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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human nutrition | 4/20 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00 | kb-cron |
Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids. Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that six to eight glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However, the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with "desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed". For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women. Dehydration and over-hydration – too little and too much water, respectively – can have harmful consequences. Drinking too much water is one of the possible causes of hyponatremia, i.e., low serum sodium.
=== Minerals ===
Dietary minerals are inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. Some have roles as cofactors, while others are electrolytes. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned – including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most well-known is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.
==== Macrominerals ==== Elements with recommended dietary allowance (RDA) greater than 150 mg/day are, in alphabetical order:
Calcium (Ca2+) is vital to the health of the muscular, circulatory, and digestive systems; is indispensable to the building of bone; and supports the synthesis and function of blood cells. For example, calcium is used to regulate the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction, and the clotting of blood. It can play this role because the Ca2+ ion forms stable coordination complexes with many organic compounds, especially proteins; it also forms compounds with a wide range of solubility, enabling the formation of the skeleton. Food sources include yogurt, milk, cheese, leafy greens, tofu, and fortified beverages. Chlorine as chloride ions; electrolyte; see sodium, below. Magnesium, required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity). Approximately 50% is in bone, the remaining 50% is almost all inside body cells, with only about 1% located in extracellular fluid. Food sources include oats, buckwheat, tofu, nuts, caviar, green leafy vegetables, legumes, and chocolate. Phosphorus, required component of bones; essential for energy processing. Approximately 80% is found in the inorganic portion of bones and teeth. Phosphorus is a component of every cell, as well as important metabolites, including DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids. Also important in pH regulation. It is an important electrolyte in the form of phosphate. Food sources include cheese, egg yolk, milk, meat, fish, poultry, whole-grain cereals, and many others. Potassium, an electrolyte (heart and nerve function). With sodium, potassium is involved in maintaining normal water balance, osmotic equilibrium, and acid-base balance. In addition to calcium, it is important in the regulation of neuromuscular activity. Food sources include bananas, avocados, nuts, vegetables, potatoes, legumes, fish, and mushrooms. Sodium, a common food ingredient and electrolyte, found in most foods and manufactured consumer products, typically as sodium chloride (salt). Excessive sodium consumption can deplete calcium and magnesium. Sodium has a role in the etiology of hypertension demonstrated from studies showing that a reduction of table salt intake may reduce blood pressure.
==== Trace minerals ==== Many elements are required in smaller amounts (microgram quantities), usually because they play a catalytic role in enzymes. Some trace mineral elements (RDA < 200 mg/day) are, in alphabetical order: