Scrape wikipedia-science: 858 new, 932 updated, 1839 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na'Taki_Osborne_Jelks-0.md

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+title: "Na'Taki Osborne Jelks"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na'Taki_Osborne_Jelks"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:24.238081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Na'Taki Osborne Jelks is an American environmental scientist.  She is an assistant professor of environmental and health sciences at Spelman College, and a visiting professor of public health at Agnes Scott College. She is known for her activism in environmental justice and urban sustainability, for which she was named a Champion of Change by the White House in 2014.
+
+
+== Education and career ==
+Jelks was born in Walnut Grove, Mississippi; her family later moved to Baton Rouge, Louisiana.  She received her BS from Spelman College, her master's of public health in environmental and occupational health from Emory University, and her PhD from the School of Public Health at Georgia State University.  Her PhD was awarded in 2016, for a thesis titled Combined Environmental and Social Stressors in Northwest Atlanta's Proctor Creek Watershed: An Exploration of Expert Data and Local Knowledge. Jelk's doctoral advisor was Christine Stauber. Her scholarship is focused on community engagement to identify environmental stressors in urban watersheds.
+
+
+== Environmental justice leadership ==
+In 2001, Jelks co-founded the Atlanta Earth Tomorrow® Program, a National Wildlife Federation program that connects urban youth to nature, civic engagement, and leadership development.
+She is the board chairperson for the West Atlanta Watershed Alliance, an organization that she helped found.
+She is the co-chair of the Proctor Creek Stewardship Council, a grassroots organization focused on restoring the ecological health of the Proctor Creek Watershed in west Atlanta.
+She serves on the Boards of Directors of the Citizen Science Association.
+In 2018, Jelks was named a member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Environmental Justice Advisory Committee (NEJAC). She is also the manager for Community and Leadership Development Programs for the National Wildlife Federation.
+Jelks' environmental activism has been featured in People and The New York Times.
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+2014: White House Champions of Change
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Na'Taki Osborne Jelks publications indexed by Google Scholar

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OU_Citizen_Science_Soil_Collection_Program-0.md

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+title: "OU Citizen Science Soil Collection Program"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OU_Citizen_Science_Soil_Collection_Program"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:25.568481+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The OU Citizen Science Soil Collection Program is a University of Oklahoma crowdsourcing program collecting and examining soil samples for fungi that might contain anticancer activity.
+
+
+== Origins ==
+The project started in 2010 to research fungi that could potentially help create a type of compound known as a natural product. This is done by obtaining the fungi from a soil sample collected from a volunteer who mailed it to the program. The program was created at the University of Oklahoma and works with biomedical science researchers as a part of the Natural Products Discovery Group. The goal of this program is to create a natural product with ingredients obtained from various fungi, found in soil, that will help fight against cancer. This program gained traction on social media in 2015 when a member of the site known as Reddit made a post about the program. Since then, users have been sending in their soil samples and sharing updates about the project through comments on the post.
+
+
+== Discoveries ==
+The program has had one major discovery from the samples that have been submitted. The program found the natural product maximiscin. The sample came from a fungus named Tolypocladium. The sample has shown useful anticancer properties, and has inhibited cancer cell growth in mice.
+
+
+== Methods ==
+The samples are obtained through a method commonly referred to as crowdsourcing in citizen science, where citizens gather resources and submit them to researchers. After receiving the soil collecting kit, the volunteer can then go into their backyard and pick a spot where they would like to get their sample from. Once the sample has been collected it is sent back to the soil collecting team who grows the fungi by putting the sample on a petri dish and feeding it food such as grounded worms, tea, and simple sugars. The fungi are later identified by their internal transcribed spacer or ITS found in the DNA that identifies the species and distinguishes it from others. Separated from the soil, the fungus continues to grow in test tubes by feeding on cheerios. Later, the fungus samples are tested against cancer cells and pathogenic bacteria. The whole process varies from a few days to even years. The desired natural product of the fungi is then extracted through purification using chemical techniques when the sample is moved to grow in a larger bag of cheerios. Once extracted it takes up to weeks or even months to find the chemical structure after which the study and findings are shared with collaborators, typically pharmacologists who specialize in cancer and infectious disease biology.
+
+
+== Public involvement ==
+This program has gained users through multiple crowd-sourcing projects. The first attempt to crowd-source was through program members' family and friends. The program then gained national recognition from a "You Should Know" thread on the Reddit news sharing and discussion website.  The program created a website hub for users to show interest in the project and to allow participants to obtain the collection kits.  In December 2017, The program was featured in the Science Museum Oklahoma's smART Space gallery for visitors to see the program's fungi on display and to show how fungi shape the Earth.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official: "What's In Your Backyard?". whatsinyourbackyard.org. The University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2023.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-0.md

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+---
+title: "Operation Moonwatch"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:22.984256+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Operation Moonwatch (also known as Project Moonwatch and, more simply, as Moonwatch) was an amateur science program formally initiated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in 1956. The SAO organized Moonwatch as part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Its initial goal was to enlist the aid of amateur astronomers and other citizens who would help professional scientists spot the first artificial satellites. Until professionally staffed optical tracking stations came on-line in 1958, this network of amateur scientists and other interested citizens played a critical role in providing crucial information regarding the world's first satellites.
+
+== Origins of Moonwatch ==
+Moonwatch's origins can be traced to two sources.  In the United States, there was a thriving culture of amateur scientists including thousands of citizens who did astronomy for an avocation.  During the Cold War, the United States also encouraged thousands of citizens to take part in the Ground Observer Corps, a nationwide program to spot Soviet bombers.  Moonwatch brought together these two activities and attitudes, melding curiosity and vigilance into a thriving activity for citizens.  Moonwatch, in other words, was an expression of 1950s popular culture and fixed properly within the context of the Cold War.
+Moonwatch was the brainchild of Harvard astronomer Fred L. Whipple.  In 1955, as the recently appointed director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Whipple proposed that amateurs could play a vital role in efforts to track the first satellites. He overcame the objections of colleagues who doubted ordinary citizens could do the job or who wanted the task for their own institutions. Eventually, Whipple carved out a place for amateurs in the IGY.
+
+== Moonwatch's members ==
+In the late 1950s, thousands of teenagers, housewives, amateur astronomers, school teachers, and other citizens served on Moonwatch teams around the globe.  Initially conceived as a way for citizens to participate in science and as a supplement to professionally staffed optical and radio tracking stations, Moonwatchers around the world found themselves an essential component of the professional scientists’ research program.  Using specially designed telescopes, hand-built or purchased from vendors like Radio Shack, scores of Moonwatchers nightly monitored the skies.  Their prompt response was aided by the extensive training they had done by spotting pebbles tossed in the air, registering the flight of moths, and participating in national alerts organized by the Civil Air Patrol.
+Once professional scientists had accepted the idea that ordinary citizens could spot satellites and contribute to legitimate scientific research, Whipple and his colleagues organized amateurs around the world. Citizens formed Operation Moonwatch teams in towns and cities all around the globe, built their own equipment, and courted sponsors. In many cases, Moonwatch was not just a fad but an expression of real interest in science. By October 1957, Operation Moonwatch had some 200 teams ready to go into action, including observers in Hawaii and Australia.
+
+== How Moonwatch worked ==
+
+Whipple envisioned a global network of specially designed instruments that could track and photograph satellites. This network, aided by a corps of volunteer satellite spotters and a computer at the MIT Computation Center, would establish ephemerides – predictions of where a satellite will be at particular times. The instruments at these stations were eventually designed by Dr. James G. Baker and Joseph Nunn and hence known as Baker-Nunn cameras. Based on a series of super-Schmidt wide-angle telescopes and strategically placed around the globe at 12 locations, the innovative cameras could track rapidly moving targets while simultaneously viewing large swaths of the sky.
+From the start, Whipple planned that the professionally staffed Baker-Nunn stations would be complemented by teams of dedicated amateurs. Amateur satellite spotters would inform the Baker-Nunn stations as to where to look, an important task given that scientists working on the Vanguard program likened finding a satellite in the sky to finding a golf ball tossed out of a jet plane.  Amateur teams would relay the information back to the SAO in Cambridge where professional scientists would use it to generate accurate satellite orbits. At this point, professionals at the Baker-Nunn stations would take over the full-time task of photographing them.
+
+== During the IGY ==

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+---
+title: "Operation Moonwatch"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:22.984256+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sputnik 1's sudden launch was followed less than a month later with the Soviets orbiting Sputnik 2 and the dog Laika. It was Moonwatch teams, networked around the world, who provided tracking information needed by scientists in Western nations. For the opening months of the Space Age, members of Moonwatch were the only organized worldwide network that was prepared to spot and help track satellites. The information they provided was complemented by the radio tracking program called Minitrack the United States Navy operated as well as some information from amateur radio buffs.
+In many cases, Moonwatch teams also had the responsibility of communicating news of Sputnik and the first American satellites to the public.  The public responded, in turn, with infectious enthusiasm as local radio stations aired times to spot satellites and local and national newspapers ran hundreds of articles that described the nighttime activities of Moonwatchers.
+Moonwatch caught the attention of those citizens interested in science or the Space Race during the late 1950s and much of the general public as well. Newspapers and popular magazines featured stories about Moonwatch regularly; dozens of articles appeared in the Los Angeles Times, The New Yorker, and the New York Times alone.  Meanwhile, in the U.S. local businesses sponsored teams with monikers like Spacehounds and The Order of Lunartiks. Meanwhile, Moonwatch teams in Peru, Japan, Australia, and even the Arctic regularly sent their observations to the Smithsonian.
+Moonwatch complemented the professional system of satellite tracking stations that Fred Whipple organized around the globe. These two networks – one composed of amateurs and the other of seasoned professionals – helped further Whipple's personal goals of expanding his own astronomical empire. Operation Moonwatch was the most successful amateur activity of the IGY and it became the public face of a satellite tracking network that expanded the Smithsonian's global reach. Whipple used satellite tracking as a gateway for his observatory to participate in new research opportunities that appeared in the early years of space exploration.
+In February 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower publicly thanked the SAO, Fred Whipple, and the global corps of satellite spotters that comprised Moonwatch for their efforts in tracking the first Soviet and American satellites.
+
+== Moonwatch after the IGY ==
+
+Even after the IGY ended, the Smithsonian maintained Operation Moonwatch. Hundreds of dedicated amateur scientists continued to help NASA and other agencies track satellites. Their observations often rivaled those of professional tracking stations, blurring the boundary between professional and amateur.  Moonwatch members and the Smithsonian were important contributors to US Department of Defense satellite tracking research and development efforts, 1957–1961; see Project Space Track.
+Moonwatch continued long after the IGY ended in 1958. In fact, the Smithsonian operated Moonwatch until 1975 making it one of the longest running amateur science activities ever. As the fad of satellite spotting passed, the Smithsonian refashioned Operation Moonwatch to perform new functions. It encouraged teams of dedicated amateurs to contribute increasingly precise data for satellite tracking. Moonwatchers adapted to the needs of the Smithsonian through the activities of "hard core" groups in places like Walnut Creek, California. Throughout the 1960s, the Smithsonian gave them ever more challenging assignments such as locating extremely faint satellites and tracking satellites as they re-entered the Earth's atmosphere.
+At times, the precise observations and calculations of dedicated skywatchers surpasses the work of professionals.
+One of the most notable activities of Moonwatchers after the IGY was the observance of Sputnik 4 when it reentered the atmosphere in September 1962. Moonwatchers and other amateur scientists near Milwaukee, Wisconsin observed the flaming re-entry and their observations eventually led to the recovery and analysis of several fragments from the Soviet satellite.
+
+== Moonwatch's legacy ==
+Moonwatch affected the lives of participants long after they stopped looking for satellites. When the Smithsonian discontinued the program in 1975, one long-time Moonwatcher compared his participation to "winning the Medal of Honor." Moonwatch inspired some future scientists, for example, James A. Westphal, a Moonwatcher from Oklahoma, who eventually helped design instruments for the Hubble Space Telescope at Caltech. The program boosted science programs at many schools throughout the country and helped revitalize amateur science in the United States.
+The United States Space Surveillance Network and other modern tracking systems are professional and automated, but amateurs remain active in satellite watching.
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Gavaghan, Helen. (1998) Something New Under the Sun: Satellites and the Beginning of the Space Age, Copernicus, ISBN 0-387-94914-3, pg 38–42 & 49
+Hayes, E. Nelson. (1968) Trackers of the Skies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Howard A. Doyle Publishing Co.
+McCray, W. Patrick. (2008) Keep Watching the Skies! The Story of Operation Moonwatch and the Dawn of the Space Age, Princeton University Press.
+
+== External links ==
+Smithsonian Astronomers Keep Hectic Pace – The Harvard Crimson
+The IGY Period – University of Hawaii
+Role of NAS and TPESP, 1955–1956 – NASA
+The tracking systems – NASA
+Eyes on the Sky– Xavier University
+Tom Van Flandern and Victor Slabinski – American Institute of Physics
+Citizen Science, Old-School Style: The True Tale of Operation Moonwatch – Universe Today

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring-0.md

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+---
+title: "Participatory monitoring"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:26.931405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Participatory monitoring (also known as collaborative monitoring, community-based monitoring, locally based monitoring, or volunteer monitoring) is the regular collection of measurements or other kinds of data (monitoring), usually of natural resources and biodiversity, undertaken by local residents of the monitored area, who rely on local natural resources and thus have more local knowledge of those resources. Those involved usually live in communities with considerable social cohesion, where they regularly cooperate on shared projects.
+Participatory monitoring has emerged as an alternative or addition to professional scientist-executed monitoring. Scientist-executed monitoring is often costly and hard to sustain, especially in those regions of the world where financial resources are limited. Moreover, scientist-executed monitoring can be logistically and technically difficult and is often perceived to be irrelevant by resource managers and the local communities. Involving local people and their communities in monitoring is often part of the process of sharing the management of land and resources with the local communities. It is connected to the devolution of rights and power to the locals. Aside from potentially providing high-quality information, participatory monitoring can raise local awareness and build the community and local government expertise that is needed for addressing the management of natural resources.
+Participatory monitoring is sometimes included in terms such as citizen science, crowd-sourcing, ‘public participation in scientific research’ and participatory action research.
+
+== Definition ==
+The term ‘participatory monitoring’ embraces a broad range of approaches, from self-monitoring of harvests by local resource users themselves, to censuses by local rangers, and inventories by amateur naturalists. The term includes techniques labelled as ‘self-monitoring’, ranger-based monitoring’, ‘event-monitoring’, ‘participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity’, ‘community-based observing’, and ‘community-based monitoring and information systems’.
+Many of these approaches are directly linked to resource management, but the entities being monitored vary widely, from individual animals and plants, through habitats, to ecosystem goods and services. However, all of the approaches have in common that the monitoring is carried out by individuals who live in the monitored places and rely on local natural resources, and that local people or local government staff are directly involved in formulation of research questions, data collection, and (in most instances) data analysis, and implementation of management solutions based on research findings.
+Participatory monitoring is included in the term ’participatory monitoring and management’ which has been defined as "approaches used by local and Indigenous communities, informed by traditional and local knowledge, and, increasingly, by contemporary science, to assess the status of resources and threats on their land and advance sustainable economic opportunities based on the use of natural resources". term ’participatory monitoring and management’ is particularly used in tropical, Arctic and developing regions, where communities are most often the custodians of valuable biodiversity and extensive natural ecosystems.
+
+=== Alternative definitions ===
+Other definitions for participatory monitoring have also been proposed, including:
+
+"The systematic collection of information at regular intervals for initial assessment and for the monitoring of change. This collection is undertaken by locals in a community who do not have professional training".
+Likewise, the term ’community-based monitoring of natural resources’ has been defined as:
+
+"A process where concerned citizens, government agencies, industry, academia, community groups and local institutions collaborate to monitor, track, and respond to issues of common community concern".
+
+"Monitoring of natural resources undertaken by local stakeholders using their own resources and in relation to aims and objectives that make sense to them".
+
+"A process of routinely observing environmental or social phenomena, or both, that is led and undertaken by community members and can involve external collaboration and support of visiting researchers and government agencies".
+
+=== Limitations ===
+It has been suggested that participatory monitoring is unlikely to provide quantitative data on large-scale changes in habitat area, or on populations of cryptic species that are hard to identify or census reliably. It has also been suggested that participatory monitoring is not suitable for monitoring resources that are so valuable they attract powerful outsiders. Likewise, in areas where changes, threats, or interventions operate in complex fashions, where rural people do not depend on the use of natural resources and there are no real benefits flowing to the local people from doing monitoring work (or the costs to local people of involvement exceed the benefits), or where there is a poor relationship between the authorities and the local people, participatory monitoring is probably less likely to yield useful data and management solutions than conventional scientific approaches.
+
+== History ==
+Whereas government censuses of human populations, which date perhaps to the 16th century B.C., were likely the first formal attempts at environmental monitoring, farmers, fishers and forest users have informally monitored resource conditions for even longer, their observations influencing survival strategies and resource use.
+Participatory monitoring schemes are in operation on all the inhabited continents, and the approach is beginning to appear in textbooks.
+
+=== Conferences ===
+An international symposium on participatory monitoring was hosted by the Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology and the Zoology Department at Cambridge University in Denmark in April 2004. It led to a special issue of Biodiversity and Conservation October 2005.
+In the Arctic, a symposium on data management and local knowledge was hosted by ELOKA and held in Boulder, USA, in November 2011. It led to a special issue of Polar Geography in 2014.
+In the Arctic, three circumpolar meetings were held in 2013-2014:
+
+In November 2013 in Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, hosted by Oceans North Canada,
+In December 2013 in Copenhagen, Denmark, hosted by Greenland Department of Fisheries, Hunting and Agriculture, ELOKA, and Nordic Foundation for Development and Ecology,
+In March 2014 in Kautokeino, Norway, hosted by International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry, UNESCO and other partners.
+The first global conference on Participatory Monitoring and Management was hosted by the Brazilian Ministry of Environment (MMA) and the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) and held in Manaus, Brazil in September 2014.
+
+== Approaches ==
+Thematically, participatory monitoring has considerable potential in several areas, including:

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+title: "Participatory monitoring"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:26.931405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+For connecting knowledge systems: in efforts to bring Indigenous and local knowledge systems into the science–policy interface such as the Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
+For monitoring rapidly changing environments: to inform resource management in rapidly changing environments such as the Arctic, where Indigenous and local communities have detailed knowledge of key components of their environment, such as sea-ice, snow, weather patterns, caribou and other natural resources.
+In Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) programs: to connect environmental performance with payment schemes such as REDD+.
+For reinforcing international agreements: in efforts to link international environmental agreements to decision-making in the ‘real world’.
+
+=== Typology ===
+A typology of monitoring schemes has been proposed, determined on the basis of relative contributions of local stakeholders and professional researchers. and supported by findings from statistical analysis of published schemes. The typology identified 5 categories of monitoring schemes that between them span the full spectrum of natural resource monitoring protocols:
+Category A. Autonomous Local Monitoring. In this category the whole monitoring process—from design, to data collection, to analysis, and finally to use of data for management decisions—is carried out autonomously by local stakeholders. There is no direct involvement of external agencies. For an example see.
+Category B. Collaborative Monitoring with Local Data Interpretation. In these schemes, the original initiative was taken by scientists but local stakeholders collect, process and interpret the data, although external scientists may provide advice and training. The original data collected by local people remain in the area being monitored, which helps create local ownership of the scheme and its results, but copies of the data may be sent to professional researchers for in-depth or larger-scale analysis. Examples are included in.
+Category C. Collaborative Monitoring with External Data Interpretation. The third most distinct group is monitoring scheme category C. These schemes were designed by scientists who also analyse the data, but the local stakeholders collect the data, take decisions on the basis of the findings and carry out the management interventions emanating from the monitoring scheme. Examples are provided in.
+Category D. Externally Driven Monitoring with Local Data Collectors. This category of monitoring scheme involves local stakeholders only in data collection. The design, analysis, and interpretation of the monitoring results are undertaken by professional researchers—generally far from the site. Monitoring schemes of category D are mostly long-running ‘citizen science’ projects from Europe and North America. See for example
+Category E. Externally Driven, Professionally Executed Monitoring. Monitoring schemes of category E do not involve local stakeholders. Design of the scheme, analysis of the results, and management decisions derived from these analyses are all undertaken by professional scientists funded by external agencies. An example is
+
+== The use of technology for participatory monitoring ==
+Traditional methods of data collection for participatory monitoring use paper and pen. This has advantages in terms of low cost of materials and training, simplicity, and reduced potential for technical hitches. However, all data must be transcribed for analysis, which takes time and can be subject to transcription errors. Increasingly, participatory monitoring initiatives incorporate technology, from GPS recorders to georeference the data collected on paper, to drones to survey remote areas, phones to send simple reports via SMS, or smartphones to collect and store data. Various apps exist to create and manage data collection forms on smartphones (e.g. ODK, Sapelli and others).
+Some initiatives find that the use of smartphones for data collection has advantages over paper-based systems.  The advantages include that very little equipment need be carried on a survey, a large amount and variety of data can be stored (geographical locations, photos and audio, as well as data entered onto monitoring forms) and data can be shared rapidly for analysis without transcription errors. The use of smartphones can incentivise young people to get involved in monitoring, sparking an interest in conservation. Some apps are especially designed to be usable by illiterate monitors. If local people risk threats or violence by monitoring illegal activities, the true purpose of the phones can be denied, and the monitoring data locked away. However, phones are expensive; are vulnerable to damage and technical issues; necessitate additional training - not least due to rapid technological change; phone charging can be a challenge (especially under thick forest canopies); and uploading data for analysis is difficult in areas without network connections.
+
+== Data sharing in participatory monitoring ==
+A key challenge for participatory monitoring is to develop ways to store, manage and share data and to do this in ways that respect the rights of the communities that supplied the data. A ‘rights-based approach to data sharing’ can be based on principles of free, prior and informed consent, and prioritise the protection of the rights of those who generated the data, and/or those potentially affected by data-sharing. Local people can do much more than simply collect data: they can also define the ways that this data is used, and who has access to it.
+Clear agreements on data sharing are especially important for initiatives where diverse data is collected, of variable relevance to different stakeholders. For example, monitoring could on the one hand, investigate sensitive social problems within a community, or contested resources at the centre of local conflicts or illegal exploitation - data that community leaders might want to keep confidential and address locally; on the other hand, the same initiative could generate data on forest biomass, of greater interest to external stakeholders.
+One way to establish the rules around data sharing is to set up a data sharing protocol. This can define:

