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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electricity meter | 7/9 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_meter | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T09:42:32.585250+00:00 | kb-cron |
=== Customer drop and metering equation === Since electrical standards vary in different regions, "customer drops" from the grid to the customer also vary depending on the standards and the type of installation. There are several common types of connections between a grid and a customer. Each type has a different metering equation. Blondel's theorem states that for any system with N current-carrying conductors, that N-1 measuring elements are sufficient to measure electrical energy. This indicates that different metering is needed, for example, for a three-phase three-wire system than for a three-phase four-wire (with neutral) system. In Europe, Asia, Africa and most other locations, single phase is common for residential and small commercial customers. Single phase distribution is less-expensive, because one set of transformers in a substation normally serve a large area with relatively high voltages (usually 230 V) and no local transformers. These have a simple metering equation: Watts = volts x amps, with volts measured from the neutral to the phase wire. In the United States, Canada, and parts of Central and South America similar customers are normally served by three-wire single phase. Three-wire single-phase requires local transformers, as few as one per ten residences, but provides lower, safer voltages at the socket (usually 120 V), and provides two voltages to customers: neutral to phase (usually 120 V), and phase to phase (usually 240 V). Additionally, three-wire customers normally have neutral wired to the zero side of the generator's windings, which gives earthing that can be easily measured to be safe. These meters have a metering equation of Watts = 0.5 x volts x (amps of phase A − amps of phase B), with volts measured between the phase wires. Industrial power is normally supplied as three phase power. There are two forms: three wire, or four wire with a system neutral. In "three wire" or "three wire delta", there is no neutral but an earth ground is the safety ground. The three phases have voltage only relative to each other. This distribution method has one fewer wire, is less expensive, and is common in Asia, Africa, and many parts of Europe. In regions that mix residences and light industry, it is common for this to be the only distribution method. A meter for this type normally measures two of the windings relative to the third winding, and adds the watts. One disadvantage of this system is that if the safety earth fails, it is difficult to discover this by direct measurement, because no phase has a voltage relative to earth. In the four-wire three-phase system, sometimes called "four-wire wye", the safety ground is connected to a neutral wire that is physically connected to the zero-voltage side of the three windings of the generator or transformer. Since all power phases are relative to the neutral in this system, if the neutral is disconnected, it can be directly measured. In the United States, the National Electrical Code requires neutrals to be of this type. In this system, power meters measure and sum all three phases relative to the neutral. In North America, it is common for electricity meters to plug into a standardised socket outdoors, on the side of a building. This allows the meter to be replaced without disturbing the wires to the socket, or the occupant of the building. Some sockets may have a bypass while the meter is removed for service. The amount of electricity used without being recorded during this small time is considered insignificant when compared to the inconvenience which might be caused to the customer by cutting off the electricity supply. Most electronic meters in North America use a serial protocol, ANSI C12.18. In many other countries the supply and load terminals are in the meter housing itself. Cables are connected directly to the meter. In some areas the meter is outside, often on a utility pole. In others, it is inside the building in a niche. If inside, it may share a data connection with other meters. If it exists, the shared connection is often a small plug near the post box. The connection is often EIA-485 or infrared with a serial protocol such as IEC 62056. In 2014, networking to meters is rapidly changing. The most common schemes seem to combine an existing national standard for data (e.g. ANSI C12.19 or IEC 62056) operating via the Internet Protocol with a small circuit board for powerline communication, or a digital radio for a mobile phone network, or an ISM band.
== Accuracy == Electricity meters are required to register the energy consumed within an acceptable degree of accuracy. Any significant error in the registered energy can represent a loss to the electricity supplier, or the consumer being over billed. The accuracy is generally laid down in statute for the location in which the meter is installed. Statutory provisions may also specify a procedure to be followed should the accuracy be disputed. For the United Kingdom, any installed electricity meter is required to accurately record the consumed energy, but it is permitted to under-read by 3.5%, or over-read by 2.5%. Disputed meters are initially verified with a check meter operating alongside the disputed meter. The final resort is for the disputed meter to be fully tested both in the installed location and at a specialist calibration laboratory. Approximately 93% of disputed meters are found to be operating satisfactorily. A refund of electricity paid for, but not consumed (but not vice versa) will only be made if the laboratory is able to estimate how long the meter has been misregistering. This contrasts with gas meters where if a meter is found to be under reading, it is assumed that it has under read for as long as the consumer has had a gas supply through it. Any refund due is limited to the previous six years.