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| title | chunk | source | category | tags | date_saved | instance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coral reef | 10/13 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef | reference | science, encyclopedia | 2026-05-05T07:34:41.179437+00:00 | kb-cron |
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are areas designated because they provide various kinds of protection to ocean and/or estuarine areas. They are intended to promote responsible fishery management and habitat protection. MPAs can also encompass social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity, and economic benefits. The effectiveness of MPAs is still debated. For example, a study investigating the success of a small number of MPAs in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea found no significant differences between the MPAs and unprotected sites. Furthermore, in some cases they can generate local conflict, due to a lack of community participation, clashing views of the government and fisheries, effectiveness of the area and funding. In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, MPAs provide revenue to locals. The level of income provided is similar to the income they would have generated without controls. Overall, it appears the MPAs can protect local coral reefs, but that clear management and sufficient funds are required. The Caribbean Coral Reefs – Status Report 1970–2012 states that coral decline may be reduced or even reversed. For this, overfishing needs to be stopped, especially fishing on species key to coral reefs, such as parrotfish. Direct human pressure on coral reefs should also be reduced, and the inflow of sewage should be minimised. Measures to achieve this could include restricting coastal settlement, development, and tourism. The report shows that healthier Caribbean reefs are those with large, healthy populations of parrotfish. These occur in countries that protect parrotfish and other species, like sea urchins. They also often ban fish trapping and spearfishing. Together these measures help creating "resilient reefs". Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate refugia, helps ensure the greatest chance of genetic diversity, which is critical for coral to adapt to new climates. A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective. Designating a reef as a biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument, or world heritage site can offer protection. For example, Belize's barrier reef, Sian Ka'an, the Galapagos islands, Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, Palau and Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument are world heritage sites. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan. Australia compiled a Coral Reef Resilience Action Plan. This plan consists of adaptive management strategies, including reducing carbon footprint. A public awareness plan provides education on the "rainforests of the sea" and how people can reduce carbon emissions. Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but no net or spear fishing. Both biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted. Increased atmospheric CO2 levels contribute to ocean acidification, which in turn damages coral reefs. To help combat ocean acidification, several countries have enacted laws to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide. Many land use laws aim to reduce CO2 emissions by limiting deforestation. Deforestation can release significant amounts of CO2 unless sequestered through active follow-up forestry programs. Deforestation can also cause erosion, which flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification. Incentives are used to reduce vehicle miles traveled, thereby reducing carbon emissions into the atmosphere and lowering dissolved CO2 in the ocean. State and federal governments also regulate land activities that affect coastal erosion. High-end satellite technology can monitor reef conditions. The United States Clean Water Act puts pressure on state governments to monitor and limit run-off of polluted water.
== Restoration == Coral reef restoration has grown in prominence over the past several decades because of the unprecedented reef die-offs around the planet. Coral stressors can include pollution, warming ocean temperatures, extreme weather events, and overfishing. With the deterioration of global reefs, fish nurseries, biodiversity, coastal development, livelihoods, and natural beauty, these are under threat. Fortunately, researchers have taken it upon themselves to develop a new field, coral restoration, in the 1970s–1980s
=== Coral farming ===
Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs. The "gardening" process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral seeds are grown in nurseries, then replanted on the reef. Coral is farmed by coral farmers whose interests range from reef conservation to increased income. Due to its straightforward process and substantial evidence of the technique having a significant effect on coral reef growth, coral nurseries became the most widespread and arguably the most effective method for coral restoration.