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3D Slicer (Slicer) is a free and open source software package for image analysis and scientific visualization. Slicer is used in a variety of medical applications, including autism, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, prostate cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, schizophrenia, orthopedic biomechanics, COPD, cardiovascular disease and neurosurgery.
== About ==
3D Slicer is a free open source software (BSD-style license) that is a flexible, modular platform for image analysis and visualization. 3D Slicer is extended to enable development of both interactive and batch processing tools for a variety of applications.
3D Slicer provides image registration, processing of DTI (diffusion tractography), an interface to external devices for image guidance support, and GPU-enabled volume rendering, among other capabilities. 3D Slicer has a modular organization that allows the addition of new functionality and provides a number of generic features.
The interactive visualization capabilities of 3D Slicer include the ability to display arbitrarily oriented image slices, build surface models from image labels, and hardware accelerated volume rendering. 3D Slicer also supports a rich set of annotation features (fiducials and measurement widgets, customized color maps).
Slicer's capabilities include:
Handling DICOM images and reading/writing a variety of other formats
Interactive visualization of volumetric Voxel images, polygonal meshes, and volume renderings
Manual editing
Fusion and co-registering of data using rigid and non-rigid algorithms
Automatic image segmentation
Analysis and visualization of diffusion tensor imaging data
Tracking of devices for image-guided procedures.
Slicer is compiled for use on multiple computing platforms, including Windows, Linux, and macOS.
Slicer is distributed under a BSD style, free, open source license. The license has no restrictions on use of the software in academic or commercial projects. However, no claims are made on the software being useful for any particular task. It is entirely the responsibility of the user to ensure compliance with local rules and regulations. The slicer has not been formally approved for clinical use by the FDA in the US or by any other regulatory body elsewhere.
== Image gallery ==
== History ==
Slicer started as a master's thesis project between the Surgical Planning Laboratory at the Brigham and Women's Hospital and the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in 1998. 3D Slicer version 2 has been downloaded several thousand times. In 2007 a completely revamped version 3 of Slicer was released. The next major refactoring of Slicer was initiated in 2009, which transitioned the GUI of Slicer from using KWWidgets to Qt. Qt-enabled Slicer version 4 was released in 2011. As of 2022, Slicer 4 had been downloaded over one million times by users around the world.
Slicer software has enabled a variety of research publications, all aimed at improving image analysis.
This significant software project has been enabled by the participation of several large-scale NIH funded efforts, including the NA-MIC, NAC, BIRN, CIMIT, Harvard Catalyst and NCIGT communities. The funding support comes from several federal funding sources, including NCRR, NIBIB, NIH Roadmap, NCI, NSF and the DOD.
== Users ==
Slicer's platform provides functionalities for segmentation, registration and three-dimensional visualization of multimodal image data, as well as advanced image analysis algorithms for diffusion tensor imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging and image-guided radiation therapy. Standard image file formats are supported, and the application integrates interface capabilities to biomedical research software.
Slicer has been used in a variety of clinical research. In image-guided therapy research, Slicer is frequently used to construct and visualize collections of MRI data that are available pre- and intra-operatively to allow for the acquiring of spatial coordinates for instrument tracking. In fact, Slicer has already played such a pivotal role in image-guided therapy, it can be considered as growing up alongside that field, with over 200 publications referencing Slicer since 1998.
In addition to producing 3D models from conventional MRI images, Slicer has also been used to present information derived from fMRI (using MRI to assess blood flow in the brain related to neural or spinal cord activity), DTI (using MRI to measure the restricted diffusion of water in imaged tissue), and electrocardiography. For example, Slicer's DTI package allows the conversion and analysis of DTI images. The results of such analysis can be integrated with the results from analysis of morphologic MRI, MR angiograms and fMRI. Other uses of Slicer include paleontology and neurosurgery planning.
There is an active community at Slicer's Discourse server.
== Developers ==
The Slicer Developer Orientation offers resources for developers new to the platform. Slicer development is coordinated on the Slicer Discourse forum, and a summary of development statistics is available on Ohloh.
3D Slicer is built on VTK, a pipeline-based graphical library that is widely used in scientific visualization and ITK, a framework widely used for the development of image segmentation and image registration. In version 4, the core application is implemented in C++, and the API is available through a Python wrapper to facilitate rapid, iterative development and visualization in the included Python console. The user interface is implemented in Qt, and may be extended using either C++ or Python.
Slicer supports several types of modular development. Fully interactive, custom interfaces may be written in C++ or Python. Command-line programs in any language may be wrapped using a light-weight XML specification, from which a graphical interface is automatically generated.
For modules that are not distributed in the Slicer core application, a system is available to automatically build and distribute for selective download from within Slicer. This mechanism facilitates the incorporation of code with different license requirements from the permissive BSD-style license used for the Slicer core.
The Slicer build process utilizes CMake to automatically build prerequisite and optional libraries (excluding Qt). The core development cycle incorporates automatic testing, as well as incremental and nightly builds on all platforms, monitored using an online dashboard.
Slicer's development is managed primarily through its GitHub repository.
== External dependencies ==
VTK
ITK
CMake
CPack
Python
Nrrd
MRML
IGSTK
Qt
== See also ==
Analyze
GIMIAS
List of free and open-source software packages
Mimics
== Notes ==
1.^For a list of publications citing Slicer usage since 1998, visit: slicer.org Archived 2016-03-29 at the Wayback Machine
== References ==
== External links ==
Slicer

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ANUGA Hydro is a free and open source software tool for hydrodynamic modelling, suitable for predicting the consequences of hydrological disasters such as riverine flooding, storm surges and tsunamis. For example, ANUGA can be used to create predicted inundation maps based on hypothetical tsunami or flood scenarios. The ANUGA name without qualification is used informally to mean the ANUGA Hydro tool.
== ANUGA ==
=== Background ===
Modelling the effects on the built environment of natural hazards such as riverine flooding, storm surges and tsunami is critical for understanding their economic and social impact on our urban communities.
ANUGA has its genesis as a MatLab program developed for ACTEW (an Australian Capital Territory owned utility providing electricity, water and wastewater treatment to the residents of the Australian Capital Territory). Its development was instigated by Dr Christopher Zoppou, a senior engineer in the Hydrographics Section of ACTEW in 1998 and a former student of Professor Stephen Roberts from the Australian National University (ANU). Stephen Roberts and Christopher Zoppou embarked on the development of a two-dimensional hydrodynamic shallow water wave equation solver. Written by Stephen Roberts, the MatLab code was used by Christopher Zoppou to simulate the impact of the catastrophic collapse of water supply reservoirs maintained by ACTEW. The code's ownership is shared between ANU and ACTEW.
In 2002 Christopher Zoppou left ACTEW to lead the Risk Modelling Section at Geoscience Australia (an Australian Government agency responsible for providing geo-scientific advice and information). The Risk Modelling Section was formed because Geoscience Australia was diversifying its interest from the impact of earthquakes on the built environment to the impact of other natural hazards. These included cyclones, storm surges and landslides. Christopher Zoppou initiated the development of a generic open source storm surge model within the Risk Modelling Section, that was based on the MatLab model developed for ACTEW. A small group was formed in 2002, consisting of Dr Ole Nielsen, who joined Geoscience Australia from the ANU and Mr Duncan Gray, a software developer to produce a comprehensive storm surge model in the Risk Modelling Section. Stephen Roberts was involved in the development of the hydrodynamic solver, Ole Nielsen led the modelling framework using Python, Duncan Gray participated in the coding and Christopher Zoppou provided hydraulic engineering advice on the model development. The open source model is jointly owned by ANU and Geoscience Australia and is called ANUGA.
In the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. the emphasis of ANUGA shifted from a storm surge model due to cyclones to inundation modelling caused by tsunamis resulting from earthquakes. This was not a quantum leap as the shallow water wave equations are applicable to tsunami, storm surge, flash and riverine flooding.
The first public open source release of ANUGA took place in December 2006. In 2007 after approaches from Local Government Engineers, a rainfall routine was added. This allows rainfall to be placed directly over the topography described in the computational domain. A time series can be applied to a polygon, or a series of polygons. Alternatively a rainfall grid can be applied. This is particularly useful for applying RADAR rainfall. ANUGA can model culverts and bridges with code from the open source Watershed Bounded Network Model (WBNM){Boyd, Rigby, VanDrie}, having a pipe, box and trapezoid routine. Development continues to create an arbitrary shape culvert solver that links to a 1D piped network model such as SWMM. ANUGA is stable even in extreme flow with high Froude numbers. An example of this is the 1928 St Francis Dam Break in California that resulted in extreme flow velocities and complex waves in a tortuous valley. ANUGA ran this model with full volumetric mass balance preserved at all times and no instabilities anywhere in the model.
In the ensuing years ANUGA has involved contributions form a number of individuals and organisations. These include: a sediment transport module etc.
=== Simulation engine ===
The fluid dynamics in ANUGA are based on a Finite volume method for solving the Shallow Water Wave Equation. The study area is represented by a mesh of triangular cells that can vary in size in order to capture detail where it is required. By solving the governing equation within each cell, water surface, bed elevation (hence depth) and horizontal (X-y) momentum are tracked over time.
A major capability of ANUGA is that it can model the process of wetting and drying as water enters and leaves an area. This means that it is suitable for simulating water flow onto a beach or dry land and around structures such as buildings. ANUGA is also capable of modelling hydraulic jumps due to the ability of the finite-volume method to accommodate discontinuities in the solution. While ANUGA works with discontinuities in the conserved momentum quantities, only the discontinuous elevation solvers allow discontinuities in the bed elevation. The latter were added to the code in 2013 and include the default algorithm as of ANUGA 2.0.
=== User Interface ===
Most ANUGA components are written in the object-oriented programming language Python. Software written in Python can be produced quickly and can be readily adapted to changing requirements throughout its lifetime. Computationally intensive components are written for efficiency in C routines working directly with Python numpy structures.
To set up a model of a scenario the user specifies the geometry (bathymetry and topography), the initial water level, boundary conditions such as tide, and any forcing terms that may drive the system such as rainfall, water abstraction, wind stress or atmospheric pressure gradients. Gravity and Frictional resistance from the different terrains in the model are represented by predefined forcing terms.
=== ANUGA viewer ===
The ANUGA Viewer is a graphical 3D rendering program suitable for animating the output files from ANUGA.

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Additional viewing capability is available via several other options:
– Using Commercial Software such as WaterRide (Ref to WebSite)
– Using Free tools Such as Mirone (Grid viewing software) which has a specific tool called Aquamoto
– Using SWW2DEM in combination with any GIS platform
– Using Crayfish viewer as plugin in QGIS
– Possibly using tools such as VisIt (Ref to Web Site)
=== Validation studies ===
ANUGA has been extensively validated against wave tank experiments and field studies where available, and ships with a validation test suite with about 30 analytical solutions, wave tank and field tests. Examples include validation against the wave tank experiment for the Okushiri 1995 tsunami, wave tank runup experiments at University of Queensland, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact at Patong Beach, comparison to other models, ANUGA was a late entry in the UK 2D model Benchmarking project in 2010 using version 1.1beta_7501. As a result, not all tests were completed. However of the basic tests ANUGA was well within the comparable range of results of other models. Since late 2013 the standard test suite for the model also includes a full catchment model (Towradgi Creek Catchment) which has been validated against the 17 August 1998 storm event.
=== ANUGA software development methodology ===
ANUGA was developed as an AGILE project so with strong adherence to Test Driven Development and Continuous Integration. ANUGA has more than 1200 individual tests that can be run by users or developers to verify that a given installation works as expected. ANUGA is fully versioned using the source code control system git, which allows a user to replicate a model run from a previous version at any time. It also of course thereby allows comparison with the current version.
=== ANUGA development timeline summary ===
Noting that ANUGA runs both in serial (1 core) and parallel (many cores) tested on 1000s.
Here is a rough time line of major developments:
Date : Version : Comment
1999 : ------- : Zoppou Roberts Paper
2004 : ------- : Storm Surge Open Source project started at Geoscience Australia in collaboration with the ANU. In: AusGEO news, No. 75, September 2004; pages: 8-9. Availability: <https://www.ga.gov.au/bigobj/GA5018.pdf
2005 : ------- : Project changed to focus on Tsunami Inundation following the 2004 disaster and was published as such at MODSIM 2005 International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia & New Zealand; pages: 518–523. Availability: <http://www.mssanz.org.au/modsim05/papers/nielsen.pdf>
2006/08/16: 3500 : Moved code to SVN
2006/09/07: 3548 : Offline viewer with Animation capability
2006/09/20: : Published work on Tsunami Modelling answers tsunami questions. In: AusGEO news, No. 83, September 2006; Availability: <https://www.ga.gov.au/bigobj/GA8710.pdf
2006/12/19: 4092 : First Public Release Open Source & Free: https://sourceforge.net/projects/anuga/files/OldFiles/anuga-1.0_4092.tgz/download
2007/06/04: 4530 : Rainfall forcing function added: Dr. Ole Nielsen, Rudy van Drie
2008/03/28: 5178 : Rainfall forcing to polygons : Dr. Ole Nielsen, Rudy van Drie
2008/06/10: 5435 : Bridges/ Culverts (using US Dept of Transportation Method as adapted by Generalised Equations by Boyd in the WBNM model): Dr. Ole Nielsen, Assoc. Prof. Stephen Roberts, Rudy Van Drie, Dr. Petar Milevski
2008/07/15: 5585 : Multi-Barrel culvert added
2009/08/14: 7376 : Moveable Bed (The bed elevation can be a time varying quantity): Dr. Ole Nielsen
2009/08/19: 7452 : Move culvert from Forcing to Operator: Assoc. Prof. Stephen Roberts
2009/ : ---- : Roberts and Nielsen featured at the ABC New Inventors: https://web.archive.org/web/20110428023729/http://www.abc.net.au/tv/newinventors/txt/s3023743.htm
2010/ : ---- : Sediment Transport and Vegetation Operators being developed: Mariella Perignon refer https://github.com/mperignon/anugaSed
2010/11/11: 8069 : Major Version 1.2.0 package released
2010/11/25: 8087 : Minor Package up date 1.2.1 released
2011/01/31: 8116 : Update to Wind and Pressure Terms
2011/03/08: 8128 : Model domain Operators concept developed
2011/03/22: 8161 : Kinematic Viscosity moved from Forcing to Operator
2012/xx/xx: xxxx : Depth Varying Mannings Roughness Function added: Assoc. Prof Stephen Roberts, Rudy Van Drie
2012/07/31: 8485 : Erosion Based on Bed Shear Operator: Assoc. Prof Stephen Roberts, Rudy Van Drie
2013/05/27: 8877 : Add a gate structure capability: Assoc. Prof Stephen Roberts, Rudy Van Drie
2013/09/12: 8973 : Set value by Grid(RADAR Rainfall & Roughness Grid): Assoc. Prof Stephen Roberts, Rudy Van Drie
2013/12/05: 0debdd6 : Added DE algorithms, well balanced and discontinuous elevation: Gareth Davies
2014/07/10: bf590e3 : Set up boundary flux integral operator: Gareth Davies
2014/08/05: af03985 : Reporting of mass conservation: Gareth Davies
2014/12/18: 1.2.5 : Moved package to GitHub
2015/02/07: 1.3.1 : Major change to directory structure
2015/03/19: 1.3.10 : Moved to GitHub.com//GeoscienceAustralia/anuga_core
2015/04/28: 1.3.11 : Updated manual and added validations_report to doc directory
2015/05/04: 2.0 : A major release where we moved to the DE0 algorithm (Discontinuous Elevation) as default algorithm
2016/06/28: 321cd1e : Added in erosion operator provided by Ted Rigby
2017/05/20: GitHub Branch created to initiate development of SWMMLINK 1D Pipe network to ANUGA 2D Dr. Ole Nielsen, Assoc. Prof. Stephen Roberts, Rudy Van Drie, Dr. Petar Milevski
=== ANUGA development ideas for the future ===
The development of ANUGA is ongoing and dynamic. The introduction of "Operators" was a major step in that it allowed many additional possibilities. The future development is currently driven by both performance increases and adding capability. Currently there is work underway on the following items (that will be moved to the above list once fully achieved):
Easily availability to a GPU capable version (Beta version is currently working)
Linking to a highly capable urban pipe network model such as SWMM see e.g.
Ongoing speed improvements to the code
=== Limitations ===
Although a flexible hydrodynamic modelling tool, ANUGA has a number of limitations that any potential user needs to be aware of. They are:

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The mathematical model is the 2D shallow water wave equation. As such it cannot resolve vertical convection and consequently not breaking waves or 3D turbulence (e.g. vorticity).
All spatial coordinates are assumed to be UTM (meters). As such, ANUGA is unsuitable for modelling flows in areas larger than one and half UTM zones (9 degrees wide).
Fluid is assumed to be inviscid – although kinematic viscosity can be used modelled using a kinematic viscosity operator.
The finite volume is a very robust and flexible numerical technique, especially when implemented on an unstructured triangular mesh, but it is not the fastest method around, and over sufficiently simple geometries alternative algorithms may be able to solve the problem faster than ANUGA.
Frictional resistance is implemented using Manning's formula.
== Users ==
Geoscience Australia
Australian National University
Fire and Emergency Services of Western Australia
Franzius-Institut, Leibniz University Hannover
Australia-Indonesia Facility for Disaster Reduction
Wollongong City Council
Balance Research & Development
Institute Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
DMInnovation
PT Inteligensi Risiko, Jakarta
PT Reasuransi MAIPARK Indonesia, Jakarta
Hydrata
NASA JPL
== Use history ==
ANUGA was trialed as a conventional hydrodynamic 2D flood model on both a complex urban system and a simpler rural system. The urban model included a dam break scenario with flood water passing through a residential area.
The model was found to have:
"The ability to construct a model with elements varying in size to suit the features being modelled permitted flow behaviour to be simulated realistically and at a level of local detail that structured grid models cannot practically reproduce"
ANUGA has been used to assess the likely difference in tsunami amplification and dissipation between different characteristic coastal embayments, coastal entrances and estuaries The results showed that:
"for large embayments, the wave run-up can be amplified by a factor six in comparison to the amplitude at the model boundary. For small embayments, the amplification is dependent on the location of the ocean water line, or tidal stage"
In 2005, ANUGA was used to demonstrate the capability to simulate inundation of an urban coastal city as part of the Catastrophic Disasters Working Group activity in 2005 by the Attorney Generals Department and Geoscience Australia for the then Australian Emergency Management Committee.
In 2007 after the addition of the initial Rainfall forcing function by Ole Nielsen and Rudy VanDrie it was used to model the Macquarie Rivulet Catchment and then the Entire Lake Illawarra Catchment.
From that time on it has been used to model thousands of catchments in Australia, Germany, Mozambique, Indonesia, Brazil, Mauritius, Reunion Island and many other localities.
In 2013, researchers used ANUGA to replicate work done by Dr. Brett Sanders to model the 1928 St Francis Dam Break. ANUGA was not only able to replicate the arrival times of the flood wave, but also appeared to more realistically capture the extreme sloshing behaviour immediately down stream of the dam in the tortuous valley. https://www.mssanz.org.au/modsim2013/A4/mungkasi.pdf
From 2013 to 2016 an Australian National Disaster Resilience Program (NDRP) project resulted in a "Flood Modelling Framework for the ACT" which modelled the entire 9400km2 in 2D using radar rainfall applied directly to the computational mesh. This project was nominated for an award by the ACT government.
The largest known catchment model using direct rainfall in a full 2D model to date is around 85,000km2 being a portion of the Condamine-Balonne River in Australia.
In 2015 Researchers in Brazil used ANUGA to model "DESFORESTATION IMPACTS ON THE WATER FLOW PROPAGATION FOR THE LOW AMAZON FLOODPLAIN"
in 2015-2016 Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Tatura, Victoria used ANUGA to model Irrigation Bays, concluding that: ".... Physical (hydrological) models and crop growth models are both applied, and can be run in conjunction with each other. As an example, the ANUGA 2Dimensional surface-water flow model has been adapted for testing border-check irrigation bay design. An infiltration algorithm has been included, using the Modified Kostiakov (MK) equation, which calculates infiltration as a function of ponding time. Following the revision, the ANUGA model successfully simulated border-check surface irrigation, and was used in Smarter Irrigation for Profit to help assess drainage options for irrigated dairy pastures" Refer: https://www.crdc.com.au/sites/default/files/Smarter%20Irrigation%20for%20Profit%20Snapshot.pdf
In 2017 Researchers at the University of Colorado used ANUGA to model erosion and sediment transport and the effects of vegetation drag, resulting in formulating new operators stating that: "These operators are used to simulate the erosion, transport, and deposition of sediment across the domain, and the effects of vegetation drag on the flow." https://www.hydroshare.org/resource/90cfc292f1cc4b6c96c66265a992b759/
== Awards and exposure ==
ANUGA has been used to understand tsunami risk to the Western Australia coastline and the results of this work are being utilised by emergency managers and the Department for Planning and Infrastructure in Western Australia. In 2007 this work received the Asia-Pacific Spatial Excellence Award and the Emergency Management Australia Safer Communities Award. In June 2009, ANUGA was featured in a special episode on the Australian TV program The New Inventors: Dealing With Disasters.
== Support and getting involved ==
ANUGA is an open source project and supported by the organizations that develop and use it.
The source code is available at GitHub https://github.com/anuga-community/anuga_core and pull requests can be submitted there.
The aim is to build a community of model users and co-developers / contributors to interact with the GitHub repository.
There are strict rules regarding the need for Unit testing in order to have code included into the repository.
In time it is likely that a developer guideline document may be formulated to aid others from contributing to the code.
Questions and interest in contributing can be directed to the mailing list anuga-user@lists.sourceforge.net
=== Training ===
Neither ANU or GA provide specific training at present. However, there was an initial workshop regarding the use and future of the ANUGA model in 2008 at Geoscience Australia in Canberra.
Since then a training course was provided to a group from a large insurance entity by Rudy Van Drie, Rudy also undertook an extensive and detailed training course at the University of Essen in 2011; A detailed presentation and insight into its use in Mozambique in 2013, and a workshop at Udayana University in Bali in 2017.
== License ==
ANUGA is freely available and distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public Licence.
== References ==
== External links ==
download location (current)
download location (sourceforge archive)
anuga – Revision 9737
Crayfish Plugin for QGIS
Hypothetical tsunami inundation model
Asia-Pacific Spatial Excellence Award
Emergency Management Australia Safer Communities Award
Emergency Management Australia Safer Communities Award
The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol 23 No 4, Nov 2008

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To become a qualified actuary, the actuarial credentialing and exam process usually requires passing a series of professional examinations over a period of several years.
In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a university setting. In others, such as the U.S., most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations. In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure.
== Australia ==
The education system in Australia is divided into three components: an exam-based curriculum; a professionalism course; and work experience. The system is governed by the Institute of Actuaries of Australia.
The exam-based curriculum is in three parts. Part I relies on exemptions from an accredited under-graduate degree from either Bond University, Monash University, Macquarie University, University of New South Wales, University of Melbourne, Australian National University or Curtin University. The courses cover subjects including finance, financial mathematics, economics, contingencies, demography, models, probability and statistics. Students may also gain exemptions by passing the exams of the Institute of Actuaries in London. Part II is the Actuarial control cycle and is also offered by each of the universities above. Part III consists of four half-year courses of which two are compulsory and the other two allow specialization.
To become an Associate, one needs to complete Part I and Part II of the accreditation process, perform 3 years of recognized work experience, and complete a professionalism course. To become a Fellow, candidates must complete Part I, II, III, and take a professionalism course. Work experience is not required, however, as the Institute deems that those who have successfully completed Part III have shown enough level of professionalism.
== China ==
In China, both China Association of Actuaries (CAA) and Actuarial Society of Hong Kong (ASHK) have their own associate-ship and fellowship credentialing processes. The CAA holds its own system of examinations, while ASHK holds only examination of "Certificate in Hong Kong Insurance Markets and Regulations" (ASHK Certificate). Note that CAA exams were suspended in 2014 but reintroduced in 2023 in an updated structure.
To achieve associate-ship, the CAA requires examination with 5 subjects: (1) probability and mathematical statistics, (2) finance and economics, (3) actuarial mathematics, (4) actuarial models and data analytics, (5) actuarial risk management; while ASHK recognizes associate-ship credentials from Society of Actuaries (SOA), Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS), Institute and Faculty of Actuaries (IFoA), and Institute of Actuaries of Australia (IAA).
To achieve fellowship, the CAA offers 7 tracks: (1) life insurance, (2) non-life insurance, (3) health insurance, (4) social insurance and pension planning, (5) financial risk management, (6) asset management, and (7) data science, each requires examination with another 5 subjects; while ASHK requires fellowship credentials from either of the 4 organizations above and passing the ASHK Certificate examination.
== Denmark ==
In Denmark it normally takes five years of study at the University of Copenhagen to become an actuary with no professional experience requirement. There is a focus on statistics and probability theory, and a requirement for a master's thesis. By Danish law, responsibility for the practice of any life insurance business must be taken by a formally acknowledged and approved actuary. Approval as a formally responsible actuary requires three to five years of professional experience.(Haastrup & Nielsen 2007)
== Germany ==
Current rules for the German Actuarial Society require an actuary to pass more than 13 exams.
== India ==
The Institute of Actuaries of India (formerly Actuarial Society of India) offers both associate-ship and fellowship classes of membership. However, prospective candidates must be admitted to the society as students before they achieve associate-ship or fellowship. The exam sequence is similar to the British model, with Core and Specialty technical and application exams. The exams are conducted twice a year during the months of May–June and October–November. Starting from January 2012, the institute has started conducting entrance exam. Only those applicants who clear the entrance test can appear for the Core Technical papers.
== Japan ==
The education system in Japan is administrated by Institute of Actuaries of Japan (IAJ), with associateship and fellowship credential levels.
The IAJ's requirement for associateship include passing the primary examination with 5 basic subjects: (1) mathematics, (2) life insurance mathematics, (3) non-life insurance mathematics, (4) pension mathematics, (5) accounting, economics and investment theory.
The IAJ offers 3 tracks for fellowship: life insurance, non-life insurance, and pension. Each requires passing the secondary examination with 2 advanced subjects.
== Norway ==
In Norway the education to become an actuary takes five years. The education usually consists of a bachelor's degree (three years) and a master's degree (two years). The bachelor's degree needs to contain a specific number of courses in mathematics and statistics. The master's degree usually consists of one year of courses and one year writing a master's degree about a topic related to the actuarial profession. The University of Bergen and The University of Oslo offer the education to become an actuary in Norway.
To become an international qualified actuary, a person with a Norwegian actuarial education must also take two courses in economics (macroeconomics and accounting) and a course in ethics. The ethics course, which lasts a day, is offered by the Norwegian Society of Actuaries.

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== South Africa ==
Actuaries in South Africa are served by the Actuarial Society of South Africa (ASSA). Until 2010, the requirement to qualify as an actuary in South Africa was to pass the exams hosted by the UK bodies. Starting in 2010, a South African actuarial qualification hosted by ASSA has replaced this arrangement. Key changes include exam syllabuses based on South African-specific content. The UK actuarial professional bodies, however, still support qualification through the UK. Students may receive exemption from part of the examinations for qualification from approved universities. The South African qualification does have mutual recognition with many of the international actuarial bodies as well as approval of the syllabus from the International Actuarial Association.
One may obtain the Chartered Enterprise Risk Actuary (CERA) designation through the ASSA.
South Africa pioneered the actuarial banking route, with fellowship exams (equivalent to the UK's SA exams) in banking beginning in the late 2010s.
== Sweden ==
Actuarial training in Sweden takes place at Stockholm University. The five-year master's program (for those with no previous university-level knowledge in mathematics, or without a bachelor's degree in mathematics) covers the subjects mathematics, mathematical statistics, insurance mathematics, financial mathematics, insurance law and insurance economics. The program operates under the Division of Mathematical Statistics.
== Taiwan ==
Qualification in Taiwan is administrated by Actuarial Institute of the Republic of China (Taiwan) (AIRC/AICT), with associateship and fellowship credential levels.
The AIRC/AICT offers 3 tracks for its membership: life insurance, general insurance, and pension. Although with own design of education system, the AIRC/AICT practically only holds exams testing knowledge specifically to Taiwan and mainly recognizes examination credits from Society of Actuaries (SOA), Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS), Institute and Faculty of Actuaries (IFoA), Institute of Actuaries of Australia (IAA), and Institute of Actuaries of Japan (IAJ). The associateship and fellowship credentials from these organizations are also recognized. The AIRC/AICT has coordinated with SOA and CAS to integrate the Taiwanese exams into their education systems (SOA Regulation and Taxation Module and CAS Exam 6T).
== United Kingdom and Ireland ==
Qualification in the United Kingdom and Ireland consists of a combination of exams and courses provided by the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries. The exams may only be taken upon having officially joined the body, unlike many other countries where exams may be taken earlier. Most trainee actuaries study while working for an actuarial employer using resources provided by ActEd (The Actuarial Education Company, a subsidiary of BPP Actuarial Education Ltd.), which is contracted to provide actuarial tuition for students on behalf of Institute and Faculty Education Ltd (IFE), a subsidiary of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries.
However, a candidate may offer proof of having previously covered topics (at a high enough standard, usually while at university) to be exempt from taking certain subjects.
The exams themselves are split into four sections: Core Principles (CP), Core Practices (CP), Specialists Principles (SP), and Specialist Advance (SA). For students who joined the Profession after June 2004, a further requirement that the student carry out a "Work-based skills" exercise has been brought into effect. This involves the student submitting a series of essays to the Profession detailing the work that he or she has performed. In addition to exams, essays and courses, it is required that the candidate have at least three years' experience of actuarial work under supervision of a recognized actuary to qualify as a Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries (FIA) or of the Faculty of Actuaries (FFA).
Note that the UK Profession is currently introducing the Certified Actuarial Analyst (CAA) qualification to "provide those working in financial and actuarial roles at a technical level around the world with valuable skills and a well respected qualification".
== United States and Canada ==
=== Credentialing organizations ===
In the U.S., for life, health, and pension actuaries, exams are given by the Society of Actuaries, while for property-casualty actuaries the exams are administered by the Casualty Actuarial Society.
To sign certain statements of actuarial opinion, however, American actuaries must be members of the American Academy of Actuaries. Academy membership requirements include membership in one of the recognized actuarial societies, at least three years of full-time equivalent experience in responsible actuarial work, and either residency in the United States for at least three years or a non-resident or new resident who meets certain requirements. Continuing education is required after certification for all actuaries who sign statements of actuarial opinion.
The Canadian Institute of Actuaries (the CIA) recognizes fellows of both the Society of Actuaries and the Casualty Actuary Society, provided that they have specialized study in Canadian actuarial practice. For fellows of the SOA, this is fulfilled by taking the CIA's Practice Education Course (PEC). For fellows of the Casualty Actuarial Society, this is fulfilled by taking the nation-specific Exam 6-Canada, instead of Exam 6-United States. Further, the CIA requires three years of actuarial practice within the previous decade, and 18 months of Canadian actuarial practice within the last three years, to become a fellow.

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=== Education and exams ===
The Society of Actuaries' requirements for Associateship (ASA) include passing 6 preliminary examinations (probability, financial mathematics, fundamentals of actuarial mathematics, statistics for risk modeling, predictive analytics, and one from either advanced long-term actuarial mathematics or advanced short-term actuarial mathematics), validating educational experience (VEE) in 3 fields (economics, accounting and finance, and mathematical statistics), completing self-learning series and passing their assessments (advanced topics in predictive analytics, five-module fundamentals of actuarial practice), and taking a course on professionalism. For Fellowship (FSA), three other modules, three or four exams depending on specialty track, and a special fellowship admission course is added. The Casualty Actuarial Society requires the successful completion of seven examinations, two modules, and economics and corporate finance VEEs for Associateship and three additional exams for Fellowship. In addition to these requirements, casualty actuarial candidates must also complete professionalism education and be recommended for membership by existing members.
Depending on which society a student chooses to pursue, there are six or seven preliminary exams. Most of the exams are multiple choice and administered on computers at Prometric testing centers. Candidates are allowed to use a calculator from an approved list. The exams are timed and last between three and four hours. Some tests provide instant feedback as to whether or not a candidate has passed that particular exam (see table below). All test scores (on a 0-10 scale with 6 or higher passing) are posted six to eight weeks after the exam window ends. The scores are based on ratios to the pass mark; for example, a 6 indicates that the candidate received 100% to 110% of the passing score required for that sitting. Similarly, scoring less than 50% of the passing score would yield a 0, and scoring 150% or more of the passing score would yield a 10. A sufficiently high pass mark could thus render a grade of 10 impossible if there are not enough points on the exam to score over 150% of that requirement.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Society of Actuaries website
Casualty Actuarial Society website
Faculty and Institute of Actuaries
Actuarial Exam information for students
International Actuarial Association
ActEd website
Actuarial Society of South Africa

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An actuary is a professional with advanced mathematical skills who deals with the measurement and management of risk and uncertainty. These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet and require asset management, liability management, and valuation skills. Actuaries provide assessments of financial security systems, with a focus on their complexity, their mathematics, and their mechanisms. The name of the corresponding academic discipline is actuarial science.
While the concept of insurance dates to antiquity, the concepts needed to scientifically measure and mitigate risks have their origins in 17th-century studies of probability and annuities. Actuaries in the 21st century require analytical skills, business knowledge, and an understanding of human behavior and information systems; actuaries use this knowledge to design programs that manage risk, by determining if the implementation of strategies proposed for mitigating potential risks does not exceed the expected cost of those risks actualized. The steps needed to become an actuary, including education and licensing, are specific to a given country, with various additional requirements applied by regional administrative units; however, almost all processes impart universal principles of risk assessment, statistical analysis, and risk mitigation, involving rigorously structured training and examination schedules, taking many years to complete.
The profession has consistently been ranked as one of the most desirable. In various studies in the United States, being an actuary has been ranked first or second multiple times since 2010.
== Responsibilities ==
Actuaries use skills primarily in mathematics—particularly calculus-based probability and mathematical statistics—but also economics, computer science, finance, and business. For this reason, actuaries are essential to several sectors:
to the insurance and reinsurance industries, either as staff employees or as consultants;
to other businesses, including sponsors of pension plans;
and to government agencies such as the Government Actuary's Department in the United Kingdom or the Social Security Administration in the United States.
Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or property loss. Actuaries also answer financial questions: these questions include the level of pension contributions needed to produce a certain retirement income, and how a company should invest resources to maximize the return on investment in light of potential risk. Using broad knowledge, actuaries help to design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies so as to ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis.
=== Disciplines ===
Most traditional actuarial disciplines fall into two main categories: life and non-life.
Life actuaries, who include health and pension actuaries, primarily deal with three kinds of risk: mortality, morbidity, and investment. Products prominent in their work include life insurance, annuities, pensions, short and long term disability insurance, health insurance, health savings accounts, and long-term care insurance. In addition to actuarial risks, social insurance programs are influenced by public opinion, politics, budget constraints, changing demographics, and other factors such as medical technology, inflation, and cost of living considerations.
Non-life actuaries, also known as "property and casualty" (mainly US) or "general insurance" (mainly UK) actuaries, deal with both physical and legal risks that affect people or their property. Products prominent in their work include auto insurance, homeowners insurance, commercial property insurance, workers' compensation, malpractice insurance, product liability insurance, marine insurance, terrorism insurance, and other types of liability insurance.
Actuaries are also consulted for their expertise in enterprise risk management. This work may involve dynamic financial analysis, stress testing, the formulation of corporate risk policy, and the establishment and operation of corporate risk departments. Actuaries are also involved in other areas of economics and finance, such as analyzing securities offerings or market research.
=== Traditional employment ===
For both life and casualty actuaries, their classic role is calculating premiums and reserves for insurance policies that cover various risks. On the casualty side, analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event (called the frequency) and the size of that loss event (called the severity). The amount of time occurring before the loss event is important, because the insurer will only need to pay after the event has occurred. On the life side, analysis often involves quantifying the worth of a potential sum of money or a financial liability at different times in the future. Since neither of these analysis types is a purely deterministic process, stochastic models are often used to determine frequency and severity distributions, as well as the parameters of these distributions. Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs, especially for life actuaries.
Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events. Often their work relates to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred, called retrospective reinsurance, or the development or re-pricing of new products.
Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems. They participate in financial reporting of companies' assets and liabilities. Actuaries must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge. They work under a code of ethics that covers their communications and work products.

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=== Non-traditional employment ===
As an outgrowth of more traditional roles, actuaries also work in the fields of risk management and enterprise risk management for both financial and non-financial corporations. Actuaries in traditional roles study and use tools and data previously in the domain of finance. Two accords—the Basel II accord for financial institutions (2004), and the analogous Solvency II accord for insurance companies (in force since 2016)—require institutions to account for operational risk separately, in addition to credit, reserve, asset, and insolvency risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this context, because actuaries are trained in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for gain and loss associated with these forms of risk.
Actuaries also participate in investment advising and asset management, and can be general business managers and chief financial officers or chief investment officers. They analyze business prospects using financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows; they also apply pricing expertise in insurance to other lines of business. For example, insurance securitization requires both actuarial and finance skills. Actuaries also act as expert witnesses in court trials, by using analysis to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or lost wages.
== History ==
=== Need for insurance ===
The basic requirements of communal interests gave rise to risk sharing since the dawn of civilization. For example, people who lived their entire lives in a camp had the risk of fire, which would leave their band or family without shelter. After barter came into existence, more complex risks emerged and new forms of risk manifested. Merchants embarking on trade journeys bore the risk of losing goods entrusted to them, their own possessions, or even their lives. Intermediaries developed to warehouse and trade goods, which exposed them to financial risk. The primary providers in extended families or households ran the risk of premature death, disability or infirmity, which could leave their dependents to starve. Credit procurement was difficult if the creditor worried about repayment in the event of the borrower's death or infirmity. Alternatively, people sometimes lived too long from a financial perspective, exhausting their savings, if any, or becoming a burden on others in the extended family or society.
=== Early attempts ===
In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick, suffering, disabled, aged, or the poor—these were often not part of the cultural consciousness of societies. Early methods of protection, aside from the normal support of the extended family, involved charity; religious organizations or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy. By the middle of the 3rd century, charitable operations in Rome supported 1,500 suffering people. Charitable protection remains an active form of support in the modern era, but receiving charity is uncertain and often accompanied by social stigma.
Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity. Early in the Roman empire, associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial, cremation, and monuments—precursors to burial insurance and friendly societies. A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis, and upon the death of a member, the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial. These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of columbāria, or burial vaults, owned by the fund. Other early examples of mutual surety and assurance pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forebears, and to Celtic society.
Non-life insurance started as a hedge against loss of cargo during sea travel. Anecdotal reports of such guarantees occur in the writings of Demosthenes, who lived in the 4th century BCE. The earliest records of an official non-life insurance policy come from Sicily, where there is record of a 14th-century contract to insure a shipment of wheat. In 1350, Lenardo Cattaneo assumed "all risks from act of God, or of man, and from perils of the sea" that may occur to a shipment of wheat from Sicily to Tunis up to a maximum of 300 florins. For this he was paid a premium of 18%.
=== Development of theory ===
During the 17th century, a more scientific basis for risk management was being developed. In 1662, a London draper named John Graunt showed that there were predictable patterns of longevity and death in a defined group, or cohort, of people, despite the uncertainty about the future longevity or mortality of any one individual. This study became the basis for the original life table. Combining this idea with that of compound interest and annuity valuation, it became possible to set up an insurance scheme to provide life insurance or pensions for a group of people, and to calculate with some degree of accuracy each member's necessary contributions to a common fund, assuming a fixed rate of interest. The first person to correctly calculate these values was Edmond Halley. In his work, Halley demonstrated a method of using his life table to calculate the premium someone of a given age should pay to purchase a life-annuity.
=== Early actuaries ===
James Dodson's pioneering work on the level premium system led to the formation of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship (now commonly known as Equitable Life) in London in 1762. This was the first life insurance company to use premium rates that were calculated scientifically for long-term life policies, using Dodson's work. After Dodson's death in 1757, Edward Rowe Mores took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances. It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an actuary. Previously, the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions, or acts, of ecclesiastical courts, in ancient times originally the secretary of the Roman senate, responsible for compiling the Acta Senatus. Other companies that did not originally use such mathematical and scientific methods most often failed or were forced to adopt the methods pioneered by Equitable.

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=== Development of the modern profession ===
In the 18th and 19th centuries, computational complexity was limited to manual calculations. The calculations required to compute fair insurance premiums can be burdensome. The actuaries of that time developed methods to construct easily used tables, using arithmetical short-cuts called commutation functions, to facilitate timely, accurate, manual calculations of premiums. In the mid-19th century, professional bodies were founded to support and further both actuaries and actuarial science, and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards. Since calculations were cumbersome, actuarial shortcuts were commonplace.
Non-life actuaries followed in the footsteps of their life compatriots in the early 20th century. In the United States, the 1920 revision to workers' compensation rates took over two months of around-the-clock work by day and night teams of actuaries. In the 1930s and 1940s, rigorous mathematical foundations for stochastic processes were developed. Actuaries began to forecast losses using models of random events instead of deterministic methods. Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession. From pencil-and-paper to punchcards to microcomputers, the modeling and forecasting ability of the actuary has grown vastly.
Another modern development is the convergence of modern finance theory with actuarial science. In the early 20th century, some economists and actuaries were developing techniques that can be found in modern financial theory, but for various historical reasons, these developments did not achieve much recognition. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models. In the 21st century, the profession, both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations, combines tables, loss models, stochastic methods, and financial theory, but is still not completely aligned with modern financial economics.
== Remuneration and ranking ==
As there are relatively few actuaries in the world compared to other professions, actuaries are in high demand, and are highly paid for the services they render.
The actuarial profession has been consistently ranked for decades as one of the most desirable. Actuaries work comparatively reasonable hours, in comfortable conditions, without the need for physical exertion that may lead to injury, are well paid, and the profession consistently has a good hiring outlook. Not only has the overall profession ranked highly, but it also is considered one of the best professions for women, and one of the best recession-proof professions.
== Credentialing and exams ==
Becoming a fully credentialed actuary requires passing a rigorous series of professional examinations, usually taking several years. In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a university setting. In others, such as the US, most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations. In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure.
=== Exam support ===
As these qualifying exams are extremely rigorous, support is usually available to people progressing through the exams. Often, employers provide paid on-the-job study time and paid attendance at seminars designed for the exams. Also, many companies that employ actuaries have automatic pay raises or promotions when exams are passed. As a result, actuarial students have strong incentives for devoting adequate study time during off-work hours. A common rule of thumb for exam students is that, for the Society of Actuaries examinations, roughly 400 hours of study time are necessary for each four-hour exam. Thus, thousands of hours of study time should be anticipated over several years, assuming no failures.
=== Pass marks and pass rates ===
Historically, the actuarial profession has been reluctant to specify the pass marks for its examinations. To address concerns that there are pre-existing pass/fail quotas, a former chairman of the Board of Examiners of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries stated: "Although students find it hard to believe, the Board of Examiners does not have fail quotas to achieve. Accordingly, pass rates are free to vary (and do). They are determined by the quality of the candidates sitting the examination and in particular how well prepared they are. Fitness to pass is the criterion, not whether you can achieve a mark in the top 40% of candidates sitting." In 2000, the Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) decided to start releasing pass marks for the exams it offers. The CAS's policy is also not to grade to specific pass ratios; the CAS board affirmed in 2001 that "the CAS shall use no predetermined pass ratio as a guideline for setting the pass mark for any examination. If the CAS determines that 70% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then those 70% should pass. Similarly, if the CAS determines that only 30% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then only those 30% should pass."
== Notable actuaries ==
== Fictional actuaries ==
Actuaries have appeared in works of fiction including literature, theater, television, and film. At times, they have been portrayed as "math-obsessed, socially disconnected individuals with shockingly bad comb-overs", which has resulted in a mixed response amongst actuaries themselves.
== Notes ==
== Citations ==
== Works cited ==
== External links ==
"Be An Actuary". www.beanactuary.org. Retrieved November 5, 2025. The SOA and CAS jointly sponsored web site

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Adept is a combined automatic differentiation and array software library for the C++ programming language. The automatic differentiation capability facilitates the development of applications involving mathematical optimization. Adept is notable for having applied the template metaprogramming technique of expression templates to speed-up the differentiation of mathematical statements. Along with the efficient way that it stores the differential information, this makes it significantly faster than most other C++ tools that provide similar functionality (e.g. ADOL-C, CppAD and FADBAD), although comparable performance has been reported for Stan and in some cases Sacado. Differentiation may be in forward mode, reverse mode (for use with a Quasi-Newton minimization scheme), or the full Jacobian matrix may be computed (for use with the Levenberg-Marquardt or Gauss-Newton minimization schemes).
Applications of Adept have included computer functionality in the financial field, computational fluid dynamics, physical chemistry, parameter estimation and meteorology. Adept is free software distributed under the Apache License.
== Example ==
Adept implements automatic differentiation using an operator overloading approach, in which scalars to be differentiated are written as adouble, indicating an "active" version of the normal double, and vectors to be differentiated are written as aVector. The following simple example uses these types to differentiate a 3-norm calculation on a small vector:
When compiled and executed, this program reports the derivative as:
== See also ==
List of numerical libraries
Automatic differentiation
Eigen (C++ library)
Armadillo (C++ library)
== References ==
== External links ==
Adept homepage

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Advanced Simulation Library (ASL) is a free and open-source hardware-accelerated multiphysics simulation platform. It enables users to write customized numerical solvers in C++ and deploy them on a variety of massively parallel architectures, ranging from inexpensive FPGAs, DSPs and GPUs up to heterogeneous clusters and supercomputers. Its internal computational engine is written in OpenCL and utilizes matrix-free solution techniques. ASL implements variety of modern numerical methods, i.a. level-set method, lattice Boltzmann, immersed boundary. The mesh-free, immersed boundary approach allows users to move from CAD directly to simulation, reducing pre-processing efforts and number of potential errors. ASL can be used to model various coupled physical and chemical phenomena, especially in the field of computational fluid dynamics.
It is distributed under the free GNU Affero General Public License with an optional commercial license (which is based on the permissive MIT License).
== History ==
Advanced Simulation Library is being developed by Avtech Scientific, an Israeli company. Its source code was released to the community on 14 May 2015, whose members packaged it for scientific sections of all major Linux distributions shortly thereafter. Subsequently, Khronos Group acknowledged the significance of ASL and listed it on its website among OpenCL-based resources.
== Application areas ==
Computational fluid dynamics
Computer-assisted surgery
Virtual sensing
Industrial process data validation and reconciliation
Multidisciplinary design optimization
Design space exploration
Computer-aided engineering
Crystallography
Microfluidics
== Advantages and disadvantages ==
=== Advantages ===
C++ API (no OpenCL knowledge required)
Mesh-free, immersed boundary approach allows users to move from CAD directly to computations reducing pre-processing effort
Dynamic compilation enables an additional layer of optimization at run-time (i.e. for a specific parameters set the application was provided with)
Automatic hardware acceleration and parallelization of applications
Deployment of same program on a variety of parallel architectures - GPU, APU, FPGA, DSP, multicore CPUs
Ability to deal with complex boundaries
Ability to incorporate microscopic interactions
Availability of the source code
=== Disadvantages ===
Absence of detailed documentation (besides the Developer Guide generated from the source code comments)
Not all OpenCL drivers are mature enough for the library
== Features ==
ASL provides a range of features to solve number of problems - from complex fluid flows involving chemical reactions, turbulence and heat transfer, to solid mechanics and elasticity.
Interfacing: VTK/ParaView, MATLAB (export).
import file formats: .stl .vtp .vtk .vti .mnc .dcm
export file formats: .vti .mat
Geometry:
flexible and complex geometry using simple rectangular grid
mesh-free, immersed boundary approach
generation and manipulation of geometric primitives
Implemented phenomena:
Transport processes
multicomponent transport processes
compressible and incompressible fluid flow
Chemical reactions
electrode reactions
Elasticity
homogeneous isotropic elasticity
homogeneous isotropic poroelasticity
Interface tracking
evolution of an interface
evolution of an interface with crystallographic kinetics
== Uses ==
ACTIVE - Active Constraints Technologies for Ill-defined or Volatile Environments (European FP7 Project)
== See also ==
List of computational fluid dynamics software
== References ==

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African Natural History was a scientific journal published by Iziko Museums (Cape Town). It took the place of the Annals of the South African Museum, which has been discontinued. Now the journal has been discontinued.
== External links ==
Official website

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The Alaska Museum of Science and Nature (AKSCI) is a natural history museum in Anchorage, Alaska. It is known for its collection of fossils.
== History ==
The museum initially opened in 1994, in a shopping mall in the Eagle River community of Anchorage. By 2015, it had moved to its own building in the Mountain View neighborhood.
== Exhibits ==
The museum has six main exhibits: Dinosaurs of Darkness, Alaska Marine Life, Birds of a Feather, Bare Bones, Ice Age Alaska, and Rocks & Minerals. The Dinosaurs exhibit contains skeletons and reproductions of dinosaurs such as Hadrosaurs, Ceratopsians, Albertosaurus, and raptors. The Marine Life exhibit shows off whalebones and skulls and a full skeleton of a beluga whale. The birds exhibit contains a rookery with a variety of bird species, and the bones exhibit contains replicas of human bones and compares them to animal ones. The Ice Age exhibit displays models of animals from the Pleistocene, such as American lions and saber-toothed tigers. The rocks exhibit shows off fluorescent and multi-colored minerals, meteorites, and fossils from the prehistoric forest in Sutton.
The museum contains several life-sized dinosaur paintings by local artist James Haven.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website

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Count Jean Gérard Amédée Alléon (8 October 1838 – 16 January 1904) was a French nobleman, naturalist, taxidermist and artist who lived in the Ottoman Empire. He noted the migrations of birds of prey in the Bosporus Straits and wrote on the birds of the region.
== Biography ==
Alléon was born in Buyuk-Déré, near Istanbul (Constantinople), the son of Count Jacques Alléon (1792–1876), a Galata banker in the Ottoman Empire, and Marie Marion. He took an interest in nature and art at an early age with a talent for music and drawing. The family owned land and real estate and he became a shareholder of the English railroad company. He produced a number of artworks, and also made a collection of mounted bird specimens. In 1863 he married Madeleine Asselin de Villequier-Alléon (1844–1911) and they had five children including Maurice and Abel who were involved in natural history. He worked with Jules Vian of the French zoological society, sending many specimens to France. The English naturalist H. J. Elwes stayed with Alléon when he passed through Constantinople in 1870. In 1864, he donated a large set of his collections to the Ottoman government and in 1899, some to the Lazarist College in Constantinople. Some specimens were sold to the Royal Museum in Sofia, Bulgaria. His taxidermic works were exhibited at Vienna (1884) and Paris (1889) winning acclaim. In 1889 he wrote a book on taxidermic methods illustrated by his own plates. He studied the migration of the birds of prey along the Bosporus from Büyükdere and built a chalet at Demirdji to study the local birds. He noted a decline in the avifauna following the Crimean War (1853–56). He also collected beetles, some of which are held in the Natural History Museum in Sofia.
He was elected to the International Ornithological Council of Vienna in 1884. He was made Commander of the Order of Civil Merit of Bulgaria, the Imperial Order of the Medjidie, and an officer of the Order of Pius IX. He died from a stroke at Makrikeuy near Constantinople. A species of bunting Emberiza alleonis was named after him by Vian in 1869 but this is considered a synonym of Emberiza pallasi. Many of his paintings held in Sofia were destroyed by bombs in World War II.
Some of his publications include:
Alleon A. (1880). "Catalogue des Oiseaux observes aux environs de Constantinople". Bull. Soc. Zool. France. 5: 80–116.
Alleon A. (1886). "Memoire sur les oiseaux dans la Dobrudja et al Bulgarie". Ornis. 2: 397–428.
Alleon A. (1889). Nouveaux procedes de taxidermie experimentes et decrits par M. Amedee Alleon membre des Societes zoologique et entomologique de France et de Comite international permanent d'ornithologie. Notice accompagnee de Planches executees sur des oiseaux montes par l'auteur. Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Alleon A. (1898). Nouveaux procedes de taxidermie: accompagnees de quelques impressions ornithologique, de photographies des principaux types de la collection de l'auteur a MakriKeui, pres Constantinople, et de rapaces sur nature. Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Alleon A.; Vian J. (1869). "Des migrations des oiseaux de proie sur le Bosphore de Constantinople". Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée. 2. 21: 258–273, 305–315, 342–348, 369–374, 401–409.
Alleon A.; Vian J. (1870). "Des migrations des oiseaux de proie sur le Bosphore de Constantinople: nouvelles observations". Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée. 2. 22: 81–86, 129–138, 161–165.
Alleon A.; Vian J. (1873). "Explorations ornithologiques sur les rives europeennes du Bosphore". Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée. 3. 1: 235–262.
Alleon A.; Vian J. (1876). "Explorations ornithologiques sur les rives europeennes du Bosphore". Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée. 3. 4: 1–5.
== References ==
== External links ==
Alleon family history

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Anita Superson is an American philosopher who is a professor of philosophy at the University of Kentucky. She was also the visiting Churchill Humphrey and Alex P. Humphrey Professor of Feminist Philosophy at the University of Waterloo during the winter term of 2013.
== Education and career ==
Superson received a bachelor's in biology from DePaul University in 1981 and went on to receive a master's in philosophy (with a concentration in medical ethics) from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in 1985 and a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1989.
Superson is currently a professor of philosophy at the University of Kentucky, where she has held an appointment since 1992. She is an affiliated faculty member of the Gender and Women's Studies Department at the University of Kentucky. She also holds the visiting Churchill Humphrey and Alex P. Humphrey Professorship in Feminist Philosophy at the University of Waterloo for the winter of 2013. She also held a visiting professorship at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 2008. Before her current appointments, she held an assistant professorship at Kansas State University, and also taught at the University of Illinois at Chicago and the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
== Research areas ==
Superson's research brings the tools of analytic philosophy to bear on the issues presented by feminism, especially those issues that lie at feminism's intersection with ethics. She is especially interested in issues of moral skepticism, moral authority or bindingness, internalism/externalism, responsibility, agency, deformed desires, social privilege, evil and immorality, and bodily autonomy. Her recent anthology attempts to document the impact that analytical feminism has made on mainstream philosophy in recent years.
== Publications ==
Superson has written one book - The Moral Skeptic, published in 2009. She has also co-edited two anthologies; Out from the Shadows: Analytical Feminist Contributions to Traditional Philosophy and Theorizing Backlash: Philosophical Reflections on the Resistance to Feminism, and published a number of peer-reviewed papers. Superson has also been on the editorial board of Teaching Philosophy since 2006 and is the subject co-editor for entries related to feminism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
=== The Moral Skeptic ===
The Moral Skeptic is a treatment of the idea of moral skepticism from a feminist standpoint. In it, although Superson recognizes that there are problems inherent to the concept of justification, Superson still pursues the idea, believing it too central a part of philosophy to discard and that despite its problems, demonstrating that it is rational to be moral may have the effect of making people actually behave in a moral way. Superson believes that it is not possible to support morality by arguing the desirability of performing on an individual basis moral actions without taking in to account what motivates someone to perform those actions, and believes that the rationality of actions and the rationality of the motivation of those actions must be assessed in tandem.
Superson critiques the common presentation of the traditional moral skeptic as a theoretical actor who asks "Why should I act in a moral way?". Superson believes that this model overlooks two important facts: first, that people often benefit from privilege in a way that cannot be captured by such a model, and second, that the theoretical moral skeptic's own preferences might be deformed by their own oppressive experiences (and thus fulfilling them may not actually maximize their own self-interest.) Superson suggests that defeating the moral skeptic requires proving that the act of privileging oneself over others is irrational.
Superson aims to convince the reader that oppression is not only immoral but irrational, and believes that doing so may stop people from acting in oppressive ways. This thesis has been criticized by other feminist ethicists who believe that it is not sufficiently connected to the real world because it ignores the fact that people frequently behave in irrational ways and often continue behaving in such ways even if they realize their irrationality.
== References ==
== External links ==
Anita Superson on PhilPapers

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An anthropologist is a scientist engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropologists study aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms, values, and general behavior of societies. Linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life, while economic anthropology studies human economic behavior. Biological (physical), forensic, and medical anthropology study the biology and evolution of humans and their primate relatives, the application of biological anthropology in a legal setting, and the study of diseases and their impacts on humans over time, respectively.
== Education ==
Anthropologists usually cover a breadth of topics within anthropology in their undergraduate education and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of anthropology; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation.
Anthropologists typically hold graduate degrees, either doctorates or master's degrees. Not holding an advanced degree is rare in the field. Some anthropologists hold undergraduate degrees in other fields than anthropology and graduate degrees in anthropology.
== Career ==
Research topics of anthropologists include the discovery of human remains and artifacts as well as the exploration of social and cultural issues such as population growth, structural inequality and globalization by making use of a variety of technologies including statistical software and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Anthropological field work requires a faithful representation of observations and a strict adherence to social and ethical responsibilities, such as the acquisition of consent, transparency in research and methodologies and the right to anonymity.
Historically, anthropologists primarily worked in academic settings; however, by 2014, U.S. anthropologists and archaeologists were largely employed in research positions (28%), management and consulting (23%) and government positions (27%). U.S. employment of anthropologists and archaeologists is projected to increase from 7,600 to 7,900 between 2016 and 2026, a growth rate just under half the national median.
Anthropologists without doctorates tend to work more in other fields than academia, while the majority of those with doctorates are primarily employed in academia. Many of those without doctorates in academia tend to work exclusively as researchers and do not teach. Those in research-only positions are often not considered faculty. The median salary for anthropologists in 2015 was $62,220. Many anthropologists report an above average level of job satisfaction.
Although closely related and often grouped with archaeology, anthropologists and archaeologists perform differing roles, though archeology is considered a sub-discipline of anthropology. While both professions focus on the study of human culture from past to present, archaeologists focus specifically on analyzing material remains such as artifacts and architectural remains. Anthropology encompasses a wider range of professions including the rising fields of forensic anthropology, digital anthropology and cyber anthropology. The role of an anthropologist differs as well from that of a historian. While anthropologists focus their studies on humans and human behavior, historians look at events from a broader perspective. Historians also tend to focus less on culture than anthropologists in their studies. A far greater percentage of historians are employed in academic settings than anthropologists, who have more diverse places of employment.
Anthropologists are experiencing a shift in the twenty-first century United States with the rise of forensic anthropology. In the United States, as opposed to many other countries forensic anthropology falls under the domain of the anthropologist and not the Forensic pathologist. In this role, forensic anthropologists help in the identification of skeletal remains by deducing biological characteristics such as sex, age, stature and ancestry from the skeleton. However, forensic anthropologists tend to gravitate more toward working in academic and laboratory settings, while forensic pathologists perform more applied field work. Forensic anthropologists typically hold academic doctorates, while forensic pathologists are medical doctors. The field of forensic anthropology is rapidly evolving with increasingly capable technology and more extensive databases. Forensic anthropology is one of the most specialized and competitive job areas within the field of anthropology and currently has more qualified graduates than positions.
The profession of Anthropology has also received an additional sub-field with the rise of Digital anthropology. This new branch of the profession has an increased usage of computers as well as interdisciplinary work with medicine, computer visualization, industrial design, biology and journalism. Anthropologists in this field primarily study the evolution of human reciprocal relations with the computer-generated world. Cyber anthropologists also study digital and cyber ethics along with the global implications of increasing connectivity. With cyber ethical issues such as net neutrality increasingly coming to light, this sub-field is rapidly gaining more recognition. One rapidly emerging branch of interest for cyber anthropologists is artificial intelligence. Cyber anthropologists study the co-evolutionary relationship between humans and artificial intelligence. This includes the examination of computer-generated (CG) environments and how people interact with them through media such as movies, television, and video.
== Cultural anthropologist ==
Cultural anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology specializing in the study of different cultures. They study both small-scale, traditional communities, such as isolated villages, and large-scale, modern societies, such as large cities. They look at different behaviors and patterns within a culture. In order to study these cultures, many anthropologists will live among the culture they are studying.
Cultural anthropologists can work as professors, work for corporations, nonprofit organizations, as well as government agencies.
== Notable anthropologists and publications ==
Some notable anthropologists include: Molefi Kete Asante, Ruth Benedict, Franz Boas, Ella Deloria, St. Clair Drake, John Hope Franklin, James George Frazer, Clifford Geertz, Edward C. Green, Zora Neale Hurston, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Bronisław Malinowski, Margaret Mead, Elsie Clews Parsons, Pearl Primus, Paul Rabinow, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Marshall Sahlins, Nancy Scheper-Hughes (b. 1944), Hortense Spillers, Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917) and Frances Cress Welsing.
== See also ==
Association of Black Anthropologists
Biologist
List of anthropologists
List of fictional anthropologists
Psychologist
== References ==

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Anthropos (or Anthropos Pavilion, from the Greek Άνθρωπος, human or man) is a museum located in the city of Brno, South Moravia, Czech Republic. The museum is a part of the Moravské zemské muzeum (Moravian Museum). It focuses on exhibitions presenting the oldest history of Europe and mankind. In a 2009 exhibition, the museum presented the most important art works of the Paleolithic era, such as Venus of Willendorf (exhibited for the first time outside of Austria) and Venus of Dolní Věstonice.
== Basic characteristics ==
The museum is situated on the right bank of the river Svratka, in the cadastral municipality of Pisárky in the western part of Brno. It consists of a permanent, three-part exhibition presenting the oldest history of human settlement in Moravia and Europe and of temporary exhibitions. The permanent exhibition includes a life-size model of mammoth.
== History ==
In 1928, during an exhibition of the contemporary culture held at the Brno Exhibition Centre, the archaeologist Karel Absolon presented the findings of the oldest history of human settlements in a solo exhibition called Člověk a jeho rod (Man and his Ancestry). The exhibition was supported by the first Czechoslovak president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and by the entrepreneur Tomáš Baťa, however, the creation of an independent institute was thwarted by the financial crisis and later by the World War II. It was not until the 1950s when Absolon's successor, archaeologist and then Director of the Moravian Museum Jan Jelínek enforced building of an independent pavilion in Brno-Pisárky. The museum was opened in 1961.
Between 2003 and 2006, the pavilion underwent a large reconstruction. It was reopened to public in 2006.
== Permanent exhibition ==
The permanent exhibition consists of three parts:
=== 1st part ===
"Moravian Hunters and Gatherers"
"The Oldest Art of Europe"
"Palaeolithic Technologies"
=== 2nd part ===
"Genetics in the Evolution of Man"
"The Story of Mankind"
=== 3rd part ===
"Cousins or Brothers? – Ethology of Primates"
== References ==
== External links ==
[1] - official website (in English)

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Antonio Pineda (January 17, 1751 – June 23, 1792) was a Spanish naturalist and military officer. He participated in the Malaspina Expedition as leader of the natural history team which included Thaddäus Haenke and Luis Née. His scientific exploration and collecting covered a significant portion of the Pacific basin including the coast of South America, Mexico, and the Philippines. Before his untimely death in the Philippines, Pineda had amassed a huge volume of documents including scientific reports, diaries, and logbooks as well as a significant collection of natural history specimens.
== Biography ==
Pineda was born on January 17, 1751, in Guatemala City, New Spain. His Spanish father, José de Pineda, was a knight in the Order of Santiago and served as a judge in the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala. His mother, María Josefa Ramírez, was a native of Lucena, Spain and held estates in Laxa. When Pineda was six years old the family returned to Spain where his father served the Royal Chancellery in Granada. Antonio was first educated at the "Colegio de Nobles" in Madrid. When he turned seventeen he enrolled in the Spanish Military Academy and was accepted as a cadet in the distinguished Spanish Royal Guard. In addition to rigorous military training, Pineda also studied natural history and mastered several languages.
In 1778 Pineda was promoted to Second Lieutenant of the Rifle Corps. He fought in Gibraltar against the British in 1780 and again two years later. He also fought in the Americas while serving aboard the La Pastora. Upon his return to Spain, Pineda was promoted to first lieutenant in the Marine Guards. Afterwards, Pineda left the military to pursue his interests in botany, zoology, and the physical sciences. He traveled widely to undertake field studies in natural history and he associated with prominent Spanish scientists such as botanist Casimiro Gomez Ortega. Pineda's scientific competence was acknowledged by scholars across Europe as well as in the Spanish royal court, where he was awarded a royal commission to write a reference book on physics, chemistry and mineralogy.
In 1788 the Spanish government approved plans for an elaborate scientific voyage to survey Spain's overseas dominions. The Malaspina Expedition was named after Alejandro Malaspina, the originator of the plan and leader of the effort. Pineda was recruited to head a team of naturalists that included Thaddäus Haenke and Luis Née. Before sailing, Pineda obtained the scientific supplies, instruments, and reference books that would be needed for a lengthy voyage. After several months of preparation, the expedition, comprising two ships, set sail from Cadiz on July 30, 1789; Pineda was aboard the flagship, Descubierta, under the direct command of Malspina, while Née sailed on the Atrevida, commanded by Jose de Bustamante y Guerra. Haenke missed the start of the voyage and caught up with the ships nine months later.
They stopped first in Montevideo on July 30, 1789 and then circled South America with stops in Patagonia, Chile, Peru, Panama, and Nicaragua. At each port Pineda and his team spent several days or weeks collecting natural history specimens in the surrounding region. Née and Haenke focused on plants while Pineda often spent his time catching or trapping animals. In addition to collecting, Malaspina recalled an incident when Née and Pineda tested a local species of Solanum on themselves resulting in severe vomiting and overall pain and swelling.
When the expedition reached Acapulco on March 27, 1791, Pineda and Née settled down for an extended period of studying and collecting in the interior of Mexico while the expedition proceeded along the coast of North America to Alaska. During the next six months they collected almost 3,000 plants and a large number of other specimens while travelling over 1,500 miles throughout Mexico. Malaspina returned to Acapulco in December 1791 to pick them up and then headed west across the Pacific to Asia. Six weeks later they made a brief stop at Guam where Pineda and his team explored the island and added to their collections. Pineda's observations were later published in The Guam Diary of Naturalist Antonio de Pineda y Ramirez, February 1792.
They finally reached Manila on March 10, 1792. When the naturalists decided to separately explore different parts of the region, Pineda first traveled with another Spanish botanist, Juan de Cuellar, who was working in the Philippines at the time. When he and Cuellar separated, Pineda explored the northern part of Luzon. It was a difficult journey and on the return trip Pineda became ill from malnutrition and fatigue. He was carried in a hammock to Badoc, where he was attended by an Augustinian priest. Pineda's health continued to deteriorate and three days later, the naturalist died on June 23 1792.
The death of Pineda was deeply felt by the members of the expedition. One of the Italian artists on the staff designed a large memorial which was later erected at the botanic gardens in Malate. The inscription on the monument read:
"To Antonio Pineda, army officer, a man distinguished for patriotism and warlike valour and an untiring student of nature. In ardous journey of three years he travelled to the ends of the world, exploring the bowels of the earth, the depths of the sea and the topmost peaks of the Andes. He reached the end of his life and of his heavy labours in Luzon in the Philippine Islands on July 6, 1792. The early death of this noble man is mourned by country, by the Fauna and by the friends who have erected the monument."
The flowering plant genus Pineda (Salicaceae) is named in his honor.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Cook, Warren L. (1973). Flood Tide of Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543-1819. Yale University Press.
Madulid, Domingo A. (1982). "The Life and Work of Antonio Pineda, Naturalist of the Malaspina Expedition". Archives of Natural History. 11 (1): 49–53. doi:10.3366/anh.1982.11.1.43.
Madulid, Domingo A. (1989). "The life and work of Luis Nee, botanist of the Malaspina expedition". Archives of Natural History. 16 (1): 33–48. doi:10.3366/anh.1989.16.1.33. PMID 11622207.
== Further reading ==
Driver, Marjorie G., ed. (1990). The Guam Diary of Naturalist Antonio de Pineda y Ramirez, February 1792. Micronesian Area Research Center. ISBN 978-1878453013.
Madulid, Domingo A. (1987). "The Philippines in the Year 1792 as Portrayed by the Malaspina Expedition Artists". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 15 (3): 219–254. JSTOR 29791924.

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An archivist is an information professional who assesses, collects, organizes, preserves, maintains control over, and provides access to records and archives determined to have long-term value. The records that are maintained by an archivist can consist of a variety of forms, including but not limited to letters, diaries, logs, other personal documents, government documents, sound or picture recordings, digital files, or other physical objects.
== Description ==
As Richard Pearce-Moses wrote:
Archivists keep records that have enduring value as reliable memories of the past, and they help people find and understand the information they need in those records.
Determining what records have enduring value can be challenging. Archivists must also select records valuable enough to justify the costs of storage and preservation, plus the labor-intensive expenses of arrangement, description, and reference service. The theory and scholarly work underpinning archives practices is called archival science.
The most common related occupations are librarians, museum curators, and records managers. The occupation of archivist is distinct from that of librarian. The two occupations have separate courses of training, adhere to separate and distinct principles, and are represented by separate professional organizations. In general, the librarian tends to deal with published media (where the metadata, such as author, title, and date of publication, may be readily apparent and can be presented in standardized form), whereas the archivist deals with unpublished media (which has different challenges such as the metadata not always being immediately apparent, containing complications and variety, and more likely to depend on provenance). The Society of American Archivists (SAA) also notes that while both professions preserve, collect, and make materials accessible, librarians can often obtain "new copies of worn-out or lost books", while records in archival collections are unique and irreplaceable. The SAA further distinguishes libraries and archives based on the materials they keep and how they are accessed by patrons.
Because archival records are frequently unique, archivists may be as much concerned with the preservation and custody of the information carrier (i.e. the physical document) as with its informational content. In this sense, the archivist may have more in common with the museum curator than with the librarian. The SAA states that museum curators and archivists sometimes overlap in their duties, but that curators often collect and interpret three-dimensional objects, while archivists deal with paper, electronic, or audiovisual records. Even so, archival selections are sometimes exhibited in museums.
The occupation of archivist is also frequently distinguished from that of records manager, although in this case the distinction is less absolute: the archivist is predominantly concerned with records deemed worthy of permanent preservation, whereas the records manager is more concerned with records of current administrative importance.
The SAA additionally notes that historians and archivists have a long-standing partnership, as archivists preserve, identify, and make records accessible, while historians use those records for their research.
== Duties and work environment ==

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Archivists' duties include acquiring and appraising new collections, arranging and describing records, providing reference service, and preserving materials. In arranging records, archivists apply two important principles: provenance and original order. Provenance refers to the creation of records and keeping different records separate in order to maintain context. Many entities create records, including governments, businesses, universities, and individuals. Original order is applied by keeping records in their order as established and maintained by the creator(s). Both provenance and original order are closely related to the concept of respect des fonds, which states that records from one corporate body should not be mixed with records from another.
There are two aspects to arrangement: intellectual and physical. Both aspects follow the principle of original order. Archivists process the records physically by placing them in acid-free folders and boxes to ensure their long-term survival. They also process the records intellectually, by determining what the records consist of, how they are organized, and what, if any, finding aids need to be created. Finding aids can be box lists or descriptive inventories, or indexes. Even if the original arrangement is unclear or unhelpful in terms of accessing the collection, it is rarely rearranged to something that makes more sense. This is because preserving the original order shows how the creator of the records functioned, why the records were created, and how they went about arranging them. Moreover, the provenance and authenticity of the records may be lost. However, original order is not always the best way to maintain some collections and archivists must use their own experience and current best practices to determine the correct way to preserve collections of mixed media or those lacking a clear original arrangement.
Archivists' work encompasses a range of ethical decisions that may be thought of as falling into three broad and intertwined areas: legal requirements; professional standards; and accountability to society in selecting and preserving documentary materials that serve as a primary source of knowledge, and influence collective memory and identity. In negotiating the ethical conflicts that arise in their work, archivists are guided by codes of ethics. The Society of American Archivists first adopted a code of ethics in 1980; the International Council on Archives adopted one in 1996.
Alongside their work in arranging and caring for collections, archivists assist users in interpreting materials and answering inquiries. This reference work can be a small part of an archivist's job in a smaller organization, or consist of most of their occupation in a larger archive where specific roles (such as processing archivist and reference archivist) may be delineated.
Archivists work for a variety of organizations, including government agencies, local authorities, museums, hospitals, historical societies, businesses, charities, corporations, colleges and universities, national parks and historic sites, and any institution whose records may potentially be valuable to researchers, exhibitors, genealogists, or others. They can also work on the collections of a large family or even of an individual.
Archivists are often educators as well; it is not unusual for an archivist employed at a university or college to lecture in a subject related to their collection. Archivists employed at cultural institutions or for local government frequently design educational or outreach programs to further the ability of archive users to understand and access information in their collections. This might include such varied activities as exhibitions, promotional events, community engagement, or even media coverage.
The advent of Encoded Archival Description (EAD), along with increasing demand for materials to be made available online, has required archivists to become more tech-savvy in the past decade. Many archivists are now acquiring basic XML skills in order to make their finding aids available to researchers online.
== Skills ==
Because of the varied nature of the job within different organizations and work environments, archivists need to have a wide range of skills:
Those who work in reference and access-oriented positions should have good customer services skills, to help patrons with their research.
A basic knowledge of preservation is needed to help extend the life of cultural artifacts. Many types of media (such as photographs, acidic papers, and unstable copy processes) can deteriorate if not stored and maintained properly.
Although many archival collections consist solely of paper records, increasingly archivists must confront the new challenges posed by the preservation of electronic records, so they need to be forward-looking and technologically proficient.
== Educational preparation ==
The educational preparation for archivists varies from country to country.
=== Australia ===
The Australian Society of Archivists is the professional body for archivists, and is responsible for the accreditation of the various University courses. The first University to offer archival training was the University of New South Wales, starting in 1973. The course closed in 2000.
As of 2017, courses are offered at Curtin University, Charles Sturt University, Monash University and University of South Australia at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The course at Edith Cowan University is being phased out.
=== Brazil ===
The profession has been regulated since 1978.
Many universities in Brazil, such as the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), the Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES), Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), and thirteen other universities, offer the degree in "archivology" which roughly translates to "archival science."
=== Canada ===
There are various institutions which offer an archival science degree. One of those institutions is the University of British Columbia.
=== Colombia ===
The Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje – SENA – in chain training with the Tecnológico de Antioquia Tecnológico de Antioquia offers an archival science degree.

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=== France ===
In France, the oldest Archivist School is the École des chartes, founded in 1821. This prestigious grande école (literally, "grand schools") offers a diploma in "Archivist-Paleography", created in 1849, after a three-year curriculum. Many graduates become curators in archives, museums, and libraries or become researchers in universities.
Some universities, like University of Angers, Jean Moulin University Lyon 3, and Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, offer a master's degree in Archival Science,
while the Burgundy has a course for their history degree focusing on archives of 20th and 21st century Europe.
=== Ireland ===
In the Republic of Ireland, the School of History of the University College Dublin (UCD) offers a Masters of Arts degree in Archives and Records Management, providing the only recognized course in Ireland for the training of professional archivists, which is accredited by the Archives and Records Association. UCD also offers certificates in Archives Management and Records Management.
=== New Zealand ===
Victoria University of Wellington is the only tertiary institution in New Zealand that provides postgraduate archival courses. Victoria Information Studies qualifications with ARCR endorsement have been recognized by Records and Information Management Professionals Australasia. The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand has an undergraduate course in archives management.
=== United Kingdom ===
In the United Kingdom, there are currently postgraduate courses in archives administration or management from Aberystwyth University, University of Dundee, University of Glasgow, University of Liverpool, and University College London which are recognised by the Archives and Records Association (United Kingdom and Ireland). Students are expected to have relevant paid or voluntary work experience before obtaining a place on the UK courses, while professional certification (after qualifying) can be pursued via the Registration Scheme offered by the Archives and Records Association.
=== United States ===
The most common types of advanced degrees held by archivists are in archival science, public history, history, library science, or library and information science. It is also possible for archivists to earn a doctorate in library and information science. Archivists with a PhD often work as teaching faculty, deans, or directors of archival programs. In 2002, the Society of American Archivists published Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies; it also promotes and disseminates a code of ethics, which has undergone several revisions since it was first adopted in 1980.
The Academy of Certified Archivists offers supplemental archival training by means of a certification program. When first established in 1989, some critics of ACA certification objected to its annual membership fees, the theoretical versus practical nature of its tests, and the need for members to re-certify every five years. However, in the decades since, it has been agreed that such requirements are comparable with certification programs in other professions, and that certification strengthens professional standards and individual competencies. While some positions in archives require certification and many employers view certification as preferred, it is not required by all employers in the United States. Approximately 1,200+ archivists were certified by ACA, as of 2016.
A history of women in the archival professions detailed the Committee on the Status of Women in the political, social and cultural context of feminism and its lasting effect on the field.
== Professional organizations and continuing education ==
Many archivists belong to a professional organization, such as the Society of American Archivists, the Association of Canadian Archivists, the Archives and Records Association (UK/Ireland), the Colombian College of Archivists - CCA, and the Australian Society of Archivists, as well as any number of local or regional associations. These organizations often provide ongoing educational opportunities to their members and other interested practitioners. In addition to formal degrees and or apprenticeships, many archivists take part in continuing education opportunities as available through professional associations and library school programs. New discoveries in the fields of media preservation and emerging technologies require continuing education as part of an archivist's job in order to stay current in the profession.

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== History of the profession ==
The first predecessors of archival science in the West are Jacob von Rammingen's manuals of 1571. and Baldassarre Bonifacio's De Archivis libris singularis of 1632.
In 1883, French archivist Gabriel Richou published the first Western text on archival theory, entitled Traité théorique et pratique des archives publiques (Treaty of Theory and Practice of the Public Archives), in which he systematized the archival theory of the respect des fonds, first published by Natalis de Wailly in 1841.
In 1898, three Dutch archivists, Samuel Muller, Johan Feith, and Robert Fruin, published the Handleiding voor het ordenen en beschrijven van archieven (Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives). Produced for the Dutch Association of Archivists, it set out one hundred rules for archivists to base their work around. Notably, within these rules, the principle of preserving provenance and original order was first argued for as an essential trait of archival arrangement and description. Many of these principles were subsequently adopted and developed by the British archivist Hilary Jenkinson in his Manual of Archive Administration, first published in 1922, with a revised edition appearing in 1937.
In 1956, T. R. Schellenberg, known as the "Father of American Archival Appraisal", published Modern Archives. Schellenberg's work was intended to be an academic textbook defining archival methodology and giving archivists specific technical instruction on workflow and arrangement. Moving away from Jenkinson's organic and passive approach to archival acquisition, where the administrator decided what was kept and what was destroyed, Schellenberg argued for a more active approach by archivists to appraisal. His primary (administrative) and secondary (research) value model for the management and appraisal of records and archives allowed government archivists greater control over the influx of material that they faced after the Second World War. As a result of the widespread adoption of Schellenberg's methods, especially in the United States of America, modern Records Management as a separate but related discipline was born.
In 1972, Ernst Posner published Archives in the Ancient World. Posner's work emphasized that archives were not new inventions, but had existed in many different societies throughout recorded history. Due to his role in the development of American archival theory and practice, he was sometimes called "the Dean of American archivists." Norton promoted the establishment of archives as a profession separate from history or library science and developed the American archival tradition to emphasize an administrator/archivist rather than an historian/archivist. She encouraged learning through experimentation, practical usage, and community discussion. While editor of The American Archivist she emphasized technical rather than scholarly issues, believing that archival records were useful in ways other than scholarly research.
== On the Internet ==
=== Archives 2.0 ===
Archivists, like librarians, are taking advantage of Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs, wikis, as well as open access and open source philosophies. Archives 2.0, by extension, is more of a participatory online repository than a true-to-form established entity, although it has fallen considerably behind Web 2.0 in overall acceptance by archivists themselves. While Archives 2.0 may refer to implementing new technologies, it is also a way of engaging with archives in an effort to promote openness and flexibility of archival materials. This can be achieved through community participation in archives, archivists actively engaging with their collections, and promoting archival benefits in the modern world.
Kate Theimer writes that in order to understand Archives 2.0, it must be compared against Archives 1.0. She asserts that her representation of Archives 1.0 is by no means exhaustive or fully comprehensive of the breadth of archival experience. The following is a list of contrasts between 1.0 and 2.0.
"Open, not closed;
Transparent, not opaque;
User centered, not record centered;
Facilitator, not gatekeeper;
Attracting new users, not relying on users to find them;
Shared standards, not localized practice;
Metrics and measurement, not 'unmeasurable' results;
Iterative products, not 'perfect' products;
Innovation and flexibility, not adhering to tradition;
Technology savvy, not technology phobic;
Value doing, not knowing;
Confident about lobbying for resources, not hesitant beggars."
The technological tools of Archives 2.0 provide the foundational platforms to help the change from 1.0 to 2.0. When working in an archives that is dedicated to upholding 2.0 standards, the focus has shifted onto the user experience at an archives.
=== Internet libraries ===
Some archivists operate public libraries that are accessible on the Internet. Examples include the illegal shadow libraries Library Genesis and Anna's Archive – humanity's largest library of books – and Sci-Hub – humanity's largest public library of scientific articles. Proponents of these libraries have made use of BitTorrent and IPFS technologies to make these sites decentralized, resilient and uncensorable. There are also other projects that for instance archive digital games and make them accessible via the Internet or that keep content of defunct websites accessible.
The most comprehensive public archive on the Internet is the Internet Archive which provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites (via the Wayback Machine), software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and books. As of September 2023, the Internet Archive holds over 39 million books and texts, 13.6 million movies, videos and TV shows, 1 million software programs, 15 million audio files, 4.7 million images, and 840 billion web pages.
== Notes ==
== See also ==
Archival science
List of archives
List of archivists
Howard Henry Peckham and John Clement Fitzpatrick (archivists of early American history)
The Archivist, novel
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Archivists at Wikimedia Commons
Society of American Archivists website

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The Bangladesh National Museum (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ জাতীয় জাদুঘর, romanized: Bānlādēśa Jātīẏa Jādughara) is the national repository of Bangladesh's cultural and historical artifacts, located in the Shahbag area of Dhaka.
The museum was established on 20 March 1913, under the name Dhaka Museum, and was formally inaugurated on 7 August 1913. With an initial collection of 379 objects, it was opened to the public on 25 August 1914. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the institution was reorganized under the name Bangladesh National Museum, incorporating various parts of the former Dhaka Museum, and was formally inaugurated in its present form in 1983. The museum has departments of ethnography and decorative art, history and classical art, natural history, and world civilization. Artifacts from the prehistoric era to contemporary history are displayed here, which include over 50,000 ancient and medieval coins, Buddhist sculptures from the Gandhara period, and exhibits related to the 1971 Liberation War.
== History ==
In 1855, the Asiatic Society of Bengal proposed establishing a museum in Dhaka, but it was postponed due to logistical constraints. Later, in 1907, this initiative re-emerged among the elite class of Dhaka. Following this, on 20 March 1913, the Dhaka Museum was formally established by the government of undivided Bengal. It was initially located in a room of the old Secretariat building (later part of Dhaka Medical College Hospital). The institution was supported by subscriptions amounting to nearly 10,000 taka from the residents of Dhaka and an initial government grant of 2,000 taka. On 7 August 1913, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, Lord Thomas David Gibson Carmichael, inaugurated it for the public in the old building of Jagannath University College, in the presence of local dignitaries. The initial collection comprised about 500 items, primarily including regional archaeological artifacts, coins, manuscripts, and folk art. As the collection grew, it was relocated to the Nimtali Baroduari building by 1915. After the partition of India in 1947, the institution continued to operate as the Dhaka Museum in East Pakistan and faced several administrative challenges. For example, following the death of its first curator, Nalini Kanta Bhattasali, there was no permanent curator from 1947 to 1951, and during this time, its premises were temporarily occupied by a press agency. A part-time curator was appointed in 1951-1952, and in 1954, Enayetur Rahman joined as the curator. Exhibits from sites damaged by the attacks of the Pakistan Army in 1971 (such as the Dinajpur Rajbari and Baldha Museum) were transferred here. Additionally, the collection of war-related documents and artifacts began with the aim of documenting information about the Bengali liberation struggle. After independence, in 1972, the institution was renamed 'Bangladesh National Museum' in line with the identity of the newly independent state, and it officially received this name through a government order in 1974. A Trustee Board was formed in 1970 and a National Museum Commission in 1974 for its oversight. As part of the restructuring during the 1970s and 1980s, a new site for the museum in Shahbagh was approved by ECNEC in December 1975. Specialized curatorial departments, such as anthropology, decorative arts, and history, were established to manage the growing collection. Finally, on 17 November 1983, the new building in Shahbagh, equipped with modern facilities, was opened to the public.
By 2017, as a result of ongoing acquisitions and research, the collection of the Bangladesh National Museum reached 91,287 artifacts, among which historical, ethnographic, and natural history items are particularly noteworthy. As part of a broader institutional modernization, the museum initiated a digitization project in 2012. Its objective was to create a database of the entire collection, improving access to and preservation of artifacts within the limited exhibition space. In April 2017, the museum launched a 360-degree virtual gallery, making selected exhibits accessible to a global audience through online tours. Furthermore, since 2010, UNESCO has been collaborating with the institution on work related to intangible cultural heritage.
== Visitors ==
On an average more than 2000 visitors come to visit the Bangladesh National Museum every day. Foreigners are also among them. Visitor fee is Tk 40 for adults and Tk 20 for minors, Tk 500 for foreigners and Tk 300 for visitors from SAARC countries. However, tickets are not required for children below 3 years of age and physically challenged persons.
== Structure ==
The categories of artifacts of the National Museum are:
History and Classical Art
Ethnology and Decorative Arts
Contemporary Art and World Civilization
Department of Natural History
Conservation Laboratory
There is also a public education department.
=== Ground floor ===
The ground floor consists of some old guns at the entrance and the hall where the people book their tickets or assemble to hear the history of the museum. The hall leads to a grand staircase. Beside the hall, there is a smaller room which also acts like the hall (it is also used by the guides to tell the visitors about the history) and a simple staircase.
=== First floor ===
The first floor is divided into 22 rooms.
==== First room ====
The first room displays a large map showing the map of Bangladesh and its 64 districts.
==== Second room ====
The second room consists of a large statue of a royal Bengal tiger.
==== Third-tenth rooms ====
These rooms consist of natural beauties found in Bangladesh. In one of the room there is showcase of a tongue of a whale.
==== Tenth-22nd rooms ====
The other rooms contain some historic relics of Bengal up to 1900. There is a room which shows the different boats used by the rural people.
=== Second floor ===
The second floor consists of photos of famous people and showcases the Bangladesh Liberation War, genocide, and the Language Movement of 1952. There are posters used in the war, a torture machine and much more. There are also two libraries.
=== Third floor ===
The third floor consists of pictures of international politicians, artists, scientists, famous pictures and four international galleries – Chinese, Korean, Iranian and Swiss.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Bangladesh National Museum at Banglapedia

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The Museum of Nature and Environment of the Republic of Belarus (Belarusian: Музей прыроды і экалогіі Рэспублікі Беларусь, romanized: Muzey pryrody i ekalogii Respubliki Byelarus) is a museum in Minsk, Belarus, founded in 1991 at Minsk on the basis of the nature of Belarusian National History and Culture Museum. There are more than 40 thousand exhibits inside an exposition area of 350 m2. In the 6 thematic rooms (mineralogical, fenalagichny, nature, river, lake, forest) exhibits tell about the natural riches of the evolution of flora and fauna from antiquity to the present day.
== Gallery ==
== External links ==
Official website

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The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of animals, plants, fossils, rocks and minerals.
== History ==
The Society was founded by George Crawford Hyndman, James Lawson Drummond, James Grimshaw, James McAdam, Robert Patterson, Robert Simms, Francis Archer, the Thomas Dix Hincks, Edward Hincks and Edmund Getty. Five years later in 1826 Alexander Henry Haliday and William Thompson both joined. In 1823, the Society's collection and the small collection begun in 1788 in the rooms of the Belfast Reading Society and that of the Belfast Literary Society were moved to Belfast Academical Institution where James Bryce was centralising Belfast's rapidly expanding natural history holdings. A new building opened at No. 7 College Square North in 1831.
How big the first collections were is unknown but the 1831 figure of 300 insects given when the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society Museum opened to non-members may refer to specimens on display. The research material would have been much more numerous and expanded rapidly during the next decade. Specimens from England, the West Indies, Lapland, France, Greece, Italy, Senegal, New Holland, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, Mauritius, Colombia, Recife, Peru, Virginia, India and West Africa were acquired by gift. The Society maintained an excellent library and received many journals from corresponding members of English and continental natural history societies. Notable contributors were John Obadiah Westwood, Francis Walker, Carl August Dohrn), Maximilian Spinola and John Gould and Charles Darwin.
Many of the collections and some of the books were transferred to the Trinity College Museum, Dublin in 1843 after the society became the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society in 1842 when lectures in chemistry, physics, engineering and were allowed. Specimens remaining in Belfast are kept in the Ulster Museum where they bear the tag BNHPS collection. The formerly central role of natural history and archaeology diminished from this year on and in 1863 the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded. The fragmentary BNHS minute books (pre-1842) and few letters are in the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, in Belfast.
The Society still exists today retaining ownership of the Old Museum Building, publishing occasional books, and running a lecture series out of the Linen Hall Library.
== The museum ==
Musei Belfastiani
Fundamenta Prima PraesentibusSocietatis Historiae Naturalis apud BelfastamSociis, aliisque multis scientiae faventibusqui ad hoc opus pecuniam contulerant:Locavit Vir Honoratissimus Georgius Augustus Chichester Marchio de Donegall IV. Non Maias MDCCCXXX.Rege Augustissimo Georgio IV. Annum Regni XI. Agente. Thomas J Duff, T. Jackson, Architectis; J. Johnston, Redemptore.
The museum was the first erected in Ireland by public subscription. From its inception in 1831 and for 47 years the Museum employed a curator taxidermist named William Darragh (1813–1892). In the first report of the society he wrote an account entitled "Directions for preserving subjects in natural history". This covered birds, tortoises etc., lizards and serpents, fish, shells, corals, seafans etc., crabs, lobsters etc., asterias or starfish, insects, botanical specimens, seeds, minerals and Fossil. He notes, correctly anticipating foreign specimens "As there is now no vexatious delay or trouble experienced by Custom-house regulations, specimens of natural history being admitted free of duty, it is recommended that all packages may be entered in the ship's papers, and if a list of all the contents of each package could, with convenience, be attached inside the lid of the box or cover, the risk of injury to the specimens, by examination at the Custom-house, would in great measure be avoided". Also "Should it even happen that the specimens be already possessed by the Society, still duplicates are desirable, since such as are not possessed by the Museum can be readily exchanged for others that may be wanted".
Although the focus of the collections was primarily on zoology, botany and geology substantial archaeological, ethnographic and antiquarian acquisitions were made and in 1835 the Society gained an Egyptian mummy, Takabuti.
Whilst the members of the Society were middle class the museum was open to the working classes, at a small charge on Easter Mondays. Recorded figures for Easter Mondays 1845–1853 are:
1845 – 1,200 persons
1846 – 1,700 persons
1847 – 2,000 persons
1848 – 2,600 persons
1849 – 3,500 persons
1850 – 4,400 persons
1851 – 4,350 persons
1852 – 4,200 persons
1853 – 5,950 persons
== The library ==
With the tumultuous years of 1789–1815, European culture was transformed by revolution, war and disruption. By ending many of the social and cultural props of the previous century, the stage was set for dramatic economic, political and social change of the Late Enlightenment of which the development of learned societies was a part. One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularisation. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people". As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. Books owned by the Belfast Natural History Society reflect such changes, although some of the more expensive works were the gift of Thomas Fortescue and Arthur Hill. They included:

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Georges Cuvier, 1829 Regne Animalium, in English, The Animal Kingdom, published by Chez Deterville at Paris; 1832 Class Insecta Whitaker, London
Justin Pierre Marie Macquart, 1834–1835. Histoire naturelle des insectes. Dipteres Paris : Roret.
Pierre André LatreilleGenera crustaceorum et insectorum, secundum ordinem naturalem ut familias disposita (4 vols., 1806 1807 1807 1809)
Peter Simon Pallas Zoographia Rosso-asiatica
Friedrich Wilhelm Martini Neues systematisches Conchylien-Cabinet;
Emanuel Mendez da Costa A Natural History of Fossils (1757), Elements of Conchology, or An Introduction to the Knowledge of Shells (1776), British Conchology (1778)
Gilbert White The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789)
Thomas Pennant History of Quadrupeds
Johannes Allart, Afbeeldingen der fraaiste, meest uitheemsche boomen en heesters. Amsterdam, Johannes Allart, 1802 [-1808];
William Smith Strata by Organized Fossils (1815);
Louis Agassiz Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833–1843);
Philipp Franz von Siebold Fauna Japonica: Birds or Aves, 1844–1850 12 vol.; Fish or Pisces 1842–1850 16 vol.; Crustaceans or Crustacea 1833–1850 8 vol.; Mammals or Mammalia 1842–1844 4 vol
Pierre Barrère Ornithologiae Specimen Novum, sive Series Avium in Ruscinone, Pyrenaeis Montibus, atque in Galliâ Aequinoctiali Observatarum, in Classes, genera & species, novâ methodo, digesta (1745);
Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg Die Waldverderber und ihre Feinde, Berlin, 1841
== Notable members ==
John Templeton
Robert Templeton
James MacAdam
Robert Shipboy MacAdam
Thomas Graves R.N.
Charles Wyville Thomson
Ralph Tate
James Bryce
Thomas Andrews
Thomas Workman
John Grainger
James Emerson Tennent
John Grattan
George Dickie
James Grimshaw (naturalist)
William Thomas Braithwaite
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
William Bullock A companion to Mr. Bullock's London Museum and Pantherion 1812 [1] gives a notion of an early 19th-century museum, though not a scientific one.
Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne
Leskean Cabinet
Dublin University Zoological Association
Cuvierian Society of Cork
== References ==
Foster, J. W. and Chesney, H. C. G (eds.), 1977.Nature in Ireland: A Scientific and Cultural History Lilliput Press ISBN 0-7735-1817-7.
Nash, R., 1983. A brief summary of the development of entomology in Ireland during the years 1790–1870 Irish Naturalists' Journal 21:145–150.
Foster, J.W., 1990 Natural History, Science and Irish Culture. Author: Foster, John Wilson.The Irish Review, Volume 9, Number 1 pp. 61–69.
== External links ==
BHL Digitised Report of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society
Library Ireland Dublin Penny Journal account

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Beni Abbes Museum, also known as Béni Abbès Museum (Arabic: متحف بني عباس, romanized: Matḥaf Banī ʻAbbās) is an art museum located in oasis town of Beni Abbes, Béchar Province, Algeria. It is "a resource dedicated to desert fauna, fossils and Algerian arts and crafts."
== Displays ==
Béni Abbès Museum is popular in Algeria. It is supported by the Saharan Research Center. The museum houses displays desert fauna, fossils and traditional arts and crafts, such as carpets, wall hangings, ceramic items, woodcarvings and jewelry. The museum, which is supported by the Saharan Research Center, displays an extensive range of different types of dates. Dates are one of the mainstay crops of oasis towns and villages in Algeria.
== Myth ==
The oasis of Beni Abbes has its own myth. Local people claim that:
“The spring which waters this lush oasis came about as a miracle. It is said that a traveler pushed his walking-stick into the ground, declaring that if he should die in this place, water would come out of the ground. He apparently died the following night, possibly due to lack of water, and the spring began to flow, continuing to do so to this day”.
== Tourist destination ==
The town of Beni Abbès is a popular tourist destination and the museum provides insights into its history and culture.
== See also ==
Béni Abbès
List of museums in Algeria
== References ==
== External links ==
Museums in Algeria

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Betteridge's law of headlines is an adage that states: "Any headline that ends in a question mark can be answered by the word no." It is based on the assumption that if the publishers were confident that the answer was yes, they would have presented it as an assertion; by presenting it as a question, they are not accountable for whether it is correct or not.
The law is named after Ian Betteridge, a British technology journalist who wrote about it in 2009. The maxim has been cited by other names since 1991, when a published compilation of Murphy's law variants called it "Davis's law", a name that also appears online without any explanation of who Davis was. It has also been referred to as the "journalistic principle" and in 2007 was referred to in commentary as "an old truism among journalists".
== History ==
Betteridge's name became associated with the concept after he discussed it in a February 2009 article, which examined a previous TechCrunch article that carried the headline "Did Last.fm Just Hand Over User Listening Data to the RIAA?":
This story is a great demonstration of my maxim that any headline which ends in a question mark can be answered by the word "no". The reason why journalists use that style of headline is that they know the story is probably bullshit, and don't actually have the sources and facts to back it up, but still want to run it.
A similar observation was made by British newspaper editor Andrew Marr in his 2004 book My Trade, among Marr's suggestions for how a reader should interpret newspaper articles:
If the headline asks a question, try answering 'no'. Is This the True Face of Britain's Young? (Sensible reader: No.) Have We Found the Cure for AIDS? (No; or you wouldn't have put the question mark in.) Does This Map Provide the Key for Peace? (Probably not.) A headline with a question mark at the end means, in the vast majority of cases, that the story is tendentious or over-sold. It is often a scare story, or an attempt to elevate some run-of-the-mill piece of reporting into a national controversy and, preferably, a national panic. To a busy journalist hunting for real information a question mark means 'don't bother reading this bit'.
== Studies ==
A 2016 study of a sample of academic journals (not news publications) that set out to test Betteridge's law and Hinchliffe's rule (see below) found that few titles were posed as questions and of those that were questions, few were yes/no questions and they were more often answered "yes" in the body of the article rather than "no".
A 2018 study of 2,585 articles in four academic journals in the field of ecology similarly found that very few titles were posed as questions at all, with 1.82 percent being wh-questions and 2.15 percent being yes/no questions. Of the yes/no questions, 44 percent were answered "yes", 34 percent "maybe", and only 22 percent were answered "no".
In 2015, a study of 26,000 articles from 13 news sites on the World Wide Web, conducted by a data scientist and published on his blog, found that the majority (54 percent) were yes/no questions, which divided into 20 percent "yes" answers, 17 percent "no" answers and 16 percent whose answers he could not determine.

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== Question headlines ==
Phrasing headlines as questions is a tactic employed by newspapers that do not "have the facts required to buttress the nut graph". Roger Simon characterized the practice as justifying "virtually anything, no matter how unlikely", giving "Hillary to Replace Biden on Ticket?" and "Romney to Endorse Gay Marriage Between Corporations?" as hypothetical examples of such a practice. Many question headlines were used, for example, in reporting of Bharatiya Janata Party in-fighting in 2004, because no politicians went on record to confirm or deny facts, such as "Is Venkaiah Naidu on his way out?" Because this implication is known to readers, guides giving advice to newspaper editors state that so-called "question heads" should be used sparingly.
Freelance writer R. Thomas Berner calls them "gimmickry". Grant Milnor Hyde observed that they give the impression of uncertainty in a newspaper's content. When Linton Andrews worked at the Daily Mail after the First World War, one of the rules set by Lord Northcliffe was to avoid question headlines, unless the question itself reflected a national issue.
Question headlines are not legally sound when it comes to avoiding defamation. The Supreme Court of Oklahoma held in 1913, in its decision in Spencer v. Minnick, that "A man cannot libel another by the publication of language the meaning and damaging effect of which is clear to all men, and where the identity of the person meant cannot be doubted, and then escape liability through the use of a question mark." The use of question headlines as a form of sensationalism has a long history, including the 9 June 1883, headline in Joseph Pulitzer's New York World, "Was It Peppermint Mary?"
The story, about a jewellery store that had tried to prevent its female employees from flirting with people outside the store, only mentioned "Peppermint" Mary at the end of the piece as an employee who might possibly have caused this and did not answer the question.
The New York World also famously used a question headline for hedging when editors were unsure of their facts, when it reported the outcome of the 1916 United States presidential election. When other New York City newspapers ran statement headlines on 8 November 1916 saying "Hughes Is Elected" (The Evening Sun, final edition the night before), "Hughes Is Elected by Narrow Margin" (The Sun), "Hughes Is Elected by Majority of 40" (The New York Herald), "Hughes the Next President" (The Journal of Commerce), "Hughes Sweeps State" (New York Tribune) and "Nation Swept by Hughes!" (New York American), the World ran one with a question headline, "Hughes Elected in Close Contest?"
This was the result of a last-minute intervention by then World journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, who, having received a tip from gambling friends that Charles Evans Hughes might not in fact win, persuaded Charles M. Lincoln, the managing editor of the paper, to reset the headline in between editions, inserting a question mark. Confusingly, below the question headline the World still had a picture of Hughes captioned "The President-Elect" but the question headline did indeed turn out to have the answer "no", as President Woodrow Wilson was re-elected, which the World finally announced in a headline two days later.
Advertisers and marketers prefer yes/no question headlines that are answered "yes", as a reader that immediately answers "no" to a question headline on an advertisement is likely to skip over the advertisement entirely. The most famous example of such a question headline in advertising is "Do you make these mistakes in English?", written to advertise Sherwin Cody's English-language course and used from 1919 to 1959, which (with readers answering "yes" they did make the mistakes that the advertisement proceeded to outline) was measured as more successful than non-yes/no-question alternatives.
Victor Schwab, a partner in the advertising agency that worked for Cody, published an analysis of the aspects of the headline attempting to look at it scientifically and using ten years' worth of revenue and customer enquiry data for both it and a statement headline that Cody had also used. He noted amongst other things that working in its favour was the question addressing the reader using the second person. A 2013 study into computer-mediated communication came to a similar conclusion, finding that question headlines posted to Twitter and eBay increased click-through rates in comparison to statement headlines and that questions that address or reference the reader have statistically significant higher click-through rates than rhetorical or general questions.
The adage does not apply to questions that are more open-ended than strict yes–no questions. For example, "What Should We Expect From Evolving Import-Export Policy?" is an open-ended question, whereas "Should We Expect an Embargo on Widgets?" is of closed form.
== Hinchliffe's rule ==
In the field of particle physics, the concept is known as Hinchliffe's rule, after physicist Ian Hinchliffe, who stated that if a research paper's title is in the form of a yes–no question, the answer to that question will be "no". The adage led into a humorous attempt at a liar paradox by a 1988 paper, written by physicist Boris Kayser under the pseudonym "Boris Peon", which bore the title: "Is Hinchliffe's Rule True?".
== See also ==
Clickbait – Web content intended to entice users to click on a link
Headlinese – Strange phrasing of headlines
List of eponymous laws – Adages and sayings named after a person
Loaded question – Question containing an unjustified assumption
== References ==
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
Gooden, Philip (2015). "Arts". Skyscrapers, Hemlines and the Eddie Murphy Rule (1st ed.). Bloomsbury Information. ISBN 9781472915023.
"The Press: Question Mark Magazines". Time. Vol. 69, no. 5. 4 February 1957.
Locricchio v. Evening News Association, 438 Mich. 84 (26 August 1991) ("Nor is it determinative here that the sting of the headline concludes with a question mark — 'Is it Mafia?'").
== External links ==
Betteridge's website
Ian Betteridge at the Wayback Machine (archived 2016-01-10)

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The Biblical Museum of Natural History (Hebrew: מוזיאון הטבע התנ"כי, romanized: Muzeyum haTeva haTanakhi), currently located in Hartuv at the entrance to Beit Shemesh, Israel, was founded in 2014 by Rabbi Dr. Natan Slifkin, affectionately referred to as the "Zoo Rabbi."
== Vision and purpose ==
The establishment describes itself as "part natural history museum, part zoo" and is meant to "enhance the appreciation and understanding of biblical scripture and Jewish tradition via the natural world." Visitors are able to gain insight into the animals that lived in Israel during biblical times even if they no longer exist there now, such as bears and crocodiles.
Visitors to the museum are currently directed by special tour by appointment only. Features include live animal, taxidermy and skeleton exhibits, as well as audio/visual presentations. Tour topics include unraveling incidents of misidentification of animals by biblical scholars of species mentioned in both the Five Books of Moses and the Talmud due to their lack of familiarity with different families that are not represented in places like Europe, where much of the Jewish medieval biblical commentary was written.
== History ==
In 2017 the Museum held a "Feast of Exotic Curiosities," at which foods including locusts, guineafowl, and water buffalo, that are described as kosher in the Bible but rarely served, were prepared by chef Moshe Basson of The Eucalyptus, a restaurateur known for his contemporary preparations of biblical foods.
In 2020 the Museum moved from its old premises in the Bet Shemesh industrial zone to a new facility on Route 38, opposite the entrance to Beit Shemesh.
During the summer of 2021, the Museum's male and female burmese pythons successfully bred and gave birth to 38 eggs. The Museum hosted a 'kiddush' in their honour.
== Related works ==
Slifkin has authored the first volume of what will be a large collection of information related to the interplay of Judaism and zoology entitled The Torah Encyclopedia of the Animal Kingdom. The encyclopedia will attempt to cover all animals mentioned in the Jewish scripture and highlight little known historical facts such as population diversity and habitation during biblical times.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Zoo Torah: The Biblical Museum

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Biomuseo is a museum focused on the natural history of Panama, whose isthmus was formed very recently in geologic time, with major impact on the ecology of the Western Hemisphere. Located on the Amador Causeway in Panama City, Panama, it was designed by renowned architect Frank Gehry. This is Gehry's first design for Latin America. The design was conceived in 1999 and the museum opened on 2 October 2014.
The Biomuseo highlights Panama's natural and cultural history, emphasizing the role of humans in the 21st century. Its galleries tell the story of how the rise of the isthmus of Panama changed the world.
== Location ==
Biomuseo is located in Amador, also known as Causeway, at the south entrance of the Panama Canal. Visitors can get there via taxi or bus.
== The building and its galleries ==
With 4,000 square meters, the Biomuseo has eight galleries for its permanent exhibits, designed in sequence by Bruce Mau Design. The museum also has a public atrium, a space for temporary exhibits, a gift store, a coffee shop and exterior exhibits in a botanical garden designed by Edwina von Gal.
On October 2, 2014, the Biomuseo opened the first five galleries to the public, including the Gallery of Biodiversity, an introduction to Panama's natural heritage, Panamarama, a three-level projection space with 10 screens, Building the Bridge, showing the geological formation of the Isthmus of Panama through a hand's on display, Worlds Collide, showing the extraordinary exchange of species between North and South America when the Isthmus closed, and The Human Path, a space partially open to the outdoors, with 16 columns providing information about human impact on the natural world.
The remaining three galleries opened in March 2019. Oceans Divided consists of two semi-cylindrical aquariums showing how the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea evolved differently after they were separated by the isthmus. The Living Web features a 15-meter living sculpture that combines plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms, giving visitors the experience of the interconnectedness of life. Finally, Panama is the Museum is an immersive and interactive experience showing the relationship between the biological and cultural diversity of Panama, and inviting visitors to experience it first-hand.
== Social effect ==
The Gehry design is expected to attract tourists and help grow Panama's cultural attractions. The museum may have a similar effect as Gehry's Guggenheim design had for Bilbao, which rejuvenated and placed the city on the map as an important architectural destination. The Biomuseo is the first museum in the world that has committed to teaching the world about biodiversity and its importance. Despite the museum's beautiful architecture the architect wanted to focus on its significance to Panama and its impact on the people who live there. One of the permanent galleries, The Gallery of Biodiversity, goes through the process of explaining what biodiversity is and why it is significant. This gallery is meant to express how important biodiversity is and its significance beyond Panama. The goal of this museum is to make Panamanians, and all those who enter the museum, aware of their personal impact on biodiversity and encouraging people to protect and cherish it.
== See also ==
List of works by Frank Gehry
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
visitpanama.com

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Birmingham Natural History Society was a learned society for the study of the natural history of Birmingham, England, and in the surrounding Midlands region, and beyond. It was founded in 1858, and was a registered charity. The Society has had various names, e.g. in the 1870s it was called the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, and from 1894 to 1963 the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. It was agreed that the society should be dissolved in 2022, due to lack of volunteer officers to run it.
== History ==
The Society was founded in 1858. For a considerable part of its early life, it was called the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. In 1877, the Society played the lead in forming the Union of Midland Natural History Societies, which published the journal The Midland Naturalist. Some of the societies in the union later merged with the Birmingham Natural History Society. The Birmingham Philosophical Society, founded in 1876, merged in 1894, when the title of the Society was changed to the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. The Midland Malacological Society and the Birmingham Entomological Society were amalgamated in 1906 and 1908 respectively. The society's activities were greatly reduced by world war one but activity had picked up again by 1920. In 1924 the society carried out an extensive survey of Hartlebury Common.
The Society rooms suffered bomb damage on October 25, 1940 and as a result the society suspended its activities for the remainder of hostilities. The society began to meet again in 1945 and restarted publication of its proceedings in 1950.
The most recent title of the Society was first used in its Proceedings in 1964.
Important early members of the society included the botanist James Eustace Bagnall (1830-1918), who produced the first Flora of Sutton Park (now a national nature reserve) and later the first Flora of Warwickshire.
From March 2020 onwards, there were no meetings because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2022, an extraordinary general meeting was held, at which it was agreed to dissolve the society, and divide its financial assets between the Warwickshire Wildlife Trust and the Birmingham and Black Country Wildlife Trust.
== Activities ==
The society was responsible for the designation of Edgbaston Pool as a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and until 2012 was formally involved in its management.
The society operated a library for its members, and held regular meetings (at the Friends Meeting House in Selly Oak, field trips and training sessions. It published a journal, Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History Society (ISSN 0144-1477). First published in 1870, the journal appeared in four parts to a volume; parts have appeared at different intervals over time, e.g. each part of Volume 15 covered two calendar years whereas each part of Volume 29 covered three. Volume 30 Part 2 was published in 2020 prior to the dissolution of the society, covering 2018–2020.
== Publications ==
Works published by the society include:
Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History Society (formerly Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society); most recently published every three years (ISSN 0144-1477)
The Fauna of the Midland Plateau, published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913: Volume 1 Mycetozoa, by W.B. Grove; Volume 2 Preliminary list of Thysanura and Collembola, by W.E. Collinge; Volume 3 Introduction to the Fauna of the Midland Plateau, by P.E. Martineau
A Computer Mapped Flora by D. A. Cadbury, J. G. Hawkes and R. C. Readett, 1971 – a study of the flora of Vice-County 38, Warwickshire, published in conjunction with the University of Birmingham
A Fungus Flora of Warwickshire edited by M.C.Clark, 1980, published in conjunction with the University of Birmingham and the British Mycological Society
Lepidoptera of the Midland (Birmingham) Plateau, published in Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History Society 26(3-4), 1992/93
== Presidents ==
Notable past presidents of the society include:
Samuel Allport (1868)
Edmond W. Carlier (1910–1911, 1923, 1931–1932)
Robert William Chase (1885-1886, 1899, 1905-1907)
John H. Fremlin (1972–1973)
William Bywater Grove (1888–1889)
Jack G. Hawkes (1963–1964, 1986–1987)
John Henry Poynting (1897–1898)
Lawson Tait (1876)
George Stephen West (1913)
== See also ==
Thomas Bolton (microscopist) (1831-1887), held the post of curator
Christina Dony (1910-1995), English botanist, served on the council and as secretary of the Botanical Section
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Kenrick, K.L. (1958). Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society Centenary Celebrations : the records of the society and the story they tell. Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society.
== External links ==
Official website

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The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), founded on 15 September 1883, is one of the largest non-governmental organisations in India engaged in conservation and biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Many prominent naturalists, including the ornithologists Sálim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley, have been associated with it.
== History ==
British hunters in Bombay organized a hunting group around 1811, their activities included riding with foxhounds and shooting. A Bombay Hunt was supported by Sir Bartle Frere from 1862. A natural history society was begun, possibly as spinoff from the Bombay Geographical Society, in 1856 by Doctors Don (of Karachee), Andrew Henderson Leith (surgeon), George Buist, and Henry John Carter along with Lawrence Hugh Jenkins, then a registrar of the Supreme Court. The group did not last more than three years. On 15 September 1883 eight men interested in natural history met at Bombay in the Victoria and Albert Museum (now Bhau Daji Lad Museum) and:
constituted themselves as the Bombay Natural History Society. They proposed to meet monthly and exchange notes, exhibit interesting specimens and otherwise encourage each other.
According to E. H. Aitken (the first honorary secretary, September 1883-March 1886), Dr D. MacDonald was the fons et origo (Latin for "source and origin") of the society. The other founders were Dr G. A. Maconachie, Col. C. Swinhoe, Mr J. C. Anderson, Mr J. Johnston, Dr Atmaram Pandurang and Dr Sakharam Arjun. Mr H. M. Phipson (second honorary secretary, 1886–1906) was a part of the founding group. He lent a part of his wine shop at 18 Forbes Street to the BNHS as an office.
In 1911, R. C. Wroughton, a BNHS member and forest officer, organised a survey of mammals making use of the members spread through the Indian subcontinent to provide specimens. This was perhaps the first collaborative natural history study in the world. It resulted in a collection of 50,000 specimens in 12 years. Several new species were discovered, 47 publications were published, and the understanding of biogeographic boundaries was improved.
In the early years, the Journal of the BNHS reviewed contemporary literature from other parts of the world. The description of ant-bird interactions in German by Erwin Stresemann was reviewed in a 1935 issue leading to the introduction of the term anting into English.
Today the BNHS is headquartered in the specially constructed 'Hornbill House' in southern Mumbai. It sponsors studies in Indian wildlife and conservation, and publishes a four-monthly journal, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, as well as a quarterly magazine, Hornbill.
BNHS is the partner of BirdLife International in India. It has been designated as a 'Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation' by the Department of Science and Technology. Its headquarter is in Mumbai and has one regional centre at Wetland Research and Training Centre, near Chilika Lake, Odisha.
== BNHS logo ==
The BNHS logo is the great hornbill, inspired by a great hornbill named William, who lived on the premises of the Society from 1894 until 1920, during the honorary secretaryships of H. M. Phipson until 1906 and W. S. Millard from 1906 to 1920. The logo was created in 1933, the golden jubilee year of the Society's founding.
=== William ===
According to H. M. Phipson, William was born in May 1894 and presented to the Society three months later by H. Ingle of Karwar. He reached his full length (4.25 feet (1.30 m)) by the end of his third year. His diet consisted of fruit (like plantains and wild figs) and also of live mice, scorpions, and plain raw meat, which he ate with relish. He apparently did not drink water, nor use it for bathing. William was known for catching tennis balls thrown at him from a distance of some 30 feet with his beak.
In his obituary of W. S. Millard, Sir Norman Kinnear made the following remarks about William: Every visitor to the Society's room in Appollo Street will remember the great Indian Hornbill, better known as the "office canary" which lived in a cage behind Millard's chair in Phipson & Co.'s office for 26 years and died in 1920. It is said its death was caused by swallowing a piece of wire, but in the past "William" had swallowed a lighted cigar without ill effects and I for my part think that the loss of his old friend was the principal cause.
== Initiatives ==
=== National Dragonfly festival ===
The festival was started in 2018 in order to inform the public about integral role played by dragonflies in our environment. The Bombay Natural History Society has been organising the festival since then in association with WWF India, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme and National Biodiversity Board of India. The local events which are the part of this nationwide festival are also organised by WWF India in association with various state agencies. The "Thumbimahotsavam" is a state butterfly festival of Kerala which is organised as a part of National Dragonfly festival.
=== Asian Waterbird census ===
The Asian waterbird census is an annual exercise undertaken in India by Bombay Natural History Society in association with Wetlands International, in which enthusiastic birdwatchers count the birds by observing them near their respective breeding grounds. The exercise is a part of 'International waterbird census', an international exercise. It also aims to create awareness regarding bird species as well as health of the wetlands, which are facing severve threat amidst anthropogenic disturbance. It is conducted in the month of January every year.
Education Programmes
The BNHS Programme Department, currently led by Mr Asif N. Khan is an integral component of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), focuses on education, research, and outreach initiatives.
== See also ==
Category:Nature conservation in India
Conservation Education Centre of the BNHS
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Ali, Salim (1978). "Bombay Natural History Society — The Founders, the Builders and the Guardians. Part 1". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 75 (3): 559–569.
Ali, Salim (1981). "Bombay Natural History Society — The Founders, the Builders and the Guardians. Part 2". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 78 (2): 232–239.
== External links ==
Official website
Conservation Education Centre – Education wing of the BNHS
Mehta, Sarika. (18 March 2005). Wild enthusiasm. The Hindu Business Line.

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The Boston Journal of Natural History (1834–1863) was a scholarly journal published by the Boston Society of Natural History in mid-19th century Massachusetts. Contributors included Charles T. Jackson, Augustus A. Gould, and others. Each volume featured lithographic illustrations, some in color, drawn/engraved by E.W. Bouvé, B.F. Nutting, A. Sonrel, et al. and printed by Pendleton's Lithography and other firms.
The journal was continued by Memoirs Read Before the Boston Society of Natural History in 1863.
== Further reading ==
Boston Journal of Natural History v.1 (1834–1837); v.2 (1838–1839); v.4 (1843–1844); v.5 (1845–1847); v.6 (1850–1857); v.7 (1859–1863).
== Image gallery ==
== References ==

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The Boston Society of Natural History (1830–1948) in Boston, Massachusetts, was an organization dedicated to the study and promotion of natural history. It published a scholarly journal and established a museum. In its first few decades, the society occupied several successive locations in Boston's Financial District, including Pearl Street, Tremont Street and Mason Street. In 1864 it moved into a newly constructed museum building at 234 Berkeley Street in the Back Bay, designed by architect William Gibbons Preston. In 1951 the society evolved into the Museum of Science, and relocated to its current site on the Charles River.
== History ==
Founders of the society in 1830 included Amos Binney Jr., Edward Brooks, Walter Channing, Henry Codman, George B. Emerson, Joshua B. Flint, Benjamin D. Greene, Simon E. Greene, William Grigg, George Hayward, David Humphreys Storer, and John Ware. Several had previously been involved with the Linnaean Society of New England. By 1838, the society held "regular meetings on the 2nd and 4th Wednesday of each month." "In its collection are about 700 specimens in mineralogy and geology, besides the rich collection of Dr. C.T. Jackson, and the state collection; botany, 5,000; mammalia, 30 entire skeletons and 30 crania; birds, 200 species; reptiles, 130; insects, about 15,000; crustacea, 130; radiata, 190. Library, 600 volumes and pamphlets. The room ... gratuitously opened to the public every Wednesday from 12 to 2 o'clock."
In 1864, William Johnson Walker, a surgeon and financial supporter of the society, donated money for the Walker Prize to recognize work in the field of natural history. In the 1960s its scope was extended to all areas of science and with an emphasis on communication as well as excellence. One of the recipients, while he was a first year student at the Lawrence Scientific School (which later became part of Harvard University) was the zoologist William Patten.
The many scholars and curators affiliated with the society at various times included Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, Thomas Tracy Bouvé, Thomas Mayo Brewer, Augustus Addison Gould, F. W. P. Greenwood, Charles Thomas Jackson, Charles Sedgwick Minot, Albert Ordway, Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Charles J. Sprague, Alpheus Hyatt, and Jeffries Wyman.
"After World War II, under the leadership of Bradford Washburn, the society sold the Berkeley Street building, changed its name to the Boston Museum of Science. ... The cornerstone for the new Museum was laid at Science Park [in 1949] and a temporary building was erected to house the Museum's collections and staff. In 1951, the first wing of the new Museum officially opened."
== Galleries ==
=== 1830–1833 ===
=== 1833–1863 ===
=== 1864–1946 ===
== See also ==
Boston Journal of Natural History, published by the society (1834–1863)
Museum of Science (Boston)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Publications of the society
Act of incorporation, constitution, and by-laws of the Boston Society of Natural History. John H. Eastburn, printer, 1832.
Boston Journal of Natural History. v.1 (1834–1837); v.2 (1838–1839); v.4 (1843–1844); v.5 (1845–1847); v.6 (1850–1857); v.7 (1859–1863).
Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. v.1 (1841–1844); v.34 (1907–1912)
Memoirs Read Before the Boston Society of Natural History. (1861–1949). v.1 (1866–1869).
Objects and claims of the Boston Society of Natural History. Printed by J. Wilson and Son, 1861.
Annual report. (1865–1876)
Alpheus Spring Packard. Observations on the glacial phenomena of Labrador and Maine. 1867.
Louis Agassiz. Address delivered on the centennial anniversary of the birth of Alexander von Humboldt. 1869. (The lecture took place at Music Hall, followed by a reception at Horticultural Hall).
Anniversary memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1830–1880. Boston, 1880.
Lucien Carr. Notes on the crania of New England Indians. 1880.
William James. The feeling of effort. 1880.
Museum and Library bulletin. 1906.
Douglas Wilson Johnson. A geological excursion in the Grand Cañon district. 1909.
Bulletin of the Boston Society of Natural History. 1915.
P. Creed, ed. The Boston Society of Natural History, 1830–1930. Boston: 1930.
== External links ==
Boston Museum of Science
Hancock Library, University of Southern California. Acquired the library of the Boston Society of Natural History in 1944–1946.
"Whatever Happened to our Flamingo?". The Beehive (blog). Massachusetts Historical Society. 2010. Archived from the original on 2014-05-12. Retrieved 2014-05-09. (Describes items given to the Boston Society of Natural History in the 1830s)

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The Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción (Spanish: Jardín Botánico y Zoológico de Asunción) is a botanical garden and zoo located in Asunción, capital of the Republic of Paraguay.
The Botanical Garden and Zoo is one of the principal open spaces of the city of Asunción, set in natural forest covering 110 hectares (270 acres) to the north of the city. The zoo is home to nearly seventy species of wildlife including birds, mammals and reptiles, mostly representing the fauna of South America. The botanical garden is home to native species, exhibiting, in particular, the variety and beauty of its lush trees.
== History ==
This sprawling property was the former country house and estate of Carlos Antonio López, president of Paraguay between 1842 and 1862. Lopez ordered the construction of "Casa Lopez" as his home in the 1840s. Besides its historical value, the main building is very representative of the era in which it was built, in terms of technology, architecture and decoration, and is registered in the "Catalogue of Buildings and Sites of Urban Planning, architectural, Historical and Artistic Heritage of the city of Asunción", and specially protected by Law 946/82 "Protection of Cultural Property".
In 1896, Lopez's descendants sold the estate to the Agricultural Bank, by then in state ownership.
The garden was created as such in 1914 by German scientists Karl Freibig and his wife, Anna Gertz. Fiebrig was professor of botany and zoology at the University of Asunción, having settled in Paraguay in 1910 following plant and insect collecting trips to Paraguay for European museums between 1904 and 1909. Fiebrig founded a school of Agriculture in 1916. Fiebrig also founded a "Cotton Institute" which helped fund the garden complex. The zoo was subsequently established by the same scientists, with a very advanced approach for the time, housing the animals in a setting as close as possible to their natural habitat. Gertz is credited with much of the landscape design of the gardens, though some projects were truncated following her death in May 1920. She was buried in the gardens.
Fiebrig continued as director of the garden and zoo, and remarried in 1925. In addition to his professorship, in 1934, was also made director of the Paraguayan Department of Agriculture. In 1936, in the aftermath of the Chaco War, a wave of xenophobic sentiment forced Fiebrig to leave Paraguay with his second wife and family. Responsibility for the estate passed from the state to its present owner, the Municipality of Asunción.
Historically, the estate covered more than 600 hectares (1,500 acres), and had over 1 km frontage along the bank of the Paraguay River, a port, a railway station and 60 km of road network. In the last 50 years, there have been several incursions, such as the riverside Empresa de Servicios Sanitarios del Paraguay (ESSAP) Viñas Cué water treatment plant, the Copaco transmission station (built at the time of dictator Stroessner), the Asunción Golf Club, laid out by Fiebrig, and several other divisions due to illegal occupations.
Since 2013 the garden and zoo's director has been Maris Llorens.
== Facilities and collections ==
The facilities include:
Botanical Garden: Originally called a botanical garden just because of the exuberant natural flora. Its trees are now over 150 years old and provide visitors with welcome shade.
Nursery: cultivating more than 500 species of plants, many of them medical, used for educational interpretation about the properties of herbs.
Zoo: It has about 64 species of animals, mammals, birds, reptiles and others. Its iconic exhibit is the Tagua, a species of peccary that inhabits the Paraguayan Chaco, initially believed extinct, which was rediscovered in the 1980s.
Natural History Museum: located in a former farmhouse of Carlos Antonio Lopez's estate.
Golf: For 50 years, the municipality of Asunción has ceded part of its space to various institutions, one of them being Asunción Golf Club. While still part of the Botanical Garden premises, it is managed completely independently.
=== Botanical Garden and Nursery ===
The nursery is located behind the Upper House and contains over 500 species specialising in medicinal plants. It is open to the public and works in cooperation with the Botanic Garden and Conservatory of the City of Geneva, Switzerland.
Established for over 10 years, it has undertaken investigations into the cultivation, distribution and introduction of plants, specifically native, but also medicinal plants introduced by Paraguayan settlers.
The work of the Conservatory is to preserve the culture of the knowledge of medicinal plants in Paraguay. "The Paraguayan people consume herbs and know the use of at least 50 species. The work of the nursery is to investigate cultivation, harvesting and propagation and to use that knowledge for education".
Among its collections are:
The medicinal plant nursery, being a place of agricultural research, education and training of its cultivation, with about 500 cultivated species.
Agronomic nursery plants, with culture and selection for improved Paraguayan crop plants.
On 4 May 2006 the gardens launched the exhibition Ethnobotany 2006 "Our plants, our people" ("Nuestras Plantas, Nuestra Gente"), under the Paraguayan Ethnobotany Project (EPY) (which lasted for about ten years), with the support of the Conservatory and Botanical Garden of the City of Geneva and under the auspices of the organization Tesãi Reka Paraguay (TRP).
The project helped improve the botanical garden and created a large Paraguayan medicinal plant collection and the Center for Conservation and Environmental Education (CCEAM) located in the Botanical Garden, which develops numerous educational activities.
=== Zoo ===
The zoo is located on the same site as the botanical garden. The zoo's collections focus on the fauna of Paraguay but include animals from elsewhere.
==== Mammals ====
Mammals at the zoo include:

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African lion (Panthera leo )
Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)
Jaguar (Panthera onca)
Puma (Puma concolor)
Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi )
Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)
Crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous)
Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus)
Ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua)
Tayra (Eira barbara)
Fallow deer (Dama dama)
Gray brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira)
Domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus)
White-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari)
Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)
Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)
southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla)
Common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Black-headed spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps)
Azara's night monkey(Aotus azarae)
Black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya))
Azaras's capuchin (Sapajus cay paraguayanus)
==== Birds ====
Birds at the zoo include:
Chaco eagle or Crowned solitary eagle (Harpyhaliaetus coronatus)
Common rhea (Rhea americana)
Red-and-green macaw (Ara chloroptera)
Monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus)
Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus)
Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis)
Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria)
southern crested caracara (Caracara plancus)
Southern screamer (Chauna torquata)
Nanday parakeet (Aratinga nenday)
black vulture or American black vulture(Coragyps atratus)
Barn owl (Tyto (sp.))
Burrowing parrot or Patagonian conure (Cyanoliseus patagonus)
Blue-fronted amazon (Amazona aestiva)
Blue-winged macaw (Primolius maracana)
Vinaceous-breasted amazon (Amazona vinacea)
Striped owl (Asio clamator)
Spectacled owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata)
Toco toucan (Ramphastos toco)
Blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ararauna)
Hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)
Ostrich (Struthio camelus)
Greylag goose (Anser anser)
Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus)
Silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera)
Ferruginous pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum)
Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)
Helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris)
Red junglefowl (Gallus gallus)
White-faced whistling duck (Dendrocygna viduata)
Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata)
==== Reptiles ====
Reptiles at the zoo include:
Yellow anaconda (Eunectes notaeus)
Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare)
Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris)
Green iguana (Iguana iguana)
Red-eared slider or red-eared terrapin (Trachemys scripta elegans)
Red-footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria)
== References ==
== External links ==
Municipalidad de Asunción's website
Jardin Botánico y Zoológico de Asunción on YouTube

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Bournemouth Natural Science Society is a historic museum in Bournemouth, Dorset, England.
== History ==
The building was constructed circa 1865. The museum holds collections covering Natural History, Geology, Egyptology and Archaeology. In 2019, a project began to restore a lantern roof light.
== See also ==
List of museums in Dorset
== References ==

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The British Entomological and Natural History Society or BENHS is a British entomological society. It is based at Dinton Pastures Country Park in Reading, England.
== History ==
BENHS was founded in 1872 as the South London Entomological and Natural History Society.
== Publications ==
BENHS publishes a quarterly journal, the British Journal of Entomology and Natural History (ISSN 0952-7583), formerly Proceedings and Transactions of the British Entomological and Natural History Society, and Proceedings and Transactions of the South London Entomological and Natural History Society.
BENHS has published a number of books. Among the most well-known are two illustrated identification guides to British flies:
Stubbs, Alan E. and Steven J. Falk (1983) British Hoverflies, an illustrated identification guide
Stubbs, Alan E. and Martin Drake (2001) British Soldierflies and their allies
Another title published by BENHS was New British Beetles - species not in Joy's practical handbook by Peter J. Hodge and Richard A. Jones, a companion volume to Norman H. Joy's A Practical Handbook of British Beetles.
In 2024 BENHS published A checklist of the Lepidoptera of the British Isles (2nd Edition) edited by David J.L. Agassiz, Stella D. Beavan & Robert J. Heckford
== Affiliated societies ==
The following groups are affiliated to BENHS:
Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society
British Arachnological Society
British Myriapod and Isopod Group
British Plant Gall Society
Coleopterists Society of Britain & Ireland
Dipterists Forum
Earthworm Society of Britain
== References ==
== External links ==
Society website
"British Entomological and Natural History Society, registered charity no. 213149". Charity Commission for England and Wales.