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+---
+title: "Participatory monitoring"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:26.931405+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The infrastructure for data storage and management (computer programmes, hard drives and cloud storage). Local capacity should be strong enough to access, manage and retain control of the data.
+Data classification: discussions in the communities can set out how different types of data can be used – for example a traffic light system can define ‘red’ data that is confidential to the community, ‘amber’ data which should be discussed prior to any use, and ‘green’ data that is approved for release.
+Processes for data sharing: this defines the roles and responsibilities of different people, and the processes to be followed for requests to access data, dependent on how that data is classified.
+Reporting: the protocol can set out how data should be reported, for example specifying the manner and frequency with which findings are reported to the local community, and ensuring that technical data is presented in a way that is compatible with external systems (e.g. government databanks or processes to respond to findings).
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Gardner, T.A. 2010. Monitoring Forest Biodiversity: Improving Conservation through Ecologically Responsible Management. Earthscan, London.
+Johnson, N. et al. 2015. Community-Based Monitoring in a Changing Arctic: A Review for the Sustaining Arctic Observing Network. Final report of Sustaining Arctic Observing Networks Task #9. Ottawa, ON: Inuit Circumpolar Council.
+Lawrence, A. (Ed.). 2010. Taking Stock of Nature. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
+Nordic Council of Ministers 2015. Local knowledge and resource management. On the use of indigenous and local knowledge to document and manage natural resources in the Arctic. TemaNord 2015-506.  Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, Denmark.  doi:10.6027/TN2015-506.
+Special issue of Biodiversity and Conservation on the potential of locally based approaches to monitoring of biodiversity and resource use, available at www.monitoringmatters.org (Danielsen et al. 2005b).
+Special issue of Polar Geography on local and traditional knowledge and data management in the Arctic http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tpog20/37/1#.VTd0oTrtU3Q
+Tebtebba 2013. Developing and Implementing Community‐Based Monitoring and Information Systems: The Global Workshop and the Philippine Workshop Reports. http://tebtebba.org/index.php/all‐resources/category/8‐ books?download=890:developing‐and‐implementing‐cbmis‐the‐global‐workshop‐and‐ the‐Philippine‐workshop‐reports

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-0.md

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 1/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Pea galaxy, also referred to as a Pea or Green Pea, might be a type of luminous blue compact galaxy that is undergoing very high rates of star formation. Pea galaxies are so-named because of their small size and greenish appearance in the images taken by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS).
+"Pea" galaxies were first discovered in 2007 by the volunteer citizen scientists within the forum section of the online astronomy project Galaxy Zoo (GZ), part of the Zooniverse web portal.
+
+== Description ==
+The Pea galaxies, also known as Green Peas (GPs), are compact oxygen-rich emission line galaxies that were discovered at redshift between z = 0.112 and 0.360.  These low-mass galaxies have an upper size limit generally no bigger than 16,300 light-years (5,000 pc) across, and typically they reside in environments less than two-thirds the density of normal galaxy environments. An average GP has a redshift of z = 0.258, a mass of ~3,200 million M☉ (~3,200 million solar masses), a star formation rate of ~10 M☉/yr (~10 solar masses a year), an [O III] equivalent width of 69.4 nm and a low metallicity. They have a strong emission line at the [OIII] wavelength of 500.7 nm. [OIII], O++ or doubly ionized oxygen, is a forbidden mechanism of the visible spectrum and is only possible at very low density. When the entire photometric SDSS catalogue was searched, 40,222 objects were returned, which leads to the conclusion the GPs are rare objects.
+GPs are the least massive and most actively star-forming galaxies in the local universe. "These galaxies would have been normal in the early Universe, but we just don't see such active galaxies today", said astrophysicist Dr. Kevin Schawinski. "Understanding the Green Peas may tell us something about how stars were formed in the early Universe and how galaxies evolve".
+GPs exist at a time when the universe was three-quarters of its current age and so are clues as to how galaxy formation and evolution took place in the early universe. With the publication of Amorin's GTC paper in February 2012, it is now thought that GPs might be old galaxies having formed most of their stellar mass several billion years ago. Old stars have been spectroscopically confirmed in one of the three galaxies in the study by the presence of magnesium.
+
+In January 2016, a study was published in the journal Nature identifying J0925+1403 as a Lyman continuum photons (LyC) 'leaker' with an escape fraction of ~8% (see section below). A follow-up study using the same Hubble Space Telescope (HST) data identifies four more LyC leakers, described as GPs.  In 2014–15, two separate sources identified two other GPs to be likely LyC leaking candidates (GP J1219 and GP J0815), suggesting that these two GPs are also low-redshift analogs of high-redshift Lyman-alpha and LyC leakers. Finding local LyC leakers is crucial to theories about the early universe and reionization. (for more details see Izotov et al. 2016)
+The image to the right shows Pea galaxy GP_J1219. This was observed in 2014 by a HST team whose principal investigator was Alaina Henry, using the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph and the Near Ultraviolet channel. The scale bar in the image shows 1 arc second (1"), which corresponds to ~10,750 light years at the distance of 2.69 billion light years for GP_J1219. When using the COS Multi-Anode Micro-channel Array, in NUV imaging mode, the detector plate scale is ~40 pixels per arcsecond (0.0235 arcseconds per pixel).
+GPs feature significantly within the Zoogems project, which uses HST to examine images of interest from the citizen science websites Galaxy Zoo and Radio Galaxy Zoo, collected since 2007. Among the ~300 possible candidates for the Zoogems observations are 75 GPs. The original GP classifications used SDSS images, which are not as good quality as the HST examples.
+
+== History of discovery ==
+
+=== Years 2007 to 2009 ===
+Galaxy Zoo (GZ) is a project online since July 2007 that seeks to classify up to one million galaxies. On July 28, 2007, two days after the start of the Galaxy Zoo Internet forum, citizen scientist 'Nightblizzard' posted two green objects thought to be galaxies. A discussion, or thread, was started on this forum by Hanny Van Arkel (cf. Hanny's Voorwerp) on the 12th of August 2007 called "Give peas a chance" in which various green objects were posted. This thread started humorously, as the name is a word play of the title of the John Lennon song "Give Peace a Chance", but by December 2007, it had become clear that some of these unusual objects were a distinct group of galaxies. These "Pea galaxies" appear in the SDSS as unresolved green images. This is because the Peas have a very bright, or powerful, spectral line in their spectra for highly-ionized oxygen, which in SDSS color composites increases the luminosity, or brightness, of the "r" color band with respect to the two other color bands "g" and "i". The "r" color band shows as green in SDSS images. Enthusiasts, calling themselves the "Peas Corps" (another humorous play on the Peace Corps), collected over a hundred of these Peas, which were eventually placed together into a dedicated discussion thread started by Carolin Cardamone in July 2008. The collection, once refined, provided values that could be used in a systematic computer search of the GZ database of one million objects, which eventually resulted in a sample of 251 Pea galaxies, also known as Green Peas (GPs).

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 2/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In November 2009, authors C. Cardamone et al. published a paper in the MNRAS titled "Galaxy Zoo Green Peas: Discovery of A Class of Compact Extremely Star-Forming Galaxies". Within this paper, 10 Galaxy Zoo volunteers are acknowledged as having made a particularly significant contribution. They are: Elisabeth Baeten, Gemma Coughlin, Dan Goldstein, Brian Legg, Mark McCallum, Christian Manteuffel, Richard Nowell, Richard Proctor, Alice Sheppard and Hanny Van Arkel. They are thanked for "giving Peas a chance". For more details see: Cardamone 2009 Physics
+The original 80 GPs were part of a sample from the SDSS data-release 7 (DR7), but did not include galaxies from other sources which might have been classed as GPs if they were in the SDSS sample. One example of a paper that demonstrates this is: In April 2009, J. J. Salzer et al. published a paper in the Astrophysical Journal Letters titled "A Population of Metal-Poor Galaxies with ~L* Luminosities at Intermediate Redshifts". In this paper, "new spectroscopy and metallicity estimates for a sample of 15 star-forming galaxies with redshifts in the range 0.29 – 0.42" were presented. These objects were selected using the KPNO International Spectroscopic Survey (KISS). 3 of these 15 when viewed as objects in SDSS are green (KISSR 1516, KISSR 2042 and KISSRx 467). Quoting from Salzer et al. 2009 "A New Class of Galaxy? Given the large number of studies of metal abundances in galaxies with intermediate and high redshift mentioned in the Introduction, it may seem odd that systems similar to those described here have not been recognized previously."

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 11/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Others ===
+In 2021, Kanekar et al. reported the first detection of HI 21 cm line emission in 19 GPs using the Green Bank Telescope and Arecibo Observatory. Their results give the first estimates of atomic gas mass in Green Pea galaxies.
+In a study "Radio properties of green pea galaxies", authors Borkar et al. examine the radio properties of GPs using the Jansky Very Large Array. They observe 3 GPs to build their radio spectral energy distributions to verify the presence of AGN. Using new and archival data from both GPs and Blueberry galaxies, they assess the detectability of these sources, comparing radio luminosities with expectations from theoretical and empirical relations. They find that the majority of the sampled dwarf galaxies are highly underluminous and that their radio luminosity is significantly lower than empirical expectations.
+
+== See also ==
+Blue compact dwarf galaxy – Small galaxy composed of up to several billion stars
+Dwarf galaxy – Small galaxy composed of up to several billion stars
+Galaxy formation and evolution – Subfield of cosmology
+Green bean galaxy – Very rare astronomical objects that are thought to be quasar ionization echos
+Haro 11 – Galaxy in the constellation Sculptor – One of nine galaxies shown to leak Lyman Continuum photons
+List of galaxies
+Reinventing Discovery – Book on the benefits of applying the philosophy of open science to research
+Tololo 1247-232 – Galaxy in the constellation HydraPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – One of nine galaxies shown to 'leak' Lyman continuum photons
+Ultraviolet astronomy – Observation of electromagnetic radiation at ultraviolet wavelengths
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Article about Green Peas from The Sky at Night
+Article about Blueberry galaxies from The Sky at Night

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 3/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 2010 - 2012 ===
+In June 2010, authors R. Amorin et al. published a paper in ApJ Letters titled "On the oxygen and nitrogen chemical abundances and the evolution of the "green pea" galaxies". In it they explore issues concerning the metallicity of 79 GPs, disputing the original findings in Cardamone et al. They conclude, "arguing that recent interaction-induced inflow of gas, possibly coupled with a selective metal-rich gas loss drive by supernova winds may explain our findings and the known galaxy properties". For more details see: Two papers by Amorin
+In February 2011, authors Y. Izotov et al. published a paper in the ApJ titled "Green Pea Galaxies and Cohorts: Luminous Compact Emission-line Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey". They find that the 80 GPs are not a rare class of galaxies on their own, but rather a subset of a class known as 'Luminous Compact Galaxies' (LCGs), of which there are 803. For more details see: Luminous Compact Galaxies
+In November 2011, authors Y. Izotov et al. published a paper in A&A titled 'Star-forming galaxies with hot dust emission in the SDSS discovered by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE)'. In this paper, they find four galaxies that have very red colours in the wavelength range 3.4 micrometres (W1) and 4.6 micrometres (W2). This implies that the dust in these galaxies is at temperatures up to 1000K. These four galaxies are GPs and more than double the number of known galaxies with these characteristics.
+In January 2012, authors R. Amorin et al. published a 'Conference proceeding' titled "Unveiling the Nature of the "Green Pea" galaxies". In this publication, they announce that they have conducted a set of observations using the Optical System for Imaging and low Resolution Integrated Spectroscopy (OSIRIS) at the Gran Telescopio Canarias, and that there is a forthcoming paper about their research. These observations "will provide new insights on the evolutionary state of the Green Peas. In particular, we will be able to see whether the Green Peas show an extended, old stellar population underlying the young starbursts, like those typically dominant in terms of stellar mass in most Blue Compact Galaxies". For more details see: Two papers by Amorin
+In January 2012, authors L. Pilyugin et al. published a paper in the MNRAS titled: "Abundance determination from global emission-line SDSS spectra: exploring objects with high N/O ratios". In it they compare the oxygen and nitrogen abundances derived from global emission-line SDSS spectra of galaxies using (i) the electron temperature method and (ii) two recent strong line O/N and N/S calibrations. Three sets of objects were compared: i) Composite hydrogen-rich nebula, ii) 281 SDSS galaxies and iii) A sample of GPs with detectable [OIII]-4363 auroral lines. Among the questions surrounding the GPs is how much nebulae influence their spectra and results. Through comparisons of the three objects using proven methodology and analysis of metallicity, they conclude that "the high nitrogen-to-oxygen ratios derived in some Green Pea galaxies may be caused by the fact that their SDSS spectra are spectra of composite nebulae made up of several components with different physical properties (such as metallicity). However, for the hottest Green Pea galaxies, which appear to be dwarf galaxies, this explanation does not seem to be plausible."
+In January 2012, author S. Hawley published a paper in the PASP titled "Abundances in "Green Pea" Star-forming Galaxies". In this paper, former NASA astronaut Steven Hawley compares the results from previous GP papers regarding their metallicities. Hawley compares different ways of calibrating and interpreting the various results, mainly from Cardamone et al. and Amorin et al. but some from Izotov et al., and suggests why the various discrepancies between these papers' findings might be. He also considers such details as the contribution of Wolf–Rayet stars to the gas ionization, and which sets of emission lines give the most accurate results for these galaxies. He ends by writing: "The calibrations derived from the Green Peas differ from those commonly utilized and would be useful if star-forming galaxies like the Green Peas with extremely hot ionizing sources are found to be more common."
+In February 2012, authors S. Chakraborti et al. published a paper in The ApJ Letters titled 'Radio Detection of Green Peas: Implications for Magnetic Fields in Young Galaxies'. In this paper, magnetism studies using new data from the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope describe various observations based around the GPs. They show that the three "very young" starburst galaxies that were studied have magnetic fields larger than the Milky Way. This is at odds with the current understanding that galaxies build up their magnetic properties over time. For more details see: Radio detection
+In April 2012, authors R. Amorin et al. published a paper in the ApJ titled "The Star Formation History and Metal Content of the 'Green Peas'. New Detailed GTC-OSIRIS spectrophotometry of Three Galaxies". They give the results for the deep broad-band imaging and long-slit spectroscopy for 3 GPs that had been observed using the OSIRIS instrument, mounted on the 10.4m Gran Telescopio Canarias at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory. For more details see: GTC-OSIRIS
+In August 2012, authors R. Amorín et al. published a paper in the ApJ Letters titled "Complex gas kinematics in compact, rapidly assembling star-forming galaxies". Using the ISIS spectrograph on the William Herschel Telescope, they publish results of the high-quality spectra that they took of six galaxies, five of which are GPs. After studying the hydrogen alpha emission lines (ELs) in the spectra of all six, it is shown that these ELs are made up of multiple lines, meaning that the GPs have several chunks of gas and stars moving at large velocities relative to each other. These ELs also show that the GPs are effectively a 'turbulent mess', with parts (or clumps) moving at speeds of over 500 km/s (five hundred km/s) relative to each other.

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 4/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 2013–2015 ===
+In January 2013, authors S. Parnovsky et al. published a paper in A&SS titled "H alpha and UV luminosities and star formation rates in a large sample of luminous compact galaxies". In it, they present a statistical study of the star formation rates (SFR) derived from the GALEX observations in the Ultraviolet continuum and in the H alpha emission line for a sample of ~800 luminous compact galaxies (LCGs). Within the larger set of LCGs, including the GPs, SFR of up to ~110 M☉/yr (~110 solar masses a year) are found, as well as estimates of the ages of the starbursts.
+In April 2013, authors A. Jaskot and M. Oey published a paper in the ApJ titled "The Origin and Optical Depth of Ionizing Radiation in the "Green Pea" Galaxies". Six "extreme" GPs are studied. Using these, the authors endeavour to narrow down the list of possibilities about what is producing the radiation and the substantial amounts of high-energy photon that might be escaping from the GPs. Following on from this paper, observations on the Hubble Space Telescope, totalling 24 orbits, were taken in December 2013. The Cosmic Origins Spectrograph and the Advanced Camera for Surveys were used on four of the "extreme" GPs. For more details see: Two papers by Jaskot and Oey
+In January 2014, authors Y. Izotov et al. published a paper in A&A entitled "Multi-wavelength study of 14000 star-forming galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey". In it they use a variety of sources to demonstrate "that the emission emerging from young star-forming regions is the dominant dust-heating source for temperatures to several hundred degrees in the sample star-forming galaxies". The first source of data is SDSS from which 14,610 spectra with strong emission lines are selected. Those spectra were then cross-identified with sources from photometric sky surveys in other wavelength ranges, which are: i) GALEX for the ultraviolet, ii) The 2MASS survey for the near-infrared, iii) The WISE All-Sky Source Catalog for infrared at differing wavelengths, iv) The IRAS survey for the far-infrared and the v) NVSS Survey at radio-wavelengths. Only a small fraction of the SDSS objects were detected in the last two surveys. Among the results is a list of 20 galaxies with the highest magnitudes which have hot dust of several hundred degrees. Of these 20, all could be classified as GPs and/or LCGs. Also among the results, the luminosity is obtained in the sample galaxies in a wide wavelength range. At the highest luminosities, the sample galaxies had luminosites approaching those of high-redshift Lyman-break galaxy.
+In January 2014, authors A. Jaskot et al. gave a presentation titled "Neutral Gas and Low-Redshift Starbursts: From Infall to Ionization" to the AAS at their meeting #223. The presentation included data from The Arecibo Observatory Legacy Fast ALFA Survey (ALFALFA). The authors analyzed the optical spectra of the GPs and concluded "While the ALFALFA survey demonstrates the role of external processes in triggering starbursts, the Green Peas show that starbursts' radiation can escape to affect their external environment", finding "that the Peas are likely optically thin to Lyman continuum (LyC) radiation."
+In June 2014, authors A. Jaskot and M. Oey published a conference report titled "The Origin and Optical Depth of Ionizing Photons in the Green Pea Galaxies". This appears in "Massive Young Star Clusters Near and Far: From the Milky Way to Reionization", based on the 2013 Guillermo Haro Conference. For more details see: Two papers by Jaskot and Oey.
+In May 2015, authors A. Henry, C et al. published a paper in the ApJ entitled, "Lyα Emission from Green Peas: The Role of Circumgalactic Gas Density, Covering, and Kinematics". In this paper, ten Green Peas were studied in the ultraviolet, using high-resolution spectroscopy with the Hubble Space Telescope using the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph. This study showed, for the first time, that Green Peas have strong Lyα emission much like distant, high-redshift galaxies observed in a younger universe. Henry et al. explored the physical mechanisms that determine how Lyα escapes from the Green Peas, and concluded that variations in the neutral hydrogen column density were the most important factor. For more details see: Lyman Alpha Emission from Green Peas.
+
+=== 2016–2017 ===
+In May 2016, author Miranda C. P. Straub published a research paper in the open access journal Citizen Science: Theory and Practice called 'Giving Citizen Scientists a Chance: A Study of Volunteer-led Scientific Discovery'. The abstract states: "The discovery of a class of galaxies called Green Peas provides an example of scientific work done by volunteers. This unique situation arose out of a science crowdsourcing website called Galaxy Zoo."
+In April 2016, Yang et al. published "Green Pea Galaxies Reveal Secrets of Lyα Escape." Archival Lyman-alpha spectra of 12 GPs that have been observed with the HST/COS were analysed and modelled with radiative transfer models. The dependence of Lyman-alpha (LyA) escape fractions on various properties were explored. All 12 GPs show LyA lines in emission, with a LyA equivalent width distribution similar to high-redshift emitters. Among the findings are that the LyA escape fraction depends strongly on metallicity and moderately on dust extinction. The papers results suggest that low H1 column density and low metallicity are essential for LyA escape. "In conclusion, GPs provide an unmatched opportunity to study LyA escape in LyA Emitters."

