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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extrasensory perception | 2/2 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrasensory_perception | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T09:19:38.440536+00:00 | kb-cron |
Parapsychology is the study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including ESP. Parapsychology has been criticized for continuing investigation despite being unable to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research. The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP and the lack of positive experimental results; it considers ESP to be pseudoscience. The scientific consensus does not view extrasensory perception as a scientific phenomenon. Skeptics have pointed out that there is no viable theory to explain the mechanism behind ESP, and that there are historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies. There are many criticisms pertaining to experiments involving extrasensory perception, particularly surrounding methodological flaws. These flaws are not unique to a single experimental design, and are effective in discrediting much of the positive research surrounding ESP. Many of the flaws seen in the Zener cards experiment are present in the Ganzfeld experiment as well. First is the stacking effect, an error that occurs in ESP research. Trial-by-trial feedback given in studies using a "closed" ESP target sequence (e.g., a deck of cards) violates the condition of independence used for most standard statistical tests. Multiple responses for a single target cannot be evaluated using statistical tests that assume independence of responses. This increases the likelihood of card counting and, in turn, increases the chances for the subject to guess correctly without using ESP. Another methodological flaw involves cues through sensory leakage, for example, when the subject receives a visual cue. This could be the reflection of a Zener card in the holder's glasses. In this case, the subject is able to guess the card correctly because they can see it in the reflection, not because of ESP. Finally, poor randomization of target stimuli could be happening. Poor shuffling methods can make the orders of the cards easier to predict, or the cards could have been marked and manipulated, again, making it easier to predict which cards come next. The results of a meta-analysis found that when these errors were corrected and accounted for, there was still no significant effect of ESP. Many of the studies only appeared to have significant occurrence of ESP, when in fact, this result was due to the many methodological errors in the research.
=== Dermo-optical perception ===
In the early 20th century, Joaquin María Argamasilla, known as the "Spaniard with X-ray Eyes", claimed to be able to read handwriting or numbers on dice through closed metal boxes. Argamasilla managed to fool Gustav Geley and Charles Richet into believing he had genuine psychic powers. In 1924, he was exposed by Harry Houdini as a fraud. Argamasilla peeked through his simple blindfold and lifted the edge of the box, so he could look inside it without others noticing. Science writer Martin Gardner has written that the ignorance of blindfold deception methods has been widespread in investigations into objects at remote locations from persons who claim to possess second sight. Gardner documented various conjuring techniques psychics such as Rosa Kuleshova, Lina Anderson and Nina Kulagina have used to peek from their blindfolds to deceive investigators into believing they used second sight.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading == Georges Charpak, Henri Broch, and Bart K. Holland (2004). Debunked! ESP, Telekinesis, and Other Pseudoscience. Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 0-8018-7867-5. Milbourne Christopher (1970). ESP, Seers & Psychics: What the Occult Really Is. Thomas Y. Crowell Co. ISBN 0-690-26815-7 Henry Gordon (1988). Extrasensory Deception: ESP, Psychics, Shirley MacLaine, Ghosts, UFOs. Macmillan of Canada. ISBN 0-7715-9539-5. Donald Hebb (1980). "Extrasensory Perception: A Problem". In Essays on Mind. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-898-59017-3. Paul Kurtz (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-300-5. Targ, Russell (2012). The Reality of ESP: a physicist's proof of psychic abilities. Quest Books. ISBN 978-0-8356-0884-8. Richard Wiseman. (1997). Deception and Self-Deception: Investigating Psychics. Prometheus Press. ISBN 978-1-57392-121-3.
== External links == FBI file on Extrasensory perception