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+title: "1970s in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:59.149639+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This article is a summary of the 1970s in science and technology.
+
+
+== Science ==
+The 1970s in science and technology reached its height with the ambitious Voyager Program, which sent the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 uncrewed expeditions to several of the outer planets in the Solar System. The program also included a Voyager Golden Record with the spaceships in hopes of presenting aspects of life on Earth to intelligent alien life forms. The record contained pictures and other data about human beings and other living beings on earth. It also had an assortment of music from across cultures.
+Coupled with the zenithal achievements of the Voyagers was the end of NASA's Apollo lunar spacecraft program, with the final flight, Apollo 17, in 1972. The Apollo–Soyuz and Spacelab programs ended in 1976, and there would be a five-year hiatus in American crewed spaceflight until the flight of the Space Shuttle. The Soviet Union developed vital technologies involving long-term human life in free-fall on the Salyut and later Mir space stations.
+The 1970s witnessed an explosion in the understanding of solid-state physics, driven by the development of the integrated circuit and the laser. The evolution of the computer produced an interesting duality in the physical sciences at this period — analogue recording technology had reached its peak and was incredibly sophisticated. However, digital measurement and mathematical tools, now becoming cheaper (though still out of reach for the general public) allowed discrete answers and imaging of physical phenomena, albeit at a low resolution and a low bandwidth of data.
+Deep understanding of physics became important in the 1970s. At CERN, the Irs proton collider and the Super Proton Synchrotron started operation in this decade, and Stephen Hawking developed his theories of black holes and the boundary-condition of the universe.
+The biological sciences, spurred by social concerns about the environment and life, gained tremendous detail. The elucidation of molecular biology, bacteriology, virology and genetics achieved their modern forms in this decade. Discrete quantum interactions within living systems became amenable to analysis and manipulation. Genetic engineering became a commercially viable technology.
+The changes and attitude of social concern regarding science in the 1970s was addressed by Warren Weaver, who said that "Scientific theories cannot be rigidly deterministic."
+
+
+== Technology ==
+The birth of modern computing was in the 1970s. The world's first general microprocessor, the Intel 4004, came out in November 1971. The C programming language was developed early in the decade and the Unix operating system was rewritten into it in 1973. With "large-scale integration" possible for integrated circuits (microchips) rudimentary personal computers began to be produced along with pocket calculators. Notable home computers released in North America of the era are the Apple II, the TRS-80, the Commodore PET, and Atari 400/800 and the NEC PC-8001 in Japan.
+The availability of affordable personal computers led to the first popular wave of internetworking with the first bulletin board systems. In 1976, Cray Research, Inc. introduced the first supercomputer, the Cray-1, which could perform 230,000,000 calculations per second. Supercomputers designed by Cray continued to dominate the market throughout the 1970s. The 1970s was also the beginning of the video game era. Atari established itself as the dominant force in home video gaming, first with its home version of the arcade game Pong and later in the decade with the Atari 2600 console (originally called the "VCS", or Video Computer System). By 1979, the scene was set for the Golden Age of Arcade Games.
+The 1970s were also the start of fiber optics. In 1970 Corning Glass announced that it had created a glass fiber so clear that it could be used to communicate pulses of light. Soon after GTE and AT&T began experiments to transmit sound and image data using fiber optics, and transformed the communications industry. After 1973 both the United States and Europe turned away from the large and heavy mainstream automobiles, and towards lightweight, fuel-efficient and environmentally-conscious vehicles, already beginning to be produced by Japan. The Lotus Esprit was an example of a 1970s super car, producing high performance from a small engine. The Volkswagen Golf GTI of 1974 made the concept of a performance hatchback part of automotive mainstream thinking, though it had many precedents.
+The United States lagged badly in the development of compact and fuel-efficient vehicles, a side effect of industrial inexperience on the part of the manufacturers in Detroit. Two giants of the industry, GM and Ford both produced vehicles that fell drastically short of customer desires and economic demands; in the case of GM the Vega and for Ford the Pinto. Automotive historians have also described the period as 'the era of poor quality control', and manufacturers internationally produced vehicles that have since become by-words for poor technological integration.
