisca + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_research_institutes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_research_institutes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..123f7a001 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_research_institutes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of Muisca research institutes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_research_institutes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:47.244189+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of institutes providing research into the Muisca. The three most important universities in Bogotá have a department of anthropology to study the indigenous cultures of Colombia. While international research compared to the Inca, Aztec and Maya is quite limited, various other universities have provided knowledge about the Muisca and their culture. + + +== List Muisca research institutes == + + +== See also == + +List of Muisca museum collections, Muisca scholars, Muisca sites +List of flora and fauna named after the Muisca +Muisca Confederation +Muysccubun + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7ce542a79 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "List of National Treasures of Japan (archaeological materials)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:48.633608+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term "National Treasure" has been used in Japan to denote cultural properties since 1897. +The definition and the criteria have changed since the introduction of the term. These archaeological materials adhere to the current definition, and have been designated national treasures since the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties came into effect on June 9, 1951. The items are selected by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology based on their "especially high historical or artistic value". The list presents 52 materials or sets of materials from ancient to feudal Japan, spanning a period from about 4,500 BC to 1361 AD. The actual number of items is more than 52 because groups of related objects have been combined into single entries. Most of the items have been excavated from tombs, kofun, sutra mounds or other archaeological sites. The materials are +housed in museums (34), temples (9), shrines (8) and a university (1) in 27 cities of Japan. The Tokyo National Museum houses the greatest number of archaeological national treasures, with 7 of the 52. +The Japanese Paleolithic marks the beginning of human habitation in Japan. It is generally accepted that human settlement did not occur before 38,000 BC, although some sources suggest the date to be as early as 50,000 BC. Archaeological artifacts from the Paleolithic era consist of stone tools of various types, indicative of a hunter-gatherer society. A set of 1965 such tools has been designated as the oldest National Treasure. From about 14,000 to 8,000 BC, the society gradually transformed to one characterized by the creation of pottery used for storage, cooking, bone burial and possibly ceremonial purposes. People continued to subsist on hunting, fishing and gathering, but evidence points to a gradual decrease in the nomadic lifestyle. Potsherds of unornamented pottery from the oldest archaeological sites constitute some of the world's oldest pottery. These are followed by linear-relief, punctated and nail-impressed pottery types. The first cord-marked pottery dates to 8,000 BC. Cord-marked pottery required a technique of pressing twisted cords into the clay, or by rolling cord-wrapped sticks across the clay. The Japanese definition for the period of prehistory characterized by the use of pottery is Jōmon (縄文; lit. cord-patterned) and refers to the entire period (c. 10,500 to 300 BC). Pottery techniques reached their apogee during the Middle Jōmon period with the emergence of fire-flame pottery created by sculpting and carving coils of clay applied to vessel rims, resulting in a rugged appearance. A set of 57 items of fire-flame pottery, dating to around 4,500 BC, has been designated as National Treasure. Archaeologists consider that such pottery may have had a symbolic meaning or was used ceremonially. Dogū—small clay figurines depicting humans and animals—can be dated to the earliest Jōmon period but their prevalence increased dramatically in the middle Jōmon. Many of these depict women with exaggerated breasts and enlarged buttocks, considered to be a fertility symbol. Five dogū from 3000 to 1000 BC have been designated as National Treasures. +The ensuing Yayoi period is characterized by great technological advances such as wet-rice agriculture or bronze and iron casting, which were introduced from the mainland. Iron knives and axes, followed by bronze swords, spears and mirrors, were brought to Japan from Korea and China. Later all of these were produced locally. The primary artistic artifacts, with the exception of Yayoi pottery, are bronze weapons, such as swords, halberds and dōtaku, ritual bells. The bells were often discovered in groups on a hillside buried with the weapons. They are 0.2 to 1.2 m (7.9 in to 3 ft 11.2 in) tall and often decorated with geometric designs such as horizontal bands, flowing water patterns or spirals. A few bells feature the earliest Japanese depiction of people and animals. In addition ornamental jewels were found. The weapons that have been excavated are flat and thin, suggesting a symbolic use. Due to rusting, few iron objects have survived from this period. Burial mounds in square, and later round, enclosures were common in the Yayoi period. The starting date of the Kofun period (c. 250–300 AD) is defined by the appearance of large-scale keyhole-shaped kofun mound tombs, thought to mark imperial burials. Typical burial goods include mirrors, beads, Sue ware, weapons and later horse gear. One of the most well-known tombs, whose content of warrior-related items has been designated as National Treasure, is the late 6th century Fujinoki Tomb. Mirrors, swords and curved jewels, which constitute the Imperial Regalia of Japan, appear as early as the middle Yayoi period, and are abundant in Kofun period tombs. Characteristic of most kofun are haniwa clay terra cotta figures whose origin and purpose is unknown. A haniwa of an armoured man has been designated as National Treasure; and a 1st-century gold seal, designated a National Treasure, shows one of the earliest mentions of Japan or Wa. +Buddhism arrived in Japan in the mid–6th century Asuka period, and was officially adopted in the wake of the Battle of Shigisan in 587, after which Buddhist temples began to be constructed. The new religion and customs fundamentally transformed Japanese society and the arts. Funerary traditions such as cremation and the practice of placing epitaphs in graves were imported from China and Korea. Following the treatment of Buddhist relics, the cremated remains in a glass container were wrapped in a cloth and placed in an outer container. Epitaphs, which recorded the lives of the deceased on silver or bronze rectangular strips, were particularly popular from the latter half of the 7th to the end of the 8th century (late Asuka and Nara period). Five epitaphs and a number of cinerary urns and reliquaries containing bones have been designated as National Treasures. Other archaeological National Treasures from the Buddhist era include ritual items buried in the temple foundations of the Golden Halls of Tōdai-ji and Kōfuku-ji in Nara. According to an ancient Buddhist prophecy, the world would enter a dark period in 1051; consequently in the late Heian period the belief in the saving powers of Maitreya or Miroku, the Buddha to be, became widespread. Believers buried scriptures and images to gain merit and to prepare for the coming Buddha. This practice, which continued into the Kamakura period, required the transcription of sutras according to strict ritual protocols, their placement in protective reliquary containers and burial in the earth of sacred mountains, shrines or temples to await the future Buddha. The oldest known sutra mound is that of Fujiwara no Michinaga from 1007 on Mount Kinpu, who buried one lotus sutra and five other sutras that he had written in 998. Its sutra container has been designated as National Treasure. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e0af054b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of National Treasures of Japan (archaeological materials)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:48.633608+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Statistics == +All of the 52 National Treasures are presently located in Japan; two were discovered in China and three were found in Japan, but the exact locations of their excavation sites is unknown. The excavation sites of the remaining 46 treasures are contained in the following table. + +== Usage == +The table's columns (except for Details and Image) are sortable by pressing the arrow symbols. + +Name: name of the national treasure as registered in the Database of National Cultural Properties +Details: more information about the object such as size and type of items (if the national treasure comprises more than one item) +Date: period and year of the item; column entries sort by year or start year of a period if only a period is known +Excavation site: "site-name town-name prefecture-name"; column entries sort as "prefecture-name town-name site-name" +Present location: "temple/museum/shrine-name town-name prefecture-name"; column entries sort as "prefecture-name town-name temple/museum/shrine-name" +Image: picture of the national treasure or of the excavation site + +== Treasures == + +== See also == +Nara Research Institute for Cultural Properties +Tokyo Research Institute for Cultural Properties +Independent Administrative Institution National Museum + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Bibliography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neanderthal_sites-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neanderthal_sites-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..97bddd3ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neanderthal_sites-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,193 @@ +--- +title: "List of Neanderthal sites" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neanderthal_sites" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:49.860406+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of archeological sites where remains or tools of Neanderthals were found. + + +== Europe == + + +=== Belgium === +Schmerling Caves, Engis +Naulette +Scladina +Spy-sur-l'Orneau +Veldwezelt-Hezerwater + + +=== France === +Vaucluse, Bau de l'Aubesier +Biache-Saint-Vaast +Bruniquel Cave +Châtelperron +Combe Grenal +Eguisheim +Grotte du Renne at Arcy-sur-Cure +La Chaise +La Chapelle-aux-Saints +La Ferrassie +La Quina +Le Moustier +Le Regourdou +Lussac-les-Châteaux, Les Rochers-de-Villeneuve +Moula-Guercy +Saint-Césaire + + +=== Germany === +Ehringsdorf +Neanderthal 1, Neander Valley +Salzgitter-Lebenstedt + + +=== Netherlands === +Krijn, Northsea shore + + +=== United Kingdom === +Bontnewydd, Llanelwy (Wales) +Creswell Crags (England) +La Cotte de St Brelade (Jersey, Channel Islands) +Lynford Quarry (England) +Swanscombe Heritage Park (England) + + +=== Spain === +Abrigo de la Quebrada (Valencian Community) +L'Arbreda +Atapuerca Mountains +Axlor +Banyoles (Catalonia) +Carihuela (Andalucia) +Cova Foradà (Valencian Community) +Cova Negra (Valencian Community) +Cueva de Bolomor (Valencian Community, Spain) +Cueva Negra (Region of Murcia) +El Salt (Valencian Community) +Roca dels Bous (archaeological site) +Sidrón Cave (Asturias) +Sima de las Palomas (Region of Murcia) +Zafarraya (Granada) +Cova del Gegant (Sitges) + + +=== Portugal === +Furninha cave +Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Leiria) +Figueira Brava (Arrabida Mountains) + + +=== Gibraltar === +Neanderthals of Gibraltar + + +=== Italy === +Monte Circeo +Saccopastore +Altamura +Guattari Cave + + +=== Croatia === +Krapina Neanderthal site +Vindija Cave + + +=== Serbia === +Pešturina +Velika Balanica + + +=== Slovenia === +Divje Babe + + +=== Hungary === +Suba-lyuk, Bükk Mountains + + +=== Slovakia === +Gánovce +Ochoz +Šaľa + + +=== Poland === +Jaskinia Ciemna + + +=== Ukraine === +Kiik-Koba +Moldova I +Staroselje + + +=== Czech Republic === +Kůlna +Šipka + + +=== Russia === +Mezmaiskaya Cave +Sukhaya Mechetka + + +=== Romania === +Peștera cu Oase +Peștera Muierilor + + +== Asia == + + +=== Israel === +Nahal Amud +Kebara +Tabun + + +=== Iran === +Bisitun Cave +Wezmeh + + +=== Syria === +Dederiyeh + + +=== Turkey === +Karain + + +=== Lebanon === +Ksar Akil + + +=== Iraq === +Shanidar + + +=== Uzbekistan === +Teshik-Tash +Aman-Kutan +Obi-Rakhmat Grotto + + +=== Russia === +Chagyrskaya Cave +Okladnikov Cave +Denisova Cave + + +=== Azerbaijan === +Azykh Cave + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_settlements-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_settlements-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..749d9365b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_settlements-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "List of Neolithic settlements" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_settlements" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:51.405825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of human Neolithic settlements sorted in chronological order. + + +== See also == +Copper Age state societies +Neolithic Revolution +List of Mesolithic settlements + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..15e575ee7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of Paleolithic sites in China" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:52.749553+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of Paleolithic sites in China. They are sorted in chronological order from dated earliest to latest: + + +== List == + + +== See also == +History of China +Prehistory of China +List of Bronze Age sites in China +List of Neolithic cultures of China +List of inventions and discoveries of Neolithic China + + +== Notes and references == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d09485efc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "List of Roman hoards in Great Britain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_hoards_in_Great_Britain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:08.132405+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of Roman hoards in Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) that are associated with period of Romano-British culture when Southern Britain was under the control of the Roman Empire, from AD 43 until about 410, as well as the subsequent Sub-Roman period up to the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. +Most Roman hoards are composed largely or entirely of coins, and are relatively common in Britain, with over 1,200 known examples. A smaller number of hoards, such as the Mildenhall Treasure and the Hoxne Hoard, include items of silver or gold tableware such as dishes, bowls, jugs and spoons, or items of silver or gold jewellery. + + + + +== List of hoards == + + +== See also == + +List of hoards in Britain +List of Bronze Age hoards in Britain +List of Iron Age hoards in Britain + + +== Notes == + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Abdy, Richard (2002). Romano-British Coin Hoards. Shire archaeology, No. 82. Shire. ISBN 978-0-7478-0532-8. +Barton, Caroline; Hitchcock, Fi, eds. (2008). Treasure Annual Report 2005/6 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger, ed. (2000). Treasure Annual Report 1998 – 1999 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2002). Treasure Annual Report 2000 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2003). Treasure Annual Report 2001 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004a). Treasure Annual Report 2002 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004b). Treasure Annual Report 2003 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Guest, Peter S. W.; Wells, Nick (2007). Iron Age and Roman Coins from Wales. Collection Moneta, Vol. 66. Moneta. ISBN 978-90-77297-34-6. +Hitchcock, Fi, ed. (2006). Treasure Annual Report 2004 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Lewis, Michael, ed. (2009). Portable Antiquities and Treasure Annual Report 2007 (PDF). Department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum. ISBN 978-0-9563795-1-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2011. +Walters, Henry Beauchamp; Smith, Reginald Allender (1921). Catalogue of the silver plate (Greek, Etruscan and Roman) in the British Museum. British Museum. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8524fbfe1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There have been instances in which a person, through facilitated communication (FC)—a scientifically discredited technique that attempts to aid communication by people with autism or other communication disabilities who are non-verbal—seems to disclose experiences of abuse. Often, the alleged abuse is sexual and contains "extensive, explicit, pornographic details". While facilitators are taught to expect their communication partners to reveal sensitive, personal issues, researchers find that facilitators involved in this type of case mistakenly suspect abuse by family members or others. Despite this, some abuse accusations first made via FC have been later proven credible through physical evidence, medical records, and witness testimony by parties unrelated to FC. In one study, out of 13 children who had made such accusations using FC, four had evidence of sexual abuse, two had physical findings consistent with sexual abuse, one also disclosed the allegation verbally, and one perpetrator confessed following the accusation. +In 1993, Frontline's "Prisoners of Silence" featured the story of Gerry Gherardi of New Hampshire, who was accused, through FC-generated messages, of sexually abusing his son. Despite protestations of innocence, Gherardi was forced to stay away from his home for six months. The charges were dropped when court-ordered double-blind tests showed that Gherardi's son could not write. In the same year, Bernard Rimland reported in a New York Times article that he knew of about 25 cases where families were accused through facilitated communication of sexually abusing their children. +By 1995, there were sixty known cases, with untold numbers of others settled without reaching public visibility. Since then, the number of cases continues to increase. In addition to accusations of sexual abuse, facilitators, reportedly, have developed sexual feelings for their communication partners and, relying on FC for consent, initiated sexual, physical contact with people in their care, raising serious ethical and legal problems for facilitators, protective service agencies, law enforcement, court officials, educators, and family members alike. + +== 1990s == + +=== "Carla" case === +About the same time FC was gaining popularity in the United States in the early 1990s, the Guardianship and Administration Board in Melbourne, Australia, was reviewing a landmark case involving allegations of sexual abuse and facilitated communication. The 1990 case involved a 28-year-old woman (pseudonym "Carla") with severe disabilities who was removed, twice, from her home by state authorities because of messages obtained through FC that she was being sexually abused at home. +Nine facilitators, including Rosemary Crossley, one of Australia's leaders in FC movement, over a course of nine months, obtained messages through FC that allegedly involved incest, rape and other sexual depredations. Crossley had assessed Carla in August 1988, indicating that her ability to spell was very good and expressing amazement at the extent of Carla's vocabulary and perceptions during the evaluation. Officials removed Carla from the home when one of the facilitators, through another facilitated session, indicated Carla threatened suicide if she was not removed from her home. +Following a 15-month custody battle, the Guardianship Board accepted extensive evidence from psychological and other tests that agreed that the woman had a severe intellectual disability, was unable to differentiate between letters of the alphabet, and could not have authored the messages. Double-blind testing, conducted by psychologists Alan Hudson and Beatrice Melita, demonstrated that the only meaningful responses obtained through FC were when the facilitator knew the questions being asked of Carla. The court determined that Carla and her family were "victims" and admonished the facilitators: "the one step that would have prevented the case occurring—prior verification that the woman could communicate with facilitated communication—had not been done." All charges were dropped and custody was granted to Carla's family. + +=== Storch case === +In 1991, Mark Storch, of Shokan, New York, was charged with abusing his daughter after the Department of Social Services received reports that his daughter, Jenny, a 14-year-old with autism, had, through facilitated communication, disclosed recurring sexual assaults, including 200 vaginal and anal rapes. Storch's wife, Laura, was charged with neglect. Despite no physical evidence of abuse, inconsistencies in the facilitated testimony, and questions about the facilitator's troubling personal history, officials pressed charges, which led to a costly, 10-month legal battle. The case was dropped because FC lacked sufficient testing and acceptance in the scientific community. + +Bennett Leventhal, head of pediatric psychology at the University of Chicago, testified in the Storch's defense, saying:The obligation of an investigator into a new technique is to show how it works. With FC, there's this basic assumption of "What can it hurt?" The Storch trial is living proof of how dangerous it is to embrace new science before it has been tested. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..021af97c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Wheaton case === +In 1992, the parents of Betsy Wheaton, a 16-year-old nonspeaking person with autism, were, through facilitated communication, falsely accused of sexually abusing their daughter. The facilitator, Janyce Boynton, who was trained in FC at the University of Maine, interpreted Betsy's hitting and scratching during facilitated sessions as reenactments of abuses occurring at home. Boynton reported these incidents to the Department of Human Services, and Betsy and her brother were removed from the home. The brother was also implicated. The parents' attorney hired Howard Shane of Boston Children's Hospital to conduct testing of authorship. It was determined through double blind testing that Boynton, not Betsy, was authoring the messages obtained through facilitation. Boynton, unlike many other facilitators who have undergone testing, accepted the results, stopped using FC, and persuaded the school system to stop using FC as well. +Looking back on her training, Boynton could see that it had been inadequate. She had not worked with anyone who was nonverbal, and she was pronounced "good to go" after only two days of mostly lectures. She knew that disabled people suffer relatively high levels of abuse, was taught that there was a strong affinity between patient and facilitator, so, she has stated, "you get this sense in your head that you're the only one this person trusts... And then you get overly protective and you have that thought in your head that maybe they've been abused." She describes the process of facilitating as "everything happening at once.... you're so distracted by other things." Until she was tested, she fully believed that she was protecting Betsy. Howard Shane states: "You're expected to believe (the person has been abused) and then, bam, the accusation happens." + +Of the Wheaton case, Todd wrote:The real responsibility for the Wheaton tragedy lies with Rosemary Crossley, Douglas Biklen, and their acolytes. Despite all of their advanced degrees, professional credentials, and university appointments, they failed in their professional and ethical responsibility to show that FC was safe and effective before foisting it on the world. Having donned the trappings of expertise and put themselves out as authorities, they incurred what John Erskine called "the moral obligation to be intelligent." Long before they even thought to put pen to paper and write their extravagant tales of extraordinary awakenings, they should have heeded not just the technical lessons of Clever Hans, but the findings of more than a century of scientific and practical investigations of automatic writing, experimenter bias, mental telepathy, unconscious influence, subjective validation, stimulus leakage, expectancy effects, deception and self-delusion. Had they exercised due scientific diligence, the developers of FC would have quickly realized that they had done nothing better than turn pliant arms into Ouija planchettes and reinvent the seance. + +=== Cracchiolo case === +In 1993, Gregory Cracchiolo, who taught students with severe developmental disabilities in Whittier, California, was accused of sexually assaulting four of his students, with facilitated communication being the only source of evidence. The student making the allegation was unable to communicate by speech to verify these claims. Cracchiolo lost his job and faced 11 felony counts of forcible sodomy and forced oral copulation. He faced a maximum sentence of 88 years in prison. While authorship testing was not done, the charges were dropped after a month, because FC lacked the scientific evidence to determine its efficacy. The prosecutor continued to believe the abuses occurred. Cracchiolo blamed the case for ending his teaching career. + +=== Lehman case === +In 1993, David and Jean Lehman of Newmarket, Ontario, were charged with sexually abusing their 20-year-old son, Derek, based solely on evidence obtained through facilitated communication. At birth, Derek had been diagnosed with autism and severe intellectual disability and, at the time of the allegations, lived in a group home. He was not able to speak but could use two hand signals: "please" and "toilet". He was not able to recognize numbers beyond three and was not aware of his own sex or that of others. +During authorship testing, conducted by Mary Konstantareas, psychology professor at the University of Guelph, Derek was not able to name an object that he had seen but his facilitators had not. After a year-long court battle, the charges were proven unfounded and dropped. The ordeal left the Lehmans in debt, nearly losing their business, and drove David Lehman to nearly committing suicide. The Lehmans filed an $8.5 million civil suit and accepted a settlement for an undisclosed amount. They were also granted custodianship of their son. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d8e215ad1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== John Pinnington case === +In 1998, middle-aged John Pinnington changed careers to focus on the care and treatment of individuals with autism (having been inspired by his experiences with his own autistic step-son). After several years of work in the field, Pinnington was hired by Thomley Hall College, a specialist facility for students aged 16–25 with autism, where he was promoted to the position of Deputy Headmaster in 2004. At the time of his promotion the college was aware that between the years 2000 and 2002, two young adults with autism had accused Pinnington of sexual abuse. Those charges, made during facilitated communication sessions, had been investigated by the college and by the police and found to be without foundation. In 2005, Pinnington learned that a third young man with autism had made an abuse allegation. Again, the charges were made during a facilitated communication session. +Despite the dismissal of all charges by police investigators, the law in the UK required that a record of the allegations remain in Pinnington's police record, and the charges came to light later in 2005 when a new set of background checks were mandated by a charity that had taken over the college. Despite the lack of any independent evidence of the abuse, and despite the fact that all allegations had been made during FC sessions, and despite the fact that one of the facilitators was the mother of an accuser, Pinnington was fired from his position by the charity. +Pinnington was unsuccessful in his attempts to have the abuse allegations expunged from his record, and in 2008, in a controversial landmark decision, his appeal to the High Court was denied, even though the court agreed that there was "strong doubt" about the veracity of the allegations. The baseless accusations, made during FC sessions, permanently ended Pinnington's career as an educator and so seriously damaged his reputation that he has been unable to find employment of any kind. + +=== England case === +In 1999, a 50-year-old businessman from the south of England was accused, through FC, of abusing his 17-year-old son. The son, reportedly, had severe autism and epileptic seizures and was not able to speak. Dame Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, President of the High Court Family Division, ruled on the first case of its kind in England, saying FC was "dangerous" and should not be used by UK courts to "back up or dismiss allegations of abuse". She also indicated the court was "entirely satisfied the allegations were unfounded", since there was no evidence that the father or anyone else was a perpetrator, or that the abuse had ever occurred. + +== 2000s == + +=== Wendrow case === +In 2007, Julian Wendrow of West Bloomfield, Michigan, was charged with sexually abusing his daughter and placed in jail for 80 days. His wife, Tali, was accused of severely mentally and emotionally abusing her children and was forced to wear an electronic tether. Their 13-year-old son was also named as a perpetrator. Both children were placed in foster care. +The allegations resulted from messages obtained via FC at school while an aide helped guide the girl's hand. The case was a "virtual rerun" of the 1992 Betsy Wheaton case. When lawyers questioned the girl without the facilitator present, she was unable to answer questions, including "What color is your sweater?" and "Are you a boy or a girl?" The case fell apart due to lack of physical evidence of abuse and facilitated testimony that contained information inconsistent with the Wendrow family, lifestyle and living arrangements: relatives that did not exist, Christian theology attributed to observant Jewish parents, nonexistent rooms and photos. +Aislinn testified, through FC, that she was afraid of her father because of a gun. Police found no guns in the home. As a result, the charges were dropped and the children returned to their parents. Prosecutors continued to believe the girl was afraid of her father. A wrongful arrest suit was settled for $1.8 million, which, according to the attorney representing the Police Department, was a business decision made by the insurance company and was not an admission of wrongdoing or liability. + +== 2010s == + +=== Gigi Jordan case === +On February 3, 2010, Gigi Jordan of New York was found by police in the Peninsula New York hotel. She was incoherent from a drug overdose. Jude Mirra, her eight-year-old son, was also found dead from a mixture of painkillers and anti-inflammatories which Jordan force-fed him. Jordan, at the time, was under the impression Mirra wanted to die because of alleged sexual abuse typed out during sessions involving FC. Despite testifying that she was "by Jude's side at all hours of the day", Jordan believed the biological father, her ex-husband, had been abusing the boy for years and that Mirra's diagnosis of autism was actually a catatonic psychosis brought on by the alleged abuse. To Jordan, the killing was "altruistic filicide"—a mercy killing. +Mirra, who was diagnosed with autism, was not able to speak. Jordan indicated that Mirra, through FC, had told her "I need a lot of drugs to die peacefully" and "I wish you do it soon." Although Jordan and Mirra communicated by typing together on a BlackBerry, no witnesses ever observed Mirra type by himself. In reviewing typed messages provided by Jordan of her son's disclosures, court officials questioned whether Mirra had the capacity to understand or spell words like "aggressively" and "sadistic". +Jordan also believed her second ex-husband, a pharmaceutical executive, was stealing millions of dollars from her and wanted her killed. Both men denied the accusations. No evidence of any crimes committed in connection with the case were found against either of the two men. In November 2014, the jury accepted Jordan's claim of extreme emotional disturbance and found her guilty of first-degree manslaughter in the death of her son. On December 31, 2022, she was found dead at her home hours after U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor revoked her bail. Her death was ruled a suicide. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e144a7f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Wales case === +In 2012, the parents of a young woman with severe intellectual disabilities, autism, and profound communication problems were reunited with their daughter after the Public Services Ombudsman for Wales concluded they had been wrongfully arrested on suspicion of serious sexual assault obtained via FC. The family had been separated for six months. No charges were brought against the parents. Rowan Wilson, a psychiatrist, had, on November 8, 2010, assessed the woman's mental capacity using FC, though he, admittedly, had no knowledge or experience of the system. He also failed to consider the discrepancy between the woman's language fluency with and without FC. The Medical Practitioners Tribunal Services ruled that Wilson was still fit to practice because "he had shown remorse and insight into the errors he was highly unlikely to repeat." Wilson participated in further training in autism. + +=== Hialeah case === +In 2018, Jose Cordero spent 35 days in jail and was barred from seeing his family for months after he was accused of abusing his seven-year-old autistic son. The accusations arose through the child's teacher using the "hand-over-hand" method of FC. Miami-Dade prosecutors grew suspicious when, through the facilitator the boy made even more outlandish claims and language not typical for someone that age. After being paired with a different teacher and specialist the child was no longer able to reproduce a single word. Coupled with negative DNA testing this resulted in the charges being dropped. According to a final State Attorney report, "Due to significant inconsistencies within the victim's disclosures coupled with controversial means by which the disclosure was obtained, and a lack of corroborating witnesses, the state would be unable to prove this case beyond a reasonable doubt at this time." +The case raises questions about whether or not the teacher, Saul Fumero, made up the allegations and whether the district was aware he was using a discredited communication method. Fumero acknowledged that he has had no formal training in FC. A Miami-Dade Schools spokeswoman did not say whether the district would review Fumero's actions, but noted that teachers are required by law to immediately report allegations of abuse. The spokeswoman, Daisy Gonzalez-Diego, added that the district "does not endorse the facilitated communication method and does not provide training" for it because it is not accepted by those working in the field of "augmentative and alternative communication". + +== 2020s == + +=== Plantan v. Smith case === +In January 2021, father of a fifteen-year-old girl with regressive autism (child named SP in court documents), Kevin Plantan was arrested and charged with raping his daughter SP when she was five and nine-years-old. Plantan and SP's mother Smith were divorced and had a contentious relationship. SP lived with her mother in Hanover County, Virginia, and Plantan lived in Naples, Florida. Plantan was arrested based on writings written by SP though a facilitator. Plantan states to podcaster Amanda Knox that he wanted to believe that his daughter had been communicating with her own words over the years they were writing to each other and on his monthly visits with her. When the arresting officer showed him the letter accusing him (Plantan) with abuse, Plantan's first response was devastation that SP was not really writing as he had thought. +The Hanover County Circuit Court judge refused to believe Plantan who was held in prison ten months until he was released clearing him of all charges. Experts such as Howard Shane and James Todd advised Plantan's legal council explaining facilitated communication and the ideomotor effect. The mother, Smith was ordered to test for authorship by Shane. While waiting for the court and Shane to pick a date for the test, Smith withdrew the charges if Plantan would agree to never see their daughter again. The judge believing that Smith was not acting in good faith, released Plantan from prison and eventually the case against Plantan was dropped. +Plantan filled a civil suit "against his ex-wife, the occupational therapists, and the investigating officer for malicious prosecution, but that effort ultimately failed." As of January 2025, Plantan was attempting to rebuild his life, his ex-wife is homeschooling SP and continuing to use FC with her. Plantan has not seen his daughter since before his arrest. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0984863c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,145 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological and artistic sites of Sardinia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:09.440038+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of archaeological and artistic sites of Sardinia, Italy: + +Acquafredda near Siliqua, castle, 13th century +Aiodda near Nurallao-Nuragus, Giants' Tomb +Albucciu near Olbia-Arzachena, nuraghe +Alghero +Anghelu Ruju near Alghero Ozieri, necropolis +Antas near Fluminimaggiore, temple +Ardara, Romanesque church of Santa Maria del Regno +Argentiera carbon mines, ghost villages, industrial architecture +Asoru near Muravera, nuraghe +Arrubiu +Assemini Catalan Gothic church, 16th century, Byzantine oratorio, 10th century +Barumini nuragic palace and village (*Su Nuraxi), Catalan church 15th century, Catalan Gothic villa +Benetutti church, 15th century, paintings +Biristeddi Giants Tomb +Bisarcio Romanesque church +Bonarcado church 11th century +Bonorva nuragic temple, nuragic tombs, Carthaginian fort, medieval village, church 16th century +Bonu Ighinu, cave +Borore +Bosa +Brodu +Bulzi +Burghidu, nuraghe +Cabu Abbas +Cagliari +Cala Domestica +Campu Luntanu +Carbonia +Castelsardo +Coddu Vecchiu, Giants Tomb +Cornus +Dolianova +Domu de Orgia +Domu s Orku +Friarosu +Fonte e Mola +Funtana Cuverta +Genna Maria +Genna Salixi +Genoni +Gergei +Gesturi +Golgo +Gonnostramatza +Iglesias +Is Concias +Is Paras, nuraghe +Izzana, nuraghe +Kukkuru Nuraxi +Laconi +Li Muri +Losa, nuraghe +Lugherras, nuraghe +Macomer +Madau +Mandra Antine +Massama +Milis +Molafa +Monte Arci +Monte d'Accoddi +Monte Sirai A fortified hilltop town founded in the 8th century BC +Montessu +Montevecchio +Moseddu +Nora +Nugoro +Nuxis +Olbia, church of San Simplicio (Olbia) +Oliena +Olmedo +Olzai +Oristano +Orolo, nuraghe +Ossi +Ottana +Ozieri +Palmavera +Pani Loriga +Perfugas +Ploaghe +Porto Torres +Pranu Mutteddu +Quirra +Roccia dell Elefante +Saccargia +Sa Coveccada, dolmen +San Cosimo +San Giovanni di Sinis +San Mauro +San Platano +San Salvatore +Sant Antioco +Santa Cristina di Paulilatino +Santa Giusta, ex-Cathedral of Santa Giusta +Santa Vittoria +Santu Antine Nuraghe +Sa Punta e su Nurake +Sardara +Sas Concas +Sassari +Sa Testa +Seneghe +Serra Orrios +Seruci +Sibiola +Silanus +Sorradile +Sorres +Sos Furrighesos +Suelli +Sulci, Phoenician city, Carthaginian necropolis, Roman ruins +Su Mulinu +Su Pranu +Su Tempiesu +Tamuli +Tergu, church of Nostra Signora di Tergu +Tharros +Thiesi +Thomes +Tiscali +Tratalias +Trullas +Tuili +Tuvixeddu necropolis Carthaginian and later Roman necropolis +Uta +Villamar +Zuri + + +== External links == +Archaeology and short history of Sardinia +Archaeology and monuments of Sardinia \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..40195b34a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological excavations by date" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:16.801448+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of significant archaeological expeditions by date, which include first excavations at important sites, or expeditions that uncovered important objects. + + +== 1500s == +Pompeii - 1599 - Domenico Fontana called when the digging of an underground channel to divert the river Sarno ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. + + +== 1600s == +Ur - 1625 - Pietro Della Valle noted bricks with cuneiform writing and stone seals at the site of Ur. + + +== 1700s == +Julliberrie's Grave - 1702 - Heneage Finch + + +== 1800s == + + +=== 1810s === +Babylon - 1811–12 - Claudius Rich + + +=== 1840s === +Dur-Sharrukin (Knorsabad) - 1842 - Paul-Émile Botta +Ninevah - 1843 - Paul-Émile Botta +Ninevah - 1845 - Austen Henry Layard +Dur-Sharrukin (Knorsabad) - 1847 - Austen Henry Layard found Sennacherib's palace, and the library of Ashurbanipal + + +=== 1850s === +Larsa - 1850 - William Loftus +Nippur - 1851 - Austen Henry Layard +Borsippa - 1854 - Henry Creswicke Rawlinson +Eridu - 1855 - John George Taylor + + +=== 1870s === +Troy - 1871-1879 - Heinrich Schliemann conducted two excavations at the site, determining that the city pre-dated the Classical era + + +=== 1880s === +Sippar - 1880-81 - Hormuzd Rassam +Sippar-Amnanum - Hormuzd Rassam +Tell Zurghul - 1887 - Robert Koldewey +Lagash - 1887 - Robert Koldewey +Great Serpent Mound - 1887-89 - Frederic Ward Putnam + + +=== 1890s === +Delphi - 1892 - Theophile Homolle, French School of Archaeology + + +== 1900s == + + +=== 1900s === +Knossos - 1900 - Arthur Evans +Shuruppak - 1902 - Robert Koldewey and Friedrich Delitzsch +Gezer - 1902-09 - R.A.S. Macalister +Adab - 1903-05 - Edgar James Banks +Girsu - 1903-09 - Gaston Cros + + +=== 1910s === +Tell al-'Ubaid - Henry Hall + + +=== 1920s === +Ngaut Ngaut (also called Devon Downs) - Norman Tindale +Mohenjo-daro - Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25 and John Marshall in 1925–26 +Jemdet Nasr - Stephen Langdon + + +=== 1930s === +Sutton Hoo - Basil Brown +Eshnunna - Henri Frankfort +Khafajah - Henri Frankfort + + +=== 1940s === +Tell Uqair - Seton Lloyd + + +=== 1960s === +Masada - Yigael Yadin +Tel Arad - Yohanan Aharoni + + +=== 1990s === +Marad - 1990 - Excavations led by Na'el Hannoon + + +== 2000s == +Tulul al-Baqarat - 2008-10 - Ayad Mahir Mahmud + + +=== 2010s === +Tell Khaiber - 2013-17 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_in_Jerusalem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_in_Jerusalem-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e61bc4233 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_in_Jerusalem-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological excavations in Jerusalem" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_in_Jerusalem" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:18.145296+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of archaeological excavations in Jerusalem is an incomplete list of archaeological excavations in Jerusalem. +In 1952 Father Jan Jozef Simons published Jerusalem in the Old Testament: Researches and Theories, which was a complete list of all archaeological excavations in Jerusalem up until the Second World War; the book become the "Jerusalem Bible" for archaeologists. +Small scale excavations continued between 1948 and 1967, but the modern excavation of the city accelerated only after Israel's capture of East Jerusalem in 1967. + + +== 19th Century == +The nineteenth century saw much interest in Jerusalem develop. British Protestants, eager to find hard evidence for their Christian convictions, set out to dig the Holy City. Among them were Flinders Petrie, Charles Warren, Charles William Wilson and Montague Parker. + + +== The British Mandate == +During the Mandate, efforts to excavate Jerusalem continued with digs by R. A. Stewart Macalister in the City of David. + + +== Jordanian Rule == +Under Jordanian rule, Kathleen Kenyon excavated in the City of David, discovering numerous important finds including the proto-Ionic capital. + + +== Summary Table == + + +== Bibliography == +Margreet Steiner, 2016, From Jerusalem with Love, History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After “Historicity”. Changing Perspectives 6, edited by Ingrid Hjelm and Thomas L. Thompson, Routledge, pp. 71–84 +Margreet Steiner, 2014, One Hundred and Fifty Years of Excavating Jerusalem Bart Wagemakers (ed.), Archaeology in the Land of `Tells and Ruins’. A History of Excavations in the Holy Land Inspired by the Photographs and Accounts of Leo Boer. Oxbow Books, Oxford. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..49049fc66 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological periods" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:54.018044+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The names for archaeological periods vary enormously from region to region. This is a list of the main divisions by continent and region. Dating also varies considerably and those given are broad approximations across wide areas. +The three-age system has been used in many areas, referring to the prehistorical and historical periods identified by tool manufacture and use, of Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Since these ages are distinguished by the development of technology, it is natural that the dates to which these refer vary in different parts of the world. In many regions, the term Stone Age is no longer used, as it has been replaced by more specific geological periods. For some regions, there is need for an intermediate Chalcolithic period between the Stone Age and Bronze Age. For cultures where indigenous metal tools were in less widespread use, other classifications, such as the lithic stage, archaic stage and formative stage refer to the development of other types of technology and social organization. +Historical periods denotes periods of human development with the advantage of the development of writing. Written records tend to provide more socio-political insight into the dominant nations, and hence allow categorization according to the ruling empires and cultures, such as Hellenistic, Roman, Viking. Inevitably these definitions of periods only relate to the region of that empire or culture. +The Industrial age or Modern era is generally taken to refer to post-1800. From this time, the Industrial Revolution which began in Western Europe resulted in global trade and greatly increased cultural exchange. + + +== Archaeological period articles – by continent and region == + + +== See also == +List of time periods + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Levant)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Levant)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ff74f312f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Levant)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological periods (Levant)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Levant)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:58.489681+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a refined list of Levantive archeological periods, expanded from the basic three-age system with finer subdivisions and extension into the modern historical period (note: "BP" = "Before Present"). The particular dates selected as the boundary between ages, as well as the period names for the historical era, are specific to Levantine archaeology and therefore are most accurate for that context. Beginning and ending dates of prehistoric ages are based on the introduction and prevalence of certain technologies, which varied from culture to culture; similarly, historical eras are named after cultures in the area of influence in which the Levant was included. However, archaeologists studying other regions have sometimes found it useful to use the same or a similar system of eras for their topics of research (particularly for prehistoric eras), and thus this list can be used to represent the archaeological periods of areas more general than the Near East. + + +== See also == +History of the ancient Levant +List of archaeological excavations by date +List of archaeological periods - parent page +Time periods in the Palestine region + + +== References == +"BAESL Archaeological Period Codes". Stewart Library at Weber State University; adapted from The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations In the Holy Land (Jerusalem and New York, 1993). Retrieved August 6, 2005. +"Chronology of the Wadi Arabah". Wadi Arabah Project. Retrieved November 2, 2005. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0eded4b86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological periods (Mesoamerica)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:55.895279+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The chronology of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is usually divided into the following eras: + + +== Five Stage Classification == +One of the most enduring classifications of archaeological periods & cultures was established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into 5 phases. These are: + +The Lithic stage +The Archaic stage +The Formative stage +The Classic stage +The Post-Classic stage + + +== Tabular list == + + +== See also == +Archaeogenetics +Archaeology of the Americas +History of the Americas +Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas +List of archaeological periods – parent page +List of archaeological periods (North America) +List of pre-Columbian cultures +Mesoamerican chronology + + +== References == +Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips (1957). Method and Theory in American Archaeology. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-89888-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..241aaf663 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological periods (North America)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:57.220127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +North American archaeological periods divide the history of pre-Columbian North America into successive named eras or periods, from the earliest known human habitation through to the early Colonial period which followed the European colonization of the Americas. + + +== Stage classification == +One of the most enduring classifications of archaeological periods and cultures was established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book, Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, only three of which applied to North America. The use of these divisions has diminished in most of North America due to the development of local classifications with more elaborate breakdowns of times. + +1. The Paleo-Indian stage and/or Lithic stage +2. The Archaic stage +3. The Formative stage – at this point, the North American classifications system differs from the rest of the Americas. +For more details on the five major stages, still used in Mesoamerican archaeology, see Mesoamerican chronology and Archaeology of the Americas. + + +== Table of archaeological periods North America == + + +== Culture, phase, and chronological table for the Mississippi Valley == + + +== See also == +Archaeogenetics +Archaeological culture +Archaeology of the Americas +List of archaeological periods +Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d4f250a6e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,470 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeological sites by country" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:12.622994+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of notable archaeological sites sorted by country and territories. + + +== Afghanistan == + + +== Albania == + + +== Algeria == + + +== Argentina == + + +== Armenia == + + +== Australia == + + +== Austria == + + +== Azerbaijan == + + +== Bahrain == + + +== Bangladesh == + + +== Belgium == + + +== Belize == + + +== Bolivia == + + +== Bosnia and Herzegovina == + + +== Brazil == + + +== Bulgaria == + + +== Burkina Faso == +Ancient Ferrous Metallurgy Sites of Burkina Faso +Ruins of Loropéni + + +== Cambodia == + + +== Canada == + + +== Chile == + + +== China == + + +== Colombia == + + +== Costa Rica == +Guayabo + + +== Croatia == + + +== Cuba == + + +== Cyprus == + + +== Czech Republic == +Mladec (Mladeč) – Homo 31.000 years ago +Dolni Vestonice settlement + + +== Denmark == + + +== Ecuador == + + +== Egypt == + + +== El Salvador == +Cara Sucia +Joya de Cerén +Quelepa +San Andrés +Tazumal + + +== Eritrea == +Gash Group +Buya +Metera +Qohayto +Keskese +Adulis +Mendefera +Sembel + + +== Estonia == +Pulli settlement +Rebala + + +== Ethiopia == +Hadar, Ethiopia +Gendebelo +Omo remains +Mifsas Bahri +Bouri Formation + + +== Finland == +Astuvansalmi +Ukonkivi +Wolf Cave + + +== France == +Grotte du Vallonnet +Terra Amata +Chauvet Cave +Lascaux +Glanum +Glozel +Carnac Stones + + +== Georgia == +Armazi +Dmanisi +Nokalakevi +Vani + + +== Germany == +Aythra +Bedburg-Königshoven +Bilzingsleben +Hirschlanden +Königsaue +Pfahlbau Museum Unteruhldingen +Federsee + + +== Greece == + +Acharnae, Athens ( Mycenaean tomb) + + +== Guatemala == + + +== Honduras == +Copán +El Puente + + +== Hong Kong == +Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb +Stone Circles +Wong Tei Tung, Late Palaeolithic + + +== Hungary == +Aquincum +Gorsium +Üllő5 + + +== India == + + +== Indonesia == + + +== Iran == + + +== Iraq == + + +== Republic of Ireland == + + +== Israel and Palestine == + + +== Italy == + + +== Japan == + + +== Jordan == + + +== Kazakhstan == + + +== Korea == + + +== Kyrgyzstan == + + +== Kuwait == +Agarum +Bahra 1 +H3 (Kuwait) + + +== Lebanon == + + +== Libya == + + +== Malaysia == + + +== Mali == +Timbuktu +Djenne + + +== Malta == +Clapham Junction – cart ruts +Ġgantija Temples – listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site +Ħaġar Qim Temples – listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site +Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni – prehistoric subterranean structure listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site +Mnajdra Temples – listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site +Tarxien Temples – listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site +Xagħra Stone Circle + + +== Mexico == + + +== Micronesia == +Nan Madol +Chuuk + + +== Moldova == +Athanaric's Wall +Old Orhei +Upper Trajan's Wall + + +== Mongolia == +Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui (Northern Cave of Blue), Paleolithic cave drawings +Tsagaan Agui (White Cave), Paleolithic cave drawings +Kharakhorum, capital of the Mongolian Empire + + +== Montenegro == +Municioium S... +See also:Heritage museum Pljevlja + + +== Morocco == + + +== The Netherlands == +Hunebed + + +== New Zealand == +Albert Park tunnels – World War II civilian air raid shelters sealed in 1946 +Te Wairoa – "The Buried Village", a Maori village buried by volcanic eruption in 1886 +Wairau Bar – rivermouth site of pre-European Maori settlement +Huriawa Peninsula - Te Pa a Te Wera, Reserve, and archeological sites +Motutapu Island - Site of many settlements and early Maori manufacturing + + +== Nicaragua == + + +== North Macedonia == + + +== Norway == +Borg in Lofoten, Viking Age longhouse site +Borre mound cemetery, cemetery from the Merovingian period to the Viking Age +Gokstad ship burial +Oseberg ship burial +Tune ship burial + + +== Pakistan == + + +== Palau == +Aimeliik Site + + +== Panama == +Monagrillo + + +== Papua New Guinea == +Kuk Swamp + + +== Peru == + + +== Philippines == + + +== Poland == + + +== Portugal == + + +== Qatar == + + +== Romania == + + +== Russia == + + +== Serbia == + + +== Saudi Arabia == + + +== Somalia == +Surud mountain +Gelweyto +Laasgeel +Maduna + + +== Slovenia == +Ptuj (Roman city Poetovio) +Potok Cave (cave – Neolithic) +Ljubljana Marsh (Bronze Age findings) +Ljubljana (Roman city Emona) +Vrhnika (World's oldest wheel) + + +== South Africa == + + +== Spain == + + +== Sri Lanka == + + +== Sultanate of Oman == + + +== Sweden == + + +== Switzerland == + + +== Syria == + + +== Tanzania == +Kilwa Kisiwani +Olduvai Gorge + + +== Taiwan == + + +== Thailand == +Ban Chiang +Ban Non Wat +Ayutthaya Historical Park + + +== Tunisia == + + +== Turkey == + + +== Turkmenistan == +Altyndepe +Anau-depe +Berdysyčran-depe +Gonur Tepe +Jeitun +Merv +Monjukli Depe +Namazga-Tepe +Togolok +Ulug Depe +Yaz-depe + + +== Ukraine == + + +== United Arab Emirates == + + +== United Kingdom == + + +== United States == +See also: Archaeological sites in the United States by state or territory, List of Mississippian sites, List of Hopewell sites + + +== Uzbekistan == +Bukhara +Samarkand + + +== Yemen == +Ma'rib Capital of the Sabaean empire +Zafar Capital of the Himyarite empire + + +== Zimbabwe == +Great Zimbabwe +Ziwa +Matopos + + +== See also == + + +== References == + +The Times 2001, Archaeology of the World, Edited by Chris Scarre, HarperCollins Publishers, London. ISBN 0-7230-1032-3 + + +== External links == +The World Monuments Fund's Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites +Fasti Online – an online database of archaeological sites \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bbbebb7a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:33.809577+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following list features women from the ancient Mediterranean region and adjacent areas who are attested primarily through archaeological evidence. They are notable either as individuals or because the archaeological data associated with them is considered significant. + + +== Archaeology and ancient women == +Archaeological data preserves information about women of different classes and social standings, while also saving details that might not have been preserved in texts. Scholars have noted its importance in revolutionizing our understanding of ancient women and providing new theoretical frameworks for analyzing them, such as gender archaeology. Archaeological projects regularly uncover surprising information about ancient women on subjects as varied as motherhood to the historical inspiration for Amazons. +Archaeological data provides a wide range of information about ancient women. For example, bones reveal aspects of lived experience and family relations. Grave goods and funerary monuments record life histories, social roles, and religious affiliations. Evidence from sanctuaries documents relationships between mortal women and deities. House layouts indicate gendered spatial dynamics and work space. Correspondence and records on papyrus, wood, or clay tablets preserve information about economic histories, social networks, and emotional experience. Poems and hymns showcase women's contribution to ancient literature. Visual culture highlights narratives about women but also the way they are portrayed by male artists. Such archaeological evidence reveals valuable data not just about the individual woman herself, but also about women's history in ancient regions more generally. As many scholars have noted, archaeology provides an important corrective because ancient literary sources often emphasized elite women, were written by male authors, or the women were literary constructs rather than 'real' women. + + +== Geographical scope and chronology == +Although ancient women from the wider Mediterranean region have often been analyzed based on their individual cultures, as area-studies has impacted scholarly disciplines, researchers have recognized the wider shared context of the Mediterranean and its adjacent areas. It is now recognized that these various cultures have a connected history in antiquity. This reflects the dynamic cultural interactions resulting from trade and migration, wherein people of various cultures often lived amongst each other or came into contact at ports and emporia, as well as the pressures of warfare and imperialistic projects. As such, it has become common for larger surveys and collections to group together women from the various Mediterranean cultures (including the territories of the Roman empire), Mesopotamia, and the Black Sea, as has been done in this list. For example, Budin & Macintosh Turfa note that dissatisfaction with treatments of the wider region led them to use an area-studies organization in their Women in Antiquity (2016): previous studies of the region's ancient women, they say, "consisted primarily of Greece and Rome, giving exceptionally short shrift to the rest of the ancient world—places like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel, Cyprus, Etruria, and the Celts." +The 'ancient' period herein spans the Sumerian and Egyptian periods through Late Antiquity (the pre-Medieval). + + +== Etruscan == + + +== Greek == + + +== Roman == + + +== See also == +Women in ancient Egypt +Women in Etruscan society +Women in ancient Rome +List of distinguished Roman women +Women in ancient warfare +List of prostitutes and courtesans of antiquity +List of women in the Bible +Penelope's Bones non-fiction book by Emily Hauser + + +== Notes == + + +== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38b2a3ee2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of archaeologists – people who study or practise archaeology, the study of the human past through material remains. + +== A == +Charles Conrad Abbott (1843–1919) American; advocate of early occupation of Americas +Kamyar Abdi (born 1969) Iranian; Iran, Neolithic to the Bronze Age +Aziz Ab'Saber (1924–2012) Brazilian; Brazil +Johann Michael Ackner (1783–1862) Transylvanian; Roman Dacia +Dinu Adameșteanu (1913–2004) Romanian-Italian; aerial photography, survey of sites +James M. Adovasio (born 1944) U.S.; New World (esp. Pre-Clovis), perishable technologies +Anagnostis Agelarakis (born 1956) Greek; archaeological and physical anthropology +Yohanan Aharoni (1919–1976) Israeli; Israel Bronze Age +Julius Ailio (1872–1933) Finnish; Karelian Isthmus +Ekrem Akurgal (1911–2002) Turkish; Anatolia +Jorge de Alarcão (born 1934) Portuguese; Roman Portugal +Umberto Albarella (born 19??) Italian-British; zooarchaeology +William F. Albright (1891–1971) U.S.; Orientalist +Leslie Alcock (1925–2006) English; Dark Age Britain +Susan E. Alcock (born 1961?) American;Greece, Roman provinces +Miranda Aldhouse-Green (born 1947) British; British Iron Age and Romano-Celtic +Abbas Alizadeh (born 1951) Iranian; Iran +Jim Allen, (born 19??) Australian; Australia, South Pacific, Port Essington, Lapita, Polynesian +Penelope Allison (born 1954) household and Roman archaeology +Sedat Alp (1913–2006) Turkish; Hittitology +Ruth Amiran (1915–2005) Israeli; Tel Arad +George El Andary (born 1958) Lebanese; site restoration +Atholl Anderson (born 1943) New Zealand; New Zealand and the Pacific +David G. Anderson (born 1949) U.S.; eastern North America +Johan Gunnar Andersson (1874–1960) Swedish; China +E. Wyllys Andrews IV (1916–1971) American; Maya +Manolis Andronicos (1919–1992) Greek; Greece +Carmen Aranegui (born 1945), Spanish; Valencia and Morocco +Mikhail Artamonov (1898–1972) Russian/Soviet; Khazar (Central Asia) +Khaled al-Asaad (1934–2015) Syrian; Palmyra +J. R. Aspelin (1842–1915) Finnish; Scandinavia and the Ural region +Mick Aston (1946–2013) English; popularizer +Miriam Astruc (1904–1963) French; Phoenician-Punic people +Richard J. C. Atkinson (1920–1994) English; England +Val Attenbrow (born 1942) Australian; Aboriginal stone tools, archaeology of aboriginal Sydney +Frédérique Audoin-Rouzeau (born 1957) French; Black Death/bubonic plague +Anthony Aveni (born 1938) U.S.; archaeoastronomy +Nahman Avigad (1905–1992) Israeli; Jerusalem, Massada +Hasan Awad (born 1912/13) Bedouin; excavator +Edward R. Ayrton (1882–1914) English Egyptologist and archaeologist +Massoud Azarnoush (1946–2008) Iranian; Sassanid archaeology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ff62e5c3a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,111 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +Churchill Babington (1821–1889) English; classical archaeology +Leila Badre (born 1943) Lebanese +Paul Bahn (born 1953) English; prehistoric art (rock art), Easter Island +Geoff Bailey (born 19??) English; paleo-economy, shell middens, coastal archaeology, Greece +Senake Bandaranayake (1938–2015) Sri Lankan; South Asia +Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier (1840–1914) American; American South-West, Mexico +Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli (1900–1975) Italian; Etruscans & art +Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay (1885–1930) Indian; Mohenjo-daro, Harappa culture +Edward B. Banning (born 1955) Canadian; Near Eastern archaeology, archaeological survey +Luisa Banti (1894–1978) Italian; Etruscology +Taha Baqir (1912–1984) Iraqi; deciphered Sumero-Akkadian mathematical tablets, Akkadian law code discoveries, Babylonia, Sumerian sites +Pessah Bar-Adon (1907–1985) Israeli; Israel (Bet Shearim, Tel Bet Yerah, Nahal Mishmar hoard) +Ofer Bar-Yosef (1937–2020) Israeli; Palaeolithic, Neolithic +Gabriel Barkay (1944–2026) Israeli; Israel (Jerusalem, burials, art, epigraphy, Iron Age glyptics, Ketef Hinnom) +Graeme Barker (born 1946) British; Italian Bronze Age, Roman Libya, landscape archaeology +Philip Barker (1920–2001) British; excavation methods, historic England +John C. Barrett (1949–2024) British; archaeological theory, European prehistory +Alessandro Barsanti (1858–1917) Italian; Egypt (Zawyet El Aryan) +Diane Barwick (1938–1986) Australian; Aboriginal culture and society +George Bass (1932–2021) American; underwater archaeology +Thomas Bateman (1821–1861) English; England (Derbyshire) +Leopoldo Batres (1852–1926) Mexican; Meso-America (Teotihuacan, Monte Albán, Mitla La Quemada, Xochicalco) +Bayar Dovdoi (1946–2010) Mongolian; Mongolia +Mary Beaudry (1950–2020) American; eastern U.S., Scotland, Caribbean, gastronomy +Sergei Beletzkiy (1953–2022) Russian; Medieval Russia +Anna Belfer-Cohen (born 1949) Israeli; Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic Levant +Gertrude Bell (1868–1926) English; adventurer and Middle Eastern archaeologist, formed the Baghdad Archaeological Museum (now Iraqi Museum) +Harry Charles Purvis Bell (1851–1937) British; first Commissioner of Archaeology in Ceylon +Peter Bellwood (born 1943) Australian; Southeast Asia and the Pacific; origins of agriculture and resulting cultural, linguistic and biological developments (worldwide)| interdisciplinary connections between archaeology, linguistics and human biology +Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778–1823) Italian/Venetian; Egypt +Erez Ben-Yosef (born 19??) Israeli; archaeometallurgy +Norbert Benecke (born 1954) German; zooarchaeology +Crystal Bennett (1918–1987) British; Jordan +James Theodore Bent (1852–1897) British; eastern Mediterranean, Africa, Arabia. +Dumitru Berciu (1907–1998) Romanian; South-Eastern and Central Europe, Geto-Dacians, Thracians, Celts +Sofia Berezanska (1924–2024) Ukrainian; Bronze Age +Lee Berger (born 1965) U.S.; paleo-anthropology +Folke Bergman (1902–1946) Swedish; Xiaohe Tomb complex in China +Andrea Berlin (born 19??) U.S.; Achaemenid, Hellenistic, and Roman East; ceramics +Gerhard Bersu (1889–1964) German; Europe (England etc.) +Charles Ernest Beule (1826–1874) French; Greece +Paolo Biagi (born 1948) Italian; Eurasian Mesolithic and Neolithic, Pakistan prehistory +Geoffrey Bibby (1917–2001) British; Arabia +Penny Bickle (born 19??) British; bioarchaeology, Neolithic +Clarence Bicknell (1842–1918) British; cataloged petroglyphs at Vallée des Merveilles, France +Martin Biddle (born 1937) British; medieval and post-medieval archaeology in Great Britain +Manfred Bietak (born 1940) Austrian; Egypt +Fereidoun Biglari (born 1970) Iranian Kurdish; Paleolithic +Lewis Binford (1930–2011) American; U.S., France, theory +Hiram Bingham (1875–1956) U.S.; discovered Machu Picchu +Flavio Biondo (1392–1463) Italian; Rome +Avraham Biran (1909–2008) Israeli; Near East (Israel (Tel Dan)) +Caroline Bird (born 19??) Australia; heritage and indigenous studies research +Judy Birmingham (born 1932) Australian; historical archaeology in Australia, Irrawang pottery, Tasmania +Glenn Albert Black (1900–1964) U.S.; US Mid-West +Carl Blegen (1888–1971) U.S.; Troy +Elizabeth Blegen (1888–1966) U.S.; Greece, educator +Frederick Jones Bliss (1857–1939) U.S.; Palestine +John Boardman (1927–2024) British; Classical archaeology, especially Greek architecture +Jean Boisselier (1912–1996) French; Khmer, Southeast Asia +Nicole Boivin (born 19??) Canadian; migration out of Africa, long-distance maritime trade +Larissa Bonfante (1931–2019) U.S.; Etruscans +Giacomo Boni (1859–1925) Italian; Roman architecture +Ludwig Borchardt (1863–1938) German; Egypt (Amarna) +François Bordes (1919–1981) French; paleolithic, typology, knapping +Barbara Borg (born 1960) German; Classical archaeology +Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes (1788–1868) French; France +Stephen Bourke (born 19??) Australian; Pella +Jole Bovio Marconi (1897–1986) Italian; Neolithic Sicily +Sandra Bowdler (born 1947) Australian; Australian Indigenous archaeology, pre-neolithic East and Southeast Asia +Harriet Boyd Hawes (1871–1945) American; Greece and Crete; Minoan +Richard Bradley (born 1946) British; prehistoric Europe (especially Britain) +Linda Schreiber Braidwood (1909–2003) U.S.; Near East +Robert John Braidwood (1907–2003) U.S.; Turkey +Iosif Benyaminovich Brashinsky (1928–1982) U.S.S.R.; Scythians +Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg (1814–1874) French; Meso-America +James Henry Breasted (1865–1935) U.S.; Egypt +Adela Breton (1849–1923) British; Mexico +Eric Breuer (born 1968) Swiss; Roman/Medieval chronology +Jacques Breuer (1956–2024) Belgian; Roman and Merovingian Belgium +Henri Breuil (1877–1961) French; cave art +Robert Brier (born 1943) U.S.; Egypt paleopathology +Patrick M.M.A. Bringmans (born 1970) Belgian; Palaeolithic Archaeology and Paleoanthropology +Srečko Brodar (1893–1987) Slovene; Upper Paleolithic +Mary Brodrick (c. 1858–1933) English; Egyptology +Alison S. Brooks (born 19??) American; Paleolithic, particularly the Middle Stone Age of Africa +Myrtle Florence Broome (c. 1888–1978) English; Egyptology, illustrator +Don Brothwell (1933–2016) British; paleopathology +Frank Edward Brown (1908–1988) American; Mediterranean +Elizabeth Brumfiel (1945–2012) U.S.; Mesoamerica +Caitlin E. Buck (born 1964) British; statistics, radiocarbon dating +Hallie Buckley (born 19??) New Zealand; bioarchaeology +Sue Bulmer (1933–2016) American; New Zealand, Papua New Guinea +James Burgess (1832–1916) Scottish; 19th-century India +Heather Burke (born 1966) Australian; historical archaeology, field methods +Aubrey Burl (1926–2020) British; British megalithic monuments +Les Bursill (1945–2019) Australian; Dharawal people, Sutherland Shire, Illawarra +Alexander Butyagin (born 1971) Russian; ancient Greek colonies (Crimea) +Karl Butzer (1934–2016) U.S.; environmental archaeology +Ernst Boetticher (1842–1930): Prussian amateur archaeologist \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ae99c095 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +Errett Callahan (1937–2019) American; experimental archaeology +Frank Calvert (1828–1908) English; Troy +Raissa Calza (1894–1979) Ukrainian; Italy (Ostia) +Elizabeth Warder Crozer Campbell (1893–1971) American; California +Scott Cane (born 1954) Australian; Australia, desert people of Australia +Luigi Canina (1795–1856) Italian; Italy (Tusculum, Appian Way) +Gheorghe I. Cantacuzino (1937–2019) Romanian; Romania +Bob Carr (born 1947) American; Florida historic Indians +Maureen Carroll (born 1953) British; Roman archaeology +Martin Carver (born 1941) British; Early Middle Ages in Northern Europe, Sutton Hoo +Howard Carter (1874–1939) English; Egypt +Alfonso Caso (1896–1970) Mexican; Mexico +Gertrude Caton Thompson (1888–1985) English; Egyptm +Helena Cehak-Holubowiczowa (1902–1979) Polish; Poland +C. W. Ceram (1915–1972) German; popularizer +Dilip Chakrabarti (born 1941) Indian; South Asia (Ganges Plain) +John Leland Champe (1895–1978) American?; Great Plains +Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) French; Egypt +Kwang-chih Chang (1931–2001) Chinese/Taiwanese; China +Doris Emerson Chapman (1903–1990) British; prehistory +Arlen F. Chase (born 1953) American; Mesoamerica +Diane Zaino Chase (born 1953) American; Mesoamerica +George Henry Chase (1874–1952) American; Heraion of Argos +Alfredo Chavero (1841–1906) Mexican; Mexico +Maurice Chehab (1904–1994) Lebanese; archaeology Lebanon +Chen Mengjia (1911–1966) Chinese; China +Chen Tiemei (1935–2018) Chinese; scientific archaeology and radiocarbon dating +Chen Xingcan(born 1964) Chinese; China, history of Chinese archaeology +John F. Cherry (born 19??) Welsh; Aegean prehistory +Vere Gordon Childe (1892–1957) Australian; Europe / neolithic +Choe Nam-ju (1905-1980) Korean; Silla culture (Korea) +Choi Mong-lyong (born 1946) Korean; Korea (Mumin pottery period) +Neil Christie (born 19??) British; Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages +Leopoldo Cicognara (1767–1834) Italian; Italy +Muazzez İlmiye Çığ (1914–2024) Turkish; Sumerology +Jacques Cinq-Mars (died 2021) Canadian; Yukon, early man in North America +Amanda Claridge (1949–2022) British; Rome +John Desmond Clark (1916–2002) English; Africa +Grahame Clark (1907–1995) British; Mesolith and economy +Kate Clark (19??) industrial archaeology and museum +Bob Clarke (Historian) (born 1964) English; Prehistoric and Modern Era +David Clarke (1937–1976) English; theory +Stephen Clarke (born 19??) Welsh; Wales +Albert Tobias Clay (1866–1925) American; Assyriology +John Clegg (1935–2015) Australian; rock art +Eric H. Cline (born 1960) American?; Ancient Near East, Aegean prehistory +Jean Clottes (born 1933) French; European cave art +Juliet Clutton-Brock (1933–2015) English; zooarchaeology +Fay-Cooper Cole (1881–1961) American; U.S. Mid-West +Bryony Coles (born 1946) British; prehistoric archaeology, wetland archaeology, Somerset Levels, Doggerland +John Coles (1930–2020) British; wetland archaeology, Bronze Age, experimental archaeology +Donald Collier (1911–1995) American; Ecuadorian and Andean archaeology +John Collis (born 1944) English; Iron Age Europe +Dominique Collon (born 1940) Belgian; cylinder seals of the Near East +Sir Richard Colt Hoare (1758–1838) English, England +Margaret Conkey (born 1943) American; Upper Paleolithic France +Robin Coningham (born 1965) British; South Asian archaeology and archaeological ethics +Diane Atnally Conlin (born 1963) American; Roman art and architecture +Joan Breton Connelly (born 19??) American; Cyprus, Greek art, female agency +Niculae Conovici (1948–2005) Romanian; Romania, amphorae +Graham Connah (1934–2023) South Africa; historical archaeology +Richard Cooke (1946–2023) British; Panama, archaeozoology +Gudrun Corvinus (1931–2006) German; India/Nepal/Africa +Peter Coutts (1934–?) Australian; historical archaeology +George Cowgill (1929–2018) American; Mesoamerica (Teotihuacan) +O.G.S. Crawford (1886–1957) English; aerial archaeology +Rachel Crellin (born 19??) Manx; metal working, theory, British Isles +Aedeen Cremin (born 1940) Irish born, Australian. NSW and Canberra +Luther Cressman (1897–1994) American; Paleo-Indians, Oregon +Roger Cribb (1948–2007) Australian; Turkish Kurds and Australian Aborigines +Ion Horaţiu Crişan (1928–1994)Romanian; Geto-Dacians and Celts +William (Bill) Culican (1928–1984) Australian; Middle East, Australian historical archaeology +Joseph George Cumming (1812–1868) English; Isle of Man +Vicki Cummings (19??), British; prehistoric archaeologist +Barry Cunliffe (born 1939) British; Iron Age Europe, Celts +Ben Cunnington (1861–1950) English; prehistoric England (Wiltshire) +Alexander Cunningham (1814–1893) English; "Father of Indian Archaeology" +Maud Cunnington (1869–1951) Welsh; prehistoric Britain (Salisbury Plain) +William Cunnington (1754–1810) English; prehistoric Britain (Salisbury Plain) +James Curle (1861?