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+---
+title: "2000s in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:07.510758+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This article is a summary of the 2000s in science and technology.
+
+== Science ==
+
+Using the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, scientists studying the universe measured that its age is 13.77 billion years; "solidly supported" that it has been expanding and cooling since the Big Bang; and calculated that the universe is composed of about 4.6% atoms, 24% dark matter, and 71% dark energy.
+The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission successfully reached the surface of Mars in 2004, and sent detailed data and images of the landscape there back to Earth. Whilst NASA's original mission timeline of three months was incorrectly speculated, the mission was tremendously successful overall in the long term, as the MER Mission continued until 2018, lasting nearly 25 times the projected length.
+The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003.
+The National Geographic Society and IBM funded The Genographic Project.
+In 2002, Perelman posted the first of a series of eprints to the arXiv, in which he proved the Poincaré conjecture,
+2004 – The astrophysicist and radio astronomer Naomi McClure-Griffiths identifies a new spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy
+On 29 July 2005, the discovery of Eris, a Kuiper Belt object larger than Pluto, was announced. In August 2006 Pluto was "demoted" to a "dwarf planet" after being considered a planet for 76 years. Other "dwarf planets" in the Solar System now include Ceres and Eris.
+Space tourism/Private spaceflight began with American Dennis Tito, paying Russia US$20 million for a week-long stay to the International Space Station.
+The Voyager 1 spacecraft entered the heliosheath, marking its departure from the Solar System.
+Scientists discovered water ice on the Moon in 2009.
+AFIS and CODIS became the main forensic tools for fingerprint and genetic code investigation in the industrialized world and some developing countries.
+Infraluciferin became the go-to luciferin for in vivo imaging and threatening to replace natural luciferin entirely.
+
+== Technology ==
+
+=== Information technology ===
+
+There was a huge jump in broadband internet usage globally - for example, it constituted only 6% of U.S. internet users in June 2000 and one mid-decade study predicted 62% adoption by 2010. Yet, by February 2007, over 80% of US Internet users were connected via broadband and broadband internet became almost a required standard for quality internet browsing. There were 77.4 million broadband subscribers in the US in December 2008, with 264 million broadband subscribers alone in the top 30 countries at that time.
+There was a boom in music downloading and the use of data compression to quickly transfer music over the Internet, with a corresponding rise of portable digital audio players, typified by Apple's iPod, along with other MP3 players. Digital music sales rose, accounting for 6% of all music sales in 2005.  Digital music options were integrated into other devices such as smartphones and the popular PlayStation Portable (PSP). By the latter half of the decade, generic MP3 players were starting to mimic the features of the extremely popular iPod and Zune.
+As a result of the widespread popularity and social impact of Google Search, the word "google" came to be used as a verb.
+Adobe Flash technology reached the point of being able to make video players. As a result, YouTube, a website which allows uploading and viewing videos, was created. YouTube's popularity grew explosively and it was acquired by Google.
+Data storage prices continued to drop, going from approximately US$7 per GB in early 2000 to US$0.07 per GB in 2009.
+Due to an increase in capacity, USB flash drives rapidly replaced Zip disks and floppy discs (by Iomega) and 3.5-inch diskettes.
+The first 2 TB hard drives were developed and beginning to be used.
+Windows XP and Microsoft Office 2003 became ubiquitous in personal computer software, although their successors Windows Vista and, by the end of the decade, Windows 7, saw increasing market penetration.
+Open-source and free software continued to be a notable but minority interest, with versions of the Linux kernel gaining in popularity, as well as the Mozilla Firefox web browser and the OpenOffice.org productivity suite.
+Blogs, portals, intranets and wikis became common electronic dissemination methods for professionals, amateurs, and businesses to conduct knowledge management.
+Wikipedia began and grew, becoming both the largest encyclopedia, and the most widely read wiki in the world.
+Wireless networks became ever more commonplace in homes, education institutes and urban public spaces.
+Peer-to-peer technology was used in a major way, such as internet telephony (Skype), file-sharing. The Internet became a major source of all types of media, from music to movies, thanks initially to file-sharing peer-to-peer programs such as Kazaa and LimeWire. The debate continued over the ethics of file sharing. Legal music download services such as iTunes and streaming services such as Spotify opened up new markets.
+The video game industry's profits surpassed the movie industry's in 2004.
+The US tech bubble burst for the most part in early 2000s and after three years of negative growth the technology market began its rebound in 2003.
+Social networking websites like Myspace and Facebook and microblogging platforms like Twitter gained in popularity.
+Smartboards in schools gained acceptance and were adopted rapidly during the middle years of the decade.
+E-book readers using electronic paper technology were developed, and enjoyed modest popularity.
+
+==== Software development ====
+The Agile Manifesto was launched and agile project management approaches such as Scrum grew in popularity. However, due to factors such as inflexibility in procurement processes, and lack of expertise among civil servants, government computing projects continued to fail with regularity, notably in the United Kingdom.
+A large number of software development and software testing jobs in rich nations were offshored to less wealthy countries such as India and Russia, mirroring a globalisation trend that had already occurred in physical manufacturing.
+There was also a trend of offshoring software development work to cities like Dubai and Singapore - where Western developers rubbed shoulders with other foreign workers - and "offshoring" within the EU (including nearshoring).
+
+=== Video ===

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+---
+title: "2000s in science and technology"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:07.510758+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Digital cameras became very popular due to rapid decreases in size and cost while photo resolution steadily increased. As a result, sales of film reel cameras diminished greatly, and integration into mobile phones increased greatly; sexting by teenagers also became a controversial social issue, with teenagers - and even in one case a school administrator who investigated a sexting case - being arrested.
+Graphics processing units (GPUs) and video cards became powerful enough to render ultra-high-resolution (e.g. 2560 × 1600) scenes in real time with substantial detail and texture.
+Flat panel displays began displacing cathode ray tubes. This was a dramatic change during the decade, as very few flat panels were sold through the mid-2000s (decade) and the majority of stores sell only flat panel TVs by the end of the decade.
+Handheld projectors entered the market and were then integrated into cellphones.
+The digital switchover started to be enforced for television.
+The introduction of digital video recorders (DVRs) allowed consumers to modify content they watch on TV, and to record TV programs and watch them later, leading to problems as consumers could fast-forward through commercials, making them useless, and save TV shows for later viewing, causing a decline in live TV viewing. However, these problems were already present with video tapes.
+Internet usage surpassed TV viewing in 2004. Satellite TV and cable TV (with the exception of digital cable) lost ratings as network television ratings gradually increased.
+TV networks started streaming shows online.
+There was an increase in usage of online DVD rental services such as Netflix.
+DVDs, and subsequently Blu-ray Discs, replaced VCR technology as the common standard in homes and at video stores, although inexpensive VCRs and videocassettes could still be found at some thrift stores and discount stores.
+
+=== Vehicles and energy ===
+There were major advances in hybrid vehicles such as the Toyota Prius, Ford Escape, and the Honda Insight.
+Many more computers and other technologies were incorporated into vehicles, such as Xenon HID headlights, GPS, DVD players, self-diagnosing systems, advanced pre-collision safety systems, memory systems for car settings, back-up sensors and cameras, in-car media systems, MP3 player compatibility, USB drive compatibility, self-parking systems, keyless start and entry, satellite radio, voice-activation, cellphone connectivity, adaptive headlights, HUD (Head-Up-Display), infrared cameras, and Onstar (on GM models).
+There was greater interest in future energy development due to global warming and the potential scenario of peak oil, even though these problems had been known about for decades. Photovoltaics increased in popularity and decreased in cost as a result of increased public interest and generous public subsidies.
+
+=== Communications ===
+
+The popularity of mobile phones and text messaging surged in the 2000s decade in the Western world. The advent of text messaging made possible new forms of interaction that were not possible before, resulting in numerous boons such as the ability to receive information on the move. Nevertheless, it also led to negative social implications such as Text "bullying" and the rise of traffic collisions caused by drivers who were distracted as they were texting while driving.
+Due to the major success of broadband Internet connections, Voice over IP (VoIP) began to gain popularity as a replacement for traditional telephone lines. Major telecommunications carriers began converting their networks from TDM to VoIP.
+Unusually for a development heralded by science fiction, videophones were cheap and abundant, yet even by mid-decade, they had not received much attention, perhaps due to the high cost of video calls relative to ordinary calls.
+Mobile phones adopted features such as Internet access, PDA functions, running software applications, video calling, cameras and video recording, and music and video playback as standard. Higher end smartphones continue to offer extra features such as GPS and Wireless.
+Due to improvements in mobile phone displays and memories, most mobile phone carriers offered video viewing services, internet services, and some offered full music downloads, such as Sprint in 2005 and more common use of Bluetooth. This led to a virtual saturation of cell phone ownership among the public in the developed world, increasing the use of mobile phones as everyday carry items, and a sharp decline in the use and numbers of payphones.
+
+=== Robotics ===
+As in previous decades, robotics continued to develop, especially telerobotics in medicine, particularly for surgery.
+Home automation and home robotics advanced in North America; iRobot's "Roomba" was the most successful domestic robot and sold 1.5 million units. (Others of interest include: Robomower, and Scooba as of May 2006)
+The first robotic vehicle completed the DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005 and became the first vehicle to be able to navigate itself with no external interference.
+Humanoid robots and robot kits improved considerably, to the point of retailing as toys. This was typified by RoboSapien and Lego Mindstorms respectively.
+
+=== Space technology ===
+GPS (Global Positioning System) became very popular, especially in the tracking of items or people, and the use in cars. Games that utilize the system, such as geocaching, emerged and developed a niche following.
+The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred in February 2003.
+SpaceShipOne made the first privately funded human spaceflight on June 21, 2004.
+
+=== Healthcare ===
+Corrective eye surgery became popular as costs and potential risk decreased and results further improved.
+244 new drugs were approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
+
+=== General retail ===
+RFID (Radio Frequency ID) became widely used in retail giants such as Wal-Mart, as a way to track items and automate stocking and keeping track of items.
+Self-serve kiosks became very widely available, and were used for all kinds of shopping, airplane boarding passes, hotel check-ins, fast food, banking, and car rental. ATMs became nearly universal in much of the First World and very common even in poorer countries and their rural areas.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-0.md