+Notably, the 1970s saw the introduction in the automotive field of novel technologies, particularly from Japan and Germany, that would begin to mature in the 1990s and 2000s as viable alternative propulsion sources, such as hybrid vehicles, Stirling engines, as well as solar-electric and pure-electric vehicles.
+The integration of the computer and robot, particularly in Japan, saw unprecedented improvements in mass-produced automotive quality. Japanese advanced lightweight, fuel efficient and environmentally-conscious vehicles dramatically increased in demand, and such cars as the Honda Civic and the Toyota Corolla became some of the most popular and iconic vehicles of the 1970s. Japanese manufacturers dramatically made their presence felt in international markets during the decade.
+During the 1970s, microwave ovens experienced a surge in popularity as price and size decreased rapidly towards the end of the decade. Cassette tapes continued to surge in popularity after their introduction in the 1960s. JVC's VHS and Sony's Betamax waged a videotape format war as the primary recording and video devices beginning in 1976, but by the end of the decade VHS had become the dominant format. Also introduced to the home market was the Laserdisc, the first optical disc format used primarily for high quality video.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==

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+title: "1980s in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:00.473684+00:00"
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+---
+
+This article is a summary of the 1980s in science and technology.
+
+
+== Astronomy ==
+The Rings of Neptune were first discovered in 1984. The Voyager 2 spacecraft provided images of them in 1989.
+4769 Castalia was discovered in 1989. It became the first asteroid to be viewed through radar imaging.
+The first exoplanet is discovered in 1988, though it was not confirmed until much later.
+
+
+== Genetic engineering and biology ==
+
+1983
+Kary Mullis revolutionized molecular biology with his invention of the polymerase chain reaction, which required only a test tube, some reagents, a DNA template, and a source of heat.
+1986
+April – The first child produced from a gestational surrogacy is born. This is the first time in history that a child has been born to somebody who is not their biological mother.
+1989
+May 22 – The first gene transfer experiment in humans takes place, leading to full-fledged gene therapy trials by September 1990.
+The gene responsible for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator was discovered. Mutations of the gene are considered causes of cystic fibrosis.
+The kākāpō, a bird species of New Zealand, was termed a threatened species. The Department of Conservation started an endangered species recovery plan for the kākāpō in 1989.
+The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, when dinosaurs became extinct, was shown to be linked to excess iridium in the boundary layer, which implied that the cause was a massive meteor strike.
+
+
+== Computer science and networking ==
+
+1980
+Development of ENQUIRE and MS-DOS begin.
+1981
+MS-DOS debuts.
+1982
+The first compact discs are sold, which would eventually replace the audiocassette in the 1990s.
+1983
+Computer "virus" terminology introduced by Fred Cohen.
+Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet software launched.
+1984
+The Apple Macintosh is released.
+FidoNet begins.
+1985
+The first domain names are registered on the Internet.
+Windows 1.0 debuts.
+1986
+The TCP/IP-based NSFNET, the forerunner to the Internet, begins construction.
+1987
+The first popular hypermedia software, HyperCard is released by Apple.
+1988
+While working on networking computers at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee begins to discuss the possibility of a hyperlinked information system with his colleagues, an idea he was allowed to implement in 1990 when he created the World Wide Web.
+Adobe Photoshop graphics editing software debuts, revolutionizing photography and the fashion industry.
+November 2 – Robert Tappan Morris created the Morris worm, considered the first notable computer worm to be distributed via the Internet. The worm was launched from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and caused considerable damage. In 1989, its creator became the first person indicted under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.
+December – Europe obtains its first permanent connection to the Internet, by satellite between Princeton University and Stockholm, Sweden.
+1989
+Lotus Notes software launched.
+June/July – MCI Mail and CompuServe gateway their email systems to the Internet, instantly allowing hundreds of thousands of their users the ability to email people on the Internet for the first time.
+The first commercial internet service providers emerge, with The World STD being the first dial-up Internet service in November.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+History of science and technology
+List of science and technology articles by continent
+List of years in science
+
+
+== References ==

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+title: "1990s in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:01.793632+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This article is a summary of the 1990s in science and technology.
