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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expectancy theory | 1/3 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00 | kb-cron |
Expectancy theory (or expectancy theory of motivation) proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave. Expectancy theory is a motivation theory concerned with mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. First proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management in 1964, it aims to explain the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In relation to the study of organizational behavior, the theory stresses "the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients". Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual's expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as valence.
== Author ==
In 1964, Victor H. Vroom developed the expectancy theory through his study of the motivations behind decision-making. This theory is relevant to the study of management.
== Key elements == The expectancy theory of motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over the other. This theory explains that individuals can be motivated towards goals if they believe that there is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, the outcome of a favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, a reward from a performance will satisfy an important need, and/or the outcome satisfies their need enough to make the effort worthwhile. Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). Expectancy theory has three components:
Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P) Instrumentality: performance → outcome (P→O) Valence: V(R) outcome → reward
=== Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P) === Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals, usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.
Self efficacy – the person's belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired to achieve their goals. Goal difficulty – when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes that their desired results are unattainable. Perceived control – Individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to influence, expectancy, and thus motivation, is low.
=== Instrumentality: performance → outcome (P→O) === Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given. Another way that instrumental outcomes work is commissions. With commissions performance is directly correlated with outcome (how much money is made). If performance is high and many goods are sold, the more money the person will make. Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies:
Trusting the people who will decide who gets what outcome, based on the performance, Control of how the decision is made, of who gets what outcome, and Policies understanding of the correlation between performance and outcomes
=== Valence: Reward(R) === Valence is the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and sources of motivation. Influential factors include one's values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome. Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome. The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 →0→ +1 -1= avoiding the outcome 0 = indifferent to the outcome +1 = welcomes the outcome In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Valence is one behavioral alternative, where the decision is measured on the value of the reward. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized: Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF). Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions), whereas valence is rooted in an individual's value system. Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments, recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what their employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to get the highest result and effectiveness out of the workplace.
== Later research ==