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+---
+title: "2010s in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This article is a summary of the 2010s in science and technology.
+
+== Technology ==
+Big data and "Big Tech" saw an expansion in size and power in the 2010s, particularly FAANG corporations. The growing influence of "Big Tech" over cyberspace drew scrutiny and increased oversight from national governments. The G20 countries began closing tax loopholes and the European Union began asserting legal guidelines over domains such as data privacy, copyright, and hate speech, the latter of which helped fuel a debate over tech censorship and free speech online, particularly deplatforming. Throughout the decade, the United States government increasingly scrutinized the tech industry, from attempted copyright regulations to threatening antitrust probes. Increased protectionism and attempts to regulate and localize the internet by national governments also raised fears of cyber-balkanization in the later half of the decade.
+
+=== Communications and electronics ===
+
+Smartphones maintained their strong popularity throughout the 2010s, along with the arrival of tablets. Apple Inc. launched the iPad in 2010, its first tablet computer, which offered multi-touch interaction. The iPad became an immediate bestseller and only months after its release became the best selling tech product in history. By the mid-2010s, almost all smartphones were touchscreen-only, and Android and iPhone smartphones dominated the market.
+Mobile apps become commercially available in the early 2010s, along with popular app stores such as Google Play, iOS App Store, and Microsoft Store.
+Throughout the early 2010s, sales for PCs declined in favor of tablet computers and laptop convertibles; in 2012, tablet and smartphone sales overtook netbooks and Samsung overtook Nokia for the first time as the largest mobile phone maker in the world; in 2013 in developed countries, smartphone sales surpassed feature phones.
+In April 2019, South Korea became the first country to adopt 5G broadband. Verizon launched its 5G services in the United States just hours later, along with disputing South Korea's claim of becoming the world's first country with a 5G network. The United Kingdom's first 5G mobile network became operational on 30 May, initially covering parts of six cities.
+In 2011, more than 2 billion people used the Internet, one billion mobile broadband users predicted and 4.6 billion people worldwide were subscribed to mobile phones, and Americans spent more time using mobile apps than using the World Wide Web.
+Social media continuously gained prominence through the convenience of mobile apps, including the services of WhatsApp, Pinterest, Instagram, Snapchat, Tinder, Vine, and TikTok being released throughout the decade. Facebook and Twitter, both of which were released in the 2000s, were still among the most popular social media platforms in the world. Social media offered massive reach to mainstream audiences for both individuals and organizations unseen before, facilitating phenomena such as influencer marketing.
+Streaming media and rental kiosk services such as Netflix and Redbox forced video rental chains such as Blockbusters to close.
+At the turn of the decade, the supply of IPv4 internet addresses was exhausted; an early period of transition to IPv6 continued during 2011.
+In 2012, Google Chrome became the world's most used web browser, replacing Internet Explorer, and the Wikimedia Foundation started developing Wikidata, its first new project in six years.
+Cryptocurrency, such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, gained ground as a digitally alternative way to secure financial transactions, control the creation of additional units, and verify the transfer of assets. Cryptocurrencies also expanded the usage and boundaries of Blockchain.
+Virtual reality took a radical shift in the 2010s, with headsets such as the Oculus Rift gaining popularity. While the device was only capable of rotational tracking, the initial design would later serve as a basis from which the later designs came. Other popular headsets include PlayStation VR, Google Cardboard, HTC Vive, Oculus Rift, and the Samsung Gear VR.
+During the decade, 3D printing, 3D modeling, and 3D scanners became increasingly popular, in which the technologies enabled users to join or solidify certain materials to create a concrete three-dimensional object. The 3D printer industry gained over $7 billion in sales.
+Wireless headphones saw technological advancements and a large growth in usage.
+Wireless charging for smartphones became more popular, with companies such as Samsung and Apple releasing wireless charging phones and chargers.
+Smart watches became more widespread in usage, with over 175 million of them sold in 2018.
+Smart glasses, such as Google Glass, were also released during this decade.
+Transparent display screens and curved touchscreen displays entered the market, and slowly gained popularity throughout the decade.
+In the mid-late portion of the decade, 4K resolution was implemented through high-definition displays and gained traction into more U.S. homes in a much faster adoption rate than that of Full HD (1080p).
+In 2016, scientists at MIT created the first five-atom quantum computer with the potential to crack the security of traditional encryption schemes.
+Fixstars Solutions created the world's first 13 Terabyte SSD in 2016.
+The number of IoT devices increased 31% year-over-year to 8.4 billion in the year 2017 and it was estimated that there will be 30 billion devices by 2020.
+
+=== Software ===
+Artificial intelligence progressed significantly as a result of discoveries made in deep learning in 2012; it bolstered speech recognition and computer vision development and allowed for the fruition of technologies such as Deepfakes.
+Virtual assistant devices and apps become widely available in the decade, such as Apple's Siri, Amazon Alexa on the Amazon Echo device, Samsung's Bixby, Google Assistant on Google-enabled/Android mobile devices, and text (online chat), especially in an instant messaging app or other app.
+Collaborative source code sharing website GitHub became the world's most popular open source hosting site.
+Oracle sued Google over the use of Java-related technology in Google's popular Android operating system in 2011. Google won the lawsuit on 26 May 2016, citing fair use.
+Following an unprecedented internet protest and blackout campaign, the controversial Stop Online Piracy Act bill was temporarily withdrawn in the United States Congress in 2012.
+The controversial Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 in the Philippines was adopted.
+
+=== Automobiles and transportation ===

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+---
+title: "2010s in science and technology"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Drones became increasingly popular, especially in the assistance of making deliveries, aerial photography, and drone racing.
+Electric and hybrid vehicles became popular in many countries in the Western world during the decade. Notable electric vehicles include the Chevrolet Volt, which became the world's top selling plug-in hybrid of all time with over 100,000 units sold in 2015. Other hybrid vehicles have also been noted such as the Porsche Panamera and BMW i3.
+Self-driving cars, while still in their infancy, were widely tested throughout the 2010s with significant progress. Google developed Waymo, the world's first self-driving car, to be licensed for use on public roads in 2011. In 2018, a woman in Tempe, Arizona became the first recorded casualty of an accident involving an autonomous vehicle.
+Automaker Volkswagen is alleged to have been involved in worldwide rigging of diesel emissions tests in 2015, affecting an estimated 11 million vehicles globally.
+The trend of shared mobility grew significantly during the decade. Carsharing, bike-sharing, and scooter-sharing services saw substantial growth as multiple economic, social and technological factors such as developments in "last mile" transportation helped changed the way people think about modern transportation, particularly in the Western world.
+The world's first 100% low-floor tram with articulated bogies, Škoda 15 T, began operations in Riga, Latvia.
+
+== Space ==
+
+Spaceflight became increasingly privatized, including crewed spaceflight. SpaceX captures a significant share of the commercial launch market with Falcon 9. Falcon 9 became the first rocket to land its booster propulsively for reuse, in 2019 most flights reused boosters. Several other companies started working on partially reusable rockets while SpaceX started development of a fully reusable rocket, Starship. Towards the end of the decade around 100 companies were developing rockets for the small satellite market, some have made test flights and Rocketlab's Electron made multiple commercial flights. The Space Shuttle was retired in 2011. SpaceX and Boeing developed commercial crewed spacecraft for orbital flights (SpaceX Dragon 2, Starliner), Dragon 2 made its first crewed flights in 2020. Blue Origin develops the crewed New Shepard for suborbital flights. Virgin Galactic develops a spacecraft for suborbital flights and performs first crewed flights. NASA Dawn probe was the first spacecraft to orbit two extraterrestrial bodies, the first spacecraft to visit either Vesta or Ceres, and the first to orbit a dwarf planet, arriving at Ceres in March 2015, a few months before New Horizons flew by Pluto in July 2015.
+Other notable developments in astronomy and spaceflight over the decade included:
+
+2011: NASA announced that its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured photographic evidence of possible liquid water on Mars during warm seasons.
+2011: The United States' Space Shuttle program officially ended following its last mission, STS-135, flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis.
+2012: SpaceX's Dragon spacecraft became the first private commercial spacecraft to attach to the International Space Station, the first commercial spacecraft to rendezvous with another spacecraft.
+2012: NASA landed the Curiosity rover in Gale crater on Mars.
+2013: The Chinese Chang'e 3 landed on the Moon, the first Lunar landing in 37 years.
+2014: The Philae probe from the Rosetta spacecraft landed on the surface of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko
+2014: The Orion spacecraft completed its first test flight, an unmanned orbital and reentry flight.
+2015: NASA's Dawn probe entered orbit around Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to visit a dwarf planet.
+2015: NASA announced that liquid water had been found on Mars.
+2015: NASA's New Horizons probe became the first spacecraft to reach Pluto, completing its main mission.
+2015: SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket successfully landed after a launch, making it the first rocket to successfully return and perform a vertical landing.
+2016: The ESA and Roscosmos launched the joint ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter on a mission to Mars.
+2016: SpaceX lands the first reusable rocket, a CRS-8 rocket on a droning platform at sea.
+2016: NASA's Juno spacecraft enters orbit around Jupiter and begins a 20-month survey of the planet.
+2016: Solar Impulse 2 becomes the first solar-powered aircraft to circumnavigate the Earth.
+2016: Proxima Centauri b is discovered as closest exoplanet to Earth that may be habitable.
+2016: NASA launches OSIRIS-REx, its first asteroid sample return mission. The probe will visit Bennu and is expected to return with samples in 2023.
+2016: The Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope, the largest radio telescope in the world, built in Guizhou, China, makes its first light.
+2018: SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket successfully performs its first flight. As of its launch it was the most powerful rocket in operation.
+2018: NASA's Kepler mission ends after the spacecraft runs out of fuel.
+2018: NASA's Dawn mission concludes after it runs out of hydrazine fuel.
+2019: Chinese probe Chang'e 4 becomes the first human-made object to land on the far side of the Moon.
+2019: NASA concludes the 15-year Opportunity rover mission after being unable to wake the rover from hibernation.
+2019: The first image of the supermassive black hole inside galaxy Messier 87 was captured by the Event Horizon Telescope.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-2.md