–1944) Scottish; Roman Scotland (Trimontium), Gotland +Florin Curta (born 1965) American; Eastern Europe +Ernst Curtius (1814–1896) German; Greece +Clive Eric Cussler (1931–2020) American; underwater archaeology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9885bd771 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +Gaetano d'Ancora (1751–1816) Italian; Italy +Albéric d'Auxy (1836–1914) Belgian; Belgium +Bruno Dagens (1935–2023) French; Khmer and India +Constantin Daicoviciu (1898–1973) Romanian; Romania +George F. Dales (1927–1992) American; Nippur, Indus valley civilizations +Mary Dallas (1952–2023) Scottish-born Australian, Aboriginal cultural heritage management +Ahmad Hasan Dani (1920–2009) Pakistani; South Asian archaeology +Glyn Daniel (1914–1986) Welsh; European Neolithic; popularization of archaeology +Ken Dark (born 19?) British; Roman and medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, theory +Raymond Dart (1893–1988) Australian; paleoanthropology: Australopithecus africanus +Timothy Darvill (1957–2024) British; Britain +Raksha Dave (Born 1977) British; Field and Public Archaeologist, President of Council for British Archaeology +Janet Davidson (born 1941) New Zealand; New Zealand, Pacific Islands +Jack L. Davis (born 1950) American; ancient Greece +Theodore M. Davis (1837–1915) American; Egypt +William Boyd Dawkins (1837–1929) British; antiquity of man +Touraj Daryaee (born 1967) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) +Don Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe (1865–1937) Sri Lankan; epigraphist and archaeologist, Sri Lanka +Janette Deacon (born 1939) South African; rock art, heritage management +Hilary Deacon (1936–2010) South African; Africa, antiquity of man +Corinne Debaine-Francfort (born 19??) French; Eastern Central Asian and protohistoric China +James Deetz (1930–2000) American; historical archaeology +Warren DeBoer (died May 24, 2020) American; North and South America, ethnoarchaeology, ceramics +James P. Delgado (born 1958) American; maritime archaeologist +Arthur Demarest (fl. 2000 AD) American; Maya +Robin Dennell (born 1947) British; prehistoric archaeologist +Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala (1900–1976) Sri Lankan; paleontologist, zoologist, director of the National Museum of Ceylon +Siran Upendra Deraniyagala (1942–2021) Sri Lankan; Director-General of Archaeology in the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka +Louis Felicien de Saulcy (1807–1880) French; Holy Land +Jules Desnoyers (1800–1887) French; antiquity of man +Rúaidhrí de Valera (1916–1978) Irish; megalithic tombs in Ireland +Dragotin Dežman (1821–1889) Slovenian; Ljubljana Marsh, Iron Age in Lower Carniola +Harold L. Dibble (1951-2018) American; paleolithic lithics +Adolphe Napoleon Didron (1806–1867) French; Medievalist, Christian iconography +Tom D. Dillehay (born 1947) American-Chilean; ethnoarchaeologist, early occupation of the Americas +Kelly Dixon (born 1970) American; historical archaeology of the American West +Brian Dobson (1931–2012) British; Hadrian's Wall, the Roman Army +Donald Brian Doe (1920–2005) British; Arabia +Dong Zuobin (1895–1963) Chinese/Taiwanese; oracle bones, Yinxu +Gertrud Dorka (1893–1976), German archaeologist, prehistorian and museum director +Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1853–1940) German; Greece +Trude Dothan (1922–2016) Austrian; Israel +Claude Doumet-Serhal (born 1958) Lebanese; history and archaeology of Sidon +Hans Dragendorff (1870–1941) German; Roman ceramics +Penelope Dransart (born 19??) British?; South American anthropology +Carol van Driel-Murray (born 1950) British; gender archaeology, Roman archaeology, leather +Angela von den Driesch (1934–2012) German; osteoarchaeology +Hilary du Cros (born 1962) Australian; history of Australian archaeology +Duan Qingbo (1964–2019) Chinese; Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor +Roger Duff (1912–1978) New Zealander; New Zealand +Katherine Dunbabin (born 1941) British?; classical archaeology, Roman art +Robert Dunnell (1947–2010) American; theory, U.S. Mid-West +Louis Dupree (1925–1989) American; Afghanistan +E. C. L. During Caspers (1934–1996) Dutch; Prehistoric Mesopotamia, South Asian, Persian Gulf +Robert H. Dyson (1927–2020) American; Near Eastern archaeology + +== E == +Elizabeth Eames (1918–2008) British; specialist in English medieval tiles +Hella Eckardt (born 19??) British; Roman archaeology, material culture +Campbell Cowan Edgar (1870–1938) British; Cyclades and Hellenistic Egypt, papyrology specialist +Amelia Edwards (1831–1892) British; Egypt +Ricardo Eichmann (born 1955) German; Near Eastern archaeology +George Eogan (1930–2021) Irish; Knowth (Ireland) +Kenan Erim (1929–1990) Turkish; Hellenistic Anatolia +Ufuk Esin (1933–2008) Turkish; prehistoric Anatolia, archaeometry +Roland Étienne (born 1944) French; ancient Greece and Hellenistic period +Damian Evans (1975-2023) Australian-Canadian; Angkor, lidar +Sir Arthur Evans (1851–1941) British; Aegean archaeology (Minoan studies, Knossos, Linear A and B) +Sir John Evans (1823–1908) English; British archaeology + +== F == +Georg Fabricius (1516–1571) German; Roman epigraphy +Brian M. Fagan (1936-2025) British; generalist, popularist, history of archaeology +Panagiotis Faklaris (born 1950) Greek; classical archaeology, excavator of Vergina +Fan Jinshi (born 1938) Chinese; Dunhuang +William Fash (born 1954) American; Maya +Charles H. Faulkner (1937–2022) American; Tennessee, historic archaeology +Neil Faulkner (1958–2022) British; Norfolk, Jordan +Rev. Bryan Faussett (1720–1776) English; Anglo-Saxon Kent (England) +Carlo Fea (1753–1836) Italian; Roman archaeology, archaeological law +Gary M. Feinman (born 1951) American; Mesoamerica, Oaxaca +Sir Charles Fellows (1799–1860) British; Asia Minor +Karl Ludwig Fernow (1763–1808) German; Roman archaeology +J. Walter Fewkes (1850–1930) American; south-west USA (Hohokam; Pueblo, pottery) +Irving Finkel (born 1951) British; cuneiform tablets +Israel Finkelstein (born 1949) Israeli; Bronze Age & Iron Age in Israel, Megiddo (Israel) +George R. Fischer (1937–2016) American; underwater archaeology +Peter M. Fischer (born 1967) Austrian-Swedish; Eastern Mediterranean, Near East +Christopher T. Fisher (born 1967) American; Meso-America, LiDAR, Earth Archive +Cleo Rickman Fitch (1910–1995) American; Roman archaeology +William W. Fitzhugh (born 1943) American; circumpolar archaeology +Kent Flannery (born 1934) American; Mesoamerica +Josephine Flood (born 1938) Australian; Aboriginal prehistory of the Australia Cloggs Cave +Hannah Fluck (born 19??) British; policy and climate change +Robert Bruce Foote (1834–1912) British; India: "the father of Indian prehistory" +Adam Ford (born 19??) Australian; host of documentary series Who's Been Sleeping in My House? +James A. Ford (1911–1968) American; Southeastern United States +Sally Foster (born 19??) Scottish; Medieval Scotland +Alfred Foucher (1865–1952) French; Afghanistan (Gandahar art) and southern Africa +Aileen Fox (1907–2005) British; South West England +Cyril Fox (1882–1967) English; Wales +William Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) English; Egyptology, methodology +David Frankel (born 19??) Australian; Cyprus, Syria, Koongine Cave (Australia) +Barry L. Frankhauser (1943–2014) Australian; archaeometry, residue analysis, Maori earth ovens, sourcing Australian ochres +Elizabeth French (1931–2021) British; Mycenaean Greece, especially the site of Mycenae, and Mycenaean terracottas +George Frison (1924–2020) American; Paleoindian archaeology, lithic tools, pale-oarchaeology +Gayle J. Fritz (born 19??) American; paleo-ethnobotany, agriculture in North America +Honor Frost (1924–2010) British; maritime archaeology, Mediterranean, stone anchors +Dorian Fuller (born 19??) American; archaeobotany, domestication \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1adc618df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +Charles Godakumbura (1907–1977 ) Commissioner of Archaeology in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) from 1956 to 1967 +Christopher Gaffney (born 1962) British; geophysics +Vincent Gaffney (born 1958) British; landscape archaeology +Lamia Al-Gailani Werr (1938–2019) Iraqi; Mesopotamian archaeology +Antoine Galland (1646–1715) French; numismatics, Middle East +Thomas Gann (1867–1938) Irish; Mesoamerica, Maya +Sandor (Alexander) Gallus (1907–1996) Australian; Pleistocene Aboriginal occupation Koonalda Cave South Australia Dry Creek archaeological site Keilor +Carl Jacob Gardberg (1926–2010) Finnish; director of the Finnish Heritage Agency +Jean-Claude Gardin (1925–2013) French; Bactria, theory in archaeology, computing in archaeology +Andrew Gardner (born 19??) British? Roman archaeology +Percy Gardner (1846–1937) English; classical archaeology +Yosef Garfinkel (born 1956) Israeli; Israel +Peter Garlake (1934–2011) Zimbabwean; Zimbabwe +Dorothy Garrod (1892–1968) British; paleolithic +John Garstang (1876–1954) British; Anatolia, Southern Levant +Kathleen O'Neal Gear (born 1954) American; US West; archaeological fiction +William Gell (1777–1836) English; Classical archaeology +Friedrich William Eduard Gerhard (1795–1867) German; Rome +Roman Ghirshman (1895–1979) French; Persian sites in Iran and Afghanistan +Diane Gifford-Gonzalez American (born 19??) zooarchaeology +John Wesley Gilbert (1864–1923) first African-American archaeologist; Classical +Marija Gimbutas (1921–1994) Lithuanian-American; Neolithic & Bronze Age +Pere Bosch-Gimpera (1891–1974) Spanish-Mexican; prehistoric Spain +Einar Gjerstad (1897–1988) Swedish; Cyprus and Rome +Kathryn Gleason (born 1957) American; archaeology of landscape architecture +Albert Glock (1925–1992) American; Palestinian archaeology +Franck Goddio (born 1947) French; underwater archaeology, Heracleion (Egypt) +John Mann Goggin (1916–1963) American; typology, colonial Caribbean +Lynne Goldstein (born 1953) American; prehistoric eastern North America, mortuary +Jack Golson (1926–2023) Australian; Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia Savai'i island, Samoa +Albert Goodyear (born 19??) American; Paleo-Indians +Alice Gorman (born 1964) Australian; Space archaeology, contemporary archaeology, Indigenous Australian archaeology, stone tools, orbital debris, space as a cultural landscape +Carlos J. Gradin (1918–2002) Argentine; Patagonian Paleo-Indians +Ian Graham (1923–2017) British; Mayans +Boris Grakov (1899–1970) Soviet/Russian; Scythians and Sarmatians +Elizabeth Caroline Gray (1800–1887) Italy; Etruscans +Roger Green (1932–2009) American; New Zealand, Pacific Islands +Raphael Greenberg (born 19??) Israeli?; Israel +Kevin Greene (born 19??) British; classical archaeology +Elizabeth S. Greene (born 1970) North American; underwater archaeology, classics +J. Patrick Greene (born 19??) British; Medieval England +Haskel J. Greenfield (born 1953) American; zooarchaeology, Balkans, Middle East +Canon William Greenwell (1820–1918) British; Neolithic England +Alan Greaves (born 1969) British; Turkey +James Bennett Griffin (1905–1997) American; prehistoric eastern North America +Frances Griffith (born 19??) British; aerial archaeology +W. F. Grimes (1905–1988) Welsh; London +Klaus Grote (born 1947) German; Lower Saxony (Germany) +Nikolai Grube (born 1962) German; Mayan epigraphy +Raimondo Guarini (1765–1852) Italian; Classical +Cecily Margaret Guido (1912 – 1994) English; Britain: hillforts, burial traditions, glass beads +Niède Guidon (1933–2025) Brazilian; early humans in Brazil +Prishantha Gunawardena (born 1968) Sri Lankan; Sri Lanka +Guo Moruo (1892–1978) Chinese; China +Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden (1882–1973) Swedish; Classical + +== H == +Labib Habachi (1906–1984) Egyptian; Egypt +Joseph Hackin (1886–1941) French; Afghanistan +Marie Hackin (1905–1941) French; Afghanistan +Maya Haïdar Boustani (born 1966) Lebanese; Lebanon +Robert Hall (1927–2012) American; U.S. Mid-West +Abdulameer al-Hamdani (1967–2022) Iraqi; Iraq, digital database, artifact rescue +Osman Hamdi Bey (1842–1911) Ottoman Turkish; Syria and Lebanon +Yannis Hamilakis (born 1966) Greek; prehistoric Aegean, Greek migration and historical archaeology +Robert Hamilton (1905–1995) British; Near Eastern archaeology +Norman Hammond (born 1944) British; Afghanistan, Maya +Richard D. Hansen (born 19??) American; Meso-America +Alexander Hardcastle (1872–1933) English; Agrigento, Sicily +Anthony Harding (born 1946) British; Bronze Age Europe +Phil Harding (born 1950) British; Britain, flint-knapping +James Penrose Harland (1891–1973) American; Aegean +J.C. "Pinky" Harrington (1901–1998) American; U.S. historical archaeology +Selim Hassan (1886–1961) Egyptian; Egypt +Ayman Hassouna (b. 19??) Palestinian; archaeology of Gaza +Emil Haury (1904–1992) American; Southwestern United States +Francis J. Haverfield (1860–1919) English; Roman Britain +Zahi Hawass (born 1947) Egyptian; Egypt +Christopher Hawkes (1905–1992) English; European archaeology +Jacquetta Hawkes (1910–1996) English; prehistory of England, Europe, Minoa +Sonia Chadwick Hawkes (1933–1999) English; European archaeology, early medieval archaeology +Clarence Leonard Hay (1884-1969) American; Maya civilization +Lotte Hedeager (born 1948) Danish; Iron Age Scandinavia +Jakob Heierli (1853–1912) Swiss; prehistoric Switzerland +Robert Heizer (1915–1979) American; California +Hans Helbæk (1907–1981) Danish; palaeobotany +John Basil Hennessy (1925–2013) Australian; Near East +Edgar Lee Hewett (1865–1946) American; U.S. South-West, antiquities law +Christian Gottlob Heyne (1729–1812) Saxon-German; classics +Eric Higgs (1908–1976) English; economic archaeology +Charles Higham (born 1939) British; South East Asia +Thomas Higham (born 19??) New Zealand; radiocarbon dating +Bert Hodge Hill (1874–1958) American; classical archaeology +Ida Hill (1875–1958) American; classical archaeology +Bert Hodge Hill (1874–1958) American; classical archaeology +Gordon Hillman (1943–2018) British; archaeobotany +Peter Hinton (born 19??) British; England +Hermann Hinz (1916–2000) German; Germany (Colonia Ulpia Traiana) +Yizhar Hirschfeld (1950–2006) Israeli; Israel (Ramat HaNadiv, Qumran) +Anna-Liisa Hirviluoto (1929–2000) Finnish; Iron Age +Peter Hiscock (born 1957) Australian; ancient technology +Ian Hodder (born 1948) English; theory, Catalhoyuk +Frederick Webb Hodge (1864–1956) American; North American Indians +Richard Hodges (born 1952) British; Middle Ages +Birgitta Hoffmann (born 1969); Gask Ridge in Scotland +Michael A. Hoffman (1944–1990) American; Egyptology +Alexander Hubert Arthur Hogg (1908–1989) British; hillforts +Frank Hole (born 1931) American; Near East +Vance T. Holliday (born 1950) American?; Paleoindian and Great Plains geoarchaeology and archaeology +Robert Ross Holloway (1934-2022) American; Greek and Roman numismatics, archaeology of Bronze Age Southern Italy and Sicily +Mads Kähler Holst (born 1973) Danish; Bronze Age and Iron Age wetland sites in Denmark +Sinclair Hood (1917–2021) British; Knossos +Jeannette Hope (born 19??) Australian; Western New South Wales +John Horsley (1685–1732) British; Roman Britain +Youssef Hourany (1931–2019) Lebanese; Middle East +Huang Wenbi (1893–1966) Chinese; China +Huang Zhanyue (1926–2019) Chinese; China from the Han dynasty to the Tang dynasty +John Hurst (1927–2003) British; English medieval archaeology +Elinor Mullett Husselman (1900–1996) American; Coptic historian, papyrologist + +== I == +Richard Indreko (1900–1961) Estonian; Estonia +Cynthia Irwin-Williams (1936–1990) American; Southwestern archaeology +Glynn Isaac (1937–1985) South African; African paleoanthropology +Hideshi Ishikawa (born 1954) Japanese; Japanese and Korean archaeology +Fumiko Ikawa-Smith (born 1930) Japanese-Canadian; East Asian and Japanese archaeology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af03b20e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,131 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== J == +Roger Jacobi (1947–2009) British; Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Britain +Otto Jahn (1813–1869) German; classical world (art) +Herbert Jankuhn (1905–1990) German; Haithabu (Germany) +Jean-François Jarrige (1940–2014) French; South Asia +Jacques Jaubert (born 1957) French; Lower Paleolithic and Middle Paleolithic, lithic technology +Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) U.S. President; Virginia prehistory +Arthur J. Jelinek (1928–2022) American; Eurasian Paleolithic +Jesse D. Jennings (1909–1997) American; New World +Llewellyn Jewitt (1816–1886) English; British antiquities +Donald Johanson (born 1943) American; paleoanthropology, Ethiopia +Jotham Johnson (1905–1967) American; Minturno (Italy), past president of the Archaeological Institute of America +Alexandra Jones (born 19??) American; U.S. historical archaeology +Margaret Ursula Jones (1916–2001) British; Mucking, England +Rebecca Jones (born 19??) British; Roman Britain +Rhys Maengwyn Jones (1941–2001) Welsh/Australian; Tasmania +Martha Joukowsky (1936–2022) American; Middle East (Petra), field methods +Rosemary A. Joyce (born 1956) American; Honduras, gender +Chris Judge (born 19??) American; eastern U.S. (Woodland, Mississippian) +Elsie Jury (1910–1993) Canadian; historical archaeology of Ontario + +== K == +Lili Kaelas (1919–2007) Swedish; Stone and Bronze Age +Gilbert Kaenel (1949–2020) Swiss; Iron Age, La Tène culture +Barbara Kaim (born 1952) Polish; ancient Iran, Parthian and Sasanian periods. +Eduard von Kallee (1818–1888) German; Germany: found 4 Roman castra on the Limes Germanicus +Richard Kallee (1854–1933) German; studied 102 Alemannic tombs +Seifollah Kambakhshfard (1929–2010) Iranian; Iron Age Temple of Anahita +Johan Kamminga (born 19??) Australian?; University of Sydney; use-wear and residues +Georg Karo (1872–1963) German; Mycenaean and Etruscan civilizations +Panagiotis Kavvadias (1850–1928) Greek; Greece +Simon Keay (1954–2021) English; Roman Portus, surveys of Roman Spain and Italy +Phoebe Keef (1898–1978) British; prehistoric archaeology, Sussex +Bennie Carlton Keel (born 1934) American; Southeast USA, Public Archaeology, Cherokee archaeology +Alice Beck Kehoe (born 1934) American; North America: early contact +J. Charles Kelley (1913–1997) American; north-west Mexico +Arthur Randolph Kelly (1900–1979) American; Southeastern USA +Robert Laurens Kelly (born 1957) American; Western USA +Francis Kelsey (1858–1927) American; Middle East, papyrology +Clyde C. Kennedy (1917–1987) Canadian; Ontario, archaic period +David L. Kennedy (born 1948) British and Australian; Roman Near East +Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (born 1952) American; Indus Valley Civilization +Kathleen Kenyon (1906–1978) English; Britain, Near East (Jericho) +Alfred V. Kidder (1885–1963) American; southwestern USA, Mesoamerica +T. R. Kidder (born 1960) American; geoarchaeology and archaeology of Southeastern United States +Lothar Kilian (1911–2000) German; Balts, Germans, proto-Indo-European homeland +Kim Won-yong (1922–1993) (south) Korean; Korea +Karl Frederik Kinch (1853–1921) Danish; Ancient Macedonia, Rhodes, and Roman Greece / Byzantine Greece +Keith Kintigh (born 19??) American; quantitative archaeology, Southwestern USA archaeology +Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680) German; Egyptian hieroglyphics ("the father of Egyptology") +Ella Kivikoski (1901–1990) Finnish; Finnish Iron Age +Birthe Kjølbye-Biddle (1941–2010) Danish; early Christianity in Britain +Richard Klein (born 1941) American; paleo-anthropology (Africa, Europe) +Leo S. Klejn (1927-2019) Belarusian or Russian; theoretical archaeology +Amos Kloner (1940–2019) Israeli; Talpiot Tomb (Israel), Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine archaeology +Sir Francis Knowles, 5th Baronet (1886–1953) English; anthropology and prehistory +Alice Kober (1906–1950) American; Linear B +Robert Koldewey (1855–1925) German; Near East (Babylon) +Manfred Korfmann (1942–2005) German; Bronze Age Aegean and Anatolia (Troy) +Hamit Zübeyir Koşay (1897–1984) Turkish; Early Bronze Age Anatolia +Paul Kosok (1896–1959) American; Nazca geoglyphs +Gustaf Kossinna (1858–1931) German; Germany (Neolithic, Aryan concept) +Raiko Krauss (born 1973) German; prehistory +Kristian Kristiansen (born 1948) Danish; Bronze Age Europe, heritage studies, archaeological theory +Pasko Kuzman (born 1947) Macedonian; Ohrid, North Macedonia +Elizabeth Kyazike (born 19??) Ugandan; Uganda, slave trade + +== L == +Robert Laffineur (born ca. 1946) Belgian; Mycenaeanologist +B. B. Lal (1921–2022) Indian; India +Peter Lampe (born 1954) German; ancient Phrygia +Dorothy Lamb (1887–1967) British; classical archaeology +Luigi Lanzi (1732–1810) Italian; Etruscans +Nancy Lapp (born 1930) American; Near Eastern archaeology, biblical archaeology +Pierre Henri Larcher (1726–1812) French; classical archaeology +Donald Lathrap (1927–1990) American; South America, U.S. Mid-West +Jean-Philippe Lauer (1902–2001) French; Egypt +Bo Lawergren (born 19??) American?; music archaeology; Mesopotamia +T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935) British; adventurer, Middle East +Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817–1894) British; Middle East (Kuyunjik and Nimrud) +Estelle Lazer (born 19??) Australian; human skeletal remains discovered at Pompeii +Foss Leach (born 1942) New Zealand; New Zealand +Louis Leakey (1903–1972) British; archaeologist and paleoanthropologist, Africa +Mary Leakey (1913–1996) British; archaeologist and paleoanthropologist, Africa +Richard Leakey (1944–2022) Kenyan; paleoanthropology, Africa +Edward Thurlow Leeds (1877–1955) British; Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum 1928–1945 +Anthony J. Legge (1939–2013) British; archaeozoology +Delphine Philippe-Lemaître (1798–1863) French historian, archaeologist, botanist +Pirkko-Liisa Lehtosalo-Hilander (born 1934) Finnish; Iron Age +Charles Lenormant (1802–1859) French; Egypt, Greece, Middle East +François Lenormant (1837–1883) French; Assyriologist +Mark P. Leone (1940–2024) American; theory, historical archaeology +Dana Lepofsky (born 1958) Canadian; paleoethnobotany, Northwest Coast +André Leroi-Gourhan (1911–1986) French; theory, art, Paleolithic +Jean Antoine Letronne (1787–1848) French; Greece, Rome, Egypt +Gerson Levi-Lazzaris (born 1979) Brazilian; ethnoarchaeology +Carenza Lewis (born 1963) British; popularizer; Medieval Britain +Jodie Lewis (born 19??) British; prehistoric archaeology +Madeline Kneberg Lewis (1901–1996) American; typologist, Illustrator +Mary Lewis (born 19??) British; bioarchaeologist +David Lewis-Williams (born 1934) South African; cognitive archaeology, Upper-Palaeolithic and Bushmen rock art +Edward Lhuyd (1660–1709) Welsh; Britain +Li Feng (born 1962) Chinese/American; early China Yinxu and Yangshao culture +Li Ji (1896–1979) Chinese; China +Li Liu (born 1953) Chinese/American; neolithic and Bronze Age China, "the father of Chinese archaeology" +Li Xueqin (1933–2019) Chinese; early China +Liang Siyong (1904–1954) Chinese; China +Mary Aiken Littauer (1912–2005) American; horses in pre-history +Gary Lock (born 1948) British; computational archaeology, European prehistory +Georg Loeschcke (1852–1915) German; Mycenaean pottery +Helen Loney (born 19??) British? prehistoric archaeology and pottery studies +Samuel Kirkland Lothrop (1892–1965) American; Central and South America and the Caribbean +Victor Loret (1859–1946) French; Egypt and Southern Africa +William A. Longacre (1937–2015) American; southwestern USA, "New Archaeology +Harry Lourandos (born 1945) Australian; hunter-gatherer intensification +Sir John Lubbock (1834–1913) English; terminology, evolution, generalist +Adam Łukaszewicz (born 1950) Polish; Roman period in Egypt, papyrologist +Rev. William Collings Lukis (1817–1892) British; megaliths of Great Britain and France +Cajsa S. Lund (sv) (born 1940) Swedish; music archaeology +Frances Lynch (born 19??) Welsh; Wales +Albert Lythgoe (1868–1934) American; Egyptologist and a curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..18317d9be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,141 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +Ma Chengyuan (1927–2004) Chinese; authority on ancient Chinese bronzes +Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister (1870–1950) Irish; Palestine, Celtic archaeology +Burton MacDonald (1939–c. 2022) Canadian; biblical archaeology +Eve MacDonald (born 19??) Canadian; classical archaeologist +John MacEnery (1797–1841) Irish; Paleolithic +Richard MacNeish (1918–2001) American; Canada, Iroquois (U.S./Canada), Meso-America, discovered origins of maize +Aren Maeir (born 1958) Israeli; Ancient Levant, Israel, Philistines +Giuseppe Maggi (1930–2025), Italian archaeologist +Mai Yinghao (1929–2016) Chinese; archaeology of the Nanyue kingdom in Guangzhou +Yousef Majidzadeh (born 1938) Iranian; Jiroft culture (Iran) +Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi (1940–2020) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) +Alexis Mallon (1875–1934) French; Levantine prehistory +James Patrick Mallory (born 1945) Irish-American; Indo-European origins, proto-Celtic culture +Max Mallowan (1904–1978) British; Middle East +John Manley (born 1952) British; Roman Britain +Joyce Marcus (born 19??) American; Latin America +Auguste-Édouard Mariette (1821–1881) French; Egypt +Spyridon Marinatos (1901–1974) Greek; Greece, Mycenaeans +Alexander Marshack (1918–2004) American; Paleolithic era +Fiona Marshall (born 19??) American; zooarchaeology and ethnoarchaeology +James A. Marshall (died 2006) American; eastern North American earthworks +John Hubert Marshall (1876–1958) British; Indus Valley Civilization, Taxila, Crete +Pamela Marshall (born 19??) British? buildings archaeologist and castellologist +Marjan Mashkour (born 19??) Iranian; zooarchaeology of Europe and Middle East +J. Alden Mason (1885–1967) American; New World archaeology +Ronald J. Mason (1929–2023) Upper Great Lakes +Gaston Maspero (1846–1916) French; Egypt +Therkel Mathiassen (1892–1967) Danish; Arctic region +Peter Mathews (born 1951) Australian; Maya hieroglyphs +Galina Ivanovna Matveeva (1933–2008) Russian; Central Russia/Volga region +Alfred P. Maudslay (1850–1931) British; Mayans +Valerie Maxfield (born 19??) British? Roman archaeology +Sally Kate May (born 1979) Australian; indigenous rock art +Amihai Mazar (born 1942) Israeli; Israel, Biblical archaeology +Benjamin Mazar (1906–1995) Israeli; Israel, Biblical archaeology +Eilat Mazar (1956–2021) Israeli; Jerusalem, Phoenicians +Gaby Mazor (born 1944) Israeli; Bet She'an (Israeli) +August Mau (1840–1909) German; Pompeii +Sally McBrearty (1949-2023) American; Palaeolithic archaeology +Isabel McBryde (born 1934) Australian; "Mother of Australian Archaeology," axe sourcing studies +Charles McBurney (1914–1979) British; Britain (Upper Paleolithic), Libya, Iran, cave art +Anna Marguerite McCann (1933–2017) American; Underwater Archaeology +Fred McCarthy (1905–1997) Australian; Australia's Aborigines +Aleksandra McClain (born 19??) medieval and church archaeology +Robert McGhee (born 1941) Canadian; Arctic +Patrick Edward McGovern (1944–2025) American; biomolecular archaeology +Jacqueline McKinley (born 19??) British; osteoarchaeology +Betty Meehan (born 1933) Australian; Maningrida, Australia +Vincent Megaw (born 1934) Australian; Early Celtic Art in Britain +Betty Meggers (1921–2012) American; South America +Chuck Meide (born 1971) American; maritime and underwater archaeology; discovered the shipwrecks La Belle (1686), Storm Wreck (1782), and Anniversary Wreck (ca. 1760s-1800) +James Mellaart (1925–2012) British; discoverer of Çatalhöyük +Paul Mellars (1939–2022) British; Neanderthals, European mesolithic +Michael Mercati (1541–1593) Italian [born in Rome]; lithics +Roger Mercer (1944–2018) British; Neolithic and Bronze Age British Isles +Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870) French; French monuments +Kazimierz Michałowski (1901–1981) Polish; Mediterranean archaeology +Jerald T. Milanich (born 19??) American; U.S. south-east (Florida) +Walter Minchinton (1921–1996) British; industrial archaeology +Sir Ellis Minns (1874–1953) British; eastern Europe +Pierre de Miroschedji (born 1944) French; Near East +Keneiloe Molopyane (born 1987) South African; biological archaeologist and paleoanthropologist +Oscar Montelius (1843–1921) Swedish; seriation, Europe (Scandinavia) +Pierre Montet (1885–1966) French; Lebanon, Egypt (Tanis) +Harri Moora (1900–1968) Estonian; Iron Age Baltics +Andrew M.T. Moore (born 19??) English; neolithic, Middle East +Clarence Bloomfield Moore (1852–1936) American; southern United States +Warren K. Moorehead (1866–1939) American; prehistoric eastern United States +Robert Morkot (born 1957) British? Egyptology +Sylvanus G. Morley (1883–1948) American; Mesoamerica, especially Maya +Ann Axtell Morris (1900–1945) American; southwestern U.S. and Mexico +Earl H. Morris (1889–1956) American; southwestern U.S. and Mexico +Dan Morse (1935–2024) American; Central Mississippi Valley +Kate Morse (1958–2023) Australian; Western Australia Pleistocene +Phyllis Morse (Anderson) (born 1934) American; Central Mississippi Valley +John Robert Mortimer (1825–1911) English; England (barrows) +Mike Morwood (1950–2013) Australian; Homo floresiensis +Sabatino Moscati (1922–1997) Italian; Phoenicians +Penelope Mountjoy (1946–2025) British; Mycenaean ceramics +Amini Aza Mturi Tanzanian; Palaeolithic archaeology +Keith Muckelroy (1951–1980) British?; maritime archaeology +Suʻād Māhir Muḥammad (1917–1996) Egyptian; Egypt +David Mullin (born 19??) prehistoric archaeology +William Mulloy (1917–1978) American; Polynesia +John Mulvaney (1925–2016) Australian; "Father of Australian archaeology" +Ken Mulvaney (born 19??) Australian; Aboriginal engagement, Burrup Peninsula rock art +J. T. Munby (Born 1954) English; Britain +Natalie Munro (born 19??) American; zooarchaeology +Stephen Munro (born 19??) Australian; engraved fossil shell from Java +Ana María Muñoz Amilibia (1932–2019) Spanish; Spain +Diana Murray (born 1952); Scottish; Scotland +Margaret Murray (1863–1963) Anglo-Indian; Egyptologist +Tim Murray (born 1955) Australian; history of archaeology +Oscar White Muscarella (1931–2022) American; Persia, Anatolia +George E. Mylonas (1898–1988) Greek; Greece and Aegean + +== N == +Nabonidus (6th century B.C.) Babylonian; Babylon," world's first archaeologist" +Ramachandran Nagaswamy (1930–2022) Indian; south-Indian statues +Maysoon al-Nahar (born 19??) Jordanian; Palaeoarchaeology of the Southern Levant +Dimitri Nakassis (born 1975) American; Greece +Alma Mekondjo Nankela (born 19??) Namibian; Namibia, rock art +Khaled Nashef (1942–2009) Palestinian; Near East +Ezzat Negahban (1926–2009) Iranian; Iran +Sarah Milledge Nelson (1931–2020) American; Korea, Hongshan (China), gender +Ion Nestor (1905–1974) Romanian; Balkans (Sirmium) +Ehud Netzer (1934–2010) Israeli; Israel (Herodian architecture) +René Neuville (1899–1952) French; prehistory of the Southern Levant +Lisa Nevett (born 1965) British; Greece +Charles Thomas Newton (1816–1894) British; Classical archaeology +Constantin S. Nicolăescu-Plopșor (1900–1968) Romania; Romanian prehistory +Christiane Desroches Noblecourt (1913–2011) French; Egypt (Nubian temples) +Francisco Nocete (born 1961) Spanish; Spain +Ivor Noël Hume (1927–2017) British; eastern U.S. seaboard historical archaeology, method and theory of historical archaeology +Zelia Nuttall (1857–1933) American; Mexico + +== O == +Hugh O'Neill Hencken (1902–1981) American; Iron Age Europe +Kenneth Oakley (1911–1981) English; fluorine dating, exposed Piltdown Man hoax +Jérémie Jacques Oberlin (1735–1806) Alsatian; Biblical archaeology, philology +Alexandru Odobescu (1834–1895) Romanian; history of archaeology +Neil Oliver (born 1967) Scottish; popularizer and television presenter: northern Europe +Akinwumi Ogundiran (born 1966); Nigerian-American archaeologist; Yoruba people; African studies +Katsuhiko Ohnuma (born 1944) Japanese, Lithic expert, flintknapper, prehistorian, (Syria, Iraq, Iran) +Bjørnar Olsen (born 1958) Norwegian; theory, material culture, Arctic +John W. Olsen (born 1955) American; prehistory, Paleolithic, Central Asia +Stanley John Olsen (1919–2003) American; historical archaeology and zooarchaeology +Jocelyn Orchard (1936–2019) British Trinidadian; Near Eastern archaeology, Oman +Marthe Oulié (1901–1941) French; Crete +Tahsin Özgüç (1916–2005) Turkish; Assyria \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4082d18d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +Athanasios Papageorgiou (1931–2022) Greek Cypriot; Cyprus +Senarath Paranavithana (1896–1972) Sri Lankan; Sri Lanka, Archeological Commissioner in 1940 +Sarah Parcak (born 1972) American; Egypt, remote sensing +Bertha Parker (1907–1978) Abenaki, Seneca; Southwest US archaeology and ethnology +Barbara Parker-Mallowan (1908–1993) English; Assyriology, epigraphy +André Parrot (1901–1980) French; ancient Near East +Hermann Parzinger (born 1959) German; Scythians +Vasile Pârvan (1882–1927) Romanian; classical archaeology (Hitria) +Timothy Pauketat (born 1961) American; Mississippian culture, Medieval studies +Deborah M. Pearsall (born 1950) American; paleo-ethnobotany (phytoliths) +Mike Parker Pearson (born 1957) English; Neolithic British Isles, archaeology of death and burial +Richard J. Pearson (born 1938) Canadian; Pacific +Pei Wenzhong (1904–1982) Chinese; China +William Pengelly (1812–1894) British; England, paleolithic +Francis Penrose (1817–1903) British; classical +George H. Pepper (1873–1924) American; Southwest USA, Nacoochee Mound (Georgia) +Peter N. Peregrine (born 1963) American; Mississippian culture, cross-cultural studies +Gregory Perino (1914–2005) American; Woodland, and Mississippian cultures in Illinois and Oklahoma +John Shae Perring (1813–1869) British; Egyptian pyramids +Hilda Petrie (1871–1957) British; Egyptology +William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) British; Egypt, methodology, ceramic typology +Stewart Perowne (1901–1989) British; Imadia and Beihan +Alejandro Peschard Fernández (born 19??) Mexican; Meso-America +Philip Phillips (1900–1994) American; theory, eastern and central United States +Alexandre Piankoff (1897–1966) Russian; Egypt +Stuart Piggott (1910–1996) British; neolithic, Europe (especially Britain) +John Pinkerton (1758–1826) Scottish; theory of Gothic superiority, Scottish proto-history +Philip Piper (born 1966) British–Australian; zooarchaeology and palaeoecology of Southeast Asia +Dolores Piperno (born 1949) American; archaeobotany, maize, Panama +Augustus Pitt Rivers (1827–1900) British; Britain (especially Dorset), method +Kyriakos Pittakis (1798–1863) Greek; Greece +Nikolaos Platon (1909–1992) Greek; Minoan Crete +Augustus Le Plongeon (1825–1908) British-American; photographer and antiquarian specializing in Pre-Columbian high cultures +Ina Plug (born 1941) South African; archaeozoology +Aleks Pluskowski (born 19??) environmental archaeology; medieval Europe +Antoine Poidebard (1878–1955) French; aerial archaeology, Middle East, landscape archaeology +Natalia Polosmak (born 1956) Russian; Siberia: Altay: Pazyryk culture +Cristian Popa (born 19??) Romanian; Coţofeni culture +Rachel Pope (born 19??) British; Iron Age Europe +Reginald Stuart Poole (1832–1895) English; Egypt (hieroglyphics and numismatics) +Gregory Possehl (1941–2011) American; South Asia, Indus Valley Civilization +Timothy W. Potter (1944–2000) British; Classical archaeology +Timothy Potts (born 1958) Australian; Middle East and Mediterranean +Aris Poulianos (1924–2021) Greek; paleoathropology in Greece (Petralona skull) +Gary Presland (born 19??) Australian; Aboriginal landscapes in Victoria +Tatiana Proskouriakoff (1909–1985) Russian-American; Mayan hieroglyphs +Francis Pryor (born 1945) British; Bronze (Flag Fen, England) and Iron Ages + +== Q == +Jules Etienne Joseph Quicherat (1814–1882) French; ancient Europe + +== R == +Wulf Raeck (born 1950) German; classical archaeology, Pergamon, Greek barbarian portrayals +Philip Rahtz (1921–2011) British; United Kingdom +José Ramos Muñoz (born 19??) Spanish; Europe, northern Africa +Sir Andrew Ramsay (1814–1891) Scottish; Pleistocene geology, stratigraphy +Sir William Mitchell Ramsay (1851–1939) Scottish; Asia Minor and New Testament +Don Ranson (born 19??) Australian; Tasmanian prehistory Kutikina Cave +Claude Rapin (born 19??) French?; Central Asia +Charles Rau (1826–1887) American; curator at the Smithsonian +Katharina C. Rebay (born 1977) Austrian; Bronze & Iron Age Central Europe, mortuary analysis, gender +William Rathje (1945–2012) American; early civilizations, modern material culture studies, Mesoamerica +Desire Raoul Rochette (1790–1854) French; Greece +Jean Gaspard Felix Ravaisson-Mollien (1813–1900) French; Classical sculpture +Marion Rawson (1899–1980) American; classical archaeology +Shahrokh Razmjou (born 19??) Iranian; Achaemenid Archaeology +Nicholas Reeves (born 1956) British; Egypt +Ronny Reich (born 1947) Israeli; Jerusalem +Maria Reiche Grosse-Neumann (1903–1998) Peruvian; Nazca lines +George Reisner (1867–1942) American; Ancient Egypt, Nubia, Palestine +Colin Renfrew (1937–2024) English; history of language, archaeogenetics +Caspar Reuvens (1793–1835) Dutch; Roman archaeology in the Netherlands +Andrew Reynolds (born 19??) English; Medieval archaeology +Julian C. Richards (born 1951) English; Stonehenge, popularizer +Julian D. Richards (born 19??), British; Anglo-Saxons, Viking Age +Emil Ritterling (1861–1928) German; archaeology +Uzma Z. Rizvi (born 1973) American; Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology +Anne Strachan Robertson (1910–1997) Scottish; Numismatics +Derek Roe (1937–2014) British; paleolithic +Wil Roebroeks (born 1955) Dutch; The Netherlands +Malcolm J. Rogers (1890–1960) American; California +John Romer (born 1941) British; Egypt, popularizer +Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952) Ukrainian/Russian/American; Greece, Thrace, southern Russia +Irving Rouse (1913–2006) American; Caribbean and migration +Katherine Routledge (1866–1935) British; Easter Island +John Howland Rowe (1918–2004) American; Peru +Valentine Roux (born 1956) French; ceramic production in the Levant +Peter Rowley-Conwy (born 1951) British; environmental archaeology +Martin Rundkvist (born 1972) Swedish; Bronze, Iron, and Middle Ages of Scandinavia. +Adrian Andrei Rusu (born 1951) Romanian; Medieval archaeology, researcher at the Institute of Archaeology and Art History in Cluj-Napoca +Simon Rutar (1851–1903) Slovenian; Slovenia +Alberto Ruz Lhuillier (1906–1979) Mexican; Pre-Columbian Meso-America +Donald P. Ryan (born 1957) American; Egypt (Valley of the Kings) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e5f9d0ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Jeremy Sabloff (born 1944) American; Maya +Sadeq, Moain (Mohammedmoin) (born 1955) Palestinian; Palestine and the Gulf region +Saad Abbas Ismail (born 1980) Kurdish; International archaeologist, Syria +Antonio Sagona (1956–2017); Australian; Near East, Caucasus +Sharada Srinivasan (born 1966) Indian; archaeometallurgy, India +Roderick Salisbury (born 1967) American; ideology, soil chemistry, GIS, S.E. Europe (Neolithic) +William T. Sanders (1926–2008) American; Mesoamerica +Viktor Sarianidi (1929–2013) Uzbekistani; Bronze Age, Central Asia +William Saturno (born 19??) American; Mayan site San Bartolo +Otto Schaden (1937–2015) American; Egypt +Claude Schaeffer (1898–1982) French; Ugarit +Michael Brian Schiffer (born 1947) American (born in Canada); behavioural archaeology, method and theory +Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890) German; Troy, Mycenae, Tiryn +Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1790–1836) Belgian; founder of paleontology: antiquity of man +Klaus Schmidt (1953–2014) German; Göbekli Tepe, Turkey +Alain Schnapp (born 1946) French; Classical archaeology: iconography of Greek vases +Carmel Schrire (born 1941) Australian; Australia, South Africa +Francesco Scipone (1675–1755) Italian; Etruscans +Leslie Scott (1913–1970) British; UK, France, Italy, possibly Iraq +Assaad Seif (born 1967) Lebanese; archaeology of Lebanon +Mercy Seiradaki (1910–1993) English; Knossos +Ovid R. Sellers (1884–1975) American; Biblical Old Testament +Gemma Sena Chiesa (1929–2024) Italian; Roman +Jean Baptiste Louis George Seroux D'Agincourt (1730–1814) French; ancient monumental art +Veronica Seton-Williams (1910–1992) Australian; Egyptology and prehistory, Near East +Thomas Sever (born 19??) American?; NASA’s only archaeologist, Maya, South America +Ruth Shady (born 1946) Peruivan; Peru +Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1942–2006) Iranian; Iran +Michael Shanks (born 1959) English; Classical archaeology, theory +Thurstan Shaw (1914–2013) English; Africa (especially Nigeria) +Anna Shepard (1903–1971) American; ceramic analysis +Alison Sheridan (19??) British; Bronze and Neolithic ages +Andrew Sherratt (1946–2006) English; prehistory +Susan Sherratt (born 1949) U.K. citizenship; Mediterranean archaeology +Yoko Shindo (1960–2018), Japanese; Islamic glass +Bong-geun Sim (born 1943) South Korean; Korea +Elizabeth Simpson (born 1947) American; Ancient Near East, Anatolia +Frederic Slater (c. 1880–1947) Australian; Aboriginal place names +Claire Smith (born 1957) Australian; Indigenous archaeology, rock art +Grafton Elliot Smith (1871–1937) Australian; (anatomist) hyperdiffusionist view of prehistory +Mike Smith (1955–2022) Australian, Central Australia +William Robertson Smith (1846–1894) Scottish; Orientalist, Biblical scholar +Stanley South (1928–2016) American; historical archaeology +Janet D. Spector (1944–2011) American; North America +Sarah Speight (born 19??) British; castle studies and medieval archaeology +E. Lee Spence (born 1947) American; marine archaeology +Dirk HR Spennemann (born 19??) Australian; futures studies +Victor Spinei (born 1943) Romanian; medieval cult objects +Flaxman Charles John Spurrell (1842–1915) English; prehistoric England, Egypt +Frederick Spurrell (1824–1902) English; English archaeology (Essex and Sussex) +Dragoslav Srejović (1931–1996) Serbian; Mesolithic Iron Gates culture of the Balkans: Lepenski Vir +Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) British; Ashkelon +John Steane (1931–2024) British; historic landscape +Julie K. Stein, (born 19??) American; geoarchaeology and archaeology of shell middens and coastal archaeological sites +Eunice Stebbens (1893–1992) American; Roman coins +Louise Steel (born 19??) British; prehistoric Cyprus +Paulette Steeves (born 1955) Canadian, Cree, Métis; decolonizing archaeology, Paleo-Indians +Marc Aurel Stein (1862–1943) Hungarian; Central Asia +Margareta Steinby (born 1938) Finnish; classical archaeology +Hans-Georg Stephan (born 1950) German; Medievalist, post-Medieval archaeology, landscape archaeology, oven tiles +Sara Yorke Stevenson (1847–1921) American; Egypt +Marion Stirling Pugh (1911–2001) American; Mesopotamian archaeology +James B. Stoltman (1935–2019) American; ceramic analysis, Great Lakes (North America) +James R. Stewart (1913–1962) Australian; Cyprus and the Ancient Near East +Joseph Stevens (archaeologist) (1818–1899) British; first curator of Reading Museum +Sharon Stocker (born 19??) American; ancient Greece (especially the Griffin Warrior Tomb) +Eugene Stockton (born 1934) Australian; Middle East, Australia +William Duncan Strong (1899–1962) American; Peru, U.S. Mid-West, California, Honduras, seriation statistics +Stuart Struever (1931–2022) American; Koster site (Illinois), flotation, "large-scale, public-oriented archaeology" +David Stuart (born 1965) American; Mayan epigraphy +George E. Stuart (1935–2014) American; Mayan archaeology +Su Bai (1922–2018) Chinese; Chinese Buddhism, grottoes +Su Bingqi (1909–1997) Chinese; ancient China +Eleazar Sukenik (1889–1953) Israeli; Dead Sea scrolls +Sharon Sullivan, Australian heritage conservation +Pál Sümegi (born 1960) Hungarian; environmental archaeology, Hungary +Glenn Summerhayes (born 195?) Australian; East Asia and Pacific archaeology, trade and exchange, development of social complexity, archaeometry +Tim Sutherland (born 1958) English; Conflict and Battlefield Archaeology +Rachel Swallow (born 19??) British?; medieval archaeology, landscape archaeology, and castle studies +Naomi Sykes (born 19??) British?; zooarchaeology +Jadwiga Szeptycka (1883–1939) Polish; Roman-period Poland + +== T == +Takaku Kenji (born 19??) Japanese; Korea +Hamdan Taha (b. 19??) Palestinian; archaeology of Palestine +Aarne Michaël Tallgren (1885–1945) Finnish; East European Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age +Zemaryalai Tarzi (1939–2024) Afghan; Afghanistan +Joan du Plat Taylor (1906–1983) Scottish; maritime archaeology, Cyprus +Joan J. Taylor (1940–2019) American; British prehistory +Walter Willard Taylor, Jr. (1913–1997) American; theory, Coahuila (Mexico) +Julio C. Tello (1880–1947) Peruvian; Peru +Petros Themelis (1936–2023) Greek; Messene +Alexander Thom (1894–1985) Scottish; engineer, Stonehenge +Charles Thomas (1928–2016) British; Cornish studies +David Hurst Thomas (born 1945) American; Spanish Borderlands, repatriation +Julian Thomas (born 1959) British; north-west European Neolithic and Bronze Age +Dorothy Burr Thompson (1900–2001) American; Hellenistic terracotta figurines +Homer Thompson (1906–2000) Canadian; Greece +John Arthur Thompson (1913–2002) Australian; Old Testament scholar and biblical archaeologist +J. Eric S. Thompson (1898–1975) English; Maya +Christian Jürgensen Thomsen (1788–1865) Danish; originator of the Three-Age System +Alan Thorne (1939–2012) Australian; Aboriginal Australian origins and the human genome, Lake Mungo, Kow Swamp +Carl L. Thunberg (born 1963) Swedish; Viking Age, Nordic Middle Ages +Christopher Tilley (1955–2024) British; theory, Britain +Norman Tindale (1900–1993) Australian; mapping Australian tribes +Tong Enzheng (1935–1997) Chinese; China +Malcolm Todd (1939–2013) British; classical archaeology +Alfred Marston Tozzer (1877–1954) American; Mesoamerica (Maya) +Arthur Dale Trendall (1909–1995) Australian; Greek ceramics at Apulia +John C. Trever (1916–2006) American; Biblical archaeologist +Bruce Trigger (1937–2006) Canadian; archaeological theory, comparative civilizations, Huronia, Nubia, Egyptology +Christos Tsountas (1857–1934) Greek; Greece +Olena Vasylivna Tsvek (1931–2020) Ukrainian; Trypillia culture +James Tuck (1940–2019) American; eastern Canadian historical archaeology +Ronald F. Tylecote (1916–1990) British; founder of archaeometallurgy +Grigore Tocilescu (1850–1909) Romanian; Dacia +Henrieta Todorova (1933–2015) Bulgarian; Neolithic Bulgaria, excavations at Durankulak +Vassilios Tzaferis (1936–2015) Greek–Israeli; biblical archaeology, Byzantine monasticism + +== U == +Peter Ucko (1938–2007) British; Paleolithic art; archaeological politics +Luigi Maria Ugolini (1895–1936) Italian; Albania +Gary Urton (born 1948) American; Andes +David Ussishkin (born 1935) Israeli; Lachish, Jezreel Valley and Megiddo +Fadel al-Utol (born 1981) Palestinian; archaeology of the Gaza Strip \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d4748624a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,115 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeologists" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== V == +Laima Vaitkunskienė (born 1936) Lithuanian; Medieval Lithuania +Heiki Valk (born 1959) Estonian; Medieval Estonia +Ron Vanderwal (1938–2021), Australian; Torres Strait, New Guinea +Parviz Varjavand (1934–2007) Iranian; ancient Iran (Persia) +Peter van Dommelen (born 1966), Dutch; Western Mediterranean and Phoenician-Punic archaeology +William Jones Varley (1904–1976) British; English Iron Age hill forts +Miloje Vasić (1869–1956) Serbian; Neolithic archaeological culture: Vinča culture +Roland de Vaux (1903–1971) French; Biblical archaeology: Dead-Sea Scrolls +Marius Vazeilles (1881–1973) French; Gallo-Roman archaeology, Merovingian archaeology +Bruce Veitch (1957–2005) Australian; Mitchell Plateau and Pilbara Western Australia; Bruce Veitch Award +Alan Vince (1952–2009) British; British ceramics +Zdenko Vinski (1913–1996) Croatian; Croatia +Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) German; Pomeranian hill-forts +Dominique Vivant Denon (1747–1827) French; Egyptian art +Ida von Boxberg (1806–1893), German archaeologist +Alexandru Vulpe (1931–2016) Romanian; Hallstatt + +== W == +Alan Wace (1879–1957) English; Greece (especially Mycenae +Marc Waelkens (1948–2021) Belgian; Turkish archaeology +Tony Waldron (died 2021) British; palaeopathologist and palaeoepidemiologist +Alice Leslie Walker (1885–1954) American, classical archaeologist +Andrew Frederic Wallace-Hadrill (born 1951) British, classical archaeologist (Pompeii) +Lynley A. Wallis (born 19??) Australian; Indigenous and historical archaeology +Wang Tao (archaeologist) (born 1962) Chinese-British; Chinese archaeology +Wang Zhongshu (1925–2015) Chinese; Chinese and Japanese archaeology +Graeme K. Ward (born 1943) Australian; Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Australia; prehistoric archaeology, research funding and administration, rock art +John Bryan Ward-Perkins (1912–1981) British; architectural history +Charles Warren (1840–1927) British; engineer, police commissioner and Biblical archaeologist +Helen Waterhouse (1913–1999) British; classical archaeology +Michael R. Waters (born 19??) American; geoarchaeology, early Americans +William Thompson Watkin (1836–1888), British; Roman Britain +Trevor Watkins (born 19??) British; Near Eastern archaeology +Patty Jo Watson (1932–2024) American; North American archaeology +Clarence H. Webb (1902–1991) American; southern United States prehistory +Robert Wauchope (1909–1979) American; Maya, south-eastern U.S. +Karl Jakob Weber (1712–1764) Swiss; Pompeii +Mildred Mott Wedel (1912–1995) American; Great Plains prehistory +Waldo Wedel (1908–1996) American; Great Plains prehistory +Josef W. Wegner (born 1967) American; Egyptology +Elizabeth Weiss (born 19??) American; skeletal analysis, archaeological ethics +Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784–1868) German; philologist and archaeologist specializing in Greece +Fred Wendorf (1924–2015) American; archaeology and cultural development of arid environments +David Wengrow (born 1972) English; comparative archaeology +Boyd Wettlaufer (1914–2009) Canadian; Father of Saskatchewan Archaeology +Mortimer Wheeler (1890–1976) British; method, South Asia (especially the early Indus Valley), Maiden Castle (England) +Tessa Verney Wheeler (1893–1936) British; method, British archaeology, co-founder of Institute of Archaeology +Joyce White (born 19??) American; prehistoric Southeast Asia +Theodore E. White (1905–1977) American; archaeozoology +Elizabeth Augustus Whitehead (1928–1983) American; classical archaeology +John C. Whittaker (born 1953) American; experimental archaeology, Palaeolithic +Alasdair Whittle (born 1949) British; European Neolithic +Caroline Wickham-Jones (1955–2022) British; Orkney, mesolithic, submerged sites +Theodor Wiegand (1864–1936) German; Pergamum, aerial photography +Malcolm H. Wiener (born 1935) American; Aegeanist, Prehistorian, President of INSTAP +Louise van Wijngaarden-Bakker (1940–2021) Dutch; archaeozoology +Gordon Willey (1913–2002) American; New World, method and theory +Audrey Williams (1902-1978) +Stephen Williams (1926–2017) American; North America +Hugh Willmott (born 1972) British; Middle Ages and monastic archaeology +Daniel Wilson (1816–1892) Scottish; Scotland, theory +Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768) German; Hellenist art, Greek world +Christopher Witmore (born 1974) American; Archaeological theory, landscape archaeology, object-oriented approaches +Bryant G. Wood (born 1936) American; Palestine +Peter Woodman (1943–2017), Irish; Irish Mesolithic +Leonard Woolley (1880–1960) British; Ur in Mesopotamia +Hannah Wormington (1914–1994) American; American Southwest and Paleo-Indians +Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae (1821–1885) Danish; paleobotanist, archaeologist, historian and politician, first to excavate and use stratigraphy to prove the Three-age system +George Roy Haslam (Mick) Wright (1924–2014) Australian; Middle East +Wolfgang W. Wurster (1937–2003) German; architectural history; Mediterranean, high cultures of Peru and Ecuador +Alison Wylie (born 1954) Canadian; philosophy of archaeology +John Wymer (1928–2006) British; Paleolithic + +== X == +Xia Nai (1910–1985) Chinese; China +Xu Xusheng (1888–1976) Chinese; discoverer of the Erlitou culture + +== Y == +Yigael Yadin (1917–1984) Israeli; Masada, Hazor +Yang Jianhua (born 1955) Chinese; Mesopotamia, eastern Eurasia +Yusra (20th century) Palestinian; Tabun, Neanderthals + +== Z == +Inger Zachrisson (born 1936); Swedish; Sami people since the Iron Age +Louise Zarmati (born 1958) Australian; Archaeology in schools; women in archaeology; Australia, Crete, Cyprus +Melinda A. Zeder (born ca. 1952) American; zooarchaeology +Robert N. Zeitlin (born 1935) American; Mesoamerica (Zapotec), ancient political economies +Zhao Kangmin (1936–2018) Chinese; discoverer of the Terracotta Army +Zheng Zhenduo (1898–1958) Chinese; China +Zheng Zhenxiang (1929–2024) Chinese; discoverer of the Tomb of Fu Hao +Irit Ziffer (born 1954) Israeli; symbols in ancient art +Andreas Zimmermann (born 1951) German; Neolithic (LBK) +Ezra B. W. Zubrow (born 1945) American; theory, GIS, demography, ecology, Circumpolar +R. Tom Zuidema (1927–2016) Dutch; Incas +Vladas Žulkus (born 1945) Lithuanian; Lithuania (Klaipėda, underwater archaeology) +Marek Zvelebil (1952–2011) Czech; European Stone Age + +== See also == +List of Russian archaeologists + +== External links == +ABC GNT History, Australian Archaeologists + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b05ed795f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "List of archaeology journals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:28.920529+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page contains a list of academic journals covering archaeology, the study of the human past through material remains. It includes both active periodicals and those that have ceased publication. +Before the advent of the modern journal format, the Society of Antiquaries of London published Vetusta Monumenta, a series of illustrated folios on antiquarian studies which appeared at irregular intervals between 1718 and 1909. Beginning in 1770, papers delivered at the society's meetings were also published in quarto format in Archaeologia (last published in 2007), and from 1843 in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, which is still published today under the title Antiquaries Journal. Other early archaeological journals that are still active include The Archaeological Journal and La Revue Archéologique, both first published in 1844, Archaeologia Cambrensis, published by the Cambrian Archaeological Association since 1846, and Sussex Archaeological Collections, published by the Sussex Archaeological Society since 1848. +Apart from the dedicated academic publications listed here, scholarship in archaeology is also published in general-purpose scientific journals such as Science or Nature, and in semi-scholarly periodicals such as Archaeology, Discover, National Geographic, or Scientific American. In North America, archaeology is considered one of the four subfields of anthropology, so papers on archaeology are often published in general anthropology journals, for example American Anthropologist or Current Anthropology. Environmental archaeology is often published in multi-disciplinary environmental science journals, such as Quaternary International or The Holocene, or less commonly, in ecology or development studies journals. +Archaeology journals are dominated by men. Across publications, there are two to three times more papers by male authors than by women. Many archaeology journals also show a gender citation gap: articles written by women are less likely to be cited, especially by men. Studies have generally shown that the imbalance in publication rates is because archaeology journals receive fewer submissions from women, rather than any detectable bias in the peer review processes. In recent years the number of women authors have increased but, as of 2020, gendered publication rates are not equal. As well as gender, archaeological publishing is also homogenous in terms of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation; more prestigious journals tend to be dominated by straight, white, cisgender men. + + +== Active publications == + + +== Defunct publications == + + +== See also == +Category:Archaeology journals +Lists of academic journals + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Beck, Jess; Gjesfjeld, Erik; Chrisomalis, Stephen (October 2021). "Prestige or Perish: Publishing Decisions in Academic Archaeology". American Antiquity. 86 (4): 669–695. doi:10.1017/aaq.2021.64. ISSN 0002-7316. S2CID 241575394. +Finnegan, Gregory A.; Ogburn, Joyce L.; Smith, J. Christina (4 May 2001). "Journals of the Century in Anthropology and Archaeology". The Serials Librarian. 39 (4): 69–78. doi:10.1300/J123v39n04_06. ISSN 0361-526X. S2CID 62154192. +Heyworth et al. 1995, Internet archaeology: an international electronic journal for archaeology, Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 28. +Hole, B. 2012. A Call for Open Scholarship in Archaeology, in Bonacchi, C, (ed.) Archaeologists and Digital Communication: Towards Strategies of Public Engagement. Archetype: London, UK. +Hutson, Scott R. (1 March 2006). "Self-Citation in Archaeology: Age, Gender, Prestige, and the Self". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 13 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1007/s10816-006-9001-5. ISSN 1573-7764. S2CID 143770659. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..86a3ee4b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:21.744168+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable people who have made contributions to the field of astronomy. They may have won major prizes or awards, developed or invented widely used techniques or technologies within astronomy, or are directors of major observatories or heads of space-based telescope projects. + + +== Notable astronomers == + + +== Brief alphabetical list == + + +=== A === + + +=== B === + + +=== C === + + +=== D === + + +=== E === + + +=== F === + + +=== G === + + +=== H === + + +=== I === + + +=== J === + + +=== K === + + +=== L === + + +=== M === + + +=== N === + + +=== O === + + +=== P === + + +=== Q === +Adolphe Quetelet (Belgium, 1796–1874) +Ali Qushji (Ottoman, 1403–1474) +M. Shahid Qureshi (Pakistan) + + +=== R === + + +=== S === + + +=== T === + + +=== U === + + +=== V === + + +=== W === + + +=== Y === + + +=== Z === + + +== Others who influenced astronomy and astrophysics == +The following is a list of people who are not astronomers but made a contribution to the field of astronomy and astrophysics. + +Hans Bethe (1906–2005), (physicist) +Niels Bohr (1885–1962), (physicist) +Andreas Cellarius (Netherlands, Germany, 1596–1665), (cartographer) +Freeman Dyson (1923–2020), (physicist) +Albert Einstein (1879–1955), (physicist) +Karl Guthe Jansky (United States, 1905–1950), (radio astronomer) +James Clerk Maxwell (United Kingdom, 1831–1879), (physicist) +Thomas Young (United Kingdom, 1773–1829), (physicist) +Abdus Salam (1926–1996), (physicist) +Riazuddin (1936–2013), (physicist) + + +== See also == +List of astronomical instrument makers +List of women astronomers +List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists +List of women in leadership positions on astronomical instrumentation projects + + +== References == + + +=== Citations === + + +=== General sources === +Astronomical Society of the Pacific: Women in Astronomy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c4f54200d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomical instrument makers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:28.979747+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of astronomical instrument makers, along with lifespan and country of work, if available. + + +== A == + + +== B == + + +== C == + + +== D == + + +== E == + + +== F == + + +== G == + + +== H == + + +== I == + + +== J == + + +== K == + + +== L == + + +== M == + + +== N == + + +== O == + + +== P == + + +== Q == + + +== R == + + +== S == + + +== T == + + +== U == + + +== V == + + +== W == + + +== X == + + +== Y == + + +== Z == + + +== See also == +History of the telescope +List of largest optical reflecting telescopes +List of largest optical refracting telescopes +List of observatory codes +List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists +List of telescope types +Space telescope +Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4142c534 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomical instruments" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:30.296501+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An astronomical instrument is a device for observing, measuring or recording astronomical data. They are used in the scientific field of astronomy, a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos, with the object of explaining their origin and evolution over time. Many are also used in navigation and surveying. +Astronomical instruments include: + + +== See also == +Astronomy +Outline of astronomy +Surveying instrument +Measurement instrument + + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4f0e0ae3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomical observatories" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:43.790936+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a partial list of astronomical observatories ordered by name, along with initial dates of operation (where an accurate date is available) and location. The list also includes a final year of operation for many observatories that are no longer in operation. While other sciences, such as volcanology and meteorology, also use facilities called observatories for research and observations, this list is limited to observatories that are used to observe celestial objects. +Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based. +Many modern telescopes and observatories are located in space to observe astronomical objects in wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere (such as ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays) and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. Being above the atmosphere, these space observatories can also avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground based telescopes, although new generations of adaptive optics telescopes have since then dramatically improved the situation on the ground. The space high vacuum environment also frees the detectors from the ancestral diurnal cycle due to the atmospheric blue light background of the sky, thereby increasing significantly the observation time. +An intermediate variant is the airborne observatory, specialised in the infrared wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, that conduct observations above the part of the atmosphere containing water vapor that absorbs them, in the stratosphere. +Historically, astronomical observatories consisted generally in a building or group of buildings where observations of astronomical objects such as sunspots, planets, asteroids, comets, stars, nebulae, and galaxies in the visible wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum were conducted. At first, for millennia, astronomical observations have been made with naked eyes. Then with the discovery of optics, with the help of different types of refractor telescopes and later with reflector telescopes. Their use allowed to dramatically increase both the collecting power and limit of resolution, thus the brightness, level of detail and apparent angular size of distant celestial objects allowing them to be better studied and understood. Following the development of modern physics, new ground-based facilities have been constructed to conduct research in the radio and microwave wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, with radio telescopes and dedicated microwave telescopes. +Modern astrophysics has extended the field of study of celestial bodies to non-electromagnetic vectors, such as neutrinos, neutrons and cosmic rays or gravitational waves. Thus, new types of observatories have been developed. Interferometers are at the core of gravitational wave detectors. In order to limit the natural or artificial background noise, most particle detector based observatories are built deep underground. + + +== Observatories == + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +History of Astronomy: Observatories and other places +Observatories with Clear Sky Clocks +Map of observatories in the United Kingdom \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Canada-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Canada-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e2f20883d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Canada-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomical observatories in Canada" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Canada" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:45.047681+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== Alberta == +Newbrook Observatory (disused) +Oldman River Observatory, Lethbridge Astronomical Society, Lethbridge +Rothney Astrophysical Observatory, University of Calgary, Priddis, Alberta +Sulphur Mountain Cosmic Ray Station (historic site) +Sunridge Observatory, south of Medicine Hat +Telus World of Science Edmonton RASC Observatory, Edmonton +Wilson Coulee Observatory, RASC Calgary Centre, De Winton, Alberta +Eagle Butte Observatory, South of Dunmore + + +== British Columbia == +Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, Penticton +Mount Kobau National Observatory, Mount Kobau (Never built) +University of British Columbia Observatory, Vancouver (Demolished 2010) +Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, Victoria +University of Victoria Observatory, Victoria +Climenhaga Observatory, University of Victoria +Gordon MacMillan Southam Observatory, H.R. Macmillan Space Centre, Vancouver +Large Zenith Telescope, University of British Columbia (at Malcolm Knapp Research Forest) (Decommissioned 2014) +Trottier Observatory, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby +Prince George Astronomical Observatory, Prince George + + +== Manitoba == +Glenlea Astronomical Observatory, Univ. of Manitoba/RASC Winnipeg Centre, Winnipeg + + +== New Brunswick == +Université de Moncton observatory +Mount Allison University Gemini Observatory +Moncton High School Observatory + + +== Newfoundland and Labrador == +Grenfell Observatory + + +== Nova Scotia == +Burke-Gaffney Observatory + + +== Ontario == +Algonquin Radio Observatory, Algonquin Provincial Park +Boltwood Observatory, Stittsville +David Dunlap Observatory, Richmond Hill +David Thompson Astronomical Observatory, Fort William Historical Park, Thunder Bay +Dominion Meteorological Building, 315 Bloor Street West, Toronto - now home to Munk School of Global Affairs +Dominion Observatory, Ottawa +Elginfield Astronomical Observatory, Middlesex Centre +Gustav Bakos Observatory, University of Waterloo, Waterloo +Hume Cronyn Memorial Observatory, University of Western Ontario, London +Kessler Observatory, Carleton University, Ottawa +Killarney Provincial Park Observatory +Long Point Observatory, St. Williams +Queen's University Observatory, Queen's University, Kingston +Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, Sudbury +Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory +York University Observatory, North York (Toronto) + + +== Quebec == +ASTER Observatory, Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha! +Bishop's University Astronomical Observatory +Mont Mégantic Observatory + + +== Saskatchewan == +Cypress Observatory, Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park Centre Block, Maple Creek +Davin Observatory, RASC Regina Centre, Davin +Saskatchewan Science Centre Observatory, Regina +Sleaford Observatory, RASC Saskatoon Centre, north of Colonsay +Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN), University of Saskatchewan +University of Saskatchewan Observatory, Saskatoon +Wilkinson Memorial Observatory, Eastend + + +== See also == +List of observatories + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Ukraine-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Ukraine-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d1686932c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Ukraine-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomical observatories in Ukraine" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Ukraine" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:55.774345+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of astronomical observatories in Ukraine: + +Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory +Crimean Astrophysical Observatory +Mykolaiv Astronomical Observatory +Simeiz Observatory +White Elephant + + +== Radio telescopes == +Giant Ukrainian Radio Telescope +Ukrainian T-shaped Radio telescope, second modification \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e312bfa58 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomical societies" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:48.373414+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A list of notable groups devoted to promoting astronomy research and education. + + +== International == +Astronomers for Planet Earth (A4E) +Astronomers Without Borders (AWB) +International Astronomical Union (IAU) +International Meteor Organization +Network for Astronomy School Education +The Planetary Society + + +== Africa == +Astronomical Society of Southern Africa + + +== Asia == + + +=== Brunei Darussalam === +The Astronomical Society of Brunei Darussalam (PABD) + + +=== China === +Hong Kong Astronomical Society + + +=== India === +Akash Mitra Mandal +AstronEra +Astronomical Society of India +Bangalore Astronomical Society (BAS) +Birla Planetarium, Chennai +Confederation of Indian Amateur Astronomers +IUCAA +Jyotirvidya Parisanstha +Khagol Mandal +Khagol Vishwa +Wonders of Universe +Association of Friends of Astronomy, Goa + + +=== Turkey === +SpaceTurk + + +=== Thailand === +Astronomy Thailand + + +=== United Arab Emirates === +Dubai Astronomy Group + + +== Europe == +European Astronomical Society +European Association for Astronomy Education + + +=== France === +Société astronomique de France +Société Française d'Astronomie et d'Astrophysique (SF2A) + + +=== Germany === +Astronomische Gesellschaft +Vereinigung der Sternfreunde + + +=== Greece === +Hellenic Astronomical Society + + +=== Ireland === +Irish Astronomical Society +Irish Federation of Astronomical Societies + + +=== Italy === +Unione Astrofili Italiani + + +=== Norway === +Norwegian Astronomical Society +CV-Helios Network + + +=== Poland === +Polish Astronomical Society + + +=== Russia === +Russian Astronomical Society (1891-1932) +Астрономо-геодезическое объединение +Eurasian Astronomical Society (1990-) + + +=== Serbia === +Astronomical Society Ruđer Bošković + + +=== Sweden === +Swedish Astronomical Society + + +=== United Kingdom === +Airdrie Astronomical Association +Astronomical Society of Edinburgh +Astronomical Society of Glasgow +Astronomy Centre +British Astronomical Association +Crayford Manor House Astronomical Society +Federation of Astronomical Societies +Kielder Observatory Astronomical Society +Liverpool Astronomical Society +Loughton Astronomical Society +Manchester Astronomical Society +Mexborough & Swinton Astronomical Society +Northumberland Astronomical Society +Nottingham Astronomical Society +Preston and District Astronomical Society +Royal Astronomical Society +Society for Popular Astronomy +Society for the History of Astronomy + + +== North America == + + +=== Canada === +Canadian Astronomical Society +Royal Astronomical Society of Canada + + +=== Mexico === +Nibiru Sociedad Astronomica + + +=== United States === +Amateur Astronomers Association of Pittsburgh +American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) +American Astronomical Society (AAS) +American Meteor Society +Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers +Astronomical League +Astronomical Society of the Pacific +Indiana Astronomical Society +Kauaʻi Educational Association for Science and Astronomy +Kopernik Astronomical Society +Milwaukee Astronomical Society +Mohawk Valley Astronomical Society +NASA Night Sky Network +SETI Institute +Southern Cross Astronomical Society +Warren Astronomical Society + + +== Oceania == + + +=== Australia === +Astronomical Society of Australia +Astronomical Society of New South Wales +Astronomical Society of South Australia +Astronomical Society of Victoria +Macarthur Astronomical Society +Sutherland Astronomical Society + + +=== New Zealand === +Dunedin Astronomical Society +Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand +Whakatane Astronomical Society + + +== South America == + + +=== Brazil === +Sociedade Astronômica Brasileira + + +== See also == +Amateur astronomy organizations by name +Astronomy organizations by name + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab1f30fb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 1/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a compilation of initialisms and acronyms commonly used in astronomy. Most are drawn from professional astronomy, and are used quite frequently in scientific publications. A few are frequently used by the general public or by amateur astronomers. + +The acronyms listed below were placed into one or more of these categories: + +Astrophysics terminology – physics-related acronyms +Catalog – collections of tabulated scientific data +Communications network – any network that functions primarily to communicate with spacecraft rather than performing astronomy +Data – astrophysical data not associated with any single catalog or observing program +Celestial object – acronyms for natural objects in space and for adjectives applied to objects in space +Instrumentation – telescope and other spacecraft equipment, particularly detectors such as imagers and spectrometers +Meeting – meetings that are not named after organizations +Observing program – astronomical programs, often surveys, performed by one or more individuals; may include the groups that perform surveys +Organization – any large private organization, government organization, or company +Person – individual people +Publication – magazines, scientific journals, and similar astronomy-related publications +Software – software excluding catalogued data (which is categorized as "catalog") and scientific images +Spacecraft – any spacecraft except space telescopes +Telescope – ground-based and space telescopes; organizations that operate telescopes (for example, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO)) are listed under "organization" + +== 0–9 == +1RXH – (catalog) 1st ROSAT X-ray HRI, a catalog of sources detected by ROSAT in pointed observations with its High Resolution Imager +1RXS – (catalog) 1ROSAT X-ray Survey, a catalog of sources detected by ROSAT in an all-sky survey +2dF – (instrumentation) Two-degree field, spectrograph on the Anglo-Australian Telescope +2dFGRS – (observing program) Two-degree-Field Galaxy Redshift Survey +2D-FRUTTI – (instrumentation) Two dimensional photon counting system +2SLAQ – (observing program) 2dF-SDSS LRG and QSO survey +2MASP – (catalog) Two-micron all sky survey prototype, an early version of the 2MASS catalog +2MASS – (observing program/catalog) Two-Micron All Sky Survey, an all-sky survey in the near-infrared; also, the catalog of sources from the survey +2MASSI – (catalog) Two-Micron All Sky Survey, Incremental release, one of the versions of the 2MASS catalog +2MASSW – (catalog) Two-Micron All Sky Survey, Working database, one of the versions of the 2MASS catalog +6dF – (instrumentation) six-degree field, spectrograph on the UKST \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11ee46ca4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 2/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== A == +A&A – (publication) Astronomy & Astrophysics, a European scientific journal + A4E – (organization) Astronomers for Planet Earth +AAA – (organization) Amateur Astronomers Association of New York +AAO – (organization) Australian Astronomical Observatory (prior to 1 July 2010: Anglo-Australian Observatory) +AAS – (organization) American Astronomical Society +AAT – (telescope) Anglo-Australian Telescope +AAVSO – (organization) American Association of Variable Star Observers +ABBA – ADC Backend For Bolometer Array +ABRIXAS – (observing program) A BRoadband Imaging X-ray All-sky Survey +AC – (catalog) Catalogue Astrographique +ACE – (spacecraft) Advanced Composition Explorer +ACIS – (instrumentation) Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer, an instrument on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory +ACM – (meeting) Asteroids, Comets, and Meteors +ACP – (instrumentation) – Aerosol Collector and Pyrolyser, an instrument on the Huygens probe +ACS – (instrumentation) Advanced Camera for Surveys, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope +ACT - Atacama Cosmology Telescope, a cosmological millimeter-wave telescope located on Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert in the north of Chile. +ACV – (celestial object) Alpha Canes Venatici, a class of rotating variable stars with strong magnetic fields named after Alpha Canum Venaticorum (Cor Caroli), the archetype for the class +ACYG – (celestial object) Alpha CYGni, a class of rotating variable stars named after Alpha Cygni (Deneb), the archetype for the class +ADAF – (astrophysics terminology) Advection Dominated Accretion Flow, a mechanism by which matter is slowly accreted onto a black hole +ADC – (organization) Astronomical Data Center +ADEC – (organization) Astrophysics Data Centers Executive Council, an organization that provides oversight for the Astrophysics Data and Information Services +ADF – (organization) Astrophysics Data Facility +ADS – (catalog) Aitken Double Stars +ADS – (catalog) The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory/NASA astrophysics data system, an on-line database of almost all astronomical publications +ADIS – (organization) Astrophysics Data and Information Services +ADS – (organization) Astrophysics Data Service, an organization that maintains an online database of scientific articles +AdS — (Astrophysics terminology) Anti-deSitter +AEGIS – (observing program) the All-wavelength Extended Groth strip International Survey +AFGL – (organization) Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, a research laboratory now part of the United States Air Force Research Laboratory +AFOEV – (organization) Association française des observateurs d'étoiles variables +AG – (organization) Astronomische Gesellschaft +AGAPE – (observing program) Andromeda Galaxy and Amplified Pixels Experiment, a search for microlenses in front of the Andromeda Galaxy +AGB – (celestial object) asymptotic giant branch, a type of red giant star +AGC – (catalog) Arecibo general catalog +AGK – (catalog) Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog +AGN – (celestial object) Active galactic nucleus +AGU – (organization) American Geophysical Union +AIM – (spacecraft) Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere, a spacecraft that will study the Noctilucent clouds +AIPS – (software) Astronomical Image Processing System +AJ – (publication) Astronomical Journal +ALaMO – (organization) Automated Lunar and Meteor Observatory +ALEXIS – (instrumentation) Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors +ALMA – (telescope) Atacama Large Millimeter/Sub-millimeter Array +ALPO – (organization) Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers +AMANDA – (telescope) Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope in Antarctica +AMASE – (software) Astrophysics Multi-spectral Archive Search Engine +AMBER – (telescope) a near-infrared interferometric instrument at VLTI +AMS – (organization) American Meteor Society +AN – (publication) Astronomische Nachrichten, a German scientific journal +ANS – (telescope) Astronomical Netherlands Satellite +ANS – (organization) Astro News Service +ANSI – (organization) American National Standards Institute +AO – (instrumentation) Adaptive optics +AOR – (instrumentation) Astronomical observation request +ApJ – (publication) Astrophysical Journal +ApJL – (publication) Astrophysical Journal Letters +ApJS – (publication) Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series +APM – (instrumentation/catalog), Automatic plate measuring machine, a machine for making measurements from photographic plates; also, a catalog based on measurements by the machine +APO – (organization) Apache Point Observatory +APOD – (data) Astronomy Picture of the Day +APT – (telescope) Automated Patrol Telescope +ARC – (organization) Ames Research Center +ARC – (organization) Astrophysical Research Consortium +ARCADE – a balloon satellite experiment to measure the heating of the Universe by the first stars and galaxies after the Big Bang +ASA – (organization) Astronomical Society of the Atlantic +ASAS – All Sky Automated Survey +ASCL – Astrophysics Source Code Library, a citable online registry of research source codes +ASE – (organization) Astronomical Society of Edinburgh +ASI – (organization) Agenzia Spaziale Italiana +ASIAA – (organization) Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics +ASKAP – (telescope) Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder, a next-generation radio telescope under construction in Western Australia. It differs from previous