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Bítov Castle (Czech: Hrad Bítov, German: Schloss Vöttau) is a castle on a steep promontory towering above the meandering River Želetavka, near the Vranov reservoir, in the village of Bítov, some 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of Znojmo, Czech Republic. Built in the 11th century, Bítov is one of the oldest and largest Moravian castles.
== History ==
A Přemyslid fortified settlement originally stood on the site and included the Chapel of Our Lady (Kostelík Panny Marie). The fort was rebuilt in the first half of the 13th century as an impregnable Gothic castle guarding the southern boundaries of the Přemyslid lands. In the 14th century a new inner ward was built along with Late Gothic fortifications. The Lords of Bítov became the new owners of the castle and based themselves here for four centuries. They carried out further improvements to the defensive capabilities of the castle.
Bítov finally underwent Baroque remodelling, and gained its present form at the beginning of the 19th century, when it passed into the hands of the Counts of Daun. The descendants of Marshal Daun, the famous military leader, rebuilt the castle in the spirit of the Romantic style. Between 1811 and 1845 the richly decorated state rooms were created, on the basis of proposals of Anton Schuler. The culmination of the re-Gothicising work was the remodelling of the Church of the Assumption of the Virgin (kostel Nanebevzetí Panny Marie) by Viennense architect Anton Rucker, who left the original Gothic furnishings. At the end of the 20th century, Bítov underwent extensive refurbishment.
The structural arrangement of the castle through remodelling, which was carried out several times later on, is an example of the Czech Early Gothic castle architecture. The arrangement is highly intricate and leads in one direction towards the front moat, to which both the wedge-shaped round towers are pointed. The outer tower, above the moat, was later merged with the body of the castle, while the other tower stands alone at the rear of the inner court.
== External links ==
(in Czech) Detailed information
(in Czech) Hrad Bítov
(in English) Bítov castle

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A computer scientist is a scientist who specializes in the academic study of computer science and technology.
Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computation. Although computer scientists can also focus their work and research on specific areas (such as algorithm and data structure development and design, software engineering, information theory, database theory, theoretical computer science, numerical analysis, programming language theory, compiler, computer graphics, computer vision, robotics, computer architecture, operating system), their foundation is the theoretical study of computing from which these other fields derive.
A primary goal of computer scientists is to develop or validate models, often mathematical, to describe the properties of computational systems (processors, programs, computers interacting with people, computers interacting with other computers, etc.) with an overall objective of discovering designs that yield useful benefits (faster, smaller, cheaper, more precise, etc.).
== Education ==
Most computer scientists possess a PhD, M.S., or Bachelor's degree in computer science, in other similar fields like Information and Computer Science (CIS), or closely related disciplines such as mathematics or physics.
=== Areas of specialization ===
Theoretical computer science – including data structures and algorithms, theory of computation, information theory and coding theory, programming language theory, and formal methods
Computer systems – including computer architecture and computer engineering, computer performance analysis, concurrency, and distributed computing, computer networks, computer security and cryptography, and databases.
Computer applications – including computer graphics and visualization, human–computer interaction, scientific computing, and artificial intelligence.
Software engineering – the application of engineering to software development in a systematic method
== Employment ==
Employment prospects for computer scientists that hold master's or Phds degrees are said to be excellent. Such prospects seem to be attributed, in part, to very rapid growth in computer systems design and related services industry, and the software publishing industry, which are projected to be among the faster growing industries in the U.S. economy. Recent projections were 26% growth. Current projection for 2024-2034 is 20% growth.
Computer scientists are often hired by software publishing firms, scientific research and development organizations, or universities where they develop the theories and computer models that allow new technologies to be developed.
Computer scientists can follow more practical applications of their knowledge, doing things such as software engineering. They can also be found in the field of information technology consulting, and may be seen as a type of mathematician, given how much of the field depends on mathematics. Computer scientists employed in industry may eventually advance into managerial or project leadership positions.
== See also ==
== References ==

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A coroner is a government or judicial official who is empowered to conduct or order an inquest into the manner or cause of death. The official may also investigate or confirm the identity of an unknown person who has been found dead within the coroner's jurisdiction.
In Medieval England, English coroners were Crown officials who held financial powers and conducted some judicial investigations in order to counterbalance the power of sheriffs or bailiffs.
Depending on the jurisdiction, the coroner may adjudge the cause of death personally, or may act as the presiding officer of a special court (a "coroner's jury"). The term coroner derives from the same source as the word crown.
== Duties and functions ==
Responsibilities of the coroner may include overseeing the investigation and certification of deaths related to mass disasters that occur within the coroner's jurisdiction. A coroner's office typically maintains death records of those who have died within the coroner's jurisdiction.
The additional roles that a coroner may oversee in judicial investigations may be subject to the attainment of suitable legal and medical qualifications. The qualifications required of a coroner vary significantly between jurisdictions and are described below under the entry for each jurisdiction. Coroners, medical examiners and forensic pathologists are different professions. They have different roles and responsibilities.
== Etymology and history ==
The office of coroner originated in medieval England, first constituted in the reign of Richard I, and has since been adopted in many other countries whose legal systems have their roots in English or United Kingdom law.
In September 1194, the king's itinerant justices in Eyre were required to ensure that in each county of England three knights and a clerk were elected to serve as 'keepers of the pleas of the crown' (custodes placitorum coronae, from whence the word "coroner"). The duties with which the office was entrusted, and which were involved in 'keeping' the crown pleas—which included holding inquests upon dead bodies found within his jurisdiction, hearing the confessions and appeals of felons, and receiving abjurations of the realm made by felons who had taken sanctuary—were not new in 1194. Many of them had previously been performed by a range of local officials, such as the county justiciar (an office in place under Kings Henry I and Stephen), or the serjeant or bailiff of the hundred. For a few decades after the institution of the office of coroner, however, his precise duties were often unclear, and there remained a degree of power-sharing with these officials: the serjeants continued to perform valid inquests on dead bodies and sometimes hear appeals and confessions as late as 1225, despite a plea of the barons to King John in 1215 that 'no sheriff concern himself with pleas of the crown without the coroners'.
"Keeping the pleas" was an administrative task, while "holding the pleas" was a judicial one that was not assigned to the locally resident coroner but left to judges who traveled around the country holding assize courts. The role of custos rotulorum or keeper of the county records became an independent office, which after 1836 was held by the lord-lieutenant of each county.
The person who found a body from a death thought sudden or unnatural was required to raise the "hue and cry" and to notify the coroner. While coronial manuals written for sheriffs, bailiffs, justices of the peace and coroners were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, handbooks specifically written for coroners were distributed in England in the eighteenth century.
Coroners were introduced into Wales following its military conquest by Edward I of England in 1282 through the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284.
== By region ==
=== Australia ===
Australian coroners are responsible for investigating and determining the cause of death for those cases reported to them. In all states and territories, a coroner is a magistrate with legal training, and is attached to a local court. Five states – New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia – also have state coroners and specialised coronial courts. In Tasmania, the Chief Magistrate also acts as the state coroner.
=== Brazil ===
In Brazil, coroner work is done by Médicos-Legistas (Lawful Physicians), that are police officers and forensic experts with degrees in medicine.
In the Department of Federal Police, the Médicos-Legistas work on highly complex federal crimes involving corpses that need to be examined by the Forensic Medicine and Dentistry Sector linked to the National Institute of Criminalistics.
Throughout the federative units, the Civil Polices (in Federal District and other 8 States) or Scientific Polices (in all other 18 States) disposes of their own Legal-Medical Institutes (mainly responsible for confirming the authorship, dynamics and materiality of offenses involving living beings or their respective corpses) and, with the exception of Paraná, the Médicos-Legistas constitute a police career of their own.
=== Canada ===
According to Statistics Canada,

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Death investigation is the responsibility of each individual Canadian province and territory—there is no overarching federal authority. As a result, each province and territory has developed its own system and legislation to fulfill the mandate of investigating deaths that are unexpected, unexplained, or as a result of injuries or drugs. Two different death investigation systems have developed in Canada: the Coroner's system and the Medical Examiner's system. The Coroner's system is used in the majority of provinces and territories. It is a system that is centuries old and originated in Great Britain. It is found throughout the world in countries that were former British colonies, including Canada. The Medical Examiner's system (used in Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador) is just over one century old and originated in the United States. Although there are some differences between the two systems, the ultimate goal of each is the same—to investigate certain deaths defined in their legislation and establish the identity of the deceased together with the cause of death and the manner of death.
In 21st-century Canada the officer responsible for investigating all unnatural and natural unexpected, unexplained, or unattended deaths goes under the title "coroner" or "medical examiner" depending on location. They do not determine civil or criminal responsibility, but instead make and offer recommendations to improve public safety and prevention of death in similar circumstances.
Coroner or Medical Examiner services are under the jurisdiction of provincial or territorial governments, and in modern Canada generally operate within the public safety and security or justice portfolio. These services are headed by a Chief Coroner (or Chief Medical Examiner) and comprise coroners or medical examiners appointed by the executive council.
The provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador now have a Medical Examiner system, meaning that all death investigations are conducted by specialist physicians trained in Forensic Pathology, with the assistance of other medical and law enforcement personnel. All other provinces run on a coroner system. In Prince Edward Island, and Ontario, all coroners are, by law, physicians.
In the other provinces and territories with a coroner system, namely British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Quebec, New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, coroners are not necessarily physicians but generally have legal, medical, or investigative backgrounds.
=== Hong Kong ===
The Coroner's Court is responsible to inquire into the causes and circumstances of some deaths. The Coroner is a judicial officer who has the power to:
Grant:
Burial orders
Cremation orders
Waivers of autopsy
Autopsy orders
Exhumation orders
Orders to remove dead bodies outside Hong Kong
Order police investigations of death
Order inquests
Approve removal and use of body parts of the dead body
Issue certificates of fact of death
The Coroner makes orders after considering the pathologist's report.
=== Iran ===
=== Ireland ===
The Coroners Service is a network of Coroners situated across Ireland, usually covering areas based on Ireland's traditional counties. They are appointed by local authorities as independent experts and must be either qualified doctors or lawyers. Their primary function is to investigate any sudden, unexplained, violent or unnatural death in order to allow a death certificate to be issued. Any death due to unnatural causes will require an inquest to be held.
=== New Zealand ===
The coronial system operates under the Coroners Act 2006, which:
Established the office of the chief coroner to provide leadership and coordination
Moved to a smaller number of full-time legally-qualified coroners who are Judges of the Coroners Court
Ensured families are notified of significant steps in the coronial process
Introduced wide-ranging cultural matters to be considered in all aspects of dealing with the dead body
Introduced a specific regime for attention and release of body parts and body samples
Enhanced inquiry and inquest processes
=== Sri Lanka ===
In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Justice appoints Inquirers into Sudden Deaths under the Code of Criminal Procedure to carry out an inquest into the death of a sudden, unexpected and suspicious nature. Some large cities such as Colombo and Kandy have a City Coroners' Court attached to the main city hospital, with a Coroner and Additional Coroner.

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=== United Kingdom ===
There are separate coroner services for England and Wales and for Northern Ireland. There are no longer coroners in Scotland. Coroners existed in Scotland between about 1400 and 1800 when they ceased to be used. Deaths in Scotland requiring judicial examination are now reported to The Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, who investigates deaths on behalf of the Lord Advocate. Different teams investigating deaths include the Scottish Fatalities Investigation Unit, the National Homicide Team, the Health and Safety Investigation Unit, the Road Traffic Fatalities Investigation Unit and The Custody Deaths Unit.
In the rest of the United Kingdom a coroner is a specialist judge. Whilst coroners are appointed and paid by local authorities, they are not employees of those local authorities but rather independent judicial office holders who can be removed from office only by the Lord Chief Justice and the Lord Chancellor. The Ministry of Justice, which is headed by the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice, is responsible for coronial law and policy. However, it has no operational responsibility for the running of coroners' courts.
A coroner's jurisdiction is limited to determining who the deceased was and how, when and where they came by their death. When the death is suspected to have been either sudden with unknown cause, violent or unnatural, the coroner decides whether to hold a post-mortem examination and, if necessary, an inquest. The majority of deaths are not investigated by the coroner. If the deceased has been under medical care, or has been seen by a doctor within 14 days of death, then the doctor can issue a death certificate. However, if the deceased died without being seen by a doctor, or if the doctor is unwilling to make a determination, the coroner will investigate the cause and manner of death. The coroner will also investigate when a death is deemed violent or unnatural, where the cause is unknown, where a death is the result of poisoning or industrial injury, or if it occurred in police custody or prison.
The coroner's court is a court of law, and accordingly the coroner may summon witnesses. Those found to be lying are guilty of perjury. Additional powers of the coroner may include the power of subpoena and attachment, the power of arrest, the power to administer oaths, and sequester juries of six during inquests. Any person aware of a dead body lying in the district of a coroner has a duty to report it to the coroner; failure to do so is an offence. This can include bodies brought into England or Wales.
The coroner has a team of coroner's officers (previously often ex-police officers, but increasingly from a nursing or other paramedical background) who carry out the investigation on the coroner's behalf. A coroner's investigation may involve a simple review of the circumstances, ordering a post-mortem examination, or they may decide that an inquest is appropriate. When a person dies in the custody of the legal authorities (in police cells, or in prison), an inquest must be held. In England, inquests are usually heard without a jury (unless the coroner wants one). However, a case in which a person has died under the control of central authority must have a jury, as a check on the possible abuse of governmental power.
Coroners also have a role in treasure cases. This role arose from the ancient duty of the coroner as a protector of the property of the Crown. It is now contained in the Treasure Act 1996. This jurisdiction is no longer exercised by local coroners, but by specialist "coroners for treasure" appointed by the Chief Coroner.
==== Inquest conclusions (previously called verdicts) ====
The coroner's former power to name a suspect in the inquest conclusion and commit them for trial has been abolished. The coroner's conclusion sometimes is persuasive for the police and Crown Prosecution Service, but normally proceedings in the coroner's court are suspended until after the outcome of any criminal case is known. More usually, a coroner's conclusion is also relied upon in civil proceedings and insurance claims. The coroner commonly tells the jury which conclusions are lawfully available in a particular case.
The most common short-form conclusions include:
Alternatively, an inquest may return a narrative conclusion, a brief statement explaining the circumstances how the person came about their death. A coroner giving a narrative conclusion may choose to refer to the other conclusion. A narrative conclusion may also consist of answers to a set of questions posed by the coroner to himself or to the jury (as appropriate).
Lawful killing includes lawful self-defence. There is no material difference between an accidental death conclusion and one of misadventure. Neglect cannot be a conclusion by itself. It must be part of another conclusion. A conclusion of neglect requires that there was a need for relevant care (such as nourishment, medical attention, shelter or warmth) identified, and there was an opportunity to offer or provide that care that was not taken. An open conclusion should only be used as a last resort and is given where the cause of death cannot be identified on the evidence available to the inquest.
Conclusions are arrived at on the balance of probabilities; prior to 2020, conclusions of suicide or unlawful killing were required to be proved to the criminal standard of beyond reasonable doubt.
==== England and Wales ====

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The coroner service in England and Wales is supervised by the Chief Coroner, a judge appointed by the Lord Chief Justice after consulting the Lord Chancellor. The Chief Coroner provides advice, guidance and training to coroners and aims to secure uniformity of practice throughout England and Wales. The post is currently part-time. The present Chief Coroner is Alexia Durran.
England and Wales are divided into coroner districts by the Lord Chancellor, each district consisting of the area or areas of one or more local authorities. The relevant local authority, with the consent of the Chief Coroner and the Lord Chancellor, must appoint a senior coroner for the district. It must also appoint area coroners (in effect deputies to the senior coroner) and assistant coroners, to the number that the Lord Chancellor considers necessary in view of the physical character and population of the district. The cost of the coroner service for the district falls upon the local authority or authorities concerned, and thus ultimately upon the local inhabitants. There are 98 coroners in England and Wales, covering 109 local authority areas.
To become a coroner in England and Wales the applicant must be a qualified solicitor, barrister, or a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEx) with at least five years' qualified experience. This reflects the role of a coroner: to determine the cause of death of a deceased in cases where the death was sudden, unexpected, occurred abroad, was suspicious in any way, or happened while the person was under the control of central authority (e.g., in police custody). Until 2013 a qualified medical practitioner could be appointed, but that is no longer possible. Any medical coroner still in office will either have been appointed before 2013, or, exceptionally, will hold both medical and legal qualifications.
Formerly, every justice of the High Court was ex officio a coroner for every district in England and Wales. This is no longer so; there are now no ex officio coroners. A senior judge is sometimes appointed ad hoc as a deputy coroner to undertake a high-profile inquest, such as those into the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and the victims of the 2005 London bombings.
Coroners have a legal duty to issue prevention of future death reports to people, organisations, local authorities, government departments or agencies, when they believe action should be taken that may prevent future deaths. This duty is detailed within the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (paragraph 7 of schedule 5). Such reports have been issued to the government, councils, landlords and mental health trusts. Thematic analysis of prevention of future death reports within healthcare, identified common themes, including deficit in skill or knowledge, missed, delayed or uncoordinated care, communication and cultural issues, systems issues and lack of resources. 36 reports detailed concerns that they were having to repeat the same problems, to the same organisations, that were outlined in previous prevention of future deaths reports. The prevention of future deaths report for Awaab Ishak, influenced future legislation, known as Awaab’s Law this was introduced in July 2023 as part of the Social Housing (Regulation) Act.
In 2017, legislative changes took place to the Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards. This impacted people who die whilst deprived of their liberty, on the grounds of mental health, as from the 3 April 2017, a person subject to DoLS is not considered to be in state detention and therefore, any deaths on or after this date are no longer required to be reported to the coroner. In September 2024, further legislative changes took place that will allow medical practitioners to complete a medical certificate cause of death, if they had attended the deceased in their lifetime, rather than within the last 28 days, which will greatly reduce the number of deaths being referred to the coroner service.
==== Northern Ireland ====
Coronial services in Northern Ireland are broadly similar to those in England and Wales, including dealing with treasure trove cases under the Treasure Act 1996. Northern Ireland has three coroners, who oversee the province as a whole. They are assisted by coroners' liaison officers and a medical officer.

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=== United States ===
As of 2004, of the 2,342 death investigation offices in the United States, 1,590 were coroners' offices, 82 of which served jurisdictions of more than 250,000 people. Qualifications for coroners are set by individual states and counties in the U.S. and vary widely. In many jurisdictions, little or no training is required, even though a coroner may overrule a forensic pathologist in naming a cause of death. Some coroners are elected with others appointed. Some coroners hold office by virtue of holding another office. For example, in Nebraska, a county's district attorney is also the county's coroner. Similarly, in many counties in Texas, the justice of the peace may be in charge of death investigation. In yet other places, the sheriff may be the lawful coroner.
In different jurisdictions the terms "coroner" and "medical examiner" are defined differently. In some places, stringent rules require that the medical examiner be a forensic pathologist. In others, the medical examiner must be a physician, though not necessarily a pathologist nor further specialized forensic pathologist; physicians with no experience in forensic medicine have become medical examiners. In other jurisdictions, such as Wisconsin, each county sets standards, and in some, the medical examiner does not need any medical or educational qualifications.
Not all U.S. jurisdictions use a coroner system for medicolegal death investigation—some operate with only a medical examiner system, while others operate on a mixed coroner–medical examiner system. In the U.S., the terms "coroner" and "medical examiner" vary widely in meaning by jurisdiction, as do qualifications and duties for these offices. Advocates have promoted the medical examiner model as more accurate given the more stringent qualifications.
Local laws define the deaths a coroner must investigate. The most often legally required investigation is for sudden or unexpected deaths, in addition to deaths where no attending physician was present. Additionally, the law often requires investigations for deaths that are suspicious (as defined by jurisdiction) or violent. In several states across the U.S., the coroner has the authority to arrest the county sheriff or assume their duties under certain circumstances. For example, in Indiana, Colorado, Idaho, Kentucky, Ohio, Alabama, and North Carolina, statutes grant coroners these powers, serving as a check on the sheriff's authority. In Ohio, the coroner can assume the sheriff’s duties if the sheriff is incapacitated or otherwise unable to act.
==== Duties ====
Duties always include determining the cause, time and manner of death. The coroner/ME typically uses the same investigatory skills of a police detective because the answers are available from the circumstances, scene, and recent medical records. Many American jurisdictions require that any death not certified by an attending physician be referred to the medical examiner for the location where the death occurred. Only a small percentage of deaths require an autopsy to determine the time, cause and manner of death.
In some states, coroners have additional authority. For example:
In Louisiana, coroners are involved in the determination of mental illness of living persons.
In Georgia and Colorado the coroner has the same powers as a county sheriff to execute arrest warrants and to serve process, and is the only county official empowered to arrest the county sheriff; in certain situations where there is no sheriff, the coroner officially acts as sheriff for the county.
In Kentucky, section 72.415 of the Kentucky Revised Statutes gives coroners and their deputies the full power and authority of peace officers. This includes the power of arrest and the authority to carry firearms.
In North Carolina, the coroner exists by law in approximately 65 counties, but the office is active in only ten of them; in the counties that have coroners, they are set forth as common law peace officers, yet the coroner of the county also has judicial powers: to investigate cause and manner of death, as in other states, but also to conduct inquests, to issue court orders, to impanel a coroner's jury and to act as sheriff in certain cases. She can arrest the sheriff for cause. Beginning in 2015, the NC Office of Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) began optional training for coroners to become special assistant medical examiner investigators (NC CH130A & 152).
In Indiana, the coroner is the only law enforcement officer who has the authority to arrest and incarcerate the county sheriff and take command of the county jail. The coroner is also the only official who may serve the sheriff with civil process.
In New York City, the office of coroner was abolished in 1915, since before that time, having medical knowledge was not actually a requirement, leading to much abuse of the position.
In California, 48 of the 58 counties have merged the county sheriff's office and the county coroner's office. In these counties, the sheriff also serves as the coroner.
In Idaho, a coroner can arrest their local sheriff, via Idaho Code Sections 31-2217 and 31-2220, which were enacted in 1863. These laws were enacted, even before Idaho gained statehood.
== Notable examples ==
Wynne Edwin Baxter
Larry Campbell, former provincial coroner for British Columbia
Athelstan Braxton Hicks, late 19th-century coroner in London and Surrey
Thomas Noguchi (born 1927), former Chief Medical Examiner-Coroner for the County of Los Angeles
Charles Norris
Paul Revere, coroner for Boston
Morton Shulman, former provincial coroner for Ontario
William Wynn Westcott
== Artistic depictions ==
=== Film ===
In the song "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead", from the classic 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the Coroner of Munchkinland confirms the death of the Wicked Witch of the East.

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=== Literature ===
M. R. Hall is a British crime novelist, who writes a series of best-selling novels featuring Bristol-based coroner, Jenny Cooper.
Novelist Bernard Knight, a former Home Office pathologist and a professor of forensic pathology at the University of Wales College of Medicine, is well known for his Crowner John Mysteries series set in 12th-century Devon, England. ("Crowner" is an archaic word for "coroner" and is based on the origins of the word. See the History section above.)
=== Television ===
Although coroners are often depicted in police dramas as a source of information for detectives, there are a number of fictional coroners who have taken particular focus on television.
Dr. Camille Saroyan is a federal coroner and the head of the Forensic Division at Jeffersonian Institute in the TV series Bones.
British television drama series The Coroner has as its main character a coroner based in a fictional Devon town.
Crossing Jordan features Jill Hennessy as Jordan Cavanaugh, M.D., a crime-solving forensic pathologist employed in the Massachusetts Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.
The coroners are significant characters and main cast members on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and its spin-offs CSI: Miami and CSI: NY.
The television series Da Vinci's Inquest has a coroner as its title character.
The American police procedural drama series Hawaii Five-0 features a coroner named Dr. Max Bergman, played by Japanese-American actor Masi Oka.
Kujo Kiriya from the 2016 Japanese TV series Kamen Rider Ex-Aid is a coroner.
In Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, the detectives are regularly assisted by coroner Melinda Warner.
Kurt Fuller plays Woody, a coroner on the American detective comedy-drama Psych.
The television series Quincy, M.E. has the title character (a medical examiner) under the authority of the county coroner.
The television series Wojeck (the Canadian ancestor of Quincy, M.E.) has a coroner as its title character, inspired by the coroner Morton Shulman.
== See also ==
Ontario Centre of Forensic Sciences – home to the Coroner's Office for Ontario
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"Public Health Law Program: Coroner/Medical Examiner Laws, by State". Centers for Disease Control. Retrieved 21 June 2018. See also the links at the bottom of the linked article.
Harris, Sarah (3 November 2013). "Run for Coroner, No Medical Training Necessary". Weekend Edition Sunday. National Public Radio. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
Valdes, Robert. "What Is the Difference Between a Medical Examiner and a Coroner?". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
== External links ==
Dr. G Medical Examiner: Working with the Dead
History of the Medieval English Coroner System by Prof. Bernard Knight
=== Coroners by country ===
Australia, New South Wales – Homepage of the New South Wales, Australian (NSW) Coroners Court
Australia, Queensland – Queensland Courts, Coroners Court
Australia, Western Australia – Homepage of West Australian (WA) Coroners Court
Australia, Victoria – Coroners Court of Victoria
England and Wales – Ministry of Justice, Coroners
Hong Kong Judiciary – Court Services and Facilities
New Zealand – Coronial Services of New Zealand
Northern Ireland – Coroners Service for Northern Ireland

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Crime scene cleanup is a term applied to cleanup of blood, bodily fluids, and other potentially infectious materials (OPIM). It is also referred to as biohazard remediation, and forensic cleanup, because crime scenes are only a portion of the situations in which biohazard cleaning is needed. Incidents which may require this type of cleanup include accidents, suicide (or attempted suicide), homicides, and decomposition after unattended death, as well as mass trauma, industrial accidents, infectious disease contamination, animal biohazard contamination (e.g. feces or blood) or regulated waste transport, treatment, and disposal.
== Usage ==
Television productions like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation have added to the popularity of the term "crime scene cleanup". Australia, Canada and England have added it to their professional cleaning terminology. As a profession, it is growing in popularity because of media exposure and the growth of training programs worldwide.
The generic terms for crime scene cleanup include trauma cleaning, crime and trauma scene decontamination ("CTS Decon"), biohazard remediation, biohazard removal, and blood cleanup. The state of California refers to individuals who practice this profession as Valid Trauma Scene Waste Management Practitioners.
== Types of cleanups ==
Crime scene cleanup includes blood spills following an assault, homicide or suicide, tear gas residue, and vandalism removal/cleanup. There are many different sub-segments, named primarily after additional collateral, contingency, or preconditions, regarding the presence of non-blood borne organics, toxic irritants (e.g., tear gas) or disease vectors. However, it is the legality of charging a fee for mitigating potentially harmful biohazard situations that differentiates a registered crime or trauma practitioner from any general restoration, carpet cleaning, janitorial or housekeeping service.
Human blood can carry deadly diseases like HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C. When cleaning up blood, it's important to treat every blood spill as if the substance is infected. By using these precautions it will provide an extra layer of safety.
== Business ==
Crime scene cleanup began primarily as a local or regional small business activity but maturity and consolidation has created some larger entities in the industry; only a few nationwide companies exist, although some national carpet cleaning and restoration company franchises have added crime scene cleanup and biohazard removal to their services.
== Regulatory requirements ==
While the field of crime scene cleanup is not specifically regulated as a class, most, if not all, of the activities performed by biohazard cleanup teams in the United States are regulated or fall under best practice guidelines from governing and advisory bodies such as OSHA, NIOSH, DOT, and EPA. Those who hire a crime scene cleanup company should ensure they are properly trained in applicable federal and state regulations and can provide documentation of proper biohazardous waste disposal from licensed medical waste transportation and disposal companies. The client should confirm that the company is registered with the state Department of Health in California, Florida, and Georgia. A few states, such as California and Georgia (Georgia's Law), are the only states that explicitly require registration or licensing for crime scene cleanup. Other states may require biohazardous waste transport permits from the DOT.
In the US, OSHA requires limiting exposure to blood-borne pathogens as much as possible due to the assumption that the blood and biological material is infectious. Most actions to limit exposure fall under cross-contamination protocols, which provide that certain actions be taken to avoid further spreading the contamination throughout otherwise clean areas. Before beginning work on any trauma scene, CTS De-con companies should have an exposure control plan. Under employee safety and cross-contamination protocols, OSHA's Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) 29 CFR 1910.120 and Bloodborne pathogens 29 CFR 1910.1030 regulations pertain to bioremediation.
In the UK, biohazards are regulated in part by HSE.
Canada has published Canadian Biosafety Standards and Guidelines.
== Methods ==
The crime scene cleaners' work begins when the coroner's office or other officials, or government body "releases the scene" to the owner or other responsible parties. Only when the investigation has completely terminated on the contaminated scene may the cleaning companies begin their task.
Standard operating procedures for the crime scene cleanup field often include methods for decontaminating internal and external environments. Universal precautions recognized worldwide are the cautionary rule-of-thumb for this field of professional cleaning. For example, the personnel involved in the cleanup are expected to wear shoe covers, liquid impermeable coveralls, and protective eyewear. Wearing protective gloves and the use of specifically rated cleaning agents are also mandatory policies to ensure that the infectious agents such as hepatitis and HIV are killed. There are organizations that stress the avoidance of cleaning areas that officers cannot properly see to avoid accidental wounds such as needle punctures.
Cleaning methods for removing and sanitizing biohazards vary from practitioner to practitioner. Some organizations are working to create a "Standard of Clean," such as ISSA's K12 Standard, which includes the use of quantifiable testing methods such as ATP testing.
== Organizations ==

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The American Bio Recovery Association (ABRA) is the 3rd party credentialing body and membership organization for companies that specialize in this niche industry. Bio Recovery covers a bit more than the clean up of body fluids. Bio Recovery is the act of assessing risk, mitigating threats and remediating conditions resulting from the release of biological hazards. This may include crime and trauma mitigation (bloodborne and body fluids), suicide cleanup, outbreak response, zoonotic diseases, foodborne diseases, public health threats, illicit drugs and clandestine drug labs. ABRAs certification credentialing platform requires applicants to obtain prerequisite requirements prior to sitting for an independent exam. Questions on the exams are derived from the information in the required prerequisite and demonstrate retention of industry knowledge providing a high level of credibility. Member Companies of ABRA are held to the highest international standards for ethics and professionalism.
Three levels of Credentialing are available for industry career advancement from the American Bio Recovery Association include the Certified Bio Recovery Technician (CBRT), Certified Bio Recovery Supervisor (CBRS), and the Certified Bio Recovery Master (CBRM).
The Institute for Inspection Cleaning and Certification (IICRC) is the Standards development organization for the cleaning industry. It created the ANSI/IICRC S540 Standard for Trauma and Crime Scene Cleanup. The second revision is now released. The ANSI/IICRC S540 Standard defines criteria and methodology used by the technician for inspecting and investigating blood and other potentially infectious material (OPIM) contamination and establishing work plans and procedures. The Standard describes the procedures to be followed by professionals and the precautions to be taken when performing trauma and crime scene cleanup regardless of surface, item, or location. This standard assumes that all scenes have been released by law enforcement or regulatory agencies. The standard does not address "how" to cleanup crime scenes. It clearly states, “The S540 does not intend to attempt to teach remediation procedures, but rather provides the principles and foundation for understanding proper remediation practices. The S540 is not a substitute for remediation training and certification programs that are necessary to obtain competence in the field.”
International Sanitary Supply Association (ISSA) is a global standards body and trade organization of professional janitorial and cleaning professionals.
== In popular culture and the media ==
Crime scene cleanup as a profession has been featured sporadically in popular culture and the media. It first showed up in films when Jorg Buttgereit made Nekromantik and Quentin Tarantino produced Curdled, and later in films such as the Samuel L. Jackson film Cleaner, and the Amy Adams and Emily Blunt film Sunshine Cleaning. On television, it has been featured in a smattering of documentaries aired on the National Geographic Channel and the Discovery Channel, as well as reality series such as Grim Sweepers. The Korean drama series Move to Heaven follows a pair of cleaners who also examine the lives of the deceased they are hired to clean up after by collecting their personal belongings.
In print and online, the task has been the subject of Alan Emmins' book Mop Men: Inside the World of Crime Scene Cleaners, and in a piece on "six figure jobs" that appeared on CNN. Another book is Aftermath, Inc.: Cleaning Up after CSI Goes Home. An extensive article on all aspects of crime scene cleanup was published in the forensic science section of Discovery's How Stuff Works.
In crime scene cleanup video games, the main objective in the game is the process of the cleanup. An example is Viscera Cleanup Detail. Viscera Cleanup Detail is a PC game distributed through Steam that enables players to clean up blood and body remains after a Sci-Fi battle has occurred on a space station. Another example of crime scene cleanup in video games is Safeguard. Safeguard takes a more realistic and educational approach, enabling users to learn about the hazards of crime scene cleanup, as well as the equipment and tools used. Safeguard also uses virtual reality to immerse users in the crime scene environment.
Some fictional depictions show crime scene clean-up involving criminal organizations. Crime fiction sometimes refers to the term "cleaner" as an expert in destroying and removing evidence, usually working for criminals. For example, if a murder has been committed, a cleaner is contracted to remove all traces of the crime as if it never happened.
== References ==

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The Croatian Natural History Museum (Croatian: Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej) is the oldest and biggest natural history museum and the main body for natural history research, preservation and collection in Croatia. Located on Dimitrije Demeter Street in Gornji Grad, one of the oldest neighbourhoods of the Croatian capital Zagreb, it owns one of the biggest museum collections in Croatia, with over 2 million artefacts, including over 1.1 million animal specimens. It was founded in 1846 as the "National Museum". The National Museum was later split up into five museums, three of which were in 1986 merged as departments of the newly named Croatian Natural History Museum. The museum contains a large scientific library open to the public, and publishes the first Croatian natural history scientific journal, Natura Croatica.
The permanent display of the Croatian Natural History Museum consists of mineralogical, petrographical and zoological collections, as well as two permanent exhibits in the atrium: the Rock Map of Croatia and the Geological Pole. It is home to the remains of the Neanderthal from Krapina. In 2021, the museum was closed pending the completion of reconstruction following the 2020 Zagreb earthquake, and then reopened in 2024.
== History ==
The history of the Croatian Natural History Museum begins with the founding of the so-called "National Museum" (Narodni muzej) on 10 September 1846, the first museum for historic and pre-historic objects related to Croatia. In 1867, it was moved to its current address. The National Museum grew and was split into five new museums by the end of the 19th century. Three of them covered natural history: the Croatian National Zoological Museum (Hrvatski narodni zoološki muzej), the Geological–Palaeontological Museum (Geološko-paleontološki muzej) and the Mineralogical–Petrographic Museum (Mineraloško-petrografski muzej). All three were housed in the same building on Demeter Street 1, and, in 1986, united into the Croatian Natural History Museum.
The museum's current building, the Amadeo Palace, was earlier home to Amadeo's theatre, the first theatre in Zagreb. Formed in 1797 by Antal Amade de Varkony, the prefect of Zagreb County, it operated until 1834. In 2000, Amadeo's theatre was revived as a yearly summer series of theatrical plays entitled Scena Amadeo ("Amadeo Scene") held in the museum atrium.
Despite a recent renovation, the museum building was severely damaged in the 2020 Zagreb earthquake and was provisionally declared unfit for use. Many exhibits were damaged or destroyed in the earthquake. In late 2020, the museum holdings were moved to a specialised storage building, pending the completion of repairs to the Amadeo Palace. As of March 2021, the completion and reopening of the museum is scheduled for late 2023.
== Library ==
The museum is home to a large scientific library open to the public. Its oldest books were printed in 17th-century Italy, and includes works by Ulisse Aldrovandi, Niccolò Gualtieri and Carl Linnaeus. The library was founded in 1868 by a newly appointed museum director, Spiridon Brusina. Starting from a meager corpus acquired from the National Library, including only three books on zoology, Brusina traveled throughout then-Austria-Hungary in order to acquire books. In 1875, the museum acquired the large library and natural history collection of Francesco Lanza, a physician and archaeologist from Split, Croatia. Brusina retired in 1901, reporting a collection 1,800 works in 3,948 volumes three years earlier. In 1928, it was recorded that the library held 5,838 books in 9,901 volumes. As the library was not professionally maintained during the Croatian War of Independence or inventoried since, it is not known how many titles it holds. A 1999 estimate is 30,000 volumes and 13,100 monographs.
== Journals ==
In 1885, Brusina led a successful initiative to publish The Journal of the Croatian Natural History Society (Glasnik Hrvatskoga naravoslovnoga družtva). The journal is published since 1972 under the title Periodicum biologorum, and focuses on biology and biomedicine, forestry and biotechnology. In 1992, the museum began publishing Natura Croatica, a peer-reviewed biological and geological academic journal. The natural history journal was the first of its kind in Croatia, despite the existence of seven natural history museums. The journal is published quarterly in English, and reviewed by both Croatian and foreign scholars.
== Holdings ==