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+---
+title: "2010s in science and technology"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Computing and artificial intelligence ==
+The number of internet users doubled from about 2 billion to about 4 billion, surpassing half the world population in 2018.
+Smartphones became increasingly common due to a rapid increase in sales. Their applications and use time by the average user increased, too.
+Google develops the world's first self-driving car to be licensed for use on public roads. It was the first driverless ride that was on a public road and was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals.
+In 2012, Google Chrome became the world's most used web browser, displacing former long-time frontrunner Internet Explorer.
+Microsoft announces Windows Mixed Reality (previously Windows Holographic).
+Quantum computers made rapid progress. In 2019 Google announced to have achieved quantum supremacy, although this claim is disputed.
+During this decade artificial intelligence based on deep learning neural networks experienced rapid advancement, resulting in multiple practical applications in diverse fields such as speech and image recognition, social network moderation, virtual assistants, surveillance, healthcare or even art generation. In 2016, Google artificial intelligence program AlphaGo beat human grandmaster in the game of Go for the first time.
+
+=== Legal issues ===
+In August 2010, Oracle sued Google  for copyright and patent infringement over the use of Java-related technology in Google's popular Android operating system for smartphones and tablet computers. Oracle asserted Google was aware that they had developed Android without a Java license and copied its APIs, creating the copyright violation. Oracle cited patents related to the Java technology created by Sun and now owned by Oracle that Google should have been aware of.
+Following an unprecedented internet protest and blackout campaign in 2012 in which many popular websites took part, the widely criticised Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) bill was temporarily withdrawn in the US Congress, pending resolution of the issues identified.
+
+=== Software development ===
+Collaborative source code sharing website GitHub becomes in 2011 the world's most popular open source hosting site, after in the previous decade attaining the title of the world's most popular Git hosting site.
+
+== Physics ==
+2012: The Higgs boson is discovered, completing the discovery of particles of the Standard Model.
+2016: Gravitational waves are detected for the first time.
+
+== Robotics and machine learning ==
+In 2019, a robot is developed at MIT that can do multiple experiments in fluid dynamics at high speed.
+
+== Biology ==
+
+=== Organisms ===
+Researchers at Harvard report the creation of "cyborg organoids", which consist of 3D organoids grown from stem cells, with embedded sensors to measure activity in the developmental process.
+
+=== Genetics ===
+In 2019, Scientists announce a new form of DNA, named Hachimoji DNA, composed of four natural and four unnatural nucleobases. Benefits of such an eight-base DNA system may include an enhanced ability to store digital data, as well as insights into what may be possible in the search for extraterrestrial life.
+In 2019, Scientists report that the purportedly first-ever germline genetically edited humans, the twin babies Lulu and Nana, by Chinese researcher He Jiankui, may have inadvertently (or perhaps, intentionally) had their brains enhanced.
+In 2019, Researchers design an inhalable form of messenger RNA aerosol that could be administered directly to the lungs to help treat diseases such as cystic fibrosis.
+
+=== Medicine ===
+
+In 2019, medical scientists announce that iridium attached to albumin, creating a photosensitized molecule, can penetrate cancer cells and, after being irradiated with light (a process called photodynamic therapy), destroy the cancer cells.
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+== See also ==
+
+Timeline of computing 2010–19
+History of science and technology
+List of science and technology articles by continent
+List of years in science
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology-0.md

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+---
+title: "2020s in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:10.099531+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This article is a summary of the 2020s in science and technology.
+
+
+== Biology and medicine ==
+
+DeepMind used artificial intelligence for the first time to predict protein folding.
+Singapore became the first jurisdiction to approve the sale of cultured meat.
+The vaccines produced by Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna against Coronavirus disease 2019 became the first vaccines developed using messenger RNA and mark the fastest vaccine development and approval, taking only 10 months.
+Oregon became the first jurisdiction to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin for mental health treatment.
+
+
+== Energy ==
+
+QuantumScape revealed that it had created the first functioning prototype of a  solid-state battery, promising to massively increase battery capacity.
+The Chinese Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak was turned on for the first time. The China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor is being planned for commissioning later in the decade.
+Group14 Technologies has patented SCC55, a silicon-carbon composite, leading to 50% more in fully lithiated volumetric energy density than graphite used in conventional lithium-ion battery anodes.
+
+
+== Environmental sciences ==
+
+The United Nations has designated the 2020s as the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development.
+
+
+== Space ==
+
+
+== Transport ==
+
+
+=== Air ===
+In 2021, United Airlines revealed plans to purchase 15 supersonic Boom Overture aircraft by the end of the decade.
+
+
+=== Land ===
+Waymo became the first company to offer self-driving car services to the general public without a human supervisor in Chandler, Arizona.
+Autonomous delivery vehicles began transporting food to customers in Texas in 2021.
+
+
+== Computing and artificial intelligence ==
+
+Artificial intelligence-assisted coding began to emerge in the early 2020s.
+El Salvador passed Bitcoin law to become the first country to give cryptocurrency and bitcoin the status of legal tender.
+
+
+== Robotics and machine learning ==
+
+
+== Physics ==
+In January 2020, Physicists discovered a unique metal with billions of quantum entangled electrons.
+The Large Hadron Collider will once again begin operation in early 2021; the collider was shut down in December 2018 "to enable major upgrade and renovation works."
+
+
+== Paleontology ==
+
+
+== Archaeology ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+2020s#Science and technology
+History of science and technology
+List of science and technology articles by continent
+List of years in science
+2026 in science
+Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on science and technology
+History of technology by type
+List of science timelines
+
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "500 Women Scientists"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/500_Women_Scientists"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:17.413441+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+500 Women Scientists is a non-profit group dedicated to making science open, inclusive, and accessible. To achieve this mission, they work to increase scientific literacy through public engagement, advocate for science and equity, and provide self-identifying women with the tools and support they need to reach their full potential. The organization began with an open letter in November 2016 and was officially recognized as a 501(c)3 in May 2018.
+
+
+== History ==
+500 Women Scientists launched with an open letter signed by 500 women scientists after the United States 2016 presidential election. The letter pledged to speak out not only against policies that go against scientific evidence, but also against inequality, sexism, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination against marginalized communities. Within two months, the pledge received over fifteen thousand signatures from women and allies in 109 countries.  
+In concert with the 2017 Women's March, women scientists and supporters who signed the pledge organized themselves into groups to march together. The local marches became the basis for forming local chapters, or "Pods", where local women scientists meet regularly. Pods function both as a support system and as a vehicle to focus on and organize around issues that resonate in their own communities, in line with 500 Women Scientists core mission and values.
+In 2023, due to issues with funding, the organization was forced to scale back operations, including ending a fellowship and letting go of paid staff. Some organizers within the project blamed an unstable grant funding environment that led to the reduction of the organization.   
+
+
+== Programs and initiatives ==
+
+
+=== Request a Woman Scientist ===
+To increase representation of women on conference panels and in high-profile science journalism stories, 500 Women Scientists launched a Request a Woman Scientist database for self-identifying women with expertise in STEMM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine) fields. The database currently contains over 6,000 women in 104 countries.
+
+
+=== Sci Mom Journey ===
+500 Women Scientists launched the Sci Mom Journey campaign to share the journeys of parents in science, specifically mothers, who face institutional challenges when it comes to issues such as accessible lactation rooms and parental leave.
+
+
+=== Fellowship for the Future ===
+In 2019, 500 Women Scientists launched the Fellowship for the Future program to recognize and support women of color who are leading initiatives in the STEM community that work towards promoting equity, inclusiveness, and accessibility in STEM in line with the organization's mission. In 2023, the organization was forced to end their fellowship due to budgetary constraints.
+
+
+=== Public engagement ===
+500 Women Scientists often uses science writing as a means of communicating their expertise and values to the public at large, with pieces featured in outlets like Science, Scientific American, and The Seattle Times. The global leadership team has authored a number of opinion pieces on topics as varied as calling for evidence-based policy-making at the Environmental Protection Agency, recommending policy reforms to combat sexual harassment in academia, and encouraging journal editors to think carefully about fostering equity and inclusion in their editorial pages. Local Pods have also written about issues facing their own communities, ranging from the effect of President Trump's border wall on California wildlife to the need to stop burning coal in the Puget Sound.
+
+
+== See also ==
+500 Queer Scientists
+#IfThenSheCan
+Timeline of women in science
+Women in STEM fields
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet-0.md

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+---
+title: "AcademiaNet"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:18.588181+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+AcademiaNet was an international database containing profiles of women scientists. It is a non-profit project with the goal to raise the share of women in leadership positions in academia. AcademiaNet was initiated in 2010 in Germany by the Robert Bosch Stiftung and the publishing house "Spektrum der Wissenschaft". The Swiss National Science Foundation assumed responsibility of the platform in 2020, but shut it down in September 2025.
+
+
+== Goals and functions ==
+The share of women professors and executives at research institutions across Europe is low and rising only slowly. AcademiaNet is a resource aimed at facilitating the search for women researchers in view of academic appointments or as conference speakers, experts on scientific committees or peer reviewers. A search function allows users to find the registered scientists according to their field or discipline.
+As opposed to databases such as "Request a Woman in STEMM" by 500 Women Scientists or "WiLS database of women in science", women cannot create their own profile on AcademiaNet; they need to be nominated by a scientific partner based on clearly defined criteria.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Robert Bosch Stiftung founded AcademiaNet in 2010. In her speech inaugurating the platform in November 2010, the German Chancellor and physicist Angela Merkel said that science would not achieve its full potential if it remained predominantly male and did not promote half of its talents. She also said that AcademiaNet offered more visibility to women scientists, who contribute with their expertise to scientific endeavours.
+Initially, the platform was in German and contained primarily researchers from Germany, who were nominated by institutions such as the Leibniz Association, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) or the Fraunhofer Society. Since 2012, the platform has become more international. The language of the platform is now English.
+In 2020, the management of AcademiaNet passed from the Robert Bosch Stiftung to the Swiss National Science Foundation, which continued to work with the publishing house "Spektrum der Wissenschaft" until September 2025.
+
+
+== Renowned members ==
+A number of renowned female scientists were member of AcademiaNet. Here a list of some of the most famous among them:
+
+May-Britt Moser, psychologist and neuroscientists, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
+Janet Rossant, developmental biologist
+Françoise Combes, astrophysicist
+Riitta Hari, neuroscientist and physician
+Caroline Dean, plant scientist
+Ottoline Leyser, plant biologist
+
+
+== Partner organisations ==
+AcademiaNet is a non-profit project. It was funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Robert Bosch Stiftung and 21 European research funding organisations, including the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science, the Royal Society, the Spanish National Research Council, the Swedish Research Council and the European Molecular Biology Organization. AcademiaNet is also included in the search map of The Brussels Binder, a database for more women in European debates.
+More than 40 European science organisations nominate women scientists who meet the selection criteria of AcademiaNet. These organisations include:
+
+Academy of Finland, Finland
+French National Centre for Scientific Research, France
+Foundation for Polish Science, Poland
+National Fund for Scientific Research, Belgium
+Austrian Science Fund, Austria
+Fraunhofer Society, Germany
+Royal Society of Edinburgh, Scotland
+Danish Council for Independent Research, Denmark
+Wellcome Trust, United Kingdom
+Estonian Research Council, Estonia
+
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official Website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ada Lovelace Day"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:19.767827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event held on the second Tuesday of October to celebrate and raise awareness of the contributions of women to STEM fields. It is named after mathematician and computer science pioneer Ada Lovelace. It started in 2009 as a "day of blogging" and has since become a multi-national event with conferences.
+
+
+== History ==
+The day was founded in the United Kingdom in 2009 by Suw Charman-Anderson on the second Tuesday in October as a means of raising awareness about the contributions of women to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.
+Charman-Anderson later said of this:
+
+I launched Ada Lovelace Day in 2009 because I felt passionately that we needed a way to celebrate and highlight women’s work and achievements in STEM, which frequently don’t get the recognition they deserve.
+In 2022, Charman-Anderson announced that this would be the last year in which the organization that she founded, Finding Ada, would organize an annual flagship Ada Lovelace Day event in England. However, the Royal Institution stepped in with funding, due to its alignment with their mission to bring scientists and the public together.
+Since its inception, Ada Lovelace Day has become international in scope, with events organized by groups ranging from museums, professional societies, universities, colleges and high schools. While Ada Lovelace Day is the second Tuesday of October, events celebrating women in STEM typically span the period of October and November, and include diverse activities ranging from in-person and virtual Wikipedia Editathons to panel discussions and film screenings.
+
+While this celebration of the often overlooked contributions of women in STEM was named for Ada Lovelace, activities have expanded since 2009 to highlight the diverse contributions of women in STEM over time and different countries. Events have featured policy initiatives and scholarship relating to equity, diversity and inclusion that provide spaces and platforms for dialogue and discussion about how unconscious bias(es) function to create barriers to women's participation and advancement in the professional fields of STEM.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following is a list of inventions, discoveries and scientific advancements made in the medieval Islamic world, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in later states of the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders such as the Ottoman and Mughal empires. 
+The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.
+
+== List of inventions ==
+
+=== Early caliphates ===
+
+==== Seventh century ====
+
+Ghazal: A form of Islamic poetry that originated from the Arabian Peninsula in the late 7th century.
+
+==== Eighth century ====
+Arabesque: The distinctive Arabesque style was developed by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the Mshatta Facade.
+Astrolabe with angular scale : The astrolabe, originally invented some time between 200 and 150 BC, was further developed in the medieval Islamic world, where Muslim astronomers introduced angular scales to the design, adding circles indicating azimuths on the horizon.
+Classification of chemical substances: The works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950), and those of Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), contain the earliest known classifications of chemical substances.
+Damascus steel: Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of Wootz steel that were imported from India.
+Modern Oud: Although string instruments existed before Islam, the oud was developed in Islamic music and was the ancestor of the European lute.
+Sulfur-mercury theory of metals: First attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's Sirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950), the sulfur-mercury theory of metals would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century.
+Tin-glazing: The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in Abbasid Iraq/Mesopotamia in the 8th-century. The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of Samarra about 80 kilometres (50 miles) north of Baghdad.
+Panemone windmill: The earliest recorded windmill design found was Persian in origin, and was invented around the 7th-9th centuries.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Ninth century ====
+Algebra discipline: Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The word Algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right.
+Algebraic reduction and balancing, cancellation, and like terms: Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to.
+Automatic controls: "Although the Banu Musa took Greek models as their starting point, they went well beyond anything achieved by Hero or Philo. In particular, it is their preoccupation with automatic controls that distinguishes them not only from their Greek predecessors but from their Islamic successors."
+Chemical synthesis of a naturally occurring compound: The oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means appear in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950).
+Chess manual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to 840–850, written by Al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (Book of Chess). During the Islamic Golden Age, many works on shatranj were written, recording for the first time the analysis of opening moves, game problems, the knight's tour, and many more subjects common in modern chess books.
+Automatic crank: The non-manual crank appears in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices. These automatically operated cranks appear in several devices, two of which contain an action which approximates to that of a crankshaft, anticipating Al-Jazari's invention by several centuries and its first appearance in Europe by over five centuries. However, the automatic crank described by the Banu Musa would not have allowed a full rotation, but only a small modification was required to convert it to a crankshaft.
+Conical valve: A mechanism developed by the Banu Musa, of particular importance for future developments, was the conical valve, which was used in a variety of different applications.
+Cryptanalysis and frequency analysis: In cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis.
+Double-seat valve: It was invented by the Banu Musa, and has a modern appearance in their Book of Ingenious Devices.
+Lusterware: Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular in Persia and Syria. Earlier uses of lustre are known.
+Hard soap: Hard toilet soap with a pleasant smell was produced in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, when soap-making became an established industry. Recipes for soap-making are described by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), who also gave a recipe for producing glycerine from olive oil. In the Middle East, soap was produced from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkali. In Syria, soap was produced using olive oil together with alkali and lime. Soap was exported from Syria to other parts of the Muslim world and to Europe.
+Mental institute: In 872, Ahmad ibn Tulun built a hospital in Cairo that provided care to the insane, which included music therapy.
+Kerosene distillation: Although the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum, the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholar Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad ("white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an alembic.
+Kerosene lamp: The first description of a simple lamp using crude mineral oil was provided by Persian alchemist al-Razi (Rhazes) in 9th century Baghdad, who referred to it as the "naffatah" in his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).
+Minaret: The first known minarets appeared in the early 9th century under Abbasid rule.
+Music sequencer and mechanical musical instrument: The origin of automatic musical instruments dates back to the 9th century, when Persian inventors Banū Mūsā brothers invented a hydropowered organ using exchangeable cylinders with pins, and also an automatic flute playing machine using steam power. These were the earliest mechanical musical instruments, and the first programmable music sequencers.
+Kamal: The kamal originated with Arab navigators of the late 9th century. The invention of the kamal allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing, and was thus the earliest step towards the use of quantitative methods in navigation.
+Programmable machine and automatic flute player: The Banū Mūsā brothers invented a programmable automatic flute player and which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices. It was the earliest programmable machine.
+Sharbat and soft drink: In the medieval Middle East, a variety of fruit-flavoured soft drinks were widely drunk, such as sharbat, and were often sweetened with ingredients such as sugar, syrup and honey. Other common ingredients included lemon, apple, pomegranate, tamarind, jujube, sumac, musk, mint and ice. Middle Eastern drinks later became popular in medieval Europe, where the word "syrup" was derived from Arabic.
+Sine quadrant: A type of quadrant used by medieval Arabic astronomers, it was described by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad.
+Scimitar: The curved sword or "scimitar" was widespread throughout the Middle East from at least the Ottoman period, with early examples dating to Abbasid era (9th century) Khurasan.
+Sugar mill: Sugar mills first appeared in the medieval Islamic world. They were first driven by watermills, and then windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in what are today Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran.
+Systemic algebraic solution and completing the square: Al-Khwarizmi's popularizing treatise on algebra (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, c. 813–833 CE) presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. One of his principal achievements in algebra was his demonstration of how to solve quadratic equations by completing the square, for which he provided geometric justifications.
+Thabit numbers: Named after Thabit ibn Qurra
+Throttling valve: It appears for the first time in the Banu Musa's Book of Ingenious Devices.
+Variable structure control: Two-step level controls for fluids, a form of discontinuous variable structure controls, was developed by the Banu Musa brothers.
+Wind-powered gristmill: The first wind-powered gristmills were built in the 9th and 10th centuries in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran.
+Windpump: Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-2.md

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+---
+title: "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Tenth century ====
+Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann.
+Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.
+Binomial theorem: The first formulation of the binomial theorem and the table of binomial coefficient can be found in a work by Al-Karaji, quoted by Al-Samaw'al in his "al-Bahir".
+Cauchy-Riemann Integral: Ibn al-Haytham gave a simple form of this.
+Decimal fractions: Decimal fractions were first used by Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in the 10th century.
+Experimental scientific method: Expounded and practised by ibn al-Haytham
+Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the Fatimid caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.
+Law of cotangents: This was first given by Ibn al-Haytham.
+Muqarnas: The origin of the muqarnas can be traced back to the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and central North Africa, as well as the Mesopotamian region.
+Pascal's triangle: The Persian mathematician Al-Karaji (953–1029) wrote a now lost book which contained the first description of Pascal's triangle.
+Ruffini-Horner Algorithm: Discovered by ibn al-Haytham
+Sextant and mural instrument: The first known mural sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994.
+Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".
+Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist Ibn Sahl at the Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, ibn Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations. According to Jim al-Khalili, the law should be called ibn Sahl's law.
+Vertical-axle windmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria. The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in Sistan, Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades. They may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries. Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.
+
+==== Eleventh-twelfth centuries ====
+Drug trial: Persian physician Avicenna, in The Canon of Medicine (1025), first described use of clinical trials for determining the efficacy of medical drugs and substances.
+Double-entry bookkeeping system: Double-entry bookkeeping was pioneered in the Jewish community of the medieval Middle East.
+Hyperbolic geometry: The theorems of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī on quadrilaterals were the first theorems on hyperbolic geometry.
+Magnifying glass and convex lens: A convex lens used for forming a magnified image was described in the Book of Optics by Ibn al-Haytham in 1021.
+Mechanical flywheel: The mechanical flywheel, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine and, essentially, to allow lifting water from far greater depths (up to 200 metres), was first employed by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038–1075), of Al-Andalus.
+Mercuric chloride (formerly corrosive sublimate): used to disinfect wounds. 
+Steel mill: By the 11th century, much of the Islamic world had industrial steel watermills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.
+Weight-driven clock: Arabic engineers invented water clocks driven by gears and weights in the 11th century.
+Optic chiasm: The crossing of nerve fibres, and the impact on vision that this had, was first clearly identified by Persian physician "Esmail Jorjani", who appears to be Zayn al-Din Gorgani (1042–1137). The optic chiasm was earlier theorized by Ibn al-Haytham in the early 11th century.
+Paper packaging: The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a Persian traveler visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.
+Bridge mill: The bridge mill was a unique type of watermill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-3.md

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+---
+title: "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Thirteenth century ====
+Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names. A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.
+Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in Islamic Spain was compiled under Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century. It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works.
+Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle.
+Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism, Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment".
+Naker: Arabic nakers were the direct ancestors of most timpani, brought to 13th-century Continental Europe by Crusaders and Saracens.
+
+=== Al Andalus (Islamic Spain) ===
+
+==== Ninth-twelfth centuries ====
+Inheritance of hemophilia: First proposed by Abu Al-Zahrawi was first to record and suggest that hemophilia was an inherited disease.
+Anesthetic sponge: Invented by al-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr. Used a sponge soaked with narcotic drugs and placed it on patient's face. These Muslim physicians were the first to use an anesthetic sponge.
+Lithotrite: Improved version invented by Al-Zahrawi.
+Mercuric oxide: First synthesized by Abu al-Qasim al-Qurtubi al-Majriti (10th century).
+Migraine surgery: First performed by al-Zahrawi (936–1013).
+Early Kocher's method and Walter position: Al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-Tasrif described both what would later become known as "Kocher's method" for treating a dislocated shoulder and the "Walcher position" in obstetrics.
+Treatment of wart: al-Zahrawi first described it.
+Treatment of hydrocephalus: First done by Al-Zahrawi.
+Water and weight driven mechanical clocks: By Spanish Muslim engineers sometime between 900 and 1200. According to historian Will Durant, a watch-like device was invented by Ibn Firnas.
+Andalusian Oud: Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘ (789–857), a prominent musician who had trained under Ishaq al-Mawsili (d. 850) in Baghdad and was exiled to Andalusia before 833 AD. He has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud and with establishing one of the first schools of music in Córdoba.
+
+==== Fourteenth century ====
+Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.
+Polar-axis sundial: Early sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, indicating unequal hours (also called temporary hours) that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of Abu'l-Hasan Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in trigonometry by Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.
+
+=== Sultanates ===
+
+==== Twelfth century ====
+Blood measurement device: Created by Al-Jazari

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-4.md

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+---
+title: "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Thirteenth century ====
+Various automatons: Al-Jazari's inventions included automaton peacocks, a hand-washing automaton, and a musical band of automatons.
+Candle clock with dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of Al-Jazari in 1206. It included a dial to display the time.
+Crank-slider: Ismail al-Jazari's water pump employed the first known crank-slider mechanism.
+Cotton gin with worm gear: The worm gear roller gin was invented in the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 14th centuries.
+Design and construction methods: English technology historian Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand."
+Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at Delhi in the Mughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the Delhi Sultanate.
+Minimising intermittence: The concept of minimising the intermittence is first implied in one of Al-Jazari's saqiya devices, which was to maximise the efficiency of the saqiya.
+Programmable automaton and drum machine: The earliest programmable automata, and the first programmable drum machine, were invented by Al-Jazari, and described in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, written in 1206. His programmable musical device featured four automaton musicians, including two drummers, that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. It was a programmable drum machine where pegs (cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.
+Tusi couple: The couple was first proposed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in his 1247 Tahrir al-Majisti (Commentary on the Almagest) as a solution for the latitudinal motion of the inferior planets. The Tusi couple is explicitly two circles of radii x and 2x in which the circle with the smaller radii rotates inside the Bigger circle. The oscillatory motion be produced by the combined uniform circular motions of two identical circles, one riding on the circumference of the other.
+Griot: The griot musical tradition originates from the Islamic Mali Empire, where the first professional griot was Balla Fasséké.
+Sitar: According to various sources, the sitar was invented by Amir Khusrow, a famous Sufi inventor, poet, and pioneer of Khyal, Tarana and Qawwali, in the Delhi Sultanate. Others say that the instrument was brought from Iran and modified for the tastes of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.
+
+==== Fourteenth century ====
+Cotton gin with crank handle: The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.
+
+==== Fifteenth century ====
+Coffee: Although there are early historical accounts of coffee consumption (as qahwa) in Ethiopia, it is not clear whether it was "used" as a beverage. The earliest historical evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.
+
+=== Ottoman Empire ===
+
+==== Fifteenth century ====
+Iznik pottery: Produced in Ottoman Turkey as early as the 15th century AD. It consists of a body, slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit." The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain lead oxide as well as soda"; the lead oxide would help reduce the thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic. Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles.
+Standing army with firearms: The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The Janissaries had been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. During the rule of Sultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became "the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-5.md

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+---
+title: "List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Sixteenth century ====
+Firearm kneeling position: At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing.
+Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.
+Matchlock volley fire: Volley fire with matchlocks was first implemented in 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács.
+Parallel rulers: Invented by Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf and used at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din (1577–1580).
+Practical impulse steam turbine: A practical impulse steam turbine was first described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din, a philosopher, astronomer and engineer in 16th century Ottoman Egypt, who described a method for rotating a spit by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. A similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648.
+Steam jack: A steam-powered roasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineer Taqi al-Din in his Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), in 1551 CE (959 AH). It was an impulse steam turbine with practical applications as a prime mover for rotating a spit, predating Giovanni Branca's later impulse steam turbine from 1629.
+
+=== Safavid dynasty ===
+
+==== Fifteenth century ====
+Classical Oriental carpet: By the late fifteenth century, the design of Persian carpets changed considerably. Large-format medallions appeared, ornaments began to show elaborate curvilinear designs. Large spirals and tendrils, floral ornaments, depictions of flowers and animals, were often mirrored along the long or short axis of the carpet to obtain harmony and rhythm. The earlier "kufic" border design was replaced by tendrils and arabesques. All these patterns required a more elaborate system of weaving, as compared to weaving straight, rectilinear lines. Likewise, they require artists to create the design, weavers to execute them on the loom, and an efficient way to communicate the artist's ideas to the weaver. Today this is achieved by a template, termed cartoon (Ford, 1981, p. 170). How Safavid manufacturers achieved this, technically, is currently unknown. The result of their work, however, was what Kurt Erdmann termed the "carpet design revolution". Apparently, the new designs were developed first by miniature painters, as they started to appear in book illuminations and on book covers as early as in the fifteenth century. This marks the first time when the "classical" design of Islamic rugs was established.
+
+=== Mughal Empire ===
+
+==== Sixteenth century ====
+Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (1542–1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking tobacco.
+Metal cylinder rocket: In the 16th century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.
+Multi-barrel matchlock volley gun: Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun. One such gun he developed was a seventeen-barrelled cannon fired with a matchlock.
+
+==== Seventeenth century ====
+Roller mill: Sugar rolling mills first appeared in the Mughal Empire, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.
+
+==== Eighteenth century ====
+Mysorean rockets – One of the first iron-cased rockets were deployed by Hyder Ali's army, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore.
+Rocket artillery - The first true rocket artillery was developed by Tipu Sultan and was notably in use during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
+
+== See also ==
+Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world
+Science in the medieval Islamic world
+Islamic attitudes towards science
+Medicine in the medieval Islamic world
+Islamic arts
+Islamic economics
+Islamic literature
+Islamic philosophy
+Islamic technology
+Islamic pottery
+Arab Agricultural Revolution
+Gunpowder empires
+Mughal Empire
+Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire
+Safavid dynasty
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== Sources ==
+Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12410-7
+
+== External links ==
+Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously digitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science

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+---
+title: "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Science and technology in Pacific Island countries encompass a diverse range of activities and innovations that address the unique challenges faced by this geographically dispersed region. Despite limited resources and infrastructural constraints, Pacific Island nations have made notable progress in areas such as digital connectivity, agricultural innovation, and climate resilience. Advancements in mobile and internet technologies have improved access to information and services, while regional cooperation has fostered the development of research networks and shared scientific infrastructure. The application of emerging technologies, including nuclear science for agriculture and DNA monitoring for biosecurity, is increasingly shaping policy and development initiatives. However, the region continues to face obstacles such as data scarcity, limited research funding, and vulnerability to climate change, necessitating ongoing collaboration and investment to realize the full potential of science and technology for sustainable development.
+
+== Socio-economic context ==
+
+=== Trends ===
+Pacific Island economies are mostly dependent on natural resources, with a tiny manufacturing sector and no heavy industry. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, for instance, there is a need to adopt automated machinery and design in forestry and to improve training, in order to add value to exports.
+Papua New Guinea experienced the strongest economic growth between 2005 and 2013 (60%), during the commodities boom. Even during the global financial and economic crisis of 2008–2009, its economy grew by 13%. Vanuatu saw the next strongest growth (35%) over this period, including 10% growth in 2008–2009. Growth was more pedestrian in the Marshall Islands (a cumulative 19%), Tuvalu (16%), Samoa (15%), Kiribati (13%), Fiji (12%) and Tonga (8%). The economies of the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau actually shrank over this nine-year period. Samoa, the Marshall Islands and Fiji all experienced recession in 2008 and 2009.
+The trade balance is more skewed towards imports than exports, with the exception of Papua New Guinea, which has a mining industry. There is growing evidence that Fiji is becoming a re-export hub in the Pacific; between 2009 and 2013, its re-exports grew threefold, accounting for more than half of all exports by Pacific Island states. Samoa can also expect to become more integrated in global markets from now on, having joined the World Trade Organization in 2012. Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are also members of the World Trade Organization.
+Pacific Island states make up a very small share of the South Pacific's high-tech exports. These exports receded between 2008 and 2013 by 46% for Fiji and by 41% for Samoa, according to the United Nations' Comtrade database. Fiji's high-tech exports were down from US$5.0 million to US$2.7 million and Samoa's from US$0.3 to US$0.2 million.
+In 2013, the majority of Fijian high-tech exports were pharmaceutical products (84%), whereas Samoa exports mainly scientific instruments (86%) and Kiribati non-electrical machinery (79%). Armaments make up 92% of high-exports from the Solomon Islands.
+
+=== Internet access ===
+By 2013, one in three inhabitants of Fiji, Tonga and Tuvalu had Internet access. Growth in Internet access since 2010 has levelled out the disparity between countries to some extent, although connectivity remained extremely low in Vanuatu (11%), the Solomon Islands (8%) and Papua New Guinea (7%) in 2013.
+Advances in mobile phone technology have clearly been a factor in the provision of Internet access to remote areas. The flow of knowledge and information through internet is likely to play an important role in the more effective dissemination and application of knowledge across the vast Pacific Island nations.
+Mobile Internet penetration was the lowest (18%) of any region in the world in 2018 but this figure is expected to double by 2023. In this remote region, high-speed Internet access comes from laying an expensive undersea cable. Recent links have been created for Papua New Guinea (2020), the Solomon Islands (2020) and Tonga (2018).
+Pacific countries are reshaping their social and economic environments to meet digital demands. To benefit from modern digital and other technological tools, regulatory bodies have adopted social media platforms and messaging systems in official protocols to disseminate disaster warnings in Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Niue, as well as weather forecasts and information on climate change.
+In 2015, the Pacific Islands Forum Leaders established an ICT Working Group made up of CROP agencies that is co-ordinated by the University of the South Pacific. However, no regional mechanism has since emerged in this area.
+In the Boe Declaration on Regional Security, produced during the 2018 Pacific Islands Forum, Pacific leaders expanded the concept of security to include cybersecurity. Efforts are under way to assess cybersecurity capacity in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia, in tandem with the United Nations International Telecommunication Union and other partners. Samoa has been the first to develop a National Cyber Security Strategy 2016–2021.
+
+== Regional initiatives ==

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+---
+title: "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Regional bodies addressing technological issues ===
+Both the largest and smallest Pacific nations acknowledge that taking a regional approach to science and technology offers them greater opportunities for institutional development. This approach is encapsulated in the Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014). All 14 nations have mandated the agencies attached to the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific (CROP) to conduct technical backstopping. CROP agencies partially fulfill the role that a science council might play in other regions. However, none of these agencies has a specific mandate or policy for science and technology.
+Pacific Island states have established a number of regional bodies to address technological issues for sectorial development. Examples are the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific, such as the Pacific Community (SPC); Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; and Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme.
+The Ministers of Education from Pacific Island countries signed a Ministerial communiqué on Pacific Science, Technology and Innovation in 2017, in which they committed to developing regional and national STI policies and roadmaps. However, no policy or roadmap has since been published for want of resources.
+The 2014 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway (SAMOA Pathway) identified science and technology as being critical to SIDS’ sustainable development.
+The need for research is being recognized at the regional level. The Pacific Community Centre for Ocean Science was established in New Caledonia in 2015, hosted by SPC. Construction of the Pacific Climate Change Centre was completed in Apia, Samoa in 2019 (see below).
+
+=== Pacific–Europe Network for Science, Technology and Innovation ===
+
+The establishment of the Pacific–Europe Network for Science, Technology and Innovation (PACE-Net Plus) goes some way towards filling the void in science policy, at least temporarily. Funded by the European Commission within its Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2007–2013), this project has spanned the period 2013–2016 and thus overlaps with the European Union's Horizon 2020 programme.
+The objectives of PACE–Net Plus are to reinforce the dialogue between the Pacific region and Europe in science, technology and innovation; to support biregional research and innovation through calls for research proposals; and to promote scientific excellence and industrial and economic competition. Ten of its 16 members come from the Pacific region and the remainder from Europe.
+The Pacific partners are the Australian National University, Montroix Pty Ltd (Australia), University of the South Pacific, Institut Malardé in French Caledonia, National Centre for Technological Research into Nickel and its Environment in New Caledonia, South Pacific Community, Landcare Research Ltd in New Zealand, University of Papua New Guinea, Samoa National University and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre.
+The other six partners are: the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the Institut de recherche pour le développement in France, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States and the European Union, the Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovação, United Nations Industrial Development Organization and Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Ecology in Germany.
+PACE-Net Plus focuses on three societal challenges:
+
+Health, demographic change and well-being;
+Food security, sustainable agriculture, marine and maritime research and the bio-economy; and
+Climate action, resource efficiency and raw materials.
+PACE–Net Plus has organized a series of high-level policy dialogue platforms alternately in the Pacific region and in Brussels, the headquarters of the European Commission. These platforms bring together key government and institutional stakeholders in both regions, around STI issues.
+A conference held in Suva (Fiji) in 2012 under the umbrella of PACE–Net Plus produced recommendations for a strategic plan for research, innovation and development in the Pacific. The conference report published in 2013 identified R&D needs in the Pacific in seven areas:
+
+health;
+agriculture and forestry;
+fisheries and aquaculture;
+biodiversity and ecosystem management;
+freshwater;
+natural hazards; and
+energy.
+
+=== Pacific Islands University Research Network ===
+
+Noting the general absence of regional and national policies and plans for science, technology and innovation in the Pacific, the PACE–Net Plus conference established the Pacific Islands University Research Network to support intra- and inter- regional knowledge creation and sharing and to prepare succinct recommendations for the development of a regional policy framework for science, technology and innovation.
+This formal research network will complement the Fiji-based University of the South Pacific, which has campuses in other Pacific Island countries.
+
+=== Importance of data to inform policy ===
+It was intended for the policy role of the Pacific Islands University Research Network to be informed by evidence gleaned from measuring capability in science, technology and innovation but the absence of data presents a formidable barrier. As of 2015, only Fiji had recent data on expenditure on research and development (R&D) and there were no recent data on researchers and technicians for any of the developing Pacific island countries.
+Without relevant data, it will be difficult for developing Pacific Island states to monitor their progress towards Sustainable Development target 9.5, namely: Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending. The two indicators chosen by the United Nations to measure progress are research and development expenditure as a proportion of GDP (9.5.1) and Researchers (in full-time equivalent) per million inhabitants (9.5.2).
+Efforts to collate and co-ordinate regional and national data are growing. Such efforts include the PRISM database from the SPC Statistics for Development Division and the national and regional environmental data portals created by countries with the support of the Inform Project.
+
+== National policy issues ==
+
+=== Fiji ===