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
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+---
+
+In a presentation to the AAS Meeting #229 in January 2017, Matt Brorby and Philip Kaaret describe the observations of two GPs and their x-ray emission. Using both space telescope programs Chandra GO: 16400764 and Hubble GO: 13940, they examine Luminous Compact Galaxies, both GPs, J0842+1150 and SHOC 486. They conclude: i) These are the first x-ray observations of GPs. ii) The two GPs studied are the first test of Lx-SFR-Z planar relation and that they are consistent with this. iii) Low-metallicity galaxies exhibit enhanced x-ray emission relative to normal metallicity starforming galaxies. iv) GPs are useful for predictions of X-ray output in the early universe.
+In March 2017, Yang et al. published a paper in the ApJ called: "Lyα and UV Sizes of Green Pea Galaxies". The authors studied the Lyman-alpha (LyA) escape in a statistical sample of 43 GPs with HST/COS LyA spectra, taken from 6 HST programs. Their conclusions include: i) Using GPs that cover the whole ranges of dust extinction and metallicity, they find about two-thirds are strong LyA emitters. This confirms that GPs generally are "the best analogs of high-z (redshift) Lyman-alpha Emitters (LAEs) in the nearby universe." ii) The authors find many correlations regarding the dependence of LyA escape on galactic properties, such as dust extinction and metallicity. iii) The single shell radiative transfer model can reproduce most LyA profiles of GPs. iv) An empirical linear relation between the LyA escape fraction, dust extinction and the LyA red peak velocity.
+In August 2017, Yang et al. published a study in the ApJ called: "Lyα profile, dust, and prediction of Lyα escape fraction in Green Pea Galaxies". The authors state that GPs are nearby analogues of high-redshift Lyman-alpha (LyA)- emitting galaxies. Using spectral data from the HST-COS MAST archive, 24 GPs were studied for their LyA escape and the spatial profiles of LyA and UV continuum emissions. Results include: i) Having compared LyA and UV sizes from the 2D spectra and 1D spatial profiles, it is found that most GPs show more extended LyA emission than the UV continuum. ii) 8 GPs had their spatial profiles of LyA photons at blueshifted and redshifted velocities compared. iii) The LyA escape fraction was compared with the size ration of LyA to UV. It was found that GPs that have LyA escape fractions greater than 10% "tend to have more compact LyA morphology".
+In October 2017, Lofthouse et al. published a study in MNRAS named:  The authors used integral field spectroscopy, from the SWIFT and Palm 3K instruments, to perform a spatially-resolved spectroscopic analysis of four GPs, numbered 1,2,4 and 5. Among the results are that GPs 1 & 2 are rotationally-supported (they have a rotating centre), while GPs 4 & 5 are dispersion-dominated systems. GPs 1 & 2 show morphologies indicative of ongoing or mergers. However, GPs 4 & 5 show no signs of recent interactions and have similar star-forming rates. This indicates mergers are not "a necessary requirement for driving the high star formation in these types of galaxies".
+In December 2017, authors Jaskot et al. published a paper in the ApJ Letters titled:"Kinematics and Optical Depth in the Green Peas: Suppressed Superwinds in Candidate LyC Emitters". Within the paper, they say that current thinking describes how superwinds clear neutral gas away from young starburst galaxies, which in turn regulates the escape of Lyman Continuum photons from star-forming galaxies. Models predict however that in the most extreme compact starbursts, those superwinds may not launch. The authors explore the role of outflows in generating low optical depth in GPs, using observations from the Hubble Space Telescope. They compare the kinematics of ultraviolet absorption and with Lyman alpha escape fraction, Lyman alpha peak separation or low-ionisation absorption. The most extreme GPs show the slowest velocities, which "are consistent with models for suppressed superwinds, which suggests that outflows may not be the only cause of LyC escape from galaxies."
+
+=== 2021–2024 ===
+In this study using images of Peas taken as part of the Zoogems project, Leonardo Clarke et al. examine PG content to find out about the different ages of the stars and find that, while the central star-forming clusters were up to 500 million years old, there are stars, possibly the host galaxy stars, which are older and are thought to be more than 1 billion years old. Peas have been intensively studied as they are the only population that has hydrogen-ionizing radiation escaping in large amounts and so are substitutes for the earliest galaxies. Yet Clarke et al. argue the substantial presence of old stars would not have been possible at the earliest stages of the first galaxies. The mix of old and new stars within Pea galaxies could create different gravitational conditions which might influence galactic winds and element retention. Their conclusions imply that Pea galaxies are not real analogs of the galaxies responsible for the Epoch of Reionisation.
+
+This study from January 2023 uses Early Release Observations from the James Webb Space Telescope to analyse the Near Infrared Spectrograph of three galaxies at a redshift of z~8 to determine their metallicities, gas temperatures and ionisation. Using robust measurement procedures, the scientists compare the abundances and emission-line ratios to a nearby sample of Green Pea galaxies. JWST data shows further similarities between these GPs and the three high-redshift galaxies. These three galaxies show a compact morphology typical of emission-line-dominated galaxies at all redshifts and based on similarities with GPs, "it is likely that these are the first rest-optical spectra of galaxies that are actively driving cosmological reionization".

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
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+category: "reference"
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+---
+
+The JWST image used by Rhoads et al. is called SMACS 0723 and within it three galaxies that looked particularly far away were followed up using spectroscopic observations. This caught the attention of Rhoads et al. as the spectra of the three galaxies resembled GPs. Astronomer Trinh Thuan from the University of Virginia says he was amazed to see the similarity between the distant trio and GPs. Before JWST, the furthest GPs were measured at about 10 billion years after the Big Bang. Daniel Schaerer, an astronomer at the University of Geneva said that GPs can now be measured from only 700 million years after the Big Bang – "It's completely mind-boggling". As reported in Nature back in 2016, GPs are strong sources of ionizing radiation that are thought to be able to free the early universe from its 'dark ages'. Thuan said: "Now I really do think that these star-forming dwarf galaxies are the agent of reionization".
+A study published in the ApJ  by Bhat et al. in January 2024 investigates the influence of jets on GPs and Green Beans. Using 12 subjects selected from the SDSS and Radio Sky at 20 cm survey, the team use the  Large Binocular Telescope–Multi-Object Double Spectrograph long-slit spectroscopy at two position angles for each galaxy: one aligned with the jet direction and another perpendicular to it. By tracing the [OIII] emission along these slits, the team aimed to assess the extension of the jets, which revealed that there was no preferred direction on the EELRs. When comparing the extension of [OIII] emission with that [OII], it was found that [OII] emission extended along a greater extension along the galactic plane, suggesting a stronger association of [OII] with stellar processes.
+In the 2024 study "Ubiquitous broad-line emission and the relation between ionized gas outflows and Lyman
+continuum escape in Green Pea galaxies" R. Amorin et al. report evidence obtained by observations of ionized gas kinematics in a sample of 20 LyC emitters. These were made up of GPs from 3 different studies i) 14 from the Low-z Lyman Continuum (Flury et al. 2022a,b & Saldana-Lopez et al. 2022.) ii) 5 from Izotov et al. (2016a,b & 2018a) iii) 1 from Wang et al. (2021). A subsample of 13 spectra were obtained with the X-shooter instrument at the Very Large Telescope, while a subsample of 7 used spectra from the William Herschel Telescope's ISIS. Presenting new high-resolution optical spectra of 6 strong, 11 weak and 3 insignificant LyC leakers, they performed a first kinematic analysis of resolved emission-line profiles using multicomponent Gaussian fitting. They find a significant correlation between the intrinsic velocity dispersion and maximum line-width velocities of galaxies and their LyC escape fraction. Their results strongly suggest "that the physical mechanisms driving the observed kinematic complexity play a significant role in the escape of ionizing photons in galaxies."
+
+== Blueberry galaxies ==
+
+Blueberry galaxies (BBs) are fainter, less massive and lower distance counterparts of GPs. They are generally very small dwarf starburst galaxies that have very high ionisation rates and also have some of the lowest stellar masses and metallicities of starburst galaxies, although a massive BB has been studied. Two BBs are among the most metal-poor galaxies known, while the larger sample exist in low-density environments, similar to GPs. BBs are more compact than GPs being less than 1/3000 the size of the Milky Way. BBs form one of the youngest classes of star-forming galaxies with median ages ≤70 Myr. In 2011, Izotov and fellow authors wrote that GPs, BBs and 'Purple Grapes' were Luminous Compact Galaxies at different distances (see below).
+While Huan (2017) identified a sample of 40 BBs, a much larger sample was acquired using data from the LAMOST DR9 survey. Siqi Liu and fellow authors found 270 BBs, as well as GPs and 'Purple Grapes'. The observations found 1,417 new compact galaxies, nearly twice as many as formerly known.  Researchers undertook a systematic study of the star formation rates, metallicities and environments of the compact galaxies that have different colours because of the different positions of emission lines in the photometric bands.
+
+== Little red dots ==
+
+Recent observations by the JWST have revealed a population of small red galaxies known as Little Red Dots (LRD) that exist between 600 million years and 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang . It is thought that these objects have AGN within them caused by supermassive black holes, though other theories exist.
+A study published in the ApJ letters by Ruqiu Lin et al. (2025) link LRDs to GPs. Using data gathered from previous work, Lin et al. theorise local analog GPs that host broad-line AGNs (BLGPs) are similar to LRDs. These galaxies with 'over massive' black holes have spectra similar to that found with LRDs. They conclude: "GPs provide a local subsample that can be considered analogs to LRDs and high-z broad-line AGNs. Combined with follow-up observation, including spectroscopic and imaging observations with high sensitivity and high spatial resolution in the UV and optical bands, this V-shaped BLGP sample can help to address several unclear questions for LRDs, such as the UV emission origin."