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The museum is divided into Mineralogical–Petrographical, Geological–Palaeontological, Zoological and Botanical Departments. The first three are successors to the National Museum's 19th-century offspring museums, while the Botanical Department was established in 1990.
The museum's holdings number over 2 million rocks, minerals, fossils, and other artefacts collected all over the country. The zoological collection consists of 1,135,000 animal specimens, including a tissue bank for DNA analysis. It also holds the remains of the Neanderthal man found near Krapina by Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger, a former director of the National Museum. The original remains are held in the museum's vault, while a replica is being exhibited in the Krapina museum.
The museum's permanent display encompasses mineralogical and petrographical collections, as well as a collection of animals, the bulk of which dates back to the 19th century. The zoological collection is on the second floor of the museum. It includes the skeleton of a Mediterranean monk seal, a basking shark native to the Adriatic Sea and an Atlantic puffin, a bird today native to the Arctic area, which is believed to have nested in the Adriatic in the 19th century.
The mineralogical and petrographical collections are divided into three exhibitions. "From a Collection to a Museum" (Od zbirke do muzeja) showcases the work of Croatian mineralogists and petrographers through history, including a geological map of Moslavačka gora in central Croatia by Ljudevit Vukotinović, as well as the work of Đuro Pilar, one of the first Croatian academic geologists. "The Empire of Minerals" (Carstvo minerala) displays a collection of minerals assembled by location of discovery, including collections of agate from Lepoglava and opal, gemstones rare in Croatia. "Rocky Planet Earth" (Stjenoviti planet Zemlja) is organized by rock types, and also contains meteorites, lava from Vesuvius and speleothems. In 2014, the exhibitions were made accessible to blind people.
The atrium of the museum contains two exhibits: the Rock Map of Croatia (Kamenospisna karta Hrvatske) and the Geological Pole (Geološki stup). The Rock Map of Croatia is a mosaic map assembled from various pieces of rock found in Croatia into the country's shape.
== Exhibitions ==
Exhibitions at the Croatian Natural History Museum have included "Dormice: in Biology and the Kitchen" and "Lion's Pit", exhibiting the remains of a cave lion (Panthera leo spelaea), found deep in Vrtare Male, a pit cave near Dramalj, Croatia. With a body length of 3.6 metres (12 ft), the lion was at the time of discovery claimed to be one of the biggest found in the world thus far. Another notable exhibition displayed the reconstruction of a megalodon, an extinct giant shark found in the plains of northern Croatia, where the Paratethys ocean once stood. The museum held the first moss animal exhibition in the world in 2006, entitled "Neptune's Lace". In 2009, visitors had the opportunity to view crocodile fossils from the island Pag, while eighty live snakes owned by the Slovenian breeder Aleš Mlinar were exhibited in 2013.
The museum takes part in the Croatian Museum Night (Noć muzeja), an annual event whereby the public is allowed free entrance to many museums in Croatia during one night in the year. In the 2014 event, the museum was visited by more than 11,000 people.
== See also ==
List of museums in Croatia
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Croatian)
Natura Croatica on Hrčak, the official Croatian scientific journal portal
Brochure for the "Lion's Pit" exhibition Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine

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The Cyprus Museum of Natural History (Greek: Κυπριακό Μουσείο Φυσικής Ιστορίας, romanized: Kypriakó Mouseío Fysikís Istorías) is a natural history museum on the outskirts of Nicosia, Cyprus.
The museum was founded by the Photos Photiades Charity, Scientific and Cultural Foundation, and is the largest museum of its kind in Cyprus. Its approximately 2,500 exhibits include various embalmed animals including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. It also includes rocks, minerals, semi-precious stones, shells, and fossils, showcasing the region's geological history and evolution over millions of years.
== References ==
== External links ==
Museum website

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The Dead Sea Museum (Arabic: متحف البحر الميت, romanized: Matḥaf al-Baḥr al-Mayyit) is a history and natural history museum located in the Maeen subdistrict, Jordan. The museum is dedicated to showing the history of the Dead Sea and how civilizations developed around it.
== History ==
Among the intentions for the creation was to promote tourism, and to facilitate the public to learn more about how the Dead Sea is constituted. The museum aims to raise awareness about the conservation of the Dead Sea. The construction of the museum was funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. The museum first opened in 2006, and is Jordan's first natural history museum. In 2015, for International Museum Day, educational activities for students from the South Jordan Valley were organized in this place.
== Collections ==
The museum contains collections of rocks and minerals The museum exhibits are divided into four sections
First section: The geology of the Dead Sea, as well as its formation.
Second section: The study of the Dead Sea ecosystem.
Third section: The human impact on the Dead Sea as well as the benefits that the existence of this sea has brought to the civilizations of the Middle East.
Fourth section: The initiatives of protection and preservation of the Dead Sea as well as the identification of what are the ecological threats to the sea.
== References ==

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Der Naturforscher (transl. "The Naturalist") was a German scientific publication of the Enlightenment devoted to natural history. It was published yearly from 1774 to 1804, by J. J. Gebauers Witwe and Joh. Jac. Gebauer at Halle and edited first by Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch (from 1774 to 1778) and later by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber (from 1779 to 1802). Both editors were also contributors. Most of the articles concern aspects of invertebrate zoology, mostly entomology and conchology. A few concern ornithology and other subjects, including mineralogy.
It is usually bound in fifteen volumes octavo. Indices and registers are given at ten year intervals enumerating 640 memoirs. Just over 150 plates accompany the text. Many of the illustrations are by Johann Stephan Capieux and are of a very high standard. Armin Geus provides comprehensive indices.
== Contributors ==
Most authors contributing to Der Naturforscher were German, but the journal also included some French authors. No natural history journal published in France existed at the time.
Amongst others, some notable naturalists contributing to Der Naturforscher were:
Johann August Ephraim Goeze
Theodor Gottlieb von Scheven
Josef Aloys Frölich
Nikolaus Joseph Brahm
Eugen Johann Christoph Esper
Johann Kaspar Füssli
Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Siegmund Adrian von Rottemburg
Jean Baptiste Louis d'Audibert de Férussac
Johann Matthäus Bechstein
Friedrich Christian Meuschen
Georg Wolfgang Franz Panzer
Johann Hermann
Franz von Paula Schrank
Johann Dominikus Schultze
Johann Beckmann
Justus Christian Loder
Charles De Geer
Johann Christoph Meineken (1722 -1790) Mineralogy
Christoph Gottlieb von Murr as C. G. von M
== Impact ==
Claus Nissen described Der Naturforscher as "the most important 18th century German periodical for the descriptive natural sciences". Its taxonomic significance is considerable in entomology and conchology. Although many of the new species described here were subsequently considered junior synonyms, others remain valid.
Some of the valid species first described in Der Naturforscher are several well-known European Lepidoptera: Lysandra bellargus (Rottemburg, 1775), Polyommatus icarus (Rottemburg, 1775), Zygaena lonicerae (Scheven, 1777), Paranthrene tabaniformis (Rottemburg, 1775) and Hyles gallii (Rottemburg, 1775). Valid taxa in phylum Mollusca include Turbo canaliculatus Hermann, 1781, Spondylus americanus Hermann, 1781, Modiolarca impacta (Hermann, 1782) and Semilimax semilimax (J. Férussac, 1802).
Although most ornithology articles are general or faunal lists, an exception exists in the first description of the wood warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechstein, 1793).
Some exotic taxa were also first described in Der Naturforscher, including the fish species Sternoptyx diaphana Hermann, 1781 and the Indomalayan butterfly Euploea phaenareta (Schaller, 1785).
== See also ==
Timeline of entomology – prior to 1800
Science in the Age of Enlightenment
== References ==
== External links ==
Universitat Bielefeld Digital library Digitised Der Naturforscher
Animal base 66 articles
jstor
Johann Capieux at University of Halle Archived 2020-01-01 at the Wayback Machine

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Deyrolle is a historic Parisian institution specialising in natural sciences, entomology, and taxidermy. Founded in 1831, it is one of the best known companies of entomology and taxidermy of Paris, celebrated for its collections in taxidermy, entomology, and natural history. Today, Deyrolle is a shop and a cabinet of curiosities open to the public, whose vocation is to show the beauty of Nature.
== History ==
=== Since 1831 ===
Deyrolle was created in 1831 by Jean-Baptiste Deyrolle, who was soon succeeded by his son Achille, at 46 rue du Bac in a building constructed in 1697-1699 by Jean-Baptiste Voille for a member of the Bruand family (Libéral Bruand). It was deeply transformed in 1739 by Samuel-Jacques Bernard, son of the banker of King Louis XIV (the Sun King), Samuel Bernard (7e arrondissement). Beyond its scientific material, minerals collections, seashells, fossils, mounted animals and prehistoric tools, Deyrolle provides pedagogical charts to schools and universities in France, made to illustrate teacher’s lessons. (Musée scolaire Deyrolle).
In 1995, the world famous painter Richard Marolle bought Deyrolle before selling it to entrepreneur and duke Louis Albert de Broglie.
In 2001 Louis Albert de Broglie bought Deyrolle and he restored the shop.
=== The fire of 2008 ===
On February the 1st 2008, the Cabinet of Curiosities was destroyed by a big fire. The cause was probably a short circuit. A big part of the rooms and of the collections has been destroyed: butterflies, insects, and animals (zebras, alligators, gazelles, bears, lions, shellfish and turtles). On May the 15th 2008, the building was already cleaned and the two rooms of the first floor reopened.
Some artists who contributed to save Deyrolle:
Jan Fabre - Nan Goldin - Jacques Grange - Karen Knorr - Marie-Jo Lafontaine - Claude Lalanne - François-Xavier Lalanne - Pierre Alechinsky - Yann Arthus-Bertrand - Miquel Barcelo - Pascal Bernier - Laurent Bochet - Sophie Calle - Johan Creten - Marc Dantan - Nicolas Darrot - Mark Dion - Bettina Rheims - Bernar Venet - Huang Yong Ping.
== Pedagogy ==
=== The ancient charts ===
Deyrolle is well known for its pedagogical charts. It all starts around 1871, when Emile Deyrolle developed everything that concerns the educational material, anatomical models in staff, biology pieces, and most of all, the creation of coloured wall charts, published under the name "Musée scolaire Deyrolle". They are meant to teach the "Leçons de choses" ("Lessons of things") but also Botany, Zoology, Entomology, Geography, Anatomy, Civics, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy, Biology, etc.
« Visual instruction is the least tiring for the mind, but this education can have good results only if the ideas engraved in the children’s mind are rigorously exact. » Émile Deyrolle
=== Deyrolle pour l'Avenir ===
In 2007, Louis Albert de Broglie restarted the publishing activity with the creation of new educational charts addressing contemporary environmental and societal issues. It is the start of a new collection of educational charts published under the name of Deyrolle pour l’Avenir (DPA). There are charts on sustainable development, climate changes, endangered species, renewable energy, etc.
== The savoir-faire ==
=== Taxidermy ===
Deyrolle is a reference in the field of taxidermy. We can find birds, beasts and mammals from all over the world. At Deyrolle, with only a few exceptions, no animal was killed to be mounted: the non-domestic species come from zoos, parks, where they died of old age or illness. They are traceable, and protected species are held and delivered in accordance with the Washington Convention (CITES).
=== Entomology ===
Deyrolle is also known for its entomological collections. The drawers of the entomological room are filled with colourful butterflies, beetles, and other insects. It is possible to see the experts of the entomology team working on the mounting of insects.
== Art ==
The first aim of Deyrolle was to teach natural sciences to children and students, but Deyrolle was a point of interest also for artists: the surrealists André Breton and Salvador Dalí, the painters Jean Dubuffet and Mathieu, the writers Louise de Vilmorin and Théodore Monod, Raymond Queneau and many others stopped regularly at the shop. Éric Sander or also Charwei Tsai was exhibited at Deyrolle. Woody Allen used the rooms of Deyrolle in July 2010 for his movie Midnight in Paris, and Wes Anderson is a huge fan of the shop.
Deyrolle also develops collaborations with artists, such as Aurèle and Damien Hirst.
=== Music ===
In 2005, French singer Nolwenn Leroy shot the artwork for her album Histoires Naturelles at Deyrolle, as well as the music video for the single "Histoire Naturelle".
=== Exhibitions ===
Some exhibitions:
Takeshi Shikama, « Garden of Memory : Animals and Plants » for Festival Photo Saint Germain 2015.
Jonathan F.Kugel brings three artists together in « Trophies »: James Webster, Dan Glasser, Juliette Seydoux, inspired by the rhinos condition. (2015)
Camille Renversade, « Histoires surnaturelles »
Damien Hirst, Le Cabinet de Curiosités, « Signification (Hope, Immortality and Death in Paris, Now and Then) » (2014)
Alain Fouray, « Panache » (2014)
Caroline Rennequin, « Cheptel des vanités » (2014)
Jean-Luc Maniouloux, « Impacts » (2012)
Louis de Torhout, « Cires Botaniques : l’Art et la matière » (2012)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Almanach perpétuel (Gallimard, 2015)
Nature et Coloriages Deyrolle (Éditions PlayBac, 2015)
Deyrolle, à la croisée des Savoirs (Éditions de La Martinière, 2015)
Créatures Fantastiques Deyrolle (Plume de Carotte, 2014)
Imagier Deyrolle (Gallimard Jeunesse, 2013)
Les Grands Livres d’Activités Deyrolle 1 et 2 (Gallimard Jeunesse, 2012 et 2013)
Calendriers Deyrolle 2012, 2013 et 2014
Leçons de choses tomes 1 et 2 (Michel Lafon, 2010 et 2013)
L’École de la Nature par Yves Paccalet (Hoëbeke 2004)
Textiles Pierre Frey
== External links ==
Deyrolle by New York Times
Animal House by Vanity Fair
Home Page

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Dippy is a composite Diplodocus skeleton. The original skeleton is in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History, and the holotype of the species Diplodocus carnegii. It is considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world, due to the numerous plaster casts donated by Andrew Carnegie to several major museums around the world at the beginning of the 20th century. One well known cast in the United Kingdom was displayed at the Natural History Museum in London from 1905 until 2017.
The casting and distribution of the skeleton made the word dinosaur a household word; for millions of people it became the first dinosaur they had ever seen. It was also responsible for the subsequent popularity of the entire genus Diplodocus, since the skeleton has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur.
Its discovery was catalyzed by the announcement of the excavation of a large thigh bone (unrelated to Dippy) by William Reed near Medicine Bow, Wyoming in December 1898. On a return trip financed by Carnegie, Reed excavated Sheep Creek Quarry D in which he found the first part of Dippy's skeleton, a toe bone, on July 4, 1899. Its discovery on Independence Day, and its use in American diplomacy via Carnegie's international donations of replicas, led to its being nicknamed the "star-spangled dinosaur". Dippy became the centrepiece of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, such that the museum became known as "the house that Dippy built".
In 2016, a petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was being considered which proposed to make Diplodocus carnegii the new type species of Diplodocus. The proposal was rejected in 2018, and D. longus has been maintained as the type species.
== Discovery ==
The genus Diplodocus was first described in 1878 by Othniel Charles Marsh. The skeleton was found in 1898 in the upper 10 metres (33 ft) of the Talking Rock facies of the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation, in Albany County, Wyoming.
In 1900, John Bell Hatcher was hired by William Jacob Holland as curator of paleontology and osteology for the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, succeeding Jacob Lawson Wortman. Hatcher supervised the field expeditions, excavations, investigation and display of Dippy, and named the species for Carnegie. Hatcher's monograph on the find was published in 1901 as Diplodocus Marsh: Its Osteology, Taxonomy, and Probable Habits, with a Restoration of the Skeleton.
It is a composite skeleton comprising:
CM 84: the majority of the skeleton, named Diplodocus carnegii, and published in 1901 by Hatcher
CM 94: supplemented missing bones
CM 307: the tail
CM 662 and USNM 2673: skull elements. In 2015, the USNM skull was recategorized as Galeamopus, along with several other Diplodocus skulls, leaving no definite Diplodocus skulls known.
some foot and limb bones of a Camarasaurus
== Pittsburgh display ==
The original skeleton has been on display at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History since April 1907, two years after the first cast was shown. The delay was due to construction work at the Pittsburgh museum, which needed expansion in order to house Dippy. Today, the skeleton is part of the Dinosaurs in Their Time exhibition.
== Casts ==
=== Background ===
Industrialist Andrew Carnegie financed the acquisition of the skeleton in 1898, as well as the donation of the casts at the beginning of the 20th century. Carnegie paid to have casts made for display in many European capitals – including Berlin, Paris, Vienna, Bologna, St Petersburg and Madrid; one sent to Munich was never erected – as well as Mexico City and La Plata in Argentina, making Dippy the most-viewed dinosaur skeleton in the world.
His great-grandson, William Thomson, was quoted in 2019 explaining the donations: "By gifting copies to the heads of state of seven other countries as well as the UK, Carnegie hoped to demonstrate through mutual interest in scientific discoveries that nations have more in common than what separates them. He used his gifts in an attempt to open inter state dialogue on preserving world peace – a form of Dinosaur diplomacy."
As director of the Carnegie Museums, William Holland supervised the donations of the casts. His trip to Argentina in 1912 was recorded by Holland in his 1913 travel book To the River Plate and Back. Holland noted a poem which had become popular among college students:
=== List of casts ===
== London cast ==

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=== Early history ===
The London cast of Dippy came about when King Edward VII, then a keen trustee of the British Museum, saw a sketch of the bones at Carnegie's Scottish home, Skibo Castle, in 1902, and Carnegie agreed to donate a cast to the Natural History Museum as a gift. Carnegie paid £2,000 for the casting in plaster of paris, copying the original fossil bones held by the Carnegie Museum (not mounted until 1907, as a new museum building was still being constructed to house it).The 292 cast pieces of the skeleton were sent to London in 36 crates, and the 25.6 metres (84 ft) long exhibit was unveiled on May 12, 1905, to great public and media interest, with speeches from the museum director Professor Ray Lankester, Andrew Carnegie, Lord Avebury on behalf of the trustees, the director of the Carnegie Museum William Jacob Holland, and finally the geologist Sir Archibald Geikie. The cast was mounted in the museum's Reptile Gallery to the left of the main hall (until recently the gallery of Human Biology) as it was too large to display in the Fossil Marine Reptile Gallery (to the right of the main hall).
Dippy was taken to pieces and stored in the museum's basement during the Second World War to protect it from bomb damage, and reinstalled in the Reptile Gallery after the war. The original presentation of the cast was altered several times to reflect changes in scientific opinion on the animal's stance. The head and neck were originally posed in a downwards position, and were later moved to a more horizontal position in the 1960s. The cast in London became an iconic representation of the museum, and has featured in cartoons and other media, including the 1975 Disney comedy One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing.
=== Move to Hintze Hall ===
Dippy was removed from the Reptile Gallery in 1979 and repositioned as the centrepiece of the main central hall of the museum, later renamed the Hintze Hall in recognition of a large donation by Michael Hintze. Dippy replaced a mounted African elephant, nicknamed George, which had been on display as the central exhibit in the main hall since 1907, with various other animal specimens. The elephant had itself replaced the skeleton of a sperm whale which was the first significant exhibit in the hall and had been on display since at least 1895: earlier, the hall had been left largely empty. Dippy was originally displayed alongside a cast of a Triceratops skeleton, which was removed around 1993. The tail of the Diplodocus cast was also lifted to waft over the heads of visitors; originally it drooped to trail along the floor.
=== Removal from Natural History Museum and tour ===
After 112 years on display at the museum, the dinosaur replica was removed in early 2017 to be replaced by the 25 m (82 ft) long skeleton of a young blue whale, dubbed "Hope". The whale had been stranded on sandbanks at the mouth of Wexford Harbour, Ireland in March 1891. Its skeleton was acquired by the museum and had been displayed in the Large Mammals Hall (originally the New Whale Hall) since 1934.
The work involved in removing Dippy and replacing it with the whale skeleton was documented in a BBC Television special, Horizon: Dippy and the Whale, narrated by David Attenborough, which was first broadcast on BBC Two on July 13, 2017, the day before the whale skeleton was unveiled for public display.
Dippy started a tour of British museums in February 2018, mounted on a new, more mobile armature. Dippy has been on display at locations around the United Kingdom:
Dorset County Museum, Dorchester (10 February – 7 May 2018)
Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery (26 May – 9 September 2018)
Ulster Museum, Belfast (17 September 2018 – 6 January 2019)
Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow (22 January – 6 May 2019)
Great North Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne (18 May – 6 October 2019)
National Museum Cardiff (19 October 2019 – 26 January 2020)
Number One Riverside, Rochdale (10 February – 26 March and 7 September – 12 December 2020)
Norwich Cathedral (13 July – 30 October 2021)
Dippy returned to the Natural History Museum as part of a temporary exhibition in June 2022. In February 2023, it was moved to Coventry as a long-term loan to the Herbert Art Gallery and Museum in 2023. A new bronze cast of Dippy, named Fern, has stood in the garden of the Natural History Museum since 2024.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Gordo (dinosaur)
Sophie the Stegosaurus
Sue (dinosaur)
Archie (squid)
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
=== Editio princeps ===
=== Secondary sources ===
== Further reading ==
Taylor, Michael P.; Henrici, Amy C.; Church, Linsly J.; Nieuwland, Ilja; Lamanna, Matthew C. (2025). "The history and composition of the Carnegie Diplodocus" (PDF). Annals of the Carnegie Museum. 91 (1): 55–91. Bibcode:2025AnCM...91..104T. doi:10.2992/007.091.0104.
== External links ==
Dippy at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History Archived August 4, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Diplodocus : this is your life, Natural History Museum
Dippy on Tour, Natural History Museum
Taking Dippy down: the first steps, Natural History Museum
Natural History Museum unveils 'Dippy' the Diplodocus replacement Hope the blue whale, The Independent, July 14, 2017
Bone Wars: The Excavation and Celebrity of Andrew Carnegie's Dinosaur, Tom Rea, pp. 1–11
Bob Batz, Jr. (1999). Dippy the dinosaur sculpture installation: story from the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Archived June 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
Rea, Tom (2001). Bone Wars: The Excavation and Celebrity of Andrew Carnegie's Dinosaur. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-4173-2.

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The Dolphin Nature Conservation Society (DNCS) is a registered (no. 507/2001) voluntary environmental non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) located in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. It is committed to the causes of nature conservation, environmental protection, research, education, and awareness. The society was founded on March 5, 2001, by Dr. Mantha Rama Murty and Dr. Mangathayi, who had previously launched several nature conservation programs in Andhra Pradesh, particularly in Visakhapatnam. The organization's activities are intended to instill a love for nature and conservation among people, especially among the younger generation. Notable research, documentation, conservation, and awareness campaigns of the society have involved Olive-Ridley Sea Turtles, intertidal rocky shore fauna and flora of the Visakhapatnam coast, and butterflies of the Eastern Ghats. The society's flagship project is the development and maintenance of the Biodiversity Park in Visakhapatnam.
== Precursor: Penguin Nature Club (WWF-India) ==
In 1987, an environmental organization known as the Penguin Nature Club was formed at the BVK College (part of Andhra University, Visakhapatnam) in affiliation with WWF-India. The organization engaged in nature conservation and environmental protection activities for more than a decade. Seeking to expand its activities, the organization was renamed the Dolphin Nature Conservation Society in 2001 and allowed public and student membership.
== Notable initiatives and programs ==
=== Awareness campaigns ===
Society has conducted various educational nature conservation and environmental protection activities and campaigns. One notable example was a campaign dedicated to dispelling myths and misconceptions about snakes. It was emphasized that the majority of snakes are non-venomous and play an important role in the ecosystem by controlling the rodent population. In collaboration with the Friends of Snakes Society, Hyderabad, the society conducted live snake awareness programs in schools and colleges in Visakhapatnam. Other notable activities include campaigns against the use of thin plastic carry bags, zoo patrolling teams aimed at educating visitors about proper zoo visitation protocol, wildlife conservation projects, tree planting projects, and "save our beaches" anti-pollution campaigns.
=== Survey and research programs ===
==== The Olive Ridley Sea Turtle ====
Olive Ridley Sea Turtles are best known for their migrations and unique mass nesting occurrences called "arribada" when thousands of females converge on the same beach to lay eggs. The turtle population has been declining over time; the species has been deemed vulnerable by the IUCN Red List.
On the northeast coast of Andhra Pradesh (from Annavaram in the north to Pudimadaka in the south) and the Visakhapatnam coast, in particular, the society used surveying and documentation programs to research on the species. This research found that sporadic nesting occurs from January to March and that the mortality rate for females had increased over time. The major cause was the incidental capture of adult turtles in gill and trawl fishing nets operated by mechanized boats. Other reasons included artificial illumination along the coastline, sand mining, pollution by domestic sewage, chemicals, oil, plastics, and building debris, and the planting of exotic flora on the beaches. Human predation of eggs and meat, as well as the predation of hatchlings by crows, kites, seagulls, and feral dogs, were also contributing factors.
In an attempt to stop population decline, important conservation measures have been developed, including strict enforcement of bans on near-shore mechanized fishing and operation of gill nets, shore-seine and lines during breeding and nesting seasons, the use of turtle excluder devices (TED) in trawl nets, beach patrols, cessation of beachside construction and development activities, the promotion of in-situ conservation, the establishment of more hatcheries, and the creation of awareness programs targeted at fishermen, forest officials, students, NGOs, and the general public. The most important programs in the Olive Ridley Sea Turtle Conservation project were the many public awareness events; turtle walks, screening pictures, exhibitions in schools and colleges, and celebratory festivals for turtles were effective at increasing public concern for the turtles.
==== Intertidal rocky shore fauna and flora ====
The intertidal (littoral) zone is the area between high and low tide lines. The intertidal zone of Visakhapatnam is 70 meters long, with an average width of 25 meters. It is mostly made up of rocky shore interspersed by sandy areas and extends from Gangavaram to Bheemunipatnam, a distance of approximately 25 to 30 kilometers. The zone has large boulders of various shapes, shingle beds, rock platforms, and rock pools. In addition, it has a very rich diversity of organisms, from the smallest microscopic protozoans to sponges, cnidarians, polychaetes, arthropods, Mollusca, echinoderms, rock pool fish, and numerous varieties of algae. These highly peculiar and highly adaptable faunas and flora face environmental hardships such as water availability, temperature and salinity differences, and pressures from prey and predators.
The society conducted research and survey programs that documented the fauna and flora of the Visakhapatnam coast. Throughout 10 years, the society observed a decline in marine biota, specifically in sea cucumbers, chitons, sea urchins, and Bullia and Zoanthus beds. The main reasons for this decline are human interference, including the illegal collection of specimens by colleges and universities and pollution of waters. The society recommends conservation methods including stopping pollution from all sources along the coast, preventing the illegal collection of specimens, declaring some areas as protective zones, and raising awareness among students and people by conducting marine biodiversity workshops and exhibitions.
==== Butterflies of the Eastern Ghats ====
More than 100 species of butterflies belonging to six families were recorded by the society in the Eastern Ghats forests (Chintapalle, G K Veedhi, Ananthagiri, Paderu, Araku Valley, Sileru), and urban environments (Thotala Konda, Kambala Konda, Simhachalam Hills, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, and RCD Biodiversity Park) of the Visakhapatnam district. The families included Papilionidae (swallowtails), Pieridae (whites and yellows), Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies), Lycaenidae, Riodinidae (metalmarks/Punches and Judies), and Hesperiidae (skippers).
== Biodiversity Park, Visakhapatnam ==
The Biodiversity Park, Visakhapatnam is an educational botanical garden run by the society. It contains more than 2000 species of plants and hundreds of butterfly and bird species. Hundreds of students and researchers visit the park daily for education and research purposes.
== Awards ==
Andhra Pradesh Green Awards 2017 - APUG & BC 13–7–2018.
Andhra Pradesh Biodiversity Conserver Award - 2018 APSBDB 22–5–2018.
Rolling Shield (State Level) for Environmental Protection by the Directorate of Field Publicity, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Hyderabad.
Best nature club of the Millenium-2000 by WWF-India, Hyderabad state office.
Best Environmental Society award in 2001 by Krushi Orthopaedic Society, Visakhapatnam, AP.
== See also ==
Biodiversity Park, Visakhapatnam
Sacred groves of Biodiversity Park, Visakhapatnam
== References ==

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The Doubting Antiquity School or Yigupai (Chinese: 疑古派; pinyin: Yígǔpài; Wade–Giles: I-ku-p'ai) refers to a group of scholars and writers in Chinese academia, starting during the New Culture Movement (mid-1910s to 1920s), who applied a critical historiographical approach to Chinese historical sources. They put forward theories doubting the authenticity of texts and narratives that, in traditional Chinese historiography, were often accepted as authentic.
Hu Shih studied in the West and was deeply influenced by Western thought. He then argued in Peking University that Chinese written history was not credible before the Eastern Zhou period without critical examination. This view was accepted by his students Fu Sinian and especially Gu Jiegang, who further advanced the position that "our traditional knowledge of Chinese antiquity was built up in successive strata, but in an order exactly the reverse of the actual occurrence."
Most of their criticism concerns the authenticity of pre-Qin texts and deals with questions put forward by the past dynastic writers, as well as other subjects. Hu Shih initiated the critical movement, with his pupil Gu Jiegang and his friend Qian Xuantong continuing this school of thought. Their writings also had influence on many western sinologists, including Bernhard Karlgren and Samuel Griffith.
In a more specific way, the Doubting Antiquity School was represented by Gushibian 古史辨 (Debates on Ancient History), the scholarly movement led by Gu Jiegang, centered on the magazine of the same name. Seven issues of the magazine, 1926–1941, contain about 350 essays.
Major critics of the Doubting Antiquity School were historians associated with the Critical Review, a journal founded in 1922. The historians included Liu Yizheng, Liang Qichao, Wang Guowei, Chen Yinque, and Miao Fenglin.
== Evaluation ==
In the atmosphere of critical re-evaluation of traditional culture and learnings of the early 20th century, the Doubting Antiquity School found great influence. Some of their conjectures cast doubt on the authenticity of historical narratives about Chinese antiquity as presented in traditional texts that had been accepted as authentic for millennia. It is these conjectures that gained the greatest popular interest in the non-academic media, such as:
Yu the Great was originally an animal or deity figure used as a motif on bronzeware, and the veneration of bronzeware led to Yu being recast as a historical but super-human figure from antiquity;
the peaceful transition of power from Yao to Shun was concocted by philosophers of the Zhou dynasty to support their political philosophy;
a series of kings in early antiquity were concocted during the Han dynasty and the Xin dynasty to justify the rule of those dynasties on geomancy grounds; and
a portion of the recorded history of the Xia dynasty was concocted, borrowing the narrative from real events in the Shang dynasty, to give historical precedent to the "revival" of the Eastern Han dynasty.
Nevertheless, the Doubting Antiquity School's more important legacy was the critical approach to sources they pioneered. The central tenet of their approach was that the history of Chinese antiquity was created iteratively. Ancient texts have been repeatedly edited, reorganised, tampered with or even completely fabricated, so the historical narrative of antiquity as presented in traditional texts was different at different points in time. As time went on, the history of antiquity became longer and more complicated and characters acquired more features, including more supernatural attributes. This means that it is not always possible to identify the "authentic" version of events from antiquity, only the narrative as stated in a text at a particular time.
Some of the conjectures put forward by the Doubting Antiquity School are now disproved or supported based on archaeological findings undermining or supporting the authenticity of the historical texts that the Doubting Antiquity School posited as inauthentic. Joseph Needham wrote in 1954 that many scholars doubted that classic texts such as Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian contained accurate information about such distant history, including the thirty kings of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–c. 1046 BC) listed by Sima. Many scholars argued that Sima could not have had access to written materials which detailed history a millennium before his time. However, the discovery of oracle bones at an excavation of the Shang capital at Anyang (Yinxu) matched 23 names of the 30 Shang kings listed by Sima. Needham writes that this remarkable archaeological find proves that Sima Qian "did have fairly reliable materials at his disposal—a fact which underlines once more the deep historical-mindedness of the Chinese."
In 1993, scholar Li Xueqin made an influential speech in which he called for historians to "leave the 'Doubting Antiquity' period", which became the manifesto of the "Believing Antiquity" movement (although Li himself favoured a third historiographical approach of "Interpreting Antiquity"). Scholars of the "Believing Antiquity" viewpoint argue that archaeological discoveries of recent decades have generally substantiated Chinese traditional accounts rather than contradicted them, rendering the doubts of the Doubting Antiquity School largely obsolete. For instance, manuscripts discovered in tombs have proved the authenticity of several texts long thought to be later forgeries, including the Wenzi, the Kongzi Jiayu, the Heguanzi, parts of the Yi Zhou Shu, and many others.

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== Criticism ==
The Doubting Antiquity School's opinion and claims were not universally accepted by other schools in the 1920s. Major critics of the Doubting Antiquity School were historians from the Historiography and Geography School (史地學派) of the National Central University in Nanjing and the academics associated with the academic journal Critical Review, termed the Xueheng School. The major opposition included Chu Coching, Liu Yizheng, Liang Qichao, Wang Guowei, Chen Yinque, and Miao Fenglin.
These historians claimed that the many hypotheses of the Doubting Antiquity School were radical nationalist revisionism influenced by the May Fourth Movement and New Culture Movement, which aimed to abolish Chinese tradition, as well as that some claims of the Doubting Antiquity School, such as Sino-Babylonianism, were based on assumptions without any archaeological evidence. Chinese writer Lu Xun dismissed the Doubting Antiquity School and their publication Gushibian (古史辨, Debates on Ancient History). He argued that the real intention behind the Doubting Antiquity School was to aggressively demolish the Chinese imperial legacy, so much so that they would reject real historiography. Much archaeological evidence discovered in the 20th century, such as Yinxu and Taosi, proved some of the Doubting Antiquity School's claims to be incorrect.
Zhang Guoan of Beijing Normal University believes the existence of the Doubting Antiquity School was a reflection of the political climate of rising Chinese nationalism at the time.
== Relationship with Chinese archaeology ==
The influence of the Doubting Antiquity School caused many people to lose confidence in many ancient books and traditional ancient histories. Driven by the special interest of Chinese people in history, they turned to Chinese archaeology, which was just beginning to yield information, in order to gain a better understanding of Chinese ancient history. The excavation of the ancient site of Yangshao Village in 1921 and the excavation of the ancient site of Xiyin Village in 1926 made people seek its relationship with the early history of China. Some also use fashionable sociological and historical theories to explain the origin of ancient Chinese history and ancient history and culture. Some Western and Japanese scholars also use archaeology in the service of their political intentions and racial prejudice.
At this time, the culture of the West was very glamorous, and its influence was widespread. The excavation of Yin Ruins in Anyang in 1928 brought the understanding and discussion of ancient history into a new stage. The Yin Ruins have oracle bone inscriptions and their important content to confirm the lineage of the Shang Dynasty's ancestors and kings recorded in "Records of the Grand Historian Yin Benji", as well as exquisite bronze wares. In 1929, the sixth excavation of the Yin Ruins in Anyang discovered a piece of painted pottery, which further aroused the thinking and discussion of the relationship between Yangshao and Xiaotun.
It can be said that modern Chinese archaeology was developed in order to seek the roots of Chinese culture under the Doubting Antiquity School about the authenticity of historical documents and the stimulation of "Western Origin".
== List of early modern scholars ==
=== Prominent figures ===
Hu Shih
Gu Jiegang
Qian Xuantong
Guo Moruo
Kang Youwei
Liang Qichao
=== Others ===
== See also ==
Old Texts
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Liu, Jianguo (2004). Distinguishing and Correcting the pre-Qin Forged Classics. Xi'an: Shaanxi People's Press. ISBN 7-224-05725-8.