radio-telescopes in having many pixels at the focus of each antenna. +ASP – (organization) Astronomical Society of the Pacific +ASTRO – (spacecraft) Autonomous Space Transport Robotic Operations +ATA – (telescope) Allen Telescope Array, a radio interferometer array developed by the SETI Institute to search for possible signals from extraterrestrial life +ATCA – (telescope) Australia Telescope Compact Array +ATLAS – (observing program) Australia Telescope Large Area Survey, a deep radio astronomical sky survey of two SWIRE fields covering a total of about 7 square degrees of sky. +ATM – (person) hobbyist engaged in Amateur telescope making (may also refer to the book of the same title, Amateur Telescope Making) +AU – (measurement) Astronomical Unit, the distance between the Earth and the Sun +AUASS – (organization) Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences +AURA – (organization) Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy +AWCA – (meeting) American Workshop on Cometary Astronomy, an older name for the International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy +AXP – (celestial object) Anomalous X-Ray Pulsar +AXAF – (telescope) Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, an older name for the Chandra X-ray Observatory \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b3de9f5c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 11/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== L == +L – (astrophysics terminology) Lagrange, Lagrange points +L – (catalog) Luyten, a catalog of proper motion measurements of stars +LAD-C – (instrumentation) Large Area Debris Collector, a canceled program that was to collect and catalog low orbital dust on the International Space Station +LAEFF – (organization) Laboratorio de Astrofisica Espacial y Fisica Fundamental, a Spanish astronomy research organization +LAL – (catalog) LALande, a historical catalog of stars +LAMOST – (telescope) Large sky Area Multi-Object fiber Spectroscopic Telescope +LANL – (organization) Los Alamos National Laboratory +LASCO – (instrumentation) Large Angle and Spectrometric COronagraph, an instrument on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory +Laser – (instrumentation) light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation +LAT – (instrumentation) Large Area Telescope, on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope +LBN – (catalog) Lynds Bright Nebula, a catalog of bright nebulae +LBG - (celestial object) Lyman Break Galaxy, a galaxy identified using the Lyman-break selection technique +LBNL – (organization) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory +LBT – (telescope) Large Binocular Telescope +LBV – (celestial object) luminous blue variable, a type of very bright variable star +LCDM – (astrophysics terminology) Lambda cold dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that includes dark energy +also ΛCDM +LCO — (observatory) Las Campanas Observatory, Atacama Region in Chile +LCOGT – network of autonomous robotic telescopes (2m, 1m and 40 cm) at 7 sites in both hemispheres +LCROSS – (spacecraft) Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite +LCRS – (observing program) Las Campanas Redshift Survey +LDN – (catalog) Lynds Dark Nebula, a catalog of dark nebulae +LDN – (celestial object) large dark nebula, a large, wispy nebula made of neutral brown hydrogen gas. +LDS – (catalog) Luyten Double Star +LDSS3 — (spectrograph) Low Dispersion Survey Spectrograph, from Magellan 2 Clay Telescope at LCO. +LEO – (astrophysics terminology) low Earth orbit +LEST – (telescope) large Earth-based solar telescope +LETGS – (instrumentation) Low Energy Transmission Gratings Spectrometer, an instrument on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory +also LETG +LF – (astrophysics terminology) luminosity function, the spatial density of objects such as star clusters and galaxies as a function of their luminosity +LFT – (catalog) Luyten Five-Tenths, a catalog of stars with proper motions exceeding 0.5" +LGA – (instrumentation) low-gain antenna +LGM – (celestial object) Little Green Men, a humorous name applied to pulsars soon after their discovery +LHEA – (organization) Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics +LHS – (catalog) Luyten Half-Second, a catalog of stars with proper motions exceeding 0.5" +LIC – (celestial object) Local Interstellar Cloud, the cloud in the interstellar medium through which the Solar System is currently moving +LIGO – (telescope) Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, an instrument for detecting gravitational waves +LINEAR – (observing program) Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research +LINER – (celestial object) low-ionization nuclear emission region, a galactic nucleus that is characterized by spectral line emission from weakly ionized gas +LIRG – (celestial object) luminous infrared galaxy, a galaxy that is between 1011 and 1012 solar luminosities in the infrared +LISA – (telescope) Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, a series of spacecraft that can be used to detect gravitational waves +LLAGN – (celestial object) low-luminosity active galactic nucleus, an active galactic nucleus with a low luminosity +LLNL – (organization) Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory +LMC – (celestial object) Large Magellanic Cloud, an irregular galaxy near the Milky Way +LMS – (celestial object) Lower main sequence star, the less massive hydrogen-burning main-sequence stars +LMXB – (celestial object) low-mass x-ray binary, an X-ray-luminous binary star system in which one of the stars is a neutron star or black hole that is stripping material away from the other star in the system +LN2 – (instrumentation) liquid nitrogen +LOAN – Longitude of ascending node +LOFAR – (telescope) LOw Frequency ARray, for radio astronomy +LONEOS – (observing program) Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search +LOSS – (observing program) Lick Observatory Supernova Search +LOTIS – (telescope) Livermore Optical Transient Imaging System, a telescope designed to find the optical counterparts of gamma ray bursts +LOTOSS – (observing program) Lick Observatory and Tenagra Observatory Supernova Searches +LP – (catalog) Luyten Palomar, a catalog of proper motion measurements of stars +LPI – (organization) Lunar and Planetary Institute +LPL – (organization) Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, the planetary science department of the University of Arizona +LPV – (celestial object) Long Period Variable, a type of variable star that changes in brightness slowly over time +LRG – (celestial object) luminous red galaxy, a dataset of galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey that were selected on the basis of their red colors +LRO – (spacecraft) Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter +LSR – (astrophysics terminology) local standard of rest, the frame of reference with a velocity equal to the average velocity of all the stars in the solar neighborhood, including the Sun +LSST – (telescope) Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, old name for the Vera C. Rubin Observatory +LSST – (observing program) Legacy Survey of Space and Time, the main survey carried out by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory +LST – (astrophysics terminology) local sidereal time, the right ascension that is currently at the zenith +LT – (telescope) Liverpool Telescope +LTE – (astrophysics terminology) Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium, a state where variations in temperature, pressure, etc. do not vary on small scales +LTP – (astrophysics terminology) Lunar Transient Phenomenon, an observed event (such as a flash of light) on the surface of the Moon +LTT – (catalog) Luyten Two-Tenths, a catalog of proper motion measurements for stars +LWS - (instrumentation) Long Wavelength Spectrometer, a spectrometer on the ISO \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..78aeb8fa0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 12/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== M == +MARVEL – (project) Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets +M – (catalog) Messier +M – (celestial object) Mira, a class of long period pulsating variable stars named after Mira, the archetype for the class +MAC – (observing program) Multi-instrument Aircraft Campaign, a program to study the cometary dust from the Leonids meteor showers +MACHO – (celestial object/observing program/catalog) MAssive Compact Halo Object, an object in the Milky Way's halo thought to comprise part of the galaxy's dark matter; also a survey to detect these sources through gravitational lensing and the catalog of sources detected by the survey +MACS – (catalogue) Magellanic Catalogue of Stars +MAGIC – (telescope) Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov telescope +MALT – Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team – including [1] and MALT45 +MAP – (telescope) Microwave-background Anisotropy Probe, an older name for the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe +MASER – (astrophysics terminology) microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, microwave emission that is similar to the optical emission from a laser +MAVEN – Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN +MBA – (celestial object) main belt asteroid +MBH – (celestial object) massive black hole +MCG – (catalog) Morphological Catalog of Galaxies +MCMC - (astrophysics terminology) Markov chain Monte Carlo +MCO – (spacecraft) Mars Climate Orbiter +MDS – (observing program) Medium Deep Survey, a survey of high-redshift galaxies with the Hubble Space Telescope +MECO – (celestial object) magnetospheric eternally collapsing object, a type of object proposed as an alternative to supermassive black holes as the central compact source within active galactic nuclei +MeerKAT - (telescope) originally the Karoo Array Telescope, a radio telescope consisting of 64 antennas in the Meerkat National Park, in the Northern Cape of South Africa +MEGARA – (instrumentation) Multi-Espectrógrafo en GTC de Alta Resolución para Astronomía, an instrument on the Gran Telescopio Canarias +MEPAG – (organization) Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group +MEPCO – (meeting) Meeting of European Planetary and Cometary Observers +MER – (spacecraft) Mars Exploration Rover +MERLIN – Multi Element Radio Linked Interferometer. A seven-telescope radio interferometer +MESSENGER – MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging +MGC – (catalog/observing program) Millennium Galaxy Catalogue +MGS – (spacecraft) Mars Global Surveyor +MHD – (astrophysics terminology) MagnetoHydroDynamic +MICO – (software) Multi-year Interactive Computer Almanac, astronomy almanac software created by the United States Naval Observatory +MIDI – MID-Infrared instrument. A mid-infrared instrument of the VLTI +MIPS – (instrumentation) Multi-band Imaging Photometer, an instrument on the Spitzer Space Telescope +MIRI – (instrumentation) Mid-Infrared Instrument, an instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope +MJD – (astrophysics terminology) Modified Julian Date, the Julian date minus 2400000.5 +MLO – (organization) +MMO – (spacecraft) Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter, JAXA space probe to Mercury +MMR – (astrophysics terminology) Mean-Motion Resonance +MMS – Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission +MMSN – Minimum Mass Solar Nebula +MMT – (telescope) Multiple Mirror Telescope +MNRAS – (publication) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society +MO – (spacecraft) Mars Observer +MOA – (observing program) Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics, a survey searching for gravitational lenses +MOC – (instrumentation) Mars Observer Camera, an instrument on the Mars Observer +MOID – (astrophysics terminology) minimum orbit intersection distance, the minimum distance between two objects' orbital paths +MOLA – (instrumentation) Mars Observer Laser Altimeter, an instrument on the Mars Observer used to study Mars's topology +MOND – (astrophysics terminology) modified Newtonian dynamics +MONS – (telescope) Measuring Oscillations in Nearby Stars, a Danish space telescope that was proposed and designed but not built +MOST – (telescope) Microvariability and Oscillations of STars, a space telescope designed to detect oscillations in the atmospheres of stars and extrasolar planetss in orbit around other stars +MOST – (telescope) Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope, an Australian radio telescope +MOTIF – (telescope) Maui Optical Tracking and Identification Facility +MOXE – (instrumentation) Monitoring X-ray Experiment, an X-ray all-sky monitor designed for the Spectrum-X-Gamma satellite +MPC – (publication) Minor Planet Circulars (also called Minor Planets and Comets) +MPEC – (publication) Minor Planet Electronic Circular +MPF – (spacecraft) Mars PathFinder +MPL – (spacecraft) Mars Polar Lander +MPO – (space craft) Mercury Planetary Orbiter, ESA space craft to Mercury +MPP – (instrumentation) Multi-Pinned-Phase, CCD technology that reduces dark current noise +MPCS – (publication) Minor Planet Circulars Supplement +MPS – (observing project) Microlensing Planet Search, a program designed that detect extrasolar planets using a gravitational lensing technique +MRI – (astrophysics term) magnetorotational instability, a local instability in the accretion disks which only requires weak magnetic field and dΩ2/dR<0 +MRK – Markarian galaxies +MRO – (spacecraft) Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter +MSL – Mars Science Laboratory +MSP – (celestial object) millisecond pulsar +MSSS – (organization) Maui Space Surveillance Site +MSX – (telescope) Midcourse Space EXperiment, an infrared space telescope +MSSSO – (organization) Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring Observatories +MUNICS – (observing program) MUnich Near-Infrared Cluster Survey +MUSES – (spacecraft) MU Space Engineering Spacecraft, a Japanese science-related spacecraft launched in a Mu rocket +MUSTANG – (instrumentation) Multiplexed SQUID TES Array at Ninety GHz, A bolometer camera on the Green Bank Telescope. +MUSYC – (observing program) Multi-wavelength Survey by Yale-Chile +MW – (celestial object) Milky Way +MWD – (celestial object) magnetic white dwarf +MXRB – (celestial object) massive x-ray binary, an x-ray-luminous binary system consisting of a compact star and a very massive star +MYSO – (celestial object) massive young stellar object \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88ef9d7aa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 13/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== N == +N – (celestial object) nova +NACA – (organization) National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, the older name for NASA +NAMN – (organization) North American Meteor Network +NAOJ – (organization) National Astronomical Observatory of Japan +NAS – (organization) Norsk Astronomisk Selskap, the Norwegian name for the Norwegian Astronomical Society +NASA – (organization) National Aeronautics and Space Administration +NASDA – (organization) NAtional Space Development Agency +NBS – (organization) National Bureau of Standards, an older name for the National Institute of Standards and Technology +NCT – (telescope) Nuclear Compton Telescope – a balloon-borne soft gamma-ray (0.2-15 MeV) telescope. +NEAP – (spacecraft) Near Earth Asteroid Prospector, a space probe used to study a near-Earth asteroid +NEAR – (spacecraft) Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous, a space probe used to study a near-Earth asteroid +NEAT – (observing program) Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking +NED – (software) NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database +NEO – (celestial object) Near-Earth object +also NEA – (celestial object) Near-Earth asteroid +NEID - (instrumentation) a nested acronym for NN-EXPLORE Exoplanet Investigations with Doppler Spectroscopy, and it gets its name from the Tohono O'odham word meaning "to see" +NEMP – (celestial object) nitrogen-enhanced metal-poor star, a type of carbon star with high amounts of nitrogen +NEODyS – (organization) Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site, an Italian web-based service that provides information on near-Earth asteroids +NEOIC – (organization) Near Earth Object Information Center, a United Kingdom organization that provides information on near-Earth asteroids +NEOWISE – Near-Earth Object WISE +NESS – (telescope) Near Earth Space Surveillance, a telescope for observing near-Earth asteroids +NESSI – (organization) Near Earth Space Surveillance Initiative, a collaboration planning to use a ground-based telescope to observe near-Earth asteroids +NGC – (catalog) New General Catalog +NGS-POSS – National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey +NGST – (telescope) Next Generation Space Telescope, an older name for the James Webb Space Telescope +ngVLA – (telescope) Next-Generation Very Large Array +NHICAT – (catalog) Northern HIPASS CATalog, the northern extension of the HIPASS catalogue +NICER - (telescope) Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer, a NASA telescope on the International Space Station +NICMOS – (instrumentation) Near Infrared Camera / Multi Object Spectrometer, an infrared instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope +NIMS – (instrumentation) Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, an instrument on the Galileo spacecraft +NIR – (astrophysics terminology) near-infrared +NIRCam – (Instrument), Near-Infrared Camera, an instrument on James Webb Telescope +NIRSpec – (instrument) Near-Infrared Spectrograph, an instrument on James Webb Telerscope +NIST – (organization) National Institute of Standards and Technology +NLAGN – (celestial object) Narrow-Line AGN, classified based on lack of broadened emission or absorption lines in spectra +NLR – (astrophysics term) the Narrow Line Region of the AGN +NLTE – (astrophysics terminology) non-local thermodynamic equilibrium, situations where the temperature, pressure, etc. of a system are not in equilibrium +NLTT – (catalog) New Luyten Two-Tenths, a catalog of stars with high proper motions +NN-Explore - (Observing program) NASA-NSF Exoplanet Observational Research +NNVS – Nizhny Novgorod, Veränderliche Sterne; a variable star publication of the Nizhny Novgorod Society of Physics and Astronomy Amateurs +NOAA – (organization) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration +NOAO – (organization) National Optical Astronomy Observatories +NODO – (telescope) NASA Orbital Debris Observatory, a now-defunct telescope used to observe space junk and other objects +NOT – (telescope) NOrdic Telescope +NPS – (celestial object) North Polar Sequence, a series of stars near the north celestial pole once used as standards for measuring magnitudes +NRAL – Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratory, the former name for Jodrell +NRAO – (organization) National Radio Astronomy Observatory +NRL – (organization) Naval Research Laboratory +NS – (celestial object) neutron star +NSF – (organization) National Science Foundation +NSO – (organization) National Solar Observatory +NSSDC – (organization) National Space Science Data Center +NSV – (catalog) New Suspected Variable, a catalog of variable stars +NT – (astrophysics terminology) Non-Thermal, radiation that is not related to the emission source's temperature (such as synchrotron radiation) +NTT – (telescope) New Technology Telescope, a telescope operated by the European Southern Observatory +NuSTAR – Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array +NVSS – NRAO VLA Sky Survey, a major survey + +== O == +OAO – (observatory) Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, in Japan +OAO – (telescope) Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, a series of satellites with astronomical instruments that operated in the 1970s +OC – (celestial object) open cluster, a cluster of stars +OCA – (organization) Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur +OCO – (celestial object) Oort Cloud Object, an object (usually a comet) in the Oort cloud +OGLE – (observing program/catalog) Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment, an observing program to survey the sky for microlensing events; also the catalog of sources produced by the project +BLG – (catalog) BuLGe, used to designate a source detected in the direction of the bulge of the Milky Way +TR – (catalog) TRansit, used to designate a potential observation of a microlensing event caused by a transiting star +OPAG – (organization) Outer Planets Assessment Group, a group established by NASA that provides advice on Solar System exploration +ORFEUS – (telescope) Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer, an ultraviolet space telescope that could be released and later retrieved by the Space Shuttle +OSIRIS-REx – Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security Regolith Explorer +OSS – (observing program) Ohio Sky Survey +OSSE – (instrumentation) Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment, an instrument on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory +OTA – (instrumentation) Optical Telescope Assembly, the optics of the Hubble Space Telescope +OVV – (celestial object) an optically violent variable quasar. +OWL – (telescope) orbiting wide-angle light-collectors, two satellites that will work together to observe cosmic rays hitting the Earth's atmosphere +OWL – (telescope) OverWhelmingly Large Telescope, a proposed telescope with a primary mirror with a width of 100 m \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..72e492eb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 14/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== P == +P60 – (telescope) Palomar 60-inch telescope +PA – (astrophysics terminology) Position Angle +PACS - (instrumentation) Photodetecting Array Camera and Spectrometer, a Herschel imaging camera and low resolution spectrometer +PAH – (astrophysics terminology) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon +PAMELA – (telescope) Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics, a space telescope used to study cosmic rays +Pan-STARRS – (telescope) Panoramic Survey Telescope And Rapid Response System +PASJ – (publication) Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan +PBH — (cosmological object) Primordial black hole +PASP – (publication) Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific +PCA – (instrumentation) Proportional Counter Array, an X-ray detector on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer +PCAS – (observing program) Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey +PDBI – (telescope) Plateau de Bure Interferometer, a radio telescope +PDR – a photodissociation region or photon-dominated region (both terms are used synonymously); a region in the neutral ISM in which far-ultraviolet photons dominate the heating and chemistry +PDS – is a distributed data system that NASA uses to archive data collected by Solar System missions. +PEP – (instrumentation) PhotoElectric Photometry, an observing technique using photometers +PEPE – (instrumentation) Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration, an instrument on Deep Space 1 +PGC – Principal Galaxies Catalogue +PHA – (celestial object) Potentially Hazardous Asteroid +PI – (person) Principal Investigator, the person who leads a scientific project +PK – (catalog) Perek-Kohoutek, a catalog of planetary nebulae +PKS – (Telescope) Refers to Parkes Observatory, a radio telescope in Australia +Planemo – (celestial object) planetary mass object +PLANET – (observing program) Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events +PLS – (observing program) Palomar-Leiden Survey, a program to search for asteroids +PMPS – (observing program) Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey +PMS – (celestial object) pre-main sequence, young stars that are still in the process of formation +also pre-MS +PMT – (instrumentation) photomultiplier tube +P-L – a set of asteroid discoveries in the 1960s +PN – (celestial object) planetary nebula +also PNe (plural form of planetary nebula) +PNG – (catalog) Galactic Planetary Nebula +PNLF – (astrophysics terminology) Planetary Nebula Luminosity Function, the density of planetary nebula as a function of their luminosity +PNN – (celestial object) planetary nebula nucleus, the central star in a planetary nebula +PNNV – (celestial object) planetary nebula nucleus variable, a variable star in the center of a planetary nebula +POSS – (observing program) Palomar Observatory Sky Survey +POSSUM – Polarisation Sky Survey of the Universe's Magnetism +PPARC – (organization) Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council, a major government-sponsored science agency in the United Kingdom, merged into the Science and Technology Facilities Council in 2007 +PPM – (catalog) Positions and Proper Motions, a catalog of the positions and proper motions of stars +PPN – (celestial object) proto-planetary nebula, an object that has partially evolved from a red giant to a planetary nebula +PRE – (astrophysics terminology) photospheric radius expansion +PRIMUS – Prism Multi-Object Survey, a large [spectroscopsurvey] +Proplyd – (celestial object) protoplanetary disk +PSC – (catalog) Point Source Catalog, a catalog of point-like infrared sources detected with the Infrared Astronomy Satellite +PSF – (instrumentation) Point Spread Function, a function that describes the blurring of a point source that is caused by the optics of the telescope and instrument (as well as other effects) +PSI – (organization) Planetary Science Institute +PSR – (celestial object) Pulsar +PVO – (spacecraft) Pioneer Venus Orbiter +PVTEL – (celestial object) PV TELescopii, a class of pulsating variable stars named after PV Telescopii, the archetype for the class +PWD – (celestial object) pre-white dwarf, a star that no longer creates energy through fusion that will eventually evolve into a white dwarf +PWN – (celestial object) pulsar wind nebula +PZT – (telescope) photographic zenith tube, a general name for any telescope designed to observe objects passing at the zenith + +== Q == +QBO – (astrophysics terminology) quasi-biennial oscillation, a type of season variation in the Earth's atmosphere +QGP - Quark-Gluon Plasma +QE – (instrumentation) quantum efficiency, the sensitivity of CCDs +QPO – (astrophysics terminology) quasi-periodic oscillation +QSO – (celestial object) quasi-stellar object +Quasar – (celestial object) quasi-stellar radio source \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8f99d405c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 15/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== R == +RAPTOR – Rapid Telescopes for Optical Response project +RA – (astrophysics terminology) Right ascension +RAFGL – See AFGL. +RAMBO – (celestial object) An association of brown dwarfs or white dwarfs form a dark cluster. +RAS – (organization) Royal Astronomical Society +RASC – (organization) Royal Astronomical Society of Canada +RASS – (observing program/catalog) ROSAT All-Sky Survey, used as both a name for a survey with ROSAT and the catalogs produced from the survey +RC – (celestial object) Red Clump, a type of metal-rich red giant star +also RCG – red clump giant +RC – (catalog) Reference Catalogue, a catalog of nearby galaxies +RC2 – Reference Catalogue, 2nd edition +RC3 – Reference Catalogue, 3rd edition +RC – (organization/telescope) Ritchey Chretien, a manufacturer of amateur and professional telescope equipment; also the telescopes themselves +RCB – (celestial object) R Coronae Borealis, a class of eruptive variable stars named after R Coronae Borealis, the archetype for the class +RDI – (astrophysics terminology) radiation-driven implosion +RECONS – (organization) Research Consortium on Nearby Stars, a survey of nearby stars +RGB – (celestial object) red-giant branch, a star that is evolving from a main-sequence star into a red giant +Can also refer to the ROSAT-Green Bank Catalog +RGO – (organization) Royal Greenwich Observatory +RLOF – (astrophysics terminology) Roche Lobe Overflow, the result of when an object in a binary system is larger than its roche lobe (i.e. when an object in a binary system expands to a radius where tidal forces become stronger than gravitational forces) +RLQ – (celestial object) radio loud quasar, a quasar that produces strong radio emission +RNGC – (catalog) Revised New General Catalog +RORF – (astrophysics terminology) radio/optical reference frame, an inertial reference frame based on extragalactic radio sources +ROSAT – (telescope) ROentgen SATellite, an X-ray space telescope +ROTSE – (observing program/telescope) Robotic Optical Transient Search Experiment, an observing program for detecting the optical counterparts of gamma ray bursts; also the telescopes used in this program +RQQ – (celestial object) radio-quiet quasar a quasar that produces weak radio emission +RRAT – (celestial object) rotating radio transient, a population of rotating neutron stars that produce periodic bursts of emission that are separated by intervals of minutes or hours +RRL – (celestial object) RR Lyrae, a class of pulsating variable stars named after RR Lyrae, the archetype of the class +also RR +RSA – (catalog) Revised Shapley-Ames, a catalog of nearby galaxies +RSA – (organization) Russian Space Agency +RSAA – (organization) Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, part of the Institute of Advanced Studies at the Australian National University +RSG – (celestial object) red super giant +RSN – (celestial object) radio supernova +RTG – (instrumentation) Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, a type of power generator used in spacecraft that travel far from the Sun +RV – (astrophysics terminology) radial velocity, the velocity along the line of sight +RX – (catalog) ROSAT X-ray, a catalog of sources detected by ROSAT +RXTE – (telescope) Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer, a space telescope designed to observe variability in X-ray emission \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..772aa0c36 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 16/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +S82 – Stripe 82 +S&T – (publication) Sky & Telescope +SAAO – (organization) South African Astronomical Observatory +SALT – (telescope) Southern African Large Telescope +SAF – (organization) Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) +SAM – (astrophysics terminology) Semi-Analytic Modeling, models that draw on numerical and analytical methods to model dark matter evolution in galaxies +SAO – (organization/catalog) Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, the name of astrophysics research organization associated with Harvard University; also a catalog of stars +SARA – (organization) Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers +SAS – (software) Science Analysis Software, a software package used for processing data from the XMM-Newton Observatory +SAT – (telescope) synthetic aperture telescope +SAVAL – (organization) Sociedad Astronómica de Valparaíso y Viña del Mar, Chile. Amateur Astronomy. Founded in 1956. SB – (celestial object) spectroscopic binary +SB1 – spectroscopic binary, single-lined spectra +SB2 – spectroscopic binary, double-lined spectra +SB – (astrophysics terminology) surface brightness +SBIG – (organization/instrumentation) Santa Barbara Instrument Group, the name of both a company that manufactures telescope equipment and the company's products +SBNC – (organization) Small Bodies Names Committee, an older name for the Committee for Small Body Nomenclature +SCP – (observing program) Supernova Cosmology Project, a project to measure the expansion of the universe using supernovae at high redshifts +SCR – (observing program) SuperCOSMOS-RECONS, a survey that measured the proper motions of stars +SCT – (telescope) Schmidt–Cassegrain telescope, a general name for a type of compact telescope that uses both lenses and mirrors +SCUBA – (instrumentation) Submillimetre Common User Bolometer Array, a submillimeter imager formerly at the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope +SCUBA-2 – (instrumentation) Submillimetre Common User Bolometer Array 2, a submillimeter imager that will replace SCUBA +sd – (celestial object) subdwarf, stars fainter than main-sequence stars with the same colors; often used as a prefix to a star's spectral type +SDO – (celestial object) scattered disk object, Kuiper belt objects with highly eccentric, highly inclined orbits +also SKBO – Scattered Kuiper belt object +SDOR – (celestial object) S DORadus, a class of eruptive variable stars named after S Doradus, the archetype for the class +SDSS – (observing program/catalog) Sloan Digital Sky Survey, a large imaging and spectroscopic survey; also the catalog of sources from the survey +SDSSp – (catalog) Sloan Digital Sky Survey provisory / preliminary +SEAAN – (organization) Southeast Asia Astronomy Network, astronomy research and education among Southeast Asian countries +SED – (astrophyics terminology) Spectral Energy Distribution +SEDS – (organization) Students for the Exploration and Development of Space +SERC – (organization) Science and Engineering Research Council +SEST – (telescope) Swedish–ESO Submillimetre Telescope +SETI – (observing program) Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence +SF – (astrophysics terminology) star formation +SFH – (astrophysics terminology) star formation history +SFR – (astrophyics terminology) star formation rate +SGF – (organization) – SpaceGuard Foundation, an organization that tracks near-Earth asteroids +SGR – (celestial object) – soft gamma repeater, a type of neutron star with strong magnetic fields that produces very large bursts of energy +SGRB – (celestial object) – Short Gamma-Ray Burst. SHOES-Supernovae, HO, for the Equation of State of Dark energy +SID – (astrophysics terminology) Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance, a disturbance in the Earth's ionosphere caused by the Sun +SIDC – (organization) Sunspot Index Data Center +SIM – (telescope) Space Interferometry Mission, a planned optical space telescope that will be used to measure distances to stars +SIMBAD – (software) Set of Identifications, Measurements, and Bibliography for Astronomical Data, a website that provides catalog data on astronomical objects +SINGG – (observing program) Survey of Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxies, a survey of star formation in nearby galaxies selected by gas rich galaxies using H-alpha and ultraviolet observations +SINGS – (observing program) Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey +SIPS – (observing program/catalog) Southern Infrared Proper Motion Survey, a program to identify stars with high proper motions at infrared wavelengths +SIRTF – (telescope) Space InfraRed Telescope Facility or Shuttle InfraRed Telescope Facility, older names for the Spitzer Space Telescope +SIS – (Instrumentation) Superconductor-Isolator-Superconductor +SKA – (telescope) Square Kilometre Array +SL – (catalog) Shoemaker–Levy, the comets discovered by Shoemaker and Levy, particularly Shoemaker–Levy 9 +SL – (spacecraft) SpaceLab +SLED - (astrophysics terminology) Spectral Line Energy Distribution, a description of the relative strength of CO emission lines +SLS – (launch vehicle) American Space Shuttle-derived super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b99f04f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 17/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +SMA – (telescope) Submillimeter Array +SMART – (spacecraft) Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology +SMARTS – (organization) Small and Moderate Aperture Research Telescope System at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory +SMBH – (celestial object) super massive black hole +SMC – (celestial object) Small Magellanic Cloud +SME – (spacecraft) Solar Mesosphere Explorer, a spacecraft used to study the Earth's ozone layer +SMEX – (spacecraft) SMall EXplorers, the name of a series of small astronomical spacecraft; also the program to develop the spacecraft +SMG - (celestial object) submillimeter galaxy +SMM – (telescope) Solar Maximum Mission, a solar space telescope +SN – (instrumentation) signal-to-noise, the ratio of the signal from an object to the noise from the detector that measured the signal +also SNR – Signal-to-nosie ratio +SN – (celestial object) supernova +also SNe (plural form of SN) +SNAP – (telescope) SuperNova Acceleration Probe, proposed space telescope +SNR – (celestial object) supernova remnant +SNU – (astrophysics terminology) solar neutrino units +SOARD – (software) Steward Observatory Asteroid Relational Database +SOFIA – (telescope) Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, an infrared telescope currently under construction that will fly inside a modified Boeing 747 aircraft +SOHO – (telescope) SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory, a solar space telescope +SONEAR – Southern Observatory for Near Earth Asteroids Research +SOLO – Solar Orbiter +SPARTAN – (telescope) Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy, an ultraviolet space telescope that can be released and retrieved by the Space Shuttle +SPHERE – (instrumentation) Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research, VLT +SPIRE - (instrumentation) Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver, a Herschel imaging camera and low-resolution spectrometer +SPIRIT – (instrument) SPace InfraRed Imaging Telescope, an infrared instrument on the Midcourse Space Experiment spacecraft +SPS – (spacecraft) solar power satellite, a general name for proposed satellites that would convert solar power into energy and then beam the energy to the surface of a planet (such as Earth) in the form of microwaves +SPS – (astrophysical terminology) stellar population synthesis +SPT – (telescope) South Pole Telescope +SQIID – (instrumentation) Simultaneous Quad Infrared Imaging Device +SQM – (celestial object) strange quark matter +SR – (astrophysics terminology) Special Relativity +SRON – (organization) Space Research Organization of the Netherlands +SS – (celestial object) Symbiotic Star, a type of binary star system containing a red giant and a hot dwarf star that generate a cone-shaped nebula +sSFR – (astrophyics terminology) specific star formation rate +SSI – (instrumentation) Solid-State Imager, an instrument on the Galileo spacecraft +SSI – (organization) Space Studies Institute +SSP – (instrumentation) Surface Science Package, on board the Huygens probe +SSP – (astrophysics terminology) simple stellar population +SSRQ – (celestial object) Steep Spectrum Radio Quasars +SSS – (observing program) SuperCOSMOS Sky Surveys +SSSPM – (catalog) SuperCOSMOS Sky Survey Proper Motion +SST – (telescope) Spectroscopic Survey Telescope +SST – (telescope) Spitzer Space Telescope, a space telescope +STARSMOG – (observing program) STarlight Absorption Reduction through a Survey of Multiple Occulting Galaxies, a survey using Hubble Space Telescope imaging +STEPS – (observing program) STEllar Planet Survey +STEREO – Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory +STIS – (instrumentation) Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope +STS – (vehicle) Shuttle Transport System or Space Transportation System +STScI – (organization) Space Telescope Science Institute +STSDAS – (software) Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System +SUGRA – (astrophysics terminology) supergravity +SUPRIME – (instrumentation) SUbaru PRIME focus CAMera, an instrument on the Subaru Telescope +SUSI – (telescope) Sydney University Stellar Interferometer, an optical interferometer +SWAN – (instrumentation) Solar Wind ANisotropy, an instrument on SOHO +SWAS – (telescope) Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite, a submillimeter space telescope +SWEEPS – (observing program) – Sagittarius Window Eclipsing Extrasolar Planet Search, a survey of a subsection of the plane of the Milky Way performed with the Hubble Space Telescope +SWIRE – (observing program) Spitzer Wide-area InfraRed Extragalactic survey +SwRI – (organization) Southwest Research Institute +SXARI – (celestial object) SX ARIetis, a class of rotating variable stars named after SX Arietis, the archetype for the class +SXPHE – (celestial object) SX PhoEnicis, a class of pulsating variable stars named after SX Phoenicis, the archetype for the class \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b0747fc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 18/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== T == +T-1 – (observing program) First Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey +T-2 – (observing program) Second Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey +T-3 – (observing program) Third Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey +TABLEAUX – International Conference on Automated Reasoning with Analytic Tableaux and Related Methods +TAC – (organization) Time Allocation Committee or Telescope Allocation Committee, a general name for a committee that awards telescope observing time +TAC – (catalog) Twin Astrograph Catalog +TAI – (astrophysics terminology) International Atomic Time +TAMS – (astrophysics terminology) terminal-age main sequence, stars at the point in their lifetimes where they have finished burning hydrogen in their cores +TAROT – (telescope) Télescope à Action Rapide pour les Objets Transitoires +TASS – (observing program) The Amateur Sky Survey +TARDIS – (software) an open-source program used for numerical modelling and analysis of supernovae +TAU – (spacecraft) Thousand Astronomical Unit, a spacecraft mission proposed in the 1980s that would reach 1000 AU in 50 years +TCB – (astrophysics terminology) Barycentric Coordinate Time +TCC – Theory of Cryptography Conference +TCG – (astrophysics terminology) Geocentric Coordinate Time +TDB – (astrophysics terminology) Barycentric Dynamical Time +TDRSS – (communications network) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, an array of satellites used by NASA to communicate with many spacecraft in low Earth orbit +TES – (instrumentation) Thermal Emission Spectrometer, a spectrometer on the Mars Observer +TESS - (spacecraft) Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, NASA: an all-sky survey mission that will discover thousands of exoplanets around nearby bright stars. TESS launched 18 April 2018 aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket +TEP – (organization) Transits of Extrasolar Planets +TRGB - (celestial object) - Tip of the Red-Giant Branch stars, a primary distance indicator +TGF – (celestial object) – Terrestrial gamma-ray flash, gamma rays emitted from Earth's lightning storms +THEMIS – (instrumentation) Thermal Emission Imaging System, a camera on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft +TIC – (catalog) Tycho Input Catalog, a predecessor of the Hipparcos Input Catalog +TIFR – (organization) – Tata Institute of Fundamental Research - India +TIR – (astrophysics terminology) total infrared +TIMED – (spacecraft) thermosphere ionosphere mesosphere energetics and dynamics +TIE – (organization) Telescopes In Education +TLP – (astrophysics terminology) Transient Lunar Phenomenon, an unexplained flash of light observed from the Moon +TMC – (celestial object) Taurus Molecular Cloud +TMT – (telescope) – Thirty Meter Telescope, formerly known as California Extremely Large Telescope +TN – (person) telescope nut, nickname for an amateur telescope maker +TNO – (celestial object) trans-Neptunian object, any object that orbits the Sun at a distance greater than that of Neptune +TO – (person) telescope operator, the technician who assists in operating a telescope during astronomical observations +TOPS – (meeting) Toward Other Planetary Systems, a series of educational astronomy workshops +TPF – (telescope) Terrestrial Planet Finder, a planned space telescope that will be used to find extrasolar Earth-like planets +TPHOLs – Theorem Proving in Higher-Order Logics +TRACE – Transition Region and Coronal Explorer, a solar space telescope +TrES – (telescope) Transatlantic Exoplanet Survey +TT – (astrophysics terminology) Terrestrial Time +also TDT – terrestrial dynamical time +TTS – (celestial object) T-Tauri star +TWA – (celestial object) TW Hydrae Association +TYC – (catalog) Tycho, a catalog that was the predecessor of the Hipparcos (HIP) Catalogue +TZO – (celestial object) Thorne–Żytkow object, the object that forms when a neutron star merges with a red giant + +== U == +UAI – Union Astronomique Internationale +UARS – (spacecraft) Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, a satellite used to study the Earth's upper atmosphere +UCAC – (catalog) USNO CCD Astrometric Catalog +UESAC – (observing program) Uppsala-ESO Survey of Asteroids and Comets +UFO – (astrophysics terminology) unidentified flying object +UG – (celestial object) U Geminorum, a class of cataclysmic variable stars (also known as dwarf novae) that are named after U Geminorum, the archetype for the class +UGSS – (celestial object) UG SS Cygni, a subclass of UG-type stars named after SS Cygni, the archetype for the subclass +UGSU – (celestial object) UG SU Ursae Majoris, a subclass of UG-type stars named after SU Ursae Majoris, the archetype for the subclass +UGWZ – (celestial object) UG WZ Sagittae, a subclass of UG-type stars named after WZ Sagittae, the archetype for the subclass +UGZ – (celestial object) UG Z Camelopardalis, a subclass of UG-type stars named after Z Camelopardalis, the archetype for the subclass +UGC – (catalog) Uppsala General Catalogue, a catalog of galaxies +UIT – (telescope) Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope, an ultraviolet telescope that was operated from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle +UVIT – (telescope) Ultra-Violet Imaging Telescope, an ultraviolet telescope on board the AstroSat observatory +UKIDSS – (observing program/catalog) UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey +UKIRT – (telescope) United Kingdom Infrared Telescope +UKSA – (organization) UK Space Agency +UKST – (telescope) United Kingdom Schmidt Telescope +ULIRG – (celestial object) UltraLuminous InfraRed Galaxy, a galaxy that is brighter than 1012 solar luminosities in the infrared +ULX – (celestial object) ultraluminous x-ray source +Ultramassive black hole — (celestial object) ultramassive black hole +UMS – (celestial object) Upper Main Sequence, the more massive hydrogen-burning main-sequence stars +USAF – (organization) United States Air Force +USGS – (organization) United States Geological Survey +USNO – (organization) United States Naval Observatory +UT – (astrophysics terminology) Universal Time +UTC – (astrophysics terminology) Coordinated Universal Time +UV – (astrophysics terminology) ultraviolet +UVS – (instrumentation) UltraViolet Spectrometer, the name of instruments on the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft +UXOR – (celestial object) UX ORionis objects, a class of variable pre–main sequence stars named after UX Orionis, the archetype for the class +UZC – Updated Zwicky Catalogue \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6df5dc8fc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 19/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== V == +VBO – (organization) Vainu Bappu Observatory, located in India +VBT – (telescope) Vainu Bappu Telescope, located at Vainu Bappu Observatory +VCC – (catalog) Virgo Cluster Catalog, a catalog of galaxies in the Virgo Cluster +VdS – (organization) Vereinigung der Sternfreunde, the German amateur astronomers society +VEEGA – (astrophysics terminology) Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist, the path taken by the Galileo spacecraft to reach Jupiter +VeLLO – (celestial object) very-low-luminosity object +VERITAS – (telescope) Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System, gamma-ray telescope in Arizona sensitive to GeV/TeV gamma rays +VERA – (telescope) VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry, a Japanese radio telescope designed for studying objects in the Milky Way +VHE – (astrophysics terminology) Very High Energy, gamma rays with high energies +VIMOS – (instrumentation) VIsible Multi-Object Spectrograph, instrument on the VLT +VIPERS – VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey an ESO Large Program +VISTA – (telescope) Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy +VLA – (telescope) Very Large Array, a radio telescope in New Mexico operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory +VLBA – (telescope) Very Long Baseline Array, a radio telescope operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory with antennas spread across the United States +VLBI – (instrumentation) very long baseline interferometry, combining signals from multiple telescopes/radio antennas that are separated by large distances +VLM – (astrophysics terminology) very low mass, objects (usually stars) that have relatively low masses +VLT – (telescope) Very Large Telescope, four 8.2 meter telescopes in Chile that operate either independently as individual telescopes or together as an interferometer +VLT-SPHERE – (instrumentation) Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research; installed at VLT's UT3 +VMO – (software) The Virtual Meteor Observatory is an activity of the International Meteor Organization together with the Research and Scientific Support Department of the European Space Agency to store meteor data from observers all over the world. +VO – (software) Virtual Observatory +VOIR – (spacecraft) Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar, a spacecraft for mapping Venus that was canceled and then superseded by the Magellan spacecraft +VRM – (spacecraft) Venus Radar Mapper, an older name for the Magellan spacecraft +VSOLJ – (organization) Variable Star Observers League in Japan +VSOP – (organization) VLBI Space Observatory Program, a project to use both satellites and ground-based radio telescopes as an interferometer +VST – (telescope) VLT Survey Telescope +VV – Vorontsov-Vel'yaminov Interacting Galaxies +VVDS – (observing program) VIMOS-VLT Deep Survey + +== W == +WALLABY – a survey of neutral hydrogen in galaxies +WD – (celestial object) white dwarf +WDM – (astrophysics terminology) warm dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that characterizes "hot" particles such as neutrinos as dark matter +WDS – (catalog) Washington Double Star, a catalog of double stars +WEBT – (organization) Whole Earth Blazar Telescope, a network of observers across the Earth who work together to perform continuous observations of blazars +WET – (organization) Whole Earth Telescope, a network of astronomers spread across the Earth who work together to perform continuous observations of variable stars +WFCAM – (instrumentation) Wide Field Camera, a camera on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope +WFIRST - (telescope) Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope, former name of the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope scheduled for launch in 2025 +WFMOS – (instrumentation) Wide-Field Multi-Object Spectrograph, proposed instrument for the Gemini telescopes +WFPC – (instrumentation) Wide Field and Planetary Camera, a camera formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope that was replaced with WFPC2 +WFPC2 – (instrumentation) Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, a camera on the Hubble Space Telescope +WFC – (instrumentation) Wide-Field Channel, one of the detectors in the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope +WGPSN – (organization) Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature +WHT – (telescope) William Herschel Telescope +WIMP – (celestial object) Weakly Interacting Massive Particle, a hypothetical subatomic particle that may comprise most of the dark matter in the universe +WIRCam – (instrumentation) Wide-field InfraRed Camera, instrument on the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope +WIRE – Wide Field Infrared Explorer +WISARD – (software) Web Interface for Searching Archival Research Data +WISE – (observing program) Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer +WIYN – (telescope) Wisconsin-Indiana-Yale-NOAO, the name of a telescope at Kitt Peak operated by the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Indiana University, Yale University, and the National Optical Astronomy Observatory +WLM – (celestial object) Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte, a nearby dwarf galaxy in the constellation Cetus +WMAP – (telescope) Wilkinson Microwave Anisotrophy Probe, a space telescope used to study the cosmic microwave background radiation +WR – (celestial object) Wolf–Rayet, a type of hot, luminous star with strong stellar winds +WC – (celestial object) carbon-rich Wolf–Rayet, a Wolf–Rayet star with strong carbon spectral line emission +WN – (celestial object) nitrogen-rich Wolf–Rayet, a Wolf–Rayet star with strong nitrogen spectral line emission +WNE – (celestial object) early-type nitrogen-rich wolf–rayet, a wn star without hydrogen spectral line emission +WNL – (celestial object) late-type nitrogen-rich Wolf–Rayet, a WN star with hydrogen spectral line emission +WO – (celestial object) oxygen-rich Wolf–Rayet, a Wolf–Rayet star with strong oxygen spectral line emission +WSRT – (telescope) an aperture synthesis interferometer that consists of a linear array of 14 antennas +WTTS – (celestial object) weak-line t-tauri star, a type of young star with weak spectral line emission + +== X == +XCS – (observing program) XMM Cluster Survey +XIS – (instrumentation) X-ray imaging spectrometer, an instrument on the Suzaku space telescope +XMM – (telescope) X-ray Multi-Mirror, the XMM-Newton earth-orbiting X-ray-sensitive telescope +XN – (celestial object) x-ray nova +XRF – (celestial object) x-ray flash +XRISM - X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission, an X-ray space telescope (pronounced 'crism' or 'krizz-em', as if the X was a chi). + +== Y == +Ys – (celestial object) yellow straggler +YSG – (celestial object) yellow super giant star +YSO – (celestial object) young stellar object \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b0ba9ada7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 20/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Z == +ZAHB – (celestial object) "zero-age" horizontal branch, horizontal branch stars that have just begun burning helium in their cores and hydrogen in a shell around the cores +ZAMS – (celestial object) zero age main sequence, a star that has just become a main-sequence star (i.e. a star that has begun burning hydrogen in its core) +ZAND – (celestial object) Z ANDromedae, a class of eruptive variable stars named after the binary star system Z Andromedae, the archetype for the class +ZANDE – (celestial object) Z ANDromedae with eclipses, a subclass of ZAND stars where the stars eclipse each other +ZEPLIN – (instrumentation) ZonEd proportional scintillation in liquid noble gases, a dark matter detector +ZHR – (astrophysics terminology) zenith hourly rate, the maximum number of meteors per hour that may be observed during a meteor shower +Z-FOURGE – (survey) The FourStar Galaxy Evolution Survey +ZOA – Zone of Avoidance + +== See also == +List of common astronomy symbols +List of astronomical catalogues +Glossary of astronomy +Modern constellations + +== References == + +AAVSO Type List. Information retrieved on 2006-09-10 – 2006-09-11 +Abbreviations and acronyms frequently used in astronomy. Information retrieved on 2006-08-28 – 2006-09-12 +The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight. Information retrieved on 2006-08-27 – 2006-09-12 +Frequently Seen Space/Astronomy Acronyms. Information retrieved on 2006-08-27 – 2006-09-12 + +== External links == +The Canonical Astronomy Abbreviations/Acronyms List +Astronomy Acronyms and Astronomy Abbreviations \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c5234e4b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 3/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== B == +B – (catalog) Barnard catalog +BAA – (organization) British Astronomical Association +BAAS – (publication) Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society +BAC – (catalog) Bordeaux Astrographic Catalog +BAO – (astrophysics terminology) baryon acoustic oscillations +BAO – (organization) Beijing Astronomical Observatory +BASIS – (observing program) Burst and All Sky Imaging Survey +BAT – (instrumentation) Burst Alert Telescope, an instrument on SWIFT +BATC – (observing program) Beijing-Arizona-Taiwan-Connecticut, the name of a multi-wavelength sky survey +BATSE – (instrument) Burst and Transient Source Experiment, an instrument on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory +BATTeRS – (telescope) Bisei Asteroid Tracking Telescope for Rapid Survey +BB – (astrophysics terminology) Black body +BBXRT – (telescope) Broad Band X-Ray Telescope +BCD – (celestial object) Blue compact dwarf +BCD – (software) Basic calibrated data, data produced after basic processing +BCEP – (celestial object) Beta CEPhei, a class of pulsating variable stars for which Beta Cephei is the archetypal object +also BCE +BCG – (celestial object) Blue compact galaxy, another name for a blue compact dwarf, also bright central galaxy +BCG – (celestial object) Brightest Cluster Galaxy, the brightest galaxy in a cluster of galaxies +BCVS – (catalog) Bibliographic Catalogue of Variable Stars +BD – (catalog) Bonner Durchmusterung +BD – (celestial object) Brown dwarf +BEN – (catalog) Jack Bennett catalog, a catalog of deep-sky objects for amateur astronomers +BEL – (celestial object) broad emission line clouds in Active galactic nucleus +BF – (astrophysics terminology) Broadening function +BH – (celestial object) Black hole +BHB – (celestial object) Blue horizontal branch, a type of luminous star +BHC – (celestial object) Black hole candidate +BHXRT – (celestial object) Black hole x-ray transient +also BHXT +BICEP2 – (telescope) Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 2 +BIMA – (organization & telescope) Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association, and also B-M-I Array, microwave telescope it operated +BIS – (organization) British Interplanetary Society +BITP – (organization) – Bogolyubov Institute for Theoretical Physics, a Ukrainian research institute +BKL - (Astrophysics terminology) Belinski–Khalatnikov–Lifshitz, a model of chaotic oscillations of spacetime near a singularity +BLAGN – (celestial object) Broad-Line AGN, based on classification of spectral line widths +BLLAC – (celestial object) BL LACertae, a class of active galaxies for which BL Lacertae is the archetypal object +also BLL +BLAST – (telescope) – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope +BLR – (astrophysics term) the broad line region of the AGN +BNSC – (organization) British National Space Centre, the older name for UKSA +BOAO – (observatory) Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory, in Korea +BOOMERanG – (telescope) Balloon Observations of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation and Geophysics +BPM – (catalog) Bruce proper motion +BSG – (celestial object) Blue super giant +BSS – (celestial object) Blue straggler star +also BS +BSS – (observing program) Bigelow Sky Survey +BY – (celestial object) BY Draconis, a class of rotating variable stars for which BY Draconis is the archetypal object \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7e811fd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,118 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 4/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== C == +C – First Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources, 2C (Second Cambridge Catalog), 3C (Third Cambridge Catalog)... +CADC – (organization) Canadian Astronomy Data Centre +CAHA – (organization) Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán, a German-Spanish Astronomical Centre +CANDELS – (survey) Cosmic Assembly Near-Infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey or Cosmic Assembly and Dark Energy Legacy Survey +CANTAR - (telescope) Colombian Antarctic Telescope for 21-cm Absorption during Reionization +CAPS – (instrumentation) Cassini Plasma Spectrometer, an instrument on the Cassini spacecraft +CARA – (organization) California Association for Research in Astronomy +CANGAROO – Collaboration between Australian and Nippon for a Gamma Ray Observatory +CARA – (organization) Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica +CASCA – (organization) Canadian Astronomical Society / Société canadienne d'astronomie (the name is officially bilingual) +CARMA – an array +CASS – (organization) Center for Advanced Space Studies +CASS – (organization) Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, an interdisciplinary research unit at UC San Diego +CBAT – (organization) Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams +CBE – Collisionless Boltzmann Equation +CBR – (celestial object) cosmic background radiation +CC – (celestial object) candidate companion, a newly detected observed object that initially appears to orbit another celestial object +CCD – (instrumentation) Charge-coupled device +CCD – (astrophysics terminology) – Color–color diagram, a plot that compares the differences between magnitudes in different wave bands +CCDM – (catalog) Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars +CCO – (catalog) Catalogue of Cometary Orbits +CCO – (celestial object) central compact object, a compact star in the center of a planetary nebula +CCS – (celestial object) cool carbon star +CCSNe - (celestial object) core collapse supernovae +CCSFS – Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, a United States Space Force launch base +CD – (catalog) Cordoba Durchmusterung +CDFS – Chandra Deep Field South +CDIMP – (catalog) Catalogue of Discoveries and Identifications of Minor Planets +CDM – (astrophysics terminology) Cold Dark Matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that characterize "cold" particles such as WIMPs as dark matter +CDS – (organization) Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg +CELT – (telescope) – California Extremely Large Telescope, an older name for the Thirty Meter Telescope +CEMP – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor, a type of carbon star +CEMP-no – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with no enhancement of elements produced by the r-process or s-process nucleosynthesis +CEMP-r – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with an enhancement of elements produced by r-process nucleosynthesis +CEMP-s – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with an enhancement of elements produced by s-process nucleosynthesis +CEMP-r/s – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with an enhancement of elements produced by both r-process and s-process nucleosynthesis +CEP – (celestial object) CEPheid, a type of pulsating variable star +CEPS – (organization) Center for Earth and Planetary Studies +CfA – (organization) Center for Astrophysics +CFHT – (telescope) Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope +CFRS – (observing program), Canada–France Redshift Survey +CG – (astrophysics terminology) Center of gravity +CG – (celestial object) Cometary Globule, a Bok globule that show signs of a tail-like extension +CG – (celestial object) Compact galaxy +CGM - (astrophysics terminology) Circumgalactic Medium +CGCS – (celestial object) Cool galactic carbon star +CGRO – (telescope) Compton Gamma Ray Observatory +CGSS – (catalog) Catalogue of Galactic S Stars +CH — (Astrophysics terminology) Cauchy horizon, an inner horizon in a spinning and/or charged black hole +CHARA – (organization) Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy +CHeB – (celestial object) Core Helium Burning +CHIPSat – Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer satellite +CHIRON - +CIAO – (software) Chandra Interactive Analysis of Observations, software for processing Chandra X-ray Observatory data +CIAO – (instrumentation) Coronagraphic Imager with Adaptive Optics, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope +CIBR – (celestial object) Cosmic infrared background radiation +also CIB +CIDA – (instrumentation) Cometary Interplanetary Dust Analyzer, an instrument on the Stardust spacecraft +CINDI – Coupled Ion-Neutral Dynamics Investigation +CINEOS – (observing program) Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Object Survey +CIO – (catalog) Catalog of Infrared Observations +CISCO – (instrumentation) Cooled Infrared Spectrograph and Camera for OHS, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope +CM – (astrophysics terminology) center of mass +CMB – (celestial object) cosmic microwave background radiation +also CMBR, CBR, MBR +CMC – (catalog) Carlsberg Meridian Catalogue +CMD – (astrophysics terminology) color–magnitude diagram, the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram or similar diagrams +also CM +CME – coronal mass ejection +CNB – (celestial object) cosmic neutrino background +CNES – (organization) Centre Nationale d'Etudes Spatiales, the French Space Agency +CNO – (astrophysics terminology) Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen, a sequence of nuclear fusion processes +CNR – (organization) Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche +CNSR – (spacecraft) Comet nucleus sample return +COBE – (telescope) Cosmic Background Explorer, a space telescope used to study the cosmic microwave background radiation +COHSI – (instrumentation) Cambridge OH-Suppression Instrument +Col – (catalog) Collinder catalog +COMICS – (instrumentation) COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope +CGRO – (telescope) COMPton TELescope, another name for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory +COROT – (telescope) COnvection ROtation and planetary Transits, a space telescope for detecting extrasolar planets +COSMOS – (observing program) Cosmic Evolution Survey +COSPAR – (organization) COmmittee on SPAce Research +COSTAR – (instrumentation) Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement, corrective optics for the Hubble Space Telescope +CP – (astrophysics terminology) Chemically peculiar, stars with peculiar chemical compositions +CPD – (catalog) Cape Photographic Durchmusterung +CRAF – (spacecraft) Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby +CRL – Cambridge Research Laboratories (infrared sky survey) +CRRES – Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite +CSA – (organization) Canadian Space Agency +CSBN – (organization) Committee for Small-Body Nomenclature +CSE – (celestial object) circumstellar envelope, a roughly spherical planetary nebula formed from dense stellar wind if not present before the formation of a star. +CSI – (catalog) Catalog of Stellar Identification, a compilation of the catalogs, BD, CD, and CPD +CSO – (telescope) Caltech Submillimeter Observatory +CSP – (astrophysics terminology) composite stellar population +CSPN – (celestial object) central star of planetary nebula +also CSPNe (plural form of CSPN) +CSS – (observing program) Catalina Sky Survey +CST – (astrophysics terminology) ConStanT, non-variable stars +CSV – (catalog) Catalog of Suspected Variables +CTIO – (telescope/organization) Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory +CTTS – (celestial object) Classical T-Tauri Star +CV – (celestial object) cataclysmic variable, a type of variable binary star system that contains a white dwarf and a companion star that changes +CW – (celestial object) Cepheid W Virginis, a class of Cepheids named after W Virginis, the archetype for the class +CWA – (celestial object) Cepheid W Virginis A, a subclass of CW stars that vary in brightness on timescales of less than 8 days +CWB – (celestial object) Cepheid W Virginis B, a subclass of CW stars that vary in brightness on timescales greater than 8 days +CXBR – (celestial object) Cosmic x-ray background radiation +CXO – (catalog) Chandra X-ray Observation, a catalog based from the Chandra space telescope \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a381217a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 5/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== D == +DAO – (organization) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory +DCEP – (celestial object) Delta CEPhei, a class of Cepheids named after Delta Cephei, the archetype for the class +DDEB – (celestial object) double-lined eclipsing binary +DENIS – (observing program/catalog) DEep Near Infrared Survey +DENIS-P – (catalog) DEep Near Infrared Survey, Provisory designation [or also known as DNS]. +DES – (observing program) Dark Energy Survey +DESI - (observing program) Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument +DEC – Declination +DES – (observing program) Deep Ecliptic Survey +DIB – (celestial object) diffuse interstellar band, an absorption feature in stellar spectra with an interstellar origin +DIRBE – (instrumentation) Diffuse InfraRed Background Experiment, a multiwavelength infrared detector used to map dust emission +DISR – (instrumentation) – Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer, an instrument on the Huygens probe +DMR – (instrumentation) Differential Microwave Radiometer, a microwave instrument that would map variations (or anisotropies) in the CMB +DM – dark matter, the unidentified non-baryonic matter +DN – (celestial object) Dwarf nova +DNS – (celestial object) double neutron star, another name for a binary neutron star system. [Caution: Do not confuse with DNS relating to DENIS – Deep Near Infrared Survey]. +DOG – (celestial object) dust-obscured galaxy, a galaxy with an unusually high ratio of infrared-to-optical emission, implying strong dust absorption and re-emission. +DOM - (instrumentation) Digital optical module, an instrument in the IceCube Neutrino Observatory and Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array +DPOSS – (data) Digitized Palomar Observatory Sky Survey +DRAGN (celestial object) Double Radio Source Associated with a Galactic Nucleus +DS – (celestial object) dwarf star +DSCT – Delta SCuTi, a class of pulsating variable stars named after Delta Scuti, the archetype for the class +DSN – (communications network) Deep Space Network, a network of radio antennas used for communicating to spacecraft +DSS – (data) Digitized Sky Survey +DSFG - (celestial object) Dusty Star Forming Galaxy +DWE – (instrumentation) – Doppler Wind Experiment, an instrument on the Huygens probe + +== E == +E – (celestial object) Eclipsing, a binary star system with variable brightness in which the stars eclipse each other +EA – (celestial object) Eclipsing Algol, a class of eclipsing binary stars named after Algol, the archetype for the class +EB – (celestial object) Eclipsing Beta Lyrae, a class of eclipsing binary stars named after Beta Lyrae, the archetype for the class +EW – (celestial object) Eclipsing W Ursa Majoris, a class of eclipsing binary stars named after W Ursa Majoris, the archetype for the class +EAAE – (organization) European Association for Astronomy Education +EACOA – (organization) – East Asian Core Observatories Association +EAO – (organization) – East Asian Observatory, operates the JCMT +E-ELT – (telescope) – European Extremely Large Telescope +EAPSNET – (organization) – East-Asian Planet Search Network +EC – (celestial object) Embedded Cluster, a star cluster that is partially or fully embedded in interstellar gas or dust +ECA – (celestial object) Earth-crossing asteroid +EGG – (celestial object) evaporating gaseous globule +EGGR – (catalog) Eggen & Greenstein, a catalog of mostly white dwarfs +EGP – (celestial object) extrasolar giant planet +EGRET – (telescope) Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope, another name for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory +EGS – Extended Groth Strip, a deep field +EHB – (celestial object) extreme horizontal branch, a type of hot, evolved star +EJASA – (publication) Electronic Journal of the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic +EKBO – (celestial object) Edgeworth–Kuiper belt object, an alternative name for Kuiper belt objects +ELAIS – ESO large-area infrared survey – a survey +ELAIS – (observing program) European Large Area ISO Survey, a survey of high redshift galaxies performed with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) +ELF – extremely luminous far-infrared galaxy, a synonym for Ultra-Luminous infrared galaxy +ELT – (telescope) Extremely Large Telescope +EMP – (catalog) Ephemerides of Minor Planets +EMP – (celestial object) extremely metal-poor, a star with few elements other than hydrogen and helium +EMU – Evolutionary Map of the Universe +ENACS – (observing program) ESO Nearby Abell Cluster Survey, a survey of galaxy clusters +EPIC – (celestial object) stars and exoplanets, associated with the K2 "Second Light" plan of the Kepler space telescope +ERO – (celestial object) extremely red object, a name applied to galaxies with red spectra +ESA – (organization) European Space Agency +ESO – (organization) European Southern Observatory +ESPRESSO - (instrumentation) Echelle Spectrograph for Rocky Exoplanet- and Stable Spectroscopic Observations +ESTEC – (organization) European Space research and TEchnology Centre +ESTRACK – (communications network) European Space TRACKing, a network of radio antennas used for communicating to spacecraft +ETC – exposure time calculator +EUV – (astrophysics terminology) Extreme ultraviolet +EUVE – (telescope) Extreme UltraViolet Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope +EVN – (organization) European VLBI Network \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2971a6d40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 6/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== F == +FAME – (telescope) Full-sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer +FASTT – (telescope) Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope +FBOT - (celestial object) Fast blue optical transient +FCC – (catalog) Fornax Cluster Catalog, a catalog of galaxies in the Fornax Cluster +FEB – (celestial object) falling-evaporating body, a solid planetary object that is being evaporated by the stellar wind +FGS – (instrumentation) fine guidance sensors, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope +FHST – (instrumentation) Fixed Head Star Trackers, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope +FIR – (astrophysics terminology) far infrared +FIRST – (observing program) Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters, a radio survey of the sky with the Very Large Array +FIRST – (telescope) Far InfraRed and Submillimeter Space Telescope, an older name for the Herschel Space Observatory +FIRAS – (Instrumentation) Far-InfraRed Absolute Spectrophotometer +FIRE – (simulation project) Feedback in Realistic Environments, a project to simulate galaxy formation with detailed feedback processes included +FITS – (software) Flexible Image Transport System, the format commonly used for scientific astronomy images +FLAMES – (instrumentation) Fibre Large Array Multi Element Spectrograph, instrument on the VLT +FLOAT – (telescope) Fibre-Linked Optical Array Telescope +FLWO – (telescope) Fred L. Whipple Observatory +FMO – (celestial object) fast moving object, an asteroid so close to the Earth that it appears to be moving very fast +FOC – (instrumentation) Faint Object Camera, a camera formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope +FOCAS – (instrumentation) Faint Object Camera And Spectrograph, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope +FoM – (terminology) Figure of Merit. Used to indicate the performance of a method or device. +FORTE – Fast On-orbit Rapid Recording of Transient Events +FOS – (instrumentation) Faint Object Spectrograph, a spectrometer formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope +FOV – (instrumentation) field of view +FRB – (celestial object) fast radio burst +FRED – (astrophysics terminology) fast rise exponential decay, the variations in the luminosity of gamma ray bursts over time +FSC – (catalog) Faint Source Catalogue, one of the catalogs produced using Infrared Astronomical Satellite data +FSRQ – (celestial object) Flat Spectrum Radio Quasars +FTL – (astrophysics terminology) faster than light +FUOR – (celestial object) FU Orionis objects, a class of variable pre–main sequence stars named after FU Orionis, the archetype for the class +also FU +FUSE – (telescope) Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope +FUVITA – (instrumentation) Far UltraViolet Imaging Telescope Array, an ultraviolet imager for the Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma mission +FWHM – (instrumentation) full width at half maximum, a telescope resolution +FWZI – (instrumentation) full width at zero intensity, a telescopes resolution \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e872fc57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 7/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== G == +G – (catalog) Giclas, a catalog of nearby stars +GAIA – (telescope) Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics, a space telescope that is used to make high-precision measurements of stars +GALEX – (telescope) Galaxy Evolution Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope +GALEXASC – GALaxy Evolution eXplorer all-sky catalog +GASP – (software) Guide star Astrometric Support Package +GAT – (catalog) AO (Gatewood+), catalog of G. Gatewood's observations +GBM – (instrumentation) Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor, a set of gamma ray detectors on the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope +GBT – (telescope) Green Bank Telescope +GC – (catalog) General Catalog, a catalog of clusters, nebulae, and galaxies created by John Herschel and now superseded by the New General Catalogue, also globular cluster +GCAS – (celestial object) Gamma CASsiopeiae, a class of eruptive variable stars named after Gamma Cassiopeiae, the archetype for the class +GCMS – (instrumentation) – Gas Chromatograph and Mass Spectrometer, an instrument on the Huygens probe +also GC/MS +GCN – (organization) GRB Coordinates Network +GCR – (astrophysics terminology) galactic cosmic rays +GCVS – (catalog) the General Catalog of Variable Stars +GD – (catalog) Giclas Dwarf, a catalog of white dwarf +GDS – (celestial object) Great Dark Spot, a transient feature in the clouds of Neptune +GEM – (observing program) Galactic Emission Mapping +GEM – (observing program) Galileo Europa Mission, the science observation program of Europa performed by the Galileo spacecraft +GEM – (observing program) Giotto Extended Mission, the extended operations of the Giotto spacecraft +GEMS – (organization) Group Evolution Multi-wavelength Study +GEMS – (survey) Galaxy Evolution from Morphology and Spectral energy distributions +GEMSS – (organization) Global Exoplanet M-dwarf Search-Survey, a search for exoplanets around m-dwarf stars +GEODDS – (telescope) Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance, a network of telescopes used in a United States Air Force program for observing space junk +GEOS – (organization) Groupe Européen Observations Stellaires, an amateur and professional association for study of variable stars. +GERLUMPH – (instrumentation) GPU-Enabled, High Resolution MicroLensing Parameter survey, where GPU is an acronym for Graphics Processing Unit. +GH – (catalog) Giclas Hyades, a catalog of stars in the Hyades cluster +GHRS – (instrumentation) Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, a spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope +also HRS +GIA – (organization) Gruppo Italiano Astrometristi +GIMI – (instrumentation) Global Imaging Monitor of the Ionosphere, an ultraviolet imager on the Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite +GJ – (catalog) Gliese & Jahreiß/Jahreiss nearby star catalog +GL – (catalog) Gliese nearby star catalog +GLAST – (telescope) Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope +GLIMPSE – (observing program) Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire +GMC – (celestial object) Giant molecular cloud +GMF – (celestial object) Galactic magnetic field +GMRT – (telescope) – Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope - Pune, India +GMT – (telescope) – Giant Magellan Telescope, a telescope being built by a US-Australian collaboration +GONG – (organization) Global Oscillation Network Group, an organization that monitors oscillations in the Sun +GOLD – Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk +GOODS – (survey) Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey a survey of various redshifts to study galactic formation and evolution +GP – (astrophysics terminology) giant pulses, a type of observed pulse emission from pulsars +GPS – (astrophysics terminology) GHz-peaked spectrum, the radio or microwave spectra of some galaxies +GR – (astrophysics terminology) general relativity +GR – (catalog) Giclas Red dwarf, a catalog of red dwarfs +GRB – (celestial object) gamma ray burst +GRO – (telescope) Gamma Ray Observatory, another name for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory +GROSCE – (telescope) Gamma Ray Burst Optical Counterparts Search Experiment, an automated telescope used to detect the optical counterparts to gamma ray bursts +GRS – (instrumentation) Gamma Ray Spectrometer, an instrument on the Mars Observer +GRS – (celestial object) Great Red Spot, a feature in the clouds of Jupiter +GRAND - Giant Radio Array for Neutrino Detection, a proposed next-generation observatory of ultra-high-energy neutrinos, cosmic rays, and gamma rays of cosmic origin plit into ~ 20 sub-arrays of 10,000 antennas located in different locations across the Earth, in radio-quiet environments with easy access, and favorable topographies +GSC – (catalog) Guide Star Catalog, a catalog of stars used for pointing the Hubble Space Telescope +GSC2 – (catalog) Guide Star Catalog version 2, a catalog of stars used for pointing the Hubble Space Telescope +also GSC II +GSFC – (organization) Goddard Space Flight Center, a NASA institution +GSPC – (catalog) Guide Star Photometric Catalog, a catalog of stars with precisely measured fluxes used to calibrate the Guide Star Catalog +GTC – (telescope) Gran Telescopio Canarias, the 10.4 m reflecting telescope on the island of La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain +GW – (celestial object) – Gravitational Wave. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6fb9435eb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 8/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== H == +HAeBe – (celestial object) Herbig AeBe star, a type of pre-main-sequence star with strong spectral emission lines +HAe – (celestial object) Herbig Ae star +HBe – (celestial object) Herbig Be star +HALCA – (telescope) Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy, a satellite that is part of the VLBI Space Observatory Program, a Japanese radio astronomy project +HAO – (organization) high-altitude observatory +HARPS – (instrumentation) High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher, a high-precision spectrograph installed on the ESO 3.6 m Telescope +HASI – (instrumentation) Huygens Atmosphere Structure Instrument, an instrument on the Huygens probe +HB – (celestial object) horizontal branch, a type of evolved red giant star in which helium is burned in the core and hydrogen is burned in a shell around the core +HBRP – (celestial object) High-magnetic field radio pulsar +HBV – (catalog) Hamburg–Bergedorf Variables, a catalog of variable stars +HBMM – (astrophysics terminology) Hydrogen-burning minimum mass +HCG – Hickson Compact Group +HCO – (organization) Harvard College Observatory +HCS – (celestial object) heliospheric current sheet, the boundary where the polarity of the Sun's magnetic field changes direction +HD – (catalog) Henry Draper, a catalog of stars +HDE – (catalog) Henry Draper Extension, a catalog of stars +HDF – (data/celestial object) Hubble Deep Field, an area of the sky with little foreground obscuration that was observed deeply with the Hubble Space Telescope; also the name for the data product itself +HDFS – Hubble Deep Field South +HDM – (astrophysics terminology) hot dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that characterizes neutrinos as dark matter +HDS – (instrumentation) High Dispersion Spectrograph, a spectrograph on the Subaru Telescope +HE – (catalog) Hamburg/ESO Survey +HEAO – (telescope) High Energy Astronomical Observatory, a series of X-ray and gamma ray space telescopes +HEASARC – (organization) High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center, a NASA organization that deals with X-ray and gamma ray telescope data +HerMES - (observing program) Herschel Multitiered Extragalactic Survey, a legacy survey of star forming galaxies using the SPIRE and PACS instrument of Herschel +HESS – (telescope) High Energy Stereoscopic System, a telescope for detecting cosmic rays +HET – Hobby–Eberly Telescope +HETE – (telescope) High Energy Transient Explorer, a space telescope that performs multi-wavelength observations of gamma-ray bursts +HF – (astrophysics terminology) High frequency +HGA – (instrumentation) High gain antenna +HH – (celestial object) Herbig–Haro object, objects formed when the ejecta from new stars collides with the interstellar medium +also HHO +HIC – (catalog) HIPPARCOS Input Catalog, a catalog of data for the first target stars selected for observation by the Hipparcos +HICAT – (catalog) HIPASS catalog, a catalog of HI sources, see also NHICAT +HID – (astrophysics terminology) – hardness–intensity diagram, a type of color–magnitude diagram used in X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy +HIP – (catalog) HIPPARCOS, the catalog of data produced by Hipparcos +HIPASS – (Observing program) HI Parkes All-Sky Survey, survey of HI sources +HIPPARCOS – (telescope) HIgh Precision PARallax COllecting Satellite, a space telescope specifically designed to measure distances to stars using parallax +HISA – (astrophysical terminology) HI self-absorption region +HIRAX – (telescope) Hydrogen Intensity and Real-time Analysis eXperiment, an interferometric array of 1024 6-meter (20ft) diameter radio telescopes to be built in South Africa +HK – (catalog) Survey for metal-poor stars based on the strength of CaII H and K absorption lines +HLIRG – (celestial object) Hyperluminous infrared galaxy, a galaxy that is brighter than 1013 solar luminosities in the infrared +HMC – (instrumentation) Halley Multicolor Camera, an instrument on the Giotto spacecraft +HMGB – (celestial object) High-mass gamma-ray binary, a Gamma ray-luminous binary system consisting of a compact star and a massive star +HMPO – (celestial object) High-mass proto-stellar object +HMXB – (celestial object) High-mass x-ray binary, an X-ray-luminous binary system consisting of a compact star and a massive star +HOPS – The H2O southern Galactic Plane Survey +HPMS – (celestial object) high proper motion star, a star with high proper motion +HR – (catalog) Hoffleit Bright Star +HR – (astrophysics terminology) Hertzsprung–Russell, a diagram that compares stars' colors to their luminosities +HRC-I – (instrumentation) High Resolution Camera, an instrument on the Chandra X-ray Observatory +HRD – (instrumentation) High Rate Detector, an instrument on the Cassini spacecraft +HRMS – (observing program) High Resolution Microwave Survey, a survey for microwave signals from extraterrestrial intelligence +HRI – (instrumentation) High Resolution Imager, an instrument on the ROSAT telescope +HSP – (instrumentation) High Speed Photometer, an instrument formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope +HST – (telescope) Hubble Space Telescope +HTRA – (astrophysics terminology) High time-resolution astrophysics, the observations of phenomena that vary on timescales of one second or less +HUT – (telescope) Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope, an ultraviolet telescope that operated from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle +HWO -(telescope) Habitable Worlds Observatory +HVC – (celestial object) high-velocity cloud, an interstellar cloud with a velocity that is too high to be explained by galactic rotation +HXD – (instrumentation) Hard X-ray Detector, an instrument on the Suzaku space telescope +HVS – (celestial object) hypervelocity star or high velocity star \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..70efe9335 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 9/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +IAC – (organization) Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias +IAPPP – (organization) International Amateur/Professional Photoelectric Photometry +IAS – (organization) Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale +IASY – (observing program) International Active Sun Year, the name given to a series of coordinated Sun-related observational programs performed in 1969 and 1971 +IAU – (organization) International Astronomical Union +IAUC – (publication) IAU Circular +IAYC – (meeting) International Astronomical Youth Camp +IBAS – (instrumentation) – INTEGRAL Burst Alert System, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite +IBIS – (instrumentation) – Imager on Board the INTEGRAL Satellite, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite +IBVS – (publication) Information Bulletin on Variable Stars +IC – (catalog) Index Catalog +IC – (celestial object) Intracluster, either the regions between stars in star clusters or the region between galaxies in galaxy clusters +IC - IceCube Neutrino Observatory a.k.a. IceCube, a neutrino observatory at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica +ICE – (spacecraft) International Comet Explorer +ICM – (celestial object) intracluster medium, is the superheated gas present at the center of a galaxy cluster +ICQ – (publication) International Comet Quarterly +ICRF – (astrophysics terminology) International Celestial Reference Frame, a coordinate system based on radio sources used to define the locations of objects in the sky +ICRS – (astrophysics terminology) International Celestial Reference System, a coordinate system based on Hipparcos observations used to define the locations of objects in the sky +IDA – (organization) International Dark-Sky Association, an organization that seeks to control light pollution +IDP – (celestial object) Interplanetary Dust Particle, dust particles around planets or planetary bodies +IDS – (catalog) Index Catalog of Double Stars +IEO – (astrophysics terminology) inner-Earth object, the orbits of asteroids +IERS – (organization) International Earth Rotation geophysical Service or International Earth rotation and Reference systems Service, an organization that monitors the Earth's orientation with respect to the radio sources used to define the ICRF +IfA: either Institute for Astronomy (Hawaii) or Institute for Astronomy, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Scotland +IFN – (celestial object) integrated flux nebulae, dust and gas outside the plane of the Milky Way, which are thus illuminated by the entire galaxy as opposed to a nearby star or stars +IGM – (celestial object) intergalactic medium +IGR – (catalog) Integral Gamma-Ray source, a catalog based on observations by the INTEGRAL telescope +IGY – (observing program) International Geophysical Year, the name given to a series of coordinated geophysical and astronomical observation programs performed in 1957 and 1958 +IHW – (organization) International Halley Watch, an organization created to coordinate observations of Halley's Comet in 1986 +ILOM – (spacecraft) In-situ Lunar Orientation Measurement, a mission to measure variations in the orientation of the Moon from the Moon's surface +IMAGE – Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration +IMBH – (celestial object) intermediate mass black hole +IMF – (astrophysics terminology) initial mass function, the relative numbers of stars of different masses that form during star formation +IMO – (organization) International Meteor Organization +IMPACT – (meeting) International Monitoring Programs for Asteroid and Comet Threat +IMPS – (observing program) IRAS Minor Planet Survey +INAG – (organization) Institut National d'Astronomie et de Geophysique +ING – (organization) Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes +INS – (celestial object) Isolated Neutron Star +INT – (telescope) Isaac Newton Telescope +INTEGRAL – (telescope) INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory, a gamma-ray space telescope +IoA – (organization) Institute of Astronomy, an astronomy research department at Cambridge University +IOTA – (telescope) Infrared Optical Telescope Array +IOTA – (organization) International Occultation Timing Association, an organization for monitoring occultations +IPAC – (organization) Infrared Processing & Analysis Center +IPMO – (celestial object) Isolated Planetary Mass Objects, another name for isolated planemos or sub-brown dwarfs +IQSY – (observing program) International Quiet Sun Year, the name given to a series of coordinated Sun-related observational programs performed in 1964 and 1965 +IR – (astrophysics terminology) InfraRed +IRAC – (instrumentation) Infrared Array Camera, a mid-infrared imager on the Spitzer Space Telescope +IRAF – (software) Image Reduction and Analysis Facility, a general-purpose professional data-processing package +IRAIT – (telescope) – International Robotic Antarctic Infrared Telescope +IRAM – (organization) Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimetrique +IRAS – (telescope/catalog) InfraRed Astronomical Satellite, an infrared space telescope; also the catalog produced using the telescope's data +IRCS – (instrumentation) InfraRed Camera and Spectrograph, an instrument on the Subaru Telescope +IRDC – (celestial object) Infrared Dark Cloud +IRS – (instrumentation) InfraRed Spectrograph, an infrared spectrometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope +IRSA – (organization) Infrared Science Archive +IRTF – (telescope) InfraRed Telescope Facility +IRX – (astrophysical terminology) InfraRed Excess +ISAS – (organization) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science +ISAS – (organization) Institute of Space and Atmospheric Studies, a research unit at the University of Saskatchewan +ISCO – (astrophysical terminology) Innermost Stable Circular Orbit +ISEE – (spacecraft) International Sun-Earth Explorer, a series of spacecraft designed to study the effects of the Sun on the Earth's space environment and magnetosphere +ISGRI – (instrumentation) – INTEGRAL Soft Gamma-Ray Imager, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite +ISM – (celestial object) InterStellar Medium +ISN – (organization) International Supernovae Network +ISO – (telescope) Infrared Space Observatory +ISON – International Scientific Optical Network +ISPM – (spacecraft) International Solar Polar Mission, another name for the Ulysses spacecraft +ISRO – (organization) Indian Space Research Organisation +ISS - (spacecraft) International Space Station +ISSA – (data) Infrared Sky Survey Atlas, an atlas compiled from Infrared Astronomical Satellite data +ISTeC – (organization) International Small Telescope Cooperative +ISY – (observing program/meeting) International Space Year, the name given to a celebration of space exploration as well as a series of coordinated astronomical observations and a series of meetings to plan future astronomy research efforts +ITA – (organization) Institute of Theoretical Astronomy, one of three organizations that was combined to form the Institute of Astronomy +IUCAA – (organization) Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics - Pune, India +IUE – (telescope) International Ultraviolet Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope +IUEDAC – (organization) IUE satellite Data Analysis Center +IWCA – (meeting) International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4c9a7bde --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "List of astronomy acronyms" +chunk: 10/20 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== J == +Janskys – (publication) Green Bank Observatory +JAC – (publication) Japan Astronomical Circular +JAC – (organization) Joint Astronomy Centre, the organization that operates the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope and the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope +JAPOA – (organization) Japan Amateur Photoelectric Observers Association +JAXA – (organization) Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency +JBO – Jodrell Bank Observatory, a radio observatory in England. +JCMT – (telescope) James Clerk Maxwell Telescope +JD – (astrophysics terminology) Julian Date, an alternative time commonly used in astronomy +JET-X – (telescope) Joint European Telescope for X-ray astronomy +JGR – (publication) Journal of Geophysical Research +JILA – (organization) formerly Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics +JIVE – Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe +JKT – (telescope) Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope +JPL – (organization) Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a research center associated with NASA +JSGA – (telescope/organization) Japan SpaceGuard Association, a Japanese telescope used to track near-Earth asteroids and space junk +JWST – (telescope) James Webb Space Telescope, an infrared space telescope + +== K == +KAIT – (telescope) Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope +KAO – (telescope) Kuiper Airborne Observatory +KBO – (celestial object) Kuiper belt object +KCAO – (organization) Kumamoto Civil Astronomical Observatory +KIC – (catalog) Kepler Input Catalog, a catalog of stars with potential extrasolar planets to be observed by the Kepler Mission +KPNO – (organization) Kitt Peak National Observatory +KS – (astrophysics terminology) Kennicutt-Schmidt relation \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals-0.md index 1f0998357..1f85f0988 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:44:13.473169+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:31.616992+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Jennifer_Doudna-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Jennifer_Doudna-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..77c6ca0f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Jennifer_Doudna-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "List of awards and honors received by Jennifer Doudna" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Jennifer_Doudna" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:24.177177+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of awards and honors received by Jennifer Doudna comprehensively shows the awards, honors, honorary degrees, fellowships and other recognition received by Jennifer Doudna, an American biochemist at the University of California, Berkeley. She has received many prestigious awards and fellowships for her numerous contributions to biochemistry and genetics, and is most famous for her work on CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology. Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of a method for genome editing." + + +== Awards == +1996 Beckman Young Investigators Award +1999 NAS Award for Initiatives in Research +2000 Alan T. Waterman Award for innovative research that led to the development of a technique that facilitates crystallization of large RNA molecules; for determining the crystal structures of catalytic RNA molecules and an RNA molecule that forms the ribonucleoprotein core of the signal recognition particle; and for deciphering structural features of those molecules that permit a greater understanding of the mechanistic basis of RNA function in both catalysis and protein synthesis. +2001 Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry of the American Chemical Society +2013 Inaugural recipient of the Mildred Cohn Award in Biological Chemistry from the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology +2014 Jacob Heskel Gabbay Award (jointly with Feng Zhang and Emmanuelle Charpentier) +2014 Lurie Prize in Biomedical Sciences from the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health +2014 Dr. Paul Janssen Award for Biomedical Research (shared with Charpentier) +2015 Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences (shared with Charpentier) for harnessing an ancient mechanism of bacterial immunity into a powerful and general technology for editing genomes, with wide-ranging implications across biology and medicine. +2015 Massry Prize (shared with Charpentier and Philippe Horvath) +2015 Princess of Asturias Awards (shared with Charpentier) +2015 Gruber Prize in Genetics (shared with Charpentier) +2016 Canada Gairdner International Award, with Charpentier, Feng Zhang, Horvath and Rodolphe Barrangou +2016 Warren Alpert Foundation Prize (with Charpentier, Rodolphe Barrangou, Horvath and Virginijus Siksnys) +2016 Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize (jointly with Charpentier) +2016 Heineken Prize for Biochemistry and Biophysics +2016 Tang Prize (jointly with Charpentier and Feng Zhang) +2016 HFSP Nakasone Award (jointly with Charpentier) +2016 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (jointly with Charpentier and Francisco Mojica) +2016 L'Oréal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science (jointly with Charpentier) +2017 Japan Prize (jointly with Charpentier) +2017 F. Albert Cotton Medal +2017 Albany Medical Center Prize (jointly with Charpentier, Luciano Marraffini, Francisco Mojica, and Feng Zhang) +2017 Carl Sagan Prize for Science Popularization +2018 Dickson Prize in Science from Carnegie Mellon University +2018 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience (jointly with Charpentier and Siksnys) for the invention of CRISPR-Cas9, a precise nanotool for editing DNA, causing a revolution in biology, agriculture, and medicine. +2018 Croonian Medal and Lecture of the Royal Society +2018 Pearl Meister Greengard Prize from the Rockefeller University +2018 Medal of Honor (jointly with Charpentier, Charis Eng and Michael Thun) of the American Cancer Society +2018 Harvey Prize (jointly with Emmanuelle Charpentier and Feng Zhang) +2018 Emanuel Merck Lectureship +2019 Lui Che Woo Prize in Welfare Betterment Prize +2019 Nierenberg Prize +2019 Microbiology Society Prize Medal +2020 Wolf Prize in Medicine (jointly with Emmanuelle Charpentier) +2020 Guggenheim Fellowship +2020 Vanderbilt Prize in Biomedical Science +2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (jointly with Emmanuelle Charpentier) for the development of a method for genome editing. +2023 National Inventors Hall of Fame +2025 National Medal of Technology and Innovation. +2026 Priestley Medal + + +== Honorary degrees == +2016 Received Doctor of Science as an honorary degree from Yale University +2016 Received doctorate honoris causa from KU Leuven, Belgium (together with Emmanuelle Charpentier) +2017 Received Doctor of Science honoris causa as an honorary degree from the University of Hong Kong +2018 Received an honorary degree from the University of Southern California +2019 Received Doctor of Science as an honorary degree from York University +2019 Received Doctor of Science as an honorary degree from the University of Oxford +2021 Received Doctor of Science as an honorary degree from the University of Chicago + + +== Memberships and fellowships == +2002 Member, National Academy of Sciences +2003 Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences +2010 Member, National Academy of Medicine +2014 Fellow, National Academy of Inventors +2015 Fellow, American Academy of Microbiology +2016 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) +2021 Member, Pontifical Academy of Sciences +2026 Member, National Academy of Engineering + + +== Other recognition == +2000 Named one of Discover magazine's 20 Young Scientists to Watch +2000 Jean Francois LeFevre Memorial Lectureship, CNRS, Strasbourg +2000 Robert Burns Woodward Visiting Professor of Chemistry, Harvard University +2015 Named one of Time magazine's 100 most influential people in the world, together with Emmanuelle Charpentier +2016 Listed as a runner-up for Time Person of the Year, alongside other CRISPR researchers +2016 Kavli Lecturer, Council of Scientific Society Presidents (CSSP) +2018 George E. Palade Memorial Lecture in Cell Biology, Yale University +2018 Forbes' America's Top 50 Women In Tech +2021 Forbes 50 Over 50; made up of entrepreneurs, leaders, scientists and creators who are over the age of 50. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b871de9c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "List of awards and honors received by Katalin Karikó" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:25.509495+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Katalin Karikó is a Hungarian–American biochemist who specializes in ribonucleic acid (RNA)-mediated mechanisms, particularly in vitro-transcribed messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein replacement therapy. Karikó laid the scientific groundwork for mRNA vaccines and received numerous awards, honors, degrees and other distinctions, including the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. +Katalin Karikó who works at the University of Pennsylvania is credited with one of the most important scientific discoveries of the 21st century. Her development of Messenger RNA-based technology and the two most effective vaccines based on it, BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna, paved the way for the effective fight against the SARS-CoV-2 virus and the containment of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide. Her discovery also holds promise for future cures for many other diseases. +The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced on 2 October 2023 that the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for the development of mRNA technology. The Nobel Prize in Medicine has been awarded to 227 scientists since 1901, with Katalin Karikó being the thirteenth woman to receive the prize. Together with her, and Ferenc Krausz, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics the next day, the number of Hungarian Nobel laureates born in Hungary rose to twelve. +Fifteen Nobel laureates were born in Hungary and eighteen in the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (including Alfred Fried, Robert Bárány, and Richard Zsigmondy), with twenty-seven recognized as Hungarian citizens in total (see also: List of Hungarian Nobel laureates). +Karikó is the sixth laureate born as a Hungarian citizen in Physiology or Medicine and the first Hungarian woman to receive a Nobel Prize in any category. +The following list is restricted to the most authoritative international scientific institutions and the most prestigious awards and is not exhaustive. + +== Awards and honors in 2020 == +Rosenstiel Award 2020 | Brandeis University | Drew Weissman | + +== Awards and honors in 2021 == +Albany Medical Center Prize | Albany Medical | Barney Graham, Drew Weissman | +Princess of Asturias Award | Princess of Asturias Foundation | Drew Weissman, Philip Felgner, Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci, Derrick Rossi, Sarah Gilbert | +Dr. Paul Janssen Award | Johnson & Johnson | Drew Weissman | +Debrecen Award for Molecular Medicine | University of Debrecen | +German Future Prize | Federal President for Technology and Innovation | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci, Christoph Huber | +Golden Goose | National Institutes of Health, Tennessee | Drew Weissman | +Golden Plate Award | Academy of Achievement | +Grande Médaille | French Academy of Sciences | +Harvey Prize | Technion – Israel Institute of Technology | Drew Weissman, Pieter Cullis | +Hawking Fellowship | Professor Hawking Fellowship Committee, Cambridge, UK | +John Scott Award | Philadelphia University | Drew Weissman | +Keio Medical Science Prize 2021 | Keio University | Osamu Nureki | +Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award | Albert and Mary Lasker Foundation | Drew Weissman | +Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize | Columbia University | Drew Weissman | +Prince Mahidol Award | Prince Mahidol Award Foundation under the Royal Patronage, Bangkok | Drew Weissman, Pieter Cullis | +Széchenyi Prize | Government of Hungary | +Time 100 – The 100 Most Influential People of 2021 | Time magazine | +Time – 2021 Heroes of the Year | Time magazine | Kizzmekia Corbett, Barney Graham and Drew Weissman | +VinFuture Grand Prize | VinFuture Foundation | Drew Weissman, Pieter Cullis | +Wilhelm Exner Medal | Austrian Industrial Association | Luisa Torsi | +William B. Coley Award for Distinguished Research in Basic and Tumor Immunology | Cancer Research Institute | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci, Drew Weissman | + +== Awards and honors in 2022 == +BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award | BBVA Foundation & Spanish National Research Council | +Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science | The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia | Drew Weissman | +Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences 2022 | Breakthrough Prize Foundation | Drew Weissman | +Canada Gairdner International Awards | Drew Weissman and Pieter Cullis | +European Inventor Award for Lifetime achievement | European Patent Office | +Helmholtz Medal 2022 | Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities | +Japan Prize | Japan Prize Foundation | Drew Weissman | +Jessie Stevenson Kovalenko Medal | National Academy of Sciences (NAS), Washington | Drew Weissman | +Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine | Louis-Jeantet Foundation, Geneva | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci | +L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards Laureate for North America | International Awards Jury of the L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science | +Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Knowledge Award | Dubai Culture and Arts Authority | Zhang Yongzhen, Drew Weissman | +Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize | The Paul Ehrlich Foundation | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci | +Pearl Meister Greengard Prize | Rockefeller University | +Tang Prize | Academia Sinica, Taiwan | Drew Weissman and Pieter Cullis | +The Novo Nordisk Prize | Novo Nordisk Foundation | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci, Drew Weissman | +Vilcek Prize for Excellence in Biotechnology | Vilcek Foundation | +Warren Alpert Prize | Harvard Medical School | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci, Drew Weissman, Eric Huang | +Werner von Siemens Ring | The Werner von Siemens Ring Foundation | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci, Christoph Huber | + +== Awards and honors in 2023 == + +2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine | Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences | Drew Weissman | +Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh | +Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen | Katalin Novák President of the Republic of Hungary | +Meyenburg Prize | Helmholtz Institute for Translational Oncology (HI-TRON) | Uğur Şahin, Özlem Türeci | + +== Awards and honors in 2024 == +Double Helix Medal | Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory | Daniel Doctoroff, Alisa Doctoroff | +Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public Interest | Scripps Institution of Oceanography | +Paul Karrer Gold Medal | University of Zurich, Switzerland | + +== Awards and honors in 2025 == +Mendel Lecture | European Society of Human Genetics (ESHG) | + +== Honorary degrees == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af96f33cf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "List of awards and honors received by Katalin Karikó" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:25.509495+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Honorary degrees in 2021 === +University of Szeged | +Duke University | Drew Weissman, Ken Jeong, Mary Schmidt Campbell | +Humanitas University of Milan | + +=== Honorary degrees 2022 === +Eötvös Loránd University Budapest | +Radboud University | +Rockefeller University | Anthony Fauci, Lulu C. Wang | +Tel Aviv University | Cornelia Bargmann, Sir Michael Victor Berry, Barbara Engelking, Eric J. Gertler, James S. Gertler, Bernd Friedrich Huber, Jodi Kantor, Solomon Lew, Jehuda Reinharz, Jürgen Renn | +Université libre de Bruxelles | +University of Geneva | Susan M. Gasser, Susan Goldin-Meadow, Ananya Roy | +Yale University| Caroline Shaw, Krista Tippett, Madeleine Albright, James Clyburn, Jill Lepore, Myron Thompson, Jean Bennett, Drew Weissman, Orlando Patterson | + +=== Honorary degrees 2023 === +Brandeis University | +University College Cork – National University of Ireland, Cork (UCC) | +Harvard University | David Levering Lewis, Michael Mullen, Jennifer Doudna, Hugo Noé Morales Rosas, Tom Hanks | +Princeton University | Lynn A. Conway, Arcadio Díaz-Quiñones, Rhiannon Giddens, Suzan Shown Harjo | +Rutgers University | +Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) | + +=== Honorary degrees 2024 === +New York University (NYU) | +State University of New York | + +=== Honorary degrees 2025 === +Medical University of Vienna | + +=== Honorary degrees 2026 === +University of Oxford + +== Membership in Professional & Scientific Societies == + +=== 2020 === +Member | Academia Europea | + +=== 2021 === +Member | AAAS Fellows | American Association for the Advancement of Science | +Member | Academy of Achievement | +Foreign Member | French Académie des sciences | William Timothy Gowers, Martin Hairer, Anne L'Huillier, Wolfgang Wernesdorfer, Annalisa Buffa, Yann Le Cun, Susan Brantley, Frank Eisenhauer, Sason Shaik, Nicola Spaldin, Nicole King, Alberto R. Kornblihtt , Angela Nieto, Eva H. Stukenbrock, Cédric Blanpain | +Hawking Fellow | Cambridge Union | + +=== 2022 === +Member | German National Academy of Sciences | German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina | +Member | Hungarian Academy of Sciences | +Member | National Academy of Inventors | +Member | National Academy of Medicine – Washington | + +=== 2023 === +Member | European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) | + +=== 2024 === +Member | The American Philosophical Society | +Ordinary member | Pontifical Academy for Life | + +=== 2025 === +Member | National Academy of Sciences | +Member | National Academy of Engineering | + +== References == + +== External links == +"Katalin Karikó – University of Szeged Klebelsberg Library virtual exhibition: life and research". Retrieved October 2, 2023. +Awards to Katalin Karikó in Hungary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_received_by_Tim_Berners-Lee-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_received_by_Tim_Berners-Lee-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..15ab11874 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_received_by_Tim_Berners-Lee-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "List of awards and honours received by Tim Berners-Lee" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_received_by_Tim_Berners-Lee" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:37.870020+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee, (born 8 June 1955), also known as "TimBL", the inventor of the World Wide Web, has received a number of awards and honours. + + +== Awards == +1994 (1994): Became one of only six members of the World Wide Web Hall of Fame. +1995 (1995): Kilby Foundation's "Young Innovator of the Year" Award. +1995 (1995): The Software System Award from the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). +1995 (1995): Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) +1996 (1996): Honorary degree, University of Southampton. +1998 (1998): Honorary doctorate, University of Essex. +1998 (1998): The USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award, USENIX. +1999 (1999): Time Magazine named him one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. +March 2000 (2000-03): Honorary degree, The Open University as Doctor of the University. +2001 (2001): Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society +2001 (2001): Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. +2002 (2002): Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts) +2002 (2002): Named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. +2003 (2003): The Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS) in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense. +2003 (2003): Received the Computer History Museum's Fellow Award, for his seminal contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. +15 April 2004 (2004-04-15): First recipient of Finland's Millennium Technology Prize, for inventing the World Wide Web. The cash prize, worth one million euros (about £678,701, or US$1.24 million, in 2004), was awarded on 15 June, in Helsinki, Finland, by the President of the Republic of Finland, Tarja Halonen. +July 21, 2004 (2004-07-21): Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Lancaster University. +27 January 2005 (2005-01-27): Named Greatest Briton of 2004, both for his achievements and for displaying the key British characteristics of "diffidence, determination, a sharp sense of humour and adaptability", as put by David Hempleman-Adams, a panel member. +2006 (2006): Awarded the Lovelace Medal by the British Computer Society for his inventing the World Wide Web +2006 (2006): Won President's Medal of the IOP +2007 (2007): Ranked Joint First, alongside Albert Hofmann, in The Telegraph's list of 100 greatest living geniuses. +2007 (2007): Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement +2008 (2008): IEEE/RSE Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award, for "conceiving and further developing the World Wide Web". +10 October 2008 (2008-10-10): Honorary doctorate, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya. +2 December 2008 (2008-12-02): Honorary doctorate, University of Manchester. His parents worked on the Manchester Mark 1 in the 1940s and 50s. +21 April 2009 (2009-04-21): Honorary doctorate, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. +28 April 2009 (2009-04-28): Elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. +8 June 2009 (2009-06-08): Webby Award for Lifetime Achievement, at the awards ceremony held in New York City. +October 2009 (2009-10): Honorary doctorate, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam +14 September 2010 (2010-09-14): Awarded UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal +30 March 2011 (2011-03-30): One of the first three recipients of the Mikhail Gorbachev award for "The Man Who Changed the World". +26 May 2011 (2011-05-26): Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Harvard University. +2011 (2011): Inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for the "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems". +2012 (2012): Inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society. +27 July 2012 (2012-07-27): Recognised for the invention of the World Wide Web in the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. +2013 (2013): One of five Internet and Web pioneers awarded the inaugural Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering. +13 September 2013 (2013-09-13): Honorary Doctor of Science degree, University of St Andrews. +19 May 2014 (2014-05-19): Honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree, Yale University. +24 May 2014 (2014-05-24): Honorary Doctor of Science degree, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. +24 September 2014 (2014-09-24): Honorary Freedom of the City of London. +6 October 2014 (2014-10-06): Pride of Britain "Special Award for Outstanding Achievement". +7 December 2014 (2014-12-07): Mohammed bin Rashid Knowledge Award that was shared with Jimmy Wales. +29 April 2015 (2015-04-29): Gottlieb Duttweiler Prize in Zurich, Switzerland +8 February 2016: John Maynard Keynes Prize +4 April 2017 (2017-04-04): 2016 Turing Award "for inventing the World Wide Web, the first web browser, and the fundamental protocols and algorithms allowing the Web to scale" +2022: Seoul Peace Prize for inventing the World Wide Web, supporting policies to address unequal Internet access, and aiming to decentralize user data with the Solid project. + + +== National honours == + + +=== United Kingdom === +1997 (1997): Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) "for services to global computer networking". +2004 (2004): Promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the New Year Honours "for services to the global development of the Internet". Formally invested on 16 July 2004. +13 June 2007 (2007-06-13): Appointed a member of the Order of Merit (OM), an order restricted to 24 (living) members. (The Order of Merit is within the personal gift of the monarch, and does not require recommendation by ministers.) + + +=== Overseas === +3 December 2012 (2012-12-03): The Sultan Qaboos Order for Culture, Science and Arts (First Class), conferred by The Sultan of Oman. +27 September 2015 (2015-09-27): Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (Class I) (decree signed on 4 February 2015 by President of Estonia). + + +== Undated == +Tim Berners Lee has received two awards, the dates of which are unknown: + +Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng) +Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA) + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Event data as RDF +W3C Biography with list of awards \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_in_bioinformatics_and_computational_biology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_in_bioinformatics_and_computational_biology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cc52fa368 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_in_bioinformatics_and_computational_biology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "List of awards in bioinformatics and computational biology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_in_bioinformatics_and_computational_biology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:03.761286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of awards in the fields of bioinformatics and computational biology. + + +== Awards == + +ASBMB DeLano Award for Computational Biosciences - "to a scientist for the most accessible and innovative development or application of computer technology to enhance research in the life sciences at the molecular level" +Benjamin Franklin Award for Open Access in the Life Sciences - "to an individual who has, in his or her practice, promoted free and open access to the materials and methods used in the life sciences" +ISCB Innovator Award - "leading scientists who are within two decades post-degree, who consistently make outstanding contributions to the field, and who continue to forge new directions" +ISCB Overton Prize - "for outstanding accomplishment to a scientist in the early to mid stage of his or her career" +ISCB Accomplishment by a Senior Scientist Award - "members of the computational biology community who are more than 12 to 15 years post-degree and have made major contributions to the field of computational biology through research, education, service, or a combination of the three" +Morris F. Collen Award of Excellence - "an individual whose personal commitment and dedication to biomedical informatics has made a lasting impression on healthcare and biomedicine" +Research Parasite Award - "Outstanding contributions to the rigorous secondary analysis of data" +The SIB Bioinformatics Awards - since 2008, the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics has delivered awards to acknowledge early career bioinformaticians and ground-breaking resources of national or international standing. + + +== See also == +List of biology awards +List of computer-related awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b2fe0538e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of biochemistry awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:02.524548+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of biochemistry awards is an index to articles on notable awards for contributions to biochemistry, the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. The list gives the country of the organization that gives the award, but the award may not be limited to people from that country. + + +== Awards == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of biology awards +List of chemistry awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b13e80cc1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "List of biology awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:04.965659+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of biology awards is an index to articles about notable awards for biology. It includes a general list and lists of ecology, genetics and neuroscience awards. It excludes awards for biochemistry, biomedical science, medicine, ornithology and paleontology, which are covered by separate lists. + + +== General awards == + + +=== International === + + +=== Americas === + + +=== Asia === + + +=== Europe === + + +=== Oceania === + + +== Ecology == + + +== Genetics == +Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. + + +== Neuroscience == + + +== See also == +Competitions and prizes in biotechnology +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of biochemistry awards +List of biomedical science awards +List of awards in bioinformatics and computational biology +List of fellows of the AACR Academy +List of medicine awards +List of ornithology awards +List of paleontology awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomedical_science_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomedical_science_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87915f1b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomedical_science_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of biomedical science awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomedical_science_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:06.191707+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of biomedical science awards is an index to notable awards for biomedical sciences, a set of sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to knowledge, interventions, or technology that are of use in health care or public health. + + +== Awards == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of biology awards +List of medicine awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bog_bodies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bog_bodies-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..08643aebd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bog_bodies-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "List of bog bodies" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bog_bodies" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:01.447662+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of bog bodies grouped by location of discovery. Bog bodies, or bog people, are the naturally preserved corpses of humans and some animals recovered from peat bogs. The bodies have been most commonly found in the northern European countries of Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. Reports of bog bodies surfaced during the early 18th century. +In 1965, the German scientist Alfred Dieck catalogued more than 1,850 bog bodies, but later scholarship revealed much of Dieck's work was erroneous. Hundreds of bog bodies have been recovered and studied, although it is believed that only around 45 remain intact today. + + +== How to use this list == +There may be more than one name in the "name" category, which may also be used to show alternate spellings for names of the bog body. +The location category shows the city or state in which the bog body was discovered, although some bog bodies are discovered on borders between countries. +The carbon-14 dating is used to determine an age range based on examination of the half lives of carbon isotopes. +The "sex" category describes whether the find was male, female, or undetermined. +The "description" category depicts examination details as well as physical characteristics of the body. Some sections may state Little is published about this find, meaning that there is little or no sufficient information published about the bog body. + + +== List == + + +=== Denmark === + + +=== Germany === + + +=== Ireland === + + +=== Netherlands === + + +=== Poland === + + +=== Sweden === + + +=== Great Britain === + + +=== Other locations === + + +== See also == +Egtved Girl, a barrow body in a coffin preserved by a bog + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Archaeology Magazine- Bodies of the bog +Mummytombs.com – Bog bodies +Journal of Archaeological Science – Dating bog bodies by means of 14C-AMS \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caskets-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caskets-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0958d18bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caskets-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of caskets" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caskets" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:04.037742+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of individual caskets with articles: + +Shinkot casket, 2nd century BC, Buddhist container for reliquaries, Gandhara, stone +Bajaur casket, 5–6 AD, Gandhara (now Pakistan), stone reliquary +Kanishka Casket, 127, Kushan Empire (now Pakistan), gilded copper reliquary +Bimaran casket, 1st century, Afghanistan, gold reliquary +Brescia Casket, late 4th century, Italy, ivory reliquary +Pyxis of Čierne Kľačany, perhaps 4th-century, Byzantine, ivory +Franks Casket, early 8th century, Northumbria (now Northern England and south-east Scotland), bone (whale) +Pyxis of Zamora, 964, Islamic Spain, ivory +Pyxis of al-Mughira, 968, Islamic Spain, ivory +Troyes Casket, 10th or 11th century, Byzantine (found in France), ivory +Veroli Casket, late 10th or early 11th century, Constantinople (now known as Istanbul), ivory +Cammin Casket, c. 1000, Scandinavia (lost in the Second World War of 1939–1945, although copies and a plaster cast remain), metal reliquary +Leyre Casket, 1004–1005, Caliphate of Córdoba, Islamic Spain, ivory +Uttoxeter Casket, c. 1050, Anglo-Saxon England, wood +Morgan Casket, 11th–12th centuries, Southern Italy, ivory +Becket Casket, 1180–1190, France, metal chasse reliquary +Casket of Saint Cugat, early 14th century, Catalonia (now Spain), metal +Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264), 1330–1350, France, ivory +Noli me tangere casket, 1356, Germany +Royal Casket, 1800, Poland, wood with metal fittings + + +== See also == +Chasse (casket) +Pyxis (vessel), round form +Pyx (for Eucharist), typically round form \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..14b21a3ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of chemistry awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:07.472518+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of chemistry awards is an index to articles about notable awards for chemistry. It includes awards by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the American Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry and awards by other organizations. + + +== Awards of the Royal Society of Chemistry == + +The Royal Society of the United Kingdom offers a number of awards for chemistry. + + +== Awards of the American Chemical Society == + +The American Chemical Society of the United States offers a number of awards related to chemistry. + + +== Awards of the Society of Chemical Industry == +The Society of Chemical Industry was established in 1881 by scientists, inventors and entrepreneurs. It offers a number of awards related to chemistry. + + +== Other awards == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of biochemistry awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_China-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_China-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0102971ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_China-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,326 @@ +--- +title: "List of coin hoards in China" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_China" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:08.482063+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of coin hoards in China (traditional Chinese: 中國錢幣窖藏清單; simplified Chinese: 中国钱币窖藏列表; pinyin: zhōng guó qián bì jiào cáng liè biǎo) lists significant archaeological hoards of coins, other types of coinages (e.g. sycees) or objects related to coins discovered in China (the People's Republic of China in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and the Free area of the Republic of China, e.g. Taiwan). The history of Chinese currency dates back as early as the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE), and the earliest coinages took the form of imitations of the cowrie shells that were used in ceremonial exchanges. During the Warring States period new forms of currency such as the spade money, knife money, and round copper-alloy coins were introduced (further reading: Zhou dynasty coinage and Ancient Chinese coinage). After unification of China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC the Ban Liang (半兩) cash coin became the standard coinage, under the Han dynasty the Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins became the main currency of China until they were replaced with the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) during the Tang dynasty, after which a large number of inscriptions were used on Chinese coinages. During the late nineteenth century China started producing its own machine-struck coinages. +In Chinese culture coins are often used as burial objects and it's not uncommon for coins to be discovered in tombs and graves. +Occasionally foreign coins are also found in China, which were brought there through international trade routes such as the Silk Road, overseas trade with foreign countries, and colonialism. And because of trade with other countries large quantities of Chinese coins have also been found in neighbouring countries like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as far away places like Elcho Island, Kenya, and Yukon. +In 2021 a paper was published about an old mint that was discovered at an archeological site in Henan Province, through radiocarbon-dating the spade money found there was attributed to have been created between 640 BCE and no later than 550 BCE making it possibly the world's oldest known mint. This means that it is possible that the earliest known coinage was invented by the Chinese and not the Lydians as is commonly believed. + + +== Cleaning of coins by Chinese archaeologists == +As Chinese archaeologists frequently unearth ancient Chinese cash coins and other forms of historical currency at tomb sites, these unearthed bronze coinages are often severely corroded because they have been buried for hundreds or thousands of years, this sometimes means that the inscriptions on them can't be read. While archaeologists working at a site tend to do everything very slowly and do it as methodically as possible to avoid doing any damage to the buried cultural relics, this approach isn't taken with cash coins because they are often vital to date the tombs or ruins. With ancient Chinese cash coins archaeologists tend to be less concerned about their preservation and clean them to identify them. +To clean bronze cash coins Chinese archaeologists will simply put them in a mild acid like vinegar to soak for a period of 2 or 3 days, after this process is done the surface dirt and some of the corrosion will be removed. The cash coins are then removed by the person doing the cleaning, and they will them scrape out any leftover corrosion in the Chinese characters by using a (common) toothpick. After this process is done, a rubbing is usually made of the unearthed coins. +On the contrary, it is usually said among coin collectors to not clean their coins because the cleaning process will often lessen the coin's market value or in some cases even ruin it. +Because of the high frequency of the discovery of coin hoards in China uncleaned coin hoards from other countries are often sent to China for cleaning and assessment. For example, someone discovered a hoard of group of around 400 different 8 reales coins on the border between Mexico and the central American country of Guatemala. These silver coins were mostly produced by the Guatemala mint with others produced by the Mexico and Lima mints, all of which contained portraits of kings Charles IV and Ferdinand VII. As these coins were all too unclean to be deemed "valuable" by coin collectors they were sent to a coin dealer in the Jiangsu, People's Republic of China. Such situations are common as Chinese coin dealers have become experts in removing corrosion from coins to get them graded by numismatic experts and then be sold into the retail market. + + +== 19th century == + + +== 1950s == + + +=== 1950s (Mainland China) === + + +=== 1953 === + + +==== 1953 (Mainland China) ==== + + +== 1960s == + + +=== 1960s (Mainland China) === + + +=== 1960 === + + +==== 1960 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1969 === + + +==== 1969 (Taiwan) ==== + + +== 1970s == + + +=== 1970s (Mainland China) === + + +=== 1972 === + + +==== 1972 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1974 === + + +==== 1974 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1976 === + + +==== 1976 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1977 === + + +==== 1977 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1979 === + + +==== 1979 (Mainland China) ==== + + +== 1980s == + + +=== 1980 === + + +==== 1980 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1982 === + + +==== 1982 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1983 === + + +==== 1983 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1984 === + + +==== 1984 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1986 === + + +==== 1986 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1987 === + + +==== 1987 (Mainland China) ==== + + +== 1990s == + + +=== 1990s (Mainland China) === + + +=== 1990 === + + +==== 1990 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1992 === + + +==== 1992 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1995 === + + +==== 1995 (Taiwan) ==== + + +=== 1996 === + + +==== 1996 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1997 === + + +==== 1997 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 1999 === + + +==== 1999 (Mainland China) ==== + + +== 2000s == + + +=== 2000 === + + +==== 2000 (Mainland China) ==== + + +==== 2000 (Hong Kong) ==== + + +=== 2002 === + + +==== 2002 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2003 === + + +==== 2003 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2005 === + + +==== 2005 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2006 === + + +==== 2006 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2007 === + + +==== 2007 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2008 === + + +==== 2008 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2009 === + + +==== 2009 (Mainland China) ==== + + +== 2010s == + + +=== 2010 === + + +==== 2010 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2011 === + + +==== 2011 (Mainland China) ==== + + +==== 2011 (Hong Kong) ==== + + +=== 2012 === + + +==== 2012 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2013 === + + +==== 2013 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2014 === + + +==== 2014 (Taiwan) ==== + + +=== 2015 === + + +==== 2015 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2016 === + + +==== 2016 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2017 === + + +==== 2017 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2018 === + + +==== 2018 (Mainland China) ==== + + +== 2020s == + + +=== 2020 === + + +==== 2020 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2021 === + + +==== 2021 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2022 === + + +==== 2022 (Mainland China) ==== + + +=== 2023 === + + +==== 2023 (Taiwan) ==== + + +== See also == +List of coin hoards in Vietnam + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_Vietnam-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_Vietnam-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..13bf163a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_Vietnam-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of coin hoards in Vietnam" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_Vietnam" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:09.812590+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of coin hoards in Vietnam comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, other types of coinages (e.g. sycees) or objects related to coins discovered in Vietnam. The history of Vietnamese currency, independent from China, dates back to the Đinh dynasty period with the Thái Bình Hưng Bảo (太平興寶), produced from 970 to 979. The Vietnamese produced cash coins similar to the ones produced in China and circulated alongside Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Ryukyuan cash coins brought into the country through international trade. Cash coins continued to be produced in Vietnam until the 1940s under the Nguyễn dynasty. Through international trade foreign currencies such as Spanish dollars and Mexican reals were brought into the country by merchants and these coins would continue to circulate in Vietnam until the French colonial administration outlawed their usage on January 1, 1906, in favour of their own coinage, while Vietnamese cash coins were permitted to continue circulating. Despite the presence of coinages barter persisted until the 20th century. Following its declaration of independence in 1945 the Democratic Republic of Vietnam started issuing its own currency in 1946, while allowing cash coins to circulate until 1948. In 1952 the piastre was abolished and replaced with the South Vietnamese đồng in the south in 1953. Following Vietnamese reunification in 1976 the North Vietnamese đồng and Liberation đồng would continue to circulate in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam until May 2, 1978, when they were replaced by a new national currency. +The coins uncovered in Vietnam includes both native coinages as well as Chinese cash coins in large numbers as Vietnam was a part of China as well as through historical trade with China. +Vietnamese cash coins are also sometimes found in other countries because of trade, such as a Trần dynasty cash coin being unearthed in Hakodate, Japan. + + +== Overview == +In modern Vietnam the supply of undiscovered cash coins is rapidly declining as large amounts of Vietnamese cash coins were excavated during the 1980s and 1990s, in Vietnam the excavation of antiques such as cash coins is an industry in itself and the cash coins are mostly being dug up by farmers. After the Vietnam War ended in 1975 a large number of metal detectors numbering in the many thousands were left behind in the former area of South Vietnam which helped fuel the rise of this industry. The antique bronze industry is mostly concentrated in small rural villages where farmers rent metal detectors to search their own lands for bronze antiques to then either sell as scrap or to dealers, these buyers purchase lumps of cash coins by either kilogramme or ton to then hire skilled people to search through these lumps of cash coins for sellable specimens, these coins are then sold to other dealers in Vietnam, China, and Japan. During the zenith of the coin recovery business in Vietnam the number of bulk coins found on a monthly basis was fifteen tons but only roughly fifteen kilogrammes of those coins were sellable and the rest of the coins would melted down as scrap metal. As better metal detectors that could search deeper more Vietnamese cash coins were discovered but in modern times the supply of previously undiscovered Vietnamese cash coins is quickly diminishing. +In modern times many Vietnamese cash coins are found in sunken shipwrecks which are mandated by Vietnamese law to be the property of the Vietnamese government as salvaged ships of which the owner was unknown belong to the state. + + +== List of coin hoards in Vietnam == + + +== See also == +List of coin hoards in China + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Barker, Allan (2004). The Historical Cash Coins of Viet Nam. ISBN 981-05-2300-9. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..76b1824bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,206 @@ +--- +title: "List of common astronomy symbols" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:51.908080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a compilation of symbols commonly used in astronomy, particularly professional astronomy. + + +== Age (stellar) == +τ - age + + +== Astrometry parameters == +Astrometry parameters + +Rv - radial velocity +cz - apparent radial velocity +z - Redshift +μ - proper motion +π - parallax +J - epoch +α - Right Ascension +δ - Declination +λ - Ecliptic longitude +β - Ecliptic latitude +l - Galactic longitude +b - Galactic latitude +Δ - Distance from Earth +ø - Geographical or astronomical latitude + + +== Cosmological parameters == +Cosmological parameters + +h - dimensionless Hubble parameter +H0 - Hubble constant +Λ - cosmological constant +Ω - density parameter +ρ - density +ρc - critical density +z - redshift + + +== Distance description == +Distance description for orbital and non-orbital parameters: + +d - distance +d - in km = kilometer +d - in mi = mile +d - in AU = astronomical unit +d - in ly = light-year +d - in pc = parsec +d - in kpc = kiloparsec (1000 pc) +DL - luminosity distance, obtaining an objects distance using only visual aspects + + +== Galaxy comparison == +Galaxy type and spectral comparison: + +see galaxy morphological classification + + +== Luminosity comparison == +Luminosity comparison: + +LS, L☉ - luminosity of the Sun +Luminosity of certain object: + +Lacc - accretion luminosity +Lbol - bolometric luminosity + + +== Mass comparison == +Mass comparison: + +ME, M🜨 - mass of Earth +MJ, M♃ - mass of Jupiter +MS, M☉ - mass of the Sun +Mass of certain object: + +M● - mass of black hole +Macc - mass of accretion disc + + +== Metallicity comparison == +Metallicity comparison: + +[Fe/H] - Ratio of Iron to Hydrogen. This is not an exact ratio, but rather a logarithmic representation of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun. +for a given star (﹡) : + + + + [ + + Fe + + / + + H + + ] + = + log + ⁡ + [ + + Fe + + / + + H + + + ] + + ∗ + + + − + log + ⁡ + [ + + Fe + + / + + H + + + ] + + ⊙ + + + + + {\displaystyle [{\ce {Fe/H}}]=\log[{\ce {Fe/H}}]_{*}-\log[{\ce {Fe/H}}]_{\odot }} + +, where the values represent the number densities of the given element. +[M/H] - Metallicity ratio. +Z - Metallicity +Z☉, ZS - Metallicity of the Sun + + +== Orbital parameters == +Orbital Parameters of a Cosmic Object: + +α - RA, right ascension, if the Greek letter does not appear, á letter will appear. +δ - Dec, declination, if the Greek letter does not appear, ä letter will appear. +P or Porb or T - orbital period +a - semi-major axis +b - semi-minor axis +q - periapsis, the minimum distance +Q - apoapsis, the maximum distance +e - eccentricity +i - inclination +Ω - longitude of ascending node +ω - argument of periapsis +RL - Roche lobe +M - Mean anomaly +Mo - Mean anomaly at epoch + + +== Radius comparison == +Radius comparison: + +RE, R🜨 - Radius compared to Earth +RJ, R♃ - Radius compared to Jupiter +RS, R☉ - Radius compared to The Sun + + +== Spectral comparison == +Spectral comparison: + +see Stellar classification +m(object) - Apparent magnitude +M(object) - Absolute magnitude, for galaxies and stars +H(object) - Absolute magnitude, for planets and nonstellar objects + + +== Temperature description == +Temperature description: + +Teff - Temperature Effect, usually associated with luminous object +Tmax - Temperature Maximum, usually associated with non-luminous object +Tavg - Temperature Average, usually associated with non-luminous object +Tmin - Temperature Minimum, usually associated with non-luminous object +K - Kelvin + + +== See also == +List of astronomy acronyms +Astronomical symbols +Stellar classification +Galaxy morphological classification +List of astronomical catalogues +Glossary of astronomy + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a7e3c4c5e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "List of computer-related awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:11.260204+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of computer-related awards is an index to articles about notable awards given for computer-related work. It excludes computer science awards and competitions, video game awards and web awards, which are covered by separate lists. + + +== Hardware == + + +== Open source / freeware / shareware == + + +== Security == + + +== Programming == + + +== Applications == + + +== Scholarship == + + +== Other == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +List of computer science awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of engineering awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..947d455db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of computer science awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:09.948928+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of computer science awards is an index to articles on notable awards related to computer science. It includes lists of awards by the Association for Computing Machinery, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, other computer science and information science awards, and a list of computer science competitions. +The top computer science award is the ACM Turing Award, generally regarded as the Nobel Prize equivalent for Computer Science. Other highly regarded top computer science awards include IEEE John von Neumann Medal awarded by the IEEE Board of Directors, and the Japan Kyoto Prize for Information Science. + + +== Association for Computing Machinery == +The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) gives out many computer science awards, often run by one of their Special Interest Groups. + + +== IEEE == +A number of awards are given by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the IEEE Computer Society or the IEEE Information Theory Society. + + +== Other computer science awards == + + +== Information science awards == + + +== Competitions == + + +== See also == +Competitive programming +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of computer-related awards +List of engineering awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aabb03c29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "List of cosmologists" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:23.074336+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of people who have made noteworthy contributions to cosmology (the study of the history and large-scale structure of the universe) and their cosmological achievements. + +== A == +Tom Abel (1970–) studied primordial star formation +Roberto Abraham (1965–) studied the shapes of early galaxies +Andreas Albrecht studied the formation of the early universe, cosmic structure, and dark energy +Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995) theorized that galactic magnetic fields could be generated by plasma currents +Ralph A. Alpher (1921–2007) argued that observed proportions of hydrogen and helium in the universe could be explained by the big bang model, predicted cosmic background radiation +Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC) early proponent of heliocentrism +Aristotle (circa 384–322 BC) posited a geocentric cosmology that was widely accepted for many centuries +Aryabhata (476–550) described a geocentric model with slow and fast epicycles + +== B == +Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (787–886) conveyed Aristotle's theories from Persia to Europe +James M. Bardeen (1939–2022) studied the mathematics of black holes and of vacua under general relativity +John D. Barrow (1952–2020) popularized the anthropic cosmological principle +Charles L. Bennett (1956–) studied the large-scale structure of the universe by mapping irregularities in microwave background radiation +Orfeu Bertolami (1959–) studied the cosmological constant, cosmic inflation, dark energy–dark matter unification and interaction, alternative gravity theories +Somnath Bharadwaj (1964–) studied large-scale structure formation +James Binney (1950–) studied galactic dynamics and supernova disruption of galactic gasses +Martin Bojowald (1973–) studied loop quantum gravity and established loop quantum cosmology +Hermann Bondi (1919–2005) developed the steady-state model +Mustapha Ishak Boushaki (1967–) physicist researcher on cosmology +Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) promoted a geo-heliocentric system of epicycles +Robert Brandenberger (1956–) formulated the theory of string gas cosmology, with colleague Cumrun Vafa, and developed cosmological perturbation theory + +== C == +Bernard J. Carr (1949–) promoted the anthropic principle, studied primordial black holes +Sean M. Carroll (1966–) researched dark energy, general relativity, and spontaneous cosmic inflation +Gennady V. Chibisov (1946–2008) origin of cosmological density perturbations from quantum fluctuations +Peter Coles (1963–) modeled galactic clustering and authored several cosmology books +C. B. Collins used the anthropic principle to solve the flatness problem +Asantha Cooray (1973–) studied dark energy, halo models of large structure, and cosmic microwave radiation +Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) formulated a heliocentric cosmology + +== D == +Paul Davies (1946–) developed a vacuum model that explains microwave background fluctuation, studies time's arrow, and has written many popular-press books +Marc Davis (1947–) was lead astronomer of a survey of 50,000 high-redshift galaxies +Avishai Dekel (1951–) studied galaxy formation and large scale structure of the cosmos in dark matter-dark energy dominated universes +Robert H. Dicke (1916–1997) measured background radiation, used an early version of the anthropic principle to relate the gravitational constant to the age of the universe +Mike J. Disney (1937–) discovered low surface brightness galaxies + +== E == +George Efstathiou (1955–) pioneering computer simulations, observations of galaxy clustering and studies of the fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background +Jürgen Ehlers (1929–2008) described gravitational lensing and studied the mathematical implications of an isotropic microwave background +Jaan Einasto (1929–) studied structure in the large-scale distribution of superclusters of galaxies, early proponent of dark matter +Albert Einstein (1879–1955) introduced general relativity and the cosmological constant +George F. R. Ellis (1939–) theorized a cylindrical steady-state universe with a naked singularity as recycling mechanism +Richard S. Ellis (1950–) used gravitational lensing and high-redshift supernovae to study the origin of galaxies, large scale structure, and dark matter +Encieh Erfani (1982–), studies inflation and the birth of primordial black holes + +== F == +Sandra M. Faber (1944–) discovered the Great Attractor, a supercluster-scale gravitational anomaly; co-inventor of the theory of cold dark matter +Hume A. Feldman (1953–) studies cosmological perturbations and the statistical and dynamical properties of the large scale structure of the universe +Pedro G. Ferreira (1968–) his main interests are in general relativity and theoretical cosmology +Carlos S. Frenk (1951–) studied cosmic structure formation +Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925) discovered the expanding-universe solution to general relativity + +== G == +George Gamow (1904–1968) argued that observed proportions of hydrogen and helium in the universe could be explained by the big bang model, modeled the mass and radius of primordial galaxies +Margaret J. Geller (1947–) discovered the Great Wall, a superstructure-scale filament of galaxies +Thomas Gold (1920–2004) proposed the steady-state theory +Gerson Goldhaber (1924–2010) used supernova observations to measure the energy density of the universe +J. Richard Gott (1947–) proposed the use of cosmic strings for time travel +Alan Guth (1947–) explained the isotropy of the universe by theorizing a phase of exponential cosmic inflation soon after the big bang + +== H == +Stephen W. Hawking (1942–2018) described singularities in general relativity and developed singularity-free models of the big bang; predicted primordial black holes +Charles W. Hellaby described models of general relativity with nonconstant metric signature +Michał Heller (1936–) researched noncommutative approaches to quantum gravity +Robert C. Herman (1914–1997) predicted the background radiation temperature +Lars Hernquist (1954–) studied galaxy formation and evolution +Chris Hirata (1982–) researched weak gravitational lensing +Honorius Augustodunensis (c.1080−1151) wrote a popular encyclopedia of cosmology, geography, and world history +Hanns Hörbiger (1860–1931) formulated a pseudoscientific theory of ice as the basic substance of all cosmic processes +Fred Hoyle (1915–2001) promoted the steady state theory, used the anthropic principle to explain the energy levels of carbon nuclei +Edwin P. Hubble (1889–1953) demonstrated the existence of other galaxies and confirmed the relation between redshift and distance +John P. Huchra (1948–2010) discovered the Great Wall, a superstructure-scale filament of galaxies + +== I == +Mustapha Ishak Boushaki (1967–) physicist researcher on Cosmology +Jamal Nazrul Islam (1939–2013) published seven books on Cosmology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7bf6c8403 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "List of