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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Causes of sexual violence | 5/5 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_sexual_violence | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T15:21:46.478064+00:00 | kb-cron |
=== Gender based socialization and sexual scripts === Studies of college-aged sexually active men and women show they often conceptualize men as sexual initiators and women as sexual gatekeepers. It has been argued that sexual assault trials, as well as rape itself, may be influenced by cultural narratives of men as sexual instigators. Boys are brought up to be sexually aggressive, dominant and conquering, as a way of affirming their masculinity. Catharine MacKinnon argues that men rape "for reasons that they share in common even with those who don't, namely masculinity and their identification with masculine norms and in particular being the people who initiate sex and being the people who socially experience themselves as being affirmed by aggressive initiation of sexual interaction". According to Check and Malamuth (1983), men are taught to take the initiative and persist in sexual encounters, while women are supposed to set the limits. This classical sexual script is often popularized through television shows, popular films and pornography, which depict the man making a sexual advance and the woman initially resisting, but then finally positively responding by falling in love with him or experiencing orgasm (Cowen, Lee, Levy, and Snyder, 1988; Malamuth and Check, 1981; Smith, 1976; Waggett, 1989). The implied message is that men should persist beyond a woman's protest and women should say "no" even if they desire sex (Muehlenhard and McCoy, 1991). The more traditional the society, the closer the adherence to this sexual script. For this reason, many men do not believe that a woman means "no" when she says "no", and continue to pressure the woman, and ultimately coerce or force her into sex; consent often becomes confused with submission. In many societies, men who do not act in a traditionally masculine way are ostracized by their peers and considered effeminate In studies, young males from Cambodia, Mexico, Peru and South Africa reported that they have participated in incidents where girls were coerced into sex (such as gang rapes) and that they did so as a way to prove their masculinity to their friends, or under peer pressure and fear that they would be rejected if they did not participate in the assault.
=== Sex industry and sexual assault === Some theorists charge that the acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual violence against women, by reinforcing stereotypical views about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. The anti-pornography feminist, Andrea Dworkin, has famously argued this point in her controversial Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1981).
== Evolutionary explanations ==
Males who under some circumstances used force may have had greater reproductive success in the ancestral environment than males who did not employ force. Sociobiological theories of rape are theories that explore to what degree, if any, evolutionary adaptations influence the psychology of rapists. Such theories are highly controversial, as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation. Some object to such theories on ethical, religious, political as well as scientific grounds. Others argue that a correct knowledge of the causes of rape is necessary in order to develop effective preventive measures. There is extensive research on sexual coercion.
== See also == Correlates of crime Dark figure of crime Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence Types of rape Sexual violence Women's fear of crime
== References ==
== Further reading == Marnie E. Rice; Lalumiere, Martin L.; Vernon L. Quinsey (2005). The Causes Of Rape: Understanding Individual Differences In Male Propensity For Sexual Aggression (The Law and Public Policy.). American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1-59147-186-8.
== External links == Rape Crisis Information Pathfinder – Find journal articles, statistics and online resources on rape and sexual assault. Includes male survivor information Sexual Violence Facts from the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control