+
+== Science timeline ==
+
+1990
+April - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched; revolutionizes astronomy.
+September  - The first successful somatic gene therapy trials begin.
+October - Human Genome Project formally begins.
+December 20 - The World Wide Web software is first tested by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN.
+1992
+January 14 - The first intracytoplasmic sperm injection in vitro fertilization produced baby is born by mechanically injecting a single, selected sperm cell into an egg.
+Detection of extrasolar planets orbiting a pulsar  is confirmed.
+1994
+The FlavrSavr tomato, the first genetically modified food sold in the United States is introduced.
+The Oriental Pearl Tower is completed in Shanghai, China, representing the newfound wealth and investment present in eastern China.
+1995
+The Global Positioning System (GPS) becomes fully operational.
+In April the NSFNET backbone is shut down, making the Internet a unified and "centerless" network without any restrictions on traffic types and essentially causing the Dot com bubble by attracting large-scale corporate investment in the Internet.
+On June 5 the first Bose–Einstein condensates of Rubidium-87 and Sodium-23 are created at JILA and MIT.
+In December the Galileo probe orbits Jupiter, studying the planet and its moons extensively.
+1996
+Dolly the sheep is cloned.
+Construction starts on the International Space Station.
+Google begins indexing the World Wide Web.
+1997
+April 1 - The Hale–Bopp comet swings past the Sun for the first time in 4,300 years and leads to the Heaven's Gate suicides.
+July 4  - NASA's spacecraft Pathfinder lands on Mars and deploys a small roving vehicle, Sojourner, which analyzes the planet's geology and atmosphere.
+
+== Technology ==
+
+Some technologies invented and improved during the 1990s:
+
+=== Software timeline ===
+December 1990 - The World Wide Web and its HTTP protocol and HTML language (a dialect of SGML until HTML5) are first successfully parsed by Tim Berners-Lee and eventually displace the Gopher protocol.
+1991 -  Development of the free Linux kernel is started by Linus Torvalds in Finland.
+1995 - Microsoft introduces Windows 95, which gains immediate popularity and makes Windows the standard operating system for most PCs. Windows 98 is even more successful three years later.
+1995 - The Java programming language is developed by Sun Microsystems (now Oracle).
+The Year 2000 problem (commonly known as Y2K), the computer glitch disaster expected to happen on January 1, 2000.
+The development of web browsers such as Netscape Navigator (originally known as Mosaic) in 1993 and Internet Explorer in 1995 makes surfing the World Wide Web easier and more user friendly.
+From 1994 onward, businesses start to build e-commerce websites; e-commerce-only companies such as Amazon.com, eBay, AOL, and Yahoo! grow rapidly.
+Email becomes popular; as a result Microsoft acquires the popular Hotmail webmail service.
+Instant messaging and the buddy list becomes popular. AIM and ICQ are two early protocols.
+
+=== Video/audio ===
+Primitive digital cameras become commercially available by 1989/1990 and slowly become more affordable and appealing; mostly replacing traditional film by 2007.
+PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) become popular in the mid-1990s with the release of the touchscreen Apple Newton in 1993, although it has a monochrome screen. Later in the late 1990s, the first full-color PDAs are released, but they consume a lot of battery life. These would gradually merge their features with mobile phones, leading to smartphones such as the iPhone.
+The compact disc, which debuted in the early 1980s but was not affordable until the early 1990s, makes the audiocassette and vinyl record less popular in most countries for listening to recorded music.
+DVDs become available in Japan in 1995 and the US in 1997, making video cassettes obsolete by the early 2000s.
+Plasma flat panel televisions become commercially available later in the decade, competing against CRT televisions.
+Full color flat panel computer monitors are released commercially to the public in the mid-to-late 1990s
+1996 - USB ports are invented, allowing for computing devices to connect more easily. The USB flash drive debuts in December 2000.
+1997 - Netflix is launched during the dial-up Internet era, offering DVDs mailed straight to one's home, which the user could select in an online queue. By 2007 it started to offer streaming directly from the Internet, making it a competitor to conventional network television.