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 7/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== J0925+1403 and LyC leakage ==
+In January 2016, a letter was published in the journal Nature called: "Eight per cent leakage of Lyman continuum photons from a compact, star-forming dwarf galaxy" by authors Y.I. Izotov et al. which was a result of observations carried out using the COS aboard the HST. The abstract states: "One of the key questions in observational cosmology is the identification of the sources responsible for ionisation of the Universe after the cosmic Dark Ages". It also states: "Here we present far-ultraviolet observations of a nearby low-mass star-forming galaxy, J0925+1403, selected for its compactness and high excitation... The galaxy is 'leaking' ionising radiation, with an escape fraction of 7.8%." These levels of radiation are thought to be similar to those of the first galaxies in the universe, which emerged in a time known as reionization. These findings have led the research team to conclude that J0925 can ionise intergalactic material up to 40 times its own stellar mass.
+GP J0925 is thought to be similar to the most distant, and thus earliest, galaxies in the universe and has been shown to 'leak' LyC. It is about 3 billion light years away (redshift z=0.301), or approximately 75% of the current age of the universe. Co-author Trinh Thuan said that i) The finding is significant because it gives us a good place to look for probing the reionization phenomenon, which took place early in the formation of the universe that became the universe we have today, ii) As we make additional observations using Hubble, we expect to gain a much better understanding of the way photons are ejected from this type of galaxy, and the specific galaxy types driving cosmic reionization, and iii) These are crucial observations in the process of stepping back in time to the early universe.
+
+=== LyC detection in J1152+3400, J1333+6246, J1442-0209, J1503+3644 ===
+In October 2016, a study was published in the MNRAS entitled: "Detection of high Lyman continuum leakage from four low-redshift compact star-forming galaxies". Its authors are Y. I. Izotov et al. The abstract states: "Following our first detection reported in Izotov et al. (2016) [as above], we present the detection of Lyman continuum (LyC) radiation of four other compact star-forming galaxies observed with the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) onboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST)".
+This study contains the methods and findings from Izotov et al. 2016 (a) which concentrated on one galaxy, whereas the above paper, Izotov et al. 2016 (b) has findings for four galaxies, all of which have LyC leakage. When compared with other known local galaxies that leak LyC, as listed in this article, Izotov et al. 2016 (a & b) doubled the numbers of known leakers.
+
+== Lyman alpha emission ==
+
+In May 2015, authors Alaina Henry et al. published a paper titled: "Lyα Emission from Green Peas: The Role of Circumgalactic Gas Density, Covering, and Kinematics".  The motivation of this work was to understand why some galaxies have Lyα emission, while others don't. A host of physical conditions in galaxies regulate the output of this spectral feature; hence, understanding its emission is fundamentally important for understanding how galaxies form and how they impact their intergalactic surroundings.
+Henry et al. hypothesized that, since the GPs seem more like galaxies at redshift=z>2, and Lyα is common at these redshifts, that Lyα would be common in the GPs as well. Observations with the HST using the COS, as in 'Description', proved this to be true for a sample of 10 GPs. The spectra, shown here to the right, indicate resonant scattering of Lyα photons that are emitted near zero velocity. The wealth of data existing on the GPs, combined with the COS spectra, allowed Henry et al. to explore the physical mechanisms that regulate the Lyα output. These authors concluded that variations in the amount of neutral hydrogen gas, which scatters Lyα photons, are the cause of a factor of 10 difference in Lyα output in their sample.
+The spectrum of GP J1219 (an image of which is in 'Description') shows its very strong flux measurements when compared to other 9 GPs. Indeed, only GP J1214 has a value approaching that of J1219. Note also the double peaks in some GPs and the velocity values of the emissions, indicating the inflow and outflow of matter in the GPs.
+
+== Papers by A. Jaskot and M.S. Oey ==
+In April 2013, authors A. Jaskot and M. Oey published a paper in ApJ titled "The Origin and Optical Depth of Ionizing Radiation in the "Green Pea" Galaxies". Six "extreme" GPs are studied. Using these, they endeavour to narrow down the list of possibilities about what is producing the UV-radiation and the substantial amounts of high-energy photon that might be escaping from the GPs. Through trying to observe these photons in nearby galaxies such as the GPs, our understanding of how galaxies behaved in the early Universe might well be revolutionised. It is reported that the GPs are exciting candidates to help astronomers understand a major milestone in the development of the cosmos 13 billion years ago, during the epoch of reionization.
+In February 2014, authors A. Jaskot and M. Oey published a conference report titled "The Origin and Optical Depth of Ionizing Photons in the Green Pea Galaxies". This will appear in "Massive Young Star Clusters Near and Far: From the Milky Way to Reionization", based on the 2013 Guillermo Haro Conference. In the publication, Jaskot and Oey write: "We are currently analyzing observations from IMACS and MagE on the Magellan Telescopes and COS and ACS on Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to distinguish between WR (Wolf-Rayet star) and the shock ionization scenarios and confirm the GPs' optical depths.  The absence of WR features in the deeper IMACS spectra tentatively supports the shock scenario, although the detection limits do not yet definitively rule out the WR photoionization hypothesis."
+
+== Physics from the Cardamone 2009 paper ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-7.md

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 8/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+At the time this paper was published, only five Green Peas (GPs) had been imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Three of these images reveal GPs to be made up of bright clumps of star formation and low surface density features indicative of recent or ongoing galaxy mergers. These three HST images were imaged as part of a study of local ultraviolet (UV-luminous) galaxies in 2005. Major mergers are frequently sites of active star-formation and to the right a graph is shown that plots specific star formation rate (SFR / Galaxy Mass) against galaxy mass. In this graph, the GPs are compared to the 3003 mergers from the Galaxy Zoo Merger Sample (GZMS). It shows that the GPs have low masses typical of dwarf galaxy and much higher star-forming rates (SFR) when compared to the GZMS. The black, dashed line shows a constant SFR of 10 M☉/yr (~10 solar masses). Most GPs have a SFR between 3 and 30 M☉/yr (between ~3 and ~30 solar masses).
+
+GPs are rare. Of the one million objects that make up GZ's image bank, only 251 GPs were found. After having to discard 148 of these 251 because of atmospheric contamination of their stellar spectra, the 103 that were left, with the highest signal-to-noise ratio, were analyzed further using the classic emission line diagnostic by Baldwin, Phillips and Terlevich which separates starbursts and active galactic nuclei. 80 were found to be starburst galaxies. The graph to the left classifies 103 narrow-line GPs (all with SNR ≥ 3 in the emission lines) as 10 active galactic nuclei (blue diamonds), 13 transition objects (green crosses) and 80 starbursts (red stars). The solid line is: Kewley et al. (2001) maximal starburst contribution (labelled Ke01). The dashed line is: Kauffmann et al. (2003) separating purely star-forming objects from AGN (labelled Ka03).
+
+GPs have a strong [OIII] emission line when compared to the rest of their spectral continuum. In a SDSS spectrum, this shows up as a large peak with [OIII] at the top. The wavelength of [OIII] (500.7 nm) was chosen to determine the luminosities of the GPs using equivalent width (Eq.Wth.). The histogram on the right shows on the horizontal scale the Eq.Wth. of a comparison of 10,000 normal galaxies (marked red), UV-luminous Galaxies (marked blue) and GPs (marked green). As can be seen from the histogram, the Eq.Wth. of the GPs is much larger than normal for even prolific starburst galaxies such as UV-luminous Galaxies.
+Within the Cardamone et al. paper, comparisons are made with other compact galaxies, namely Blue Compact Dwarfs Galaxies and UV-luminous Galaxies, at local and much higher distances. The findings show that GPs form a different class of galaxies than Ultra Blue Compact Dwarfs, but may be similar to the most luminous members of the Blue Compact Dwarf Galaxy category. The GPs are also similar to UV-luminous high-redshift galaxies such as Lyman-break Galaxies and Lyman-alpha emitters. It is concluded that if the underlying processes occurring in the GPs are similar to that found in the UV-luminous high-redshift galaxies, the GPs may be the last remnants of a mode of star formation common in the early Universe.
+
+GPs have low interstellar reddening values, as shown in the histogram on the right, with nearly all GPs having E(B−V) ≤ 0.25. The distribution shown indicates that the line-emitting regions of star-forming GPs are not highly reddened, particularly when compared to more typical star-forming or starburst galaxies. This low reddening combined with very high UV luminosity is rare in galaxies in the local Universe and is more typically found in galaxies at higher redshifts.
+Cardamone et al. describe GPs as having a low metallicity, but that the oxygen present is highly ionized. The average GP has a metallicity of log[O/H]+12~8.69, which is solar or sub-solar, depending on which set of standard values is used. Although the GPs are in general consistent with the mass-metallicity relation, they depart from it at the highest mass end and thus do not follow the trend. GPs have a range of masses, but a more uniform metallicity than the sample compared against. These metallicities are common in low-mass galaxies such as Peas.
+
+As well as the optical images from the SDSS, measurements from the GALEX survey were used to determine the ultraviolet values. This survey is well matched in depth and area, and 139 of the sampled 251 GPs are found in GALEX Release 4 (G.R.4). For the 56 of the 80 star-forming GPs with GALEX detections, the median luminosity is ~30,000 million 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          L
+          
+            ⊙
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle L_{\odot }}
+  
+ (~30,000 million solar luminosities).
+When compiling the Cardamone paper, spectral classification was made using Gas And Absorption Line Fitting (GANDALF). This sophisticated computer software was programmed by Marc Sarzi, who helped analyze the SDSS spectra.
+
+== Analysis of the Cardamone 2009 paper ==
+These values are from Table 4, pages 16–17 of Cardamone 2009 et al., which shows the 80 GPs that have been analysed here. The long 18-digit numbers are the SDSS DR7 reference numbers.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-8.md

