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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Architecture | 3/6 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T13:58:49.365806+00:00 | kb-cron |
Early human settlements were mostly rural. Expanding economies resulted in the creation of proto-cities or urban areas, which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan. Neolithic archaeological sites include Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük in Turkey, Jericho in the Levant, Mehrgarh in Pakistan, Skara Brae in Orkney, and Cucuteni-Trypillian culture settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine.
=== Classical era ===
In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in their architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler or the state itself. In Egypt, the education of state architects was closely linked to the priestly class, and trade secrets were passed from father to son. Plans were drawn and then implemented using the ruler, square, and triangle. The architecture and urbanism of classical civilizations such as the Greek and Roman civilizations evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones. New building types emerged and architectural style developed in the form of the classical orders. Roman architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times—these texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of Vitruvius in the 1st century BC. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.
=== Asian architecture ===
Asian architecture developed differently from European architecture, and the Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architectural styles have different characteristics. Unlike Indian and Chinese architecture, which had great influence on the surrounding regions, Japanese architecture did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity, in particular Buddhist architecture. Moreover, another architectural achievement in Asia is the Hindu temple architecture, which developed from around the 5th century CE. It is, in theory, governed by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing both the macrocosm and the microcosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape. Also, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly using wood until recent times, and there are few survivals of great age. Buddhism was associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning as rock-cut architecture, which has often survived very well. Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BC, the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India, Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka, and Araniko of Nepal.
=== African Architecture ===
The Architecture of Africa is very diverse, reflecting the continent’s many climates, cultures, and histories. Traditional African architecture mixes building traditions, using a wide arrange of materials like mud, stone, and wood. Fractal scaling is commonly used in designs, making smaller parts of a structure mirror the overall design. This concept can be seen in village layouts and decorative elements. Historical stone structures like the great Zimbabwe walls show the long lasting and durable construction. Wattle and Daub is a technique used in many areas that take wooden frames covered in mud to create rounded structures that help to regulate the temperature inside. Architecture in West Africa such as Porto-Novo in Benin, Lagos Island and Zaria in Nigeria and Dakar in Senegal is dominated by the Sudano-Sahelian, Afro-modernist designs and Sobrado styles. This is a form of multi-storied, Portuguese-Brazilian baroque architecture. These buildings are suited for dry, hot climates, as they often have central or rear courtyard, stuccoed façades, symmetrical layouts, tiled roofs for heat insulation, and prominent balconies. Along the Swahili Coast of East Africa many homes are made out of coral stone with mangrove pole roofs. The architecture is a mix of local, Arabic and Islamic styles due to trade across the Indian Ocean. Ethiopia also has stunning architectural traditions like the rock-hewn churches like the 13th century churches of Lalibela which were carved directly into the ground. Together, these styles highlight the creativity, adaptability, and cultural depth of African architectural traditions.
=== Islamic architecture ===
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, Africa, Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean islands, the Indian Sub-continent and later in Eastern parts of Europe, such as the Balkan States, as the result of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.
=== European medieval architecture ===
In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents. The major architectural undertakings were the building of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic. A significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous fortifications across the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an important part of European heritage.
=== Renaissance architecture ===