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+---
+title: "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Higher education ====
+Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa all consider education to be one of the key policy tools for driving science, technology and innovation, as well as modernization. Fiji, in particular, has made a supreme effort to re-visit existing policies, rules and regulations in this sector. The Fijian government allocates a larger portion of its national budget to education than any other Pacific Island country (4.2% of GDP in 2011), although this is down from 6% of GDP in 2000. The proportion of the education budget allocated to higher education (0.5% of GDP) amounts to 13% of the public education budget. Scholarship schemes like National Toppers, introduced in 2014, and the availability of student loans have made higher education attractive and rewarding in Fiji.
+According to an internal investigation into the choice of disciplines in school-leaving examinations (year 13), Fijian students have shown a greater interest in science since 2011. A similar trend can be observed in enrolment figures at all three Fijian universities.
+Many Pacific Island countries take Fiji as a benchmark for education. The country draws education leaders from other Pacific Island countries for training and, according to the Ministry of Education, teachers from Fiji are in great demand in these countries.
+One important initiative has been the creation of the Higher Education Commission (FHEC) in 2010, the regulatory body in charge of tertiary education in Fiji. FHEC has embarked on registration and accreditation processes for tertiary-level education providers to improve the quality of higher education in Fiji. In 2014, FHEC allocated research grants to universities with a view to enhancing the research culture among faculty.
+
+==== Research and development ====
+Fiji is the only developing Pacific Island country with recent data for gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). The national Bureau of Statistics cites a GERD/GDP ratio of 0.15% in 2012. Private-sector research and development (R&D) is negligible. Between 2007 and 2012, government investment in R&D tended to favour agriculture. Scientists publish much more in geosciences and medical sciences than in agricultural sciences, however.
+
+===== Agriculture =====
+Food security has been given high priority in the Fiji 2020 Agriculture Sector Policy, as part of a shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture and agro-processing. Strategies outlined in Fiji 2020 include:
+
+modernizing agriculture in Fiji;
+developing integrated systems for agriculture;
+improving delivery of agricultural support systems;
+enhancing innovative agricultural business models; and
+strengthening the capacity for policy formulation.
+Fiji has taken the initiative of shifting away from subsistence agriculture towards commercial agriculture and agro-processing of root crops, tropical fruits, vegetables, spices, horticulture and livestock. In 2013, the Ministry of Agriculture revived Fiji's Agricultural Journal in 2013, which had been dormant for 17 years.
+In 2007, agriculture and primary production accounted for just under half of government expenditure on R&D, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics. By 2012, this had risen to almost 60%. Scientists publish much more in the field of geosciences than in agriculture, though. Between 2008 and 2014, agriculture accounted for only 11 out of Fiji's 460 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded), compared to 85 articles in geosciences.
+The rise in government spending on agricultural research has come to the detriment of  research in education, which dropped to 35% of total research spending between 2007 and 2012. Government expenditure on health has remained fairly constant, at about 5% of the total for research, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics.
+
+===== Health =====
+Over the six years to 2012, government expenditure on health remained fairly constant but low in Fiji, at about 5% of the total for research, according to the Fijian National Bureau of Statistics. This may explain why medical sciences accounted for only 72 out of Fiji's 460 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) between 2008 and 2014.
+The Fijian Ministry of Health is seeking to develop endogenous research capacity through the Fiji Journal of Public Health, which it launched in 2012. A new set of guidelines are now in place to help build endogenous capacity in health research through training and access to new technology. The new policy guidelines require that all research projects initiated in Fiji with external bodies demonstrate how the project will contribute to local capacity-building in health research.
+
+===== Fisheries =====
+The desire to ensure that fisheries remain sustainable is fuelling the drive to use science and technology to make the transition to value-added production. The fisheries sector in Fiji is currently dominated by the catch of tuna for the Japanese market. The Fijian government plans to diversify this sector through aquaculture, inshore fisheries and offshore fish products such as sunfish and deep-water snapper. Accordingly, many incentives and concessions are being offered to encourage the private sector to invest in these areas.
+
+===== ICT sector =====
+Fiji has shown substantial growth in access to Internet and mobile phone services. This trend has been supported by its geographical location, service culture, pro-business policies, English-speaking population and well-connected e-society. Relative to many other South Pacific Islands, Fiji has a fairly reliable and efficient telecommunications system with access to the Southern Cross submarine cable linking New Zealand, Australia and North America. A recent move to establish the University of the South Pacific Stathan ICT Park, the Kalabo ICT economic zone and the ATH technology park in Fiji should boost the ICT support service sector in the Pacific region.
+
+=== Papua New Guinea ===
+
+==== Higher education ====
+In its Higher Education Plan III 2014–2023, Papua New Guinea sets out a strategy for transforming tertiary education and R&D through the introduction of a quality assurance system and a programme to overcome its limited R&D capacity.

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+---
+title: "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Research and development ====
+The National Vision 2050 was adopted in 2009. It has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasized the need to focus on sustainable development through science and technology.
+Vision 2050’s medium-term priorities are:
+
+emerging industrial technology for downstream processing;
+infrastructure technology for the economic corridors;
+knowledge-based technology;
+Science and engineering education; and
+to reach the target of investing 5% of GDP in R&D by 2050.
+By 2016, the share of GDP invested in research and development measured just 0.03%.
+Between 2008 and 2014, 82% of scientific articles from Papua New Guinea concerned the biological and medical sciences.  Less than 10% of the country's 517 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) focused on geosciences.
+In 2016, women represented 33.2% of the scientists in Papua New Guinea, on par with the global share.
+Professor Teatulohi Matainaho serves as Chief Science Advisor to Papua New Guinea, appointed in 2013.
+
+== Sustainable development ==
+
+=== Disaster resilience ===
+Countries around the Pacific Rim are seeking ways to link their national knowledge base to regional and global advances in science. One motivation for this greater interconnectedness is the region's vulnerability to geohazards such as earthquakes and tsunamis – the Pacific Rim is not known as the Ring of Fire for nothing. In 2009, Samoa suffered a submarine earthquake of a magnitude of 8.1 on the Richter Scale, the strongest earthquake recorded that year. The subsequent tsunami caused substantial damage and loss of life in Samoa, American Samoa, and Tonga.
+The need for greater disaster resilience is inciting countries to develop collaboration in the geosciences.
+
+=== Climate change ===
+Climate change is a parallel concern, as the Pacific Rim is also one of the most vulnerable regions to rising sea levels and increasingly capricious weather patterns. In March 2015, for instance, much of Vanuatu was flattened by Cyclone Pam.
+Climate change seems to be the most pressing environmental issue for Pacific Island countries, as it is already affecting almost all socio-economic sectors. The consequences of climate change can be seen in agriculture, food security, forestry and even in the spread of communicable diseases. Climate change mostly concerns marine issues, such as the growing frequency and severity of storms, rising sea levels and the increased salinity of soils and groundwater.
+The Secretariat of the Pacific Community has initiated several activities to tackle problems associated with climate change. These cover a great variety of areas, including fisheries, freshwater, agriculture, coastal zone management, disaster management, energy, traditional knowledge, education, forestry, communication, tourism, culture, health, weather, gender implications and biodiversity. Almost all Pacific Island countries are involved in one or more of these activities.
+The Seventh Pacific Islands Leaders Meeting with Japan in 2015 pledged to establish a Pacific Climate Change Centre. Construction of the centre was completed in Apia, Samoa, in 2019. A shared regional asset, the centre has four mutually reinforcing functions: knowledge brokerage; applied research; capacity-building; and innovation to promote climate change adaptation and mitigation. The government of Samoa, the Pacific Regional Environment Programme and the Japan International Cooperation Agency are all collaborating to deliver 12 courses for trainees from all Pacific Island countries and territories by 2022. The centre also houses a research node of Australia's University of Newcastle in partnership with the Pacific Regional Environment Programme; it has offered PhD scholarships since 2018 and hosts an ‘innovation incubator’. Research undertaken at the centre aligns with the four priority areas defined by the Pacific leaders, namely: climate change resilience; ecosystems and biodiversity protection; waste management; and environmental governance.
+
+==== Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change ====
+The first major scheme focusing on adaptation to climate change and climate variability dates back to 2009. Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change involves 13 Pacific Island nations, with international funding from the Global Environment Facility, as well as from the US and Australian governments.
+
+==== Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environment Programme ====
+Several projects related to climate change are also being co-ordinated by the United Nations Environment Programme, within the Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme (SPREP). The aim of SPREP is to help all members improve their ‘capacity to respond to climate change through policy improvement, implementation of practical adaptation measures, enhancing ecosystem resilience to the impacts of climate change and implementing initiatives aimed at achieving low-carbon development’.
+
+=== Samoa Pathway ===
+The blueprint for the subregion's sustainable development over the coming decade is the Samoa Pathway, the action plan adopted by countries at the third United Nations Conference on Small Island Developing States in Apia (Samoa) in September 2014. The Samoa Pathway focuses on, inter alia, sustainable consumption and production; sustainable energy, tourism and transportation; climate change; disaster risk reduction; forests; water and sanitation, food security and nutrition; chemical and waste management; oceans and seas; biodiversity; desertification, land degradation and drought; and health and non-communicable diseases.[1]
+
+=== Forestry ===
+Forestry is an important economic resource for Fiji and Papua New Guinea. However, forestry in both countries uses low and semi-intensive technological inputs. As a result, product ranges are limited to sawed timber, veneer, plywood, block board, moulding, poles and posts and wood chips. Only a few limited finished products are exported. Lack of automated machinery, coupled with inadequately trained local technical personnel, are some of the obstacles to introducing automated machinery and design. Policy-makers need to turn their attention to eliminating these barriers, in order for forestry to make a more efficient and sustainable contribution to national economic development.