+1998 - The first portable MP3 player, the MPMan is released.
+1999 - Digital video recorders such as TiVo, abbreviated as DVRs, debut.
+Active matrix laptop computers become popular and easier to afford.
+Satellite television becomes commonplace.
+
+=== Communication ===
+TCP/IP (Internet) communication grows outside of academia and the military industrial complex into the realm of ordinary people, organizations and businesses, greatly bolstered by the Domain Name System and World Wide Web.
+2G (2nd generation) mobile phones are launched.
+Automated teller machines become universally commonplace in many countries, revolutionizing banking.
+Text messaging as a mobile phone feature is first introduced in 1992, but does not see widespread use until the 2000s.
+Mobile phones become smaller and more affordable throughout the decade, being rare bulky devices everywhere in 1990 but affordable and common in Japan, the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom by 1999.
+Video telephones are released.
+
+=== Gaming ===

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+title: "1990s in science and technology"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:38:01.793632+00:00"
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+---
+
+Home consoles become powerful and affordable enough to begin replacing trips to the arcade.
+CD-ROMs, which was first introduced as a software storage media with the 1988 launch of the PC Engine CD-ROM² System in Japan, gradually replaced ROM cartridges and floppy disks as the primary storage media for video games, starting with the release of platforms such as the Turbo Duo and Sega CD, later on with the PlayStation and the Sega Saturn, while CD-ROM drives for PCs became standardized. The sole exception was Nintendo, who canceled their plans to release a CD-ROM adapter for the Super NES and chose to employ cartridges for their subsequent home console, the Nintendo 64.
+Gaming, along with animation in general becomes more appealing to adults.
+Online multiplayer environments are popular over the internet during the later half of the 1990s. The first console with built-in Internet connectivity was the Dreamcast in 1999, which failed due to the low download speeds common at the time but eventually led to an online-centric gaming industry by the late 2000s.
+First-person shooter games become popular with the release of Doom (1993).
+3D graphics overtake the traditional 2D graphics in the mid-nineties with the release of Quake and Super Mario 64 in 1996.
+The PlayStation is released in Japan on December 3, 1994 and in North America in September 1995.
+
+=== Other ===
+By 1996 64 percent of K–12 schools in the United States had Internet access and 63 percent of American 12th graders reported using a computer for school work.
+The first hybrid vehicles are produced in 1997.
+High-end cars of the 1990s were installed with automatic doors, windows controlled with electric levers, GPS navigation, and CD drives.
+DNA identification of individuals, introduced in the late 1980s, finds wide application in criminal law.
+Protease inhibitors introduced in 1987 allowing HAART therapy against HIV become an important part of HIV treatment in the 1990s and help extend and save millions of lives.
+Discovery of dark matter, dark energy, brown dwarfs, and first confirmation of black holes.
+Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is discovered by Andrew Wiles and completed in 1994.
+The remains of Myrtis and other victims of the Plague of Athens are found.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==

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+title: "Patrusky Lecture"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+
+The Patrusky lecture series is held by the Council for the Advancement of Science Writing (CASW) in honor of Ben Patrusky, who retired from CASW in 2013 after 25 years as the executive director of CASW and 30 years as the director of the New Horizons in Science program. The first lecture was held in 2013 and the event has taken place every year since then.
+
+
+== The Lecturers ==
+2013 — George M. Whitesides
+2014 — Donald Johanson
+2015 — Jo Handelsman
+2016 — Steven Weinberg
+2017 — Susan Desmond-Hellmann
+2018 — Shirley Tilghman
+2019 — Steve Squyres
+2020 — Ruha Benjamin
+2021 — Katharine Hayhoe
+2022 — Alyssa A. Goodman
+2023 — Michael E. Mann
+
+
+== References ==

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+title: "Scientific writing"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+---
+
+Scientific writing is about science, with the implication that the writing is done by scientists and for an audience that primarily includes peers—those with sufficient expertise to follow in detail. (The similar term "science writing" instead refers to writing about a scientific topic for a general audience; this could be by scientists and/or journalists, for example.) Scientific writing is a specialized form of technical writing, and a prominent genre of it involves reporting about scientific studies such as in articles for a scientific journal. Other scientific writing genres include writing literature-review articles (also typically for scientific journals), which summarize the existing state of a given aspect of a scientific field, and writing grant proposals, which are a common means of obtaining funding to support scientific research. Scientific writing is more likely to focus on the pure sciences compared to other aspects of technical communication that are more applied, although there is overlap. There is not one specific style for citations and references in scientific writing. Whether one is submitting a grant proposal, literature review articles, or submitting an article into a paper, the citation system that must be used will depend on the publication they plan to submit to.