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An economist is a professional and practitioner in the social science discipline of economics.
The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this field there are many sub-fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets, macroeconomic analysis, microeconomic analysis or financial statement analysis, involving analytical methods and tools such as econometrics, statistics, economics computational models, financial economics, regulatory impact analysis and mathematical economics.
== History of the profession ==
Although economists are now recognized as specialists in a distinct profession, the earliest contributors to economic thought were polymath philosophers. Some of the earliest economic writings date to antiquity, notably Aristotle’s Oeconomica and Xenophon’s Oeconomicus. These works addressed, in rudimentary form, themes such as the division of labour.
In the seventeenth century, as early modern economic thought began to take shape, its leading writers were typically broad-ranging scholars who wrote on economics alongside philosophy and law. This was true of Richard Cantillon, who described what later came to be known as the Cantillon effect, and of David Hume, who anticipated the quantity theory of money.
Adam Smith, in An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, wrote one of the first major works devoted entirely to economics, helping to establish economics as a distinct field within the social sciences. His seminal work gave rise to several intellectual traditions, including the classical school (notably David Ricardo and Jean-Baptiste Say) and, in reaction, Marxism, following the writings of Karl Marx.
Economics became increasingly professionalized over the course of the nineteenth century. Jean-Baptiste Say held France’s first chair in economics at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers in the early part of the century. By the end of the century, most economists associated with the neoclassical school were academics, often trained in mathematics. The figure of the economist thus shifted from that of the polymath scholar to that of a specialized intellectual.
Over the course of the twentieth century, advances in economic theory associated with John Maynard Keynes, Paul Samuelson, and Milton Friedman contributed to the emergence of several major schools of thought: Keynesian economics, soon integrated through Samuelson’s neoclassical synthesis, and then Friedman’s monetarism, which in turn influenced the development of new classical economics.
The 2008 financial crisis led to the Great Recession. This prompted some macroeconomists and Financial Economists to question the current orthodoxy. One response was the Keynesian resurgence. This emerged as a consensus among some policy makers and economists for Keynesian solutions.
== Professions ==
=== Education and training ===
A professional working inside of one of many fields of economics or having an academic degree in this subject is often considered to be an economist; In the U.S. Government, on the other hand, a person can be hired as an economist provided that they have a degree that included or was supplemented by 21 semester hours in economics and three hours in statistics, accounting, or calculus. see Bachelor of Economics and Master of Economics.
=== Employment and roles ===
Economists work in many fields including academia, government and in the private sector, where they may also "study data and statistics in order to spot trends in economic activity, economic confidence levels, and consumer attitudes. They assess this information using advanced methods in statistical analysis, mathematics, computer programming [and] they make recommendations about ways to improve the efficiency of a system or take advantage of trends as they begin." In addition to government and academia, economists are also employed in banking, finance, accountancy, commerce, marketing, business administration, lobbying and non- or not-for profit organizations.
In many organizations, an "Economic Analyst" is a formalized role. Professionals here are employed (or engaged as consultants) to conduct research, prepare reports, or formulate plans and strategies to address economic problems. Here, as outlined, the analyst provides forecasts, analysis and advice, based upon observed trends and economic principles; this entails also collecting and processing economic and statistical data using econometric methods and statistical techniques.
==== Academia and research ====
In academia, most economists have a Ph.D. degree in Economics.
===== Private sector =====
Economic analysts employed in financial institutions and in other large corporates, provide the (long term) economic forecasts used within their organizations. Relatedly, they consult to fund managers, risk managers, and corporate analysts regarding their investment strategy / capital budgeting decisions. Particularly in the tech sector, the focus may be microeconomic, addressing pricing, competition, and customer behavior. In either case, (chief) economists are also often included in strategy formulation.
===== Government and public policy =====
In the public sector, analysts advise legislators and executives on economic policy, public works, and related; politicians often consult economists before enacting economic policy; and many statesmen have academic degrees in economics. A Federal Government Economic Analyst conducts economic analysis of issues directly related to the function of their federal government agency.
=== Regulation and qualifications ===
In contrast to regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine, there is not a legally required educational requirement or license for economists.

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==== By country ====
Economics graduates are employable in varying degrees depending on the regional economic scenario and labour market conditions at the time for a given country. Apart from the specific understanding of the subject, employers value the skills of numeracy and analysis, the ability to communicate and the capacity to grasp broad issues which the graduates acquire at the university or college. Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management.
A number of economics graduates from around the world have been successful in obtaining employment in a variety of major national and international firms in the financial and commercial sectors, and in manufacturing, retailing and IT, as well as in the public sector – for example, in the health and education sectors, or in government and politics. Some graduates go on to undertake postgraduate studies, either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas.
===== Brazil =====
Unlike most nations, the economist profession in Brazil is regulated by law; specifically, Law No. 1,411, of August 13, 1951. The professional designation of an economist, according to said law, is exclusive to those who graduated with a Bachelor of Economics degree in Brazil.
===== United States =====
According to the United States Department of Labor, there were about 15,000 non-academic economists in the United States in 2008, with a median salary of roughly $83,000, and the top ten percent earning more than $147,040 annually. Nearly 135 colleges and universities grant around 900 new Ph.D.s every year. Incomes are highest for those in the private sector, followed by the federal government, with academia paying the lowest incomes. As of January 2013, PayScale.com showed Ph.D. economists' salary ranges as follows: all Ph.D. economists, $61,000 to $160,000; Ph.D. corporate economists, $71,000 to $207,000; economics full professors, $89,000 to $137,000; economics associate professors, $59,000 to $156,000, and economics assistant professors, $72,000 to $100,000.
===== United Kingdom =====
The largest single professional grouping of economists in the UK are the more than 3500 members of the Government Economic Service.
Analysis of destination surveys for economics graduates from a number of selected top schools of economics in the United Kingdom (ranging from Newcastle University to the London School of Economics), shows nearly 80 percent in employment six months after graduation – with a wide range of roles and employers, including regional, national and international organisations, across many sectors.
== Sociology and public perception ==
=== Status among the social sciences ===
==== Boundaries and insularity ====
Some authors argue that economics occupies a distinctive and often dominant position among the social sciences, often perceived (both inside and outside the discipline) as more scientific and formalized than its sister disciplines. This perceived superiority is visible inside the profession itself, but is also reinforced from the outside: economists earn significantly higher salaries than other social scientists, both in academia and on the wider labour market. They also have their own major prize: the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (often referred to as the “Nobel Prize in Economics”), and they occupy a role in the making of public policy that no other social science enjoys. These features are contributing to disciplinary “insularity” and to a self-reinforcing dynamic of confidence and perceived legitimacy.
One explanation for this insularity, would be the path economics took after the Second World War: it largely set aside its moral and discursive dimensions and moved closer to the formalism of natural sciences such as physics, grounding itself in mathematics and abstract models. This formalist trajectory set economics apart from other social sciences at both epistemological and methodological levels, as economists seek to derive behaviour from theory through such models.
At the end of the twentieth century, an “empirical revolution” pushed economists to work on topics traditionally associated with sociology, without substantially reducing their insularity: Economists continue to cite each other overwhelmingly, whereas other social sciences cite one another more frequently and also cite economists. Moreover, disciplinary boundaries also reflect status relations: since economists tend to view their own discipline as more scientific than other social sciences, they may be less inclined to rely on those fields. In a Bourdieusian perspective, they describe economists as a dominant group and argue that interdisciplinary work is often not regarded as particularly valuable within the discipline.
==== Internal hierarchy and journals ====
Another distinctive feature of the field, which reinforces its special status, is an internal hierarchy that adds itself to this external one. Economics is structured around a set of methods and tools largely defined as the right ones by the top of the discipline and then diffused to the rest of the field. This hierarchy can hide or marginalize internal controversies and contribute to economists speaking with one voice, reinforcing their insularity, credibility and legitimacy in the public arena. This structure can be described as overseen by a disciplinary elite made up of prestigious departments, leading journals, and the scholars who move from the former to publish in the latter. The resulting hierarchy sets norms and standards that extend to hiring and the job market, one of the most organized and standardized in the social sciences.
A Post-war shifts can be observed in leading economics journals: a phase of intense mathematization and reliance on statistics, alongside sharply declining citation links to sociology, political science and law. From the 1980s to the 2000s, a further shift in this landscape can be observed: mathematics, which provided a methodological anchor, retreated as the main external point of reference, and finance journal citations rose in prominence in citation patterns, becoming one of the principal branches of reference within the discipline.
=== Economists in public policy and technocracy ===

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==== Finance and professional orientation ====
The growing centrality of finance goes hand in hand with the rise of business schools, which employ an increasingly large share of economists and occupy a growing place in top journals, while authors affiliated with public institutions become less common. Symbolically, this shifts the intellectual and political centre of gravity of the profession towards the world of business, with greater support for the private sector, deregulation, and limits on public intervention, and it fuels the idea of a partial convergence between the interests of the profession and those of finance, which may help explain changes in economists’ political stances. In this context, scholars also describe a “fix-it” culture among economists: a strong confidence in their ability to propose solutions and correct malfunctions, relying on tools they regard as effective and scientific. This suggests that this influence can reinforce the higher status often accorded to economists, while also leaving them particularly exposed in the public arena: in times of crisis, they are among the first to be questioned and blamed.
==== Influence in the state ====
Some authors report a paradox in this diagnosis of the “superiority” of economists. From the outside, as mentioned, economists appear as the most powerful social science within the state: decision-makers have grown accustomed to turning to their expertise, and economists occupy key positions in central banks, ministries of finance, international organisations and advisory councils. They are widely perceived as the experts who “really understand” the economy, including by the general public. But from the inside, many economists feel that their influence is not so substantial and appears to them to be highly constrained: in high-stakes policy debates (the euro crisis, climate policy, welfare state reform), partisan conflicts and institutional interests often prevail over expert advice, even when economists broadly agree among themselves. Symbolic and material supremacy can translate into policy influence through three main channels: the high level of professional authority economics enjoys, which makes it a natural point of reference when “the economy” is at stake; economists occupying strategic positions inside the state and international organisations, so that in some domains they are not just advisers but direct decision-makers; and economics shaping the cognitive infrastructure of policymaking, as economic modes of reasoning (incentives, efficiency, growth, cost–benefit trade-offs) and technical tools (indicators, models, evaluation procedures) diffuse beyond the profession and structure how non-economist officials see and frame problems.
==== Scientization of policy advice ====
The rising influence of economists in decision-making spheres goes hand in hand with a broader trend: the “scientization” of policy advice. This is described as the third major trend, adding to externalization (the increasing reliance on actors outside the traditional civil service) and politicization (stronger partisan control over advice and greater use of political advisers). In this context, it refers to the growing dependence of decision-makers on academic experts and on arguments explicitly presented as scientific. In the field of economic policy, this means that governments turn more systematically to academic economists and that commission reports are increasingly grounded in economic research, rather than solely in bureaucratic experience or stakeholder input.
Within this broader trend, economics has been especially well positioned. First, its abstract, mathematical formalism, which brings it closer to a hard science, gives it a rational, scientific and objective appeal. Second, in the post-war period, economics presents itself as a general technique of government, not only competent in the realm of “pure” economics, but also as a producer of tools that can be transposed to a wide range of public policy domains, from labour markets to pensions, and from climate regulation to healthcare. Finally, the strong internal hierarchy of the profession provides its own clearly identified instances of validation (top departments and journals), which serves to legitimize and boost the credibility of economics, giving its policy recommendations the appearance of a scientific consensus. For these reasons, decision-makers tend to turn to economists when they seek “scientific” justifications for their policies.
However, public policy advice should not be reduced to academic economics alone. A citation analysis shows that commission reports continue to draw on a mixed knowledge base: alongside articles in international journals, they frequently cite national policy documents, studies produced by central banks and statistical offices, as well as applied research carried out by public agencies. Scientization thus adds an academic layer rather than replacing other forms of knowledge. It has also been shown that scientization can fulfil both an instrumental and a legitimating function.
==== Technocracy and limits ====
As a performative field, much of economists’ political influence is indirect. Economists rarely “impose” policies on elected officials. They design concepts, metrics and decision tools, what authors call the cognitive and technical infrastructure of policy, that become embedded in bureaucratic routines. Devices such as GDP, unemployment rates, cost–benefit analysis, or auction rules narrow the range of options that appear reasonable and make some trade-offs visible while hiding others. This contributes to a form of economic technocracy: many key choices are framed as technical and delegated to experts, even though the underlying assumptions are normative and contestable. On the limits of this technocracy: economists are most influential in ill-defined or technical issues and in the early stages of agenda-setting, and much less so when conflicts become highly politicised.
A clear illustration of how neoliberal reform can extend beyond macroeconomic policy and into institutional design can be observed in Chile under Pinochet. Reforms associated with the “Chicago Boys” (economists trained in the Chicago tradition who advised the regime) also reshaped higher education through market viability. The rapid expansion of private schools, the concentration of programs in commercially valued fields (law, engineering, accountancy, commerce, management,...), and the marginalization of humanities illustrate how reforms framed as technical and modernizing can embed market principles into public infrastructures, reshaping both educational supply and who gains access.

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=== Social composition, values and public image ===
Economics as a discipline is heavily male-dominated, compared with many other social sciences, and its practitioners also tend to come from relatively higher social strata.
Economists form a professional group with a distinctive profile, whether in their behaviour, their political views, their social position, or their relationship to power. Like much of the academic world, they tend to place themselves somewhat to the left of centre, but on average they are less interventionist than their colleagues and appear to have a particular relationship to individual self-interest. It is difficult, however, to determine whether this relationship is produced by economic training itself, or whether individuals already more oriented towards self-interest are simply more likely to choose economics in the first place.
Their views are often out of step with those of the general public, for example in their support for market-based mechanisms to address social issues (such as paying organ donors, or using carbon taxes). Their relative material comfort tends to widen the social distance that separates them from other groups, which raises questions given that economists occupy important positions at the heart of decision-making structures, and that their discipline is closely linked to public administrations and large organizations.
== Notable economists ==
Some current well-known economists include:
Adam Smith, Scottish economist and philosopher. Known as "The Father of Economics".
John Maynard Keynes, English economist well known for forming the basis of Keynesian economics.
Jan Tinbergen, Dutch economist known for developing and applying dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes, which led to the establishment of econometrics. He was awarded the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969.
Ragnar Frisch, Norwegian economist who coined the term econometrics in 1926 for utilising statistical methods to describe economic systems. He was awarded the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969.
Joan Robinson, English Keynesian economist.
Karl Marx, German philosopher and economist known for founding Marxist Economics.
Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate and professor at Harvard University.
Kenneth Arrow, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate and professor at Stanford University.
Robert Aumann (b. 1930), Israeli-American mathematician, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 2005.
B. R. Ambedkar, Indian scholar, jurist, economist, politician and social reformer. The Reserve Bank of India was conceptualized in accordance with the guidelines presented by Ambedkar to the Hilton Young Commission (also known as Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance) based on his book, The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.
Ben Bernanke, Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 2006 to 2014.
Esther Duflo, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate and professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Milton Friedman, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate.
Claudia Goldin, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate and professor at Harvard University.
Alan Greenspan, Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1987 to 2006.
James Heckman, 2000 Nobel Prize winner and Professor at University of Chicago; most cited economist as of 2018.
Glenn Hubbard, Dean of the Columbia University Graduate School of Business; Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers from 2001 to 2003.
Thomas M. Humphrey, American economist and historian of economic thought.
Paul Krugman, 2008 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate, public intellectual, and advocate of modern liberal policies.
Greg Mankiw, American macroeconomist, academic economist, public intellectual, Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers from 2003 to 2005.
Joseph Stiglitz, 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics winner, critic of inequality and the governance of globalization, and former World Bank Chief Economist.
Dambisa Moyo, Zambian-born international economist and author who analyzes the macroeconomy and global affairs.
Thomas Sowell, American economist and social theorist, Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution.
Robert Lucas Jr., 1995 Nobel Prize in Economics winner.
George Akerlof, 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics Sciences winner, known for his work on markets with asymmetric information.
Carmen Reinhart, member of American Economic Association, 2018 King Juan Carlos Prize in Economics winner.
William Forsyth Sharpe, 1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences winner.
Christopher Antoniou Pissarides, 2010 Nobel Prize in Economics winner.
Arthur Laffer, 2019 Presidential Medal of Freedom winner.
Jeffrey Sachs, Professor of Sustainable Development at Columbia's School of International and Public Affairs, 2015 Blue Planet Prize winner.
Ludwig von Mises, Austrian economist and philosopher, author of Human Action.
Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureate and author of The Road to Serfdom.
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), English economist, cleric, and scholar influential in the fields of political economy and demography.
David Ricardo (1772-1823), developed the classical theory of comparative advantage in 1817.
Henry George (1839-1897), American economist, social philosopher, journalist, and leader of the single-tax movement.
Silvio Gesell (1862-1930), German economist, entrepreneur, and founder of Freiwirtschaft economic model.
Jean-Baptiste Say, developed Say's law stating that a free economy could not know economic crises.
Ronald Coase, founder of the concept of transaction cost.
== See also ==
Chief economist
List of economists
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== External links ==
The dictionary definition of economist at Wiktionary

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An enrolled actuary is an actuary enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA). Enrolled actuaries, under regulations of the Department of the Treasury and the Department of Labor, perform a variety of tasks with respect to pension plans in the United States under ERISA. As of August, 2024, there were approximately 3,400 enrolled actuaries.
== Qualifications ==
The Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries administers two examinations to prospective enrolled actuaries. Once the two examinations have been passed, and an individual has also obtained sufficient relevant professional experience, that individual becomes an enrolled actuary.
The first exam (EA-1) tests basic knowledge of the mathematics of compound interest, the mathematics of life contingencies, and practical demographic analysis.
The second (EA-2) examination consists of two segments, which are offered during separate exam sittings in either the fall or the spring. Segment F covers the selection of actuarial assumptions, actuarial cost methods, and the calculation of minimum (required) and maximum (tax-deductible) contributions to pension plans. Segment L tests knowledge of relevant federal pension laws (in particular, the provisions of ERISA) as they affect pension actuarial practice.
== Employers ==
Enrolled actuaries generally work for human resource consulting firms, investment and insurance brokers, accounting firms, government organizations, and law firms. Some firms that employ enrolled actuaries combine two or more of these practice specialties.
== Organizations ==
Many enrolled actuaries belong to one or more of the following organizations: the Society of Actuaries, the American Academy of Actuaries, the Conference of Consulting Actuaries, or the American Society of Pension Professionals & Actuaries.
== Notes and references ==
== External links ==
Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries

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The Essex County Natural History Society (1833–1848) in Salem, Massachusetts, United States, was formed "for the purpose of promoting the science of natural history." It endeavored "to form a complete collection of natural productions, curiosities. &c, particularly of this county; and, to form a library of standard books on the natural sciences." The society incorporated in 1836; Andrew Nichols, William Oakes, and William Prescott served as signatories. Other members included Samuel B. Buttrick, Samuel P. Fowler, John M. Ives, John C. Lee, George Osgood, Charles G. Page, Gardner B. Perry, George Dean Phippen, William P. Richardson, John Lewis Russell, Henry Wheatland. By 1836 some 100 members belonged to the society. In Salem its "cabinets and library were first deposited in Essex Place, then in Franklin Building, then in Chase's Building, Washington Street, and finally removed to Pickman Place, in 1842." In 1848 the society merged with the Essex Historical Society to form the Essex Institute.
== See also ==
Essex Institute (1848–1992), successor to the Natural History Society
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Journal of the Essex County Natural History Society. 1836-ca.1852
Samuel P. Fowler. An historical sketch. Bulletin of the Essex Institute, v.16, 1884.
== External links ==
Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum. Essex County Natural History Society Records, 1833-1873.

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The Estonian Museum of Natural History (EMNH; Estonian: Eesti Loodusmuuseum) is the Estonian national museum for natural history. It is situated in Tallinn's Old Town.
The museum focuses on natural history and nature education, offering its visitors a tour in the wilderness of Estonia.
== History ==
The origins of the museum goes back to the Estonian Literary Society's museum founded in 1842 and renamed to the Provincial Museum in 1864. This museum was active in exploring the natural sciences, an area that increased in significance at the museum in 1872 when Alexander von der Pahlen (1820–1895) began to contribute to the collection. Pahlen was later elected chairman and under his leadership the collection continued to grow. As the collection grew, a new building on Kohtu Street was purchased in 1911 to house it.
During World War I, due to passive resistance, the museum's collection were not moved to Russia. The Provincial Museum continued to operate under the Arts and Heritage Department of the Minister of Education and Research but changed its name to the Museum of the Estonian Literary Society in 1926.
After the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Baltic-German institutions, including the Estonian Literary Society, were closed. In 1940, through the Regulation of the Council of People’s Commissars of the Estonian SSR, the Soviet authorities nationalized all museums allowing for a National Museum of Natural History to be established in Tallinn on January 1, 1941. In 1942, a bomb destroyed a portion of the museum's specimens.
== Collection ==
The collections of the Estonian Museum of Natural History contain nearly 300,000 museum specimens. Approximately 90% of the plant, beetle, butterfly and moth, bird and mammal species found in Estonia are represented in the collections. A highly valuable part of the collections is made up by type specimens – the specimens used to provide the first description of a new taxon and serving as a definitive example of that taxon.
=== Botanical ===
The principal botanical collection contains approximately 122,000 plant specimens. The vascular plant herbarium includes 90,000 specimens, of which 88,700 are leaves, and the rest fruits, seeds, and strobili. Most of the material was collected in Estonia and the collection contains specimens of a predominant part of the domestic flora - 1,600 taxa. The collection's oldest specimens date back to the 1830s.
=== Mycological collections ===
The mycological herbarium includes approximately 2,450 plant specimens. The unlichenized fungi collection contains 250 samples. Of the more than 2,200 specimens included in the lichen i.e. lichenized fungi collection, approximately 1,600 were collected in Estonia and 600 from abroad (mainly Scandinavia and other parts of Europe).
=== Zoological ===
The zoological collections contains approximately 130,000 specimens. The collections boast a wide selection of both vertebrate and invertebrate species from Estonia as well as other parts of the world.
The zoological collections include:
The ornithological collections
The mammal collection
The species-rich collection of mollusk shells, corals, and echinoderms
The wet specimen collection
The entomological collections
=== Geological ===
The museum's geological collection holds approximately 3,500 samples. Nearly three fourths of the specimens constitute paleontological material, the oldest specimens of which were collected in the mid-19th century. The dominant part of the paleontological collection is formed by Paleozoic fossils found in the Estonian bedrock. The most numerous samples among the preserved material include fossils of marine invertebrates from the Ordovician and Silurian Periods. The paleontological collections furthermore contain bone fractions and skeletal fragments of mammals of the Quaternary Period, most of which originate from Russia’s northern territories. Lithological collections hold typical sedimentary rocks of the Estonian bedrock: limestone, marl, sandstone, and mudstone. Petrological collections are small, with the main specimens being Estonian glacial erratic samples and samples of metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks collected from the territory of the former Soviet Union. The number of the museum’s mineralogical specimens has increased significantly during the last decade, owing to domestic and foreign donations. While minerals inserted into the collections in previous years mostly come from Russia, Eastern Europe, and Germany, the contemporary collection includes minerals from Australia, South America, and Africa. Some of the most notable mineralogical samples include large quartz, amethyst, and fluoride druses.
=== History of science collection ===
The history of science collection has approximately 1,050 archival materials and historical items related to the study and mediation of nature.
=== Photo collection ===
The photo collection contains photos, negatives and colour slides, 28,000 items in total, reflecting the daily life, exhibitions, field work and events of the museum throughout time. The photo collection of the museum has been digitised in the biodiversity information system PlutoF under the acronym TAMF.
== See also ==
Estonian Museum of Applied Art and Design
Museum of Estonian Architecture
== External links ==
Official website
== References ==

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The Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society (GONHS), founded in 1976, is a non-governmental, membership-based organisation committed to research into and conservation of nature in Gibraltar and the region of the Strait of Gibraltar.
It works independently and in collaboration with other organisations and scientific or conservation institutions to achieve these aims.
GONHS is a Partner of BirdLife International, a member of IUCN (The World Conservation Union), of the UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum, the British Trust for Ornithology, the Iberian Council for the Defence of Nature, the Association of European Rarities Committees, and Countdown 2010.
Its first General Secretary was Dr. John Cortes who served until 2011.
== References ==
== External links ==
GONHS Official Website

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The Gozo Nature Museum, formerly known as the Natural Science Museum, is a museum in Victoria, on the island of Gozo, Malta. Open to public since 1991, the museum is housed in a group of houses in the Cittadella, the oldest part of the city. These houses date back to various ages: the older one, which was an inn, to 1495; the other to the 17th century.
The Natural Science Museum shows collections "relating to the Island’s geology, minerals, marine life, insects, local habitats and ecosystems" as well as national plants (including the Maltese Rock Centaury), human and animal evolution.
During later years, this building was used as an inn for visitors, and is mentioned in Thomas McGill’s “Handbook, or Guide, for Strangers visiting Malta” of 1839, and described as:
an excellent house of entertainment offering clean and comfortable beds and reasonably-priced dinners.
During World War II the building served as a shelter for families during aerial bombings.
The buildings which house the museum are listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands.
== See also ==
List of museums in Malta
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
museum on Official Malta Tourism website Archived 2012-05-24 at the Wayback Machine

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The Guatemalan National Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural 'Jorge A. Ibarra') is a national natural history museum in Guatemala City, Guatemala.
It was founded in 1950 and moved to its present facility in 1986. It was renamed in honor of its founder and long-term director, Jorge A. Ibarra.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website

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Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural Gustavo Orcés V.) is a natural history museum in Quito, Ecuador. It was established in 2005.
== Background ==
From the eighteenth century European naturalists came to Ecuador for scientific expeditions, during which they collected specimens of flora, fauna, rocks and fossils. In the early twentieth century, Franz Spillmann brought together a collection of fossils, which formed the "Cabinet of Natural Sciences" of the Central University. Later, in 1946, Robert Hoffstetter and Gustavo Orcés founded the Department of Biology at the National Polytechnic School, and made numerous paleontological expeditions, particularly in the Santa Elena peninsula. Hoffstetter’s extensive work and organization formed the basis of the modern museum.
== References ==

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The Hasanbey Zardabi Natural History Museum (Azerbaijani: Həsən bəy Zərdabi adına Təbiət Tarixi Muzeyi) is a natural history museum in Baku, Azerbaijan.
The museum bears the name of Hasan bey Zardabi, an Azerbaijani journalist and intellectual, and founder of the first Azeri-language newspaper Akinchi ("The Ploughman") in 1875.
The museum has two departments: a geology department that has samples of metallic and nonmetallic natural resources and minerals and rocks of Azerbaijan and a zoology department. The general collection of the museum numbers more than 1400 different items. The biological department exhibits numerous skeletons and fragments of animal bones found during field work and treated by researchers. The oldest exhibit is the teeth of an ichthyosaur from the Cretaceous period, more than 120 million years old.
The research activities of the Natural History Museum have developed in several directions, focused especially on paleontological sites. The main research focuses on the study of the Binagadi quaternary and the Eldar late Sarmatian hipparion faunas, Pirekishkuli Maykop vertebrate fauna, numerous sites of primitive people, as well as Azokh cave and others. In the collection of the quaternary fauna of Binagadi, there are 41 species of mammals, 110 species of birds, 2 reptiles, 1 amphibian, 107 insects and 22 species of plants. Among those are near-complete fossilized skeletons of horses, deer, gazelles and saigas that don't live in the territory of Azerbaijan anymore.
The Eldar fauna consists of 23 representatives of various forms of vertebrate animals. In addition, the museum also has two types of hipparions (mammals of the horse family), the Sarmatian whale and the lower jaw of a mastodon.
The museum also exhibits the upper jaw, teeth and tusks of the southern elephant which lived in the country, 600000 years ago and was discovered in Mingachevir in 2001.
The museum operates under the auspices of the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of Azerbaijan.
== References ==

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The International Inventories Programme (IIP) is an international research and database project for investigating objects pertaining to the cultural heritage of Kenya that are held in cultural institutions like ethnographic museums across the globe. The programme is jointly run by the National Museums of Kenya in Nairobi, the Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum in Cologne and the Weltkulturen Museum in Frankfurt a. M., both in Germany. To establish a direct relation to contemporary cultural activities both in Kenya and in Germany, the multi-disciplinary arts groups The Nest Collective (Kenya) and SHIFT Collective in Germany and France are further members of the IIP. - The programme and its projects are supported by the Goethe-Institut - German cultural centre in Kenya - and the German Federal Cultural Foundation.
== Background and international cooperation ==
The IIP was publicly launched in 2018, and was described by Quartz Africa magazine as "a movement to investigate the cultural artifacts stolen and kept outside the country’s borders (...) exploring where in the West they are actually housed, who holds the agency to demand their repatriation, and how their historical and cultural legacy can be harnessed for sustainable and creative development.”
As much of Kenya's cultural heritage is inaccessible both for the Kenyan public as well as for academics worldwide, the IIP aims to narrow gaps relating to knowledge about such cultural objects. Regarding object inventories in Western collections, the programme noted "that some of these inventories sometimes lack information or contain data errors with regards to acquisition modalities, provenance, context and purpose of the objects. Due to lack of a sharing framework between institutions, researchers and collectors, these data errors perpetuate misrepresentation and mis-attribution of these cultural objects."
Resulting from collaboration between researchers and museum staff in Kenya and Germany, some of the objects in German museums have been documented online, including new information about their provenance and original use.
Njoki Ngumi, a member of Nest collective, was quoted in an article by the magazine Artnet News: “A lot of the research was written as though Black people would never look at it, or dare to have opinions about it. - We’ve had to sift through a lot of idly racist opinions and thoughts, then have to reflect on them in order to find even shreds of information about our ancestors and their contemporaries.”
== Aims and activities ==
In the context of the larger debates on colonial histories, the overarching aim of the IIP is to "decolonize the discourse on restitution by distributing African perspectives and positions underrepresented in international discussion."
As stated on the programme's webpage, the IIP strives to accomplish the following aims:
"Build exchange relations and strengthen collaboration and cooperation between NMK and key cultural institutions and collectors who possess and hold in custody Kenyan objects as part of their collections,
Generate a comprehensive inventory of Kenyan artifacts and cultural objects held in public institutions abroad
Exchange knowledge and information which will help to properly identify, label, store and display said objects"
As Nanette Snoep, director of the Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum stated in an interview, the IIP is "not just about restitution, but also about cooperation and gaining knowledge on the objects." Joining other projects in the efforts of regaining African cultural heritage in the global North, IIP also has established a cooperation with the Open Restitution Project Africa.
=== Object Movement Dialogues ===
Accompanying and documenting the discussions between the IIP and international researchers, a number of 'Object Movement Dialogues' were held and published online. In September 2019, one of the participants was the French art historian Bénédicte Savoy, co-author of the report on the restitution of African cultural heritage, who placed the IIP in the wider context of the ongoing discussion in Europe, following the recommendation of timely and mutually agreed permanent return of African cultural heritage in Western collections.
=== First public exhibition ===
On 17 March 2021, the programme's first public exhibition, entitled 'Invisible Inventories - Questioning Kenyan Collections in Western Museums' was launched at the National Museum of Kenya. Combining scholarly inquiry, artworks and activism, the exhibition wants to prompt the question how to make objects taken from Kenya to museums and collections in the global North present again in contemporary Kenya.
To make the absence of these invisible cultural objects obvious, ten empty display cabinets were presented in an installation called 'Displaying Absence'. This contribution by the contemporary artists involved in the IIP is meant to represent objects missing from Kenya, but found in German museums. Further, a sound installation about the so-called Man-Eaters of Tsavo reflects on the consequences of the absence of cultural objects in a poetic way. From May 2021 to the beginning of 2022, this exhibition is scheduled to travel to the participating museums in Cologne and Frankfurt.
=== Database for locating Kenyan cultural objects ===
To facilitate the exchange of information and inquiry, a database of cultural objects held by 30 institutions worldwide was established. As of November 2020, it provided the location and information for more than 32,000 objects.
As an accompanying publication to the exhibition, IIP also published a magazine in English and German, available both in print as well as online.
"...for the first time, Invisible Inventories opens up a public and open platform for Kenyan knowledge, experiences and ideas about this controversial and emotional topic. Its aim is to decolonize the discourse on restitution by distributing African perspectives and positions underrepresented in international discussions, thus contributing to a larger, much-needed debate on colonial histories, and how societies can negotiate and learn from them more honestly."
== See also ==
Culture of Kenya
Culture of Africa
Report on the restitution of African cultural heritage
== References ==
== External links ==
Official webpage of the IIP
Official webpage of the National Museums of Kenya
Official webpage of the Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum (RJM) in Cologne, Germany
Official webpage of the Weltkulturen Museum in Frankfurt, Germany
Official webpage of the NEST Collective in Nairobi, Kenya
Video about the IIP exhibition on YouTube
IIP on Facebook, with examples of new documentation of Kenyan objects in German museums

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The Irish Naturalists' Journal (ISSN 0021-1311) is a scientific journal covering all aspects of natural history. It has been published since 1925. It was preceded by The Irish Naturalist (1892−1924).
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
The Irish Naturalist (1892−1924) in Biodiversity Heritage Library

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Jakob Josef Menges (7 October 1850– 4 January 1910) was a German explorer, naturalist, zoologist, cartographer, trader and author. During the 1870s and until the end of the 19th century, Menges undertook commercial and scientific expeditions in Northeast Africa and the Horn of Africa.
His routes took him through the Turco-Egyptian Sudan, the interior of British Somaliland and Abyssinia in modern-day Ethiopia. To fund his journeys, Menges published travel and research reports on the region's geography, zoology and ethnology in German scientific journals. Later in life, he focused on animal trading, supplying exotic animals to European zoos, as well as facilitating human shows of Somali people in Europe.
== Biography ==
=== Early life and education ===
Josef Menges was the son of Joseph Menges and his wife Maria Josepha Diefenbach. His father was the last Thurn-und-Taxis postmaster of Limburg an der Lahn, actively involved in local politics and elected mayor in 1877. Josef Menges attended the Realgymnasium in Limburg and completed training as a railway official in Frankfurt am Main.
=== Travels ===
After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the coastal regions of the Horn of Africa drew growing attention from foreign governments, companies, and private actors, all seeking to capitalize on their strategic, economic, and logistical advantages. As Menges was especially interested in Northeast Africa, he applied to serve under British Major-General Charles George Gordon in the Turco-Egyptian Sudan. As Gordon’s secretary, he journeyed from 1873 to 1874 along the White Nile from Khartoum down to Gondokoro in present-day South Sudan. After illness and other difficulties forced him to leave Gordon’s service, he continued traveling in the region and, around 1876, began collaborating with Hamburg circus manager Carl Hagenbeck across a broad territory extending from Egyptian Sudan to the Somali lands.
The Mahdist War in Sudan (1881–1899) severely disrupted Hagenbeck’s animal trade, effectively halting exports from the region. In response, Menges expanded his operations into Abyssinia, French Somaliland (modern-day Djibouti), and British Somaliland. At that time, the Somali territories were rich in wildlife, much of which was either shipped to Europe in large quantities or pursued locally as game.
=== Geographical reports ===
While staying in Somaliland, Menges undertook at least four major expeditions, each of which was subsequently cartographically improved and published by the Perthes publishing house in Germany. Altogether, he covered roughly 626 kilometres on foot and documented a region measuring about 6,000 square kilometers.
On his expeditions he documented climate conditions with daily meteorological measurements, determined geographical altitudes and recordings of temperatures. Based on his detailed journals, including itineraries, descriptive notes on trade routes and observations on vegetation and mountainous formations, Menges produced scientific reports and detailed hand-drawn sketches of these regions.
Menges produced small sketches for maps according to consistent principles. His equipment were a watch, a thermometer, a compass, an aneroid barometer and a degree circle. With these instruments, he took dozens of measurements every day. He worked to scale, calculating roughly 1 mm in his notebook as equal to about 100 steps on the ground (so 1 cm represented around 670 meters), and adjusted his records to account for slower travel, for example in mountainous areas. These draft maps traced his route with exact hours and minutes for each change of direction, also indicated bearings in degrees in relation to the North–South axis, and marked significant landmarks. He employed common cartographic signs — lines for routes, circles for heights— while also devising additional symbols for notable trees, forts, water wells, and ruins. These drafts were later converted into professional geographical maps, for example by cartographer Bruno Hassenstein.
Apart from Menges, other explorers had travelled and mapped regions of Northeast Africa. In 1860 Theodor von Heuglin had collaborated with Hassenstein on a map of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. In 1874 Gustav Adolf Haggenmacher and August Petermann produced a map of the Berbera hinterland of Somaliland, and in 1885 Philipp Paulitschke, Hassenstein and Carl Barich mapped the route from the town of Zayla in Somaliland to Harar in Ethiopia.Travel reports and geographical maps of Africa by Menges and other German cartographers were published in Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen by Perthes publishers in Gotha, Germany. This oldest German-language geography journal produced many major geographic discoveries of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Perthes focused on these regions because new maps of little-known parts of Africa filled gaps in geographic knowledge and gave its journal exclusive material. By selling new findings by explorers on the ground, the publisher strengthened its reputation, outpaced competitors in France, Britain, and Germany, and enhanced its standing in the German Empire as an important center for overseas information.
=== Ethnographic and zoological reports ===
Menges was also interested in the people he encountered. He published his observations on their ways of life, cultures and environments in scientific journals and maintained frequent contact with leading ethnologists and ethnological museums.During his journeys he became familiar not only with foreign lands and cultures but also with their flora and fauna. He recorded observations of wildlife with the same care he applied to landscapes and climates, publishing his findings in journals such as Der Zoologische Garten and Globus – Illustrirte Zeitschrift für Länder und Völkerkunde. In his 1887 report Ausflug ins Somaliland (Excursion into Somaliland), he described two local species of antilopes and the Somali wild ass. In 1883, he obtained a foal of the same rare animal and transported it to Hamburg, where it was kept in captivity for a period. In 1894 Menges was the first to publish a scientific report about the Beira antelope species that was initially classified as a klipspringer (Oreotragus megalotis).

