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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Timeline of crystallography | 2/6 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_crystallography | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T16:17:33.515741+00:00 | kb-cron |
== 20th century == 1905 - Charles Glover Barkla discovered the X-ray polarization effect. 1908 - Bernhard Walter and Robert Wichard Pohl observed X-ray diffraction from a slit. 1912 - Max von Laue discovered diffraction patterns from crystals in an x-ray beam. 1912 - Bragg diffraction, expressed through Bragg's law, is first presented by Lawrence Bragg on 11 November 1912 to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 1912 - Heinrich Baumhauer discovered and described polytypism in crystals of carborundum, or silicon carbide. 1913 - Lawrence Bragg published the first observation of x-ray diffraction by crystals. Similar observations were also published by Torahiko Terada in the same year. 1913 - Georges Friedel stated Friedel's law, a property of Fourier transforms of real functions. Friedel's law is used in X-ray diffraction, crystallography and scattering from real potential within the Born approximation. 1914 - Max von Laue won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals." 1915 - William and Lawrence Bragg published the book X rays and crystal structure and shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays." 1916 - Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer discovered powder (polycrystalline) diffraction. 1916 - Paul Peter Ewald predicted the Pendellösung effect, which is a foundational aspect of the dynamical diffraction theory of X rays. 1917 - Albert W. Hull independently discovered powder diffraction in researching the crystal structure of metals. 1920 - Reginald Oliver Herzog and Willi Jancke published the first systematic analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns of cellulose extracted from a variety of sources. 1921 - Paul Peter Ewald introduced a spherical construction for explaining the occurrence of diffraction spots, which is now called Ewald's sphere. 1922 - Charles Galton Darwin formulated the theory of X-ray diffraction from imperfect crystals and introduced the concept of mosaicity in crystallography. 1922 - Ralph Wyckoff published a book containing tables with the positional coordinates permitted by the symmetry elements. These positions are now known as Wyckoff positions. This book was the forerunner of the International tables for crystallography, which first appeared in 1935. 1923 - Roscoe Dickinson and Albert Raymond, and independently, H.J. Gonell and Hermann Mark, first showed that an organic molecule, specifically hexamethylenetetramine, could be characterized by x-ray crystallography. 1923 - William H. Bragg and Reginald E. Gibbs elucidated the structure of quartz. 1923 - Paul Peter Ewald published his book Kristalle und Röntgenstrahlen (Crystals and X-rays). 1924 - Louis de Broglie in his PhD thesis Recherches sur la théorie des quanta introduced his theory of electron waves. This was the start of electron and neutron diffraction and crystallography. 1924 - J.D. Bernal established the structure of graphite. 1926 - Victor Goldschmidt distinguished between atomic and ionic radii and postulated some rules for atom substitution in crystal structures. 1927 - Frits Zernike and Jan Albert Prins proposed the pair distribution function for analyzing molecular structures in solution-phase diffraction. 1927 - Two groups demonstrated electron diffraction, the first the Davisson–Germer experiment, the other by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid. Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments, but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident. 1928 - Felix Machatschki, working with Goldschmidt, showed that silicon can be replaced by aluminium in feldspar structures. 1928 - Kathleen Lonsdale used x-rays to determine that the structure of benzene is a flat hexagonal ring. 1928 - Paul Niggli introduced reduced cells for simplifying structures using a technique now known as Niggli reduction. 1928 - Hans Bethe published the first non-relativistic explanation of electron diffraction based upon Schrödinger's equation, which remains central to all further analysis. 1928 - Carl Hermann introduced and Charles Mauguin modified the international standard notation for crystallographic groups called Hermann–Mauguin notation. 1929 - Linus Pauling formulated a set of rules (later called Pauling's rules) to describe the structure of complex ionic crystals. 1929 - William Howard Barnes published the crystal structure of ice. 1930 - Lawrence Bragg assembled the first classification of silicates, describing their structure in terms of grouping of SiO4 tetrahedra. 1930 - Gas electron diffraction was developed by Herman Mark and Raymond Wierl, 1931 - Paul Ewald and Carl Hermann published the first volume of the Strukturbericht (Structure Report), which established the systematic classification of crystal structure prototypes, also known as the Strukturbericht designation. 1931 - Fritz Laves enumerated the Laves tilings for the first time. 1932 - W. H. Zachariasen published an article entitled The atomic arrangement in glass, which perhaps had more influence than any other published work on the science of glass. 1932 - Friedrich Rinne introduced the concept of paracrystallinity for liquid crystals and amorphous materials. 1932 - Vadim E. Lashkaryov and Ilya D. Usyskin determined of the positions of hydrogen atoms in ammonium chloride crystals using electron diffraction. 1934 - Arthur Patterson introduced the Patterson function which uses diffraction intensities to determine the interatomic distances within a crystal, setting limits to the possible phase values for the reflected x-rays. 1934 - Martin Julian Buerger developed the equi-inclination Weissenberg X-ray camera. Buerger invented the precession camera in 1942. 1934 - C. Arnold Beevers and Henry Lipson invented the Beevers–Lipson strip as a calculation aid for Fourier methods for the determination of the crystal structure of CuSO4.5H2O. 1934 - Fritz Laves investigated the structures of intermetallic compounds of formula AB2. These structures were subsequently named Laves phases. 1935 - First publication of the International tables for the determination of crystal structures edited by Carl Hermann. The successor volumes are currently published by IUCr as the International tables for crystallography. 1935 - William Astbury established the structure of keratin using x-ray crystallography; this work provided the foundation for Linus Pauling's 1951 discovery of the α-helix. 1936 - Peter Debye won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases." 1936 - Hans Boersch showed that electron microscope could be used as micro-diffraction cameras with an aperture—the birth of selected area electron diffraction. 1937 - Clinton Joseph Davisson and George Paget Thomson shared the Nobel Prize in physics "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals." 1939 - Linus Pauling published the book The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals. 1939 - André Guinier discovered small-angle X-ray scattering. 1939 - Walther Kossel and Gottfried Möllenstedt published the first work on convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED), It was extended by Peter Goodman and Gunter Lehmpfuhl, then mainly by the groups of John Steeds and Michiyoshi Tanaka who showed how to use CBED patterns to determine point groups and space groups. 1941 - The International Centre for Diffraction Data was founded. 1945 - George W. Brindley and Keith Robinson solved the crystal structure of kaolinite. 1945 - The crystal structure of the perovskite BaTiO3 was first published by Helen Megaw based on barium titanate X-ray diffraction data. 1945 - A.F. Wells published the classic reference book, Structural inorganic chemistry, which subsequently went through five editions. 1946 - Foundation of the International Union of Crystallography.