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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attention | 4/5 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T11:04:13.138266+00:00 | kb-cron |
Divided attention refers to attempts to allocate attention to multiple sources of information or tasks at the same time. In everyday language, this is often called multitasking. Research consistently shows that people make more errors and perform tasks more slowly when multitasking than when focusing on one task at a time. Early research examined limits on learning and perception when people performed simultaneous tasks, such as reading while listening and writing something else, or listening to two different messages through each ear (dichotic listening). Later work examined divided attention in applied settings such as driving while tuning a radio or driving while talking on a phone. Most contemporary research on multitasking investigates dual-task performance, often combining driving with secondary tasks such as texting, eating, or conversing. These studies show that driving performance deteriorates under dual-task conditions: drivers are more error-prone, brake harder and later, drift across lanes, and show reduced awareness of their surroundings. There is little difference between speaking on hands-free versus hand-held phones, suggesting that the primary limitation is cognitive rather than motor. In contrast, passengers in the car can adapt their conversation to the demands of driving (e.g., pausing when traffic becomes complex), reducing interference. Daniel Kahneman proposed a single-pool model of attentional resources: one central pool can be flexibly allocated across tasks, but total capacity is limited. Later work emphasized modality-specific and task-specific constraints, noting that interference is stronger when tasks rely on similar modalities (e.g., two verbal tasks). David Navon and Daniel Gopher proposed a modality-based model of resources, while more recent dual-task research suggests that task demands themselves are critical. Resource theory suggests that as tasks become more automatic, they consume fewer attentional resources, making divided performance more efficient. Other factors, including anxiety, arousal, task difficulty, and individual skills, also shape divided attention performance.
=== Simultaneous === Simultaneous attention refers to sustained attention to multiple events at the same time, rather than rapidly switching between them. This pattern has been documented in children in many Indigenous communities, who learn extensively by observing and participating in ongoing group activities. In such contexts, children often coordinate their actions with others while monitoring multiple ongoing events, rather than dividing attention by alternation. This differs from multitasking as typically studied in Western settings, which often involves sequentially switching between tasks. Simultaneous attention is reflected in the way Indigenous heritage toddlers and caregivers in San Pedro coordinate activities: they frequently engage in overlapping tasks and shared focus, whereas middle-class European-descent families in the U.S. more often move back and forth between events. Research suggests that children with close ties to Indigenous American communities are especially keen observers.
=== Social === Social attention concerns the allocation of processing resources in social contexts. Many studies have examined how attention is drawn to socially relevant stimuli such as faces, gaze direction, and body posture. A complementary line of research shows that self-related information (e.g., one’s own face or name) automatically captures attention and is preferentially processed relative to others’ information. A synthetic view proposes that social attention spans a continuum from attending-to-self to attending-to-others. In one pole, individuals prioritize self-related information; in the other, they allocate attention to others to infer intentions and desires. Mechanisms supporting these polarities may interact and compete to form a social saliency map that guides behavior. Imbalances between attending-to-self and attending-to-others are implicated in conditions such as autism spectrum disorders and Williams syndrome.
== Models ==
=== Clinical ===
In cognitive psychology there are multiple models describing how attention operates, particularly in the visual domain. These models are often treated as metaphors that guide hypothesis generation and empirical testing. A common assumption is that visual attention involves at least two stages. In an initial parallel stage, information across the visual field is processed in a coarse manner. In a subsequent focused stage, attention is concentrated on a subset of items, which are processed in more detail, often in a serial fashion. In the 20th century, the work of Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria contributed to neuropsychological models in which attention, memory, and activation form three co-active components of the working brain. In The Working Brain (1973) and Higher Cortical Functions in Man (1962), A. R. Luria presented a three-part model comprising (1) an attention system, (2) a mnestic (memory) system, and (3) a cortical activation system. Homskaya described these works as among Luria's major contributions to neuropsychology, integrating theoretical, clinical, and experimental perspectives. Clinically, attention is often treated as a basic prerequisite for other cognitive functions. One widely used clinical model is that of Sohlberg and Mateer. Developed from work with patients recovering from brain damage and coma, this hierarchic model describes five levels of attentional functioning:
Focused attention: responding discretely to specific sensory stimuli. Sustained attention (vigilance and concentration): maintaining consistent responses during continuous and repetitive activity. Selective attention: maintaining a behavioral or cognitive set in the presence of distracting or competing stimuli (“freedom from distractibility”). Alternating attention: shifting focus and mental set between tasks with different cognitive demands. Divided attention: responding simultaneously to multiple tasks or task demands. This model has been useful for evaluating attention across diverse pathologies, correlates well with everyday functioning, and informs rehabilitation programs such as Attention Process Training.