+English-language scientific writing originated in the 14th century, with the language later becoming the dominant medium for the field. Style conventions for scientific writing vary, with different focuses by different style guides on the use of passive versus active voice, personal pronoun use, and article sectioning. Much scientific writing is focused on scientific reports, traditionally structured as an abstract, introduction, methods, results, conclusions, and acknowledgments. However, one of the founders of the Royal Academy, Thomas Sprat, also saw connections between scientific writing and writing in the humanities.
+One recent advancement in the study of scientific writing is the development of the Coruña Corpus of English Scientific Writing (henceforth CC), which is an electronic corpus focusing on four major areas: Astronomy, History, Philosophy, and Life Sciences.
+
+== History ==
+English scientific writing dates back to the 14th century. In 1665, Henry Oldenburg founded the first scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
+Scholars consider that Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society have shaped the fundamental principles of scientific journals, primarily concerning the relevance of scientific priority and peer review. Modern practices of standardized citation did not emerge until the 20th century when the Chicago Manual of Style introduced its citation format, followed by the American Psychological Association in 1929 which became the most used citation style in the scientific discipline.
+The Royal Society established good practice for scientific writing. Founder member Thomas Sprat wrote on the importance of plain and accurate description rather than rhetorical flourishes in his History of the Royal Society of London. Robert Boyle emphasized the importance of not boring the reader with a dull, flat style.
+Because most scientific journals accept manuscripts only in English, an entire industry has developed to help non-native English speaking authors improve their text before submission. It is just now becoming an accepted practice to utilize the benefits of these services. This is making it easier for scientists to focus on their research and still get published in top journals.
+Besides the customary readability tests, software tools relying on Natural Language Processing to analyze text help writer scientists evaluate the quality of their manuscripts prior to submission to a journal. SWAN, a Java app written by researchers from the University of Eastern Finland, is such a tool.
+
+== Writing style guides ==
+Publication of research results is the global measure used by all disciplines to gauge a scientist's level of success.
+Different fields have different conventions for writing style, and individual journals within a field usually have their own style guides. Some issues of scientific writing style include:

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+title: "Scientific writing"
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+category: "reference"
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+
+Dissuasion from, and sometimes advocacy of, the passive voice. Advocates for the passive voice argue for its utility in avoiding first-person pronouns, while critics argue that it can be hard to make claims without an active voice.
+Generalizations about tense. In the mathematical sciences, for example, it is customary to report in the present tense, while in experimental sciences reporting is always in the past tense, as the experiments happened in the past.
+Preferences about "we" vs. "I" as a personal pronoun or a first-person pronoun (e.g., mathematical deductions sometimes include the reader in the pronoun "we.")
+Contemporary researchers in writing studies have pointed out that blanket generalizations about academic writing are seldom helpful, for example, scientific writing in practice is  complex and shifts of tense and person reflect subtle changes in the section of the scientific journal article. Additionally, the use of passive voice allows the writer to focus on the subject being studied (the focus of communication in science) rather than the author. Similarly, some use of first-person pronouns is acceptable (such as "we" or "I," which depends on the number of authors). According to some journal editors, the best practice is to review articles recently published in the journal a researcher is planning to submit to.
+Scientific writing has a strong emphasis on the use of peer-reviewing throughout the writing process. Primarily at the publication phase, when an article is about to be published, most scientific journals will require 1-3 peers to review. The process of peer-reviewing is to ensure that the information that is attempting to be published is accurate and well thought out.
