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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Decision-making | 3/6 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision-making | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T11:04:22.741043+00:00 | kb-cron |
=== Group === Consensus decision-making tries to avoid "winners" and "losers". Consensus requires that a majority approve a given course of action, but that the minority agree to go along with the course of action. In other words, if the minority opposes the course of action, consensus requires that the course of action be modified to remove objectionable features. Voting-based methods: Majority requires support from more than 50% of the members of the group. Thus, the bar for action is lower than with consensus. See also Condorcet method. Plurality, where the largest faction in a group decides, even if it falls short of a majority. Score voting (or range voting) lets each member score one or more of the available options, specifying both preference and intensity of preference information. The option with the highest total or average is chosen. This method has experimentally been shown to produce the lowest Bayesian regret among common voting methods, even when voters are strategic. It addresses issues of voting paradox and majority rule. See also approval voting. Quadratic voting allows participants to cast their preference and intensity of preference for each decision (as opposed to a simple for or against decision). As in score voting, it addresses issues of voting paradox and majority rule. Delphi method is a structured communication technique for groups, originally developed for collaborative forecasting but has also been used for policy making. Dotmocracy is a facilitation method that relies on the use of special forms called Dotmocracy. They are sheets that allows large groups to collectively brainstorm and recognize agreements on an unlimited number of ideas they have each written. Participative decision-making occurs when an authority opens up the decision-making process to a group of people for a collaborative effort. Decision engineering uses a visual map of the decision-making process based on system dynamics and can be automated through a decision modeling tool, integrating big data, machine learning, and expert knowledge as appropriate.
=== Individual === Decisional balance sheet: listing the advantages and disadvantages (benefits and costs, pros and cons) of each option, as suggested by Plato's Protagoras and by Benjamin Franklin. Expected-value optimization: choosing the alternative with the highest probability-weighted utility, possibly with some consideration for risk aversion. This may involve considering the opportunity cost of different alternatives. See also Decision analysis and Decision theory. Satisficing: examining alternatives only until the first acceptable one is found. The opposite is maximizing or optimizing, in which many or all alternatives are examined in order to find the best option. Acquiesce to a person in authority or an "expert"; "just following orders". Anti-authoritarianism: taking the most opposite action compared to the advice of mistrusted authorities. Flipism e.g. flipping a coin, cutting a deck of playing cards, and other random or coincidence methods – or prayer, tarot cards, astrology, augurs, revelation, or other forms of divination, superstition or pseudoscience. Automated decision support: setting up criteria for automated decisions. Decision support systems: using decision-making software when faced with highly complex decisions or when considering many stakeholders, categories, or other factors that affect decisions. Decision coaching refers to support given by a health-care professionals to assist a person when making a health-related or medical-related decision. Decision coaching is an active process where the health professional and the patient are active in the decision-making process.
== Steps == A variety of researchers have formulated similar prescriptive steps aimed at improving decision-making:
=== GOFER === In the 1980s, psychologist Leon Mann and colleagues developed a decision-making process called GOFER, which they taught to adolescents, as summarized in the book Teaching Decision Making To Adolescents. The process was based on extensive earlier research conducted with psychologist Irving Janis. GOFER is an acronym for five decision-making steps:
Goals clarification: Survey values and objectives. Options generation: Consider a wide range of alternative actions. Facts-finding: Search for information. Consideration of Effects: Weigh the positive and negative consequences of the options. Review and implementation: Plan how to review the options and implement them.
=== Other ===
In 2007, Pam Brown of Singleton Hospital in Swansea, Wales, divided the decision-making process into seven steps:
Outline the goal and outcome. Gather data. Develop alternatives (i.e., brainstorming). List pros and cons of each alternative. Make the decision. Immediately take action to implement it. Learn from and reflect on the decision. In 2008, Kristina Guo published the DECIDE model of decision-making, which has six parts:
Define the problem Establish or Enumerate all the criteria (constraints) Consider or Collect all the alternatives Identify the best alternative Develop and implement a plan of action Evaluate and monitor the solution and examine feedback when necessary In 2009, professor John Pijanowski described how the Arkansas Program, an ethics curriculum at the University of Arkansas, used eight stages of moral decision-making based on the work of James Rest:
Establishing community: Create and nurture the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how problems are understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a moral dilemma. Perception: Recognize that a problem exists. Interpretation: Identify competing explanations for the problem, and evaluate the drivers behind those interpretations. Judgment: Sift through various possible actions or responses and determine which is more justifiable. Motivation: Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral course of action and then prioritize and commit to moral values over other personal, institutional or social values. Action: Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision. Reflection in action. Reflection on action.
=== Post-decision analysis ===
Evaluation and analysis of past decisions are considered to be complementary steps to decision-making.
=== Group stages === There are four stages or phases that should be involved in all group decision-making: