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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cooperative pulling paradigm | 2/10 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_pulling_paradigm | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T09:49:48.882099+00:00 | kb-cron |
=== Subjects === So far, fewer than twenty species have participated in cooperative pulling experiments: chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, capuchin monkeys, tamarins, macaques, humans, hyenas, wolves, dogs, elephants, otters, dolphins, rooks, ravens, parrots, and kea. Researchers have picked species that cooperate in the wild (e.g., capuchins), live in social structures (e.g., wolves), or have known cognitive abilities (e.g., orangutans). Most of the participating animals have been in human care at an animal research center; some lived semi-free at a sanctuary in their natural habitat. One study involved free animals (Barbary macaques) in the wild.
=== Conditions === To arrive at conclusions regarding cooperation, researchers have designed experiments with various conditions.
==== Delay ==== The first animal has access to the apparatus before the other one. If the animal does not wait for its partner this suggests a lack of understanding of the requirements for successful cooperation.
=== Recruitment === The subject recruits the partner (for example by opening a door) when the task requires cooperation.
==== Partner choice ==== The first animal gets to choose which animal from a pair it wants as a partner. In some cases individual animals from within a group can decide to join an animal already at the apparatus.
==== Apparatus choice ==== Instead of just one apparatus in the test area there are two identical ones. Animals can decide to work on the same one (which can lead to success) or on different ones (which will lead to failure). A further design involves two different apparatus. The first animal can decide whether to use an apparatus that can be operated alone or one that requires and has a partner waiting. A 'no rope' version involves an apparatus where everything is the same except for the rope on the partner's side being coiled up and not accessible to the partner.
==== Reward ==== Rewards can be food split equally over two bowls in front of each animal, or in one bowl only. The type of food can vary from many small pieces to a single big lump (e.g., slices of an apple vs. a whole apple). In combination with the apparatus choice, the reward for the joint-task apparatus is often twice as big as the reward for the solo apparatus. Another variation is a modified apparatus where one partner gets food before the other, requiring the first one to keep pulling despite already having received the reward.
==== Visibility ==== Typically the animals can see each other, all rewards, and all parts of the apparatus. To assess the role of visual communication, sometimes an opaque divider is placed such that the animals can no longer see each other, but can still see both rewards.
==== Training ==== Animals are often first trained with an apparatus that can be operated by one individual. For example, the two ends of a string are on top of each other and a single animal can pull both ends. A technique called shaping can be used by gradually extending the distance between the string ends, or by gradually extending the length of delay between the arrival of the first and second animal at the apparatus.
== Findings ==