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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attachment theory | 9/12 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T15:31:31.580137+00:00 | kb-cron |
== Neurobiology of attachment == In addition to longitudinal studies, there has been psychophysiological research on the neurobiology of attachment. Research has begun to include neural development, behaviour genetics and temperament concepts. Generally, temperament and attachment constitute separate developmental domains, but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes. Some types of temperament may make some individuals susceptible to the stress of unpredictable or hostile relationships with caregivers in the early years. In the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly vulnerable to developing attachment disorders. Social background factors affect the quality of caregiving received in infancy and childhood and can thus correlate with variations in an individual's neurological systems that regulate stress. In psychophysiological research on attachment, the two main areas studied have been autonomic responses, such as heart rate or respiration, and the activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, a system that is responsible for the body's reaction to stress. Infants' physiological responses have been measured during the Strange Situation procedure, looking at individual differences in five simple social behaviours. Some recent studies suggest that early attachment relationships are encoded at the molecular level in a child's cells, thereby affecting later immune system functioning. Some studies suggest that early negative experiences (not necessarily attachment-relevant) affect the immune system in ways which may raise the chances of suffering from cardiovascular disease, autoimmune diseases, and certain types of cancer. Advances in identifying key brain structures, neural circuits, neurotransmitter systems, and neuropeptides, open up the possibility of discovering how neurology might be involved in attachment system functioning (internal working models), if this could be operationally defined, and can indicate more about a certain individual. There is initial evidence that caregiving and attachment involve both unique and overlapping brain regions. Another issue is the role of inherited genetic factors in shaping attachments: for example one type of polymorphism of the gene coding for the D2 dopamine receptor has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the gene for the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor with avoidant attachment. Studies show that attachment in adulthood is simultaneously associated with biomarkers of immunity. For example, individuals with an avoidance attachment style produce higher levels of the pro inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) when reacting to an interpersonal stressor, while individuals representing an anxious attachment style tend to have elevated cortisol production and lower numbers of T cells. Although children vary genetically and each individual requires different attachment relationships, there is consistent evidence that maternal warmth during infancy and childhood creates a safe haven for individuals resulting in superior immune system functioning. One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence. The most recent and comprehensive neurobiological framework is the functional neuro-anatomical model of human attachment (NAMA) developed by Pascal Vrticka and colleagues, which has been further extended to also include considerations of disorganised / disrupted attachment (NAMDA). A narrative on the neurobiological roots of attachment-system functioning delineating the involved neurobiological circuits in more detail is also available. The latest considerations of human attachment from a social neuroscience perspective furthermore emphasise the importance of bio-behavioural and interpersonal neural synchrony, which are summarised under the umbrella of relational neuroscience.
== Crime == Attachment theory has often been applied in the discipline of criminology. It has been used in an attempt to identify causal mechanisms in criminal behaviour – with uses ranging from offender profiling, better understanding types of offence and the pursuit of preventative policy. It has been found that disturbances early on in child-caregiver relationships are a risk factor in criminality. Attachment theory in this context has been described as "perhaps the most influential of contemporary psychoanalytically oriented theories of crime".
=== Age distribution of crime === Two theories about why crime peaks in the late teenage years and early twenties are called the developmental theory and the life-course theory, and both involve attachment theory. Developmental perspectives argue that individuals with disrupted childhood attachments will have criminal careers that persist well into adulthood. Life course perspectives argue that relationships at every stage of the life course can influence an individual's likelihood of committing crimes.
=== Types of offences === Disrupted attachment patterns from childhood have been identified as a risk factor for domestic violence. These disruptions in childhood can prevent the formation of a secure attachment relationship, and in turn adversely affecting a healthy way to deal with stress. In adulthood, lack of coping mechanisms can result in violent behaviour. Bowlby's theory of functional anger states that children signal to their caregiver that their attachment needs are not being met by use of angry behaviour. This perception of low support from partner has been identified as a strong predictor of male violence. Other predictors have been named as perceived deficiency in maternal love in childhood, low self-esteem. It has also been found that individuals with a dismissive attachment style, often seen in an antisocial/narcissistic-narcissistic subtype of offender, tend to be emotionally abusive as well as violent. Individuals in the borderline/emotionally dependent subtype have traits which originate from insecure attachment in childhood, and tend to have high levels of anger. It has been found that sexual offenders have significantly less secure maternal and paternal attachments compared with non-offenders which suggests that insecure attachments in infancy persist into adulthood. In a recent study, 57% of sexual offenders were found to be of a preoccupied attachment style. There is also evidence that suggests subtypes of sexual crime can have different attachment styles. Dismissive individuals tend to be hostile towards others, and are more likely to offend violently against adult women. By contrast, child abusers are more likely to have preoccupied attachment styles as the tendency to seek approval from others becomes distorted and attachment relationships become sexualized.