+Nobel Prize-winning chemist Roald Hoffmann has stated that, in the chemical sciences, drawing chemistry is as fundamental as writing chemistry.
+Different types of citation and reference systems are used in scientific papers. The specific citation style scientific articles use depends on the journal in which the article is published. Some styles that are commonly used are Vancouver, Harvard, and Chicago. The Vancouver system and Parenthetical referencing style are primarily used in medicine. Chicago style is more common for writing that is focused in the social sciences. For the more natural sciences, CSE style is used.  Some of the less commonly utilized citation styles include MLA and AMA.
+Two examples of styles commonly seen in scientific journals are the Vancouver System and the Harvard System. The Vancouver system is more used for medical journals, while the Harvard System is more used for social and natural science journals. One typical citation style used for a specific discipline is the ACS (American Chemical Society) system, used for Scientific articles on Chemistry. The AMS (American Mathematical Society) style is commonly used for research papers with a base in mathematics. The AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style is typically used for scientific writing pertaining to physics.
+
+=== IMRaD format ===
+While not mandatory, scientific writers often follow the IMRaD format, which stands for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. This serves as a template and allows for consistency across scientific writing.
+In articles and publications, the introduction serves a fundamental purpose. It convinces the reader that the information is worth telling. It is common for the "Introduction" to branch from a broad concept connecting to the objective of the research to a specific gap in knowledge that drives the research. In addition to this, another strategy accepted by the scientific community to develop introductions consists of explaining the steps that lead to the hypothesis and research discussed in the writings. The method section is where scientific writers explain the procedure of the experiment or research. In "Results," writers who follow the IMRaD format share, with neutrality, the experimental results, which in "Discussion," are compared with prior information to end with a conclusion about the research, which should be 3 to 5 paragraphs long and consist of statements that reflect the outcomes of the entire publication. As part of the "Result" section of the IMRaD, scientists utilize a plethora of analytical tools in order to analyze the data from the research in a way that allows other scientists to understand. This also gives the opportunity for expansion on certain aspects of the research if there are still unknowns present.
+
+== Large language models in scientific writing ==
+Artificial intelligence in scientific writing is considered by scholars to be a new dilemma for the scientific community. Large language models like ChatGPT have been demonstrated to be useful tools in the research and draft creation process, summarizing information and creating basic text structures, and they have also shown to be of utility in the review process by improving drafts and editing, reducing the revision time and the number of grammatical errors present. However, they have also raised questions about the morality of their utilization and the disparities they may widen if they stop being free.
+Additionally, the scientific community discusses the possibility of unintended plagiarism when utilizing artificial intelligence programs, as texts generated by chatbots have passed plagiarism detectors as completely original work, making it impossible for other scientists in the peer-review process to differentiate a person-written article from one written by artificial intelligence.

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+title: "Scientific writing"
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+
+== Scientific report ==
+The stages of the scientific method are often incorporated into sections of scientific reports. The first section is typically the abstract, followed by the introduction, methods, results, conclusions, and acknowledgments. The introduction discusses the issue studied and discloses the hypothesis tested in the experiment. The step-by-step procedure, notable observations, and relevant data collected are all included in the methods and results. The discussion section consists of the author's analysis and interpretations of the data. Additionally, the author may choose to discuss any discrepancies with the experiment that could have altered the results. The conclusion summarizes the experiment and will make inferences about the outcomes. The paper will typically end with an acknowledgments section, giving proper attribution to any other contributors besides the main author(s). To get published, papers must go through peer review by experts with significant knowledge in the field. During this process, papers may get rejected or edited without adequate justification.
+This historically emerged form of argument has been periodically criticized for obscuring the process or investigation, eliminating the incorrect guesses, false leads, and errors that may have occurred before coming to the final method, data, explanation, and argument presented in the published paper. This lack of transparency was criticized by Joseph Priestley as early as 1767 as mystifying the research process and more recently for similar reasons by Nobel Laureate Peter Medawar in a BBC talk in 1964.