cosmologists" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:23.074336+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== K == +Ronald Kantowski (1939–) discovered spatially homogeneous but anisotropic solutions to general relativity +Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) pioneered heliocentrism, discovered elliptical planetary motion, attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes +Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov (1919–2021) conjectured an oscillatory model with an essential singularity for the evolution of the universe +Tom W. B. Kibble (1932–2016) introduced the concept of cosmic strings +Robert Kirshner (1949–) discovered the Boötes void, a large region sparsely populated with galaxies, and wrote a popular book on cosmology +Edward Kolb (1951–) studied big bang cosmology including the emergence of baryons and dark matter, and wrote a popular textbook on cosmology +Lawrence M. Krauss (1954–) author of popular science books on cosmology including A Universe from Nothing + +== L == +Ofer Lahav (1959–) studied dark matter and dark energy +Tod R. Lauer (1957–) catalogued massive black holes at galaxy centers and correlated their mass with other properties of the galaxies' structures +Georges Henri Lemaître (1894–1966) proposed the big bang theory and the distance-redshift relation +Janna Levin (1967–) seeks evidence for a bounded universe of nontrivial topology +Andrew R. Liddle (1965–) studied inflationary models, wrote two books on inflation and primordial inhomogeneities +Evgeny M. Lifshitz (1915–1985) conjectured an oscillatory model with an essential singularity for the evolution of the universe +Andrei Linde (1948–) pioneered cosmic inflationary models and proposed eternal chaotic inflation of universes from the false vacuum +Abraham (Avi) Loeb (1962–) researched primordial stars, primordial black holes, quasars, reionization, gravitational lensing, and gamma-ray bursts +Jean-Pierre Luminet (1951–) studied black holes and the topology of the Universe +David H. Lyth (1940–) studied particle cosmology, wrote two books on cosmic inflation and primordial inhomogeneities + +== M == +João Magueijo (1967–) proposed much faster speeds of light in the young universe as an alternative explanation to cosmic inflation for its homogeneity +Richard Massey (1977–) mapped dark matter in the universe +Charles W. Misner (1932–2023) studied solutions to general relativity including the mixmaster universe and Misner space, wrote influential text on gravitation +John Moffat (1932–) proposed much faster speeds of light in the young universe, developed antisymmetric theories of gravity +Lauro Moscardini (1961–) modeled galaxy clustering in the early universe + +== N == +Jayant Narlikar (1938–2025) promoted steady state theories +Isaac Newton (1642–1727) formulated the law of universal gravitation and supported the heliocentric model + +== P == +György Paál (1934–1992) in the late 1950s studied the quasar and galaxy cluster distributions, in 1970 from redshift quantization came up with the idea that the Universe might have nontrivial topological structure +Thanu Padmanabhan (1957–2021) studied quantum gravity and quantum cosmology +Leonard Parker (1938–) established the study of quantum field theory within general relativity +P. James E. Peebles (1935–) predicted cosmic background radiation, contributed to structure theory, developed models that avoid dark matter +Roger Penrose (1931–) linked singularities to gravitational collapse, conjectured the nonexistence of naked singularities, and used gravitational entropy to explain homogeneity +Arno Penzias (1933–2024) was the first to observe the cosmic background radiation +Saul Perlmutter (1959–) used supernova observations to measure the expansion of the universe +Mark M. Phillips (1951–) used supernova observations to discover acceleration in the expansion of the universe, calibrated the supernova distance scale +Joel Primack (1945–2025) co-invented the theory of cold dark matter +Ptolemy (90–168) wrote the only surviving ancient text on astronomy, conjectured a model of the universe as a set of nested spheres with epicycles + +== Q == +Ali Qushji (1403–1474) challenged Aristotelian physics, in particular presenting empirical evidence against a stationary Earth, and may have influenced Copernicus + +== R == +Lisa Randall (1962–) contributed to Randall–Sundrum models, which describe the world in terms of a warped geometry higher-dimensional universe +Martin Rees (1942–) proposed that quasars are powered by black holes, disproved steady state by studying distribution of quasars +Yoel Rephaeli used the distortion of the cosmic background by high-energy electrons to infer the existence of galaxy clusters +Adam Riess (1969–) found evidence in supernova data that the expansion of the universe is accelerating and confirming dark energy models +Wolfgang Rindler (1924–2019) coined the phrase "event horizon", Rindler coordinates, and popularized the use of spinors (with Roger Penrose) +Howard P. Robertson (1903–1961) solved the two-body problem in an approximation to general relativity, developed the standard model of general relativity +Vera Rubin (1928–2016) discovered discrepancies in galactic rotation rates leading to the theory of dark matter \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4db538ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "List of cosmologists" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:23.074336+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== S == +Rainer K. Sachs (1932–2024) discovered gravitationally induced redshifts in the cosmic background radiation +Carl Sagan (1934–1996) American astrophysicist, cosmologist and author +Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989) invented the theory of twins, CPT-symmetric universes +Allan Sandage (1936–2010) set the cosmological distance scale and accurately estimated the speed of expansion of the universe +Brian P. Schmidt (1967–) used supernova data to measure the acceleration in the expansion of the universe +David N. Schramm (1945–1997) was an expert on big bang theory and an early proponent of dark matter +Dennis W. Sciama (1926–1999) studied many aspects of cosmology and supervised many other leading cosmologists +Irving Segal (1918–1998) created chronometric cosmology with alternative explanation of redshift in spectra of distant sources +Seleucus of Seleucia (c.190–c.150 BC) used tidal observations to support a heliocentric model +Roman Ulrich Sexl (1939–1986) developed an ether-based theory of absolute simultaneity that is mathematically equivalent to special relativity +Al-Sijzi (c. 945–1020) invented an astrolabe based on the Earth's rotation +Joseph Silk (1942–) explained the homogeneity of the early universe using photon diffusion damping +Willem de Sitter (1872–1934) developed a theory of dark matter with Einstein, found an expanding matterless solution to general relativity +Vesto Slipher (1875–1969) performed the first measurements of radial velocities for galaxies, providing the empirical basis for the expansion of the universe +Lee Smolin (1955–) studied quantum gravity, popularized a theory of cosmological natural selection +George F. Smoot (1945–2025) used Cosmic Background Explorer satellite to measure the temperature and anisotropy of the early universe +David N. Spergel (1961–) used Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe satellite to measure the temperature and anisotropy of the early universe +Paul Steinhardt (1952–) pioneered inflationary cosmology, introduced first example of eternal inflation, introduced quintessential dark energy, introduced the concept of strongly self-interacting dark matter, studied brane cosmology and cyclic models of the universe +Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (903–986) wrote the Book of Fixed Stars, which lists over forty constellations and the stars within them +Nicholas B. Suntzeff (1952–) used supernova observations to discover acceleration in the expansion of the universe, calibrated the supernova distance scale +Rashid Sunyaev (1943–) developed a theory of density fluctuations in the early universe, described how to use cosmic background distortion to observe large-scale density fluctuations +Alex Szalay (1949–) was working on structure formation in a neutrino-dominated universe, biased galaxy formation in a cold dark matter dominated universe and computing the power spectrum in hot, cold and warm dark matter dominated universes + +== T == +Max Tegmark (1967–) determined the parameters of the lambda-cold dark matter model using Sloan Survey data, studied mathematical models of multiverses +Trinh Xuan Thuan (1948–) researched galaxy formation and evolution +William G. Tifft theorized that galactic redshifts are quantized +Beatrice Tinsley (1941–1981) researched galactic evolution, the creation of lightweight elements, and accelerated expansion of the universe +Frank J. Tipler (1947–) proved that time travel requires singularities, promoted the anthropic principle +Richard C. Tolman (1881–1948) showed that the cosmic background keeps a black-body profile as the universe expands +Mark Trodden (1968–) studied cosmological implications of topological defects in field theories +Michael S. Turner (1949–) coined the term dark energy +Neil Turok (1958–) predicted correlations between polarization and temperature anisotropy in the cosmic background, explained the big bang as a brane collision +Henry Tye (1947–) proposed brane-antibrane interactions as a cause of cosmic inflation + +== V == +Alexander Vilenkin (1949–) showed that eternal inflation is generic, studied cosmic strings, theorized the creation of the universe from quantum fluctuations + +== W == +Robert M. Wald (1947–) wrote a popular textbook on general relativity, studied the thermodynamics of black holes and created an axiomatic formulation of quantum field theory in curved spacetime +Arthur Geoffrey Walker (1909–2001) developed the standard model of general relativity and studied the mathematics of relativistic reference frames +David Wands studied inflation, superstrings, and density perturbations in the early universe +Yun Wang (1964–) uses supernova and galactic redshift data to probe dark energy +Jeffrey Weeks (1956–) used cosmic background patterns to determine the topology of the universe +Simon D. White (1951–) studied galaxy formation in the lambda-cold dark matter model +David Todd Wilkinson (1935–2002) used satellite probes to measure the cosmic background radiation +Edward L. Wright (1947–) promoted big bang theories, studied the effect of dust absorption on measurements of the cosmic background radiation + +== Z == +Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich (1914–1987) used accretion disks of massive black holes to explain quasars, predicted Compton scattering of the cosmic background radiation +Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974) along with Walter Baade (1893–1960) coined the term "supernova", contributions in understanding neutron stars, supernovae as standard candles, gravitational lensing, and dark matter. + +== See also == +Timeline of cosmological theories \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4c877239 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of data references for chemical elements" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:31.419835+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The List of data references for chemical elements is divided into datasheets that give values for many properties of the elements, together with various references. Each datasheet is sequenced by atomic number. + + +== References for chemical elements == +List of chemical elements — with basic properties like standard atomic weight, m.p., b.p., abundance +Abundance of the chemical elements +Abundances of the elements (data page) — Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and Solar System +Abundance of elements in Earth's crust +Atomic radii of the elements (data page) — atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius +Boiling points of the elements (data page) — Boiling point +Critical points of the elements (data page) — Critical point +Densities of the elements (data page) — Density (solid, liquid, gas) +Elastic properties of the elements (data page) — Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus +Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) — Electrical resistivity +Electron affinity (data page) — Electron affinity +Electron configurations of the elements (data page) — Electron configuration of the gaseous atoms in the ground state +Electronegativities of the elements (data page) — Electronegativity (Pauling scale) +Hardnesses of the elements (data page) — Mohs hardness, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness +Heat capacities of the elements (data page) — Heat capacity +Heats of fusion of the elements (data page) — Heat of fusion +Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page) — Heat of vaporization +Ionization energies of the elements (data page) — Ionization energy (in eV) and molar ionization energies (in kJ/mol) +Melting points of the elements (data page) — Melting point +Oxidation states of the elements — Oxidation state +Speeds of sound of the elements (data page) — Speed of sound +Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page) — Thermal conductivity +Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page) — Thermal expansion +Vapor pressures of the elements (data page) — Vapor pressure \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed5246f1c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "List of designations under the Protection of Wrecks Act" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:15.502553+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of all sites designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973. The designated sites are shown on charts and notified to mariners. Historic England (formerly English Heritage) provides administration of the arrangements under the Act in England and publishes information on each site. In May 2011, it launched an online searchable database of all protected wreck sites in English territorial waters, the National Heritage List for England, which includes the location co-ordinates, designation list entry description and brief historical details for each site. The administration of designated historic wrecks in Scotland is managed by Historic Environment Scotland, and in Wales by Cadw. + +== List of designations under section 1 of the Protection of Wrecks Act (1973) == + +=== De-designations (Section 1) === + +== List of designations under section 2 of the Protection of Wrecks Act (1973) == +Section 2 of the act designates wrecks categorised as dangerous. + +=== De-designations (Section 2) === + +== Notes and references == + +=== Notes on Section 1 designations === +A References are to the designation order and explanatory note. All statutory instruments since 1987 are available on-line from the Office of Public Sector Information. A concatenation of designation orders including those made between 1973 and 1987 is available on the UNESCO law database site +A1 Cattewater: first wrecksite to be designated on 5 September 1973 +A2 Mary Rose: designated 5 February 1974 +A3 Grace Dieu: designated 5 February 1974, redesignated 21 July 2016:- + +A4 Amsterdam: designated 5 February 1974 +A5 Royal Yacht Mary: designated 5 February 1974 +A6 HMS Assurance and HMS Pomone, Needles Wrecksite: first designated 11 April 1974, revised 8 July 1997:- +amended 29 July 1998:- + +A7 HMS Dartmouth: first designated 11 April 1974, the original designation was revoked after excavation and recovery of finds. The site was redesignated on 25 June 1992:- +A8 HMS Anne: first designated 20 June 1974, redesignated 23 March 1992 and 2 Sep 2009:- + +A9 Tearing Ledge: designated 13 March 1975 +A10 HMS Colossus: designated 12 May 1975, revoked 1984, after it was believed that all material had been recovered, but note that the stern was discovered later at a different position and has been separately designated (designated site number 53) +A11 Rill Cove Wreck: designated 15 March 1976 +A12 Rhinns of Islay: designated 1 June 1976; revoked 1984, after determination that the site is the location of multiple wrecks, and there was no longer any wreck left worth protecting. +A13 South Edinburgh Channel Wreck: designated 27 May 1977 +A14 Church Rocks Wreck: designated 12 August 1977 +A15 Pwll Fanog Wreck: first designated 14 February 1978, redesignated 19 January 1979 +A16 Moor Sands: designated 8 March 1978 +A17 Coronation (No 1): The offshore site was designated 31 March 1978 +A18 Langdon Bay: designated 26 May 1978 +A19 Kennemerland: designated 1 June 1978 +A20 Tal-Y-Bont wreck: first designated 12 January 1979, redesignated 28 September 1989:- +A21 Stirling Castle: first designated 6 June 1980. Amended, along with other wrecks on the Goodwin Sands 5 October 2004:- + +A22 Invincible: designated 30 September 1980 +A23 Bartholomew Ledges: first designated 3 October 1980. Amended 2006:- +A24 Restoration: first designated, along with other wrecks on the Goodwin Sands, 7 July 1981, amended 8 December 1989 + +amended 5 October 2004:- + +A25 Northumberland: first designated, along with other wrecks on the Goodwin Sands, 7 July 1981 (S.I. 1981/827), amended 8 December 1989 + +amended 5 October 2004:- + +A26 St Anthony: first designated 15 February 1982, amended 21 September 2006:- +A27 Schiedam: designated 15 February 1982 +A28 Brighton Marina: designated 18 October 1983, revoked 18 August 2017. The designation was deemed no longer appropriate because recent investigations indicated that the protected area only contained a debris trail from a wreck site outside the protected area, and that the debris trail was no longer present. + +A29 Yarmouth Roads: first designated 11 April 1984, amended 1 January 1985 +A30 Studland Bay: first designated 27 November 1984, amended 14 December 1988:- + +amended 10 August 1998 +A31 Admiral Gardner: first designated 3 June 1985, however the designation was challenged on the grounds that it lay outside the UK's 3 mile limit. +Following the extension of the UK's territorial waters to 12 miles, the wrecksite was redesignated 3 January 1990 + +and amended 5 October 2004:- + +A32 22 September Hazardous: first designated 1986 amended 18 March 1988 and redesignated 18 August 2017. Coordinates amended 6 June 2022:- + +A33 Coronation (no. 2): designated 3 January 1989:- + +A34 : Iona II: first designated 3 January 1990:- +"Statutory Instrument 1989 No. 2294". Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 19 October 2006. +amended 7 June 2006:- +"Statutory Instrument 2006 No. 1468". Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 10 October 2006. Explanatory note to order 2006 No. 1468 +The first attempt at amendment in 2006, Statutory Instrument 2006 No. 1340 was incorrect and revoked +A35 Gull Rock: designated 14 March 1990:- +A36 Wrangles Palais: first designated 18 August 1990:- + +amended 10 January 1991:- +A37 Erme Estuary: designated 3 May 1991:- + +A38 Smalls Reef: first designated 5 December 1991:- +amended 9 October 1995:- + +A39 Duart Point: designated 15 May 1992 +A40 Girona: designated 22 April 1993 + +A41 Royal Anne Galley: first designated 11 November 1993 +amended 7 June 2006 + +The first attempt at amendment in 2006, Statutory Instrument 2006 No. 1342 was incorrect and revoked +A42 Erme Ingot: designated 26 November 1993 +A43 Dunwich Bank: first designated 14 July 1994 + +amended 5 October 2004 +A44 Resurgam: designated 4 July 1996 + +A45 Hanover: designated 19 July 1997, revoked and redesignated 2 June 2022 to amend coordinates + +A46 Seaton Carew: designated 8 August 1997 + +A47 Salcombe Cannon: designated 24 October 1997 +A48 HMS A1: first designated 26 November 1998 + +amended 5 October 2004 +A49 Burntisland: designated 22 February 1999 + +A50 Loe Bar: designated 14 June 1999 +A51 Mingary Castle: designated 19 August 2000 + +A52 Kinlochbervie: designated 29 June 2001 +A53 Colossus (Stern): designated 4 July 2001, redesignated 18 August 2017, revoked and redesignated 6 September 2017 to amend coordinates \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c04c019f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "List of designations under the Protection of Wrecks Act" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:15.502553+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A54 HMS Campania: designated 1 December 2001 +A55 The Diamond: designated 2 April 2002, the first such designation under devolved powers by the National Assembly for Wales +A56 Bonhomme Richard: designated 18 July 2002 + +A57 Swash Channel: designated 10 December 2004 +A58 Holland V: designated 4 January 2005 + +A59 West Bay: designated 19 July 2005 +A60 Resolution: designated 14 June 2006 + +A61 Rooswijk: designated 18 January 2007, redesignated 23 February 2018 + +A62 Wheel Wreck: designated 5 April 2007 + +A63 HMS London: designated 24 October 2008, redesignated 31 July 2012:- + +A64 Goodwin and Downs 8: designated 3 August 2012:- + +A65 Unknown wooden sailing vessel: designated 31 July 2013:- + +A66 Association: designated 21 March 2014:- + +A67 HMS A3: designated 21 July 2016:- + +A68 SM U-8: designated 21 July 2016:- + +A69 Holigost: designated 21 July 2016:- + +A70 HMT Arfon: designated 16 August 2016:- + +A71 Chesil Beach cannon: designated 18 August 2017:- + +A72 UC-70: designated 18 August 2017:- + +A73 Unknown vessel: designated 5 July 2019:- + +A74 Shingles Bank Wreck NW68: designated 2 June 2022:- + +A75 Shingles Bank Wreck NW96: designated 2 June 2022:- + +A76 Mortar Wreck: designated 2 June 2022:- + +=== Notes on Responsible Authorities === +B Management of Protected wrecksites designated under section 1 of the Act is devolved to the National Curators of the devolved nations of the United Kingdom. Management of wrecks designated under section 2 is the responsibility of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency +B1 "Protected Wreck Sites" Historic England website. Retrieved 7 October 2020 See also Historic England +B2 "Maritime Wrecks". Cadw website. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 6 October 2006. See also Cadw +B3 See Historic Environment Scotland, formerly Historic Scotland +B4 See Environment and Heritage Service (of Northern Ireland) +B5 "Protected Wrecks in the UK". Maritime and Coastguard Agency website. Retrieved 29 October 2006. See also Maritime and Coastguard Agency + +=== Notes on identification of wrecksites and dating === +C1 HMS Assurance: the Advisory Committee on Historic Wreck originally identified the sinking as 1738, however investigation by a former licensee into historic records dated the loss as 1753, and this is shown as the date of sinking in the site summary of the wrecksite in Appendix A(ii) of the latest report, although Appendix A(iii), The list of current designated sites, still shows the date as 1738. +C2 Tearing Ledge The wreck is believed to be the Romney, one of four ships lost on 22 October 1707 +C3 Rill Cove Wreck: the identity of the wreck has not been determined. The tentative date of 1616 is based on the dates of artefacts recovered. +C4 Coronation: the wreck of the Coronation is thought to be split into two sites - the Kennemerland also split into two sites when wrecked. The identity of the offshore site (site 17) was confirmed by finding a plate inscribed with the family crest of the Captain. The identity of the inshore site (site 33) is more controversial. Royal Naval Guns found on the inshore site are consistent with a first or second rate ship of the line of the correct period and there is no other record of a ship of her size foundering in the area. +C5 Barthomolew Ledges: it is possible that the wreck is that of the Spanish vessel, San Bartholome which was wrecked in 1597, although this vessel is not recorded as being lost in the Isles of Scilly. The wreck is late 16th century and was carrying lead ingots of a Spanish type. Six recovered coins date between 1474 and 1555, hence dating the wreck after 1555. +C6 The Diamond: the wreck is of an early type of composite hull and was initially thought to be the Diamond. The current licensee has identified several anomalies in this identification, including that the wreck appears to be longer than the Diamond; there are discrepancies between samples of materials recovered from the wreck and those listed as being used in the construction of the Diamond, and artefacts patented after the date of sinking have been recovered. + +=== Notes on Section 2 designations === +D References are to the designation order and explanatory note, where available (since 1987) on-line from the Office of Public Sector Information +D1 Richard Montgomery: designated 31 October 1973, because of the presence of a large amount of munitions + +D2 MV Braer (oil tanker): designated 8 February 1993 because of the presence of a significant amount of oil. +revoked 7 October 1994 + +D3 Castilian: designated 13 August 1997 + +=== References === + +== External links == +National Heritage List for England: English Heritage \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoverers_of_Messier_objects-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoverers_of_Messier_objects-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de70b1d94 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoverers_of_Messier_objects-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "List of discoverers of Messier objects" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoverers_of_Messier_objects" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:35.351196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of each Messier object, Its Discovery Year and its first discoverer who published/recorded their findings. Most of the Messier Objects were discovered between the years 1654 and 1782 AD, amongst some outliers. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earliest_tools-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earliest_tools-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4d3329420 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earliest_tools-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "List of earliest tools" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earliest_tools" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:13.408128+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following table attempts to list the oldest-known Paleolithic and Paleo-Indian sites where hominin tools have been found. It includes sites where compelling evidence of hominin tool use has been found, even if no actual tools have been found. +Stone tools preserve more readily than tools of many other materials. So the oldest tools that we can find in many areas are going to be stone tools. It could be that these tools were once accompanied by, or even preceded by, non-stone tools that we cannot find because they did not preserve. +Similarly, hard materials like bone or shell are more likely than softer materials to leave discernible cut marks on bone. Bamboo has been shown to leave cut marks on bone that are harder to see than cut marks by stone. So the earliest evidence of tool use that we are likely to find are often cut marks made on bone by stone or shell tools. +Therefore, it should not be assumed that the items on this list represent the earliest uses of tools in each area, but rather the earliest uses of tools that have been found. +Because it focuses on only the earliest evidence of tools, and since the earliest evidence is biased towards stone by stone's increased likelihood of preservation, this page necessarily omits mention of many significant ancient tools of non-stone materials simply because those cases are not among the earliest found within their geographic area. See Timeline of historic inventions for other noteworthy tools and other inventions. +With its focus on tools, this list also omits some sites with the earliest evidence for the existence of hominins, but without evidence for tools. Many such sites have hominin bones, teeth, or footprints, but unless they also include evidence for tools or tool use, they are omitted here. +This list excludes tools and tool use attributed to non-hominin species. See Tool use by non-humans. +Since there are far too many hominin tool sites to list on a single page, this page attempts to list the 6 or fewer top candidates for oldest tool site within each significant geographic area. + + +== Geographic areas covered == +Africa +East Africa +North Africa +Southern Africa +West Africa +Americas +North America +South America +Asia +East Asia +Island Southeast Asia - Islands between Sunda Shelf and Sahul, not connected to either one during the Last Glacial Maximum +South Asia +Sunda Shelf +West Asia +Europe +Eastern Europe +Western Europe +Sahul - Australia and New Guinea +Indian Ocean +For much of the 20th century, a "Clovis first" idea dominated American archeology. Many sites with dates too old to be compatible with "Clovis first" were published, but these were mostly dismissed under the hegemony of "Clovis first." Meanwhile, some indigenous archeologists insisted throughout the "Clovis first" era that the peopling of the Americas was much older than Clovis. Recent publications with very strong evidence for pre-Clovis sites seem to have ended the hegemony of "Clovis first." + + +== List of tools == + + +== See also == +Hominini +List of human evolution fossils +Stone Age +Stone tool +Timeline of historic inventions +Tool use by non-humans + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0028ef12f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "List of early inscriptions in Vietnam" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:15.805887+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of early inscriptions in northern Vietnam comprises a list of the corpus of known inscriptions written in Chinese language and Vietnamese language mostly using chữ Hán and few using chữ Nôm from c. 300s to 1230s found in northern Vietnam. + + +== Chinese period (c. 0–900 AD) == + + +== Postclassic – Early Đại Việt period (900–1230) == + + +== Footnotes == + + +=== References === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_sciences_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_sciences_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1d3ce4bb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_sciences_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of earth sciences awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_sciences_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:12.597443+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of earth sciences awards is an index to articles on notable awards for earth sciences, or natural science related to the planet Earth. It includes awards for meteorology, oceanography and paleontology, but excludes awards for environmental science, geography, geology and geophysics, which are covered by separate lists. + + +== General == + + +== Meteorology == + + +== Oceanography == + + +== Paleontology == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +List of environmental awards +List of geography awards +List of geology awards +List of geophysics awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c2046898 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "List of engineering awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:15.159519+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of engineering awards is an index to articles about notable awards for achievements in engineering. It includes aerospace engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, electronic engineering, structural engineering and systems science awards. It excludes computer-related awards, computer science awards, industrial design awards, mechanical engineering awards, motor vehicle awards, occupational health and safety awards and space technology awards, which are covered by separate lists. +The list is organized by the region and country of the organizations that sponsor the awards, but some awards are not limited to people from that country. + + +== International == + + +== Africa == + + +== Americas == + + +== Asia == + + +== Europe == + + +== Oceania == + + +== See also == +List of computer science awards +List of computer-related awards +List of mechanical engineering awards +List of motor vehicle awards +List of space technology awards +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f4c5edec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "List of environmental awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:16.531419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of environmental awards is an index to articles about notable environmental awards for activities that lead to the protection of the natural environment. The list is organized by the region and country of the organization that sponsors the award. The awards may be open to the global community or limited to a particular country or field of work. + + +== International == + + +== Americas == + + +== Asia == + + +== Europe == + + +== Oceania == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11ab7c215 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "List of fellows of the Royal Society" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:32.687617+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +More than 8,000 people have been elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, England, since the inception of the Royal Society in 1660. The Royal Society publishes a database of current fellows and a database of past fellows. + + +== Alphabetic lists == + + +== See also == +List of female Fellows of the Royal Society +Category:Fellows of the Royal Society (alphabetical) +Category:Lists of fellows of the Royal Society by year + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies_by_surface_brightness-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies_by_surface_brightness-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d5175af7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies_by_surface_brightness-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,161 @@ +--- +title: "List of galaxies by surface brightness" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies_by_surface_brightness" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:34.084013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of galaxies sorted by surface brightness. Surface brightness is a measure of how bright a diffuse object like a galaxy or nebula appears over its extended surface. The brightness over the entire galaxy is called apparent magnitude. + + +== Table == +The surface brightness is calculated via + + + + S + = + m + + + 2.5 + + log + + 10 + + + ⁡ + A + + + {\displaystyle S=m+2.5\log _{10}A} + +. Where + + + + S + + + {\displaystyle S} + + is surface brightness, + + + + m + + + {\displaystyle m} + + is total magnitude, and + + + + A + + + {\displaystyle A} + + is the total area in square arcseconds. Area is calculated using the formula for an ellipse; + + + + π + a + b + + + {\displaystyle \pi ab} + +, where + + + + a + + + {\displaystyle a} + + is the semi-major axis and + + + + b + + + {\displaystyle b} + + is the semi-minor axis. Each axis is half of the dimension, because each dimension is the entire length/height but the axis is only the length/height to the centre, this combined with the symmetry of an ellipse means that half the dimension is the axis. +Combining this with the original formula we get: + + + + S + = + m + + + 2.5 + + log + + 10 + + + ⁡ + ( + π + + + a + 2 + + + + + b + 2 + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle S=m+2.5\log _{10}(\pi {\frac {a}{2}}{\frac {b}{2}})} + +, which simplifies to + + + + S + = + m + + + 2.5 + + log + + 10 + + + ⁡ + + + + π + a + b + + 4 + + + + + {\displaystyle S=m+2.5\log _{10}{\frac {\pi ab}{4}}} + +. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards-0.md index 5c46a76c5..8482c8e06 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:46:56.818524+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:32.925813+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geology_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geology_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..876f8d4c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geology_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "List of geology awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geology_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:19.172502+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of geology awards is an index to articles on notable awards for geology, an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. +The list is organized by region and country of the organization that sponsors the award, but awards are not always restricted to people from that country. +See list of earth sciences awards for awards for earth sciences in general, and for other branches of earth science. + + +== Americas == + + +=== Canada === + + +=== Chile === + + +=== United States === + + +== Europe == + + +== Other regions == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of earth sciences awards +List of geography awards +List of geophysics awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysics_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysics_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e086b531e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysics_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "List of geophysics awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysics_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:20.441149+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of geophysics awards is an index to articles on notable awards for contributions to geophysics, the branch of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. +The list gives the country of the organization that sponsors the award, but the awards are not necessarily limited to people from that country. + + +== International == + + +== Americas == + + +== Asia == + + +== Europe == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of earth sciences awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..40118b350 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of gravitational wave observations" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:24.989338+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This page contains a list of observed and candidate gravitational wave events. + +== Origin and nomenclature == +Direct observation of gravitational waves, which commenced with the detection of an event by LIGO in 2015, plays a key role in gravitational wave astronomy. LIGO has been involved in all subsequent detections to date, with Virgo joining in August 2017. +Joint observation runs of LIGO and Virgo, designated "O1, O2, etc." span many months, with months of maintenance and upgrades in-between designed to increase the instruments sensitivity and range. Within these run periods, the instruments are capable of detecting gravitational waves. +The first run, O1, ran from September 12, 2015, to January 19, 2016, and succeeded in its first gravitational wave detection. O2 ran for a greater duration, from November 30, 2016, to August 25, 2017. O3 began on April 1, 2019. The observing run was split in two, designated "O3a" and "O3b" with the first part suspended on September 30, 2019, for maintenance and upgrades. O3b began on November 1, 2019. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic O3 was forced to end prematurely. The early end meant that KAGRA did not have chance to participate in joint observations with LIGO and Virgo, so a short joint run was done in partnership with GEO. This run was designated "O3GK", and did not result in any additional detections. +O4 began on May 24, 2023; initially planned for March, the project needed more time to stabilize the instruments. The fourth observing run was divided into three parts, designated "O4a", "O4b", and "O4c". +The run, initially planned to end after one year, was extended, following plans to make further upgrades for the O5 run. O4a started May 24, 2023 and ended January 16, 2024. +O4b started April 10, 2024 and ended January 28, 2025 at 17:00 UTC. Unusually, O4c, followed directly from O4b, starting on January 28, 2025 at 17:00 UTC and concluded on November 18, 2025 at 16:00 UTC. +There was a two month commissioning break from January to March 2024, and another from 1 April to a planned 11 June 2025, after which observations resumed. As of May 2025, O5 is planned to begin in late 2027. +An intermediate six-month observing run has also been announced, expected to begin later summer/early fall of 2026. Updated observing plans are published on the official website. +Gravitational wave events are named starting with the prefix GW, while observations that trigger an event alert but have not (yet) been confirmed are named starting with the prefix S. Six digits then indicate the date of the event, with the two first digits representing the year, the two middle digits the month and two final digits the day of observation. This is similar to the systematic naming for other kinds of astronomical event observations, such as those of gamma-ray bursts. +Probable detections that are not confidently identified as gravitational wave events are designated LVT ("LIGO-Virgo trigger"). Known gravitational wave events come from the merger of two black holes (BH), two neutron stars (NS), or a black hole and a neutron star (BHNS). Some objects are in the mass gap (MG) between the largest predicted neutron star masses (Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit) and the smallest known black holes. + +== List of gravitational wave events == + +== Candidate events and marginal detections == +There is possible detection of nanohertz waves by observation of the timing of pulsars, but they have not been confirmed at the 5 sigma level of confidence, as of 2023. + +=== Marginal detections from O1 and O2 === +In addition to well-constrained detections listed above, a number of low-significance detections of possible signals were made by LIGO and Virgo. Their characteristics are listed below, only including detections with a <50% chance of being noise: + +=== Observation candidates from O3/2019 === +From observation run O3/2019 on, observations are published as Open Public Alerts to facilitate multi-messenger observations of events. Candidate event records can be directly accessed at the Gravitational-Wave Candidate Event Database (GraceDB). On 1 April 2019, the start of the third observation run was announced with a circular published in the public alerts tracker. The first O3/2019 binary black hole detection alert was broadcast on 8 April 2019. A significant percentage of O3 candidate events detected by LIGO are accompanied by corresponding triggers at Virgo. +False alarm rates are mixed, with more than half of events assigned false alarm rates greater than 1 per 20 years, contingent on presence of glitches around signal, foreground electromagnetic instability, seismic activity, and operational status of any one of the three LIGO-Virgo instruments. For instance, events S190421ar and S190425z weren't detected by Virgo and LIGO's Hanford site, respectively. +The LIGO/Virgo collaboration took a short break from observing during the month of October 2019 to improve performance and prepare for future plans, with no signals detected in that month as a result. +The Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA) in Japan became operational on 25 February 2020, likely improving the detection and localization of future gravitational wave signals. However, KAGRA does not report their signals in real-time on GraceDB as LIGO and Virgo do, so the results of their observation run will likely not be published until the end of O3. +The LIGO-Virgo collaboration ended the O3 run early on March 27, 2020, due to health concerns from the COVID-19 pandemic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8cd4aced --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "List of gravitational wave observations" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:24.989338+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Observation candidates from O4/2023 === +On 15 June 2022, LIGO announced to start the O4 observing run in March 2023. As the date got closer, engineering challenges delayed the observing run to May 2023. An engineering run to assess the sensitivity of LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA began in April, with the Hanford detector's first operations beginning on April 29, and the Livingston and Virgo detectors' first operations beginning on May 5. +On March 7, 2023, a gamma-ray burst compatible with a neutron star merger was detected by the Fermi telescope and named GRB 230307A. The burst, identified as being from a host galaxy approximately 296 Mpc away, would likely have only been marginally detected at best by LIGO if it had been operating at the time, as the detectors would only later achieve a sensitivity of 160 Mpc for neutron star mergers by O4's beginning, 3 months later. +Near the end of the engineering run on 15 May 2023, LIGO announced that O4 would be beginning on 24 May 2023, running for 20 months with up to 2 months of maintenance. The LIGO detectors initially failed to achieve the hoped for 160–190 Mpc sensitivity for neutron star mergers, but did achieve an improved 130–150 Mpc sensitivity over O3's 100–140 Mpc, later improving to nearly 160 Mpc for both detectors by late 2023. Virgo was found to have both a damaged mirror and other new, unknown noise sources, limiting its sensitivity to just 31–35 Mpc (similar to its performance during O2 in 2017, and lower than O3's 40–50 Mpc.) As a result, Virgo spent most of 2023 in commissioning, with a deadline of March 2024 to improve its sensitivity before joining O4. KAGRA achieved its planned 1 Mpc sensitivity before returning to commissioning in July, with plans to rejoin at an improved 10 Mpc sensitivity by early 2024. However, the Mw7.5 2024 Noto earthquake occurred on 1 January 2024 only 103 kilometres (64 mi) from KAGRA, damaging the detector's sensitive instruments and delaying its development by at least several months. +On 18 May 2023, near the end of the engineering run and shortly before O4 proper, the first candidate gravitational wave event was detected. Four more were detected before the official beginning of the run. In October, LIGO announced a planned pause between January and March 2024, for a mid-run commissioning break intended to reduce noise and improve the uptime of the detectors. +The O4b run began in April 2024 with the addition of the Virgo detector at a sensitivity of 55 Mpc. The Livingston detector achieved an increased sensitivity of 170-175 Mpc, while the Hanford detector maintained its pre-break sensitivity of 155–160 Mpc. Due to a variety of factors including delays in technologies required for O5, the decision was made in June 2024 to extend O4 by several months to June 2025, with O5 expected to begin in late 2027 or early 2028. + +== See also == +GRB 150101B, a weak gamma-ray burst trigger observed prior to LIGO O1 (beginning September 12, 2015), with claimed similarities to neutron star merger GW170817/GRB 170817A/AT2017gfo. + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == +"Detections". LIGO. +Video (3:10): LIGO Orrey (1 Dec 2018) on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2fda6e69c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of heliophysics missions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:26.225585+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of missions supporting heliophysics, including solar observatory missions, solar orbiters, and spacecraft studying the solar wind. + + +== Past and current missions == + + +== Planned missions == + + +== Proposed missions == + + +== Cancelled missions == + + +== Graphic == + + +== See also == +List of solar telescopes + + +== References == + + +== External links == +NASA - Heliophysics missions \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ece18615b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "List of hoards in Great Britain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_Great_Britain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:19.641896+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of hoards in Great Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales). It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. + + +== Neolithic hoards == + +Hoards dating to the Neolithic period, approximately 4000 to 2000 BC, comprise stone weapons and tools such as axeheads and arrowheads. Such hoards are very rare, and only a few are known from Britain. + + +== Bronze Age hoards == + + +A large number of hoards associated with the British Bronze Age, approximately 2700 BC to 8th century BC, have been found in Great Britain. Most of these hoards comprise bronze tools and weapons such as axeheads, chisels, spearheads and knives, and in many cases may be founder's hoards buried with the intention of recovery at a later date for use in casting new bronze items. A smaller number of hoards include gold torcs and other items of jewellery. As coinage was not in use during the Bronze Age in Great Britain, there are no hoards of coins from this period. + + +== Iron Age hoards == + + +A large number of hoards associated with the British Iron Age, approximately 8th century BC to the 1st century AD, have been found in Britain. Most of the hoards comprise silver or gold Celtic coins known as staters, usually numbered in the tens or hundreds of coins, although the Hallaton Treasure contained over 5,000 silver and gold coins. In addition to hoards of coins, a number of hoards of gold torcs and other items of jewellery have been found, including the Snettisham Hoard, the Ipswich Hoard and the Stirling Hoard. +In September 2020, 1,300 Celtic gold coins were discovered at a location in eastern England, dated back between 40 and 50 A.D. + + +== Romano-British hoards == + + +Hoards associated with the period of Romano-British culture when part of Great Britain was under the control of the Roman Empire, from AD 43 until about 410, as well as the subsequent Sub-Roman period up to the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms are the most numerous type of hoard found in Great Britain, and Roman coin hoards are particularly well represented, with over 1,200 known examples. In addition to hoards composed largely or entirely of coins, a smaller number of hoards, such as the Mildenhall Treasure and the Hoxne Hoard, include items of silver or gold tableware such as dishes, bowls, jugs and spoons, or items of silver or gold jewellery. + + +== Anglo-Saxon hoards == + + +Hoards associated with the Anglo-Saxon culture, from the 6th century to 1066, are relatively uncommon. Those that have been found include both hoards of coins and hoards of jewellery and metalwork such as sword hilts and crosses. The Staffordshire Hoard is the largest Anglo-Saxon hoard to have been found, comprising over 1,500 items of gold and silver. More Anglo-Saxon artefacts have been found in the context of grave burials than hoards in England. These include major finds from Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, Taplow in Buckinghamshire, Prittlewell, Mucking and Broomfield in Essex, and Crundale and Sarre in Kent. + + +== Pictish hoards == + + +Hoards associated with Pictish culture, dating from the end of Roman occupation in the 5th century until about the 10th century, have been found in eastern and northern Scotland. These hoards often contain silver brooches and other items of jewellery. + + +== Viking hoards == + +Hoards associated with the Viking culture in Great Britain, dating from the 9th to 11th centuries, are mostly found in northern England and Orkney, and frequently comprise a mixture of silver coins, silver jewellery and hacksilver that has been taken in loot, some coins originating from as far away as the Middle East. + + +== Later Medieval hoards == + +Hoards dating to the later medieval period, from 1066 to about 1500, mostly comprise silver pennies, in some cases amounting to many thousands of coins, although the Fishpool Hoard contains over a thousand gold coins. + + +== Post-Medieval hoards == + +Most hoards from the post-medieval period, later than 1500, date to the period of the English Civil War (1642–1651), from which time over 200 hoards are known. + + +== See also == + +List of hoards in Ireland +List of hoards in the Channel Islands +List of hoards in the Isle of Man +List of metal detecting finds + + +== Notes == + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Barton, Caroline; Hitchcock, Fi, eds. (2008). Treasure Annual Report 2005/6 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger, ed. (2000). Treasure Annual Report 1998 – 1999 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2002). Treasure Annual Report 2000 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2003). Treasure Annual Report 2001 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004a). Treasure Annual Report 2002 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Gannon, Anna; Voden-Decker, Lisa; Bland, Roger, eds. (2004b). Treasure Annual Report 2003 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Hitchcock, Fi, ed. (2006). Treasure Annual Report 2004 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. +Lewis, Michael, ed. (2009). Portable Antiquities and Treasure Annual Report 2007 (PDF). Department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum. ISBN 978-0-9563795-1-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2011. +Metcalf, David Michael (1998). An atlas of Anglo-Saxon and Norman coin finds, c.973–1086. Royal Numismatic Society. ISBN 978-1-85444-110-2. +Youngs, Susan B; Clark, John (1982). "Medieval Britain in 1981" (PDF). Medieval Archaeology. 26: 164–227. doi:10.1080/00766097.1982.11735441. + + +== External links == + +Checklist of Coin Hoards from the British Isles, c.450-1180 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Channel_Islands-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Channel_Islands-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2431142b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Channel_Islands-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of hoards in the Channel Islands" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Channel_Islands" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:21.008698+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of hoards in the Channel Islands comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm and associated smaller islands). It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. +At least fifteen hoards have been found in the Channel Islands since the early 18th century, most of them in Jersey, and only one each in Guernsey, Alderney and Sark. Of the known hoards, about a third date to the Bronze Age and are mostly founder's hoards comprising broken tools, weapons and other scrap metal buried with the intention of recovery at a later date for use in casting new bronze items. Another third are hoards of Iron Age Celtic coins, mostly coins called staters cast in debased silver (billon alloy), the majority deriving from Armorica (modern Brittany and Normandy in France), but some deriving from Southern Britain. The remaining hoards comprise Roman coins, some of which may have been buried by Armorican Celts fleeing from Roman armies during the campaigns of Julius Caesar in the mid 1st century B.C. Although the contents of most Iron Age and Roman hoards found in the Channel Islands originated from nearby France or Britain, one hoard that was discovered in Guernsey during the late 19th century comprised Roman coins minted in Alexandria in Egypt during the late 3rd century A.D. + + + + +== Bronze Age hoards == +The table below list hoards that are associated with the Bronze Age, approximately 1300 BC to 700 BC. + + +== Iron Age hoards == +The table below list hoards that are associated with the Iron Age, approximately 8th century BC to the 1st century AD. + + +== Roman hoards == +The table below list hoards of Roman artefacts and Roman coins. + + +== See also == +List of hoards in Great Britain +List of hoards in Ireland +List of hoards in the Isle of Man +List of metal detecting finds +History of Guernsey +History of Jersey + + +== Footnotes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Isle_of_Man-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Isle_of_Man-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9eb9a3a35 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Isle_of_Man-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of hoards in the Isle of Man" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Isle_of_Man" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:22.347475+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The list of hoards in the Isle of Man comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in the Isle of Man. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. + + + + +== Viking hoards == +From the 9th to the 13th centuries the Isle of Man was part of the Viking-ruled Kingdom of the Isles, and several significant hoards from this period have been found on the Isle of Man. Viking hoards generally comprise a mixture of silver coins, silver jewellery and hacksilver that has been taken in loot. + + +== Later Medieval hoards == +Hoards dating to the later medieval period, from 1066 to about 1500, mostly comprise silver pennies. + + +== See also == + +List of hoards in Great Britain +List of hoards in Ireland +List of hoards in the Channel Islands +List of metal detecting finds + + +== Notes == + + +== Footnotes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_archaeology_topics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_archaeology_topics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96694e6ff --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_archaeology_topics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,215 @@ +--- +title: "List of industrial archaeology topics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_archaeology_topics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:23.613144+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of topics typically studied by students of industrial archaeology. +It is grouped into industry sectors: Extractive, Manufacturing, Public Utilities, Transport, Miscellaneous. + + +== Extractive == + + +=== Mining === +Adit +Air vent +Mine, Copper mine, Coal mine, Gold mine, Tin mine, Zinc mine +Shaft mining + + +=== Quarrying === +Clayworks +Sand pits +Gravel pit +Powder house + + +== Manufacturing == +Beam engine +Brewery +Brewing +Brick kiln +Cement works +Creamery +Dairy +Distillery +Distilling +Factory +Forge +glass +Granary +Hopper +Kiln +Pottery +Silk Industry +Spinning, Spinning jenny, Spinning mill, Spinning mule +Stationary engine +Steam engine +Warehouse +Weaving, Loom, Jacquard loom, Dobby loom, Shaft loom, Power loom, Flying shuttle +Windpump + + +=== Mills === +Boring mill +Cotton mill +Five-sail windmill +Flax mill +Flint mill +Fulling mill - see Fulling +Gristmill +Hand mill +Iron mill +Lumber mill +Millrace +Mill engine +Mill stone +Oil mill +Post mill +Rolling mill +Saw mill +Smock mill +Spinning mill +Steel rolling mill +Tailrace +Textile mill +Tide mill +Tower mill +Watermill +Waterwheel +Windmill +Woollen mill + + +== Public Utilities == + + +=== Electricity === +Power station +Turbine + + +=== Gas === +Gasometer +Retort house + + +=== Water === +Dam +Pumping station +Reservoir +Sewage treatment +Water treatment +Water tower + + +=== Steam === +District heating + + +=== Hydraulic power === +Hydraulic power network + + +== Transport == + + +=== Aviation === + + +=== Canals === +Aqueduct +Canal basin +Boat lift +Bridge +Canal lock +Culvert +Flash lock +Flights of locks +Inclined plane +Spillover + + +=== Railways === +Air vent +Ballast pit +Bridge +Buffer stops +Carriage Shed +Catch point +Cattle Pens +Crane +Crossover +Culvert +Cutting +Embankment +Footbridge +Gantry crane (Portainer) +Goods area +Goods store +Ground frame +Horse tram +Inclined plane +Junction (rail) +Loading bank +Locomotive shed +Level crossing +Milepost +Platform +Ropeway +Signal box (Signal cabin) +Station +Station building +Station house +Subway +Track +Trackbed +Tram +Tunnel +Turnout +Turntable +Underpass +Viaduct +Waiting room +Water column +Water tank +Water tower + + +=== Marine === +Causeway +Dry dock +Dock +Harbour +Lighthouse +Pier +Pump house +Quay +Slipway +Weir + + +=== Road === +Bridge +Unused highway +Toll road + + +== Miscellaneous == +Chimney +Hydraulic pump +Market house +Weighbridge + + +== See also == +List of conservation topics +Conservation in the United Kingdom +History of science and technology +Association for Industrial Archaeology +Society for Industrial Archeology \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3fb4df31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:24.918901+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of inscribed artifacts, items made or given shape by humans, that are significant to biblical archaeology. + +== Selected artifacts significant to biblical chronology == +This table lists inscriptions which are of particular significance to the study of biblical chronology. References are from ANET and COS and link to editio princeps (EP), if known. + +=== Egyptian === + +==== Other significant Egyptian artifacts ==== +Execration texts – earliest references to many Biblical locations +Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446 – A document that lists the names of 45 individuals, including a Canaanite woman named "Šp-ra." Scholars assume that this is a hieroglyphic transliteration of the Hebrew name "Shiphrah," which also appears in Exodus 1:15–21. However, while the name may be related, the document dates to c. 1833–1743 BCE (centuries before the biblical Shiphra would have lived). +Ipuwer Papyrus – poem describing Egypt as afflicted by natural disasters and in a state of chaos. The document is dated to around 1250 BC but the content is thought to be earlier, dated back to the Middle Kingdom, though no earlier than the late Twelfth Dynasty. Once thought to describe the biblical Exodus, it is now considered the world's earliest known treatise on political ethics, suggesting that a good king is one who controls unjust officials, thus carrying out the will of the gods. +Berlin pedestal relief – considered by many modern scholars to contain the earliest historic reference to ancient Israel. Experts remain divided on this hypothesis. + +=== Cuneiform === + +==== Other significant cuneiform artifacts ==== +Creation myths and flood myths – recorded on the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Atra-Hasis tablets, the Enûma Eliš, the Eridu Genesis and the Barton Cylinder +Law tablets – ancient Near East legal tablets: Code of Hammurabi, Laws of Eshnunna, the Code of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur (c. 2050 BC), the Laws of Eshnunna (c. 1930 BC) and the Code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (c. 1870 BC). Later codes than Hammurabi's include the Code of the Nesilim. Hittite laws, the Assyrian laws, and Mosaic Law / Ten Commandments. (see cuneiform law). +Tell al-Rimah stela (c. 780 BC) – tells of the exploits of Adad-nirari III, mentioning "Joash King of Samaria" +Annals of Tiglath-Pileser III (740–730 BC): +Layard 45b+ III R 9,1 possibly refers to [KUR sa-me-ri-i-na-a-a] as ["land of Samaria"] +The Iran Stela refers to KUR sa-m[e]-ri-i-na-a-[a] "land of Samaria" +Layard 50a + 50b + 67a refers to URU sa-me-ri-na-a-a "city of Samaria" +Layard 66 refers to URU Sa-me-ri-na "city of Samaria" +III R 9.3 50, refers to "Menahem the Samarian" +Nimrud Tablet III R 10.2 28–29, refers to the overthrown of Pekah by Hoshea. +one fragment refers to "Azriau" and another it has been joined to refers to "Yaudi". Some scholars have interpreted this as Ahaziah / Uzziah, although this is disputed and has not gained scholarly consensus. +III R 10,2 refers to KUR E Hu-um-ri-a "land of Bit-Humri" +ND 4301 + 4305 refers to KUR E Hu-um-ri-a "land of Bit-Humri" +Babylonian Chronicle ABC1 (725 BC) – Shalmaneser V refers to URU Sa-ma/ba-ra-'-in "city of Samar(i)a" +Annals of Sargon II (720 BC): +Nimrud Prism, Great Summary Inscription refers to URU Sa-me-ri-na "city of Samerina" +Palace Door, Small Summary Inscription, Cylinder Inscription, Bull Inscription refers to KUR Bit-Hu-um-ri-a "land of Bit-Humri" +Victory stele of Esarhaddon – a dolerite stele commemorating the return of Esarhaddon after his army's second battle and victory over Pharaoh Taharqa in northern ancient Egypt in 671 BC, discovered in 1888 in Zincirli Höyük (Sam'al, or Yadiya) by Felix von Luschan and Robert Koldewey. It is now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. +Esarhaddon's Succession Treaty (written around 675 BCE) – Some scholars think that this treaty served as a literary model for the curses in Deuteronomy 28:15–64, as well as content in Deuteronomy 13, due to strong textual similarities. +Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet (circa 595 BC) – a clay cuneiform inscription referring to an official at the court of Nebuchadrezzar II, king of Babylon, possibly the same official named in the Biblical Jeremiah. +Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets (6th century BC) – Describe the rations set aside for a royal captive identified with Jehoiachin, king of Judah (Cf. 2 Kings 24:12,15–16; 25:27–30; 2 Chronicles 36:9–10; Jeremiah 22:24–26; 29:2; 52:31–34; Ezekiel 17:12). + +=== Canaanite, Aramaic and Hebrew === + +==== Other significant Canaanite, Aramaic and Hebrew artifacts ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6eea67219 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:24.918901+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Early Paleo-Hebrew writing – contenders for the earliest Hebrew inscriptions include the Gezer calendar, Biblical period ostraca at Elah and Izbet Sartah, and the Zayit Stone +Yeho'ezer ben Hosh'ayahu seal – 2,700 year old seal discovered in 2024 in Jerusalem. Neo-Assyrian-style amulet thought to be from First Temple Period, likely Judahite senior administrator +Pim weight – evidence of the use of an ancient source for the Book of Samuel due to the use of an archaic term. +Khirbet Qeiyafa ostracon – 10th century BC inscription – both the language it is written in and the translation are disputed. Was discovered in excavations near Israel's Elah valley. +Tell es-Safi inscription (10th to mid 9th centuries BC) – Potsherd inscribed with the two names "alwt" and "wlt", etymologically related to the name Goliath and demonstrate that the name fits with the context of late-tenth/early-ninth-century BC Philistine culture. Found at Tell es-Safi, the traditional identification of Gath. +Ophel pithos is a 3,000-year-old inscribed fragment of a ceramic jar found near Jerusalem's Temple Mount by archeologist Eilat Mazar. It is the earliest alphabetical inscription found in Jerusalem written in what was probably Proto-Canaanite script. Some scholars believe it to be an inscription of the type of wine that was held in a jar. +Amman Citadel Inscription – 9th century BC inscription in the Ammonite language, one of the few surviving written records of Ammon. +Melqart stele – (9th–8th century BC) William F. Albright identifies Bar-hadad with Ben-hadad I, who was a contemporary of the biblical Asa and Baasha. +Ostraca House – (probably about 850 BC, at least prior to 750 BC) 64 legible ostraca found in the treasury of Ahab – written in early Hebrew. +Deir Alla Inscription (c. 840–760 BC) 9th or 8th century BC inscription about a prophet named Balaam (cf. the Book of Numbers). +Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions – (9th–8th century BC) Jar and plaster inscriptions, stone incisions, and art with "Yahweh and his Asherah". +Sefire steles (8th century BC) – described as "the best extrabiblical source for West Semitic traditions of covenantal blessings and curses". +Stele of Zakkur (8th century BC) – Mentions Hazael king of Aram. +Shebna Inscription (8th–7th century BC?) – found over the lintel or doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to Hezekiah's comptroller Shebna. +Bullae (c. 715–687 BC or 716–687 BC) (clay roundels impressed with a personal seal identifying the owner of an object, the author of a document, etc.) are, like ostraka, relatively common, both in digs and on the antiquities market. The identification of individuals named in bullae with equivalent names from the Bible is difficult, but identifications have been made with king Hezekiah and his servants (avadim in Hebrew, [עבדים – slaves]) +Bulla of Gemariah son of Shaphan (r. 609–598 BC) – possible link to a figure during the reign of Jehoiakim (Jeremiah 36:10). Archaeologist Yair Shoham notes: "It should be borne in mind, however, that the names found on the bullae were popular in ancient times and it is equally possible that there is no connection between the names found on the bullae and the person mentioned in the Bible." +Seal of Jehucal (7th century BC) – Jehucal or Jucal is mentioned in chapters 37 and 38 of the Book of Jeremiah where King Zedekiah sends Jehucal son of Shelemiah and the priest Zephaniah son of Maaseiah to the prophet Jeremiah saying "Please pray for us to the Lord our God" (Jeremiah 37:3). His seal and also one of Gedaliah, son of Pashhur (also mentioned in Jeremiah 38:1 together with Jehucal) were found within a few yards from each other during excavations in the city of David, Jerusalem, in 2005 and 2008, respectively, by Eilat Mazar. +Bullae of Eliakhim – In 2019, archaeologist Yosef Garfinkel claimed to have discovered a reference to Eliakhim, son of Hilkiah, in two bullae unearthed at Tel Lachish. He described the seal legends as reading "Eliakim, (son of) Yehozarah". The stratified bulla, publicized with three others, is sibling to an earlier find from the market. + +Seals +Seal of Jaazaniah – Features skillfully ground onyx into appearance of eye with black pupil. Cock image proof of chickens in Palestine before Hellenistic times. +Seal of Hezekiah – 8th. c BCE +King Ahaz's Seal (732 to 716 BC) – Ahaz was a king of Judah but "did not do what was right in the sight of the Lord his God, as his ancestor David had done" (2 Kings 16:2; 2 Chronicles 28:1). He worshiped idols and followed pagan practices. "He even made his son pass through fire, according to the abominable practices of the nations" (2 Kings 16:3). Ahaz was the son and successor of Jotham. +Seal of פלטה (Paltah) – one known of at least seven women's names on inscribed Hebrew seals with a pedigree. Provenanced seals constitute 7% of what's on record. +Khirbet Beit Lei graffiti contains oldest known Hebrew writing of the word "Jerusalem", dated to 7th century BC: "I am YHWH thy Lord. I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem. ... Absolve us oh merciful God. Absolve us oh YHWH" +Yavne-Yam ostracon is an inscribed pottery fragment dated to 7th century BC and written in ancient Hebrew language. It contains early attestation of the word Shabbat. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..15917f05e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:24.918901+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ketef Hinnom scrolls – Probably the oldest surviving texts currently known from the Hebrew Bible – priestly blessing dated to 600 BC. Text from the Book of Numbers in the Old Testament. Described as "one of most significant discoveries ever made" for biblical studies. +Lachish letters – letters written in carbon ink by Hoshaiah (cf. Nehemiah 12:32, Jeremiah 42:1, 43:2), a military officer stationed near Jerusalem, to Joash the commanding officer at Lachish during the last years of Jeremiah during Zedekiah's reign (c.588 BC) (see Jeremiah 34:7). Lachish fell soon after, two years before the fall of Jerusalem. +Lachish ewer – a pot with sacred trees and more, often mentioned in academic discussion +Arad ostraca – the "House of Yahweh" ostracon is an ancient pottery fragment discovered at Tel Arad probably referring to the Temple at Jerusalem. +Elephantine papyri – ancient Jewish papyri dating to the 5th century BC, name three persons mentioned in Nehemiah: Darius II, Sanballat the Horonite and Johanan the high priest. +Hasmonean coinage (164–35 BC) + +=== Greek and Latin === + +==== Other significant Greek and Latin artifacts ==== +Pilate Stone (c. 36 AD) – carved inscription attributed to Pontius Pilate, a prefect of the Roman-controlled province of Judaea from 26 to 36 AD. +Delphi Inscription (c. 52 AD) – The reference to proconsul Gallio in the inscription provides an important marker for developing a chronology of the life of Apostle Paul by relating it to the trial of Paul in Achaea mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles (18:12–17). +Erastus Inscription (Roman period) – an inscription found in 1929 near a paved area northeast of the theater of Corinth, dated to the mid-first century and reads "Erastus in return for his aedileship paved it at his own expense." Some New Testament scholars have identified this aedile Erastus with the Erastus mentioned in the Epistle to the Romans but this is disputed by others. +Judaea Capta coinage (after 70 AD) – a series of commemorative coins originally issued by the Roman Emperor Vespasian to celebrate the capture of Judaea and the destruction of the Jewish Second Temple by his son Titus in 70 AD during the First Jewish Revolt. +Nazareth Inscription bears an edict of Caesar prohibiting grave robbing. + +== Controversial (forgery, claimed forgery, or identification disputed) == +Uzziah Tablet (8th century BC or 30–70 AD?) – controversial tablet discovered in 1931 by Professor E. L. Sukenik of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in a Russian convent. +Jehoash Inscription – controversial black stone tablet in Phoenician regarding King Jehoash's repair work. Suspected to be a forgery. +Ivory pomegranate – a thumb-sized semitic ornamental artifact bears an inscription: "Holy to the Priest of the House of God [blank, but reconstructed YHWH]", thought to have adorned the High Priest's sceptre within the Holy of Holies. Suspected to be a forged inscription on an older item rather than a newer one, but unresolved. +James Ossuary – a 1st-century limestone box that was used for containing the bones of the dead, bearing an Aramaic inscription in the Hebrew alphabet, "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus", cut into one side of the box. Suspected to be a forgery. +Caiaphas ossuary – a highly decorated ossuary twice inscribed "Joseph, son of Caiaphas" which held the bones of a 60-year-old male, discovered in a burial cave in south Jerusalem in November 1990. +Miriam ossuary – a decorated ossuary inscribed "Miriam, daughter of Yeshua, son of Caiaphas", found in a tomb in the Valley of Elah in 2011. +Titulus Crucis – a piece of wood claimed to be a relic of the True Cross, which Christian tradition holds to be a part of the cross's titulus (inscription), now kept in the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme in Rome. Radiocarbon dating tests on the artifact have shown that it dates between 980 and 1146 AD. +Shapira Scroll, leather strips containing a somewhat different text of the Ten Commandments, belonging to Moses Wilhelm Shapira, a Jerusalem antiquities dealer. Widely discredited following its 1883 release, resulting in Shapira's suicide. Has been reassessed following the 1946 discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. +Seal of Manasseh – Stone seal of Manasseh, King of Judah c.687–642 BC. Reportedly offered to a private collector for one million dollars. +Seals of Baruch – controversial bullae allegedly belonging to Baruch, son of Neriah. Suspected to be forgeries. +Seal of Ahaz – Some scholars stipulate that this is in fact a forgery. +Shema Seal – bullae that mentions the name of Jeroboam II and is written in Paleo Hebrew. + +== Significant museums == +Israel Museum, Jerusalem +Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem +Hecht Museum +Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, Chicago +British Museum +The Louvre + +== Concordance of external lists == +ANET: Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Third Edition with Supplement. Ed. James B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1969 +COS: The Context of Scripture. 3 volumes. Eds. William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger. Leiden: Brill, 1997–2002 + +== Other external lists == +RANE: Readings from the Ancient Near East: Primary Sources for Old Testament Study. Baker Academic. September 2002. ISBN 978-0801022920. +Mercer, S.A.B. (1913). Extra-Biblical Sources for Hebrew and Jewish History. Longmans & Company. ISBN 978-0-7905-1132-0. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) + +== See also == +Archaeology of Israel +Assyro-Babylonian religion +The Bible and history +Biblical archaeology (excavations and artifacts) +Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions +Levantine archaeology +Library of Ashurbanipal +List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources +List of Egyptian papyri by date +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts +List of proposed Assyrian references to Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) +Model of Jerusalem in the Late 2nd Temple Period +Near Eastern archaeology +Nag Hammadi library – early Christian gnostic papyri. +Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible +Oxyrhynchus Papyri – collection of Old and New Testament papyri, Apocryphal works and works of Philo + +== References == + +=== Sources === +Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). Gods of Our Fathers: The Memory of Egypt in Judaism and Christianity. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 9780313312861. +Quirke, Stephen (2014). Exploring Religion in Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118610527. +Rainey, Anson F. (November 1994). "The 'House of David' and the House of the Deconstructionists". Biblical Archaeology Review. 20 Issue=6: 47. +Willems, Harco (2010). "The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom". In Lloyd, Alan B. (ed.). A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444320060. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..542c86f21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "List of laboratory biosecurity incidents" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:42.338468+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of laboratory biosecurity incidents includes accidental laboratory-acquired infections and laboratory releases of lethal pathogens, containment failures in or during transport of lethal pathogens, and incidents of exposure of lethal pathogens to laboratory personnel, improper disposal of contaminated waste, and/or the escape of laboratory animals. The list is grouped by the year in which the accident or incident occurred and does not include every reported laboratory-acquired infection. + + +== See also == +Biological hazard +Biosafety level +Laboratory safety +List of anthrax outbreaks +Select agent +Cambridge Working Group + + +== External links == +A Review of Laboratory-Acquired Infections in the Asia-Pacific: Understanding Risk and the Need for Improved Biosafety for Veterinary and Zoonotic Diseases +Laboratory-Acquired Infection (LAI) Database +Survey of laboratory-acquired infections around the world in biosafety level 3 and 4 laboratories + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca2e08c31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "List of largest monoliths" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:41.913680+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of monoliths organized according to the size of the largest block of stone on the site. A monolith is a large stone which has been used to build a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. In this list at least one colossal stone over ten tons has been moved to create the structure or monument. +In most cases ancient civilizations had little, if any, advanced technology that would help them move these monoliths. The most notable exception is that of the Ancient Egyptians, Ancient Greeks and Romans, who had cranes and treadwheels to help lift colossal stones (see list of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths). +This article also includes a list of modern experimental archaeology efforts to move colossal stones using technologies available to the respective ancient civilizations. +Most of these weights are based on estimates by published scholars; however, there have been numerous false estimates of many of these stones presented as fact. To help recognize exaggerations, an introductory description shows how to calculate the weight of colossal stones from first principles. + +== In situ monoliths == +This section lists monoliths that have been at least partially quarried but not moved. + +== Moved monoliths == + +This section lists monoliths that have been quarried and moved. + +Colossal statue of Tlaloc, in Coatlinchan. Made of basalt, weighing 168 tons. +The Kerloas menhir, Brittany, France. Largest, 150 tons. +Pyramid of Khendjer at Saqqara, Egypt. 150-ton, one-piece quartzite burial chamber. +Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Several ashlars, 100 to 130 tons, were transported 6 miles (9.7 km). +Sacsayhuamán, wall near Cusco, Peru. Largest stones over 125 tons. +Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, Greece. Largest lintel stone, 120 tons. +The Pyramid of Amenemhet III, at Hawara, Egypt. 110-ton, one piece quartzite burial chamber. +Brownshill Dolmen, 100 metric tons. +Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy. Granite columns close to 100 tons. +Fortress of Mycenae, Greece. Largest stones close to 100 tons. +Menhir de Champ-Dolent, Brittany, France. Menhir of about 100 tons. +Pyramid of Nyuserre Ini. 12 megalithic limestone beams 10 meters long weighing 90 tons each, forming the roof of burial chamber and antechamber. +Moai at Easter Island. Largest moai 70 to 86 tons. The tallest one, Paro, was moved 3.75 miles (6.04 km). +Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt. Largest slabs on burial chamber, 80 tons. The granite was transported 580 miles (930 km) from Aswan by barge on the Nile river. +Karnak, Egypt. Obelisk, 328 tons. Largest architraves, 70 tons. Sandstone transported from Gebel Silsila 100 miles (160 km). +Trajan's Column, Rome, Italy. Pedestal blocks: 77 t +Ishibutai Kofun in Asuka, Nara, Japan. Largest stone, 75 tons. +Pantheon, Rome, Italy. Granite columns, 39 feet (11.8 m) tall, five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight were transported from Egypt by barge. +Olmec heads, Mexico, gulf coast. Largest Olmec head, almost 50 tons. Transported 37 to 62 miles (100 km). +Ħaġar Qim, one of the Megalithic Temples of Malta. Its largest stone weighs 57 tons and measures approximately 19 feet (5.8 m) long by 9 feet (2.7 m) tall by 2 feet (0.61 m) thick. The Maltese temples are the oldest free-standing structures on Earth. +Ashoka Pillars, weighing up to about 50 tons, were transported throughout India to territory ruled by Ashoka. +Göbekli Tepe, Turkey. Megaliths from 10 to a 50-ton pillar still in its quarry transported up to a 1/4 mile. +Stonehenge, England. Largest stones over 40 tons were moved 18 miles (29 km); smaller bluestones up to 5 tons were moved 130 miles (210 km). +Trajan's Column Rome, Italy. Forty-ton drums. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons. +Rameses IV reopened the stone quarries of Wadi Hammamat and had stones dragged 60 miles (97 km) across land to the Nile, then freighted on barges to temples and his tomb in Thebes. Some of these weighed over 40 tons. +Dur-Sharrukin, Iraq. Largest colossal bull, 40 tons. +Nineveh, Iraq. Largest colossal bulls, 30 tons each, were transported 30 miles (48 km) from quarries at Balatai, then lifted 65 feet (20 m) once they arrived at the site. +Nimrud, Iraq. Largest colossal bull, 30 tons. +Maeshowe Orkney Islands, Scotland. Largest flagstone, 30 tons. +Caesarea Maritima, harbor of Caesarea, Israel. Largest stone 20 tons. +Teotihuacan, Mexico. 22-ton water deity on top of the Pyramid of the Moon. +Aztec calendar stone at Tenochtitlan, Mexico. 24 tons. +Palenque, Mexico. The largest stones weigh 12 to 15 tons. +The Parthenon in Athens, Greece. Largest stones 10 tons. +Nubian pyramids. Sarcophagus, weighing 15.5 tons, and heavier granite statues up to at least 18 feet tall. +400 tonne block of the pyramid temple of Khafre. +Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. Columns close to, if not more than, 100 tons. + +== Lifted monoliths == + +This section includes monoliths that were quarried, moved and lifted. + +=== Erected in upright position === +Monoliths known to have been lifted into an upright position: + +=== Lifted clear off the ground === +Monoliths that have been placed on a towering structure: + +Monoliths known or assumed to have been lifted clear off the ground by cranes into their position: + +Roman column monuments like Trajan's Column, though not often themselves monolithic, were built using very large sculpted stone blocks, stacked atop one another using cranes and lewises. The capital block of the column was usually even larger and heavier than the column drums. The columns of Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius, and Constantine, and the lost columns of Theodosius, Arcadius, and Leo were all constructed in this way, on monumental pedestals and crowned with colossal statues. A few were monoliths, including the Column of Diocletian in Alexandria, called "Pompey's Pillar", the "Column of the Goths" and the Column of Marcian in Constantinople, and the lost Column of Antoninus Pius in Rome. + +== List of efforts to move and install stones == +These are listed with the largest experiments first; for additional details of most experiments see related pages. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..df1249018 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "List of largest monoliths" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:41.913680+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Marinos Carburis, a Greek lieutenant-colonel in the Russian Army, organized the move of an enormous boulder called the Thunder Stone (Russian, Гром-Камень) from the Gulf of Finland in 1768 to Saint Petersburg, Russia for the purpose of using it as a pedestal for the Bronze Horseman statue. The mass of the Thunder Stone has been estimated to be around 1500 tons. This was done by rolling it on bronze ball bearings on a track. It took an estimated 400 men nine months to move it. +In 1997, Julian Richards teamed up with Mark Witby and Roger Hopkins to conduct several experiments to replicate the construction at Stonehenge for NOVA's Secrets of Lost Empires mini-series. They initially failed to tow a 40-ton monolith with 130 men but after adding additional men towing as well as some men using levers to prod the megalith forward, they succeeded in inching it forward a small distance. +Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner teamed up with a NOVA crew to conduct an obelisk-erecting experiment; they successfully erected a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. They also managed to tow it a short distance. +Thor Heyerdahl organized an effort to pull a 10-ton Moai on a sledge with a group of 180 men. This effort used 18 men per ton. He also conducted an experiment to erect a 10-ton Moai successfully. This experiment also shows the same methods could be used to lift a megalith of that size onto a sledge; most other experiments to move them on sledges failed to explain how they got them on the sledge, and one organized by Jo Anne Van Tilburg, even showed them using a crane to get it on the sledge. +Charles Love experimented with a 10-ton replica of a Moai on Easter Island. His first experiment found rocking the statue to walk it was too unstable over more than a few hundred yards. He then found that by placing the statue upright on two sled runners atop log rollers, 25 men were able to move the statue 150 feet (46 m) in two minutes. This effort used 2.5 men per ton. +Austen Henry Layard organized an effort to transport two 10-ton colossal statues of a winged lion and a winged bull with a group of 300 men in 1847. He loaded them on a wheeled cart and towed them from Nimrud to the river and loaded on a barge, where it was sent to London. This effort used 30 men per ton. +Paul Emile Botta and Victor Place attempted to move two additional 30-ton colossi to Paris from Khorsabad in 1853. To facilitate their shipment to Paris, they were sawn in pieces, but were still too heavy for the methods employed. One of the pieces fell into the Tigris River, never to be retrieved. The other made it to Paris. +Giovanni Battista Belzoni organized an effort to pull a 7.5-ton fragment of a statue of Ramses on rollers with a group of 130 men in 1815. This statue was towed to the river and loaded on a barge, where it was sent to London. Progress increased with practice as they went along. This effort used 17 or 18 men per ton. +Henri Chevrier organized an effort to pull a 6-ton block on a sledge with a group of six men. This effort used 1 man per ton. Other reports claim that Chevier's experiment required 3 men per ton. +Josh Bernstein and Julian Richards organized an effort to pull a 2-ton stone on wooden tracks with a group of about 16 men. This effort used 8 men per ton. +Mark Lehner and NOVA organized an experiment to tow stones and to build a pyramid 9 meters wide by 9 meters deep by 6 meters high. They were able to tow a 2-ton block on a sledge across wood tracks with 12 to 20 men. This effort used 6 to 10 men per ton. The pyramid was 54 cubic meters total estimated weight 135 tons. It was built out of 186 stones. The average weight of each stone was almost 1,500 lb (680 kg) (.75 tons). They found that four or five men could use levers to flip stones less than a ton and roll them to transport them. 44 men took 22 days to complete the pyramid, including the carving of the stones. However, they used iron to carve the stones, which was not widely used in Ancient Egypt; copper was typically used. They also used a modern front end loader to accelerate the work on the lower courses. They were unable to use the front end loader to install the capstone, since it was too high; they had to use levers to raise it to 20 feet (6.1 m). +In a 2001 exercise, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to Stonehenge. Volunteers pulled it for some miles (with great difficulty) on a wooden sledge over land, using modern roads and low-friction netting to assist sliding, but once transferred to a replica prehistoric boat, the stone sank in Milford Haven before it even reached the rough seas of the Bristol Channel. +Roger Hopkins and Vince Lee both theorized about how the megalithic stones were moved at Baalbek; these theories involved either towing them or flipping them. +Vince Lee participated in experiments to test his theories about how the walls of Sacsayhuamán were built. + +== Calculating the weight of monoliths == +In the cases of smaller monoliths it may be possible to weigh them. However, in most cases monoliths are too large or they may be part of an ancient structure so this method cannot be used. The weight of a stone can be calculated by multiplying its volume and density. Each of these presents challenges. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8837291ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of largest monoliths" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:41.913680+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Volume === +To obtain accurate estimates, one needs to survey the monolith, including realistic and explicit assessment of the shapes of inaccessible portions, and then calculate the volume and estimate volumetric errors, which vary crudely as the cube of linear uncertainties. + +=== Density === + +The density of most stone is between 2 and 3 tons per cubic meter. Basalt weighs about 2.8 to 3.0 tons per cubic meter; granite averages about 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter; limestone, 2.7 metric tons per cubic meter; sandstone or marble, 2.5 tons per cubic meter. Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter; for example, volcanic tuff or some types of sandstone weigh about 1.9 tons per cubic meter. Since the density of most of these stones varies, it is necessary to know the source of the stone to obtain accurate measurements. Identifying the rock type alone is not sufficient, as this table illustrates: + +Simply identifying the monolith as sandstone would allow a ± 15% uncertainty in the weight estimate. +In practice, one would measure the density of the monolith itself, and preferably document any variation in density within the monolith, as it may not be homogeneous. Non-destructive methods of density measurements are available (e.g., electron back-scatter); alternatively, the site may contain already-separated fragments of the monolith which can be used for laboratory measurements or on-site techniques. At the crudest, a weighing device and a bucket can obtain two significant figures for a density value. + +== See also == +List of colossal sculpture in situ +List of megaliths +Rock-cut architecture +Megalithic sites of Charente + +== References == + +== Sources == +Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977), "À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes", Syria, 54 (1/2): 31–63, doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623 +Coulton, J. J. (1974), "Lifting in Early Greek Architecture", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 94: 1–19, doi:10.2307/630416, JSTOR 630416, S2CID 162973494 +Heidenreich, Robert; Johannes, Heinz (1971), Das Grabmal Theoderichs zu Ravenna, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner +Klemm, Rosemarie; Klemm, Dietrich D. (1993), Steine und Steinbrüche im Alten Ägypten, Berlin: Springer, ISBN 3-540-54685-5 +Lancaster, Lynne (1999), "Building Trajan's Column", American Journal of Archaeology, 103 (3): 419–439, doi:10.2307/506969, JSTOR 506969, S2CID 192986322 +Maxfield, Valerie A. (2001), "Stone Quarrying in the Eastern Desert with Particular Reference to Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites", in Mattingly, David J.; Salmon, John (eds.), Economies Beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society, vol. 9, London: Routledge, pp. 143–170, ISBN 0-415-21253-7 +Ruprechtsberger, Erwin M. (1999), "Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon)", Linzer Archäologische Forschungen, 30: 7–56 +Scaife, C. H. O. (1953), "The Origin of Some Pantheon Columns", The Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1–2): 37, doi:10.2307/297777, JSTOR 297777, S2CID 161273729 +Scarre, Chris, ed. (1999). The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World: The Great Monuments and How They Were Built. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500050965. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_1-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_1-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a1702c466 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_1-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 1" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_1" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:01.309116+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 1 near Qumran. + + +== Description == +Wadi Qumran Cave 1 was discovered for the first time in 1946. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process. The original seven Dead Sea Scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsab), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher on Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen). One of the pottery jars containing the scrolls from Cave 1 is now kept in the British Museum. + + +== List of manuscripts == +Some resources for more complete information on the Dead Sea Scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. + + +=== Gallery === + + +== See also == +Biblical manuscripts +Septuagint manuscripts +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. + + +== External links == +A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 +Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible by Peter Kyle McCarter, 1986 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_11-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_11-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..76257efdd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_11-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_11" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:06.797625+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 11 near Qumran. + + +== Description == +Wadi Qumran Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts of Dead Sea Scrolls, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing. +Found also in Cave 11 was the Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll, and an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13). Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees. +According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch·. + + +== List of manuscripts == +Some resources for more complete information on the scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. + + +== See also == +Biblical manuscripts +Septuagint manuscripts +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. +Humbert, Jean-Baptiste; Fidanzio, Marcello, eds. (2019). Khirbet Qumrân and Aïn Feshkha IV A: Qumran Cave 11Q: Archaeology and New Scroll Fragments. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-647-56469-2. + + +== External links == +A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 +Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible by Peter Kyle McCarter, 1986 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_2-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_2-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ac459de0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_2-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 2" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_2" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:02.675410+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 2 near Qumran. The cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts of Dead Sea Scrolls, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew. + + +== Description == +Wadi Qumran Cave 2 was discovered in February 1952 and soon the Bedouin people discovered 30 fragments in it. The cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts of Dead Sea Scrolls, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew. + + +== List of manuscripts == +Some resources for more complete information on the Dead Sea Scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. + + +== See also == +Biblical manuscripts +Septuagint manuscripts +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. + + +== External links == +A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 +Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible by Peter Kyle McCarter, 1986 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_3-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_3-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..83e1d2565 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_3-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 3" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_3" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:04.144411+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 3 near Qumran. + + +== Description == +Wadi Qumran Cave 3 was discovered on 14 March 1952 by the ASOR team. The cave initially yielded fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll. + + +== List of manuscripts == +Some resources for more complete information on the Dead Sea Scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. + + +== See also == +Biblical manuscripts +Septuagint manuscripts +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. + + +== External links == +A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 +Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible by Peter Kyle McCarter, 1986 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_4-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_4-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8066fba26 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_4-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 4" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_4" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:05.561729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 4 near Qumran. Cave 4 is by far the most productive of all Qumran Caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot, as well as fragments from a scroll containing Exodus and Genesis written in paleo-hebrew. + + +== Description == + +Wadi Qumran Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik. Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of the Qumran Caves both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran Caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot, as well as fragments from a scroll containing Exodus and Genesis written in paleo-hebrew. + + +== List of manuscripts == +Some resources for more complete information on the scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. + + +=== 4Q1–4Q100 === + + +=== 4Q101–4Q200 === + + +=== 4Q201–4Q300 === + + +=== 4Q301– === + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +Biblical manuscripts +Septuagint manuscripts +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. + + +== Further reading == +Van de Water, Rick (2000). "Reconsidering Palaeographic and Radiocarbon Dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls". Revue de Qumran. 19 (fascicle 3) (75). Gabalda, in affiliation with the National Center for Scientific Research: 423–439. ISSN 0035-1725. + + +== External links == +A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 +Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible by Peter Kyle McCarter, 1986 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9581379d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of mathematics awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:27.872119+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of mathematics awards contains articles about notable awards for mathematics. The list is organized by the region and country of the organization that sponsors the award, but awards may be open to mathematicians from around the world. Some of the awards are limited to work in a particular field, such as topology or analysis, while others are given for any type of mathematical contribution. + + +== International == + + +== Americas == + + +== Asia == + + +== Europe == + + +== Oceania == + + +== References == + + +== See also == + +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..953626f5e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "List of mechanical engineering awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:29.230658+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of mechanical engineering awards is an index to articles about notable awards for mechanical engineering. + + +== Awards == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of engineering awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b534faaf9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "List of medicine awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:30.428469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of medicine awards is an index to articles about notable awards for contributions to medicine, the science and practice of establishing the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The list is organized by region and country of the organization giving the award, but the awards may be available to people from around the world. + + +== International == + + +== Americas == + + +== Asia == + + +== Europe == + + +=== United Kingdom === + + +== Oceania == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of biomedical science awards +List of psychology awards +Competitions and prizes in biotechnology + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..76d98b982 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "List of menhirs" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:37.730054+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is an alphabetical list of menhirs, also known as standing stones, by subcontinents and nations. + +== Africa == + +=== Horn of Africa === +Ancient standing stones are found throughout the Horn of Africa. Several of these old menhirs exist in Qohaito, Eritrea, and date to a period before the founding of the Kingdom of Axum. The Axumites themselves also erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet. + +In northeastern Somalia, on the coastal plain 20 km to Alula's east are found ruins of an ancient monument in a platform style. The structure is formed by a rectangular drystone wall that is low in height; the space in between is filled with rubble and manually covered with small stones. Relatively large standing stones are also positioned on the edifice's corners. Near the platform are graves, which are outlined in stones. 24 m by 17 m in dimension, the structure is the largest of a string of ancient platform and enclosed platform monuments exclusive to far northeastern Somalia. Additionally, around 200 stone monuments (taalos) are found in the northeastern Botiala site, most of which consist of cairns. There are a number of rows of standing stones on the eastern side of the structures, which are similar to those at Salweyn, a great cairn-held situated close to Heis. Besides cairns, the Botiala area also features a few other drystone monuments. These include disc monuments with circular, ground-level features, as well as low, rectangular platform monuments. Burial sites near Burao in the northwestern part of the country likewise feature a number of old stelae. +Additionally, between Djibouti City and Loyada in Djibouti are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae. The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs, as also found in central Ethiopia. The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped emblem. +In Ethiopia, the town of Tiya contains 36 menhirs (standing stones) or stelae. Of these, 32 are engraved with swords and other mysterious symbols. The ancient structures suggest the presence of a large, prehistoric burial complex. The archaeological site was designated a World Heritage Site in 1980. + +== Asia == + +=== India === + +Menhirs are found all across India. They can be as tall as 20 to 14 feet (over 4.2 m), and several hundred smaller menhirs scattered all over the agricultural fields, mountains, and various geographical areas. Rao and his team visited the menhir site in Telangana on the days of summer and winter solstice and equinox and found that particular rows of stones were aligned to the rising and setting sun on these days. "This suggests the megalithic community here was aware of the solar trajectories," he said. +In 2019, four menhirs and nearly 1,000 small and big dolmens were found in India at the Pothamala hills at the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border. In 2023, four menhirs of megalithic age were discovered near Melkote, Karnataka. + +=== Iran === +Menhirs in Iran are found in different villages and areas of East Azarbaijan Province, meshkin shahr(pirazmian) and Amlash and Deylaman areas in Gilan. A double menhir is also situated on Kharg Island in the Persian Gulf. +Menhirs are called Sang-Afrāsht (سنگ‌افراشت) in Persian, and there are different studies published in Iranian periodicals about the details of the Iranian menhirs, specially in the periodical "Barrasiha-yi Tarikhi" (Historical studies). + +=== Israel === + +The Hebrew term for "standing stone" is masseba, pl. massebot (also written matseva, matsevot). The most famous examples are from the Canaanite High Place at Tell Jezar, comprising a straight row of ten stone stelae and a square stone basin, all erected simultaneously during the Middle Bronze Age. + +=== Indonesia === + +Menhirs are found in Indonesia, except for the easternmost tip, namely New Guinea. At one of the famous prehistoric sites in Indonesia, the Pahoman Site in Banten there is a menhir stone which is strongly suspected to originate from the Gunung Karang civilization which was inhabited by ancient Sundanese. + +== Europe == + +=== Armenia === +Numerous menhirs dot the lands across Armenia, where they are called vishapakar (Armenian: Վիշապաքար). Vishap translates to "dragon" or "serpent" and kar translates to "stone". The stones are cigar-shaped, and are typically 10 to 20 feet (3.0 to 6.1 metres) tall. They are often found in the mountains near the sources of rivers or lakes. A large number of them have been carved in the shape of a fish. The earliest known vishapakar is thought to date from between the 18th to 16th centuries BC. An inscription in ancient Urartian cuneiform written upon a vishap at the temple of Garni shows that they were created prior to the Urartian Kingdom (pre-8th century). + +=== Bulgaria === +Several menhirs are known in Bulgaria: next to the museum in Haskovo, in the village of Ovcharovo, in the village of Pethocladentsi, in the village of Stegerovo, Staroseltsi village, in Strelcha. + +=== Czech Republic === + +A number of menhirs exist in the Czech Republic. There are about 40 real menhirs in the country, and dozens of stones which could also be menhirs. Others have been erected recently. The largest real menhir is Kamenný pastýř ("stony shepherd") near Klobuky, with a height of 3.3 metres (10.8 ft). Czech menhirs are probably the last outcrop of similar buildings in northern Germany. + +=== France === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b4557dba3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "List of menhirs" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:37.730054+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Brittany stands out in the distribution of menhirs by virtue of both the density of monuments and the diversity of types. The largest surviving menhir in the world is located in Locmariaquer, Brittany, and it is known as the Grand Menhir Brisé (Great Broken Menhir). Once nearly 20.6 m (68 ft) high, today, it lies fractured into four pieces, but it would have weighed near 330 tons when intact. It is placed third after the Thunder Stone in St. Petersburg and the Western Stone in the Western Wall as the heaviest object moved by humans without powered machinery. +A 4.5 meter menhir can be seen on the side of Le Mans Cathedral. It was moved there in 1778 when the dolmen it was associated with was destroyed. +Alignments of menhirs are common, the most famous being the Carnac stones in Brittany, where more than 3000 individual menhirs are arranged in four groups and arrayed in rows stretching across four kilometres. Each set is organised with the tallest stones at the western end and shorter ones at the eastern end. Some end with a semicircular cromlech, but many have since fallen or been destroyed. +The second largest concentration of menhirs in France is at the Cham des Bondons, which is located on high open limestone plain in the granitic Cévennes. Today, the site is protected by the Parc National des Cévennes. From the time pastoralism was established, the site was kept open by controlled burning and grazing. +The menhir de la Tiemblais is located in Saint-Samson-sur-Rance. +On the island of Corsica, menhirs are found in Filitosa, a megalithic site in southern Corsica. The period of occupation spans from the end of the Neolithic era and the beginning of the Bronze Age, until around the Roman times in Corsica. + +=== Ireland === + +Ireland is rich in menhirs, standing stones which are usually located in farmer's fields and are heavily worn due to poor weather conditions and exposure to livestock. + +=== Italy === + +Menhirs are especially common in Sardinia. It is possible to see at least 332 such standing stones on the island, including especially elaborate "statue-menhirs" that show a human face at the top and other gendered symbols on the flat front sides. Over a hundred examples of this standardized type have been found, most of them around the village of Laconi. +In the Sardinian language they are known as perdas fittas or perdas lungas. + +=== Norway === + +Overall 1,176 menhirs are registered in Norway. The stones are often included as part of a tomb construction. The introduction to Snorre Sagas points out that it was the custom to "burn all dead and raise monoliths for them" and that this custom was maintained in Norway and Sweden for a long time. As a rule, each grave was marked with a single stone, but there were also instances where several stones were used, including the burial facility De fem dårlige jomfruer at Karmsundet in Rogaland, with five raised stones. It is especially prevalent in Østlandet to find several monoliths arranged in a circle. +Sometimes standing stone monuments are unrelated to known graves. It may be that they served as boundary markers. These include several stones in Fana in Bergen Municipality that can be linked to an important historical boundary between Sunnhordland and Nordhordland, as it was in medieval times. +In Norway, standing stones usually dated to the Migration Period, the Viking Age or early Middle Ages. + +=== Portugal === +In Portugal, there are also found several ancient menhirs. The highest concentration is in the Alentejo region. These include the menhirs of Meada, the largest of the Iberian Peninsula, Outeiro, Patalou and Barrocal. Among these megalithic structures is the great Almendres Menhir within the Almendres Cromlech complex near Évora. + +=== Scandinavia === + +In Scandinavia, menhirs are called bautasteiner or bautastenar and continued to be erected during the Pre-Roman Iron Age and later, usually over the ashes of the dead. They were raised both as solitary stones and in formations, such as the stone ships and few stone circles. Sometimes, they were raised only as commemoration to great people, a tradition which was continued as the runestones. +Frostating, with its seat at Tinghaugen in Frosta Municipality in Trøndelag county, was the site of an early Norwegian court. The site is represented by the Frostatinget bautasten. +The tradition was strongest in Bornholm, Gotland and Götaland and appears to have followed the Goths, during the 1st century, to the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, (now Northern Poland) where they are a characteristic of the Wielbark culture. + +=== Scotland === +Various menhirs have existed in Scotland. The Ravenswood standing stone is an extant one that is about 4000 years old. + +=== Serbia === +The graves of the "Latins" and the "Jidovs" near the village of Balwan (Bovan), north of Aleksinac in Serbia were marked by large boulders. + +=== Slovakia === + +There are multiple menhirs that have or currently exist in Slovakia. The most known is the Holíč Menhir, a collection of menhirs that were found in 1988 during the construction of an NPP building. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34307b8c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "List of menhirs" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:37.730054+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Spain === +In Spain, menhirs associated with the western European megalithic industry are relatively unusual compared to dolmens, but still are common sights in the northern half of the country, where at least 500 menhirs have been reported. They are particularly common in the Basque Country, Navarre, northern Burgos and Palencia, Cantabria, and the Pyrenees, where they are usually encountered standing alone or in small groups (cromlech) in elevated locations; the Arlobi menhir is one of the most recent examples of a menhir. In smaller numbers, but of great dimensions, some examples are located in Extremadura, very related to the menhirs of Portugal. Most of the menhirs in northern Spain appear to date back to the stone age; they are not usually associated with burials, but in at least one instance (the Menhir of Cuesta del Molino in Burgos) burials dating at least 2000 years after the menhir was originally built have been found. +In mediterranean Spain and, particularly the Balearic islands, megalithic structures consisting of standing stones such as the Taulas, but associated with Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures, are also common. + +=== Sweden === +In Sweden menhirs were erected as markers for the graves of warriors until the 13th century. The following lines are taken from Snorri Sturluson's introduction to his work Heimskringla: + +In the same work Snorri writes that the Swedes burned the corpse of their king Vanlade and raised a stone over his ashes by the River Skyt, one of the tributaries of the River Fyris: + +The tradition is also mentioned in the Hávamál. + +=== Switzerland === +In the French-speaking canton of Vaud in Switzerland, several menhirs form linear patterns in Yverdon-les-Bains. These are situated in Clendy and date back to the third millennium BC. + +=== Wales === + +In Welsh, menhirs are called 'Maen Hir' and they are scattered throughout Wales. + +== South America == +Menhirs were erected by the U'wa people of Colombia in their ancestral territory. They believe that the menhirs are the ancients of the U'wa clans who were turned into the stone piers of the world. Menhirs can be found in Chita and Chiscas, Boyacá. +There are 114 menhirs in the Provincial Park Los Menhires in Argentina. They were erected by the Tafí people, an indigenous culture of Tucumán province, and were used in fertility rites. + +== See also == +List of dolmens +List of individual rocks + +== Notes == + +== References == +Le Roux, C. T. 1992. "The Art of Gavrinis Presented in its Armorican Context and in Comparison with Ireland." in Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland vol. 122, pp 79–108. +Mohen, Jean-Pierre (2000) [1998]. Standing Stones: Stonehenge, Carnac and the World of Megaliths. ‘New Horizons’ series. Translated by Baker, Dorie B.; Baker, David J. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-30090-9. + +== External links == + +Dolmens, Menhirs & Stones-Circles in the South of France – Menhirs of the "Cham des Bondons" +New Theory – Henges – Engineering in Prehistory +Rows of menhirs in Russia, South Ural +List of menhirs and their related stories in Czech Republic +Ancient Europe Placemarks Google Earth file downloads. +Skela menhirs in Ukraine (in Ukrainian) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebee18053 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of meteorite minerals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:38.603457+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A meteorite mineral is a mineral found chiefly or exclusively within meteorites or meteorite-derived material. This is a list of those minerals, excluding minerals also commonly found in terrestrial rocks. As of 1997 there were approximately 295 mineral species which have been identified in meteorites. + + +== List of meteorite minerals == + +[] indicates repeating units + + +== See also == +Glossary of meteoritics +List of minerals + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planet_discoverers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planet_discoverers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99f96d16f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planet_discoverers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "List of minor planet discoverers" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planet_discoverers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:39.799693+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of notable minor-planet discoverers credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of one or several minor planets (such as near-Earth and main-belt asteroids, Jupiter trojans and distant objects). As of 22 October 2025, the discovery of over 800,000 numbered minor planets are credited to 2,186 astronomers, observatories, telescopes or surveys. + + +== Discovering astronomers == +The table consist of the following fields: + +Astronomers: links to the corresponding article about the discovering astronomer on Wikipedia. +Discoveries: displays the total number of discovered and co-discovered minor planets made by the discoverer (numbered bodies only). It links to the corresponding "Discovery by..." category, which are subcategories of Category:Discoveries by astronomer. These categories do not contain discoveries for which no page on Wikipedia exists. Astronomers with only a few discoveries sometimes do not have their own discovery-category (redlinks). For those who have discovered only one single minor planet, the link in the discovery column directly points to the corresponding entry in the list of minor planets. +DOB–DOD: displays the astronomer's date of birth and, if applicable, death. +Name(s) at MPC: displays the name of the discoverer as used by the MPC, where the abbreviated first name is written before the family name. Some discoverers have multiple names due to inconsistencies and typos. The first name listed is used in all lists of minor planets. +Asteroid(s): minor-planet discoverers are often honored with the naming of (one or several) asteroids by their colleagues. This column gives links to those asteroids. + + +== Discovering institutions == +Many discoveries are credited to an institution, like an observatory, rather than to one or several individuals. +The table consist of the following fields: + +Institution: links to the corresponding article about the discovering observatory on Wikipedia. +Discoveries: displays the total number of discovered and co-discovered minor planets made by the observatory (numbered bodies only). It links to the corresponding "Discovery by..." category, which are subcategories of Category:Astronomical discoveries by institution. These categories do not contain discoveries for which no page on Wikipedia exists. Observatories with only a few discoveries sometimes do not have their own discovery-category (redlinks). For those who have discovered only one single minor planet, the link in the discovery column directly points to the corresponding entry in the list of minor planets. +Observatory code: displays the alphanumeric IAU code(s) for the institution. +Name(s) at MPC: displays the name of the observatory as used by the MPC. Some institutions have multiple names due to inconsistencies and typos. The first name listed is used in all lists of minor planets. Shorter names should generally be placed first. +Only observatories/institutions that are notable and have their own Wikipedia article are included. + + +== See also == +List of observatory codes, a list of all observatories who have reported data to the Minor Planet Center +Observations of small Solar System bodies + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Data Available from the Minor Planet Center, (File: "NumberedMPs.txt", 75 MB as of October 2025) +Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets, Minor Planet Center \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monumente_istorice_in_Romania-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monumente_istorice_in_Romania-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ea81a41ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monumente_istorice_in_Romania-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,178 @@ +--- +title: "List of monumente istorice in Romania" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monumente_istorice_in_Romania" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:43.320823+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Romania's major historical sites, known as monumente istorice ("Historic monuments"), are listed in the National Register of Historic Monuments in Romania, which was created between 2004 and 2005. As of 2015, 30,148 Heritage sites are entered in the National Cultural Heritage of Romania. The list is maintained by the Romanian National Institute of Historical Monuments, part of the Ministry of Culture and National Patrimony Romania. + + +== List by County == + + +=== Alba County === + + +=== Arad County === + + +=== Argeș County === + + +=== Bacău County === + + +=== Bihor County === + + +=== Bistrița-Năsăud County === + + +=== Botoșani County === + + +=== Brăila County === + + +=== Brașov County === + + +=== Bucharest === +Tudor Arghezi House + + +=== Buzău County === + + +=== Călărași County === + + +=== Caraș-Severin County === +Reșița Steam Locomotive Museum + + +=== Cluj County === + + +=== Constanța County === +Constanța Casino +Genoese Lighthouse + + +=== Covasna County === + + +=== Dâmbovița County === + + +=== Dolj County === + + +=== Galați County === + + +=== Giurgiu County === +Giurgiu Clocktower + + +=== Gorj County === + + +=== Harghita County === + + +=== Hunedoara County === + + +=== Ialomița County === + + +=== Iași County === + + +=== Ilfov County === + + +=== Maramureș County === + + +=== Mehedinți County === + + +=== Mureș County === + + +=== Neamț County === +Ion Creangă House + + +=== Olt County === + + +=== Prahova County === +George Enescu House + + +=== Sălaj County === + + +=== Satu Mare County === + + +=== Sibiu County === + + +=== Suceava County === +Vatra Dornei Casino + + +=== Teleorman County === + + +=== Timiș County === + + +=== Tulcea County === + + +=== Vâlcea County === + + +=== Vaslui County === + + +=== Vrancea County === + + +== See also == +National Register of Historic Monuments in Romania +List of heritage registers +List of museums in Romania +List of castles in Romania +List of religious buildings in Romania +UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Romania +List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia +Romanian archaeology +Archaeological cultures in Romania +Archaeological sites in Romania +Culture of Romania + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +List of Historical Monuments at Romanian National Institute of Historical Monuments (in Romanian) +Monuments listed by UNESCO in Romania at Romanian Ministry of Culture and National Patrimony (in Romanian) +eGISpat geographic information system by Romanian National Institute of Historical Monuments (includes LMI lookup) +National Archaeological Record of Romania (RAN) by Romanian Ministry of Culture and National Patrimony +Mapserver for Romanian National Cultural Heritage by Romanian Institute for Cultural Memory + Monuments and sites in Romania viewable on Google Earth at Romanian Ministry of Culture and National Patrimony (in Romanian) +Dacian fortresses, settlements and Roman castra from Romania: Google Maps / Google Earth \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..46730a804 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "List of most massive star clusters" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:41.216108+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Below are lists of the most massive known star clusters in solar masses (M☉) and sorted in descending order. + + +== Methods for mass estimation == + + +=== Globular cluster === +Globular cluster masses can be determined by observing the proper motion of nearby stars influenced by the cluster or by estimating the cluster's relaxation time. + + +=== Open clusters === +The masses of open star clusters can be estimated by measuring the falloff of radial and tangential velocities of surrounding stars at a particular distance. + + +== List == + + +=== Globular clusters === + + +=== Open clusters === + + +== See also == +List of largest star clusters + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The young cluster RMC 136a European Southern Observatory +Mayall II Messier Objects +Monster Super Star Cluster Discovered In Milky Way ScienceDaily \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d8b1f23f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "List of neutron stars" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:42.443476+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Neutron stars are the collapsed cores of supergiant stars. They are created as a result of supernovas and gravitational collapse, and are the second-smallest and densest class of stellar objects. In the cores of these stars, protons and electrons combine to form neutrons. Neutron stars can be classified as pulsars if they are magnetized, if they rotate, and if they emit beams of electromagnetic radiation out of their magnetic poles. They may include soft gamma repeaters (SGR) and radio-quiet neutron stars, as well as pulsars such as radio pulsars, recycled pulsars, low mass X-ray pulsars, and accretion-powered pulsars. A notable grouping of neutron stars includes the Magnificent Seven. + + +== List of neutron stars == + + +=== Anomalous X-ray pulsars === +Anomalous X-ray pulsar (AXP) +AXP 1E 1048-59 +AXP 1E2259+586 +AXP4U 0142+61 +AXP 1RXS 1708–40 +AXP 1E 1841–045 +AXP AXJ1844-0258 +AXP CXJ0110-7211 +Vela X-1 +4U 0352+309 +Bursting Pulsar +Vela Junior +LMC N49 + + +== Binary star systems == +Intermediate-mass X-ray binary +High-mass X-ray binaries +Centaurus X-3 +Circinus X-1 +GX 301-2 +Hercules X-1 + + +== Related objects == +Kesteven 79 +PSR B1620−26 b +3C 58 +Cas X-1 +GW170817 +Cygnus Loop +Spaghetti Nebula +SN 1987A +Jellyfish Nebula + + +== See also == +Stellar designations and names + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine_(1901–1999)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine_(1901–1999)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b2617eee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine_(1901–1999)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1901–1999)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine_(1901–1999)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:39.428455+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of lists of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the years in which such data has been publicly released. +The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) is awarded annually by the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute to scientists who have made outstanding contributions in physiology or medicine. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes which were established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895. +Every year, the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine sends out forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are strictly sealed for fifty years. However, the nominations for the years 1901 to 1953 are publicly available. Despite the annual sending of invitations, the prize was not awarded in nine years (1915–1918, 1921, 1925, 1940–1942) and has been delayed for a year five times (1919, 1922, 1926, 1938, 1943). +From 1901 to 1953, 935 scientists were nominated for the prize, 63 of which were awarded either jointly or individually. 19 more scientists from these nominees were awarded after 1953. Of the 13 women nominees, only G.Th.Cori was awarded the prize. Besides some scientists from these nominees won the prizes in other fields (including years after 1953): J.Boyd Orr - Peace Prize (1949); L.C.Pauling twice - in Chemistry (1954) and Peace Prize (1962); 3 - in Physics and 20 - in Chemistry (including Fr.Sanger twice - in 1958 and 1980). +In addition, nominations of 65 scientists (including one woman) were declared invalid by the Nobel Committee. + + +== Nominees by their first nomination == +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1901–1909) +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1910–1919) +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1920–1929) +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1930–1939) +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1940–1949) +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1950–1959) + + +== See also == + +List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine +List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physics +List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_observatory_codes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_observatory_codes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da88d3b6d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_observatory_codes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "List of observatory codes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_observatory_codes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:47.041746+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of observatory codes (IAU codes or MPC codes) published by the Minor Planet Center. For a detailed description, see observations of small Solar System bodies. + + +== List == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..02f68aec8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "List of physics awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:31.702123+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of physics awards is an index to articles about notable awards for physics. +The list is organized by region and country of the organization that gives the award. Awards are not necessarily restricted to people from the country of the award giver. + + +== International == + + +== Americas == + + +== Asia == + + +== Europe == + + +== Oceania == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e58b1647 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,154 @@ +--- +title: "List of pre-Columbian cultures" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:59.776586+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of pre-Columbian cultures. + + +== Cultural characteristics == + +Many pre-Columbian civilizations established permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, and complex societal hierarchies. +In North America, indigenous cultures in the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Middle Archaic period built complexes of multiple mounds, with several in Louisiana dated to 5600–5000 BP (3700 BC–3100 BC). Watson Brake is considered the oldest, multiple mound complex in the Americas, as it has been dated to 3500 BC. It and other Middle Archaic sites were built by pre-ceramic, hunter-gatherer societies. They preceded the better known Poverty Point culture and its elaborate complex by nearly 2,000 years. The Mississippi Valley mound-building tradition extended into the Late Archaic period, longer than what later southeastern mound building dependent on sedentary, agricultural societies.(Russo, 1996:285) +Some of these civilizations had long ceased to function by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th – early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations or oral history from nations today. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, and Nahua had their own written records. However, most Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical and burned most of them. Only a few documents were hidden and thus remain today, leaving modern historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge. +From both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations at the time of European encounter possessed many impressive attributes, having populous cities, and having developed theories of astronomy and mathematics. +Where they persist, the societies and cultures which gave rise to these civilizations continue to adapt and evolve; they also uphold various traditions and practices which relate back to these earlier times, even if combined with those more recently adopted. +Human sacrifice was a religious practice principally characteristic of pre-Columbian Aztec civilization, although other Mesoamerican civilizations like the Maya and the Zapotec practiced it as well. The extent of the practice is debated by modern scholars. + + +== Northern America == + +Paleo-Indians, c. 18,000–8000 BC +Clovis +Folsom tradition +Plano cultures +Cody complex +Archaic Period, 8000–1000 BC +Paleo-Arctic tradition, 8000–5000 BC, Alaska and Yukon +Watson Brake and Lower Mississippi Valley mounds sites, 3500 BC–2800 BC, Louisiana, Mississippi and Florida +Poverty Point culture, 2200 BC–700 BC, Lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf coast +Post-archaic period, 1000 BC–onward +Southwest: +Ancestral Pueblo culture, 1200 BC–1300 AD, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico—one of these cultural groups referred to as Anasazi +Fremont culture, 1 AD–1300 AD, Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado +Hohokam, 1 AD–1450 AD, Arizona +Eastern Woodlands +Woodland period, 1000 BC–1000 AD +Adena, 1000–200 BC, Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, and parts of Pennsylvania and New York. +Hopewell culture, 200 BC–500 AD, Southeastern Canada and eastern United States +Troyville culture, 400–700 AD, Louisiana and Mississippi +Coles Creek culture, 700–1200 AD, Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi +Plum Bayou culture, 700–1200 AD, Arkansas +Mississippian culture, 800 AD–1730 AD, Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States +Caborn-Welborn culture, 1400–1700 AD, Indiana and Kentucky. +Caddoan Mississippian culture, 1000 AD–1650 AD, Eastern Oklahoma, Western Arkansas, Northeast Texas, and Northwest Louisiana. +Fort Walton Culture, 1100–1550 AD, Florida. +Leon-Jefferson Culture, 1100–1550 AD, Florida. +Plaquemine culture, 1200–1730 AD, Louisiana and Mississippi. +Upper Mississippian culture, +Fort Ancient, 1000 AD–1650 AD, Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia +Oneota, 900–1650 AD, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota and Missouri. + + +== Caribbean == +Lithic/Archaic Age, c. 5500—200 BC +Greater Antilles +Casimiroid culture, c. 5500—200 BC +Ciboney people, Greater Antilles, c. 1000—300 BC +Guanahatabey, Cuba, c. 1000 BC +Lesser Antilles +Ortoiroid culture, c. 5500—200 BC +Krum Bay culture, Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, c. 1500—200 BC +Coroso culture, Puerto Rico, c. 1000 BC–AD 200 +Early Ceramic Age, c. 500 BC—AD 600 +Lesser Antilles to Puerto Rico +Saladoid culture, 500 BC—AD 600 +Cedrosan Saladoid ceramics, 500 BC-AD 300 +Saladoid-Barrancoid ceramics, AD 300-600 +La Huecan culture, c. 500 BC—AD 600 +Vieques, Puerto Rico +Late Ceramic Age, c. AD 600-1500 +Greater Antilles +Ostionoid culture, AD 600—1500 +Taíno people +Lucayans, Greater Antilles and Bahamas 700 AD–1500 AD – group encountered by Columbus +Lesser Antilles +Troumassoid culture, c. AD 600-1500 +Troumassan ceramics, AD 600-900 +Suazan ceramics, AD 900-1500 +Igneri, Dominica 500 AD, St. Croix 650 AD, Puerto Rico 1000 AD +Linguistic/Non-Archaeological Denominations +Arawak people +Kalinago/"Carib" +Nepoya and Suppoya, Trinidad + + +== Mesoamerica == + +In alphabetical order: + +Aztec, 1325–1521 AD, central Mexico +Chorotegas, 500-1530 AD, Nicaragua; Costa Rica +Formative Period, 2500 BC–200 AD, La Blanca, Ujuxte, Monte Alto Culture, Mokaya Culture +Huastec, 1000 BC–1500 AD, Hidalgo, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas +Maya, 2600 BC–1697 AD, Mexican Southern states: Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche and Yucatán Peninsula; Central America: Belize; Guatemala; El Salvador; Honduras +Mixe, 400–present +Mixtec, unknown–1600 AD, western Oaxaca +Nicarao people, 700-1622 AD, Nicaragua; Costa Rica +Nicoya Kingdom, 500 BC-1600 AD, Costa Rica +Olmec, 1500–400 BC, Veracruz and Tabasco +Pipil people, c. 1200-1528 AD, El Salvador +Purépecha Empire or Tarascan state, 1300–1530 AD, Michoacán +Teotihuacán, 200 BC–800 AD, near Mexico City +Teuchitlan tradition, 300 BC – 500 AD, north-central Jalisco +Toltec, 900–1100 AD – may be mythical +Totonac, unknown–1500 AD, eastern Mexico +Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition, 1500–300 BC, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit +Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition, 300 BC–400 AD, Jalisco, Nayarit, and, to a lesser extent, Colima +Zapotec, 500 BC–1500 AD, Oaxaca + + +== Isthmo-Colombian area == +Cueva people, ?–1530 AD, Panama +Diquis culture, 700–1530 AD, Costa Rica +Gran Coclé, 1200 BC-1500 AD, Panama +Huetar people, ?-1600 AD, Costa Rica +Miskito people, -1700 AD, Honduras; Nicaragua +Mayangna people, 1700 AD, Nicaragua +Cacaopera people, 1700 AD, El Salvador; Nicaragua + + +== South America == + + +== See also == + +Mississippi culture +Indigenous peoples of the Americas – for coverage on present-day indigenous peoples +Lithic stage in Canada +Cultural periods of Peru +Pre-Columbian Brazil +Pre-Columbian Ecuador +Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia +Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas +Marajoara culture +Quilmes people +Ancestral Puebloans + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Pieroni, Agustín (2015). El virreino y los virreyes [The Viceroyalty and the Viceroys] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires. ISBN 978-987-02-8164-1. OCLC 936228861.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) + + +== External links == + +National Museum of the American Indian, collections search +Pre-Columbian cultures in present-day United States, Four Directions Institute \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychic_abilities-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychic_abilities-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..895c06a1a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychic_abilities-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "List of psychic abilities" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychic_abilities" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:12.029125+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of psychic abilities attributed to real-world people. Many of these abilities pertain to variations of extrasensory perception or the sixth sense. Superhuman abilities from fiction are not included. + + +== Psychic abilities == +Aerokinesis – The ability to control air and wind. +Astral projection or mental projection – The ability to voluntarily project an astral body or mental body, being associated with the out-of-body experience, in which one's consciousness or a state of day dream-like experience imagines an imaginary or future state of one's being. +Atmokinesis – The ability to regulate the weather by "calling" for snow, rain, or sunshine. +Automatic writing – The ability to draw or write without conscious intent. +Bilocation – The ability to be present in two different places at the same time, usually attributed to a saint. +Biokinesis - The ability to control any form of life from a single nucleotide to an entire ecosystem simultaneously. +Chlorokinesis – The ability to mentally and/or physically summon, control and manipulate plants and vegetation. +Cryokinesis – The ability to control ice or cold with one's mind. +Curse – Any expressed wish that some form of adversity or misfortune will befall or attach to one or more persons, a place, or an object. +Electrokinesis – The ability to control all form of electricity. +Energy medicine – The ability to heal with empathic, etheric, astral, mental or spiritual energy. +Ergokinesis – The ability to influence the movement of energy, such as electricity, without direct interaction. +Geokinesis – The ability to control all form of earthly materials. +Hydrokinesis – The ability to control water with one's mind. +Iddhi – Psychic abilities gained through Buddhist meditation. +Illusions – The ability to conjure up illusions from one's mind. +Inedia – The purported ability to survive without eating or drinking. +Invisibility – The ability to turn oneself invisible. +Levitation or transvection – The ability to float or fly by mystical means. +Materialization – The creation of objects and material or the appearance of matter from unknown sources derived from deep enlightenment and thought. +Mediumship or channeling – The ability to communicate with spirits of those passed on to the afterlife. +Mind control – The ability to control someone's mind. +Memory librarian - the ability to access and store the spirit's memories +Petrification – The power to turn a living being to stone by looking them in the eye. +Photokinesis – The ability to control lights. +Phytokinesis – The ability to control plants with one's mind. +Prophecy (also prediction, premonition, or prognostication) – the ability to foretell events without using induction or deduction from known facts. +Psychic surgery – The ability to remove disease or disorder within or over the body tissue via an "energetic" disruption that heals immediately afterward. +Pyrokinesis – The ability to control flames, fire, or heat using one's mind. +Psychic hold – The ability to throw an electric current like a rope. +Telekinesis or Psychokinesis – The ability to influence a physical system without physical interaction, typically manifesting as being able to exert force, control objects and move matter with one's mind. +Teleportation – The ability is the hypothetical transfer of matter or energy from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them. +Thoughtography – The ability to impress an image by 'burning' it on a surface using one's mind only. +Umbrakinesis – The ability to shape, create, and control shadows and darkness. +Witnessing – The gift of being visited by high-profile spiritual beings such as Mary, Jesus or Fudosama (Acala). +Xenoglossy – The ability of a person to suddenly learn to write and speak a foreign language without any natural means such as studying or research, but that is often rather bestowed by divine agents. + + +=== Extrasensory perception === + +Extrasensory perception, or sixth sense, isn't an ability in itself and comprises a set of abilities. + +Remote viewing, telesthesia or remote sensing – The ability to see a distant or unseen target using extrasensory perception. +Echo location - the ability to locate objects, places, and people using a sixth sense. +Dermo-optical perception – The ability to perceive unusual sensory stimuli through the skin. +Dowsing – The ability to locate water, sometimes using a tool called a dowsing rod. +Precognition (including psychic premonitions) – The ability to perceive or gain knowledge about future events without using induction or deduction from known facts. +Psychometry or psychoscopy – The ability to obtain information about a person or an object by touch. +Retrocognition or postcognition – The ability to supernaturally perceive past events. +Telepathy – The ability to transmit or receive thoughts supernaturally. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md index 0746fbeca..14760c0fd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:54.437160+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:39.212429+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communication_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communication_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b9226632 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communication_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of science communication awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communication_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:34.156058+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of science communication awards is an index of articles about notable awards for science communication, including journalism and books. The list is organized by the country of the sponsoring organization, although awards may not be restricted to people in that country. + + +== List == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +List of journalism awards +List of writing awards#Science writing awards +List of education awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_technology_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_technology_awards-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..704aec60f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_technology_awards-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "List of space technology awards" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_technology_awards" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:35.401733+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This list of space technology awards is an index to articles about notable awards related to space technology. This includes awards for development of spacecraft, satellites, space stations, and support infrastructure, equipment, and procedures. The list shows the country of the sponsoring organization, but awards are not necessarily limited to people or organizations based in that country. + + +== Awards == + + +== See also == +Lists of awards +Lists of science and technology awards +List of aviation awards +List of astronomy awards +List of challenge awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_star-forming_regions_in_the_Local_Group-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_star-forming_regions_in_the_Local_Group-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c431411ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_star-forming_regions_in_the_Local_Group-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "List of star-forming regions in the Local Group" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_star-forming_regions_in_the_Local_Group" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:49.564353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of star-forming regions in the Milky Way Galaxy and the Local Group. Star formation occurs in molecular clouds, which become unstable to gravitational collapse, and these complexes may contain clusters of young stars and regions of ionized gas called H II regions. Stars typically form in groups of many stars, rather than in isolation. + + +== Galactic star-forming regions == + + +== Extragalactic star-forming regions == + + +== See also == +RCW Catalog – 1960s astronomical catalogue +Sharpless catalog – Made of a list +Gum catalog – Astronomical catalog of nebulae +List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Simbad \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stellar_properties-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stellar_properties-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38eebf133 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stellar_properties-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +--- +title: "List of stellar properties" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stellar_properties" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:50.724039+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pages Related to Stellar properties, Pages using the word stellar in a physics context. + +Stellar aberration +Stellar age estimation +Stellar archaeology +Stellar astronomy +Stellar atmosphere +Stellar birthline +Stellar black hole +Stellar cartography +Stellar chemistry +Stellar chonography +Stellar classification +Stellar cluster +Stellar collision +Stellar core +Stellar coronae +Stellar density +Stellar disk +Stellar distance +Stellar drift +Stellar dynamics +Stellar engine +Stellar envelope see stellar atmosphere +Stellar evolution +Stellar flare +Stellar flux +Stellar fog +Stellar halo +Stellar interferometer +Stellar isochrone +Stellar kinematics +Stellar limb-darkening +Stellar luminosity +Stellar magnetic field +Stellar magnitude +Stellar mass +Stellar mass black hole +Stellar mass loss +Stellar molecule +Stellar navigation +Stellar near-collision +Stellar neighborhood +Stellar nucleosynthesis +Stellar nursery +Stellar occultation +Stellar parallax +Stellar physics +Stellar planetary +Stellar population +Stellar precession +Stellar pulsations +Stellar quake +Stellar radius +Stellar remnant +Stellar rotation +Stellar scintillation +Stellar seismology +Stellar spectra +Stellar spheroid +Stellar spin-down +Stellar structure +Stellar surface fusion +Stellar system +Stellar triangulation +Stellar uplift +Stellar variation +Stellar vault +Stellar wind +Stellar wind (disambiguation) +Stellar wobble +Stellar X-ray astronomy +Stellar-wind bubble +Other +Catalog of Stellar Identifications +Fossil stellar magnetic field +General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities +General Catalogue of Trigonometric Stellar Parallaxes +Interstellar cloud +Inter-stellar clouds +Interstellar medium +List of stellar angular diameters +List of stellar streams +Low-dimensional chaos in stellar pulsations +Mark III Stellar Interferometer +Michelson stellar interferometer +NEMO (Stellar Dynamics Toolbox) +Non-stellar astronomical object +Quasi-stellar object +Substellar object +Sub-stellar object +Sydney University Stellar Interferometer +TD1 Catalog of Stellar Ultraviolet Fluxes +Timeline of stellar astronomy +Utah state stellar cluster +Young stellar object \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stone_circles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stone_circles-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f534a154b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stone_circles-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,239 @@ +--- +title: "List of stone circles" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:10.776806+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an incomplete photographic list of stone circles. + + +== Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands == +Aubrey Burl's gazetteer lists 1,303 stone circles in Britain, Ireland and Brittany (France). Most of these are found in Scotland, with 508 sites recorded. There are 343 on the island of Ireland; 316 in England; 81 in Wales; 49 in Brittany (France); and 6 in the Channel Isles. + + +=== Channel Islands === + +Aubrey Burl records six sites in the Channel Islands, four on Guernsey and two on Jersey. All six are Cist-in-Circle monuments, which are influenced by chambered tomb design. Their relationship with the stone circle tradition of Britain, Ireland and Brittany is unclear. + + +=== England === + + +==== South East England ==== +There are no ancient stone circles in Kent or Sussex. + + +==== East Midlands ==== + + +===== Derbyshire ===== + + +==== Yorkshire and the Humber ==== + + +==== North East England ==== + + +==== North West England ==== + + +===== Cumbria ===== + + +==== Lancashire ==== + + +==== West Midlands ==== + + +==== Shropshire ==== + Whetstone Circle, partial circle as stones removed for local building +Hoarstone Circle, utilised for local wedding celebrations + + +==== South West England ==== + + +===== Cornwall ===== + + +===== Devon ===== + + +===== Dorset ===== + + +===== Somerset ===== + + +===== Wiltshire ===== + + +=== Wales === + + +=== Scotland === + + +==== Southern Scotland ==== + + +===== Argyll and Bute ===== + + +===== Dumfries and Galloway ===== + +Aubrey Burl lists 43 stone circles in Dumfries and Galloway: 15 in Dumfriesshire; 19 in Kirkcudbrightshire; and 9 in Wigtonshire. The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland records 49 stone circles in the region. Of these 49, 24 are listed as 'possible'; one is an 18th-century construction; and a number have been destroyed. + + +===== North Ayrshire ===== +The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland records 20 stone circles in North Ayrshire, all on Arran. Five of these are listed as 'possible'. Aubrey Burrel's gazetteer records 19 stone circles on Arran. + + +===== Scottish Borders ===== +– The List of stone circles in the Scottish Borders comprises in addition 8 stone circles not yet photographed for WM Commons. – + + +==== North east Scotland ==== + + +===== Aberdeen City ===== + + +===== Aberdeenshire ===== + + +===== Angus ===== + + +===== Dundee ===== + + +===== Fife ===== + + +===== Perth and Kinros ===== + + +===== Stirling ===== + + +==== North West Scotland ==== + + +===== Orkney ===== + + +===== Shetland ===== + + +===== Western Isles ===== + + +=== Northern Ireland === + + +=== Republic of Ireland === + +There are 187 stone circles in the Republic of Ireland. The vast majority of these are in County Cork, which has 103 circles. There are 20 circles in County Kerry and 11 in County Mayo. There is also a large fully intact stone circle in Grange in County Limerick, near Lough GurGrange + + +==== County Cork ==== + + +==== Donegal ==== + + +==== Kerry ==== + + +== France == + + +=== Brittany === + + +=== Normandy === + + +=== Hauts-de-France === + + +=== Occitania === + + +== Spain == + + +=== Navarra === +All cromlechs are localized in the north of this region, in the Pyrenees near the French border. + + +=== Basque Country === + + +=== Galicia === + + +=== Extremadura === + + +=== Andalusia === + + +== Portugal == +All stone circles of Portugal are situated in Évora District + + +== Germany == + + +== Poland == + + +== Bulgaria == + + +== Sweden == + + +== Morocco == + + +== Japan == + +The Ōyu Stone Circles (大湯環状列石 Ōyu Kanjyō Resseki) is a late Jōmon period (approx. 