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+---
+title: "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries"
+chunk: 5/6
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+=== Energy ===
+On average, 10% of the GDP of Pacific Island countries funds imports of petroleum products but in some cases this figure can exceed 30%. In addition to high fuel transport costs, this reliance on fossil fuels leaves Pacific economies vulnerable to volatile global fuel prices and potential spills by oil tankers.
+Consequently, many Pacific Island countries are convinced that renewable energy will play a role in their socio-economic development. In Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu, renewable energy sources already represent significant shares of the total electricity supply: 60%, 66%, 37% and 15% respectively. Tokelau has even become the first country in the world to generate 100% of its electricity using renewable sources.
+According to the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, renewable energy still represented less than 10% of total energy use in the 22 Pacific Island countries and territories in 2015. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'.
+International development partners are participating in several projects to develop renewable energy in the Pacific island states.
+
+==== Cook Islands Renewable Energy Chart Implementation Plan ====
+In the Cook Islands, for instance, the Asian Development Bank plans to supply electricity from renewable energy to all inhabited islands by 2020, within the Cook Islands Renewable Energy Chart Implementation Plan for 2012–2020. New solar photovoltaic power plants with lithium-ion batteries were being built on up to six islands of the Southern Group in 2014.
+
+=== Fiji's Rural Electrification Fund ===
+The Fiji Rural Electrification Fund will bring affordable solar power and battery storage to 300 rural communities that rely on diesel generators or are without electricity access. Initiated in 2018 and lasting ten years, this fund is a public–private partnership.
+
+=== Vanuatu's National Green Energy Fund ===
+To equip its National Energy Road Map 2016–2030, Vanuatu approved the National Green Energy Fund in 2016 with the goal of mobilising US$20 million to provide all households with access to electricity (primarily through individual solar systems) and to improve energy efficiency by 2030. In off-grid areas, households’ access to electricity increased from 9% in 2015 to 64.4% in 2017. The increase was attributed to investments in imported, plug-in solar home systems, supported by the Vanuatu Rural Electrification Project in 2016. However, the share of renewable energy in electricity generation declined from 29% to 18% over the same period, owing in part to a reduction in the use of biofuels in Vanuatu's largest electricity concession in Port Vila.
+
+==== Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency ====
+In April 2014, Pacific Ministers for Energy and Transport agreed to establish the Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, 'a first for the Pacific'. The centre will become part of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization's network of regional Sustainable Energy for All Centres of Excellence, along with centres for the Caribbean Community, Economic Community of West African States, the Southern African Development Community and the East African Community.
+The Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency was established in Tonga in 2016 to advise the private sector on related policy matters, provide capacity-building and promote business investment. The centre facilitates a financial mechanism offering competitive grants for start-ups to spur the adoption of renewable energy by the business sector. The centre is part of the Global Network of Regional Sustainable Energy Centres and SIDS DOCK framework designed to attract international investment in the renewable energy sector.
+
+==== Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme ====
+Efforts are under way to improve countries’ capacity to produce, conserve and use renewable energy. For example, the European Union has funded the Renewable Energy in Pacific Island Countries Developing Skills and Capacity programme (EPIC). Since its inception in 2013, EPIC has developed two master's programmes in renewable energy management and helped to establish two Centres of Renewable Energy, one at the University of Papua New Guinea and the other at the University of Fiji. Both centres became operational in 2014 and aim to create a regional knowledge hub for the development of renewable energy.
+
+==== Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainable Energy programme ====
+In February 2014, the European Union and the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat signed an agreement for a programme on Adapting to Climate Change and Sustainable Energy worth €37.26 million which will benefit 15 Pacific Island states. These are the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.
+
+=== Inclusion of traditional knowledge ===
+Limited freedom of expression and, in some cases, religious conservatism discourage research in certain areas but the experience of Pacific Island countries shows that sustainable development and a green economy can benefit from the inclusion of traditional knowledge in formal science and technology, as underlined by the Sustainable Development Brief prepared by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community in 2013.
+
+=== Renewable energy targets ===
+As part of their Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement, the Pacific Island countries are building national renewable energy systems. All 14 countries now have energy strategies, although some extend only to 2020. Nearly all place a strong emphasis on electricity generation using renewable resources.
+
+== Scientific output in the region ==

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+title: "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+=== Trends in scientific authorship ===
+According to the Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Fijian research was concentrated in a handful of scientific disciplines, such as medical sciences, geosciences and biology. Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology.
+This pattern contrasts with the trend observed in the French territories of New Caledonia and French Polynesia, where there was a strong emphasis on geosciences: six to eight times the world average for this field.
+
+=== Trends in international co-authorship ===
+More than three-quarters of articles published by scientists from Pacific Island nations between 2008 and 2014 were signed by international collaborators, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded. International co-authorship was higher for Papua New Guinea and Fiji (90% and 83% respectively) than for New Caledonia and French Polynesia (63% and 56% respectively).
+All countries counted North American partners among their top five partners. Fijian research collaboration with North American partners even exceeded that with India, even though a large proportion of Fijians are of Indian origin.
+Research partnerships also involved Australia and countries in Europe. Surprisingly, there was little co-authorship with authors based in France, with the notable exception of Vanuatu. Some Pacific Island states counted their neighbours among their closest scientific collaborators, as in the case of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.
+Many of the smaller Pacific Island states have a near-100% rate of co-authorship This extremely high rate can be a double-edged sword. According to the Fijian Ministry of Health, research collaboration often results in an article being published in a reputed journal but gives very little back in terms of strengthening health in Fiji. A new set of guidelines are now in place in Fiji to help build endogenous capacity in health research through training and access to new technology. The new policy guidelines require that all research projects initiated in Fiji with external bodies demonstrate how the project will contribute to local capacity-building in health research.
+Top five foreign collaborators for South Pacific scientists, 2008-2014
+
+Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 27.8. Data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, data treatment by Science Metrix
+
+=== A need to focus on local goals ===
+Countries are struggling to steer their scientific efforts toward sustainable development, at a time when the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals have taken over from the Millennium Development Goals in 2016. It has been suggested that countries could begin by encouraging their scientists to focus more on attaining local goals for sustainable development, rather than on publishing in high-profile international journals on topics that may be of lesser local relevance. The difficulty with this course of action is that the key metrics for recognizing scientific quality are publications and citation data. The answer to this dilemma most likely lies in the need to recognize the global nature of many local development problems. 'We are dealing with problems without boundaries and we underestimate the scale and nature of their consequences at our collective peril. As global citizens, the research and policy communities have an obligation to collaborate and deliver, so arguing for national priorities seems irrelevant'.
+
+=== New scientific journals ===
+In 2012, the Fijian Ministry of Health launched the Fiji Journal of Public Health, in an attempt to develop endogenous research capacity. In parallel, the Ministry of Agriculture revived Fiji's Agricultural Journal in 2013, which had been dormant for 17 years.
+In addition, two regional journals were launched in 2009 as a focus for Pacific scientific research, the Samoan Medical Journal and the Papua New Guinea Journal of Research, Science and Technology.
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+ This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report; towards 2030​, UNESCO.  
+
+ This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under C-BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development.​, Schneegans, S., T. Straza and J. Lewis (eds), UNESCO.

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