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 9/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ 
+Color selection was by using the difference in the levels of three optical filters, in order to capture these color limits: u−r ≤ 2.5 (1), r−i ≤ −0.2 (2), r−z ≤ 0.5 (3), g−r ≥ r−i + 0.5 (4), u−r ≥ 2.5 (r−z) (5).
+If the diagram on the right (one of two in the paper) is looked at, the effectiveness of this color selection can be seen. The color-color diagram shows ~100 GPs (green crosses), 10,000 comparison galaxies (red points) and 9,500 comparison quasar (purple stars) at similar redshifts to the GPs. The black lines show how these figures are on the diagram.
+Comparing a GP to the Milky Way can be useful when trying to visualize these star-forming rates. An average GP has a mass of ~3,200 million M☉ (~3,200 million solar masses). The Milky Way (MW) is a spiral galaxy and has a mass of ~1,125,000, million M☉ (~1,125,000 million solar masses). So the MW has the mass of ~390 GPs.
+Research has shown that the MW converts ~2 M☉/yr (~2 solar masses per year) worth of interstellar medium into stars. An average GP converts ~10 M☉/yr (~10 solar masses) of interstellar gas into stars, which is ~5 times the rate of the MW.
+One of the original ways of recognizing GPs, before SQL programming was involved, was because of a discrepancy about how the SDSS labels them within Skyserver. Out of the 251 of the original GP sample that were identified by the SDSS spectroscopic pipeline as having galaxy spectra, only 7 were targeted by the SDSS spectral fibre allocation as galaxies i.e. 244 were not.
+
+== Later studies ==
+In June 2010, authors R. Amorín et al. published a paper in ApJ letters titled "On the Oxygen and Nitrogen Chemical Abundances and the Evolution of the "Green Pea" Galaxies", which disputes the metallicities calculated in the original Cardamone et al. GPs paper Amorin et al. use a different methodology from Cardamone et al. to produce metallicity values more than one fifth (20%) of the previous values (about 20% solar or one fifth solar) for the 80 'starburst' GPs. These mean values are log[O/H]+12~8.05, which shows a clear offset of 0.65dex between the two papers' values. For these 80 GPs, Amorin et al., using a direct method, rather than strong-line methods as used in Cardamone et al., calculate physical properties, as well as oxygen and nitrogen ionic abundances. These metals pollute hydrogen and helium, which make up the majority of the substances present in galaxies. As these metals are produced in supernovae, the more recent a galaxy is, the fewer metals it would have. As GPs are in the nearby, or recent, Universe, they should have more metals than galaxies at an earlier time.
+
+Amorin et al. find that the amount of metals, including the abundance of nitrogen, is different from normal values and that GPs are not consistent with the mass-metallicity relation, as concluded by Cardamone et al. This analysis indicates that GPs can be considered as genuine metal-poor galaxies. They then argue that this oxygen under-abundance is due to a recent interaction-induced inflow of gas, possibly coupled with a selective metal-rich gas loss driven by supernovae winds and that this can explain their findings. This further suggests that GPs are likely very short-lived as the intense star formation in them would quickly enrich the gas.
+
+In May 2011, R.Amorin et al. published a conference proceeding paper titled "Unveiling the Nature of the "Green Pea" galaxies". In it they review recent scientific results and announcing a forthcoming paper on their recent observations at the Gran Telescopio Canarias. They conclude that GPs are a genuine population of metal-poor, luminous and very compact starburst galaxies. Amongst the data, five graphs illustrate the findings they have made. Amorin et al. use masses calculated by Izotov, rather than by Cardamone. The metallicities that Amorin et al. use agree with Izotov's findings, or vice versa, rather than Cardamone's.
+The first graph (on the left; fig.1 in paper) plots the nitrogen/oxygen vs. oxygen/hydrogen abundance ratio. The 2D histogram of SDSS star forming galaxies is shown in logarithmic scale while the GPs are indicated by circles. This shows that GPs are metal-poor.
+
+The second graph (on the right; fig.2 in paper) plots O/H vs. stellar mass. The 2D histogram of SDSS SFGs is shown in logarithmic scale and their best likelihood fit is shown by a black solid line. The subset of 62 GPs are indicated by circles and their best linear fit is shown by a dashed line. For comparison we also show the quadratic fit presented in Amorin et al. 2010 for the full sample of 80 GPs. SFGs at z ≥ 2 by Erb et al. are also shown by asterisks for comparison.
+
+The third graph (on the left; fig.3 in paper) plots N/O vs. stellar mass. Symbols as in fig.1.
+
+The fourth graph (on the right; fig.4 in paper) plots O/H vs. B-band (rest-frame) absolute magnitude. The meaning of symbols is indicated. Distances used in computing (extinction corrected) absolute magnitudes were, in all cases, calculated using spectroscopic redshifts and the same cosmological parameters. The dashed line indicates the fit to the HII galaxies in the Luminosity-Metallicity Relationship (MZR) given by Lee et al. 2004.
+The fifth graph (on the left; fig.5 in paper) plots gas mass fraction vs. metallicity. Different lines correspond to closed-box models at different yields, as indicated in the legend. Open and filled circles are GPs that are above and below the fit to their MZR. Diamonds are values for the same Wolf-Rayet galaxies as in Fig. 4.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-9.md

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+---
+title: "Pea galaxy"
+chunk: 10/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== GTC-OSIRIS spectrophotometry ==
+In February 2012, authors R. Amorin et al. published a paper titled "The star formation history and metal content of the "Green Peas". New detailed GTC-OSIRIS spectrophotometry of three galaxies" in which they presented the findings of observations carried out using the Gran Telescopio Canarias at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory. They gather deep broad-band imaging and long-slit spectroscopy of 3 GPs using high-precision equipment.
+Their findings show that the three GPs display relatively low extinction, low oxygen abundances and high nitrogen-to-oxygen ratios. Also reported are the clear signatures of Wolf–Rayet stars, of which a population are found (between ~800 and ~1200). A combination of population and evolutionary synthesis models strongly suggest a formation history dominated by starbursts. These models show that these three GPs currently undergo a major starburst producing between ~4% and ~20% of their stellar mass. However, as these models imply, they are old galaxies having formed most of their stellar mass several billion years ago. The presence of old stars has been spectroscopically verified in one of the three galaxies by the detection of Magnesium. Surface photometry, using data from the Hubble Space Telescope archive, indicates that the three GPs possess an exponential low surface brightness envelope (see Low-surface-brightness galaxy). This suggests that GPs are identifiable with major episodes in the assembly history of local Blue Compact Dwarf galaxies.
+The three galaxies are (using SDSS references):
+
+587724199349387411
+587729155743875234
+587731187273892048
+
+== Comparison to luminous compact galaxies ==
+In February 2011, Izotov et al. published a paper titled "Green Pea Galaxies and Cohorts: Luminous Compact Emission-line Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey", examining the GPs and comparing these to a larger set of 803 Luminous Compact Galaxies (LCGs). They use a different set of selection criteria from Cardamone et al. These are: a) a high extinction-corrected luminosity > 3×1040 ergs/s of the hydrogen beta emission line; (see hydrogen spectral series) b) a high equivalent width greater than 5 nm; c) a strong [OIII] wavelength at the 436.3 nm emission line allowing accurate abundance determination; d) a compact structure on SDSS images; and e) an absence of obvious active galactic nuclei spectroscopic features.
+Its conclusions (shortened) are:
+
+The selected galaxies have redshifts between 0.02 and 0.63, a range equal or greater than a factor of 2 when compared to the GPs. They find the properties of LCGs and GPs are similar to Blue Compact Dwarf galaxies. Explaining how the colours of emission-line galaxies change with distance using SDSS, they conclude that GPs are just subsamples within a narrow redshift range of their larger LCG sample.
+Although there were no upper limits on the hydrogen beta luminosities, it was found that there was a 'self-regulating' mechanism which bound the LCGs to a limit of ~3×1042 ergs/s.
+In the [OIII] wavelength 500.7 nm ratio to hydrogen beta vs. [NII] wavelength 658.3 nm ratio to hydrogen alpha, LCGs occupy the region, in the diagnostic diagram, of star-forming galaxies with the highest excitation. However, some active galactic nuclei also lie in this region in the diagnostic diagram.
+The oxygen abundances 12 + log O/H in LCGs are in the range 7.6–8.4 with a median value of ~8.11, confirming Amorin et al.'s analysis of a subset of GPs. This range of oxygen abundances is typical of nearby lower-luminosity Blue Compact Dwarfs. These results show that the original Cardamone et al. median oxygen abundance of 12 + log O/H = ~8.7 is overestimated, as a different, empirical method was originally used, rather than the direct method by Amorin et al. and Izotov et al. There is no dependence of oxygen abundance on redshift.
+In the luminosity-metallicity diagram (fig. 8 in paper), LCGs are shifted by ~2 magnitudes brighter when compared to nearby emission-line galaxies. LCGs form a common luminosity-metallicity relation, as for the most actively star-forming galaxies. Some LCGs have oxygen abundances and luminosities similar to Lyman-break galaxies (LBGs), despite much lower redshifts, thus enabling the study of LBGs through LCGs.
+
+== Radio detection ==
+
+=== Chakraborti et al. ===
+In February 2012, authors Sayan et al. published a paper titled "Radio Detection of Green Peas: Implications for Magnetic Fields in Young Galaxies" which deals with the magnetic properties of the GPs. In it, they describe observations which have produced some unexpected results raising puzzling questions about the origin and evolution of magnetism in young galaxies. The ages are estimated from looking at the star formation that the GPs currently have ongoing and then estimating the age of the most recent starburst. GPs are very young galaxies, with models of the observed stellar populations indicating that they are around 10^8 (one hundred million) years old (1/100 the age of the Milky Way). There is some question as to whether the GPs all started from the same starburst or if multiple starbursts went on (much older stellar populations are hidden as we can't see the light from these).
+Using data from the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) and archive observations from the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA), Chakraborti et al. produced a set of results which are based around the VLA FIRST detection of stacked flux from 32 GPs and three 3-hour low-frequency observations from the GMRT which targeted the three most promising candidates which had expected fluxes at the milli-Jansky (mJy) level.
+Chakraborti et al. find that the three GPs observed by the GMRT have a magnetic field of B~39 μG, and more generally a figure of greater than B~30μG for all the GPs. This is compared to a figure of B~5μG for the Milky Way. The present understanding is of magnetic field growth based on the amplification of seed fields by dynamo theory and its action over a galaxy's lifetime. The observations of GPs challenge that thinking.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylo_(video_game)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+---
+title: "Phylo (video game)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylo_(video_game)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:29.878115+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Phylo is an experimental video game about multiple sequence alignment optimisation. Developed by the McGill Centre for Bioinformatics, it was originally released as a free Flash game in November 2010. Designed as a game with a purpose, players solve pattern-matching puzzles that represent nucleotide sequences of different phylogenetic taxa to optimize alignments over a computer algorithm. By aligning together each nucleotide sequence, represented as differently coloured blocks, players attempt to create the highest point value score for each set of sequences by matching as many colours as possible and minimizing gaps.
+The nucleotide sequences generated by Phylo are obtained from actual sequence data from the UCSC Genome Browser. High-scoring player alignments are collected as data and sent back to the McGill Centre for Bioinformatics to be further evaluated with a stronger scoring algorithm. Those player alignments that score higher than the current computer-generated score will be re-introduced into the global alignment as an optimization.
+
+
+== Background ==
+
+The goal of multiple sequence alignments in phylogenetics is to determine the most likely nucleotide sequence of each species by comparing the sequences of children species with those of a most recent common ancestor. Producing such an optimal multiple sequence alignment is usually determined with a dynamic programming algorithm that finds the most probable evolutionary outcome by minimizing the number of mutations required. These algorithms generate phylogenetic trees for each nucleotide in a sequence for each species, and determine the genetic sequence for a common ancestor by comparing the trees of the child species. The algorithms then score and sort the completed phylogenetic tree, and the alignment with the maximum parsimony score is determined to be the optimal, and thus most evolutionarily likely, multiple sequence alignment. However, finding such an optimal alignment for a large number of sequences has been determined to be an NP-complete problem.
+Phylo uses human-based computation to create an interactive genetic algorithm to solve the multiple sequence alignment problem instead. Generation of the ancestral sequences and parsimony scoring is still computed using a variation of the Fitch–Margoliash method, but Phylo abstracts the genetic sequences obtained from the UCSC Genome Browser into a pattern-matching game, allowing human players to suggest the most likely alignment rather than algorithmically considering all possible trees.
+
+
+== Gameplay ==
+
+Each puzzle in Phylo is categorized based on the number of total sequence fragments to be aligned and a disease that is associated with that fragment in humans. Once a puzzle is chosen, a few of the genetic sequence fragments for each species to be aligned, represented as coloured blocks, are each placed on a single row of a grid. Each nucleotide of a genetic sequence fragment is free to move along the grid. Players can then adjust the sequences as necessary in order to create the largest number of colour matches in each column between them, while minimizing the number of the gaps that appear.
+Scoring of the sequence alignment is done by comparing each of the player-aligned sequences with an algorithm-determined ancestral sequence generated at each node. A colour match yields +1 to the score, a mismatch yields -1, an opening of a gap yields -5, and an extension of any existing gap yields -1. The sum of all comparisons is then determined every several seconds, which provides the final score for that player's alignment. For each puzzle, only a few sequences are initially available at the beginning of the game. A computer-determined par score must be beaten by the player before moving on to the next round and unlocking more sequences to match. A player wins and is allowed to submit their sequence alignment to the database by matching or surpassing the final par score generated by the computer for each puzzle.
+
+
+=== Levels ===
+As of May 2019 (v 3.1.5), Phylo comes in three game modes:
+
+Story mode, with levels arranged in a guided tutorial
+The original Phylo mode, with the choice of diseases
+A new Ribo mode for RNA molecules, where both sequences and RNA secondary structures (stem-loops) are aligned.
+
+
+== Results ==
+Compared to the computer output, players were able to improve 70% of the alignments. In 2013, Phylo developers built a webserver called Open-Phylo (now defunct) that allows researchers to upload their own sets of sequences for players to align. Compared to computer alignments, expert players were able to make mostly small improvements over what sequence alignment algorithms could do. There were also some minor cases of significantly better alignments proposed by humans. A 2017 report on five years of historical Phylo data reaches a similar conclusion.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Citizen science
+Crowdsourcing
+Human-based computation
+Computational phylogenetics
+List of crowdsourcing projects
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official Phylo homepage

