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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ocean thermal energy conversion | 10/10 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T07:35:54.854158+00:00 | kb-cron |
=== Dissolved gases === The performance of direct contact heat exchangers operating at typical OTEC boundary conditions is important to the Claude cycle. Many early Claude cycle designs used a surface condenser since their performance was well understood. However, direct contact condensers offer significant disadvantages. As cold water rises in the intake pipe, the pressure decreases to the point where gas begins to evolve. If a significant amount of gas comes out of solution, placing a gas trap before the direct contact heat exchangers may be justified. Experiments simulating conditions in the warm water intake pipe indicated about 30% of the dissolved gas evolves in the top 8.5 meters (28 ft) of the tube. The trade-off between pre-deaeration of the seawater and expulsion of non-condensable gases from the condenser is dependent on the gas evolution dynamics, deaerator efficiency, head loss, vent compressor efficiency and parasitic power. Experimental results indicate vertical spout condensers perform some 30% better than falling jet types.
=== Microbial fouling === Because raw seawater must pass through the heat exchanger, care must be taken to maintain good thermal conductivity. Biofouling layers as thin as 25 to 50 micrometres (0.00098 to 0.00197 in) can degrade heat exchanger performance by as much as 50%. A 1977 study in which mock heat exchangers were exposed to seawater for ten weeks concluded that although the level of microbial fouling was low, the thermal conductivity of the system was significantly impaired. The apparent discrepancy between the level of fouling and the heat transfer impairment is the result of a thin layer of water trapped by the microbial growth on the surface of the heat exchanger. Another study concluded that fouling degrades performance over time, and determined that although regular brushing was able to remove most of the microbial layer, over time a tougher layer formed that could not be removed through simple brushing. The study passed sponge rubber balls through the system. It concluded that although the ball treatment decreased the fouling rate it was not enough to completely halt growth and brushing was occasionally necessary to restore capacity. The microbes regrew more quickly later in the experiment (i.e. brushing became necessary more often) replicating the results of a previous study. The increased growth rate after subsequent cleanings appears to result from selection pressure on the microbial colony. Continuous use of 1 hour per day and intermittent periods of free fouling and then chlorination periods (again 1 hour per day) were studied. Chlorination slowed but did not stop microbial growth; however chlorination levels of 0.1 mg per liter for 1 hour per day may prove effective for long term operation of a plant. The study concluded that although microbial fouling was an issue for the warm surface water heat exchanger, the cold water heat exchanger suffered little or no biofouling and only minimal inorganic fouling. Besides water temperature, microbial fouling also depends on nutrient levels, with growth occurring faster in nutrient rich water. The fouling rate also depends on the material used to construct the heat exchanger. Aluminium tubing slows the growth of microbial life, although the oxide layer which forms on the inside of the pipes complicates cleaning and leads to larger efficiency losses. In contrast, titanium tubing allows biofouling to occur faster but cleaning is more effective than with aluminium.
=== Sealing === The evaporator, turbine, and condenser operate in partial vacuum ranging from 3% to 1% of atmospheric pressure. The system must be carefully sealed to prevent in-leakage of atmospheric air that can degrade or shut down operation. In closed-cycle OTEC, the specific volume of low-pressure steam is very large compared to that of the pressurized working fluid. Components must have large flow areas to ensure steam velocities do not attain excessively high values.
=== Parasitic power consumption by exhaust compressor === An approach for reducing the exhaust compressor parasitic power loss is as follows. After most of the steam has been condensed by spout condensers, the non-condensible gas steam mixture is passed through a counter current region which increases the gas-steam reaction by a factor of five. The result is an 80% reduction in the exhaust pumping power requirements.
== Cold air/warm water conversion ==
In winter in coastal Arctic locations, the temperature difference between the seawater and ambient air can be as high as 40 °C (72 °F). Closed-cycle systems could exploit the air-water temperature difference. Eliminating seawater extraction pipes might make a system based on this concept less expensive than OTEC. This technology is due to H. Barjot, who suggested butane as cryogen, because of its boiling point of −0.5 °C (31.1 °F) and its non-solubility in water. Assuming a realistic level of efficiency of 4%, calculations show that the amount of energy generated with one cubic meter water at a temperature of 2 °C (36 °F) in a place with an air temperature of −22 °C (−8 °F) equals the amount of energy generated by letting this cubic meter water run through a hydroelectric plant of 4000 feet (1,200 m) height. Barjot Polar Power Plants could be located on islands in the polar region or designed as swimming barges or platforms attached to the ice cap. The weather station Myggbuka at Greenlands east coast for example, which is only 2,100 km away from Glasgow, detects monthly mean temperatures below −15 °C (5 °F) during 6 winter months in the year.
== Application of the thermoelectric effect == In 1979 SERI proposed using the Seebeck effect to produce power with a total conversion efficiency of 2%. In 2014 Liping Liu, Associate Professor at Rutgers University, envisioned an OTEC system that utilises the solid state thermoelectric effect rather than the fluid cycles traditionally used.
== See also ==
Deep water source cooling Geothermal power Heat engine Floating wind turbine Ocean engineering Seawater air conditioning Thermogalvanic cell Marine energy Tidal power Wave power Osmotic power
== References ==
== Sources == William H. Avery; Chih Wu (17 March 1994). Renewable Energy From the Ocean: A Guide to OTEC. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratories Series in Science and Engineering. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507199-3.
== External links ==