5.1 KiB
| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Theodolite | 1/4 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T09:43:39.815016+00:00 | kb-cron |
A theodolite () is a precision optical instrument for measuring angles between designated visible points in the horizontal and vertical planes. The traditional use has been for land surveying, but it is also used extensively for building and infrastructure construction, and some specialized applications such as meteorology and rocket launching. It consists of a moveable telescope mounted so it can rotate around horizontal and vertical axes and provide angular readouts. These indicate the orientation of the telescope, and are used to relate the first point sighted through the telescope to subsequent sightings of other points from the same theodolite position. Depending on the instrument, these angles can be measured with accuracies down to microradians or seconds of arc. From these readings a plan can be drawn, or objects can be positioned in accordance with an existing plan. The modern theodolite has evolved into what is known as a total station where angles and distances are measured electronically, and are read directly to computer memory. A transit theodolite has a telescope short enough to rotate about the instrument's horizontal trunnion axis, turning the scope through the vertical plane and its zenith; vertical rotation in non-transit instruments is restricted to a limited arc. The optical level is sometimes mistaken for a theodolite, but it does not measure vertical angles, and is used only for leveling on a horizontal plane (though often combined with medium accuracy horizontal range and direction measurements).
== Principles of operation ==
=== Preparation for making sightings ===
Temporary adjustments are a set of operations necessary in order to make a theodolite ready for taking observations at a station. These include its setting up, centering, leveling up and elimination of parallax, and are achieved in four steps:
Setting up: fixing the theodolite onto a tripod along with approximate leveling and centering over the station mark. Centering: bringing the vertical axis of theodolite immediately over station mark using a centering plate also known as a tribrach. Leveling: leveling of the base of the instrument to make the vertical axis vertical usually with an in-built bubble-level. Focusing: removing parallax error by proper focusing of objective and eye-piece. The eye-piece only requires adjustment once at a station. The objective will be re-focused for each subsequent sighting from this station because of the different distances to the target.
=== Sightings === Sightings are taken by the surveyor, who adjusts the telescope's vertical and horizontal angular orientation so the cross-hairs align with the desired sighting point. Both angles are read either from exposed or internal scales and recorded. The next object is then sighted and recorded without moving the position of the instrument and tripod. The earliest angular readouts were from open vernier scales directly visible to the eye. Gradually these scales were enclosed for physical protection. Angular micrometer scales were also used (not to be confused with the micrometer (device), a device used for length measurements). Finally, angle readings became an indirect optical readout, with convoluted light paths to bring them to a convenient place on the instrument for viewing. The modern digital theodolites have electronic displays. Micrometers are also used in telescopes and microscopes to measure the apparent diameter of celestial bodies or microscopic objects or the angular distances between two such objects. The micrometer used with a telescope was invented about 1638 by William Gascoigne, an English astronomer.
=== Errors in measurement === Index error The angles in the vertical axis should read 90° (100 grad) when the sight axis is horizontal, or 270° (300 grad) when the instrument is transited. Half of the difference between the two positions is called the index error. This can only be checked on transit instruments. Horizontal axis error The horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite must be perpendicular; if not then a horizontal axis error exists. This can be tested by aligning the tubular spirit bubble parallel to a line between two footscrews and setting the bubble central. A horizontal axis error is present if the bubble runs off central when the tubular spirit bubble is reversed (turned through 180°). To adjust, the operator removes half the amount the bubble has run off using the adjusting screw, then re-level, test and refine the adjustment. Collimation error The optical axis of the telescope must also be perpendicular to the horizontal axis; if not, then a collimation error exists. Index error, horizontal-axis error (trunnion-axis error) and collimation error are regularly determined by calibration and are removed by mechanical adjustment. Their existence is taken into account in the choice of measurement procedure in order to eliminate their effect on the measurement results of the theodolite.
== History ==