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In addition to English, French and Italian, Menges learned several African dialects. To obtain information and establish his position, he depended largely on the support of local inhabitants. In a letter of 11 April 1883 to the editors of Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, he wrote:Nor did I fail to ask the accompanying natives, who knew every detail about the land, in order to be able to write down the names of the various localities, so that I believe I have made as accurate a sketch as is at all possible of a hunting expedition that had no scientific purpose.
=== Animal trading ===
To support his expeditions financially, Menges formed a professional association in 1876 with the Hamburg circus manager and animal trainer Carl Hagenbeck. This included providing Hagenbeck with information about animal populations, possibilities for capture and logistics to transport animals to the coast and further to Europe. Menges played a central role in establishing early contacts between Somali intermediaries and Hagenbeck’s enterprise. Besides Hamburg, the Frankfurt Zoological Garden became the main hub for animal collections imported by Menges to Europe. When Adalbert Seitz became director of the Frankfurt Zoo on 1 April 1893, he provided Menges with temporary storage space, so that large animal imports could first be shown and offered there.
=== Recruiter for human zoos ===
As Carl Hagenbeck had started recruiting "African natives" for ethnographic shows in Europe, expeditions from the region supplied not only wildlife but also Nubians, Somalis, and others for such "human zoo" exhibits. At least one consignment of animals appears to have reached Hagenbeck before any Somali group was recruited for exhibition. Evidence suggests that Menges initially sought to collaborate independently with Somali partners and establish his own position in the trade. This is indicated by at least two Somali ethnographic exhibitions staged in Switzerland before 1895. One in 1889 was called “Menges’s East African Caravan” and another in 1891 “Menges’s Somali Caravan”.
At first, Menges enlisted the Somali leader Hersi Egeh Gorseh, who would later emerge as the leader of a Somali troupe as well as a trusted associate of Carl Hagenbeck and his family. Hersi, who was based in the port city of Berbera, was engaged to organize the capture and transport of wild animals from the northern Somali coast and the hinterland, assembling teams of trappers from his clan. After several successful shipments had demonstrated his reliability, Menges persuaded him to take his group of Somali people to Europe to participate in ethnographic exhibitions, called Völkerschau in German. The first Somali troupe, led by Hersi Egeh and organized by Hagenbeck in collaboration with Menges, reached Hamburg in 1895.
The same year, Hagenbeck and Menges presented this troupe along with animals from different African regions at the 1895 African Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in London. The group of animals included 25 native horses, 20 dromedaries, half a dozen lions, six ostriches, cheetahs, pumas, leopards, sheep, and birds. As The Times commented, "Herr Menges had made so many excursions into the interior since permanent relations had been established with the tribes on the coast that he was in possession of the fullest information about the country, and he experienced little difficulty in obtaining the consent of some 70 Somalis of different tribes to undertake the voyage."
== Reception ==
In the 1880s, reports by Menges were mentioned in the Scottish Geographical Magazine and the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. In his 1886 book about the history of the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage, English writer William Thomas Arnold reported about two letters Menges had published in the Cologne Gazette about the possibility of taming African elephants as beasts of burden. As the British Army had used Indian elephants under general Gordon in Egyptian Sudan, Menges had suggested that the African species could be tamed as well.
In 2017, a biography was published in German, largely based on his extensive personal archive, consisting of his correspondence with the geographers from the Perthes publishing house, travel notebooks, business and private letters. According to the biographer, these documents, archived in the Perthes Collection at the University of Erfurt, allowed her to provide a portrayal that links an individual life story to the broader historical setting.
In his 2022 article titled “A Brief History of Staging Somali Ethnographic Performing Troupes in Europe, 1885–1930”, the author focused on the relationship of Menges with Hagenbeck and Hersi Egeh, the leader of a troupe of Somali people. This historical analysis ascertained the role of Menges as Hagenbeck's agent and recruiter who helped supply animals and performers for ethnographic shows in Europe.
A 2024 article about the life and work of Menges with special focus on his maps of Northeast Africa assumed that British officials in Aden may have used such maps when shaping policy for what would become the Somaliland protectorate. The maps may also have served local communities, helping them better understand their territory. In addition, regional powers such as Khedival Egypt, where Menges began his career, and Emperor Menelik II’s Ethiopia could have viewed this cartographic information as a strategic asset for territorial expansion.
Original maps or digital copies based on travels and sketches by Menges are archived at the Perthes Collection of the Erfurt University research library, the University of Jena, the Digital Library of Chambéry in France and the library of the University of Illinois. Other items collected by Menges are held in the collections of the Ethnological Museum of Berlin as well as in other public collections in Germany.
== References ==
== External links ==

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Jónas Hallgrímsson (16 November 1807 – 26 May 1845) was an Icelandic poet, writer and naturalist. He was one of the founders of the Icelandic journal Fjölnir, which was first published in Copenhagen in 1835. The magazine was used by Jónas and his fellow Fjölnismenn to promote Icelandic nationalism, in the hope of giving impetus to the Icelandic Independence Movement. Jónas remains one of Iceland's most beloved poets, penning some of the best-known Icelandic poems about Iceland and its people. Since 1996, Jónas's birthday has been officially recognised in Iceland as the Day of the Icelandic Language. On 16 November each year, the Jónas Hallgrímsson Award is awarded to an individual for their outstanding contribution to the Icelandic Language.
== Biography ==
Jónas was born in the north of Iceland, in Öxnadalur in Eyjafjörður. He was the son of Hallgrímur Þorsteinsson, a curate, and Rannveig Jónasdóttir. He was the third of their four children; his siblings were Þorsteinn (born 1800), Rannveig (born 1802) and Anna Margrét (born 1815). In 1816 Jónas' father drowned in a lake and Jónas was sent to live with his aunt. In 1821 he returned home to Öxnadalur to be confirmed, before going away to a school in Skagafjörður, where he was taught by the Reverend Einar H. Thorlacius. He studied there for two years, and won a scholarship to attend the school at Bessastaðir for a further six.
After passing his final examinations in 1829, Jónas moved to Reykjavík and was employed by a sheriff as a clerk, living in his home. During this time, he also worked as a defence lawyer. It is said that sometime in the winter of 1831–1832, Jónas proposed to a woman called Christiane Knudsen, but he was rejected. He was heartbroken.
In 1832 he sailed to Denmark, and passed the entrance exam for the University of Copenhagen. He began working for a law degree, but after four years switched to literature and natural sciences, excelling in both subjects. In 1835, along with fellow Icelandic students Brynjólfur Pétursson, Konráð Gíslason and Tómas Sæmundsson, he founded the patriotic journal Fjölnir.
After graduation he was awarded a grant from the state treasury to conduct scientific research in Iceland, a project which he worked on from 1839 to 1842. He continued to pursue his interest in the natural history of Iceland, and to work on Fjölnir throughout his life, dividing his time between Denmark and research trips to Iceland. It was in Fjölnir that many of his poems and essays first appeared. Jónas also worked as a translator of foreign material, including scientific works. In these can be found many of the Icelandic words coined by Jónas. One of these, for an example, is reikistjarna, meaning planet. This is a compound word from the verb að reika (to wander) and the noun stjarna (star).
On 21 May 1845 in Copenhagen, Jónas slipped on the stairs up to his room and broke his leg. He went to the hospital the next day, but died of blood poisoning, aged only 37.
== Style ==
Jónas is considered one of the founding fathers, and best examples, of romanticism in Iceland. The imagery in his poetry was strongly influenced by the Icelandic landscape. He is also known for introducing foreign metres, such as pentameter, to Icelandic poetry.
Charming and fair is the land,
and snow-white the peaks of the jokuls [glaciers],
Cloudless and blue is the sky,
the ocean is shimmering bright,
But high on the lave fields, where
still Osar river is flowing
Down into Almanna gorge,
Althing no longer is held,
Now Snorri's booth serves as a sheepfold,
the ling upon Logberg the sacred
Is blue with berries every year,
for children's and ravens' delight.
Oh, ye juvenile host
and full-grown manhood of Iceland!
Thus is our forefathers' fame
forgotten and dormant withal.
Iceland
Translated by Gudmund J. Gislason
Beck, Richard, editor, Icelandic Lyrics: Originals and Translations, Thorhallur Bjarnarson, Publisher, Post Box 1001, Reykjavik 1930
== Controversy over remains ==
In 1946, the bones of Jónas Hallgrímsson were moved from Copenhagen to Iceland in a controversy known in Icelandic as the beinamálið ('the case of the bones'). While ostensibly a national triumph, the reburial has been argued to have been an enormously problematic exercise in hegemony by Iceland's post-independence elites and "instead of uniting the nation, the episode uncovered a great divide within the people of Iceland". The main campaigner behind this was Sigurjón Pétursson, an admirer of Jónas who claimed to be in telepathic communication with the dead poet and wanted to re-bury his remains in Öxnadalur, where Jónas grew up. Sigurjón came up against serious opposition from a number of the political élite, including Ólafur Thors, who was then Prime Minister of Iceland. The government informed him that Jónas' bones were state property, and would be buried at the national burial ground at Þingvellir, alongside the poet Einar Benediktsson.
However, the government proved unwilling to finance the excavation and transportation. Sigurjón covered most of the cost, even paying for Matthías Þórðarson, the director of the National Museum, to oversee the excavation. The process was a lengthy one, because a father and son had been buried on top of Jónas in 1875, and another couple in 1900, and they needed to be excavated first.
Finally, Sigurjón was able to transport the remains to Iceland. He drove north with them, intending to bury them in Öxnadalur in defiance of the government, but the priests there refused to perform the rites. The coffin stood in a church for a week before being driven back south and buried in the government's chosen spot on 16 November, Jónas' birthday. Since 1996, the date has been celebrated in Iceland as Icelandic Language Day.
The controversy, its motivations and outcomes were satirised by, amongst others, Halldór Laxness's 1948 novel Atómstöðin and Milan Kundera's Ignorance.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Jónas Hallgrímsson, Selected Poetry and Prose: The University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center presents this publicly accessible digital resource. It includes a wide range of materials that introduce the work of Icelandic poet and natural scientist Jónas Hallgrímsson (1807–1845), generally acknowledged to be the most important and influential Icelandic poet of modern times.
Jónas Hallgrímson.is (In Icelandic)
Iacocca, V. K. (2021). Saga-Sites of Memory: Jónas Hallgrímsson, Icelandic Nationalism, and the Íslendingasögur. Scandinavian-Canadian Studies, 28, 260–289. https://doi.org/10.29173/scancan209
== External links ==
Blöndal, Sigfús (1911). "Hallgrímsson, Jónas" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). p. 857.

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The Kitale Museum is a regional museum located in Kitale, Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. Operating under the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) network, it holds the distinction of being the first regional museum to be integrated into the national system. In February 2024, it became the first national museum in the country to transition to the management of a county government under the Kenya devolution framework. While it maintains a technical partnership with the NMK, the facility is currently managed by the Trans-Nzoia County Government, which oversees its daily operations, budget, and staff.
The museum originated from the private collection of Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Stoneham established in 1926 and was officially nationalized in 1974. It features natural history exhibitions and ethnographic displays including traditional Kenyan homesteads.
Following Stoneham's death in 1966, the collection was bequeathed to the Kenyan government on the condition that a permanent museum be established in Kitale. In 1974, the facility was officially nationalized and opened to the public as the first regional branch of the NMK. Today, the museum is notable for its outdoor exhibits of traditional homesteads representing the Luhya, Maasai, and Kalenjin cultures, as well as a nature trail through a protected riverine known as the Olof Palme Memorial Agroforestry Centre.
== History ==
=== Stoneham era (1926–1966) ===
The institution originated as a private venture by Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Stoneham, a British naturalist who settled in the Kenya Colony after World War I. In 1926, he founded the Stoneham Museum to house his personal research, which resulted from decades of fieldwork across East Africa. The collection was scientifically significant, particularly its Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) and avian specimens, which Stoneham meticulously cataloged alongside various ethnographic artifacts acquired from local communities.
=== Transition to national status (1966–1974) ===
Upon Stoneham's death in 1966, the fate of the collection became a matter of state interest. His will bequeathed the entire estate to the Government of Kenya, strictly stipulating that the collections must remain in Kitale as a permanent public museum. During this transitional period, the facility was known as the National Museum of Western Kenya. By December 1974, the site was officially nationalized and opened as the first regional branch of the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) network.
=== Modern devolution (2024–present) ===
In a landmark move for the devolution framework, the museum's management structure was overhauled in February 2024. Following an agreement between the national government and Governor George Natembeya, the facility was formally transferred to the Trans-Nzoia County Government. This transition marked the first time a national museum in Kenya moved to county-level governance, with the county taking over the budget, staff, and daily operations while maintaining a technical consultancy with the NMK for heritage preservation.
== Location and setting ==
The museum is located in Kitale in Trans-Nzoia County, a region known for its agricultural productivity and ecological diversity. The grounds include landscaped gardens and a conserved nature trail.
== Collections ==
The museum’s collections are divided into natural history and ethnography.
=== Natural history ===
The natural history section is anchored by Stoneham’s entomological collection, consisting of insect specimens collected across East Africa. These collections illustrate regional biodiversity and support educational interpretation of species classification.
=== Ethnographic collections ===
The ethnographic exhibits represent several Kenyan communities, including the Luhya, Maasai, and Turkana. Artifacts include tools, musical instruments, clothing, and domestic objects.
Outdoor displays include reconstructed homesteads, such as the Bukusu homestead, demonstrating traditional architectural layouts and social organization.
The ethnographic collections reflect the cultural diversity of western Kenya, situating the museum within a region characterized by cultural interaction and exchange.
=== Reptile park ===
The museum features a reptile park exhibiting species native to Kenya, including the Nile crocodile, leopard tortoise, puff adder (Bitis arietans), Gaboon viper, rhinoceros viper, and the African rock python. Following the 2024 transition to the Trans-Nzoia County Government, the park has been earmarked for expansion as part of a broader initiative to increase domestic tourism and educational outreach.
The exhibit serves both educational and conservation-awareness purposes, focusing on the biodiversity of the North Rift region.
== Conservation and environmental role ==
The museum grounds include a 30-acre (12 ha) established indigenous riverine forest which was gazetted for conservation in August 1977. This area features the Olof Palme Memorial Nature Trail, a protected habitat that serves as a vital sanctuary for rare biodiversity, including the De Brazza's monkey and a wide variety of indigenous medicinal plants.
In 1983, the museum expanded its environmental mandate by establishing the Olof Palme Memorial Agroforestry Centre in collaboration with Vi Agroforestry. This partnership promotes sustainable agriculture and renewable energy technologies, including onsite demonstrations of biogas production and wood-fuel conservation.
Since the 2024 devolution to the Trans-Nzoia County Government, these initiatives have been integrated into the county's broader environmental and tourism strategy, positioning the museum as a regional hub for community-based sustainability.
== Educational and Cultural Significance ==
The Kitale Museum functions as a primary cultural archive and educational hub for the North Rift and Western Kenya regions. Following its 2024 devolution, the institution has seen a significant increase in academic engagement, frequently attracting over 800 students per week from primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions across the country.
The museum's outdoor ethnographic section serves as a "living classroom," featuring authentic reconstructions of traditional homesteads. Notable examples include the Bukusu homestead complete with a simba (young men's quarters) and the Sabaot homestead, which demonstrates traditional spatial organization like the koima (living area) and injoor (livestock shelter). These sites are used for guided tours that integrate into the Kenyan national curriculum for history, social studies, and biology.
Additionally, the museum serves as a venue for modern cultural dialogue. It is a key site for the annual Kitale Film Week, held every February, which uses African cinema to address themes of heritage, nature, and climate justice. Through these programs, the museum preserves indigenous knowledge systems while promoting sustainable tourism within Trans-Nzoia County.
== Governance and administration ==
The Kitale Museum is administered by the National Museums of Kenya (NMK), a state corporation established under the National Museums and Heritage Act (2006).
Internally, the museum is managed by a Curator supported by units responsible for education, research, and natural sciences.
== Visitor information ==
The museum is open to the public, with entry fees regulated by the National Museums of Kenya. Payments are typically processed through official government platforms in accordance with Government of Kenya fee structures.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Kitale Museum – National Museums of Kenya

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The Latvian National Museum of Natural History (Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālais dabas muzejs) is a natural history museum in Riga, Latvia. It was founded in 1845 as the Riga Naturalist Society (German: Naturforscherverein zu Riga).
The museum contains the following Departments:
Custodial
Botany
Zoology
Geology and Palaeontology
Technological Support
Communications
Administration
== External links ==
Official site

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The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum (Arabic: المتحف اللبناني للحياة البحرية و البرية, al-matḥaf al-lubnani lil-hayat al-bahriya wa al-bariya) is a zoological museum in Jeita. Its goals are to study Lebanon's ecosystem, encourage preservation, and maintain a scientific archive of Lebanon's wildlife and the Mediterranean marine life.
== History ==
The Museum was first opened in Tyre in 2001.
== Collections ==
The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum has over 2000 species with over 5000 specimen. The museum currently contains 6 Exhibits:
=== Mammals ===
Displaying over 30 of Lebanon's mammals which once roamed freely the forests of Lebanon, most of which are now critically endangered, due to deforestation, indiscriminate hunting and habitat destruction.
=== Birds ===
The Museum Has over 200 species of birds
=== Reptiles ===
over 20 species of lizards and 30 species of snakes
=== Minerals, Gems and Fossils ===
over 300 specimens of minerals and gems
=== Seashells ===
The seashell collections contains over 200 seashell species from the Mediterranean and over 300 of the largest seashells from around the world.
=== Marine life ===
This display contains over 40 species sharks, in additions to fish, crabs, cephalopods, crustaceans, sea turtles, dolphins and a monk seal.
== Location and facilities ==
The museum is located in Jeita.
== References ==
"طبيب أسنان لبناني يجمع الحياة البحرية والبرية في سفينة واحدة" [Lebanese dentist collects marine and terrestrial life in one ship] (in Arabic). Donia Al-watan. 17 April 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
== External links ==
The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum

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The Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum (LKCNHM; Malay: Muzium Sejarah Alamiah Lee Kong Chian, Chinese: 李光前自然历史博物馆; pinyin: Lǐguāngqián zìrán lìshǐ bówùguǎn) is a museum of natural history at the Kent Ridge Campus of the National University of Singapore. It is named after Lee Kong Chian, a prominent Chinese businessman and philanthropist active in Malaya and Singapore between the 1930s and the 1960s. It was officially opened on 18 April 2015.
The idea for a natural history collection was first mooted by Sir Stamford Raffles, and the collection of Southeast Asian biodiversity was begun in 1849 at the Raffles Museum (now the National Museum of Singapore). In 1972, the Government of Singapore removed the natural history collections from the National Museum and gave them to the Zoology Department of what was then the University of Singapore. They were housed in various temporary premises, including the Nanyang Technological University for seven years. Subsequently, they were returned to the NUS and housed in the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. LKCNHM inherited the natural history collections from the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research.
The Museum currently has more than 560,000 catalogued lots in its collection and over a million specimens from throughout the region. The Zoological Reference Collection was formerly known as the Raffles Natural History Collection.
About 2,000 of these are exhibited in the museum's galleries.
In February 2016, the museum announced that $1 million was raised for scientific and educational efforts related to the 10.6m adult female sperm whale carcass dubbed "Jubi Lee" found in Singapore waters in July 2015. The "Jubilee Whale Exhibit" was unveiled on 14 March that year.
== See also ==
List of museums in Singapore
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website

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Lincolnshire Naturalist's Union (LNU) is an association of amateur naturalists covering a wide range of natural history subjects. It was founded in 1893 and aims to promote the investigation of the fauna, flora, and physical features of the county of Lincolnshire and to promote the study of natural history.
== History ==
The society was formed on 12 June 1893 during a meeting held in Mablethorpe. The meeting came about from conversations held by William F. Baker and Joseph Coe with "prominent naturalists connectected with Lincolnshire". About 30 naturalists met at Mablethrope, travelled to Theddlethorpe and then returned to the Book-in-Hand hotel at Mablethorpe to discuss the formation of a union. A subsequent meeting was held on 1 July 1893 at Lincoln to elect officers to organise the union. John Cordeaux was elected as the inaugural President of the LNU and William F. Baker as its Secretary. Officers were also elected to six divisional sections: Vertebrate Zoology, Conchology, Entomology, Botany, Geology, and Micro-Zoology & Botany.
== Activities ==
The LNU has hosted over 800 field meetings across the county of Lincolnshire. Historically, several members of the LNU have donated their collections to the county museum, The Collection, in Lincoln.
== See also ==
Members of the Lincolnshire Naturalists' Union
== References ==

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The Linnaean Society of New England (1814–1822) was established in Boston, Massachusetts, to promote natural history. The society organized a natural history museum and also arranged lectures and excursions for its members. In 1817 it became involved in the Gloucester sea serpent debate. Although the society itself did not last, its initial energy and rapid accomplishments helped shape the growing field of natural history in the early years of the United States.
== History ==
The society began December 8, 1814, "at the room of Dr. Jacob Bigelow." Founders included Bigelow; Walter Channing; Ezekiel D. Cushing; James Freeman Dana; George Hayward; LaFayette Perkins; Octavius Pickering; William Smith Shaw; Nathaniel Tucker; John Ware; and John White Webster. John Davis served as president. "Meetings were held weekly, on Saturday evenings. The members were divided into 6 classes: viz., for minerals; for plants and vegetables; for quadrupeds and birds; for fishes, reptiles, and serpents; for insects; and for vermes, corals, madrepores, &c." Initially, the society had a room "in Joy's Buildings" in Boston; they soon moved to Boylston Market. In January 1815, the society agreed to call itself the "Linnaean Society of New England" (instead of its previous name, "New-England Society for the Promotion of Natural History.") It officially incorporated in June 1820.
Affiliates of the society included: Thomas G. Chase; Parker Cleaveland; Samuel Luther Dana; Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn; Oliver Fiske; Francis Calley Gray; Samuel Latham Mitchill; Nathan Read; and William J. Walker.
=== Excursions ===
In addition to meetings, the society organized relevant excursions. In the summer of 1816, members travelled to the mountains in New Hampshire and Vermont. "They ascertained the height of the Monadnock to be 3,450 feet; its summit composed of micaceous schistus. The Ascutney 3,106 feet, its summit of granite. The White Mountains 6,230 feet, the summit of gneiss, the sides micaceous schistus. The limit of forest trees at the height of 4,423 feet. These heights were ascertained by barometrical observations. They found few interesting minerals, but discovered 3 or 4 new species of plants."
=== Museum ===
Shortly after the formation of the society, it shared with the public its plans to create a museum of natural history. "The society, unwilling to raise expectations which might not be realized, or to announce objects beyond their power to effect, have chosen for the present to confine their views principally to the collection of a regular and systematick Museum of Natural History, in which Animals, Plants, and Minerals shall be kept in a good state of preservation, designated by their scientific and ordinary names, and arranged according to their classes and natural affinities. It is hoped that a collection thus formed, will be useful to students, and may hereafter be instrumental in throwing some light on the natural history of this country."
==== Solicitations for the collection ====
The collection of the museum grew by donations from members and supporters. It was hoped that travellers abroad would bring back specimens. Society members "particularly request masters of vessels and other gentlemen bound on sea voyages, to preserve for them such curiosities as may fall in their way."" In addition, the new society wrote to their contacts abroad. Society members "have ... opened a considerable correspondence with a view to obtaining foreign specimens. The chief objects which they are desirous to possess are minerals, plants, and fresh seeds of rare species, quadrupeds, birds in pairs with their nests and eggs, fishes, serpents, insects, shells, coral, &c.""
It also was hoped that locals at home would contribute "birds, fish, &c. the common, and especially the rare, which are now and then brought to a town for sale. Many valuable articles have already been obtained in this manner, and by offering a trifling pecuniary inducement, individuals might be enabled to procure others which are not used for food, but which are very interesting to the naturalist." Indeed, "persons residing in the interiour of the country will confer an obligation on the society, by sending any ... objects which may appear to them curious or unusual. ... Printed directions for preserving birds, fishes, quadrupeds, plants, &c. may be received, gratis, at the Boston Atheneum, Tremont-street."
A newspaper notice of July 1820 advised the public that donations of natural history specimens could be dropped off at a drug store on Central Street. "The friends of this institution are informed that its members will receive and preserve specimens in the various departments of history, and for the convenience of those who have specimens to present, Mr. Thomas G. Chase, druggist, no.7, Central-street, has obligingly offered to receive them at his store. A note left with him, stating where specimens intended for the museum are deposited, will be duly attended to."
==== Specimens obtained ====
"Among the donations, the first one specified was a likeness of Mr. Roscoe, presented by Mr.Francis Boott. Commodore Stewart, of the frigate Constitution presented 2 living tigers. These tigers were somehow lost. ... A living bear from Commodore Chauncey; Chinese insects from B.P. Tilden; corals from Dr. Swift; minerals from Vesuvius; birds from France; birds from Africa; a series of English game-birds; a caribou; and, above all ... 'the most interesting and valuable specimen the country affords; namely, a large species of deer, commonly called the elk.'"
The museum itself, located in Boylston Hall, was open to the public: "strangers and others can have free access on application to any member or officer of the society." According to a contemporary description:

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Among the quadrupeds may be mentioned the Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Catamount, Wolf, Bear, Stag, Sea-Elephant, and a great number of smaller species, principally native. The birds amount to nearly three hundred in number, and consist of elegant species in every order, and of every size, from the Albatross and the large Sea-Eagle of North America, to the minutest Humming birds of Cayenne. A majority of the birds are natives of this country, but there are many beautiful species from tropical countries ... The fishes are prepared in uniform half specimens fixed upon a white ground, and afford a fine display, being sufficiently numerous to nearly cover one end of the hall. The insects and shells amounting to some thousands in number, include many rare and elegant species, both native and foreign, and among them may be mentioned, a fine collection of insects from China, and of shells from the Isle of France and Calcutta. The mineralogical specimens already fill four large cabinets. ... The whole collection, with the exception of the fishes and a few other specimens, have been inclosed at a great expense, in mahogany cases with glass fronts. ... The specimens have been prepared by members of the society, and by an artist employed for the purpose [i.e. M. Duchesne].
=== Sea serpent ===
In 1817 the society investigated reports of sightings of an extraordinary "sea serpent" north of Boston, around Gloucester and Cape Ann, Massachusetts. Members of the society circulated systematic questionnaires, and wrote up a scientifically-informed report, published the same year. The report included information on Erik Pontoppidan's Norway sea snake, and on a smaller Cape Ann sea animal actually examined, "a remarkable serpent, supposed to be the progeny of the great serpent." To accommodate its findings the society established a new genus: Scoliophis Atlanticus. The smaller specimen was exhibited publicly.
At the time, controversy raged over the society's report. For example: "With respect to the little animal which was exhibited by Capt. Beach, and on which a committee of the Boston Linnaean Society established a new genus, under the imposing title of Scoliophis, concluding it to be the young of the sea-serpent, I understand that a celebrated French naturalist, now in Philadelphia, has ascertained that it is a common land snake of the U. States, of a harmless species, and that the undulations of the spine were merely the effect of disease." The editor of the Philadelphia newspaper that had printed this item also published his own remarks: "the evidence of the existence of the Sea-Monster is conclusive and irresistable." Eventually, experts concluded that the Linnaean Society's findings were incorrect. What had been thought to be a new species was in fact a black snake – Coluber constrictor.
=== Dissolution ===
The society faded out due to members' other priorities. In 1822 they agreed to "suspend the meetings, give up the rooms, and place the collection, or such part of it as can be preserved, in some place where it may occasion no further expense to the Society. ... The perishable specimens, such as stuffed skins and specimens in alcohol, were given to Mr. Greenwood, the proprietor of the New-England Museum." The remainder of the collection was offered to the Boston Athenaeum, which declined; and then to Harvard College, which accepted the offer and its terms. However, it soon became clear that Harvard would not fulfill the terms of the agreement. In 1830 the former society's specimens were reclaimed (--"a few empty glazed cases, or containing dilapidated monkeys and birds"--) and given to the newly formed Boston Society of Natural History.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Published in the 19th century
John Davis (1815). "An address to the Linnaean Society of New England at the first Anniversary meeting at the Boston Athenaeum, June 14, 1815". North American Review. 1 (3).
Report of a committee of the Linnaean Society of New England: relative to a large marine animal, supposed to be a serpent, seen near Cape Ann, Massachusetts, in August 1817. Boston: Cummings and Hilliard. 1817.
"Linnaean Society of New England". The North American Review. 6. November 1817.
John White Webster (1821). A description of the island of St. Michael, comprising an account of its geological structure; with remarks on the other Azores or Western Islands. Originally communicated to the Linnaean Society of New-England. Boston: R.P. & C. Williams, no. 2, Cornhill-Square.
Published in the 20th century
Chandos Michael Brown (September 1990). "A Natural History of the Gloucester Sea Serpent: Knowledge, Power, and the Culture of Science in Antebellum America". American Quarterly. 42.

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