2,000 – 1,500 BC) archaeological site in the city of Kazuno, Akita Prefecture, in the Tōhoku region of northern Japan. The site consists of two large stone circles located on an artificially flattened plateau on the left bank of the Oyu River, a tributary of the Yoneshiro River in northeastern Akita Prefecture. The site was discovered in 1931, with detailed archaeological excavations taking place in 1946, and in 1951–1952. +The larger circle, named the “Manza” circle has a diameter of 46 meters, and is the largest stone circle found in Japan. A number of reconstructions of Jomon period dwellings have been built around the site. The slightly smaller circle, named the “Nonakado” circle, is 42 meters in diameter and is located around 90 meters away, separated from the “Manza” circle by Akita Prefectural Route 66. Each circle is made from rounded river stones brought from another river approximately 7 kilometers away. Each circle in concentric, with and inner and an outer ring separated by an open strip approximately 8 meters wide. Each circle contains smaller clusters of stone, including standing stones surrounded by elongated stones in a radiating orientation, forming a sundial which points toward the sunset on the summer solstice and allows for calculation of the winter solstice, the vernal equinox and the sun's movements. +Each circle is surrounded by the remains of buildings, storage pits and garbage dumps, and clay figurines, clayware and stoneware (including everyday pottery), stone swords and objects have been discovered. Although the form of the stone circles made have been based on the shape of circular settlements, there is no indication of permanent settlement on the site. +The site has been submitted for inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List as one of the Jōmon Archaeological Sites in Hokkaidō, Northern Tōhoku, and other regions. + + +== Golan (Syria/Israel) == + + +== Australia == +See also Aboriginal stone arrangement +Stone circles in Australia are sometimes revered as sacred sites by Australian Aboriginal people's. While often small, there are some large stones comparable to their European counterparts, particularly in Victoria. While some are small and not well attended, others are well-known, for instance the stone arrangements in Victoria at Carisbrook and Lake Bolac. + + +== Brazil == + + +== See also == +Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany +List of Stone Age art +Göbekli Tepe +Medicine wheel of Indigenous peoples of the Americas + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Megalithic Portal: The megalithic map +Video and commentary on the Twelve Apostles, Dumfries, Scotland. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_student_science_award_programs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_student_science_award_programs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c495636c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_student_science_award_programs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "List of student science award programs" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_student_science_award_programs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:36.612915+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +List of student science award programs - a generic list of programs, fairs, and/or competitions for youth or students. +Some examples include the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair or European Union Contest for Young Scientists, India International Sarabhai Student Scientist Award. Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge is another, and it used to be called Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), which was targeted at grades 5-8 (in the US system). MIT Lincoln Lab has named asteroids it discovered as a reward for the competition. +Examples: + +Intel International Science and Engineering Fair +Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge +European Union Contest for Young Scientists +India International Sarabhai Student Scientists Award +Siemens Westinghouse Competition (Siemens Competition) +New Zealand Science Fair +Belgian Science Fair + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_parts_and_construction-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_parts_and_construction-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01c84bc31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_parts_and_construction-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "List of telescope parts and construction" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_parts_and_construction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:53.200820+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== Hardware == + + +=== Accessories === +Finderscope +Iron sight +Reflector (reflex) sight +Cheshire collimator: A simple tool to collimate a telescope + + +=== Control === +Clock drive +GoTo + + +=== Mechanical construction === +Mirror support cell +Serrurier truss +Silvering + + +=== Mounts === +Telescope mount - Types include: +Altazimuth mount +Equatorial mount +Equatorial platform +Poncet Platform +Fork mount +German equatorial mount +Springfield mount + + +=== Optics === +Mirrors and lenses are the critical light-bending components of a telescope. + +Objective: The first lens or curved mirror that collects and focuses the incoming light. +Primary lens: The objective of a refracting telescope. +Primary mirror: The objective of a reflecting telescope. +Corrector plate: A full aperture negative lens placed before a primary mirror designed to correct the optical aberrations of the mirror. +Schmidt corrector plate: An aspheric-shaped corrector plate used in the Schmidt telescope. +Meniscus corrector: A meniscus-shaped corrector plate usually used in the Maksutov telescope. +Focusing mask: A full aperture mask temporarily placed before the primary mirror to aid in focusing the telescope. +Bahtinov mask +Carey mask +Hartmann mask +Sub-aperture corrector: One or a series of corrective lens (sometimes combined with a corrective curved mirror) placed after (near the focus) a primary mirror designed to correct the optical aberrations of the mirror. These can be just a small version of the corrector plate, but since they are usually used in a Cassegrain configuration in front of the secondary mirror they require additional modification since the light passes through them twice. +Secondary mirror +Mirror § Instruments +Curved mirror +Honeycomb mirror +Liquid mirror +Parabolic reflector +Subsequent (sometimes optional) components realign, segment, or in some way modify the light of an incoming image: + +Field lens: A correcting lens placed just before the image plane of a telescope. +Telecompressor or focal reducer: Optical element to decrease the telescope's focal length and magnification (usually by a fixed percentage) and widen the field of view, providing opposite effects of a Barlow lens. +Star Diagonal: Used to change the angle of the light coming out of a telescope, for easier viewing. +Herschel Wedge: Similar to a star diagonal with a wedge-shaped unsilvered prism reflector that reduces incoming light by up to 95% for solar viewing. +Coma corrector a correcting lens used to reduce coma distortion in fast reflecting telescopes. +Field flattener a correcting lens used to reduce field curvature in refracting telescopes for astrophotography. +Barlow lens: Optical element to increase the telescope's focal length and magnification, narrow the field of view and reduce coma distortion, providing opposite effects of a telecompressor. +Astronomical filter: Used to select specific colors (or light frequencies) for astrophotography. +Filter wheel: One manner to easily insert filters into the optical train. Mostly used for photography. +Focuser: Allows the user to adjust the focus by moving the eyepiece along the optical axis. +Eyepiece: Performs the final focus correction before the light reaches the eye. +Charge-coupled device (CCD): A light-sensitive integrated circuit digital sensor (commonly used in digital cameras) that turns light into an electrical charge used to collection image data. +Generally applicable to all items: + +Metallizing: A way of coating mirrors for high-efficiency light reflection. +Optical coating: Thin layers applied to mirrors, filters, and lenses to avoid reflections, as well as absorb certain colors. + + +== Software and control interfaces == +Active optics +Adaptive optics +ASCOM +EQMod +INDI +PLate OPtimizer +Versatile Real-Time Executive + + +== Support equipment and buildings == +Observatory +Equatorial room + + +== See also == +List of telescope types +Lists of telescopes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tells-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tells-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7ade67d7d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tells-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "List of tells" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tells" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:12.068553+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In archaeology, a tell, or tel (Hebrew: תֵּלArabic: تَل, tall, 'hill' or 'mound'), is an artificial mound formed from the accumulated refuse or deposits of people living on the same site for hundreds or thousands of years. A classic tell looks like a low, truncated cone with sloping sides and can be up to 30 metres high. +Tells are most commonly associated with the archaeology of the ancient Near East, Southeast Europe (Bulgaria and Greece), also reaching Central Asia and West Africa. Within the Near East, they are concentrated in less arid regions, including Upper Mesopotamia, the Southern Levant, Anatolia and Iran. + + +== Azerbaijan == + + +== Bulgaria == + + +== Egypt == + + +== Gaza Strip == + + +== Iran == + + +== Iraq == + + +== Israel == + + +== Jordan == + + +== Lebanon == + + +== Syria == + + +== Turkey == + + +== United Arab Emirates == + + +== West Bank == + + +== See also == +Tell (archaeology) +List of tells in Lebanon +The archaeological hills in Erbil + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e3c3bc73 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,121 @@ +--- +title: "List of the Dead Sea Scrolls" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:52:14.095951+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the caves near Qumran. The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 in the West Bank near the Dead Sea. + + +== List of manuscripts == +The content of many scrolls hasn't been fully published. Some resources for more complete information on the scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. + + +=== Qumran Cave 1 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 1 was discovered for the first time in 1946. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site, and they took them back to the camp to show to their families. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process. The original seven Dead Sea Scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsab), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher on Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen). One of the pottery jars containing the scrolls from Cave 1 is now kept in the British Museum. + + +=== Qumran Cave 2 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 2 was discovered in February 1952 and soon the Bedouin people discovered 30 fragments in it. The cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts of Dead Sea Scrolls, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew. + + +=== Qumran Cave 3 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 3 was discovered on 14 March 1952 by the ASOR team. The cave initially yielded fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll. + + +=== Qumran Cave 4 === + +Description + +Wadi Qumran Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik. Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of Qumran Caves both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran Caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot. + +4Q1–4Q100 + +4Q101–4Q200 + +4Q201–4Q300 + +4Q301- + + +=== Qumran Cave 5 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 5 produced approximately 25 manuscripts. + + +=== Qumran Cave 6 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 6 contained fragments of about 31 manuscripts. + + +=== Qumran Cave 7 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6), 7Q5 (which became the subject of much speculation in later decades), and a Greek copy of a scroll of Enoch. Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars. + + +=== Qumran Cave 8 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, cave 8 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957. Cave 8 produced five fragments: Genesis (8QGen), Psalms (8QPs), a tefillin fragment (8QPhyl), a mezuzah (8QMez), and a hymn (8QHymn). Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases, a box of leather objects, tons of lamps, jars, and the sole of a leather shoe. + + +=== Qumran Cave 9 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, Cave 9 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957. There was only one manuscript fragment found in Cave 9. + + +=== Qumran Cave 10 === + +Description +In Qumran Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with writing on them, along with an unknown symbol on a grey stone slab. + + +=== Qumran Cave 11 === + +Description +Wadi Qumran Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by scholar Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing. +Also in Cave 11, an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13) was found. Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees. +According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch·. + + +=== Wadi Murabba'at Cave 1 === + + +=== Nahal Hever Cave 8 === + + +=== Masada === + + +== See also == +Biblical manuscripts +Septuagint manuscripts +List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + +Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 35–109. ISBN 9780802862419. + + +== External links == +Dead Sea Scrolls by Paul Conway +A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 +Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible by Peter Kyle McCarter, 1986 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md index 7b8ec4a35..8f826fb87 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md index 8a8caa734..49307c448 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md index be86991c9..fe9a49b45 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md index 89f29b8de..ff32f495e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 12/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md index 42c40ee09..959017362 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 13/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md index 76ff0a17a..b9602a51c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 14/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md index 8e9e8a426..35e7ff36c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 15/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md index a4ee1127f..559fae1e8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 16/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md index 344737c0e..091981a9a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 17/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md index 849bbb911..b7b7e4939 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 18/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md index eb3ff79b7..a87cfdee4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md index 5fc730595..1a4062718 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md index 42bea8ac5..d111b2ea6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md index 538986f31..9b0295bbf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md index 4eaaa6c4e..dfa25939a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md index db9056f8a..f0415769f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md index 255f57a14..d30731def 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md index 6316cb0c2..bfbc07b26 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/18 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:58.157883+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumuli_in_Serbia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumuli_in_Serbia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..95f3db558 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumuli_in_Serbia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "List of tumuli in Serbia" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumuli_in_Serbia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:14.556069+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a detailed list of tumuli (barrows) in Serbia, ranging from the prehistoric times to the Middle Ages. + +Mrčajevci, several prehistoric tumuli +Bukovac, Illyrian tumuli and necropolis +Five prehistoric tumuli in the Morava valley. +Serbian tumuli in Ravna Gora. +Kinđa + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6f9a31ea8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsolved problems in astronomy" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:56.988083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This article is a list of notable unsolved problems in astronomy. Problems may be theoretical or experimental. Theoretical problems result from inability of current theories to explain observed phenomena or experimental results. Experimental problems result from inability to test or investigate a proposed theory. Other problems involve unique events or occurrences that have not repeated themselves with unclear causes. + +== Planetary astronomy == + +=== The Solar System === +Orbiting bodies and rotation: +Are there any non-dwarf planets beyond Neptune? +Why do extreme trans-Neptunian objects have elongated orbits? +The rotation rate of Saturn: +Why does the magnetosphere of Saturn rotate at a rate close to that at which the planet's clouds rotate? +What is the rotation rate of Saturn's deep interior? +Satellite geomorphology: +What is the origin of the chain of high mountains that closely follows the equator of Saturn's moon, Iapetus? +Are the mountains the remnant of hot and fast-rotating young Iapetus? +Are the mountains the result of material (either from the rings of Saturn or its ring) that over time collected upon the surface? + +=== Extra-solar === +How common are Solar System-like planetary systems? (Some observed planetary systems contain Super-Earths and Hot Jupiters that orbit very close to their stars. Systems with Jupiter-like planets in Jupiter-like orbits appear to be rare. There are several possibilities as to why Jupiter-like orbits are rare, including that data is lacking or the grand tack hypothesis.) +How do Jupiter-mass Binary Objects form? + +== Stellar astronomy and astrophysics == +Solar cycle: +How does the Sun generate its periodically reversing large-scale magnetic field? +How do other Sol-like stars generate their magnetic fields, and what are the similarities and differences between stellar activity cycles and that of the Sun? +What caused the Maunder Minimum and other grand minima, and how does the solar cycle recover from a minimum state? +Coronal heating problem: +Why is the Sun's corona so much hotter than the Sun's surface? +Why is the magnetic reconnection effect many orders of magnitude faster than predicted by standard models? +Space weather prediction: +How does the Sun produce strong southward-pointing magnetic fields in solar coronal mass ejections that lead to geomagnetic storms? How can we predict solar and geomagnetic super-storms? +What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum? That is, why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses—the initial mass function—apparently regardless of the initial conditions? +Supernova: What is the mechanism by which an implosion of a dying star becomes an explosion? +p-nuclei: What astrophysical process is responsible for the nucleogenesis of these rare isotopes? +Fast radio bursts (FRBs): What causes these transient radio pulses from distant galaxies, lasting a few milliseconds each? Why do some FRBs repeat at unpredictable intervals but many others do not? Several models have been proposed but no one theory has become widely accepted. +The Oh-My-God particle and other ultra-high-energy cosmic rays: What physical processes create cosmic rays whose energy exceeds the GZK cutoff? +Nature of KIC 8462852, commonly known as Tabby's Star: What is the origin of the unusual luminosity changes of this star? +What are the source and origin of the IBEX ribbon? + +== Galactic astronomy and astrophysics == + +Galaxy rotation problem: Is dark matter (solely) responsible for differences in observed and theoretical speed of stars revolving around the center of galaxies? +Age–metallicity relation in the Galactic disk: Is there a universal age–metallicity relation (AMR) in the Galactic disk (both "thin" and "thick" parts of the disk)? In the local (primarily thin) disk of the Milky Way, there appears to be no evidence of a strong AMR. A sample of 229 nearby "thick" disk stars has been used to investigate the existence of an age–metallicity relation in the Galactic thick disk and indicates that there is an age–metallicity relation present in the thick disk. Stellar ages from asteroseismology confirm the lack of any strong age–metallicity relation in the Galactic disc. +Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs): What powers X-ray sources that are not associated with active galactic nuclei but exceed the Eddington limit of a neutron star or stellar black hole? Are they due to intermediate-mass black holes? Some ULXs are periodic, suggesting non-isotropic emission from a neutron star. Does this apply to all ULXs? How could such a system form and remain stable? +What is the origin of the Galactic Center GeV excess? Is it due to the annihilation of dark matter particles or a new population of millisecond pulsars? +The infrared/TeV crisis: Lack of attenuation of very energetic gamma rays from extragalactic sources. +What is the nature of little red dots? + +== Black holes == +Gravitational singularities: Does general relativity break down in the interior of a black hole due to quantum effects, torsion, or other phenomena? +No-hair theorem: +Do black holes have an internal structure? If so, how might the internal structure be probed? +Supermassive black holes: +What is the origin of the M–sigma relation between supermassive black hole mass and galaxy velocity dispersion? +The formation of high-redshift quasars: +How do the most distant quasars grow their supermassive black holes up to 1010 solar masses so early in the history of the universe (with redshift greater than 6 to 7)? +Black hole information paradox and black hole radiation: +Do black holes produce thermal radiation, as expected on theoretical grounds? +If so—meaning black holes can evaporate away—what happens to the information stored in them? This appears to be an issue because the unitarity of quantum mechanics does not allow for the destruction of information. Does the radiation stop at some point for black hole remnants? +Firewalls: Do firewalls exist around black holes? +Final parsec problem: Supermassive black holes appear to have merged, and what appears to be a pair in this intermediate range has been observed, in PKS 1302–102. However, theory predicts that when supermassive black holes reach a separation of about one parsec, it may take billions of years to orbit closely enough to merge—greater than the age of the universe. +Naked singularity: Is the cosmic censorship hypothesis correct? Can a naked singularity exist? \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ae87af029 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "List of unsolved problems in astronomy" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:56.988083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Cosmology == + +Cosmological principle: +Is the universe homogeneous and isotropic at sufficiently large scales, as claimed by the cosmological principle and assumed by all models that use the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric, including the current version of the ΛCDM model, or is the universe inhomogeneous or anisotropic? +Is the CMB dipole purely kinematic, or does it signal anisotropy of the universe, resulting in the breakdown of the FLRW metric and the cosmological principle? +Is the Hubble tension evidence that the cosmological principle is false? +If the cosmological principle is correct, is the FLRW metric the correct metric describing the universe? +Are the observations interpreted as the accelerating expansion of the universe correctly interpreted, or are they instead evidence that the cosmological principle is false? +Copernican principle: Are cosmological observations made from Earth representative of observations from the other positions in the universe? +Dark matter: +What is the identity and composition of dark matter? +Is dark matter a particle? If so, is it a WIMP, an axion, the lightest superpartner (LSP), or something else? +Do the phenomena attributed to dark matter point to an extension of gravity instead of some other type of matter? +Dark energy: +What causes the observed accelerating expansion of the universe (the de Sitter phase)? +Are the observations showing the accelerating expansion of the universe correctly interpreted, or are they evidence that the cosmological principle is false? +Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite differently over time? Could this observation be a coincidence of timing? +Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable? +Do early dark energy models resolve the Hubble tension? +Baryon asymmetry: Why is there far more matter than antimatter in the observable universe? +Cosmological constant problem: +Why does the zero-point energy of the vacuum not cause a large cosmological constant? +Size and shape of the universe: +The diameter of the observable universe is approximately 93 billion light-years; what is the size of the whole universe? Is it infinite? +What is the 3-manifold of comoving space, i.e. of a comoving spatial section of the universe, informally called the "shape" of the universe? +Neither the curvature nor the topology is presently known, though the curvature is known to be "close" to zero on observable scales. The cosmic inflation hypothesis suggests that the shape of the universe may be unmeasurable. Since 2003, Jean-Pierre Luminet, et al., and other groups have suggested that the shape of the universe may be the Poincaré dodecahedral space. Is the shape unmeasurable, the Poincaré space, or another 3-manifold? +Cosmic inflation: +Is the theory of cosmic inflation in the very early universe correct? If so, what are the details of this epoch? +What is the hypothetical inflaton scalar field that gave rise to this cosmic inflation? +If inflation happened at a single point, is it self-sustaining through inflation of quantum-mechanical fluctuations and thus ongoing in some extremely distant place? +Horizon problem: +Why is the distant universe so homogeneous when the Big Bang theory seems to predict larger measurable anisotropies of the night sky than those observed? +Cosmological inflation is generally accepted as the solution, but are other possible explanations such as a variable speed of light more appropriate? +Hubble tension: If ΛCDM is correct, why are measurements of the Hubble constant failing to converge? +Axis of evil: Some large features of the microwave sky at distances of over 13 billion light-years appear to be aligned with both the motion and orientation of the Solar System. Is this due to systematic errors in processing, contamination of results by local effects, or an unexplained violation of the Copernican principle? +Why is there something rather than nothing? Origin and fate of the universe: +How did the conditions for anything to exist arise? +Is there potentially an infinite amount of unknown astronomical phenomena throughout our entire universe? +Is the universe heading toward a Big Freeze, a Big Rip, a Big Crunch, or a Big Bounce, or is it part of an infinitely recurring cyclic model? +Multiverse: +Is there a multiverse and is such a concept relevant? Are such ideas scientifically testable or will they forever remain in the realm of pseudoscience? Are such metaphysical questions interpretable in the fields of cosmology, astronomy, physics, or any other scientific discipline? +Are metaphysical approaches such as the anthropic principle necessary to explain unsolved questions such as the cosmological constant problem? + +== Extraterrestrial life == +Is there other life in the Universe? Especially: +Is there other intelligent life? +Is there potentially an infinite amount of extraterrestrial genera throughout our universe? If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox? +Nature of Wow! signal: +Was this singular event a result of any extraterrestrial phenomenon? If so, what was its origin? + +== See also == +Lists of unsolved problems +List of unsolved problems in physics + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..adaad735a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +--- +title: "List of women astronomers" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:58.306823+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable women who have made contributions to the field of astronomy. + +== A == +Madge Adam (1912–2001), English solar astronomer +Maggie Aderin-Pocock (born 1968), English space scientist +Conny Aerts (born 1966), Belgian astrophysicist specializing in asteroseismology +Aglaonike (c. 1st or 2nd Century BCE), ancient Greek astronomer and thaumaturge +María Luisa Aguilar Hurtado (1938–2015), Peruvian astronomer +Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs (1912–1954), German variable star astronomer +Elizabeth Alexander (1908–1958), English geologist and physicist +Leah B. Allen (1884–1973), American astronomer and educator +Adelaide Ames (1900–1932), American astronomer +Anja Cetti Andersen (born 1965), Danish astronomer focused on cosmic dust +Necia H. Apfel (born 1930), American astronomer and educator +Alice Archenhold (1874–1943), German astronomer +Anne Archibald, Canadian astronomer and educator +Felicitas Arias, (born 1952), Argentine astronomer and expert on geodesy +Gabriella Conti Armellini (1891-1974), Italian astronomer + +== B == + +Neta Bahcall (born 1942), Israeli astrophysicist and cosmologist specializing in dark matter +Odette Bancilhon (1908–1998), French astronomer +Kirsten Banks Wiradjuri astronomer researching red giant stars +Beatriz Barbuy (born 1950), Brazilian astrophysicist +Amy Barger (born 1971), American galactic astronomer +Nadine G. Barlow (1958–2020), American planetary scientist +Amy Barr, American planetary geophysicist +Maria A. Barucci, Italian astronomer +Sarbani Basu, Indian-American astronomer working in solar and stellar astrophysics +Natalie Batalha (born 1966), American astronomer +Stefi Baum (born 1958), American astronomer and educator +Bohumila Bednářová (1904–1985), Czech astronomer +Reta Beebe (born 1936), American planetary scientist +Sabine Bellstedt, Australian astronomer studying galaxy evolution +Emilia Pisani Belserene (1922–2012), American astronomer +Misty C. Bentz (born 1980), American astronomer +Beverly Berger, American physicist working on gravitational physics, especially gravitational waves, gravitons, and gravitational singularities +Alessandra Buonanno (born 1968), Italian-American theoretical physicist working in the field of gravitational wave astronomy and general relativity +Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943), Irish radio astronomer +Mary Adela Blagg (1858–1944), English selenologist +Erika Böhm-Vitense (1923–2017), German-born American stellar astronomer +Priscilla Fairfield Bok (1896–1975), American astronomer of galactic astronomy +Tabetha S. Boyajian (born c. 1980), American stellar and exoplanetary astronomer +Sophia Brahe (c. 1559 to 1643), Danish noble woman +Ingeborg Brun (1872–1929), Danish amateur astronomer +Margaret Burbidge (1919–2020), British-American observational astronomer and astrophysicist +Marta Burgay (born 1976), Italian radio astronomer +Mary E. Byrd (1849–1934), American educator and cometary observer + +== C == + +Annie Jump Cannon (1863−1941), American astronomer who cataloged stellar spectra +Robin M. Canup (born 1968), American planetary scientist +Nicole Capitaine (born 1948), French astronomer specializing in astrometry +C. Marcella Carollo, Italian astronomer studying galaxy formation and evolution +Catherine Cesarsky (born 1943), Argentinian–French astrophysicist +Merieme Chadid (born 1969), Moroccan-French astronomer +Kyongae Chang (born 1946), South Korean astrophysicist and instructor +Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen (1751–1827), German noble and patron of astronomy +Jun Chen, Chinese–American astronomer +Lyudmila Chernykh (1935–2017), Russian astronomer +Jessie Christiansen, Australian astrophysicist +Agnes Mary Clerke (1842–1907), Irish astronomer and author +Judith Gamora Cohen (born 1946), American astronomer researching galactic astronomy +Françoise Combes (born 1952), French astrophysicist and educator +Lynn Cominsky (born 1953), American astrophysicist and educator +Janine Connes (1926–2024), French astronomer +France A. Córdova (born 1947), American astrophysicist and administrator +Heather Couper (1949–2020), English astronomer, broadcaster and science populariser +Athena Coustenis, Greek planetary scientist +Carolin Crawford, English astrophysicist and educator +Lucy D’Escoffier Crespo da Silva (1978–2000), Brazilian astronomy student +Maria Cunitz (1610–1664), Silesian astronomer and author + +== D == +Rosina Dafter (1875–1959), Australian astronomer +Ruth Agnes Daly (born 1958), American astrophysicist +Laura Danly (born 1958), American astronomer and educator +Doris Daou (born 1964), Lebanese-Canada astronomer and educator +Tamara Davis, Australian astrophysicist studying cosmology and specialising in the dark energy +Suzanne Débarbat (1928–2024), French astronomer and historian of science and technology +Marie-Jeanne de Lalande (1768–1832), French astronomer and mathematician +Audrey C. Delsanti (born 1976), French astrobiologist +Krystal De Napoli, Kamilaroi astrophysicist +Elsa van Dien (1914–2007), Dutch astronomer +Harriet Dinerstein, American astronomer +Ewine van Dishoeck (born 1955), Dutch astrochemist +Anlaug Amanda Djupvik, Norwegian stellar astronomer +Megan Donahue, American astronomer and instructor +Vibert Douglas (1894–1988), Canadian astrophysicist +Laura Driessen, Australian radio astronomer and science communicator +Jeanne Dumée (1660–1706), French astronomer and author +Jo Dunkley (1979/1980), British cosmologist +Andrea Dupree, American astrophysicist + +== E == +Maria Clara Eimmart (1676–1707), German astronomer, engraver, and designer +Sara Ellison, Canadian astronomer and instructor studying extragalactic astronomy +Rebecca Elson (1960–1999), Canadian–American astronomer and writer + +== F == + +Sandra Faber (born 1944), American astrophysicist and instructor studying galactic evolution +Annette Ferguson, Scottish observational astrophysicist +Laura Ferrarese, Italian astronomer studying supermassive black holes +Debra Fischer, American astronomer investigating exoplanets +Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion (1877–1962), French astronomer +Williamina Fleming (1857–1911), Scottish astronomer +Anna Frebel (born 1980), German astronomer +Wendy Freedman (born 1957), Canadian-American observational cosmologist +Katherine Freese (born 1957), German theoretical astrophysicist +Caroline Furness (1869–1936), American astronomer and teacher + +== G == +Catharine Garmany (born 1946), American astronomer and educator +Pamela L. Gay (born 1973), American astronomer, educator, and writer +Vera Fedorovna Gaze (1899–1954), Russian astronomer who studied emission nebula and minor planets +Margaret Geller (born 1947), American astrophysicist studying extragalactic astronomy +Andrea M. Ghez (born 1965), American astronomer, teacher, and Nobel prize winner +Agnes Giberne (1845–1939), English novelist and scientific writer +Nüzhet Gökdoğan (1910–2003), Turkish astronomer, mathematician and academic +Merle Gold (1921–2017), American astrophysicist +Andreja Gomboc (born 1969), Slovenian astrophysicist +Gabriela González (born 1965), Argentine professor of physics and astronomy +Alyssa A. Goodman (born 1962), American astrophysicist +Eva Grebel, German astronomer studying stellar populations and galaxy formation +Lucie Green (born c. 1975), English science communicator and solar researcher +Jenny Greene (born 1978), American astrophysicist and teacher studying supermassive black holes and galaxies +Ruth Grützbauch (born 1978), Austrian astronomer + +== H == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..69e6cd65d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ +--- +title: "List of women astronomers" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:58.306823+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Margherita Hack (1922–2013), Italian astrophysicist and first female director of Trieste's Observatory +Erika Hamden, American astrophysicist and instructor +Heidi Hammel (born 1960), American planetary scientist +Fiona A. Harrison, American astrophysicist +Marjorie Hall Harrison (1918–1986), English-born American astronomer +Lisa Harvey-Smith (born 1979), British-Australian astrophysicist +Margaret Harwood (1885–1979), American astronomer +Martha P. Haynes (born 1951), American astronomer specialized in radio astronomy and extragalactic astronomy +Martha Locke Hazen (1931–2006), American astronomer +E. Ruth Hedeman (1910–2006), American solar astronomer +Mary Lea Heger (1897–1983), American astronomer who studied the interstellar medium +Charlene Heisler (1961–1999), Canadian astronomer +Eleanor F. Helin (1932–2009), American astronomer who studied near–Earth asteroids +Amina Helmi (born 1970), Argentine astronomer +Amanda Hendrix (born 1968), American planetary scientist +Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), German astronomer +Elisabeth Hevelius (1647–1693), Polish astronomer +Jacqueline Hewitt (born 1958), American astrophysicist +Catherine Heymans (born 1978), British astrophysicist and instructor +Renée Hložek (born 1983), South African cosmologist +Dorrit Hoffleit (1907–2007), American astronomer +Helen Sawyer Hogg (1905–1993), American-Canadian astronomer +Ann Hornschemeier, American astronomer studying X-ray astronomy +Joan Horvath, American aeronautical engineer and writer +Nancy Houk, American astronomer +Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld (1921–2015), Dutch astronomer studying minor planets +Margaret Lindsay Huggins (1848–1915), Irish-English scientific investigator and astronomer +Carolyn Hurless (1934–1987), American astronomer and an American Association of Variable Star Observers merit award winner. +Natasha Hurley-Walker, Australian radio astronomer who discovered long-period radio transients +Hypatia (c. 350–370 to 415), Hellenistic Neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician + +== I == +Violeta G. Ivanova, Bulgarian astronomer +Al-ʻIjliyyah (c. 10th-century), Arab maker of astrolabes + +== J == +Odette Jasse (1899–1949), French astronomer at Marseille Observatory +Louise Freeland Jenkins (1888–1970), American astronomer of stellar astronomy +Carole Jordan (born 1941), English physicist, astrophysicist, astronomer and academic + +== K == + +Vicky Kalogera, Greek astrophysicist +Devika Kamath, Australian astrophysicist +Lyudmila Karachkina (born 1948), Russian astronomer studying astrometry and minor planets +Victoria Kaspi (born 1967), American-Canadian astrophysicist and instructor +Lisa Kewley (born 1974), Australian astronomer studying galactic evolution +Pamela M. Kilmartin, New Zealand astronomer searching for comets and minor planets +Maria Margarethe Kirch (1670–1720), German astronomer and calendar maker +Margaret G. Kivelson (born 1928), American planetary scientist +Dorothea Klumpke (1861–1942), American astronomer +Gillian R. Knapp, American astronomer +Kirsten Kraiberg Knudsen, Danish astronomer studying galaxies +Heather A. Knutson, American astronomer studying exoplanets +Gloria Koenigsberger, Mexican astrophysicist and instructor +Bärbel Koribalski, German astrophysicist studying galaxy formation and evolution +Lenka Kotková (born 1973), Czech astronomer +Chryssa Kouveliotou (born 1953), Greek astrophysicist and instructor +Reiki Kushida, Japanese amateur astronomer + +== L == + +Elizabeth Lada, American astronomer and instructor +Eleanor Annie Lamson (1875–1932), American astronomer +Marguerite Laugier (1896–1976), French astronomer who discovered minor planets +Gemma Lavender (born 1986), British astronomer, author and journalist +Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921), American astronomer who observed variable stars +Nicole-Reine Lepaute (1723–1788), French astronomer and mathematician +Isabel Martin Lewis (1881–1966), American astronomer and author +Nikole Lewis, American astrophysicist +Helen Lines (1918–2001), American amateur astronomer +Sarah Lee Lippincott (1920–2019), American astronomer and instructor who focused on astrometry +Jane Luu (born 1963), Vietnamese–American astronomer and defense systems engineer + +== M == +Amy Mainzer (born 1974), American astronomer specializing in astrophysical instrumentation and infrared astronomy +Esmeralda Mallada (1937–2023), Uruguayan astronomer and instructor +Rachel Mandelbaum, American astronomer +Mileva Marić (1875–1948), Serbian physicist and mathematician studying astronomy among other topics +Karen Masters (born 1979), American astrophysicist studying galaxy formation and evolution +Janet Akyüz Mattei (1943–2004), Turkish-American astronomer studying variable stars +Annie Russell Maunder (1868–1947), Irish-British astronomer +Antonia Maury (1866–1952), American astronomer studying stellar astronomy +Claire Ellen Max (born 1946), American astronomer and instructor +Margaret Mayall (1902–1995), American astronomer studying variable stars +Jess McIver, American astronomer +Jaylee Burley Mead (1929–2012), American astronomer +Karen Jean Meech (born 1959), American planetary scientist +Chiara Mingarelli, Italian-Canadian astrophysicist, researching gravitational waves +Maria Mitchell (1818–1889), American astronomer, librarian, naturalist, and educator +Linda A. Morabito (born 1953), American planetary scientist +Vanessa Moss, Australian radio astronomer, researching galaxy evolution +Jean Mueller (born 1950), American astronomer +Carole Mundell, British observational astrophysicist, researching cosmic black holes and gamma ray bursts +Tara Murphy, Australian astrophysicist +Burçin Mutlu-Pakdil, Turkish astrophysicist + +== N == +Sultana N. Nahar, Bangladeshi-American physicist studying atomic processes in astrophysical and laboratory plasmas +Joan Najita, American astronomer researching the formation and evolution of stars and planetary systems +Yaël Nazé, Belgian astrophysicist studying massive stars and their environmental interaction +Heidi Jo Newberg, American astrophysicist studying the Milky Way structure +Karlie Noon, Gamilaroi astrophysicist + +== O == + +Carolina Ödman-Govender, (1974–2022), Swiss astrophysicist and lecturer +Sally Oey, American astronomer researching massive stars +Kathleen Ollerenshaw, (1912–2014), English mathematician, politician, and amateur astronomer +C. Michelle Olmstead (born 1969), American astronomer and computer scientist who has discovered minor planets +Liisi Oterma (1915–2001), Finnish astronomer +Mazlan Othman (born 1951), Malaysian astrophysicist +Feryal Özel (born 1975), Turkish astrophysicist studying stellar remnants + +== P == +M. Alessandra Papa (born 1967), Italian physicist specializing in the observation of gravitational waves +Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979), British-born American astrophysicist and instructor +Ruby Payne-Scott (1912–1981), Australian radio astronomer +Louise du Pierry (1746–1807), French astronomer and instructor +Carle Pieters (born 1943), American planetary scientist +Thushara Pillai, (born 1980), Indian astrophysicist and astronomer +Paris Pişmiş (1911–1999), Armenian-Mexican astronomer +Elena V. Pitjeva, Russian astronomer studying solar system dynamics and celestial mechanics +Carolyn Porco (born 1953), American planetary scientist +Helen Dodson Prince (1905–2002), American astronomer and instructor +Mary Proctor (1862–1957), American popularizer of astronomy + +== Q == + +Elisa Quintana, American planetary scientist + +== R == +Hilkka Rantaseppä-Helenius (1925–1975), Finnish astronomer who studied minor planets +Luisa Rebull, American stellar astronomer +Katharine Reeves, American solar astronomer +Emily Rice, American astronomer researching sub-stellar objects including brown dwarfs +Christina Richey, American planetary scientist and astrophysicist +Marcia Rieke, American infrared astronomer and JWST NIRCam PI +Julia Riley (born 1947), English radio astronomer +Constance M. Rockosi, American galactic astronomer +Elizabeth Roemer (1929–2016), American astronomer who studied minor planets +Nancy Roman (1925–2018), American stellar astronomer +Kat Ross, Australian astrophysicist studying black holes +Marta Graciela Rovira, Argentinian astrophysicist +Vera Rubin (1928–2016), American astronomer researching extragalactic astronomy +María Teresa Ruiz (born 1946), Chilean astronomer + +== S == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..237194971 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +--- +title: "List of women astronomers" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:58.306823+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Penny Sackett (born 1956), American-born Australian astronomer, educator, and manager +Rita M. Sambruna, American astrophysicist studying supermassive black holes and jets +Anneila Sargent (born 1942), Scottish–American astronomer specialized in star formation +Ann Savage (1946–2017), British astronomer +Caterina Scarpellini (1808–1873), Italian astronomer and meteorologist +Susan M. Scott, Australian mathematical physicist working on general relativity, gravitational singularities, and black holes. +Sara Seager (born 1971), Canadian-American astronomer and planetary scientist +Waltraut Seitter (1930–2007), German astronomer and instructor +Muriel Mussells Seyfert (1909–1997), American astronomer +Pelageya Shajn (1894–1956), Russian astronomer searching for minor planets +Aomawa Shields, American astrophysicist and professor researching exoplanets +Carolyn S. Shoemaker (1929–2021), American astronomer +Amy Simon, American planetary scientist +Charlotte Moore Sitterly (1898–1990), American astronomer who studied stellar physics +Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova (1935–2001), Russian astronomer who searched for minor planets and comets +Alicia M. Soderberg (1977–2025), American astrophysicist and instructor focused on supernovae +Mary Somerville (1780–1872), Scottish scientist, writer, and polymath +Linda Spilker (born 1955), American planetary scientist +Ingrid Stairs, Canadian astronomer +Denise Stephens, American astronomer and instructor +Sarah Stewart-Mukhopadhyay, American planetary scientist +Annapurni Subramaniam, director of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics +Karlina Leksono Supelli (born 1958), Indonesian philosopher and astronomer +Jean Swank, American astrophysicist studying compact objects +Henrietta Hill Swope (1902–1980), American astronomer who studied variable stars +Nadezhda Sytinskaya (1906–1974), Soviet astronomer and planetary scientist +Paula Szkody (born 1948), American astronomer and instructor specialized in cataclysmic variable stars + +== T == +Jill Tarter (born 1944), American astronomer focused on SETI +Florence Taylor Hildred (1865–1932), English astronomer and pastor +Alenush Terian (1921–2011), Iranian-Armenian astronomer +Michelle Thaller (born 1969), American astronomer and educator +Jana Tichá (born 1965), Czech astronomer searching for minor planets +Beatrice Tinsley (1941–1981), British-born New Zealand astronomer studying galactic evolution +Maura Tombelli (born 1952), Italian amateur astronomer +Christy A. Tremonti, American astronomer +Virginia Louise Trimble (born 1943), American astronomer +Lidiya Tseraskaya (1855–1931), Russian astronomer +Margaret Turnbull (born 1975), American astronomer and astrobiologist +Elizabeth Cornwall Tilley (born 1914), American astronomer + +== U == +Anne Barbara Underhill (1920–2003), Canadian astrophysicist who studied massive stars +Meg Urry, American astrophysicist studying supermassive black holes and galaxies + +== V == +Bobbie Vaile (1959–1996), Australian astrophysicist and lecturer +Zdeňka Vávrová (born 1945), Czech astronomer +Faith Vilas, (born 1952), American planetary scientist +Julie Vinter Hansen (1890–1960), Danish astronomer +Mirjana Vukićević-Karabin (1933–2020), Serbian astrophysicist +Emma Vyssotsky (1894–1975), American astronomer who studied astrometry + +== W == + +Lucianne Walkowicz (born 1979), American astronomer +Wang Zhenyi (1768–1797), Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and poet +Kim Weaver (born 1964), American astrophysicist and instructor focused on X-ray astronomy +Sara Webb, Australian astrophysicist +Alycia J. Weinberger, American astronomer studying planetary formation +Mareta West (1915–1998), American astrogeologist +Sarah Frances Whiting (1847–1927), American physicist, astronomer, and instructor +Mary Watson Whitney (1847–1921), American astronomer and teacher +Belinda Wilkes, English astrophysicist +Beth Willman, American cosmologist +Lee Anne Willson (born 1947), American astronomer +Anna Winlock (1857–1904), American astronomer +Jennifer Wiseman, American astrophysicist +Rosemary Wyse (born 1957), Scottish astrophysicist and instructor +Frances Woodworth Wright (1897–1989), American astronomer and educator +Gillian Wright, Scottish astronomer +Barbara A. Williams, American radio astronomer + +== Y == +Ye Shuhua (born 1927), Chinese astronomer and instructor +Anne Sewell Young (1871–1961), American astronomer who studied variable stars +Judith Young (1952–2014), American physicist, astronomer, and educator +Louise Gray Young (1935–2018), American astronomer and researcher + +== Z == +Magdalena Zeger (around 1491–1568), calendar maker, astronomer, first women to publish independently in the field of astronomy +Lyudmila Zhuravleva (born 1946), Russian-Ukrainian astronomer who discovered minor planets +Maria Zuber (born 1958), American planetary scientist + +== See also == +List of astronomers +List of astronomical instrument makers +List of French astronomers +List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists +Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy + +== External links == +More information on women astronomers \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f6099ecb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of works addressing the subject or the themes of intelligent design. + +== Non-fiction == + +=== Supportive non-fiction === + +==== Supportive non-fiction books ==== +Ashton, John F, ed. (2001). In Six Days : Why Fifty Scientists Choose to Believe in Creation. Master Books. ISBN 978-0-89051-341-5. +Ashton, John F, ed. (2001). On the Seventh Day: Forty Scientists and Academics Explain Why They Believe in God. Master Books. ISBN 978-0-89051-376-7. +Michael J. Behe. Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution, New York: Free Press, 1996. ISBN 0-684-83493-6 +Michael J. Behe, William A. Dembski, Stephen C. Meyer. Science and Evidence for Design in the Universe (Proceedings of the Wethersfield Institute), Ignatius Press 2000, ISBN 0-89870-809-5 +Michael J. Behe, The Edge of Evolution, Free Press, June 5, 2007, ISBN 0-7432-9620-6 +David Berlinski. The Devil's Delusion: Atheism and its Scientific Pretensions, Basic Books; Reprint edition, 2009, ISBN 0-465-01937-4 +Campbell, John Angus; Stephen C. Meyer, eds. (2004). Darwinism, Design, and Public Education. Rhetoric and Public Affairs Series. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-675-7. Archived from the original on 2006-09-03. +Ann Coulter (2006). Godless: The Church of Liberalism. Crown Forum. ISBN 978-1-4000-5420-6. (Attacks evolution. Not a support for Creationism.) +Percival Davis and Dean H. Kenyon Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins 1989 (2nd edition 1993) ISBN 0-914513-40-0 +William A. Dembski. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science & Theology, InterVarsity Press 1999. ISBN 0-8308-1581-3 +William A. Dembski, James M. Kushiner. Signs of Intelligence: Understanding Intelligent Design, Brazos Press, 2001, ISBN 1-58743-004-5 +William A. Dembski, John Wilson. Uncommon Dissent: Intellectuals Who Find Darwinism Unconvincing, ISI Press, 2004. ISBN 1-932236-31-7 +William A. Dembski and Jonathan Wells, The Design of Life, Foundation for Thought and Ethics, November 19, 2007. +William A. Dembski, The Design Revolution: Answering the Toughest Questions About Intelligent Design (Foreword by Charles W. Colson). Inter Varsity Press. 2004, ISBN 0-8308-2375-1 +William A. Dembski, The Design Inference: Eliminating Chance through Small Probabilities (Cambridge Studies in Probability, Induction and Decision Theory), Cambridge University Press, 2006. +William A. Dembski, No Free Lunch: Why Specified Complexity Cannot Be Purchased without Intelligence (2007), ISBN 0-7425-5810-X +William A. Dembski, The Design of Life: Discovering Signs of Intelligence in Biological Systems, ISI Distributed Titles; 1st edition (September 5, 2008) +William A. Dembski and Sean McDowell, Understanding Intelligent Design: Everything You Need to Know in Plain Language +William A. Dembski, Intelligent Design Uncensored: An Easy-to-Understand Guide to the Controversy, IVP Books, 2010 +Michael Denton. Evolution: A Theory In Crisis, Adler & Adler; 3rd edition, 1986, ISBN 0-917561-52-X +Michael Denton. Nature's Destiny: How the Laws of Biology Reveal Purpose in the Universe, 2002 +Michael Pitman. Adam and Evolution, Rider & Co; First Edition, 1984, ISBN 0-09-155390-3 +James H. Feldstein, Intelligent Design? +Antony Flew. There Is a God: How the World's Most Notorious Atheist Changed His Mind, HarperOne, 2008, ISBN 0-06-133530-4 +Steve Fuller. Science vs Religion? Intelligent Design and the Problem of Evolution. Polity Books. 2007, ISBN 0-7456-4122-9. +Steve Fuller. Dissent Over Descent: Evolution's 500-year War on Intelligent Design. Icon Books Ltd. 2008, ISBN 1-84046-804-1 +James Gills. Darwinism Under The Microscope: How recent scientific evidence points to divine design, Charisma House, 2002, ISBN 0-88419-925-8 +Werner Gitt. In the Beginning Was Information: A Scientist Explains the Incredible Design in Nature, Master Books, 2006, ISBN 0-89051-461-5 +Guillermo Gonzalez and Jay Richards, The Privileged Planet: How Our Place in the Cosmos is Designed for Discovery Regnery Publishing 2006 +Cornelius G. Hunter, (2002). Darwin's God: Evolution and the Problem of Evil, Brazos Press. ISBN 1587430533 +Phillip E. Johnson. Darwin on Trial, Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1991. ISBN 0-8308-1324-1 +Phillip E. Johnson. Defeating Darwinism by opening minds, Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8308-1362-4 +Phillip E. Johnson. Evolution as dogma: the establishment of naturalism, Dallas, Tex.: Haughton Pub. Co., 1990 +Stephen C. Meyer, Scott Minnich, Jonathan Moneymaker, Paul A. Nelson, and Ralph Seelke, Explore Evolution: The Arguments for and Against Neo-Darwinism, Hill House Publishers Pty. Ltd., Melbourne and London, 2007, ISBN 0-947352-47-3. +Stephen C. Meyer. Signature in the Cell: DNA and the Evidence for Intelligent Design. New York: HarperOne (June 23, 2009) ISBN 0-06-147278-6 +Stephen C. Meyer. Darwin's Doubt: The Explosive Origin of Animal Life and the Case for Intelligent Design. New York: HarperOne (June 10, 2013) ISBN 0-06-207147-5 +Bradley Monton. Seeking God in Science: An Atheist Defends Intelligent Design, Broadview Press; 1 edition, 2009, ISBN 1-55111-863-7 +J. P. Moreland. The Creation Hypothesis: Scientific Evidence for an Intelligent Designer, IVP Books, 1994, ISBN 0-8308-1698-4 +Robert G. Neuhauser. The Cosmic Deity: Where Scientists and Theologians Fear to Tread, Mill Creek Publishers, 2004, ISBN 0-9759043-0-2 +Denyse O'Leary, By Design or By Chance? The Growing Controversy on the Origins of Life in the Universe, Augsburg Books, June 2004, ISBN 0-8066-5177-6 +Mark Ludwig. Computer Viruses, Artificial Life and Evolution: The Little Black Book of Computer Viruses, Amer Eagle Pubns Inc, 1993, ISBN 0-929408-07-1 +Dean L. Overman, A Case Against Accident and Self-Organization, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8476-8966-2 +Paley, William (1809). Natural Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (12th ed.). London: Printed for J. Faulder. Online in full. (pdf of first section) +Nancy Pearcey (2004). Total Truth: Liberating Christianity from its Cultural Captivity. Crossway Books. ISBN 978-1-58134-458-5. +A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Life Comes From Life, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust ISBN 0-89213-100-4 (ID from the Vedic Perspective) +Rael. Intelligent Design: Message from the Designers, Nova Distribution, 2006, ISBN 2-940252-22-X +Fazale Rana. The Cell's Design: How Chemistry Reveals the Creator's Artistry, Baker Books, 2008, ISBN 0-8010-6827-4 +Hugh Ross. Beyond the Cosmos, Signalman Publishing, 2010, ISBN 978-0-9840614-8-8 +Hugh Ross. Why the Universe is the Way it Is, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2008, ISBN 978-0801071966 +John C. Sanford. Genetic Entropy and the Mystery of the Genome, Feed My Sheep Foundation, Inc, 2008, ISBN 0-9816316-0-6 +Geoffrey Simmons, William Dembski. What Darwin Didn't Know, Harvest House Publishers, 2004, ISBN 0-7369-1313-0 +Markus Rammerstorfer (2006). Nur eine Illusion? Biologie und Design. Marburg: Tectum-Verl. ISBN 978-3-8288-9117-3. +Philip Snow. Design and Origin of Birds, Day One Publications, 2006, ISBN 1-84625-002-1 +Lee Strobel. The Case for a Creator, Zondervan, 2004, ISBN 0-310-24144-8 +David Swift. Evolution Under the Microscope, Leighton Academic Press, 2002, ISBN 0-9543589-0-2 +Charles Thaxton and Walter Bradley. The Mystery of Life's Origin: Reassessing Current Theories, Philosophical Library, January 19, 1984, ISBN 0-8022-2447-4 +Thomas E. Woodward. Doubts About Darwin: A History of Intelligent Design, Baker Books, 1993, ISBN 0-8010-6443-0 +Thomas E. Woodward. Darwin Strikes Back (2006), ISBN 978-0801065637 +Wells, Jonathan (2002). Icons of Evolution. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89526-200-4. +Jonathan Wells (2006). The Politically Incorrect Guide to Darwinism and Intelligent Design. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-013-6. +Jonathan Wells (2011). The Myth of Junk DNA. Discovery Institute Press. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c96a9511a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Supportive non-fiction anthologies ==== +John Angus Campbell, Stephen C. Meyer ed. Darwinism, Design and Public Education, Michigan State University Press, December 2003, ISBN 0-87013-670-4 +Why Are We Still Debating Darwinism? Why Not Teach the Controversy? John Angus Campbell +PART I—Should Darwinism Be Presented Critically and Comparatively in the Public Schools? Philosophical, Educational, and Legal Issues +Intelligent Design, Darwinism, and the Philosophy of Public Education, John Angus Campbell +Intelligent Design Theory, Religion, and the Science Curriculum, Warren A. Nord +Teaching the Controversy: Is It Science, Religion, or Speech? David DeWolf, Stephen C. Meyer, and Mark E. DeForrest +PART II—Scientific Critique of Biology Textbooks and Contemporary Evolutionary Theory +The Meanings of Evolution, Stephen C. Meyer and Michael Newton Keas +The Deniable Darwin, David Berlinski +Haeckel's Embryos and Evolution: Setting the Record Straight, Jonathan Wells +Second Thoughts about Peppered Moths, Jonathan Wells +Where Do We Come From? A Humbling Look at the Biology of Life's Origin, Massimo Pigliucci +Origin of Life and Evolution in Biology Textbooks: A Critique, Gordon C. Mills, Malcolm Lancaster, and Walter L. Bradley +PART III—The Theory of Intelligent Design: A Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian and/or Chemical Evolutionary Theories +DNA and the Origin of Life: Information, Specification, and Explanation, Stephen C. Meyer +Design in the Details: The Origin of Biomolecular Machines, Michael J. Behe +Homology in Biology: Problem for Naturalistic Science and Prospect for Intelligent Design, Paul Nelson and Jonathan Wells +The Cambrian Explosion: Biology's Big Bang, Stephen C. Meyer, Marcus Ross, Paul Nelson, and Paul Chien +Reinstating Design within Science, William A. Dembski +PART IV—Critical Responses +The Rhetoric of Intelligent Design: Alternatives for Science and Religion, Celeste Michelle Condit +Intelligent Design and Irreducible Complexity: A Rejoinder, David Depew +Biochemical Complexity: Emergence or Design? Bruce H. Weber +Design Yes, Intelligent No: A Critique of Intelligent Design Theory and Neo-Creationism, Massimo Pigliucci +On Behalf of the Fool, Michael Ruse +Rhetorical Arguments and Scientific Arguments: Do My Children Have to Listen to More Arguments against Evolution? Eugene Garver +Design? Yes! But Is It Intelligent? William Provine +Creation and Evolution: A Modest Proposal, Alvin Plantinga +Thinking Pedagogically about Design, John Lyne +An Intelligent Person's Guide to Intelligent Design Theory Steve Fuller +The Rhetorical Problem of Intelligent Design, Phillip E. Johnson +Appendixes +A. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Hearing: On Curriculum Controversies in Biology, 21 August 1998 +B. Helping Schools to Teach Evolution, Donald Kennedy +C. Stratigraphic First Appearance of Phyla-Body Plans +D. Stratigraphic First Appearance of Phyla-Subphyla Body Plans +E. Probability of Other Body Plans Originating in the Cambrian Explosion +Dembski, William (ed) (September 1998). Mere Creation: Science, Faith & Intelligent Design. InterVarsity Press. p. 475 pages. ISBN 978-0-8308-1515-9. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help) An anthology of papers from the November 1996 conference of the same name, sponsored by Christian Leadership Ministries. +Introduction, William Dembski +Part 1,"Unseating Naturalism," Walter Bradley, Jonathan Wells +Part 2, "Design Theory," Nancy Pearcey, William Dembski, Steve Meyer, Paul Nelson +Part 3, "Biological Design," Michael Behe, Siegfried Scherer, Sigrid Hartwig-Scherer, Jeff Schloss +Part 4, "Philosophy and Design," J.P. Moreland, Del Ratzsch, John Mark Reynolds, Bill Craig +Part 5, "Design in the Universe," Hugh Ross, Robert Kaita, David Berlinski, Robert Newman +Concluding essays, Phillip E. Johnson, Bruce Chapman + +==== Supportive non-fiction papers and articles ==== +Michael Behe. A Response to Critics of Darwin's Black Box +William A. Dembski. Becoming a Disciplined Science: Prospects, Pitfalls, and Reality Check for ID +William A. Dembski. Searching Large Spaces—Displacement and the No Free Lunch Regress + +==== Supportive non-fiction films ==== +The Privileged Planet +Unlocking the Mystery of Life +Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed +Darwin's Dilemma +The Information Enigma +Metamorphosis: The Beauty and Design of Butterflies +Flight: The Genius of Birds +Living Waters: Intelligent Design in the Oceans of the Earth + +=== Neutral non-fiction === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1aa6604e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Neutral non-fiction books ==== +David L. Bender (1988). Science and Religion; Opposing Viewpoints. St. Paul, Minnesota: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 0-89908-406-0 +Carl Johan Calleman (2009). The Purposeful Universe: How Quantum Theory and Mayan Cosmology Explain the Origin and Evolution of Life. Bear & Company. ISBN 1-59143-104-2 +Michael Corey (2007). The God Hypothesis: Discovering Design in Our Just Right Goldilocks Universe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-5889-4 +Paul Davies (2007). Cosmic Jackpot The Goldilocks Enigma: Why is the Universe Just Right for Life?. ISBN 978-0-618-59226-5 +James Le Fanu (2009). Why Us?: How Science Rediscovered the Mystery of Ourselves. Pantheon. ISBN 0-375-42198-X +Jerry Fodor and Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini. (2011) What Darwin Got Wrong. Picador; Reprint edition ISBN 0-312-68066-X +James N. Gardner (2003). Biocosm: The New Scientific Theory of Evolution: Intelligent Life Is the Architect of the Universe. Inner Ocean Publishing. ISBN 1-930722-26-5 +Brian Goodwin (2001). How the Leopard Changed its Spots: The Evolution of Complexity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08809-8 +Amit Goswami (2008). Creative Evolution: A Physicist's Resolution Between Darwinism and Intelligent Design. Quest Books; 1st Quest Ed edition. ISBN 0-8356-0858-1 +George Greenstein (1988). The Symbiotic Universe: Life and mind in the Cosmos. Morrow. ISBN 0-688-07604-1 +Bernard Haisch (2010). The Purpose-Guided Universe: Believing In Einstein, Darwin, and God. New Page Books; 1 edition. ISBN 1-60163-122-7 +Francis Hitching (1983). The Neck of the Giraffe or Where Darwin Went Wrong. Signet. ISBN 0-451-62232-4 +Mae-Wan Ho (1984). Beyond Neo-Darwinism: An Introduction to the New Evolutionary Paradigm. Academic Pr. ISBN 0-12-350080-X +Ervin Laszlo (1987). Evolution: The Grand Synthesis. Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-389-9 +Lebo, Lauri (May 13, 2008). The Devil in Dover: An Insider's Story of Dogma v. Darwin in Small-town America. New Press. p. 256 pages. ISBN 978-1-59558-208-9. +Albert Low (2008). The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution. Sussex Academic Pr. ISBN 1-84519-260-5 +Richard Milton (2000). Shattering the Myths of Darwinism. Park Street Press. ISBN 0-89281-884-0 +Norman Macbeth (1971). Darwin Retried. Boston: Harvard Common Press +Johnjoe McFadden (2002). Quantum Evolution: How Physics' Weirdest Theory Explains Life's Biggest Mystery. W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-32310-2 +Numbers, Ronald L. (2006). The Creationists: from scientific creationism to intelligent design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02339-0. OCLC 69734583. +Humes, Edward (2008). Monkey girl : evolution, education, religion, and the battle for America's soul. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-088549-6. OCLC 156815003. +Robert G. B. Reid (1985). Evolutionary Theory: The Unfinished Synthesis. Cornell Univ Pr. ISBN 0-8014-1831-3 +Stanley Salthe (1993). Development and Evolution: Complexity and Change in Biology. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-51383-8 +James A. Shapiro (2011). Evolution: A View from the 21st Century. ISBN 0-13-278093-3 +Robert Shapiro (1986). Origins; A Skeptic's Guide to the Creation of Life on Earth. New York, N.Y.: Summit +Lee Spetner (1998). Not by Chance!: Shattering the Modern Theory of Evolution. Judaica Press. ISBN 1-880582-24-4 +David Stove (2006). Darwinian Fairytales: Selfish Genes, Errors of Heredity and Other Fables of Evolution. ISBN 1-59403-140-1 +Gordon Rattray Taylor (1984). The Great Evolution Mystery. Publisher Abacus. ISBN 0-349-12917-7 +Duane Thurman (1978). How To Think About Evolution. Downers Grove, Illinois: The InterVarsity Press. ISBN 0-87784-701-0 +Hubert Yockey (2011). Information Theory, Evolution, and The Origin of Life. Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition. ISBN 0-521-16958-5 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..123449e92 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Neutral non-fiction anthologies ==== +Robert Pennock ed. Intelligent Design Creationism and its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives, MIT Press (2002). ISBN 0-262-66124-1 +Intelligent Design Creationism's "Wedge Strategy" +The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream, by Barbara Forrest +Johnson's Critique of Evolutionary Naturalism +Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism, by Phillip E. Johnson +Naturalism, Evidence and Creationism: The Case of Phillip Johnson, by Robert T. Pennock +Response to Pennock by Phillip E. Johnson +Reply: Johnson's Reason in the Balance, by Robert T. Pennock +A Theological Conflict?: Evolution vs. the Bible +When Faith and Reason Clash: Evolution and the Bible, by Alvin Plantinga +When Faith and Reason Cooperate, by Howard J. Van Till +Plantinga's Defense of Special Creation, by Ernan McMullin +Evolution, Neutrality, and Antecedent Probability: A Reply to McMullin and Van Till, by Alvin Plantinga +Intelligent Design's Scientific Claims +Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference, by Michael J. Behe +Born Again Creationism, by Philip Kitcher +Biology Remystified: The Scientific Claims of the New Creationists, by Matthew J. Brauer & Daniel R. Brumbaugh +Plantinga's Critique of Naturalism & Evolution +Methodological Naturalism?, by Alvin Plantinga +Methodological Naturalism Under Attack, by Michael Ruse +Plantinga's Case Against Naturalistic Epistemology, by Evan Fales +Plantinga's Probability Arguments Against Evolutionary Naturalism, by Branden Fitelson & Elliott Sober +Intelligent Design Creationism vs. Theistic Evolutionism +Creator or "Blind Watchmaker?", by Phillip E. Johnson +Phillip Johnson on Trial: A Critique of His Critique of Darwin, by Nancey Murphy +Welcoming the 'Disguised Friend' – Darwinism and Divinity, by Arthur Peacocke +The Creation: Intelligently Designed or Optimally Equipped?, by Howard J. Van Till +Is Theism Compatible with Evolution?, by Roy Clouser +Intelligent Design and Information +Is Genetic Information Irreducible?, by Phillip E. Johnson +Reply to Phillip Johnson, by Richard Dawkins +Reply to Johnson, by George C. Williams +Intelligent Design as a Theory of Information, by William A. Dembski +Information and the Argument from Design, by Peter Godfrey-Smith +How Not to Detect Design, by Branden Fitelson, Christopher Stephens & Elliott Sober +The 'Information Challenge', by Richard Dawkins +Intelligent Design Theorists Turn the Tables +Who's Got the Magic?, by William A. Dembski +The Wizards of ID: Reply to Dembski, by Robert T. Pennock +The Panda's Peculiar Thumb, by Stephen Jay Gould +The Role of Theology in Current Evolutionary Reasoning, by Paul A. Nelson +Appealing to Ignorance Behind the Cloak of Ambiguity, by Kelly C. Smith +Nonoverlapping Magisteria, by Stephen Jay Gould +Creationism and Education +Why Creationism Should Not Be Taught in the Public Schools, by Robert T. Pennock +Creation and Evolution: A Modest Proposal, by Alvin Plantinga +Reply to Plantinga's 'Modest Proposal', by Robert T. Pennock +Michael Ruse and William Dembski (eds) Debating Design. New York: Cambridge University Press, (pp. 130 – 148, 2004) +Introduction: general introduction, by William Dembski and Michael Ruse +The argument from design: a brief history Michael Ruse +Who's afraid of ID?: a survey of the intelligent design movement Angus Menuge +Part I. Darwinism: +1 Design without a designer: Darwin's greatest discovery Francisco J. Ayala +2 The flagellum unspun: the collapse of 'irreducible complexity' Kenneth Miller +3 The design argument Elliott Sober +4 DNA by design? Stephen Meyer and the return of the god hypothesis Robert T. Pennock +Part II. Complex Self-Organization: +5. Prolegomenon to a general biology Stuart Kauffman +6. Darwinism, design and complex systems dynamics David Depew and Bruce Weber +7. Emergent complexity, teleology, and the arrow of time Paul Davies +8. The emergence of biological value James Barham +Part III. Theistic Evolution: +9. Darwin, design and divine providence John Haught +10. The inbuilt potentiality of creation John Polkinghorne +11. Theistic evolution Keith Ward +12. Intelligent design: some geological, historical and theological questions Michael Roberts +13. The argument from laws of nature reassessed Richard Swinburne +Part IV. Intelligent Design: +14. The logical underpinnings of intelligent design William Dembski +15. Information, entropy and the origin of life Walter Bradley +16. Irreducible complexity: obstacle to Darwinian evolution Michael Behe +17. The Cambrian information explosion: evidence for intelligent design, Stephen Meyer. + +==== Neutral non-fiction papers and articles ==== +Ankerberg, John. Increasing doubts about evolution (lists scientists who are not ID advocates who oppose Darwinism). +Bird, Wendell R. The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 87, No. 3, Jan, 1978 +Bird, Wendell R. "Freedom From Establishment and Unneutrality in Public School Instruction and Religious School Regulation." Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, Vol. 2, June 1979, pp. 125–205 +Bhattarcharjee, Y. (2006). "Science education - Evolution trumps intelligent design in Kansas vote". Science. 313 (5788): 743. doi:10.1126/science.313.5788.743. PMID 16902095. S2CID 60676345. +Bleckman, Charles A. (2006). "Evolution and creationism in Science: 1880-2000". BioScience. 56 (2): 151–158. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)056[0151:EACIS]2.0.CO;2. +Burian, Richard. Challenges to the Evolutionary Synthesis Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University +Edward Goldsmith. Evolution, neo-Darwinism and the paradigm of science The Ecologist Vol. 20 No. 2, March–April 1990 +Levit, Georgy S. (2008). "Alternative evolutionary theories: A historical survey". Journal of Bioeconomics. 10: 71–96. doi:10.1007/s10818-008-9032-y. S2CID 145540549. +Marris, Emma (2006). "Intelligent design verdict set to sway other cases". Nature. 439 (7072): 6–7. Bibcode:2006Natur.439....6M. doi:10.1038/439006b. PMID 16397467. +Mervis, Jeffrey (January 2005). "Dover Teachers Want No Part of Intelligent-Design Statement". Science. 307 (5709): 505. doi:10.1126/science.307.5709.505. PMID 15681360. S2CID 22736290. +Richard Milton. Neo-Darwinism: time to reconsider Times Higher Education Supplement, 1995 +Staune, Jean. Darwinism Design and Purpose: A European Perspective Institutional Affiliation: General Secretary, Université Interdiciplinare de Paris + +=== Critical non-fiction === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..821c624bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Critical non-fiction books ==== +Ayala, Francisco J. (2006). Darwin and Intelligent Design. Facets Series. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-3802-3. +Brockman, John (ed.) (2006). Intelligent thought. Science versus the intelligent design movement. New York, New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27722-0. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help) +Claramonte, Vicente (2009). La cientificidad del diseño inteligente. Tirant lo Blanch. ISBN 978-84-9876-165-8. +Richard Dawkins. The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design, W. W. Norton & Company (1996). ISBN 0-393-31570-3 +Richard Dawkins. The God Delusion, Houghton Mifflin (October 18, 2006). ISBN 0-618-68000-4 +Richard Dawkins. The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution (2009) ISBN 978-1416594789 +Barbara Forrest and Paul R. Gross. Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design, Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0-19-515742-7 +Foster, John Bellamy; Brett Clark; Richard York (2008). Critique of Intelligent Design: Materialism Versus Creationism from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-1-58367-173-3. +Isaak, Mark (2005). The Counter-Creationism Handbook. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33305-7. +Ernst Mayr. One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought, Harvard University Press (1993). ISBN 0-674-63906-5 +Kenneth R. Miller. Finding Darwin's God, HarperCollins (1999). ISBN 0-06-093049-7 +National Academy of Sciences. Science and Creationism, National Academies Press (1999). ISBN 0-309-06406-6 +Chris Mooney. The Republican War on Science, Basic Books (2005). ISBN 0-465-04676-2 +Robert Pennock. Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism, MIT Press (1999). ISBN 0-262-66165-9 +Mark Perakh. Unintelligent Design, Prometheus (Dec 2003). ISBN 1-59102-084-0 +Andrew J. Petto (Editor), Laurie R. Godfrey (Editor). Scientists Confront Intelligent Design and Creationism, W. W. Norton (2007). ISBN 0-393-05090-4 +Massimo Pigliucci. Denying Evolution: Creationism, Scientism, and the Nature of Science, Sinauer Associates, Incorporated (2002). ISBN 0-87893-659-9 +Michael Shermer, Why Darwin Matters: The Case Against Intelligent Design (2007). ISBN 9780805083064 +Niall Shanks. God, the Devil, and Darwin: A Critique of Intelligent Design Theory, Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0-19-516199-8 +Robyn Williams. Unintelligent Design, Why God isn't as smart as she thinks she is, Allen & Unwin (2006). ISBN 978-1-74114-923-4 +Matt Young, Taner Edis eds. Why Intelligent Design Fails: A Scientific Critique of the New Creationism, Rutgers University Press (2004). ISBN 0-8135-3433-X +Joan Roughgarden Evolution and Christian Faith: Reflections of an Evolutionary Biologist Island Press (August 1, 2006) ISBN 1-59726-098-3 +Francis Collins The Language of God Free Press (July 17, 2007) ISBN 1-4165-4274-4 + +==== Critical non-fiction anthologies ==== +Scott, Eugenie (October 1, 2006). Glenn Branch (ed.). Not in Our Classrooms. Beacon Press. p. 171 pages. ISBN 978-0-8070-3278-7. +Foreword by Barry W. Lynn +1. The Once and Future Intelligent Design, by Eugenie C. Scott +2. Analyzing "Critical Analysis", by Nicholas J. Matzke and Paul R. Gross +3. Theology, Religion, and Intelligent Design, by Martinez Hewlett and Ted Peters +4. From the Classroom to the Courtroom: Intelligent Design and the Constitution, by Jay D. Wexler +5 When the Classroom Door Closes, Who Teaches Evolution?, by Brian Alters +6 Defending the Teaching of Evolution, by Glenn Branch and the staff of the National Center for Science Education \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..813f22f16 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Critical non-fiction papers and articles ==== +Attie, Alan D.; Elliott Sober; Ronald L. Numbers; Richard M. Amasino; Beth Cox; Terese Berceau; Thomas Powell; Michael M. Cox (2006). "Defending science education against intelligent design: a call to action". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 116 (5): 1134–1138. doi:10.1172/JCI28449. PMC 1451210. PMID 16670753. +Bauer, D.R. (2006). "Resolving the controversy over "teaching the controversy": The constitutionality of teaching intelligent design in public schools". Fordham Law Review. 75 (2): 1019–1063. +Beja, A. (2006). "The judge and "intelligent design" in the United States". Esprit (6): 181–184. +Bland, M. (2005). "Intelligent design: the response". Physics World. 18 (12): 19. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/18/10/27. +Branch, Glenn (March 2007). "Understanding Creationism after Kitzmiller". BioScience. 57 (3): 278–284. doi:10.1641/B570313. +Frederick C. Crews. Saving Us from Darwin, The New York Review of Books, Vol 48, No 15 (4 October 2001). +Frederick C. Crews. Saving Us from Darwin, Part II, The New York Review of Books, Vol 48, No 16 (18 October 2001). +Fitelson, Branden; Elliott Sober (1998). "Plantinga's Probability Arguments Against Evolutionary Naturalism" (PDF). Pacific Philosophical Quarterly. 79 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1111/1468-0114.00053. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24. +Fitelson, Branden; Christopher Stephens; Elliott Sober (1999). "How Not to Detect Design--- A Review of William Dembski's The Design Inference" (PDF). Philosophy of Science. 66 (3): 472–488. doi:10.1086/392699. S2CID 11079658. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2007-06-24. +Forrest, Barbara (December 2004). "Darwinism, Design, and Public Education. John Angus Campbell and Stephen C. Meyer, eds". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 44 (6): 510–513. doi:10.1093/icb/44.6.510. +Forrest, Barbara (May 2007). "Understanding the intelligent design creationist movement: Its true nature and goals" (PDF). Center for Inquiry, Washington DC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2007-08-24. +Forrest, Barbara; Paul R. Gross (2007). "Biochemistry by design". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 32 (7): 322–331. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2007.06.001. PMID 17570673. +Häggström, Olle (2007). "Intelligent Design and the NFL theorems". Biology and Philosophy. 22 (2): 217–230. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.592.6440. doi:10.1007/s10539-006-9040-z. S2CID 84688022. +Hildebrand, David L. (2006). "Does every theory deserve a hearing? Evolution, intelligent design, and the limits of democratic inquiry". Southern Journal of Philosophy. 44 (2): 217–236. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.2006.tb00099.x. ISSN 0038-4283. +Lutz, Sebastian (2012). "Empiricism and Intelligent Design II: Analyzing Intelligent Design". Erkenntnis. 78 (3): 681–698. doi:10.1007/s10670-012-9392-5. S2CID 6311126. +Neill, Ushma S.; Andrew R. Marks (May 2006). "Why we think it is important to discuss intelligent design". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 116 (5): 1133. doi:10.1172/JCI28483. PMC 1451211. PMID 16670752. +Nurse, Paul (2006). "US Biomedical Research under Siege". Cell. 124 (1): 9–12. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2005.12.029. PMID 16413473. +Morowitz, Harold; Robert Hazen; James Trefil (September 2, 2005). "Intelligent Design Has No Place in the Science Curriculum". Chronicle of Higher Education. +Robert Pennock. DNA by Design?: Stephen Meyer and the Return of the God Hypothesis. In Ruse, Michael and William Dembski (eds) Debating Design. New York: Cambridge University Press, (pp. 130 – 148, 2004) +Robert Pennock. Critique of Philip Johnson. In Parsons, Keith (ed.) The Science Wars: Debating Scientific Knowledge and Technology. Prometheus Press. (pp. 277–306, 2003) +Robert Pennock. Creationism and Intelligent Design. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics. (Vol. 4: 143-163, Sept. 2003) +Robert Pennock. Should Creationism be Taught in the Public Schools? Science & Education (Vol.11 no.2, March 2002, pp. 111–133) +Robert Pennock. Whose God? What Science? Reply to Michael Behe. In Reports of the National Center for Science Education. (Vol. 21 No. 3-4 pp. 16–19, May-Aug. 2001) +Robert Pennock. Lions and Tigers and APES, Oh My!: Creationism vs. Evolution in Kansas. Science Teaching & The Search for Origin: Kansas Teach-In. AAAS Dialogue on Science and Religion. (2000) +Robert Pennock. The Wizards of ID: Reply to Dembski. Metanexus (No. 089, Oct. 11, 2000) +Robert Pennock. Of Design and Deception: Kansas, Conflict & Creationism. Science & Spirit (Nov./Dec. 1999) +Robert Pennock. Untitled—Reply to Phillip Johnson re: Tower of Babel. Books and Culture (Sept./Oct. 1999) +Robert Pennock. The Prospects for a Theistic Science. Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith (Vol. 50, No. 3, pp. 205–209, Sept. 1998) +Robert Pennock. Creationism's War on Science. Environmental Review (Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 7 – 16, February 1998) +Robert Pennock. Naturalism, Creationism and the Meaning of Life: The Case of Phillip Johnson Revisited. Creation/Evolution (Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 10–30, Winter 1996) +Robert Pennock. Reply to Johnson - Johnson's Reason in the Balance. Biology & Philosophy (Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 565–568, 1996) +Robert Pennock. Naturalism, Evidence and Creationism: The Case of Phillip Johnson. Biology and Philosophy (Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 543–559, 1996) +Pigliucci, Massimo (December 2005). "More than you ever wanted to know about intelligent design". Evolution. 59 (12): 2717–2720. doi:10.1554/BR05-12.1. S2CID 198157850. +Rosenhouse, Jason; Glenn Branch (2006). "Media coverage of "intelligent design"". BioScience. 56 (3): 247–252. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)056[0247:MCOID]2.0.CO;2. +Scott, Eugenie C. (1996). "Creationism, Ideology and Science". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 775 (1): 505–522. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb23167.x. S2CID 84085243. +Scott, Eugenie C (1997). "Antievolution and Creationism in the United States". Annual Review of Anthropology. 26 (1): 263–289. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.263. JSTOR 2952523. S2CID 146271838. +Scott, Eugenie C. (2006). "Creationism and evolution: It's the American way". Cell. 124 (3): 449–451. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.028. PMID 16469687. +Scott, Eugenie C.; Glenn Branch (2003). "Evolution: what's wrong with 'teaching the controversy'". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 18 (10): 499–502. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00218-0. +Scott, Eugenie C.; Glenn Branch (2004). "Teaching the controversy: Response to Langen and to Meyer". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 19 (3): 116–117. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.01.004. +Sober, Elliott (2002). "Intelligent Design and Probability Reasoning" (PDF). International Journal for the Philosophy of Religion. 52 (2): 65–80. doi:10.1023/A:1019579220694. S2CID 26802074. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24. +Sober, Elliott (2007). "What Is Wrong with Intelligent Design?" (PDF). Quarterly Review of Biology. 82 (1): 3–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.153.1827. doi:10.1086/511656. PMID 17354991. S2CID 44420203. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2007-06-24. +Wexler, Jay D. (Fall 2009). "Intelligent Design and Judicial Minimalism: Further Thoughts on the 'Is it Science' Question". University of St. Thomas Journal of Law and Public Policy. 4 (1): 30. Retrieved 26 April 2019. +Wexler, Jay D. (2006). "Intelligent Design and the First Amendment: A Response". Washington University Law Quarterly. 84 (1): 63. +Wexler, Jay D. (Fall 2006). "Kitzmiller and the 'Is it Science?' Question" (PDF). First Amendment Law Review. 5 (1): 90. +Wexler, Jay D. (2006). "Too Much, Too Little: Religion in the Public Schools". University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender & Class. 6 (1): 107. +Wexler, Jay D. (2003). "Darwin, Design, and Disestablishment: Teaching the Evolution Controversy in Public Schools" (PDF). Vanderbilt Law Review. 56 (3): 751. +Wexler, Jay D. (March 2002). "Preparing for the Clothed Public Square: Teaching About Religion, Civic Education, and the Constitution". William and Mary Law Review. 43 (3): 1159. +Wexler, Jay D. (January 1997). "Of Pandas, People, and the First Amendment: The Constitutionality of Teaching Intelligent Design in the Public Schools". Stanford Law Review. 49 (2): 439–470. doi:10.2307/1229302. JSTOR 1229302. +Wilkins, Adam S. (2006). ""Intelligent design" as both problem and symptom". BioEssays. 28 (4): 327–329. doi:10.1002/bies.20400. PMID 16547955. +Wilkins, John S; Elsberry, Wesley R. (2001). "The advantages of theft over toil: the design inference and arguing from ignorance". Biology and Philosophy. 16 (5): 711–724. doi:10.1023/A:1012282323054. S2CID 170765232. Retrieved 2007-12-16. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..407db44ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "List of works on intelligent design" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Critical non-fiction films ==== +Flock of Dodos A biting, tongue-in-cheek documentary that pans both sides of the debate. +Judgement Day: Intelligent Design on Trial, a Public Broadcasting Service NOVA television documentary about the Kitzmiller v. Dover federal trial +A War on Science is a 49-minute BBC Horizon television documentary about intelligent design, including the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover court battle. It prominently features Oxford University professor, biologist Richard Dawkins. It was first broadcast on 26 January 2006. Intelligent design supporters and promoters Phillip Johnson, Michael Behe, Stephen C. Meyer and William A. Dembski also appear in the documentary. + +== Fiction == +The concept of life having been designed or manipulated is a staple of science fiction. Aspects of Intelligent Design are explored in: + +Calculating God by Robert J. Sawyer. 2000. ISBN 0-312-86713-1 A science fiction novel in which an intelligent designer is manipulating reality solely for the benefit of human-kind and three other sentient species residing in our galaxy. +2001: A Space Odyssey; in the movie, human evolution is accelerated and guided by an unspecified force, assumed by many to be aliens. In the novel based on the film, human evolution is accelerated and guided by aliens. +In the Doctor Who episode Image of the Fendahl, evolution on Earth was guided by an alien, to allow it to feed on humans. +The novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus prominently features an intelligently (but imperfectly) designed creature, whose faults stem from the inherent flaws of its creator, Victor Frankenstein. +The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy reveals that the Earth was built by the Magratheans who were commissioned by mice and designed by the computer Deep Thought to find the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything. +In the movie Mission to Mars, highly evolved aliens accelerated and guided human evolution. +Rama Revealed by Arthur C. Clarke and Gentry Lee; in this final novel of a series, it is revealed that the (mostly offstage) Ramans create universes and test their inhabitants in an attempt to maximise the quantity of consciousness within them. +According to the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Chase", Star Trek aliens all look similar because life was seeded on different planets by highly evolved aliens. +In the Well World series, by Jack L. Chalker, aliens known as Markovians evolved and grew to the point where their computers, by means of a universal mathematics, were able to create/produce/do anything they wanted. Bored with being virtual gods, they decided their race had been flawed in some manner. So they designed a new universe and Markovian volunteers chose to become all of the new races therein, including humans, to see if perhaps another race could attain the perfection they believed existed but which they themselves failed to achieve. +Roddy M. Bullock (2006). The Cave Painting: A Parable of Science. Access Research Network. ISBN 978-1-931796-27-9. Archived from the original on 2006-10-13. Retrieved 2006-10-23. +Dean Koontz (2009). Breathless. New York: Bantam Publishing. ISBN 978-0-553-80715-8. References the mathematical calculation of the improbability of life. +"Surface Tension" is a 1952 science fiction short story by James Blish. A human colonization ship crash-lands and they genetically engineer their descendants into something that can survive. They create a race of microscopic aquatic humanoids and metal plates of knowledge for them. Blish coined the term pantropy to refer to this concept, as opposed to terraforming. +"Microcosmic God" is a 1941 science fiction novelette by Theodore Sturgeon. A scientist develops a synthetic life form, which he calls "Neoterics", that live at a greatly accelerated rate and produce many generations over a short time so he can use their inventions. The scientist asserts his authority by killing half the population whenever they disobey his "divine" orders. +Prometheus is a 2012 science fiction film that follows the journey of the Earth spaceship Prometheus as it follows an ancient star map which takes them to humanity's creators or "Engineers". + +== See also == +List of creation myths +List of god video games +Artificial life: Notable simulators +Life simulation game +Shaggy God story + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Earth_scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Earth_scientists-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c42f943a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Earth_scientists-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of Earth scientists" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Earth_scientists" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:33.951326+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are several lists of Earth scientists: + +List of geodesists +List of geographers +List of geologists +List of geophysicists +List of meteorologists +List of mineralogists +List of oceanographers +List of paleontologists +List of soil scientists +List of Russian Earth scientists \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Nobel_laureates-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Nobel_laureates-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d0575e483 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Nobel_laureates-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of Nobel laureates" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Nobel_laureates" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:38.103828+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lists of Nobel laureates cover winners of Nobel Prizes for outstanding contributions for humanity in chemistry, literature, peace, physics, and physiology or medicine. The lists are organized by prize, by ethnicity, by origination and by nationality. + + +== General == +List of Nobel laureates, the general list +List of heads of government and state Nobel laureates +List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation +List of couples awarded the Nobel Prize + + +== By prize == +List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry +List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics +List of Nobel laureates in Literature +List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates +List of Nobel laureates in Physics +List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine + + +== By laureate identity == +List of female Nobel laureates +List of black Nobel laureates +List of Latin American Nobel laureates +List of Christian Nobel laureates +List of Jewish Nobel laureates +List of nonreligious Nobel laureates + + +== By origin == +List of countries by Nobel laureates per capita +List of Nobel laureates by country +List of Asian Nobel laureates +List of African Nobel laureates + + +== By nationality == +List of American Nobel laureates +List of Argentine Nobel laureates +List of Armenian Nobel laureates +List of Australian Nobel laureates +List of Belgian Nobel laureates +List of Brazilian Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Chinese Nobel laureates +List of Danish Nobel laureates +List of Egyptian Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Filipino Nobel laureates and nominees +List of German Nobel laureates +List of Greek Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Hungarian Nobel laureates +List of Indian Nobel laureates +List of Irish Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Israeli Nobel laureates +List of Italian Nobel laureates +List of Japanese Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Korean Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Mexican Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Pakistani Nobel laureates +List of Polish Nobel laureates +List of Romanian Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Russian Nobel laureates +List of South African Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Spanish Nobel laureates +List of Swedish Nobel laureates +List of Swiss Nobel laureates +List of Venezuelan Nobel laureates +List of Vietnamese Nobel laureates and nominees +List of Welsh Nobel laureates + + +== See also == +Clarivate Citation Laureates \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_biologists_by_author_abbreviation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_biologists_by_author_abbreviation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af79c9c3e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_biologists_by_author_abbreviation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of biologists by author abbreviation" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_biologists_by_author_abbreviation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:28.936692+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lists of biologists by author abbreviation include lists of botanists and of zoologists. The abbreviations are typically used in articles on species described or named by the biologist. + + +== Botanists == + + +== Zoologists == +List of authors of names published under the ICZN \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2ff59e14a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of metalloids" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:35.529169+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of 194 sources that list elements classified as metalloids. The sources are listed in chronological order. Lists of metalloids differ since there is no rigorous widely accepted definition of metalloid (or its occasional alias, 'semi-metal'). Individual lists share common ground, with variations occurring at the margins. The elements most often regarded as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. Other sources may subtract from this list, add a varying number of other elements, or both. + + +== Overview == + + +== Chronological list == +This table shows which elements are included in each of 194 different lists of metalloids. A parenthesized symbol indicates an element whose inclusion in a particular metalloid list is qualified in some way by the author(s). The 'citations' rows show how many and what percentage of the authorities consider each element to be a metalloid, with qualified citations counted as one-half. + +() Parenthesized symbols indicate elements whose inclusion in a particular metalloid list is qualified in some way by the author(s). It is counted as 0.5 citation. +There is an average of 7.15 elements per metalloid list. + + +== Appearance frequency clusters == + +Elements cited in the listed sources (as of August 2011; n = 194) have appearance frequencies that occur in clusters of comparable values. The diamonds in the graph mark the mean appearance frequency of each cluster. + +Cluster 1 (93%): B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te +Cluster 2 (44%): Po, At +Cluster 3 (24%): Se +Cluster 4 (9%): C, Al +Cluster 5 (5%): Be, P, Bi +Cluster 6 (3%): Sn +Cluster 7 (1%): H, Ga, S, I, Pb, Fl, Mc, Lv, Ts +The resulting geometric trend line has the formula y = 199.47e−0.7423x and an R2 value of 0.9962. + + +== Elements regarded as metalloids == +The elements commonly classified as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. +The status of polonium and astatine is not settled. Most authors recognise one or the other, or both, as metalloids; Herman, Hoffmann and Ashcroft, on the basis of relativistic modelling, predict astatine will be a monatomic metal. One or more of carbon, aluminium, phosphorus, selenium, tin or bismuth, these being periodic table neighbours of the elements commonly classified as metalloids, are sometimes recognised as metalloids. +Selenium, in particular, is commonly designated as a metalloid in environmental chemistry on account of similarities in its aquatic chemistry with that of arsenic and antimony. There are fewer references to beryllium, in spite of its periodic table position adjoining the dividing line between metals and nonmetals. Isolated references in the literature can also be found to the categorisation of other elements as metalloids. These elements include: hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, zinc, gallium, iodine, lead, and radon (citations are for references other than those listed above). + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eafa7cbf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of molecules" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:36.809335+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is an index of lists of molecules (i.e. by year, number of atoms, etc.). Millions of molecules have existed in the universe since before the formation of Earth. Three of them, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen were necessary for the growth of life. Although humanity had always been surrounded by these substances, it has not always known what they were composed of. + + +== By century == +The following is an index of list of molecules organized by time of discovery of their molecular formula or their specific molecule in case of isomers: +List of compounds + + +== By number of carbon atoms in the molecule == +List of compounds with carbon number 1 +List of compounds with carbon number 2 +List of compounds with carbon number 3 +List of compounds with carbon number 4 +List of compounds with carbon number 5 +List of compounds with carbon number 6 +List of compounds with carbon number 7 +List of compounds with carbon number 8 +List of compounds with carbon number 9 +List of compounds with carbon number 10 +List of compounds with carbon number 11 +List of compounds with carbon number 12 +List of compounds with carbon number 13 +List of compounds with carbon number 14 +List of compounds with carbon number 15 +List of compounds with carbon number 16 +List of compounds with carbon number 17 +List of compounds with carbon number 18 +List of compounds with carbon number 19 +List of compounds with carbon number 20 +List of compounds with carbon number 21 +List of compounds with carbon number 22 +List of compounds with carbon number 23 +List of compounds with carbon number 24 +List of compounds with carbon numbers 25-29 +List of compounds with carbon numbers 30-39 +List of compounds with carbon numbers 40-49 +List of compounds with carbon numbers 50+ + + +== Other lists == +List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules +List of gases +List of molecules with unusual names + + +== See also == +Molecule +Empirical formula +Chemical formula +Chemical structure +Chemical compound +Chemical bond +Coordination complex +List of chemical elements +List of drugs by year of discovery +Timeline of chemical element discoveries +Diatomic molecule +Atomic model +History of molecular theory + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c33edd39 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of physics equations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:40.707353+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In physics, there are equations in every field to relate physical quantities to each other and perform calculations. Entire handbooks of equations can only summarize most of the full subject, else are highly specialized within a certain field. Physics is derived of formulae only. + + +== General scope == +Variables commonly used in physics +Continuity equation +Constitutive equation + + +== Specific scope == +Defining equation (physical chemistry) +List of equations in classical mechanics +Table of thermodynamic equations +List of equations in wave theory +List of relativistic equations +List of equations in fluid mechanics +List of electromagnetism equations +List of equations in gravitation +List of photonics equations +List of equations in quantum mechanics +List of equations in nuclear and particle physics + + +== See also == +List of equations +Operator (physics) +Laws of science + + +== Units and nomenclature == +Physical constant +Physical quantity +SI units +SI derived unit +SI electromagnetism units +List of common physics notations \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md index f3e45d5ff..fb4250ab9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:15:55.645703+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:42.109181+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e77eade09 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of research stations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:43.320730+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lists of research stations provide indexes to research stations in a particular region. They include: + +List of space stations +Research stations in Antarctica +List of research stations in the Arctic +Refer to category:Research stations for a complete list of articles on research stations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards-0.md index 3db73018f..592abe33e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:46:54.068436+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:00.066556+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientific_skepticism_topics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientific_skepticism_topics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58d2841b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientific_skepticism_topics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of scientific skepticism topics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientific_skepticism_topics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:48.752359+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Scientific skepticism (also spelled scepticism) is the practice of questioning whether claims are supported by empirical research and have reproducibility, as part of a methodological norm pursuing "the extension of certified knowledge". Scientific skepticism, or skepticism for short, manifests itself since the 20th century as a societal phenomenon involving several individuals and more or less organised groups through several different media, commonly referred to as "the skeptical movement". This is a compilation of the various lists about skepticism with articles in Wikipedia. + +List of books about skepticism +List of notable skeptics +List of notable debunkers +List of prizes for evidence of the paranormal +List of skeptical conferences +List of skeptical magazines +List of scientific skepticism organizations +List of skeptical podcasts + + +== See also == +Lists of atheists +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists-0.md index d6638b4ad..639370f1a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:10:54.865712+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:46.085095+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57b9f0945 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Lists of sequenced genomes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:47.429056+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are several lists of sequenced genomes: + +List of sequenced algae genomes +List of sequenced animal genomes +List of sequenced animal mitochondrial genomes +List of sequenced archaeal genomes +List of sequenced bacterial genomes +List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes +List of sequenced fungi genomes +List of sequenced plant genomes +List of sequenced plastomes +List of sequenced protist genomes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Prize-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Prize-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a536f2ef4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Prize-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Marconi Prize" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Prize" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:26.659065+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Marconi Prize is an annual award that the Marconi Society gives for outstanding achievements and advancements in communications (radio, mobile, wireless, telecommunications, data communications, networks, the Internet, etc.). Prizewinners receive in-person recognition from distinguished colleagues and other guests as well as a work of sculpture at the Marconi Society's annual symposium and gala. + + +== Criteria == +The Marconi Prize is awarded based on the candidate’s contributions in the following areas: + +The significance of the impact of the nominee’s work on widely-used technology. +The scientific importance of the nominee’s work in setting the stage for, influencing, and advancing the field beyond the nominee’s own achievements. +The nominee’s contributions to innovation and entrepreneurship by introducing completely new ideas, methods, or technologies. These may include forming, leading, or advising organizations, mentoring students on moving ideas from research to implementation, or fostering new industries/enabling scale implementation. +The social and humanitarian impact of the nominee’s contributions to the design, development, and/or deployment of new communication technologies or communications public policies that promote social development and/or inclusiveness. + + +== Marconi Fellowships == +Marconi Prize recipients are also named Marconi Fellows. The foundation and the prize are named in honor of Guglielmo Marconi, a Nobel laureate and one of the pioneers of radio communications. Fellows are expected to pursue further creative work to advance the understanding and development of communications technologies for the benefit of mankind. + + +== List of Marconi Prize winners == +First given in 1975, the prize has gone to such notable figures as Lawrence E. Page and Sergey Brin for inventing search engine Google, Tim Berners-Lee for his leadership and innovations in establishing the World Wide Web, Nobel Laureate Charles K. Kao for developing fiber-optic communications, and Martin Hellman and Whitfield Diffie for creating the Diffie–Hellman key exchange. + + +== See also == +Donald Davies – independently invented packet switching and modern data communication +List of engineering awards +NAB Marconi Radio Awards + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Marconi Foundation website +Who Invented Radio? +Technology's top honors, awards and prizes, including the Marconi Prize Archived 2014-01-22 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..12e127dc5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Meteorite fall" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A meteorite fall, also called an observed fall, is a meteorite collected after its fall from outer space, that was observed by people or automated devices. Any other meteorite is called a "find". As of May 2026, the Meteoritical Bulletin Database listed 1,273 observed falls of approved meteorites, most of which have specimens in modern collections. + +== Significance == +Observed meteorite falls are of societal and scientific importance for several reasons: + +In the most energetic of events, falls are observed by many human observers, and can co-occur with dramatic consequences as seen during the Chelyabinsk meteor event, in which 1,491 people were injured seriously enough to seek medical treatment (most injured from broken glass from the shockwave; no fatalities). +Material from observed falls has not been subjected to terrestrial weathering, making the find an ideal candidate for scientific study into the dynamics of dust and small-body formation and understanding the history of solar system formation. +Historically, observed falls were the most compelling evidence supporting the extraterrestrial origin of meteorites. +A robust subculture of meteorite hunters has developed along with an associated market for meteorite minerals. +Observed fall discoveries are currently the best data source to understand the types of meteorites which fall to Earth. For example, iron meteorites take much longer to weather and are easier to identify as unusual objects, as compared to other types. This may explain the increased proportion of iron meteorites among finds (6.7%), over that among observed falls (4.4%). There is also detailed statistics on falls such as based on meteorite classification. + +== Largest falls == + +Half of all confirmed falls are listed in the Meteoritical Bulletin Database with masses between 0.1 g to 2.5 kg. However there are more than 60 meteorites with 100 kg or more. Six of them total more than one metric ton. The six largest falls are listed below and five (except the 2013 Chelyabinsk meteorite) occurred during the 20th century. Presumably, events of such magnitude may happen a few times per century (often in remote areas) and have typically gone unreported. +For comparison, the largest finds (not corresponding to an observed fall) are the 60-ton Hoba meteorite, a 30.8-ton fragment (Gancedo) and a 28.8-ton fragment (El Chaco) of the Campo del Cielo, and a 30.9-ton fragment (Ahnighito) of the Cape York meteorite. + +== Observation methods == + +=== Statistics === +While the stream of meteorites reaching Earth remains pretty much constant over time, statistics of meteorite falls show a more or less continuous increase in the number of observed meteorite falls from the end of the 18th century until a significant peak in the 1930s. This steady increase has been described as early as 1963 and has been explained with changing social, scientific and technical circumstances: population growth and higher population density, improving communication, the expansion of scientific institutions, and the increasing organization of meteoritics and greater interest from the general public all raised the likelihood that fireballs would be reported and that fresh meteorites would be deliberately searched for and recovered. The peak during the 1930ies also coincides with increased activity by private collectors, especially Harvey H. Nininger and Oscar Monnig who set significant accents in meteorite hunt and research and the foundation of the Society for Research on Meteorites (now known as the Meteoritical Society) in August 1933, with Frederick C. Leonard as the first president and Nininger as secretary. +The decline in the 1940s is explained by the disruptions caused by World War II, which significantly impaired fieldwork, international cooperation, publication activity and the acquisition of collections. The increase in observed falls since the beginning of the 21st century can be attributed to improved technical and organizational capabilities for detection and recovery, particularly through global and regional fireball networks, satellite detections, meteor reporting websites, weather radar observations, the spread of digital cameras and social media as well as the use of metal detectors, drones and coordinated search teams. + +=== Automated fireball detection devices === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ea5802484 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Meteorite fall" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In April 1959 the meteorite Příbram was the first meteorite whose trajectory was tracked by multiple cameras recording the associated fireball. The Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic captured photos of the fireball using eleven widely spaced cameras. With the help of this stereo recording (through triangulation), Přibram's trajectory could be reconstructed quite accurately, aiding its recovery and also - for the very first time - enabling scientists to trace its pre-impact orbit back to the asteroid belt. +Eleven years later, the fireball from the Lost City meteorite, was recorded with four cameras from the Prairie Meteorite Network operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, when it fell in Cherokee County Oklahoma, in January 1970. This was the first time a meteorite was recovered solely on the basis of photographic measurements. In 1977 the meteorite of Innisfree was discovered using photographs taken by the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Program of the National Research Council of Canada. The fall of Benešov was recorded in 1991, however the meteorite was only recovered in 2011 after the strewnfield was recalculated and metal detectors were used to search for small fragments. +The meteorite of Ischgl was found by an Austria forest ranger in 1976 and was kept at home by the finder without undergoing any scientific examination until 2008, when it was classified as a meteorite. Upon review of the archived fireball events photographed by the German fireball camera network, it could be determined, in a study published in 2024, that in November 1970 a fireball event observed by 10 different stations was connected to the fall of the later discovered meteorite. +Over the last decades fireball networks consisting of dedicated arrays of cameras were put in operation in several countries. As more automated cameras monitor the night sky and track fireballs, the chances of locating meteorites have increased. Statistics for observed falls by decade are listed in the table in this section. It took more than 30 years for the falls of the first 4 meteorites to be recorded by automated devices, the same amount of falls with documented trajectories as in the single year of 2015. +For the period since 2020 the number of meteorite falls reported globally each year has increased on average to more than ten per year, up from about six a year in the 1990s. As of December 2025 there are 75 instrumentally observed recovered meteorites, for which also a pre-impact orbit could be determined. +Today, there are several networks of whole sky cameras recording space rock from different directions, thus making it easier to calculate the impact sites of meteorites and increasing the probability of actually finding material after a meteor has been observed. + +Among the camera networks are: + +Cameras for All-Sky Meteor Surveillance +European Fireball Network +Desert Fireball Network +FRIPON + +=== Video cameras === +Accidental random fireball records documented by video have increased over the past decades and social media now distributes videos so broadly that a much larger share of falls is being captured and documented. The first ever meteor to be filmed by a camera was the Great Daylight Fireball which blazed over the Rocky Mountains in 1972 - however this earth grazer supposedly left earth's atmosphere again, without meteorites impacting the ground. +The first meteorite fall to be documented by video cameras by coincidence was Peekskill meteorite in 1992. The bright fireball visible for more than 40 seconds was recorded by 15 chance eyewitnesses' video cameras from different locations. Peekskill back then was only the fourth meteorite whose prior orbit could be calculated based on the reconstructed trajectory of the fall. The orbits for the previous falls of Přibram (1959), Lost City meteorite (1970) and Innisfree (1977) had been determined based on photographs. Peekskill, however, was the first fall documented by motion-picture footage. +Video cameras have since become widespread with the rise of surveillance or traffic cameras, ski-resort webcams, dashboard and doorbell cameras and smart phones, which have all been used to capture fireballs in connection with recovered meteorites. Among the most spectacular falls observed by numerous cameras is the Chelyabinsk meteor from February 2013. +The fall of the meteorite in Novo Mesto, Slovenia, in February 2020 was captured by dashcams, security cameras and even a camera mounted on a cyclist's helmet. The footage was used by astronomers to triangulate the meteorite's trajectory. +The fall of the Charlottetown meteorite in 2024 was the first case, where the actual moment of the impact on the ground was recorded with video including audio. The sound of the meteorite shattering upon impact has been described as similar to the sound of breaking ice. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..adbffa589 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Meteorite fall" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Radar detection === +Weather radar has become a useful aid for locating meteorites after observed fireballs because it can detect descending fragments of the meteorite during the dark flight-phase – that is, the phase of a meteorite's descent when its speed has been slowed by atmospheric drag to the point that it no longer emits visible light and the fragments reach terminal velocity. +Radar-derived echoes from falling stones can help determine whether an observed fireball event has produced meteorites large enough to be recovered on the ground. Radar data in combination with weather data can be used to reconstruct a fall's final trajectory in order to calculate a possible strewn field. This allows people searching for meteorites to focus their search efforts more efficiently than by relying only on traditional methods such as eyewitness accounts, recordings from security cameras and other video sources. Targeted searches have improved the chances to quickly collect minimally weathered specimens that are scientifically valuable for studying the composition and history of their parent bodies. +The fall of the Ash Creek meteorite in February 2009 was the first time when data from weather radar was used to locate meteorites on the ground. Among the radar-enabled recoveries of meteorites is also the fall of the Sutter's Mill meteorite. Archived radar data has also been used retrospectively to identify radar signals of falling fragments for earlier meteorite falls such as Worden in 1997 or Indian Butte in 1998. +Most of the radar detections of meteorite falls have occurred in the United States, where the data produced by the NEXRAD system is publicly available online almost in real time and archived since the introduction of the system in the 1990s. As of 2025 there are 32 meteorite falls where evidence of falling debris was found in NEXRAD data. The ARES Division of NASA also publishes possible landing zones of meteorite fragments identified by radar stations across the United States. Among them are also falls outside the United States, such as the Grimsby meteorite, a fall from 2009 in Canada and the Viñales meteorite, a fall from 2019 in Cuba, both of which were within the detection radius of NEXRAD stations. + +=== Astronomical observations before impact === +In October 2008, the observation of asteroid 2008 TC3 turned into the first meteorite whose impact had been predicted. The asteroid on a collision course with Earth had been discovered by Richard Kowalski with the automated Catalina Sky Survey telescope at Mount Lemmon Observatory, about 20 hours before it entered the atmosphere and fell in the Nubian Desert in Sudan. The fall of the meteorite could be observed from a distance of 1,400 km by pilots of a KLM passenger plane flying over Chad and a webcam from a beach in Egypt from a distance of 725 km. Eyewitnesses on the ground in Wadi Halfa and at "train station number six" (Arabic: al-Maḥaṭṭa Sitta) in northern Sudan at 05:46 am local time observed a meteor and heard explosion sounds. Two months after the fall, an expedition organized by the University of Khartoum found the first fragments of the meteorite. The meteorite was named Almahata Sitta - after the train station. Altogether 10.5 kg of the meteorite in some 600 fragments were recovered. +Since the observed fall of the Almahata Sitta meteorite, 10 more asteroids have been added to the list of predicted asteroid impacts on Earth which impacted earth after discovery and orbit calculation that predicted the impact in advance. +Among them are 3 more observed falls, where fragments of the meteorites could be recovered: + +Meteorite Motopi Pan - (Asteroid 2018 LA) +Meteorite Saint-Pierre-le-Viger - (Asteroid 2023 CX1) +Meteorite Ribbeck - (Asteroid 2024 BX1) + +== Historic records of meteors and meteorites == + +=== Meteoric iron === +Throughout recorded history, humans have observed meteor showers and fireballs in the sky and occasionally documented these events. Since antiquity there are written records on sporadic meteors from Chinese, Korean, Babylonian, Greek and Roman sources. Due to the distinctive metallurgical properties Meteoric iron was used by cultures worldwide, even before the Iron Age – among them Tutankhamun's meteoric iron dagger, a bronze age arrowhead found in Switzerland and tools made from the Cape York meteorite by Inuit. + +=== Philological evidence === +Philological evidence suggests that in several ancient cultures the word "iron" was used in connection with the sky, reflecting an awareness that rare iron masses could arrive as meteorites. In Mesopotamia the Sumerian term for iron was an-bar, meaning "fire from heaven" and the parallel Hittite term ku-an also conveys a celestial origin. Egyptian terminology points the same way: The compound expression bia-en-pet that first appeared in the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (13th century BCE) combines the terms for "thunderbolt" and "heaven" and in the meaning for "iron of the sky" was used for iron in general – suggesting an explicit recognition of meteoritic iron. Similar ideas appear in Semitic languages, where Hebrew parzil and Akkadian barzillu derive from barzu-ili "metal of god/of heaven" and the association persists into modern Georgian, where a meteorite is called tsis-natckhi "fragment of heaven". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..12f30e143 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Meteorite fall" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Meteorite of Aegospotami === +The meteorite of Aegospotami might be the earliest case of a meteorite fall, where in surviving literature an observed fall is directly linked to a recovered mass. Writing about this meteorite, the ancient Greek natural philosopher Diogenes of Apollonia - living in the 5th century BCE - is also credited as the first author to argue meteorites have an extraterrestrial origin. According to writings recorded by doxographer Aetius he established:"In addition to the visible stars, invisible stones also wander through the heavens, having no name. They frequently fall on Earth and their fire gets extinguished, like the stony star which fell in flames at Aegospotami."Ancient writers including Aristotle, Pliny the Elder and Plutarch reported that a large stone fell at Aegospotami on the Gallipoli Peninsula in the second year of the 78th Olympiad – corresponding to the year 466 BCE. The meteorite was described as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load and according to Plutarch was displayed and worshipped by the inhabitants of the Gallipoli Peninsula for several hundred years, until at least the first century AD. +The object itself did not survive for modern study but the event - although unconfirmed - has been treated as plausible report of a meteorite fall. The name of Diogenes of Apollonia lives on in the meteorite world, since Gustav Tschermak in 1885 proposed the name Diogenite for an abundant type of Achondrite "after Diogenes of Apollonia, who was the first to express clear ideas about the cosmic origin and the sidereal nature of meteorites." +The fact that Diogenes' hypothesis about the extraterrestrial origin of meteorites was given minimal further attention and it took more than two millennia for his solution to gain scientific acceptance is also due to Aristotle. Aristotle about a century after Diogenes of Apollonia proposed a different account, treating the phenomenon as atmospheric; in his Meteorologica he discusses the Aegospotami stone in connection with a bright comet and suggests winds related to the comet carried the stone and dropped it later. In 2010 a computer model showed, that the comet described by Aristotle coincides with the retrodicted appearance of Halley's Comet in the summer of 466 BCE. +Aristotle's work - in which he also proposed that interplanetary space was devoid of solid matter - exerted a strong influence well beyond antiquity and his ideas were adopted by scholars in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. As a result, even in the 18th century most western scholars remained convinced that meteorites did not originate from outer space. Instead, they were often explained as stones thrown into the air by volcanic eruptions or lightning strikes and then falling back to the ground, or as products formed within the atmosphere through the action of lightning. + +== Beginning of scientific meteorite research == +Around the turn of the 18th to the 19th century, a series of insights and publications, events and investigations laid the foundation for the scientific study of stones that fall from the sky. It was between 1794 and 1804 towards the ending Age of Enlightenment, when the debate shifted from anecdote and skepticism to treating meteorites as objects of empirical study, and meteoritics began to develop into a serious scientific discipline. Within ten years, four major scientific advances paved the way for broad acceptance. By 1804, most scholars accepted that meteorites are of extraterrestrial origin. + +=== Ernst Chladni's book on the origin of iron masses === +In April 1794, the German natural scientist Ernst Chladni published his book "On the Origin of the Pallas Iron and Other Similar Iron Masses, and on Some Associated Natural Phenomena". With his book Chladni was the first in modern Western thought to publish the then audacious idea that meteorites are rocks from space, making the book a major turning point in the understanding of meteorites. Challenging the prevailing terrestrial explanations and the widespread skepticism of his time, he proposed a coherent hypothesis that linked reported falls of stones and irons to bright fireballs and argued that these objects originated in cosmic space rather than on earth. By reframing "stones from the sky" as a legitimate natural phenomenon worth investigating, it helped kick-start modern meteoritics and paved the way for later acceptance through systematic studies and well-documented falls. Chladni is therefore sometimes considered as the father of meteoritics. +After a conversation with Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, who had witnessed a fireball in 1791, Ernst Chladni started searching the literature for eyewitness accounts of fireballs and rocks from the sky. He spent several weeks in the Göttingen State and University Library – which was considered one of the leading research libraries in Germany at the time – and studied reports of 18 observed meteorite falls from various countries and dating from antiquity to the 18th century. Chladni compiled what he considered the most reliable eyewitness reports and the striking consistency among these accounts convinced him that the witnesses were describing a real physical phenomenon. +The three most prominent records of observed falls studied by Chladni were the meteorites of Eichstädt (1785), Tabor (1753) and Hraschina (1751). For information on these three falls, Chladni quoted extensively from a paper "On Some Stones Allegedly Fallen from Heaven" published in 1790 by Austrian mineralogist Andreas Stütz. He compared them to the accounts of observed falls from Ensisheim (1492), Pleskowitz (1723), Nicorps (1750), Albareto (1766), Lucé (1768) and Aire-sur-la-Lys (1769). All of these meteorites are still considered observed falls today, although not all of these meteorites are still preserved. + +=== Observation of falls and systematic field investigations === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a688b1ea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Meteorite fall" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Meteorite of Siena ==== +The publication of Chladnis book at Easter 1794 happened only six weeks before the well observed and documented meteorite fall of Siena in Italy. The Siena meteorite shower of 16 June 1794 was the first in modern times to occur in the vicinity of a major European city, which at the time had a population of nearly 30,000. Hence the meteorite fall was witnessed by so many people that its authenticity was difficult to dismiss. The observed fall sparked a lively controversy involving more than half a dozen scientists. + +==== Meteorite of L'Aigle ==== +A decisive turning point came with the meteorite fall of L'Aigle in France in 1803 and the documentation of this event by Jean-Baptiste Biot for the French scientific establishment; his systematic collection of testimony, mapping of the strewn field, and material comparisons helped convince much of the European scientific community that meteorites are real extraterrestrial falls. + +=== Chemical analysis of meteorites === +Another step forward into the future of meteoritics was the laboratory work of British chemist Edward Charles Howard and French mineralogist Jacques Louis, Comte de Bournon. They carried out analyses of samples of recently observed falls of Benares, Siena, Wold Cottage and Tabor together with samples from iron finds of Campo del Cielo, Krasnojarsk, Siratik and Steinbach. They published their results in 1801 and in an extended version in 1802 showing that - unlike ordinary terrestrial rocks - all the examined meteorites contained nickel, which is extremely rare in the Earth's crust and therefore implying a distinct class of materials. + +=== Discovery of asteroids === +The telescopic discovery of the first asteroids Ceres by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801, Pallas by Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers in 1802 and Juno by Karl Ludwig Harding in 1804 revealed that the region between Mars and Jupiter contains small, planet-like bodies, from which rocky and metallic material could be delivered to Earth, providing a plausible extraterrestrial source for meteorites. + +== List of meteorite falls == + +=== Historic falls (861 – 1794) === + +The table below lists all 40 historically accepted observed meteorite falls before April 1794, when Chladni published his book marking the beginning of meteoritics as a modern scientific field. +The table is based on the classification of the Meteoritical Bulletin Database maintained by the Meteoritical Society, however - unlike the meteorites of Nōgata, Ensisheim or Hraschina - not all are well-documented and only half of the listed meteorites are preserved to date. + +=== Recent falls (since 1959) === +As of May 2026, there have been 474 approved meteorites with observed falls found since the beginning of 1959. The year 1959 marks the beginning of the era of instrumentally observed meteorite falls, with the meteorite of Přibram being the first. Before that, meteorite falls could only be observed by human eyes (and ears). + +=== Falls before automated monitoring (1794 – 1959) === +This table lists all meteorites with observed falls since 1794 and before 1959. In April 1794 the German natural scientists Ernst Chladni published his book "On the Origin of the Pallas Iron and Other Similar Iron Masses, and on Some Associated Natural Phenomena". This publication was a turning point in the understanding of meteorites because it argued – against the fashionable skepticism of the time – that the reported falls of stones and irons were real and that meteorites have their origin in cosmic space, linking them to bright fireballs. It was a groundbreaking work for the further development of scientific views since the late 18th century. + +== See also == +Glossary of meteoritics +Meteorite fall statistics + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_archaeology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_archaeology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..df64840cf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_archaeology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,245 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of archaeology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_archaeology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:51.969520+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to archaeology: +Archaeology – study of cultures through the recovery, documentation, and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. + + +== What type of thing is archaeology? == +Archaeology can be described as all of the following: + +Academic discipline +Science +Social science + + +=== Essence of archaeology === +Archaeological ethics +Archaeological excavation +Archaeological record +Archaeological science +Archaeological site +Archaeological theory +Artifacts +Biofacts +Excavation + + +== Branches of archaeology == + + +=== Archaeological practice === +Cultural Resources Management +Archaeological ethics +Urban archaeology + + +=== Archaeological science === +Archaeological science + +Archaeometry +Dendrochronology +Isotope analysis +Palynology +Radiocarbon dating +Zooarchaeology +Geoarchaeology +Bioarchaeology +Archaeogenetics +Computational archaeology + + +=== Archaeological subdisciplines === +Subfields of archaeology +Ethnoarchaeology +Taphonomy + + +==== By location ==== +List of archaeological sites by country +African archaeology +Australian archaeology +European archaeology + +Russian archaeology +Archaeology of the Americas +Archaeology of Ayodhya +Archaeology of the Channel Islands +Archaeology of China +Archaeology of Cyprus +Archaeology of India +Archaeology of Iowa (United States) +Archaeology of Israel +Archaeology of Northern Europe +Archaeology of the Philippines +Archaeology of Qatar + + +==== By time period ==== +Industrial archaeology +Near Eastern archaeology +Biblical archaeology +Medieval archaeology +Historical archaeology +Post-medieval archaeology +Industrial archaeology +Contemporary archaeology + + +==== Specialities ==== +Aerial archaeology +Archaeoastronomy +Archaeological science +Archaeozoology +Archaeobotany or paleoethnobotany +Battlefield archaeology +Computational archaeology +Experimental archaeology +Environmental archaeology +Forensic archaeology +Landscape archaeology +Maritime archaeology +Museum studies +Palaeoarchaeology +Paleopathology + + +== History of archaeology == +History of archaeology + +Table of years in archaeology + + +== Archaeological methods == +Archaeological excavation +Archaeological field survey +Archaeological geophysics +Underwater archaeology + + +== Archaeological theory == +Archaeological theory + +Great ages archaeology +Functionalism +Processualism / "New Archaeology" +Post-processualism +Cognitive archaeology +Gender archaeology +Feminist archaeology +History of archaeology + + +== Archaeology by Period == +List of archaeological periods +List of archaeological periods (North America) +Lower Palaeolithic +Middle Palaeolithic +Upper Palaeolithic +Mesolithic +Neolithic +Chalcolithic +Bronze Age +Iron Age +Romans +Anglo-Saxons +Pre-Columbian +Medieval +Industrial + + +== Archaeological sites == +Archaeological site + +Feature +Cairn +Megalithic tomb +Pyramid +Sepulchre +Tomb +Votive site + + +=== Archaeological site features === + + +== Archaeological artifacts == + +Assemblage +Grave goods +Hoard +Manuport +Sarcophagus +Small finds +Stone tool +Votive deposit + + +== Other archaeology concepts == +Alignment +Archaeological association +Archaeological context +Archaeological culture +Archaeological field survey +Archaeological horizon +Archaeological natural +Archaeological phase +Archaeological plan +Archaeological record +Archaeological sequence +Biofact +Collecting +Colluvium +Cropmarks +Cultural resources management +Cut +Dark earth +Dating methodology +Dendrochronology +Deposit model +Ecofact +Excavation +Fill +Fossil +Geologic time scale +Geomatics +Grave robbing +Ground-penetrating radar +Harris matrix +Law of superposition +Lithic analysis +Post excavation +Projectile point +Radiocarbon dating +Relationship +Seriation +Stratification + + +== Influential archaeologists == +List of archaeologists + + +== Archaeology lists == +List of archaeological periods +List of archaeologists +List of Russian historians +List of designations under the Protection of Wrecks Act +List of archaeological sites by country +List of archaeological sites by continent and age +List of Paleolithic sites in China +List of paleoethnobotanists +Table of years in archaeology + + +== External links == +The Society for American Archaeology +The World Archaeological Congress +The Archaeological Institute of America \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34a0ed283 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of astronomy" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:19.119580+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to astronomy: +Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). Astronomy also intersects with biology, as astrobiology, studying potential life throughout the universe. + +== Nature of astronomy == +Astronomy can be described as all the following: + +An academic discipline: one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. +A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies it +A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. +A branch or field of space science +A hobby or part-time pursuit for the satisfaction of personal curiosity or appreciation of beauty, the latter especially including astrophotography. + +== Branches == +Astrobiology – studies the advent and evolution of biological systems in the universe. +Astrophysics (outline) – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior. Among the objects studied are galaxies, stars, planets, exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background; and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. The subdisciplines of theoretical astrophysics are: +Compact objects – this subdiscipline studies very dense matter in white dwarfs and neutron stars and their effects on environments including accretion. +Physical cosmology – origin and evolution of the universe as a whole. The study of cosmology is theoretical astrophysics at its largest scale. +Quantum cosmology - the study of cosmology through the use of quantum field theory to explain phenomena general relativity cannot due to limitations in its framework. +Computational astrophysics – The study of astrophysics using computational methods and tools to develop computational models. +Galactic astronomy – deals with the structure and components of our Galaxy and of other galaxies. +High energy astrophysics – studies phenomena occurring at high energies including active galactic nuclei, supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, quasars, and shocks. +Interstellar astrophysics – study of the interstellar medium, intergalactic medium and dust. +Extragalactic astronomy – study of objects (mainly galaxies) outside our Galaxy, including galaxy formation and evolution. +Stellar astronomy – concerned with Star formation, physical properties, main sequence life span, variability, stellar evolution and extinction. +Plasma astrophysics – studies properties of plasma in outer space. +Relativistic astrophysics – studies effects of special relativity and general relativity in astrophysical contexts including gravitational waves, gravitational lensing and black holes. +Solar physics – Sun and its interaction with the remainder of the Solar System and interstellar space. +Planetary Science – study of planets, moons, and planetary systems. +Atmospheric science – study of atmospheres and weather. +Exoplanetology – various planets outside of the Solar System +Planetary formation – formation of planets and moons in the context of the formation and evolution of the Solar System. +Planetary rings – dynamics, stability, and composition of planetary rings +Magnetospheres – magnetic fields of planets and moons +Planetary surfaces – surface geology of planets and moons +Planetary interiors – interior composition of planets and moons +Small Solar System bodies – smallest bodies, including asteroids, comets, Kuiper belt objects, and dust. +Astronomy divided by general technique used for astronomical research: +Astrometry – study of the position of objects in the sky and their changes of position. Defines the system of coordinates used and the kinematics of objects in our Galaxy. +Observational astronomy – practice of observing celestial objects by using telescopes and other astronomical apparatus. It is concerned with recording data. The subdisciplines of observational astronomy are generally made by the specifications of the detectors, specifically the ranges of wavelengths observed: +Radio astronomy – Above 300 μm +Submillimetre astronomy – 200 μm to 1 mm +Infrared astronomy – 0.7–350 μm +Optical astronomy – 380–750 nm +Ultraviolet astronomy – 10–320 nm +X-ray astronomy – 0.01–10 nm +Gamma-ray astronomy – Below 0.01 nm +Cosmic ray astronomy – Cosmic rays, including plasma +Neutrino astronomy – Neutrinos +Dust astronomy – Cosmic dust +Gravitational wave astronomy – Gravitons +Photometry – study of how bright celestial objects are when passed through different filters +Spectroscopy – study of the spectra of astronomical objects +Other disciplines that may be considered part of astronomy: +Archaeoastronomy +Astrochemistry + +== History == + +== Basic astronomical phenomena == + +== Astronomical objects == +Astronomical object + +=== Solar System === + +Solar System +Geology of solar terrestrial planets +List of Solar System objects +List of Solar System objects by size +Galilean satellites +Halley's Comet + +==== Sun ==== + +==== Planets ==== + +==== Small Solar System bodies ==== + +=== Exoplanets === +Exoplanet (also known as extrasolar planets) – planet outside the Solar System. A total of 4,341 such planets have been identified as of 28 Jan 2021. +Super-Earth – exoplanet with a mass higher than Earth's, but substantially below those of the Solar System's ice giants. +Mini-Neptune – also known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet. A planet up to 10 Earth masses, but less massive than Uranus and Neptune. +Super-Jupiter – an exoplanet more massive than Jupiter. +Sub-Earth – an exoplanet "substantially less massive" than Earth and Venus. +Circumbinary planet – an exoplanet that orbits two stars. +Hot Jupiter – an exoplanet whose characteristics are similar to Jupiter, but that have high surface temperatures because they orbit very close to their parent stars, whereas Jupiter orbits its parent star (the Sun) at 5.2 AU (780×106 km), causing low surface temperatures. +Hot Neptune – an exoplanet in an orbit close to its star (normally less than one astronomical unit away), with a mass similar to that of Uranus or Neptune. +Pulsar planet – a planet that orbits a pulsar or a rapidly rotating neutron star. +Rogue planet (also known as an interstellar planet) – a planetary-mass object that orbits the galaxy directly. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebc318b51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,222 @@ +--- +title: "Outline of astronomy" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:19.119580+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Stars and stellar objects === + +Compact object +Fixed stars + +==== Stars ==== + +==== Variable stars ==== + +==== Supernovae ==== + +==== Black holes ==== + +=== Constellations === +Constellation +Constellation family + +==== The 88 modern constellations ==== + +==== Constellation history ==== + +===== The 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy after 150 AD ===== + +===== The 41 additional constellations added in the 16th and 17th centuries ===== + +===== Obsolete constellations including Ptolemy's Argo Navis ===== + +=== Clusters and nebulae === + +=== Galaxies === +Galaxy +Andromeda Galaxy +Magellanic Clouds +Quasar + +=== Cosmology === + +=== Space exploration === +See: Outline of space exploration + +== Organizations == + +=== Public sector space agencies === +Space agencies + +==== Africa ==== + +===== North Africa ===== + Algerian Space Agency + National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences +Egypt Remote Sensing Center + Royal Centre for Remote Sensing + National Remote Sensing Center + +===== Sub-Saharan ===== + National Space Research and Development Agency + South African National Space Agency + +==== North America ==== + Agencia Espacial Mexicana + Canadian Space Agency + NASA + United States Department of Defense +National Reconnaissance Office +United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command +United States Space Command +United States Space Force + +==== South America ==== + Agencia Bolivariana para Actividades Espaciales + Brazilian Space Agency + Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology + Colombian Space Commission + Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales + Comisión Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Aeroespacial + Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica + Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas + National Institute for Space Research + +==== Asia ==== + +===== East Asia ===== + China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology +China Academy of Space Technology +China Chang Feng +China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation +Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense) +China National Space Administration + Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Institute of Space and Astronautical Science +National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan +National Space Development Agency of Japan) +National Institute of Information and Communications Technology +Institute for Unmanned Space Experiment Free Flyer + National Remote Sensing Center + Korean Committee of Space Technology + Korea Aerospace Research Institute + National Space Organization + +===== Southeast Asia ===== + National Institute of Aeronautics and Space + Malaysian Space Agency + Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration + Thai Ministry of Science and Technology's Space Agency + Space Technology Institute +Vietnam Space Commission + +===== South Asia ===== + Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization + Department of Space +Antrix Corporation +Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology +Indian Space Research Organisation +National Atmospheric Research Laboratory +New Space India Limited +North-Eastern Space Applications Centre +Physical Research Laboratory +Semi-Conductor Laboratory + Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission + +===== Southwest Asia ===== + Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency1 + Iran Aviation Industries Organization +Iranian Space Agency + Israel Space Agency +National Committee for Space Research + TÜBİTAK UZAY + +===== Central Asia ===== + KazCosmos +Kazakh Space Research Institute1 + Turkmenistan National Space Agency1 + UzbekCosmos1 + +==== Europe ==== + Austrian Space Agency + Belarus Space Agency1 + Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy + Bulgarian Space Agency + Czech Space Office + Danish National Space Center +esa European Cooperation for Space Standardization +European Space Agency + EUMETSAT +European Union Satellite Centre + CNES + German Aerospace Center + Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing + Hungarian Space Office + Space Ireland + Italian Space Agency + Space Science and Technology Institute1 + Luxinnovation + Netherlands Institute for Space Research + Norwegian Space Centre + Space Research Centre + Portuguese Space Company + Romanian Space Agency + Russian Federal Space Agency1 +Russian Space Research Institute1 +Russian Space Forces + Soviet space program + Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial + Swedish National Space Board + Swiss Space Office + UK Space Agency + State Space Agency of Ukraine1 + +==== Oceania ==== + Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation + +==== World ==== +Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization +Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems + Committee on Space Research +International Academy of Astronautics +International Telecommunications Satellite Organization +Intercosmos +Intersputnik + Pan-Arab Space Agency + United Nations +United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space +United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs + +1 Preceded by the Soviet space program + +=== Books and publications === + +== Astronomers == + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Astronomy Guide For reviews on astronomy products, how-to's and current events. +Astronomy Net Resources, forums (from 1995), articles on Astronomy. +International Year of Astronomy 2009 IYA2009 Main website +Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology from the American Institute of Physics +Astronomy Picture of the Day +Southern Hemisphere Astronomy +Sky & Telescope publishers +Astronomy Magazine +Latest astronomy news in 11 languages +Universe Today for astronomy and space-related news +Celestia Motherlode Educational site for Astronomical journeys through space +Search Engine for Astronomy +Hubblesite.org – home of NASA's Hubble Space Telescope Archived 2019-05-10 at the Wayback Machine +Astronomy – A History – G. Forbes – 1909 (eLibrary Project – eLib Text) +(historical) +Prof. Sir Harry Kroto, NL, Astrophysical Chemistry Lecture Series. 8 Freeview Lectures provided by the Vega Science Trust. +Core books and core journals in Astronomy, from the Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8f1b27581 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Table of years in archaeology" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:51:53.291128+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following entries cover events related to the study of archaeology which occurred in the listed year. + +1600s - 1700s - 1800s - 1900s- 2000s + + +== 1600s == +1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 16091610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 +1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 +1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 +1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 +1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 +1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 +1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 +1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 1689 +1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 + + +== 1700s == +1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 17091710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 +1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 +1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 +1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 +1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 +1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 +1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 +1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 +1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 + + +== 1800s == +1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 18091810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 +1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 +1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 +1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 +1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 +1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 +1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 +1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 +1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 + + +== 1900s == +1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 +1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 +1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 +1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 +1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 +1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 +1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 +1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 +1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 +1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 + + +== 2000s == + +2000 2001 2002 2003 +2004 2005 2006 2007 +2008 2009 +2010 2011 2012 2013 +2014 2015 2016 2017 +2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Medal-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Medal-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db0bde72c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Medal-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Tyson Medal" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Medal" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:53:54.534529+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Tyson Medal is a prize awarded for the best performance in subjects relating to astronomy at the University of Cambridge, England. It is awarded annually for achievement in the examinations for Part III of the Mathematical Tripos when there is a candidate deserving of the prize. In his will, Henry Tyson made the following bequest: + +That the sum of three hundred pounds be paid to the Cambridge University the interest annually to be for a gold medal for the best proficient in Mathematics and Astronomy in the same way as Dr Smith's and to bear the donor's name. +The value of the fund was £65,095 in 2008. + + +== List of winners == +Most of this list is from The Times newspaper archive. The winners of the prize are published in The Cambridge University Reporter. + + +== See also == +List of astronomy awards +List of mathematics awards + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_V._Tikhomirov_History_of_Geology_Award-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_V._Tikhomirov_History_of_Geology_Award-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ce38ef96 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_V._Tikhomirov_History_of_Geology_Award-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Vladimir V. Tikhomirov History of Geology Award" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_V._Tikhomirov_History_of_Geology_Award" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:13.849374+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Vladimir V. Tikhomirov History of Geology Award is a geological and historical medal of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). It is the only international award for scientific contributions and achievements in the field of history of geological sciences. + + +== History == +Named in honor of the Soviet historian of geology Vladimir Vladimirovich Tikhomirov (1915–1994) — the organizer and first president of the International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO) in 1967. Nominations for the award are made by the International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO), approved by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). +In 2012, the medal was established by the International Union of Geological Sciences for work on the history of geology. The medal is made of bronze. +Since 2020, the medal with a diameter of 10 cm is made of Armenian obsidian. + + +== Awards == + +The medal is awarded every four years during the International Geological Congress. +Throughout history, the medal has been awarded to: + +2012 — Hugh Torrens, United Kingdom +2016 — Martin J. S. Rudwick, United Kingdom +2020 — David Branagan (Branagan David Francis (1930–2022)), Australia +2024 — Kenneth L. Taylor United States + + +== References == + + +== Links == +https://inhigeo.org/awards/ - INHIGEO Vladimir V. Tikhomirov History of Geology Award +Longtime OU Professor to Receive International Award in Geology History (2024). \ No newline at end of file

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