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl@ntNet-0.md

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+---
+title: "Pl@ntNet"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl@ntNet"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:31.124746+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Pl@ntNet is a citizen science project for automatic plant identification through photographs and based on machine learning. Users take a photograph, and the system can identify it as one of more than 77,000 plant species. Pl@ntNet has processed more than a billion photographs from users.
+
+
+== History ==
+This project launched in 2009 has been developed by scientists (computer engineers and botanists) from a consortium gathering French research institutes (Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA), Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique (INRIA) and the network Tela Botanica, with the support of Agropolis Fondation 
+).
+Starting in 2022, the Pl@ntNet system received many improvements as a result of research projects "MAMBO" and "GUARDEN" funded by Horizon Europe. Improvements included a standardised taxonomic list of species (using POWO), and an improved computer vision algorithm (using a vision transformer).
+
+
+== Platforms ==
+An app for smartphones (and a web version) was launched in 2013, which allows to identify thousands of plant species from photographs taken by the user. It is available in several languages.
+As of 2019 it had been downloaded over 10 million times, in more than 180 countries worldwide.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+2020 : the Inria prize of the Académie des sciences.
+
+
+== Projects ==
+In 2019, Pl@ntNet has 22 projects:
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Hunters-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+---
+title: "Planet Hunters"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Hunters"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:32.386008+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Planet Hunters is a citizen science project to find exoplanets using human eyes. It does this by having users analyze data from the NASA Kepler space telescope and the NASA Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite. It was launched by a team led by Debra Fischer at Yale University, as part of the Zooniverse project.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+
+=== Planet Hunters and Planet Hunters 2.0 ===
+The project was launched on December 16, 2010, after the first Data Release of Kepler data as the Planet Hunters Project. 300,000 volunteers participated in the project and the project team published 8 scientific papers. On December 14, 2014, the project was re-launched as Planet Hunters 2.0, with an improved website and considering that the volunteers will look at K2 data. As of November 2018 Planet Hunters had identified 50% of the known planets with an orbital period larger than two years.
+
+
+=== Non-Planet Hunters project: Exoplanet Explorers ===
+In 2017 the project Exoplanet Explorers was launched. It was another planet hunting project at Zooniverse and discovered the system K2-138 and the exoplanet K2-288Bb. This project was launched during the television program Stargazing Live and the discovery of the K2-138 system was announced during the program.
+
+
+=== Planet Hunters TESS (PHT) ===
+On December 6, 2018, the project Planet Hunters TESS (PHT) was launched and is led by astronomer Nora Eisner. This project uses data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) and is currently active (as of March 2023). This project discovered the Saturn-sized exoplanet TOI-813 b and many more.
+Until March 2023 PHT discovered 284 exoplanet candidates (e.g. TIC 35021200.01), 15 confirmed exoplanets (e.g. TOI-5174 b) and countless eclipsing binaries. All discovered exoplanet candidates are uploaded to ExoFOP by Nora Eisner or sometimes by another project member (see TOI and CTOI list provided by ExoFOP).
+All exoplanet candidates are manually checked by multiple project members (volunteers and moderators) and need to pass different tests before they are accepted by Nora Eisner and uploaded to ExoFOP. But it is possible that not all PHT planet candidates become real (confirmed) exoplanets. Some of them may be grazing eclipsing binaries.
+
+
+=== Planet Hunters: NGTS ===
+On October 19, 2021, the project Planet Hunters: NGTS was launched. It uses a dataset from the Next Generation Transit Survey to find transiting planets. It is the first Planet Hunters project that uses data from a ground-based telescope. The project looks at candidates that were already automatically filtered, similar to the Exoplanet Explorers project. The project found four candidate planets so far. In the pre-print five candidates are presented. This includes a giant planet candidate around TIC-165227846, a mid-M dwarf. This candidate was independently detected by Byrant et al. 2023 and if confirmed could represent the lowest-mass star to host a close-in giant.
+
+
+== Planet hunting ==
+The Planet Hunters project exploits the fact that humans are better at recognising visual patterns than computers. The website displays an image of data collected by the NASA Kepler Space Mission and asks human users (referred to as "Citizen Scientists") to look at the data and see how the brightness of a star changes over time. This brightness data is represented as a graph and referred to as a star's light curve. Such curves are helpful in discovering extrasolar planets due to the brightness of a star decreasing when a planet passes in front of it, as seen from Earth. Periods of reduced brightness can thus provide evidence of planetary transits, but may also be caused by errors in recording, projection, or other phenomena.
+
+
+== Special occurrence ==
+
+
+=== Eclipsing binary stars ===
+From time to time, the project will observe eclipsing binary stars. Essentially these are stars that orbit each other. Much as a planet can interrupt the brightness of a star, another star can too. There is a noticeable difference on the light curves. It will appear as a large transit (a large dip) and a smaller transit (a smaller dip).
+
+
+=== Multiplanet systems ===
+As of December 2017, there are a total of 621 multiplanet systems, or stars that contains at least two confirmed planets. In a multiplanet system plot, there are many different patterns of transit. Due to the different sizes of planets, the transits dip down to different points.
+
+
+=== Stellar flares ===
+Stellar flares are observed when there is an explosion on the surface of a star. This will cause the star's brightness to shoot up considerably, with a steep drop off.
+
+
+== Discoveries ==
+
+So far, over 12 million observations have been analyzed. Out of those, 34 candidate planets had been found as of July 2012. In October 2012 it was announced that two volunteers from the Planet Hunters initiative had discovered a novel Neptune-like planet which is part of a four star double binary system, orbiting one of the pairs of stars while the other pair of stars orbits at a distance of around 1000 AU. This is the first planet discovered to have a stable orbit in such a complex stellar environment. The system is located 7200 light years away, and the new planet has been designated PH1b, short for Planet Hunters 1 b.
+
+Yellow indicates a circumbinary planet. Light green indicates planet orbiting around one star in a multiple star system. Light blue indicates host stars with a planetary system consisting of two or more planets. Values for the host stars are acquired via SIMBAD and otherwise are cited. The apparent magnitude represents the V magnitude.
+
+
+=== Community TESS Object of Interest ===
+Planet Hunters TESS (PHT) publishes Community TESS Object of Interest (CTOI) at ExoFOP, which can be promoted into a TESS Object of Interest (TOI). Of the 151 CTOIs submitted by Planet Hunters researchers, 81 were promoted to TOIs (as of September 2022). The following exoplanets first submitted as PHT CTOIs were later researched by other teams (some examples): TOI-1759 b, TOI-1899 b, TOI-2180 b, TOI-4562 b and HD 148193 b (TOI-1836).
+
+
+=== Variable stars and unusual systems ===
+In September 2013 the project discovered the unusual cataclysmic variable KIC 9406652. In April 2014 the unusually active SU Ursae Majoris-type dwarf nova GALEX J194419.33+491257.0 was discovered. This cataclysmic variable was discovered as a background dwarf nova of KIC 11412044.
+In January 2016 unusual dips in KIC 8462852 were announced. The unusual light curve of KIC 8462852 (also known as Boyajian's Star) has engendered speculation that an alien civilization's Dyson sphere is responsible.
+In June 2016 the project found 32 likely eclipsing binaries. The work also announced likely exoplanets.
+In February 2018 the first transiting exocomets were discovered. The dips were found by one of the authors, a Planet Hunters participant, in a visual search over five months of the complete Q1-Q17 Kepler light curve archive spanning 201250 target stars.
+In February 2022 Planet Hunters:TESS announced the discovery of BD+61 2536 (TIC 470710327), a massive hierarchical triple star system. The system is predicted to undergo multiple phases of mass transfer in the future, and likely end up as a double neutron star gravitational wave progenitor or an exotic Thorne-Zytkow object.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Zooniverse projects:
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PressureNET-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "PressureNET"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PressureNET"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:33.734743+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+PressureNET was a crowd-sourced reporting network for barometric pressure data.
+It worked by having many users install it on cell phones having air pressure sensors (barometers) and GPS sensors. Once the location was known from the GPS data, it was able to send messages back to the server with the air pressure for that location on Earth. With enough users running the application it was possible to create useful, global pressure data.  It used open source software running on Android phones, to collect data from locations around the world.  The data was available on a public website.
+With the announcement in September 2014 that the first apple device with a barometer (iPhone 6) was to be released, work started on an edition of the app for that platform The Sunshine app beta testing began to get some publicity in 2015.
+The Android App website still exists, and the app source code is still available on GitHub; however, as of January 2016 there is no support for the Android app, and the iOS app is not free open source software as the PressureNet app was.  PressureNet was acquired by Sunshine in early 2016.
+
+
+== See also ==
+OpenSignals WeatherSignal
+Weather Underground (weather service)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+former official website (archive.org)
+former second official website (archive.org)
+pressureNET on GitHub

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Lab-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Public Lab"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Lab"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:15:34.838572+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science (Public Lab) is a non-profit organization that facilitates collaborative, open source environmental research in a model known as Community Science. It supports communities facing environmental justice issues in a do it yourself approach to environmental monitoring and advocacy. Public Lab grew out of a grassroots effort to take aerial photographs of the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Since then, they have launched a range of projects, including an open source spectrometer, multi-spectral camera, and low-cost microscope.
+
+
+== Balloon Mapping ==
+
+The aerial photography technique Public Lab is best known for involves lifting cameras above an area using tethered helium-filled weather balloons.
+
+
+== Open source environmental monitoring ==
+Public Lab's community develops open source hardware, software, and other open methodologies to democratize environmental monitoring. Recognizing that cost, complexity, and lack of access can prevent communities from playing an active role in documenting environmental problems, the community publishes plans and guides for Do It Yourself monitoring projects that can be made at home.
+
+
+== References ==