+
+== Ethical considerations in scientific writing ==
+Ethical principles are fundamental to the practice of scientific writing, ensuring integrity, transparency, and accountability in the dissemination of research findings. Adhering to ethical standards not only upholds the credibility of scientific literature but also promotes trust among researchers, institutions, and the broader public.
+
+=== Plagiarism ===
+Plagiarism, the appropriation of another person's ideas, words, or work without proper attribution, is a serious ethical violation in scientific writing. Authors are obligated to accurately cite sources and give credit to the original creators of ideas or information. Plagiarism undermines academic integrity and can result in severe consequences, including retraction of publications and damage to one's reputation.
+
+=== Authorship and contributorship ===
+According to various authorship guidelines created by scientific societies as well as some national bodies, authorship should be based on substantial contributions to the conception, design, execution, or interpretation of the research study. All individuals who meet the criteria for authorship should be listed as authors, while those who do not meet the criteria but have made significant contributions should be acknowledged appropriately. Honorary or ghost authorship, where individuals are included as authors without fulfilling the criteria, is unethical and should be avoided.
+The authorship guidelines of many journals state that to qualify for authorship, it is not sufficient to have made a major contribution to the work and to be accountable for the work. The widely used guidelines of the International Committee for Medical Journal Editors, for instance, recommends that all authors must also contribute to "Drafting the work or reviewing it critically for important intellectual content". While guidelines typically indicate that others should be acknowledged, which typically happens in an Acknowledgments section, the identities of such people are not included in publication metadata and do not flow into scholarly databases. Thus, the restrictions are a hindrance to receiving formal credit for scientific contributions and this is opposed by some who believe that a guiding principle should be to indicate who did what, which is sometimes called "contributorship".
+
+=== Data integrity and transparency ===
+Scientific writing requires transparency in reporting research methods, data collection procedures, and analytical techniques to ensure the reproducibility and reliability of findings. Authors are responsible for accurately representing their data and disclosing any conflicts of interest or biases that may influence the interpretation of results. Fabrication, falsification, or selective reporting of data are serious ethical breaches that undermine the integrity of scientific research.
+
+=== Publication ethics ===
+Authors, editors, and reviewers are expected to adhere to ethical standards throughout the publication process. Editors have a responsibility to evaluate manuscripts objectively, ensuring fairness and impartiality in the peer review process. Authors should submit original work that has not been published elsewhere and comply with journal guidelines regarding manuscript preparation and submission. Reviewers are entrusted with providing constructive feedback and identifying any ethical concerns or scientific misconduct present in the manuscript.
+
+=== Inclusivity and diversity ===
+Scientific writing should strive to be inclusive and representative of diverse perspectives, populations, and voices. Authors should consider the potential impact of their research on different communities and take steps to mitigate any harm or bias. Promoting diversity in authorship, peer review, and editorial boards enhances the quality and relevance of scientific literature and fosters a more equitable research environment.
+By upholding these ethical principles, researchers contribute to the advancement of knowledge with integrity, accountability, and respect for ethical standards.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Quotations related to Scientific writing at Wikiquote

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing-0.md

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+---
+title: "The Craft of Science Writing"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:50.185718+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Craft of Science Writing: Selections from The Open Notebook is a non-fiction book edited by Siri Carpenter and published in 2020 by The Open Notebook.
+
+
+== Synopsis ==
+The Craft of Science Writing presents more than 30 articles, some new, others previously published on The Open Notebook website, organized to answer five questions: "Who is a science journalist and how do you become one? What makes a science story and how do you find one? How do you report a science story? How do you tell your story? How do you build expertise in science writing?" 
+In ALA's CHOICE, Melody Herr wrote that the articles are organized "into an introductory course that covers becoming a science journalist, identifying a story idea, conducting research, writing the story, and building proficiency in core skills". She also said the articles demonstrate effective idea presentation, "through personal anecdotes, interviews with award-winning journalists, expert panel discussions, and visuals, including a marked-up science article, a flowchart, and helpful checklists".
+Jonathan Wai wrote in Psychology Today, that it "...seeks to illuminate the craft of science writing by collecting numerous perspectives from science writers themselves about how to improve their own craft of science writing." Carolyn Crist wrote the pieces "offer advice about how to pitch stories, evaluate scientific and statistical claims, report on controversial topics, and engage readers with a scientific story."
