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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Archaeology | 8/11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T15:06:27.665454+00:00 | kb-cron |
Archaeology can be a subsidiary activity within Cultural resource management (CRM), also called Cultural heritage management (CHM) in the UK. CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites threatened by development. CRM accounts for most archaeological research done in the US and much of that in western Europe. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966. Most scholars and politicians believe CRM has helped preserve much of the US's history and prehistory that would otherwise have been lost to the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land, or involving federal funds or permits, consider the effects of the project on each archaeological site. The application of CRM in the UK is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990, PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of or during construction in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense. Some of the largest archaeological projects ever undertaken in the UK are due to major infrastructure projects such as the A14 road improvement scheme and the construction of HS2. In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the Department for Culture, Media and Sport in association with English Heritage. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the same responsibilities lie with Historic Scotland, Cadw and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency respectively. In France, the Institut national du patrimoine (The National Institute of Cultural Heritage) trains curators specialized in archaeology. Their mission is to enhance the objects discovered. The curator is the link between scientific knowledge, administrative regulations, heritage objects, and the public. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study examines whether significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. Cultural resources management has been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and the expected budget. The agency responsible for the construction often chooses the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face time pressure, often forced to complete their work in much less time than might be allotted to a purely academic project. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process for site reports that CRM firms are required to submit to the appropriate State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective, there is no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a tight deadline and a multi-year academic project. The ratio of open academic archaeology positions to the number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is low. CRM, once an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds", has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are increasingly staffed by advance degreed workers with a track record of producing scholarly articles, but who also have extensive CRM field experience.
== Protection ==
The protection of archaeological finds for the public from catastrophes, wars, and armed conflicts is increasingly being implemented internationally. This happens, on the one hand, through international agreements and, on the other hand, through organizations that monitor or enforce protection. United Nations, UNESCO, and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage, including archaeological sites. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping. Blue Shield International has undertaken various fact-finding missions in recent years to protect archaeological sites during the wars in Libya, Syria, Egypt, and Lebanon. The importance of archaeological finds for identity, tourism, and sustainable economic growth is repeatedly emphasized internationally. The president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, said during a cultural property protection mission in Lebanon in April 2019 with the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore, and subsequently flee from their homeland."
== Popular views of archaeology ==
Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features or to explore vast, mysterious abandoned cities, and was mostly carried out by upper-class, scholarly men. This general tendency laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. Many of the public view archaeology as something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a "romantic adventurist occupation", and as a hobby more than a job in the scientific community. Cinema audiences form a notion of "who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted", and are often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. The modern depiction of archaeology has distorted the public's perception of what it is. Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copán and the Valley of the Kings, but the bulk of modern archaeological activity and finds is not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, excavations, and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology". Archaeologists are also highly reliant on public support; the question of for whom they work is often discussed.
== Current issues and controversy ==