+
+
+== Critical reception ==
+Wai wrote, "The conversation among scientists themselves has not yet included learning from science writers and editors themselves, and thus this new volume, in my view, is important to read for scientists to understand what it is that science writers do, what it means to tell a great story about science, and the incentive structure that science writers are under especially as journalism is rapidly shifting." 
+The editor of Brontide Journal said,"It is the go to source for anyone who wants to write about science. Whether that's the science behind the story or if the science, is the story itself."
+Herr wrote that the articles "address artistic, practical, and business aspects of the craft", as well as "the emotional strain of reporting and the journalist’s social responsibility to confront flawed science and incorporate diverse voices... Summing Up: Highly recommended. All readers".
+Jacqui Banaszynski said that this anthology and The Open Notebook, "while embedded in a science-based world, offer valuable wisdom for any writer who covers a challenging specialty subject. Or, frankly, for any writer who has the aspiration to do high-level, in-depth work."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Environmental journalism
+Medical journalism
+Nature writing
+Non-profit journalism
+Popular science writing
+Science journalism
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Science Behind Writing About Science (audio, 10:28 minutes)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver-0.md

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+---
+title: "The Puzzle Solver"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:37:55.135087+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Puzzle Solver: A Scientist's Desperate Quest to Cure the Illness that Stole His Son is a book by Tracie White with scientist Ronald W. Davis about Davis's efforts to cure his son Whitney, who has very severe myalgic encephalomyelitis, also called chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). The book was published on January 5, 2021.
+
+
+== Publication history ==
+The Puzzle Solver began as a work of journalism that Tracie White wrote for Stanford Medicine. She expanded the work into a book (her first) in collaboration with Ronald W. Davis, a renowned scientist and one of the book's subjects. It was published by Hachette on January 5, 2021.
+
+
+== Content ==
+Whitney Dafoe was a photographer and world traveler when at age 23, he was hospitalized on a trip to India, suffering from a stomach ailment. When he returned home, he weighed only 115 pounds and instead of recovering his health steadily declined. He was diagnosed with ME/CFS in 2011 but continued to slip until he was confined to a back room at his parents' home, unable to speak or eat without the assistance of a feeding tube. His one source of hope was his father, world renown scientist Ronald W. Davis (Dafoe shares his last name with his mother, psychologist Janet Dafoe.) Davis is a pioneer of the Human Genome Project, but soon turned all of his research to the study of ME/CFS in a race to cure Whitney and the millions of other patients like him (an estimated 2.8 million in the US have the disease and a quarter are home- or bedbound, like Dafoe, for at least part of their illness).
+In 2011, Davis won the Gruber Prize for his "pioneering work in genetic engineering". He spent the $500,000 award seeding his ME/CFS research, hiring other scientists into his lab and eventually launching a foundation dedicated to the project. Through it, Davis began seeding more scientists' work on ME/CFS, developing a worldwide network to work on the disease, historically abandoned by the medical community and its major grant makers like the National Institutes of Health.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Reviews praised White's writing as well as the book's scientific content. The Publishers Weekly review said, "The author's keen commitment to capturing Dafoe's illness and Davis's work makes for a story of heartbreak balanced with unexpected beauty. White succeeds in casting chronic fatigue syndrome in a new light in this inspirational account." In Al Jazeera, Michaela Haas wrote that the book "paints an intimate portrait of Whitney's journey to diagnosis and his father's fight to find a cure." In the Library Journal, Kelsy Peterson wrote, "Both tragic and uplifting, this title will be of particular interest to readers seeking more information about ME/CFS and anyone curious about medical mysteries." In Booklist, Kathleen McBroom said, "White writes with compassion and empathy, capably handling the technical aspects of current virus genome research. She underlines the crucial need for continuing exploration, especially in light of the possible connection between CFS and COVID-19, which have similar symptoms. This moving account should increase awareness and pressure for an expedited cure."
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Excerpt in The Scientist